Datasets:
howey
/
wiki_en

Dataset card Data Studio Files Community
1
text
sequencelengths
3
270
source
stringclasses
1 value
[ [ "Transport in Hong Kong" ], [ "Introduction", "Hong Kong public busesHong Kong has a highly developed transport network, encompassing both public and private transport.", "Based on Hong Kong Government's Travel Characteristics Survey, over 90% of daily journeys are on public transport, the highest rate in the world.", "However, in 2014 the Transport Advisory Committee, which advises the Government on transportation issues, issued a report on the much-worsened congestion problem in Hong Kong and pointed at the excessive growth of private cars during the past 10–15 years.The Octopus card, a smart electronic money payment system, was introduced in September 1997 to provide an alternative to the traditional banknotes and coins.", "Available for purchase in every stop of the Mass Transit Railway system, the Octopus card is a non-touch payment system which allows payment not only for public transport (such as trains, buses, trams, ferries and minibuses), but also at parking meters, convenience stores, supermarkets, fast-food restaurants and most vending machines." ], [ "Public transport statistics", "The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Hong Kong, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 73 min.", "21% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day.", "The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 min, while 19% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day.", "The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 11.2 km, while 31% travel for over 12 km in a single direction." ], [ "Rail transport", "Inside an MTR Tsuen Wan line train compartment during peak hoursUniversity station of the MTR East Rail line.", "This train, the Hyundai Rotem EMU, replaced all prior rolling stock on the East Rail lineHong Kong has an extensive railway network, and the Hong Kong Government has long established that the public transit system has the \"railway as its backbone\".", "Public transport trains are operated by the MTR Corporation.", "The MTR operates the metro network within inner urban Hong Kong, Kowloon Peninsula and the northern part of Hong Kong Island with newly developed areas, Tsuen Wan, Tseung Kwan O, Tung Chung, Hong Kong Disneyland, the Hong Kong International Airport, the northeastern and northwestern parts of the New Territories.", "The Hong Kong Tramways operates a tram service exclusively on northern Hong Kong Island.", "The Peak Tram connects Central, Hong Kong's central business district, with Victoria Peak.===Mass Transit Railway===Opened in 1979, the system now includes 240.6 km (149.5 mi) of rail with 167 stations, including 98 railway stations and 68 light rail stops.", "The railway lines include the East Rail, Kwun Tong, Tsuen Wan, Island, Tung Chung, Tseung Kwan O, Tuen Ma, South Island, the Airport Express and the Disneyland Resort lines.", "Eight of the lines provide general metro services, whereas the Airport Express provides a direct link from the Hong Kong International Airport into the city centre, and the Disneyland Resort Line exclusively takes passengers to and from Hong Kong Disneyland.The Light Rail possesses many characteristics of a tramway, including running on streets with other traffic (at grade) on most of its tracks and providing services for the public in the northwestern New Territories, including Tuen Mun and Yuen Long.All trains and underground MTR stations are air-conditioned.===Tramways===The Hong Kong TramwaysThe Hong Kong Tramways is the tram system run exclusively with double deckers.", "The electric tram system was proposed in 1881; however nobody was willing to invest in a system at the time.", "In August 1901, the Second Tramway Bill was introduced and passed into law as the 1902 Tramway Ordinance.", "Hong Kong Tramway Electric Company Limited, a British company, was authorised to take the responsibilities in construction and daily operation.", "In 1904, the tram system first got into service.", "It was soon taken over by another company, Electric Tranction Company of Hong Kong Limited and then the name was changed to Hong Kong Tramways Company Limited in 1910.The rail system is long, with a total track length of , and it runs together with other vehicles on the street.", "Its operation relies on the 550V direct current (d.c.) from the overhead cables, on 3'6\" gauge (1067 mm) tracks.", "The trams provide service to only parts of Hong Kong Island: they run on a double track along the northern coast of Hong Kong Island from Kennedy Town to Shau Kei Wan, with a single clockwise-running track of about around Happy Valley Racecourse.===Funicular railways===The Peak Tram There are two funicular railway services in Hong Kong:* The Peak Tram carries both tourists and residents to the upper levels of Hong Kong Island.", "It provides the most direct route to Victoria Peak and offers scenic views over Victoria Harbour and the skyscrapers of Hong Kong.", "It was inaugurated in 1888.", "* The Ocean Express operates within the paid area of the Ocean Park theme park.", "It links two parts of the park, operating entirely in a tunnel.", "The ride is themed, and uses multimedia effects to simulate the feeling of travelling into the depths of the sea.", "It was opened in 2009.=== Airport people-mover system ===The platform of the Hong Kong International Airport Automated People MoverThe Hong Kong International Airport Automated People Mover is a driverless people-mover system located within the Hong Kong International Airport in Chek Lap Kok.", "It operates in two \"segments\".", "For departures, the train runs from Terminal 2 to the East Hall to the West Hall.", "For arrivals, the train runs only from the West Hall to the East Hall, where all passengers must disembark for immigration, customs, and baggage claim.", "Operation of the first segment commenced in 1998, and the operation of the second segment commenced in early-2007.The HKIA APM is being extended to the future Terminal 2 Concourse, which is being constructed and will be finished by 2024.There is another system between the terminals.", "There is also a travellator which can be used.=== Cross-border trains ===Inter-city train services crossing the Hong Kong-China boundary are known as Intercity Through Trains.", "They are jointly operated by Hong Kong's MTR Corporation and China Railway High-speed.", "Hung Hom station (formerly called ''Kowloon station'') and West Kowloon Terminus are the stations in Hong Kong where passengers can catch these trains.", "Passengers have to go through immigration and customs before boarding.", "There are currently four through train routes:* Between Hong Kong and Beijing (Beijing–Kowloon through train)* Between Hong Kong and Shanghai (Shanghai–Kowloon through train)* Between Hong Kong and Guangzhou (Guangzhou–Kowloon through train)* Between Hong Kong and Guangzhou (Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link) (XRL)" ], [ "Road transport", "===Buses===low-floor double-decker bus with wheelchair accessibilityBus services have a long history in Hong Kong.", "As of 2023, four companies operate franchised public bus services, each granted ten-year exclusive operating rights to the set of routes that they operate.", "Franchise buses altogether carry about one-third of the total daily public transport market of around 12,000,000 passengers, with KMB having 67% of the franchised bus market share and CityBus with 29%.", "There are also a variety of non-franchised public buses services, including feeder bus services to railway stations operated by the railway companies, and residents' services for residential estates (particularly those in the New Territories).The four franchised bus companies are:* Kowloon Motor Bus Company (1933) Limited;* Citybus Limited;* Long Win Bus Company Limited; and* New Lantao Bus Company (1973) Limited.Founded in 1933, the Kowloon Motor Bus Company (1933) Limited (KMB) is one of the largest privately owned public bus operators in the world.", "KMB's fleet consist of about 3,900 buses on 400 routes and a staff of over 12,000 people.", "In 1979, Citybus began its operations in Hong Kong with one double-decker, providing shuttle service for the Hong Kong dockyard.", "It later expanded into operating a residential bus route between City One, Sha Tin and Kowloon Tong MTR station.", "New World First Bus Services Limited was established in 1998, taking over China Motor Bus's franchise to provide bus services on Hong Kong Island together with Citybus.", "NWFB's owner company later bought Citybus, and NWFB and Citybus shared the same website, but the two companies had essentially been operating independently until their merger on 1st July 2023.===Public light buses===Green minibusRed minibusPublic light buses (小巴) (widely referred to as minibuses, or sometimes ''maxicabs'', a ''de facto'' share taxi) run the length and breadth of Hong Kong, through areas which the standard bus lines can not or do not reach as frequently, quickly or directly.", "Minibuses carry a maximum of 16 (19 for some routes since 2017) passengers; standing is not permitted.The Hong Kong Transport Department (HKTD) allows and licenses the operation of two types of public light buses:# green minibuses that have route numbers, stop at designated stops (many routes have hail and ride sections along which passengers can board and exit anywhere unless it is a no-stopping zone) and which have their fares, service and frequency regulated by the HKTD; and# red minibuses that may or may not have regular routes, may or may not be numbered, may or may not have fixed stops and whose fares and service levels are not regulated by HKTD.Red minibuses often provide more convenient transport for passengers not served by green minibuses or other public buses, and are thus quite popular.", "Where green minibus drivers are paid fixed wages to drive their routes, red minibus drivers often rely on their fares for a living and thus are often seen to be more aggressive drivers.", "The prevalence of aggressive driving has resulted in the Transport Department making it mandatory for Hong Kong minibuses to be equipped with large read-out speedometers which allow passengers to track the speed at which minibus drivers operate.", "Currently, if minibuses exceed 80 km/h, the speedometer will sound an audible warning signal to the driver and passengers.", "If the minibus exceeds 100 km/h, the beeping will turn into a sustained tone.The Transport Department has also regulated, after a series of minibus accidents, that all new minibuses brought into service after August 2005 must have seat belts installed, and passengers must use seat belts when they are provided.===Taxis===Red taxis serve urban areas, there were 18,138 taxis in Hong Kong, operating in three distinct (but slightly overlapping) geographical areas, and distinguished by their colour.", "Of these, 15,250 are red urban taxis, 2,838 green New Territories taxis, and 50 blue Lantau taxis.", "Every day, they serve 1,100,000, 207,900, and 1,400 passengers respectively.", "Taxis carry an average of 1,000,000 passengers each day, occupying about 12% of the daily patronage carried by all modes of public transport in Hong Kong.Most of the taxis in Hong Kong run on LPG (liquified petroleum gas) to reduce emissions.", "In August 2000, a one-off grant was paid in cash to taxi owners who replaced their diesel taxi with an LPG one.", "Since August 2001, all newly purchased taxis run on LPG.", "By the end of 2003, over 99.8% of the taxi fleet in Hong Kong ran on LPG.Taxi fares are charged according to the taximeter; however, additional charges on the fare table may apply, such as road tolls and luggage fees.", "Urban taxis are the most expensive, while Lantau taxis are the cheapest.", "The standard of service among different kinds of taxis is mostly the same.", "The reason for having three types of taxis is to ensure service availability in less populated regions, as running in the urban centre is considered to be more profitable.=== Private cars ===As of May 2015, the Census and Statistics Department of Hong Kong reports that there are 504,798 licensed vehicles in Hong Kong.", "In terms of private car ownership, the number of cars per capita is half that of Singapore and one-third that of Taiwan.", "However, the Transport Advisory Committee, which advises the government on transport policies, issued a report stating that the growth of private cars is too fast and must be contained so as to alleviate congestion problems of Hong Kong.", "Private cars are most popular in newly developed areas such as New Territories and Lantau and areas near the border with mainland China, as there are fewer public transportation options, and more parking spaces compared to other areas of Hong Kong.Most cars are right-hand drive models, from Japanese or European manufacturers.", "Almost all private vehicles in Hong Kong have dual airbags and are tested by JNCAP.", "Vehicles must also be maintained to a high standard, contrary to mainland China regulations.", "Hong Kong does not allow left-hand drive vehicles to be primarily registered in Hong Kong.", "However, Hong Kong registered vehicles may apply for secondary mainland Chinese registration plates, and these can be driven across the border to mainland China; likewise, left-hand drive cars seen in Hong Kong are usually primarily registered in mainland China and carry supplementary Hong Kong registration plates.Cars are subjected to a first-time registration tax, which varies from 35% to over 100%, based on the size and value of the car.", "The level of vehicle taxation was increased by a law passed on 2 June 1982 to discourage private car ownership, and also as an incentive to buy smaller, more efficient cars, as these have less tax levied on them.", "First-time registration tax was doubled, annual licensing fees were increased by 300%, and $0.70 duty fee was imposed on each litre of light oils.In addition to the heavy traffic at times, parking may be problematic.", "Due to high urban density, there are not many filling stations; petrol in Hong Kong averages around US$2.04 per litre, of which over half the cost is taxes.", "It was suggested in the news that the government had deliberately impeded the use of new environmentally friendly diesel engines by allowing only light goods vehicles to be fuelled by diesel.", "While it cannot be determined why exactly the government does not allow private cars to be fuelled by diesel, it has been pointed out that the government does receive a tax that is 150% of the actual fuel cost.", "This is mostly to discourage car ownership for environmental reasons.There is a waiting list for local driving tests, while a full (private car) driving licence valid for ten years costs around US$115.Residents of Hong Kong holding licences issued by other Chinese authorities and some foreign countries can get a Hong Kong driving licence exempt from tests if they can adequately show that they obtained their licence while residing in the place concerned (common proofs are school transcripts or employer's documentation).", "Some private car owners, known as white card drivers, provide a taxi service for a nominal fee.===Bicycles===Bicycle parking at Kam Sheung Road stationCycling is a popular means of transport in many parts of the New Territories, where new towns such as Sha Tin, Tai Po and Sheung Shui have significant cycle track networks.", "In the auto congested urban areas of Hong Kong and Kowloon, cycling is less common, despite the relatively flat topography of populated areas, in part because it is government policy not to support cycling as part of the transportation system.", "In 2011, the MTR Corporation announced that bicycles were permitted to be taken on all MTR rail lines.===Motorcycles===Motorcycles by the private users in Hong Kong urban districts are not as popular as in South East Asian countries like Vietnam.", "They are mostly used for commercial and business purposes.===Cross-border buses===A large number of buses leave various parts of Hong Kong (usually from side streets and hotel entrances) to various cities in the Pearl River Delta, Shenzhen and Guangzhou.", "'''Miniature Golf Carts'''On some of the outlying islands, such as Lamma Island, residents rely on miniature golf carts for transportation.", "These compact electric vehicles serve as an efficient mode of transport for short distances and are a unique sight on the island's narrow pathways." ], [ "Maritime transport", "===Ferries=======Internal routes====A Star Ferry carries passengers across Victoria Harbour.", "This particular one is painted with an advertisement that promotes Hong Kong as Asia's World City.Tsim Sha Tsui Pier, a pier for Star Ferry servicesStar Ferry Pier in CentralMost ferry services are provided by licensed ferry operators.", ", there were 27 regular licensed passenger ferry services operated by 11 licensees, serving outlying islands, new towns and inner-Victoria Harbour.", "Two of the routes operated by the Star Ferry are franchised.", "Additionally, 78 \"kai-to\" ferries are licensed to serve remote coastal settlements.The following companies operate ferry services in Hong Kong:'''Star Ferry''':* Central to Tsim Sha Tsui* Wan Chai to Tsim Sha Tsui* Harbour Tour (Circular between Tsim Sha Tsui, Central, Wan Chai, and Hung Hom)'''Sun Ferry''':* Central to Cheung Chau * Central to Mui Wo* Peng Chau, Mui Wo, Chi Ma Wan, and Cheung Chau* North Point to Hung Hom* North Point to Kowloon City'''Hong Kong & Kowloon Ferry''':* Lamma Island to Central* Central to Peng Chau* Peng Chau to Hei Ling Chau'''Chuen Kee Ferry''':* Lamma Island (Sok Kwu Wan and Mo Tat) to Aberdeen'''HKR International Limited''':* Discovery Bay Transportation Services – Discovery Bay to Central'''Park Island Transport Company Ltd.''':* Ma Wan to Central* Ma Wan to Tsuen WanDiscovery Bay Transport Services Ltd.Discovery Bay to Central'''Fortune Ferry''' (富裕小輪)* North Point to Kwun Tong* Tuen Mun to Tai O (via Tung Chung, Sha Lo Wan)* Central to Hung Hom'''Coral Sea Ferry''' (珊瑚海船務)* Sai Wan Ho to Kwun Tong* Sai Wan Ho to Lei Yue Mun (Sam Ka Tsuen)'''Tsui Wah Ferry''':* Aberdeen via Pak Kok Tsuen to Lamma Island (Yung Shue Wan)* Aberdeen via Stanley (Blake Pier) to Po Toi Island* Ma Liu Shui via Sham Chung and Lai Chi Chong to Tap Mun* Ma Liu Shui to Tung Ping Chau* Wong Shek Pier via Ko Lau Wan to Tap Mun* Wong Shek Pier via Wan Tsai (Nam Fung Wan) to Chek Keng====External routes====The Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal in Sheung WanIn Hong Kong, there are three piers that provides ferry services to Macau and cities in southern China:* The Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal* The Hong Kong China Ferry Terminal* The Skypier (For Transitting Only)Ferry services are provided by several different ferry companies at these piers.Fastferry hydrofoil and catamaran service is available at all times of the week between Hong Kong and Macau.TurboJet provides 24-hour services connecting Central and Macau at a frequency of up to every 15 to 30 minutes.", "It also provides these regular services:* Hong Kong International Airport to Shenzhen Airport / Macau / Guangzhou (Nansha Ferry Port)* Tsim Sha Tsui to Guangzhou* Macau to Shenzhen Airport / Guangzhou* Tsim Sha Tsui to MacauCotai Water Jet provides about 18-hour services connecting Central and Taipa or Outer Harbour, Macau at a frequency of up to every 30 to 60 minutes.", "It also provides these regular services:* Hong Kong International Airport to Macau* Tsim Sha Tsui to MacauChu Kong Passenger Transport (CKS) connects Hong Kong to cities in Guangdong province, including Zhuhai (Jiuzhou), Shenzhen (Shekou), Zhongshan (Zhongshan Kong), Lianhua Shan (Panyu), Jiangmen, Gongyi, Sanbu, Gaoming, Heshan, Humen, Nanhai, Shunde, Doumen." ], [ "Air transport", "=== Aeroplanes ===Aerial view of the airport island in 2010An aerial view of Kai Tak Airport on July 7, 1998, the morning after its closure.Hong Kong International Airport (HKG) is the primary airport for the territory and has been at Chep Lap Kok since 1998.Over 100 airlines operate flights to international and Mainland China destinations from the airport; it is the main hub of flag carrier Cathay Pacific as well as Air Hong Kong, Hong Kong Express, and Hong Kong Airlines.", "HKG is an important regional transhipment centre, passenger hub, and gateway for destinations in mainland China and the rest of Asia.", "It also handles the most air cargo traffic in the world.", "With over 70 million passengers annually, it is the eighth busiest airport worldwide by passenger traffic.", "HKG is constructed on an artificial island north of Lantau Island and was built to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak Airport in Kowloon Bay.", "A third runway was constructed as part of the Three-Runway-System.", "The massive upgrades to the Terminal 2, and the construction of a new Terminal 2 Concourse, High-Speed Baggage Systems, the upgrades to the Centre Runway, and the extension of the APM, will be completed in 2024.Ferry services link Hong Kong and Macau International Airport; there is an express service at the Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal in which passengers can check in to flights at Macau Airport.", "Macau Airport has an \"Express Link\" service operating from the Hong Kong-Macau terminal, China Ferry Terminal, and Tuen Mun Ferry Terminal in which transiting passengers to Macau Airport are not processed through Macau customs.", "In addition there is a bus service between Hong Kong and Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport in Shenzhen, and people going to Shenzhen Airport may also board a ferry that goes to Fuyong Ferry Terminal at Shenzhen Airport.The majority of area private recreational aviation traffic, under the supervision of the Hong Kong Aviation Club (HKAC), goes in and out of Shek Kong Airfield in the New Territories.", "The HKAC sent most of its aircraft to Shek Kong in 1994 after the hours for general aviation at Kai Tak Airport were sharply reduced, to two hours per morning, as of 1 July that year.", "Usage of private aircraft at Shek Kong is restricted to weekends.===Helicopters===Externally, frequent passenger helicopter flights to Macau are scheduled daily.", "There are also chartered services for the VIP and business community within Hong Kong." ], [ "Aerial lift transport", "===Cable cars===Gondola lift system in Ocean ParkThere are two cable car systems in Hong Kong:* The Ngong Ping Cable Car is a public cableway on Lantau Island.", "It links Tung Chung MTR station and Ngong Ping Terminal near Po Lin Monastery.", "It was opened on 18 September 2006.", "* The Ocean Park theme park also possesses a cable car system between Nam Long Shan Headland and Wong Chuk Hang.", "This was opened in 1977 and is inside the paid area of the Park." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Ports and harbours=== Kwai Tsing Container Terminals The port of Hong Kong has always been a key factor in the development and prosperity of the territory, which is strategically located on the Far East trade routes and is in the geographical centre of the fast-developing Asia-Pacific Basin.", "The sheltered harbour provides good access and a safe haven for vessels calling at the port from around the world.The Victoria Harbour is one of the busiest ports in the world.", "An average of 220,000 ships visit the harbour each year, including both oceanliners and river vessels, carrying both goods and passengers.", "The container port in Hong Kong is one of the busiest in the world.", "The Kwai Chung Terminal operates 24 hours a day.", "Together with other facilities in Victoria Harbour, they handled more than in 2005.Some 400 container liners serve Hong Kong weekly, connecting to over 500 destinations around the world.===Airports=== Kai Tak airportInside the newer Hong Kong International AirportHong Kong has a fully active international airport.", "The famous former Kai Tak International Airport retired in favour of the recently constructed Hong Kong International Airport, also known as Chek Lap Kok International Airport.", "The airport now serves as a transport hub for East Asia, and as the hub for Cathay Pacific, Hong Kong Express, Hong Kong Airlines, and Air Hong Kong.", "Ferry services link the airport with several piers in Pearl River Delta, where immigrations and customs are exempted.", "Kai Tak airport was closed because of privacy reasons and also because of safety reasons; the aircraft came very close to the skyscrapers.HKIA's network to China expanded with the opening of SkyPier in late-September 2003, offering millions in the PRD direct access to the airport.", "Passengers coming to SkyPier by high-speed ferries can board buses for onward flights while arriving air passengers can board ferries at the pier for their journeys back to the PRD.", "Passengers travelling in both directions can bypass custom and immigration formalities, which reduces transit time.", "Four ports – Shekou, Shenzhen, Macau and Humen (Dongguan) – were initially served.", "As of August 2007, SkyPier serves Shenzhen's Shekou and Fuyong, Dongguan's Humen, Macau, Zhongshan and Zhuhai.", "Moreover, passengers travelling from Shekou and Macau piers can even complete airline check-in procedures with participating airlines before boarding the ferries and go straight to the boarding gate for the connecting flight at HKIA.", "The provision of cross boundary coach and ferry services has transformed HKIA into an inter-modal transportation hub combining air, sea and land transport., the airport is the third busiest airport for passenger traffic, and second-busiest airport for cargo traffic in the world.", "It is popular with travellers – from 2001 to 2005 and 2007–2008 Hong Kong International Airport has been voted the World's Best Airport in an annual survey of several million passengers worldwide by Skytrax.According to the Guinness World Records, the passenger terminal of the HKIA was the world's largest airport terminal upon opening, and is at present the world's third-largest airport terminal building, with a covered area of 550,000 m2 and recently increased to 570,000 m2.The Airport Core Programme was one of the most expensive airport projects in the world.Shek Kong Airfield, located near Yuen Long, is a military airfield for the People's Liberation Army, which is of limited operating capabilities due to surrounding terrain.", "The only aircraft operating on the airfield are PLA's Z-9 helicopters, which is the license-built version of the Eurocopter Dauphin.===Heliports=== Heliport at the Hong Kong–Macau Ferry TerminalHong Kong has three heliports.", "Shun Tak Heliport (ICAO: VHST) is located in the Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal, by the Shun Tak Centre, in Sheung Wan, on Hong Kong Island.", "Another is located in southwest Kowloon, near Kowloon station.", "The other is located inside Hong Kong International Airport.Heli Express operates regular helicopter service between Macao Heliport (ICAO:VMMH) on the Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal in Macau and the Shun Tak Heliport.", "There are around 16 flights daily.", "Flights take approximately 20 minutes in the eight-seater aircraft.There are also a number of helipads across the territory, including the roof of the Peninsula Hotel (which is the only rooftop helipad in Kowloon and Hong Kong Island, excluding the rooftop heliport of Shun Tak Centre and those in hospitals) and Cheung Chau Island, between Tung Wan Beach and Kwun Yam Beach.===Highways===The entrance of the Cross-Harbour Tunnel, which is part of Route 1, in Hung Hom, Kowloon.Eastern Harbour Tunnel is the second under-water tunnel across Victoria Harbour, and is part of Route 2.Tsing Ma Bridge, part of Route 8, is the world's longest rail and road suspension bridges.Kap Shui Mun Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge connecting Ma Wan and Lantau Island, and is also part of Route 8.There are a total of of paved highways in Hong Kong.", "These roads are built to British standards with a maximum of four lanes with hard shoulders.There are nine roads classified as trunk roads in Hong Kong and were renumbered from 1 to 9 in 2004.Routes 1 to 3 are in a north–south direction (with each crossing one of the cross-harbour tunnels) while the others are in an east–west direction:*Route 1:::Southern District ⇄ Wan Chai ⇄ Hung Hom ⇄ Kowloon Tong ⇄ Sha Tin*Route 2:::Eastern District ⇄ Kwun Tong ⇄ Wong Tai Sin ⇄ Sha Tin*Route 3:::Central & Western District ⇄ West Kowloon ⇄ Sham Shui Po ⇄ Kwai Tsing ⇄ Tsuen Wan ⇄ Yuen Long*Route 4:::Eastern District ⇄ Wan Chai ⇄ Central ⇄ Sai Ying Pun*Route 5:::Kowloon City ⇄ Yau Ma Tei ⇄ Sham Shui Po ⇄ Kwai Tsing ⇄ Tsuen Wan*Route 7:::Tseung Kwan O ⇄ Kwun Tong ⇄ Wong Tai Sin ⇄ Sham Shui Po ⇄ Kwai Chung*Route 8:::Sha Tin Kwai Tsing ⇄ Lantau Island North ⇄ Tung Chung ⇄ Airport*Route 9:::Circular Route linking the whole New Territories (Sha Tin, Tai Po, Northern District, Yuen Long, Tuen Mun, Tsuen Wan)*Route 10:::Tuen Mun ⇄ Nam Tei (Divided from Route 9) ⇄ Ha Tsuen ⇄ Deep Bay ⇄ Shenzhen Bay Bridge ⇄ Shenzhen Bay Border Crossing ⇄ Mainland ChinaRoute 6 is a proposed highway, and is now under construction.There are 120 CCTV cameras monitoring traffic on these highways and connecting roads which are available on-demand (Now TV) and on the Transport Department's website.Highways in Hong Kong use two types of barrier system for divided highways.", "Older roads use metal guard rails and newer roads use the British Concrete step barrier.All signage on highways and roads in Hong Kong are bilingual (traditional Chinese below and English above).", "Street signs use black text on a white background.", "Highway and directional signage are white lettering on blue or green background.===Bridges and tunnels===There are 13 major vehicular tunnels in Hong Kong.", "They include three cross-harbour tunnels and ten road tunnels.Other road tunnels and bridges which are proposed or under construction are:* Central Kowloon Route* Trunk Road T2===Bus lanes===A bus lane on Gloucester Road in Wan Chai, with the words \"bus lane\" painted in English and \"巴士綫\" in ChineseThere are approximately 22 km of bus priority lanes in Hong Kong.===Bus terminals===There are 298 bus terminals in Hong Kong.", "Notable examples include:* Admiralty (East) Public Transport Interchange* Central (Macau Ferry) Bus Terminus* Pokfield Road Bus Terminus* Kwun Tong Ferry Bus Terminus* Central (Exchange Square) Bus Terminus===Bicycles===Bike path exists across Hong Kong, mostly in newly developed residential area in New Territories.", "Traditional urban core do not have bike path, other than some redeveloped/reclaimed coastal area.Network of bike rental shops present near bike paths, in addition to dockless bike renting app, enabling infrequent users to lease and drop off their bikes along bike paths.Most public transit require bikes to be folded up and wheel be removed before bikes can be allowed to board.===Pedestrian=======Escalators and moving pavements====Central–Mid-Levels escalator Hong Kong Island is dominated by steep, hilly terrain, which required the development of unusual methods of transport up and down the slopes.", "In Central and Western District, there is an extensive system of zero-fare escalators and moving pavements.", "The Mid-Levels Escalator is the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world, operating downhill until 10am for commuters going to work, and then operating uphill until midnight.The Mid-levels Escalator consists of twenty escalators and three moving pavements.", "It is 800 metres long, and climbs 135 vertical metres.", "Total travel time is approximately 25 minutes, but most people walk while the escalator moves to shorten the travel time.", "Due to its vertical climb, the same distance is equivalent to several miles of zigzagging roads if travelled by car.", "Daily traffic exceeds 35,000 people.", "It has been operating since 1993 and cost HK$240,000,000 (US$30,000,000) to build.A smaller Mid-Levels escalator system was built on Centre Street in Sai Ying Pun.====Pedestrian bridges, tunnels, and skyways====Example includes:* Lek Yuen Bridge==== Pavement railings ====During the 2019–2020 pro-democracy protests in Hong Kong, of pavement railings were damaged by the demonstrators.", "Hong Kong’s Transport and Highways Departments spent an estimated HK$15 million ($1.9 million) of taxpayer money rebuilding and reinforcing the fencing.", "The city government has more than doubled its installation of pedestrian rails, from in 2010 to by 2018.Many of the railings prevent pedestrians from walking in a straight line along major roads by prohibiting direct crossing of perpendicular side streets.", "Paul Zimmerman, a district councillor and a member of a government advisory commission to improve urban design, and other pavement-fence critics argue the barriers are emblematic of the way Hong Kong streets are built to prioritise vehicles over pedestrians.", "The city likes the guardrails because they do not want to slow turning cars but prioritising vehicles limits the ''throughput capacity'' of the city.", "Pedestrians who want to walk faster than the shuffling crowds must go into the streets, exposing them to vehicle traffic.", "The Transport and Highways departments say the railings are critical “to regulate and guide pedestrians for road safety and traffic management purposes.” Hong Kong’s high ''population density'' makes ''pedestrian mobility'' complicated and the railings offer a clear distinction between the automobiles and walkers.", "But in a city where less than 10% of the population owns a car, anti-fence advocates question why automobiles get primacy.", "Nonprofit groups like Walk DVRC, in conjunction with Zimmerman, have worked to remove some of the guardrails but the city believes they are necessary.", "The railings, which are too flimsy to fend off cars, provide little to no protection from automobiles.", "Walk DVRC has submitted a detailed proposal including pictures and recommendations for 456 railings.", "There are 105 of those that they claim “have been removed to the benefit of pedestrians” and should not be reinstalled.", "Nevertheless, the city is determined to replace the removed railings and is moving forward despite public pushback." ], [ "Ports of entry", "This is a list of ports of entry (i.e.", "immigration control points) in Hong Kong.The entrance to the building of the Shenzhen Bay Control Pointcruise-ship pier at Ocean Terminal is also a port of entry to Hong Kong.", "*Air**Hong Kong International Airport**Heliport at the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal*Land**Heung Yuen Wai Control Point**Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge (HZMB) Hong Kong Port**Lo Wu Control Point**Lok Ma Chau Control Point**Lok Ma Chau Spur Line**Man Kam To Control Point**Sha Tau Kok Control Point**Shenzhen Bay Control Point*Railway**Hung Hom Terminus (also called Kowloon Terminus)**West Kowloon Terminus *Sea**Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal** Hong Kong China Ferry Terminal**Ocean Terminal**Kai Tak Cruise Terminal**Tuen Mun Ferry Pier **Western Immigration Anchorage**Eastern Immigration Anchorage** Tuen Mun Immigration Anchorage" ], [ "See also", "* Hong Kong car number plates* Hong Kong Link* Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge* List of airports and heliports in Hong Kong* List of places in Hong Kong* List of streets and roads in Hong Kong* Speed limits in Hong Kong* Victoria Harbour crossings* Village vehicle" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Wang L H, \"In Search of a Sustainable Transport Development Strategy for Hong Kong\"* Hong Kong Highways Department* Hong Kong Transport Department* Vehicular tunnels in Hong Kong* E & E Bus* Transport Statistics – Census and Statistics Department" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Hong Kong" ], [ "Introduction", "Under the Basic Law, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is exclusively in charge of its internal affairs, whilst the central government of China is responsible for its foreign affairs and defence.", "As a separate customs territory, Hong Kong maintains and develops relations with foreign states and regions, and plays an active role in such international organisations as World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in its own right under the name of ''Hong Kong, China''.", "Hong Kong participates in 16 projects of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PRC in the Hong kong SAR" ], [ "Overview", "Hong Kong makes strenuous law enforcement efforts, but faces serious challenges in controlling transit of heroin and methamphetamine to regional and world markets; modern banking systems that provide a conduit for money laundering; rising indigenous use of synthetic drugs, especially among young people.Hong Kong has its own immigration policy and administration.", "Permanent residents of Hong Kong with PRC nationality hold a different type of passport, called the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passport, which is different from that for PRC citizens in Mainland China.", "Hong Kong permanent residents and mainland Chinese need a passport-like document (the \"Home Return Permit\" for Hong Kong permanent residents and the Two-way Permit for Mainland Chinese) to cross the Sino-Hong Kong border.", "Visitors from other countries and regions not participating in waiver programme are required to apply for visas directly to the Hong Kong Immigration Department.According to the official data provided by the Hong Kong Immigration Department in January 2020, There are 168 countries and regions that implement visa-free policies for residents holding Hong Kong passports." ], [ "Hong Kong Office", "Economic and Trade Office in London.Hong Kong was under British rule before 1 July 1997.Prior to the implementation of the ''Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office Act 1996'' enacted by the British Parliament, Hong Kong represented its interests abroad through the Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices (HKETOs) and via a special office in the British Embassies or High Commissions, but the latter ceased after the sovereignty of Hong Kong was transferred to the PRC and became a special administrative region (SAR) of the PRC in 1997.At present, the ''Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices'' under the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in countries that are the major trading partners of Hong Kong, including Japan, Canada, Australia, Singapore, Indonesia, the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States, the European Union as well as an ETO in Geneva to represent HKSAR Government in the WTO.", "These offices serve as the official representative of the Government of the Hong Kong SAR in these countries and international organisations.", "Its major functions include facilitating trade negotiations and handling trade related matters, inter-government relations with foreign governments; the promoting of investment in Hong Kong; and liaising with the media and business community.", "The Hong Kong Government has also set up the Hong Kong Tourism Board with offices in other countries and regions to promote tourism." ], [ "International agreements", "In accordance with Article 151 of the Basic Law, Hong Kong concluded over 20 agreements with foreign states in 2010 on matters such as economic and financial co-operation, maritime technical co-operation, postal co-operation and co-operation on wine-related businesses.", "Under the Basic Law, the Hong Kong also concluded 12 bilateral agreements with foreign states on air services, investment promotion and protection, mutual legal assistance and visa abolition during the year." ], [ "Free trade agreement", "=== Officially signed ===* Mainland China (CEPA) (June 2003)* New Zealand (March 2010)* Chile (September 2012)* Iceland (October 2012)* Liechtenstein (October 2012)* Switzerland (October 2012)* Norway (November 2012)* Macao (October 2017)* Georgia (June 2018)* Australia (March 2019)* ASEAN：Ten ASEAN countries (June 2019)* Maldives (negotiations completed)=== Negotiating ===*Pacific Alliance*RCEP*United KingdomFrom the Chief Executive's Policy Address in October 2018." ], [ "International organisations", "Flag of Hong Kong, China in the Olympic GamesNote* Hong Kong participates in 41 intergovernmental international organisations with countries as participating units.", "* Hong Kong participates in 54 intergovernmental international organisations that do not use countries as their participating units.", "*APEC*G20*Asian Development Bank*The World Bank Group*Bank for International Settlements*Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (Associate)*Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering*International Chamber of Commerce*International Confederation of Free Trade Unions*International Hydrographic Organization*International Maritime Organization (Associate)*International Monetary Fund*International Olympic Committee (through Hong Kong Olympic Committee)*International Organization for Standardization (Correspondent)*Interpol (Sub-Bureau)*Universal Postal Union*Venerable Order of Saint John (Associated Body)*World Confederation of Labour*World Customs Organization*World Meteorological Organization*World Tourism Organization (Associate)*World Trade OrganizationChief Executive of Hong Kong Donald Tsang in the APEC" ], [ "Overseas visits made by senior officials", "Tung Chee Hwa shaking hands with Paul Martin, the Prime Minister of Canada at the Government HouseThe Chief Executive of Hong Kong & other senior officials often make a duty visit to foreign countries.", "These visits usually aim to advance Hong Kong's economic and trade relations with the foreign countries.", "During these visits, the Chief Executive will meet with political and business leaders.", "Usually, the head of state or head of government of the foreign countries will receive the Chief Executive.", "For example, former Chief Executive Tung Chee-hwa made three visits to the United States during his term.", "In these three visits, Tung Chee-hwa met with the US President in the Oval Office at the White House.", "Chief Executive Donald Tsang had visited Japan, South Korea, Russia, United Kingdom, United States, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Brazil, India, France and other countries during his term of government.Hong Kong Airlines A350-900For example, the then Chief Executive Donald Tsang visited London and Edinburgh in 2011 as part of his European tour to renew ties with the UK and promote Hong Kong as a gateway to Asia.", "He met Prime Minister David Cameron and Foreign Secretary William Hague, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne.", "In mid-2011, Donald Tsang visited Australia in June to strengthen ties between Hong Kong and Australia, promote trade opportunities, and encourage more Australian companies, particularly resources companies, to list in Hong Kong.", "During his visit, Mr Tsang held meetings with the Prime Minister, Julia Gillard, and the Minister for Foreign Affairs, Kevin Rudd, as well as the leader of the Opposition, Tony Abbott, and the Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, Julie Bishop.Many foreign dignitaries visit Hong Kong each year.", "The number of such visits has grown since 1997 as many of them have included Hong Kong as a destination on their trips to China, while others have visited Hong Kong specifically to see \"one country, two systems\" in operation.", "The level of VIP visits is also boosted by major international conferences held in Hong Kong in recent years.", "In 2009–2012, there were 11 official visits to Hong Kong, including the visits of the Prime Minister of Canada, Secretary of State of the United States of America, President of the Russian Federation, President of the Republic of Indonesia, President of the Republic of Korea and other foreign dignitaries." ], [ "Foreign officials visit Hong Kong", "=== Protocol Division Government Secretariat ===The Protocol Division Government Secretariat is responsible for liaising with the large consulate groups of various countries stationed in the Hong Kong and providing host government services to these consular groups.The Protocol Division Government Secretariat also represents Hong Kong government to receive national leaders and international organisations visiting Hong Kong, and plan and coordinate official visits to Hong Kong by members of the foreign royal family and senior government leaders.=== Foreign officials ===As of November 2005, the Hong Kong Government has received more than 60 foreign heads of state, government and senior ministers for official visits to Hong Kong.", "Leaders who have visited Hong Kong include Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, Russian President, President of Panama, Prime Minister of New Zealand, Prime Minister of Pakistan, Prime Minister of Vietnam, Prime Minister of the Netherlands, Dmitry Medvedev, and British Prime Minister Tony Blair." ], [ "Overseas representation in Hong Kong", "The British Consulate General in Hong KongUS Consulate General in Hong KongWhen Hong Kong was under British rule, most Commonwealth member states, unlike other countries, were represented in Hong Kong by Commissions.", "However, following the 1997 handover, they were all renamed Consulates-General.", "Owing to Hong Kong's economic importance, and the large number of British passport holders, the British Consulate-General is the largest of its kind in the world and bigger than many British Embassies and High Commissions abroad.Most countries maintain Consulates-General or Consulates in Hong Kong.", "However, despite their name, many Consulates-General are not subordinate to their country's embassy to the PRC in Beijing.", "For example, the British Consulate-General is directly subordinate to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office of the UK rather than the British embassy in the Chinese capital.", "The Consul-General of the United States, likewise, holds ambassadorial rank, and reports to the Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian Affairs in the US Department of State.", "By contrast, the US Consuls-General posted to Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Shenyang report to the Deputy Chief of Mission of the US Embassy in Beijing who is directly subordinate to the US ambassador." ], [ "See also", "* Foreign relations of China** Foreign relations of Macau* Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office* Consular missions in Hong Kong* Hong Kong–United Kingdom relations* Hong Kong–United States relations* Visa policy of Hong Kong" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* CIA – The World Factbook 2006" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of PRC* Protocol Division of Hong Kong Government* Office of the Commissioner of PRC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Hong Kong* Office of the Commissioner of PRC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Macao" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Howland Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Howland Island''' () is an uninhabited coral island located just north of the equator in the central Pacific Ocean, about southwest of Honolulu.", "The island lies almost halfway between Hawaii and Australia and is an unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United States.", "Together with Baker Island it forms part of the Phoenix Islands.", "For statistical purposes, Howland is grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands.", "The island has an elongated cucumber-shape on a north–south axis, , and covers .Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge consists of the entire island and the surrounding of submerged land.", "The island is managed by the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service as an insular area under the U.S. Department of the Interior and is part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.The atoll currently has no economic activity.", "It is managed as a nature reserve.", "It is best known as the island Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan were searching for but failed to find when they and their airplane disappeared on , during their planned round-the-world flight.", "Airstrips constructed to accommodate her planned stopover were subsequently damaged in World War II, not maintained, and gradually disappeared.", "There are no harbors or docks.", "The fringing reefs may pose a maritime hazard.", "There is a boat landing area along the middle of the sandy beach on the west coast, as well as a crumbling day beacon.", "The island is visited every two years by the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service.", "It was mined for guano in the 19th century, and in the 1930s it was colonized by the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project.", "In modern times, it is a nature reserve, and there are some historical remains from the colony and a stone tower called Earhart Light." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "The climate is equatorial, with little rainfall and intense sunshine.", "Temperatures are moderated somewhat by a constant wind from the east.", "The terrain is low-lying and sandy: a coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef with a slightly raised central area.", "The highest point is approximately above sea level.There are no natural fresh water resources.", "The landscape features scattered grasses along with prostrate vines and low-growing pisonia trees and shrubs.", "A 1942 eyewitness description spoke of \"a low grove of dead and decaying kou trees\" on a very shallow hill at the island's center.", "In 2000, a visitor accompanying a scientific expedition reported seeing \"a flat bulldozed plain of coral sand, without a single tree\" and some traces of buildings from colonization or World War II building efforts, all wood and stone ruins overgrown by vegetation.Howland is primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife.", "The island, with its surrounding marine waters, has been recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports seabird colonies of lesser frigatebirds, masked boobies, red-tailed tropicbirds and sooty terns, as well as serving as a migratory stopover for bristle-thighed curlews." ], [ "Economics", "Map of Howland IslandOrthographic projection centered over Howland IslandMap of the central Pacific Ocean showing Howland Island and nearby Baker Island just north of the Equator and east of TarawaThe U.S. claims an Exclusive Economic Zone of and a territorial sea of around the island." ], [ "Time zone", "Since Howland Island is uninhabited, no time zone is specified.", "It lies within a nautical time zone which is 12 hours behind UTC, named International Date Line West (IDLW).", "Howland Island and Baker Island are the only places on Earth observing this time zone.", "This time zone is also called AoE, Anywhere on Earth, which is a calendar designation that indicates that a period expires when the date passes everywhere on Earth." ], [ "History", "Howland Island sign, and in the background, the repaired Day Beacon towerHowland Island was claimed by the United States in 1856 and was mined for guano later that century.", "In the 1930s, a small colony was started with a few people, several buildings, a day beacon, and a cleared landing strip.", "This was the island Amelia Earhart was going to land on when she was not heard from again on her long flight.", "The day after Pearl Harbor, the island was bombed and attacked several more times, which damaged the day beacon and killed two people, finally leading to its evacuation.", "After the war, the day beacon was repaired, and the island became a nature reserve.", "It has been the subject of visits to honor or look for the lost aviator, Earhart.===Prehistoric settlement===Sparse remnants of trails and other surface features indicate a possible early Polynesian presence, including excavations and mounds along with stacked rocks and a footpath made of long flat stones.", "In the 1860s, James Duncan Hague noted discovering the remains of a hut, canoe fragments, a blue bead, and a human skeleton buried in the sand.", "However, the perishable nature of the wooden materials and the lack of bead work in Polynesia suggests these materials are historic in nature.", "The presence of the kou tree (''Cordia subcordata'') and Polynesian rats (''Rattus exulans'') on the island is also considered a possible indicator of early Polynesian visits to Howland.However, the only modern archaeological survey of Howland, conducted by the US Army Corps of Engineers in 1987, found no evidence of prehistoric settlement or use of the island, but sub-surface testing was limited in scope due to time constraints.", "Additionally, the USACE survey failed to locate the architectural features described by Hague, though they concede this may be due to the destruction of these features later during the construction of an airstrip.", "A later conservation plan by the US Fish and Wildlife Service suggests that Howland was likely used as a stopover or meeting point as opposed to being permanently occupied.===Sightings by whalers===Captain George B.", "Worth of the Nantucket whaler ''Oeno'' sighted Howland around 1822 and called it '''Worth Island'''.", "Daniel MacKenzie of the American whaler ''Minerva Smith'' was unaware of Worth's sighting when he charted the island in 1828 and named it after his ship's owners on .", "Howland Island was at last named on after a lookout who sighted it from the whaleship ''Isabella'' under Captain Geo.", "E. Netcher of New Bedford.Captain William Bligh of ''HMS Bounty'', in his diary after the mutiny, described stopping at the island shortly after being set adrift by the mutineers in April 1789.He had 18 crew members who scoured the island for sustenance, such as oysters, water, and birds.", "Bligh was unsure of the name of the island but apparently it was known to cartographers.", "Bligh's account on Howland Island is open to question since his route in the boat began between Tonga and Tofua and ran more or less west directly to Timor.===U.S.", "possession and guano mining===Howland Island was uninhabited when the United States took possession of it under the Guano Islands Act of 1856.The island was a known navigation hazard for many decades, and several ships were wrecked there.", "Its guano deposits were mined by American companies from about 1857 until October1878, although there was dispute between mining companies.Captain Geo.", "E. Netcher of the ''Isabella'' informed Captain Taylor of its discovery.", "As Taylor had discovered another guano island in the Indian Ocean, they agreed to share the benefits of the guano on the two islands.", "Taylor put Netcher in communication with Alfred G. Benson, president of the American Guano Company, which was incorporated in 1857.Other entrepreneurs were approached as George and Matthew Howland, who later became members of the United States Guano Company, engaged Mr. Stetson to visit the island on the ship ''Rousseau'' under Captain Pope.", "Mr. Stetson arrived on the island in 1854 and described it as being occupied by birds and a plague of rats.The American Guano Company established claims in respect to Baker Island and Jarvis Island which were recognized under the U.S.", "Guano Islands Act of 1856.Benson tried to interest the American Guano Company in the Howland Island deposits; however, the company directors considered they already had sufficient deposits.", "In October1857 the American Guano Company sent Benson's son Arthur to Baker and Jarvis Islands to survey the guano deposits.", "He also visited Howland Island and took samples of the guano.", "Subsequently, Alfred G. Benson resigned from the American Guano Company and together with Netcher, Taylor and George W. Benson formed the United States Guano Company to exploit the guano on Howland Island, with this claim being recognised under the U.S.", "Guano Islands Act of 1856.However, when the United States Guano Company dispatched a vessel of their own in 1859 to mine the guano, they found that Howland Island was already occupied by men sent there by the American Guano Company.", "The companies ended up in New York state court, with the American Guano Company arguing that the United States Guano Company had in effect abandoned the island since the continual possession and actual occupation required for ownership by the Guano Islands Act did not occur.", "The result was that both companies were allowed to mine the guano deposits, which were substantially depleted by October1878.Laborers for the mining operations came from around the Pacific, including from Hawaii; the Hawaiian laborers named Howland Island ('kou tree grove').In the late 19th century, there were British claims on the island as well as attempts at setting up mining.", "John T. Arundel and Company, a British firm using laborers from the Cook Islands and Niue, occupied the island from 1886 to 1891.To clarify American sovereignty, Executive Order 7368 was issued on .===Itascatown (1935–42)===View of the settlement on the island, 1937Government House, 1937In 1935, colonists from the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project arrived on the island to establish a permanent U.S. presence in the Central Pacific.", "It began with a rotating group of four alumni and students from the Kamehameha School for Boys, a private school in Honolulu.", "Although the recruits had signed on as part of a scientific expedition and expected to spend their three-month assignment collecting botanical and biological samples, once out to sea, they were told, according to one of the Jarvis Island colonists, George West, \"Your names will go down in history\" and that the islands would become \"famous air bases in a route that will connect Australia with California\".The settlement was named '''Itascatown''' after the USCGC ''Itasca'' that brought the colonists to Howland and made regular cruises between the other equatorial islands during that era.", "Itascatown was a line of a half-dozen small wood-framed structures and tents near the beach on the island's western side.", "The fledgling colonists were given large stocks of canned food, water, and other supplies, including a gasoline-powered refrigerator, radio equipment, medical kits, and (characteristic of that era) vast quantities of cigarettes.", "Fishing provided variety in their diet.", "Most of the colonists' endeavors involved making hourly weather observations and constructing rudimentary infrastructure on the island, including the clearing of a landing strip for airplanes.", "During this period, the island was on Hawaii time, which was then 10.5hours behind UTC.", "Similar colonization projects were started on nearby Baker Island and Jarvis Island, as well as Canton Island and Enderbury in the Phoenix Islands, which later became part of Kiribati.", "According to the 1940 U.S. Census, Howland Island had a population of four people on April 1, 1940.===Kamakaiwi Field===The planned flight route of Amelia Earhart across the PacificAmelia Earhart and Fred NoonanGround was cleared for a rudimentary aircraft landing area during the mid-1930s, in anticipation that the island might eventually become a stopover for commercial trans-Pacific air routes and also to further U.S. territorial claims in the region against rival claims from Great Britain.", "Howland Island was designated as a scheduled refueling stop for American pilot Amelia Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan on their round-the-world flight in 1937.Works Progress Administration (WPA) funds were used by the Bureau of Air Commerce to construct three graded, unpaved runways meant to accommodate Earhart's twin-engined Lockheed Model 10 Electra.The facility was named ''Kamakaiwi Field'' after James Kamakaiwi, a young Hawaiian who arrived with the first group of four colonists.", "He was selected as the group's leader, and he spent more than three years on Howland, far longer than the average recruit.", "It has also been referred to as ''WPA Howland Airport'' (the WPA contributed about 20 percent of the $12,000 cost).", "Earhart and Noonan took off from Lae, New Guinea, and their radio transmissions were picked up near the island when their aircraft reached the vicinity, but they failed to arrive.", "It is known that they must have gotten within the radio range of Howland, due to the strength of the final radio communications that morning, despite some problems with radio communication and radio direction finding.", "In some of the last messages recorded from them on 2 July 1937, 7:42 am, Earhart reported, \"We must be on you, but cannot see you – but gas is running low.", "Have been unable to reach you by radio.", "We are flying at 1,000 feet.\"", "At 8:43 am, Earhart reported, \"We are on the line 157 337.We will repeat this message.", "We will repeat this on 6210 kilocycles.", "Wait.\"", "Between Earhart's low-on-fuel message at 7:42 am and her last confirmed message at 8:43, her signal strength remained consistent, indicating that she never left the immediate Howland area as she ran low on fuel.", "The U.S. Coast Guard made this determination by tracking her signal strength as she approached the island, noting signal levels from her reports of 200 and 100 miles out.", "These reports were roughly 30 minutes apart, providing vital ground-speed clues.After the largest search and rescue attempt in history up to that time, the U.S. Navy concluded that the Electra had run out of fuel and Earhart and Noonan ditched at sea and perished.", "Based on the strength of the transmission signals from Earhart, the Coast Guard concluded that the plane ran out of fuel north of Howland.", "Many later studies came to the same conclusion; however, an alternative hypothesis that Earhart and Noonan lived for a time as castaways on Gardner Island (now called Nikumaroro) has been considered.===Japanese attacks during World War II===A Japanese air attack on , by 14 twin-engined Mitsubishi G3M \"Nell\" bombers of Chitose Kōkūtai, from Kwajalein islands, killed colonists Richard \"Dicky\" Kanani Whaley and Joseph Kealoha Keliʻihananui.", "The raid came one day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and damaged the three airstrips of Kamakaiwi Field.", "Two days later, shelling from a Japanese submarine destroyed what was left of the colony's buildings.", "A single bomber returned twice during the following weeks and dropped more bombs on the rubble.", "The two survivors were finally evacuated by the , a U.S. Navy destroyer, on .", "Thomas Bederman, one of the two survivors, later recounted his experience during the incident in a edition of ''Life''.", "Howland was occupied by a battalion of the United States Marine Corps in September1943 and was known as Howland Naval Air Station until May1944.All attempts at habitation were abandoned after 1944.Colonization projects on the other four islands, also disrupted by the war, were also abandoned.", "No aircraft is known to have landed on the island, though anchorages nearby were used by float planes and flying boats during World War II.", "For example, on , a U.S. Navy Martin PBM-3-D Mariner flying boat (BuNo 48199), piloted by William Hines, had an engine fire and made a forced landing in the ocean off Howland.", "Hines beached the aircraft, and though it burned, the crew were unharmed, rescued by the , transferred to a sub chaser and taken to Canton Island." ], [ "National Wildlife Refuge", "Emperor Angelfish and hump coral – Howland Island NWR.On June 27, 1974, Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton created Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge, which was expanded in 2009 to add submerged lands within of the island.", "The refuge now includes of land and of water.", "Along with six other islands, the island was administered by the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex.", "In January2009, that entity was upgraded to the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument by President George W. Bush.The island habitat has been affected by the presence of multiple invasive exotic species.", "Black rats were introduced in 1854 and eradicated in 1938 by feral cats introduced the year before.", "The cats proved to be destructive to bird species, and the cats were eliminated by 1985.Pacific crabgrass continues to compete with local plants.Public entry to the island is allowed with a special use permit from the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service and it is generally restricted to scientists and educators.", "Representatives from the agency visit the island on average once every two years, often coordinating transportation with amateur radio operators or the U.S. Coast Guard to defray the high cost of logistical support." ], [ "Earhart Light", "Colonists sent to the island in the mid-1930s, to establish possession by the United States, built the Earhart Light , named after Amelia Earhart, as a day beacon or navigational landmark.", "It is shaped like a short lighthouse.", "It was constructed of white sandstone with painted black bands and a black top meant to be visible several miles out to sea during daylight hours.", "It is located near the boat landing in the middle of the west coast, near the site of Itascatown.", "The beacon was partially destroyed early in World War II by Japanese attacks but was rebuilt in the early 1960s by men from the U.S. Coast Guard ship ''Blackhaw''.", "By 2000, the beacon was reported to be crumbling and it had not been repainted in decades.Ann Pellegreno overflew the island in 1967, and Linda Finch did so in 1997 during memorial circumnavigation flights to commemorate Earhart's 1937 world flight.", "No landings were attempted, but both Pellegreno and Finch flew low enough to drop a wreath on the island." ], [ "Image gallery", "File:Plane wreckage on Howland Island.jpg|Aircraft wreckage on HowlandFile:Howland Itascatown.jpg|Itascatown settlement remainsFile:Groundcover.jpg|Howland island floraFile:Howland Flora.jpg|Howland island flora (leeward)File:Howland Fauna.JPG|Young masked boobiesFile:Howland Boobies.JPG|Masked boobiesFile:Howland birds.JPG|Ruddy turnstonesFile:Earhart Light.jpg|Earhart Light, 2008" ], [ "See also", "*List of lighthouses in United States Minor Outlying Islands* Howland and Baker islands, includes coverage of the Howland-Baker EEZ* History of the Pacific Islands* List of Guano Island claims* Phoenix Islands" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* Bryan, Edwin H. Jr. ''American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain''.", "Honolulu, Hawaii: Tongg Publishing Company, 1942.", "* Butler, Susan.", "''East to the Dawn: The Life of Amelia Earhart''.", "Cambridge, MA: Da Capa Press, 1999..** \"Eyewitness account of the Japanese raids on Howland Island (includes a grainy photo of Itascatown).\"", "''ksbe.edu.''", "Retrieved: October 10, 2010.", "* Irwin, Geoffrey.", "''The Prehistroric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific.''", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992..* Long, Elgen M. and Marie K. Long.", "Amelia Earhart: The Mystery Solved.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999..* Maude, H.E.", "''Of Islands and Men: Studies in Pacific History''.", "Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1968.", "* Safford, Laurance F. with Cameron A. Warren and Robert R. Payne.", "''Earhart's Flight into Yesterday: The Facts Without the Fiction''.", "McLean, Virginia: Paladwr Press, 2003..* Sharp, Andrew.", "''The Discovery of the Pacific Islands''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.", "* Suárez, Thomas.", "''Early Mapping of the Pacific''.", "Singapore: Periplus Editions, 2004.." ], [ "External links", "* Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge – U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service* Geography, history and nature on Howland Island** 'Voyage of the Odyssey' – pictures and travelogue* Howland Island at Infoplease* Howland Island – Small Island, Big History" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Hungary" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Geography of Hungary''' Hungary'''Continent''' Europe'''Region''' East-Central Europe'''Coordinates''' '''Area''' Ranked 108th93,030 km2 (35,920 mi2)'''Coastline''' 0 km (0 mi; landlocked)'''Borders''' 2,009 km (1,248 mi)'''Highest point''' Kékes 1,014 m'''Lowest point''' Tisza River 78 m'''Longest river''' Tisza River 597 km (Hungarian portion)'''Largest lake''' Lake Balaton 592 km2'''Hungary''' (Hungarian: Magyarország) is a landlocked country in the southeastern region of Central Europe, bordering the Balkans.", "Situated in the Carpathian Basin, it has a land area of 93,030 square km, measuring about 250 km from north to south and 524 km from east to west.", "It has 2,106 km of boundaries, shared with Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia to the southwest, Slovenia to the west and southwest, and Austria to the west.Hungary's modern borders were first established after World War I when, by the terms of the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, it lost more than 71% of what had formerly been the Kingdom of Hungary, 58.5% of its population, and 32% of the Hungarians.", "The country secured some boundary revisions from 1938 to 1941: In 1938 the First Vienna Award gave back territory from Czechoslovakia, in 1939 Hungary occupied Carpatho-Ukraine.", "In 1940 the Second Vienna Award gave back Northern Transylvania and finally Hungary occupied the Bácska and Muraköz regions during the Invasion of Yugoslavia.", "However, Hungary lost these territories again with its defeat in World War II.", "After World War II, the Trianon boundaries were restored with a small revision that benefited Czechoslovakia.Most of the country has an elevation of less than 200 m. Although Hungary has several moderately high ranges of mountains, those reaching heights of 300 m or more cover less than 2% of the country.", "The highest point in the country is Kékes (1,014 m) in the Mátra Mountains northeast of Budapest.", "The lowest spot is 77.6 m above sea level, located in the south of Hungary, near Szeged.The major rivers in the country are the Danube and Tisza.", "The Danube is navigable within Hungary for 418 kilometers.", "The Tisza River is navigable for 444 km in the country.", "Less important rivers include the Drava along the Croatian border, the Rába, the Szamos, the Sió, and the Ipoly along the Slovakian border.", "Hungary has three major lakes.", "Lake Balaton, the largest, is 78 km long and from 3 to 14 km wide, with an area of 600 square km.", "Hungarians often refer to it as the ''Hungarian Sea''.", "It is Central Europe's largest freshwater lake and an important recreation area.", "Its shallow waters offer good summer swimming, and in winter its frozen surface provides excellent opportunities for winter sports.", "Smaller bodies of water are Lake Velence (26 square km) in Fejér County and Lake Fertő (Neusiedler See—about 82 square km within Hungary), and the artificial Lake Tisza.Hungary has three major geographic regions (which are subdivided to seven smaller ones): the Great Alföld, lying east of the Danube River; the Transdanubia, a hilly region lying west of the Danube and extending to the Austrian foothills of the Alps; and the North Hungarian Mountains, which is a mountainous and hilly country beyond the northern boundary of the Great Hungarian Plain.The country's best natural resource is fertile land, although soil quality varies greatly.", "About 70% of the country's total territory is suitable for agriculture; of this portion, 72% is arable land.", "Hungary lacks extensive domestic sources of energy and raw materials needed for industrial development." ], [ "Plains and hills", "Physico-geographical mesoregions of Hungary: Hortobágy National Park on the Great Hungarian Plain with Racka sheepThe Little Alföld or Little Hungarian Plain is a plain (tectonic basin) of approximately 8,000 km2 in northwestern Hungary, southwestern Slovakia and eastern Austria, along the lower course of the Rába River, with high quality fertile soils.The Transdanubia region lies in the western part of the country, bounded by the Danube River, the Drava River, and the remainder of the country's border with Slovenia and Croatia.", "It lies south and west of the course of the Danube.", "It contains Lake Fertő and Lake Balaton.", "The region consists mostly of rolling hills.", "Transdanubia is primarily an agricultural area, with flourishing crops, livestock, and viticulture.", "Mineral deposits and oil are found in Zala county close to the border of Croatia.The Great Alföld contains the basin of the Tisza River and its branches.", "It encompasses more than half of the country's territory.", "Bordered by mountains on all sides, it has a variety of terrains, including regions of fertile soil, sandy areas, wastelands, and swampy areas.", "Hungarians have inhabited the Great Plain for at least a millennium.", "Here is found the puszta, a long, and uncultivated expanse (the most famous such area still in existence is the Hortobágy National Park), with which much Hungarian folklore is associated.", "In earlier centuries, the Great Plain was unsuitable for farming because of frequent flooding.", "Instead, it was the home of massive herds of cattle and horses.", "In the last half of the 19th century, the government sponsored programs to control the riverways and expedite inland drainage in the Great Plain.", "With the danger of recurrent flooding largely eliminated, much of the land was placed under cultivation, and herding ceased to be a major contributor to the area's economy." ], [ "Mountains", "Although the majority of the country has an elevation lesser than 300 m, Hungary has several moderately high ranges of mountains.", "They can be classified to four geographic regions, from west to east: Alpokalja, Transdanubian Mountains, Mecsek and North Hungarian Mountains.", "Alpokalja (literally ''the foothills of the Alps'') is located along the Austrian border; its highest point is Írott-kő with an elevation of 882 metres.", "The Transdanubian Mountains stretch from the west part of Lake Balaton to the Danube Bend near Budapest, where it meets the North Hungarian Mountains.", "Its tallest peak is the 757 m high Pilis.", "Mecsek is the southernmost Hungarian mountain range, located north from Pécs - Its highest point is the Zengő with 682 metres.The North Hungarian Mountains lie north of Budapest and run in a northeasterly direction south of the border with Slovakia.", "The higher ridges, which are mostly forested, have rich coal and iron deposits.", "Minerals are a major resource of the area and have long been the basis of the industrial economies of cities in the region.", "Viticulture is also important, producing the famous Tokaji wine.", "The highest peak of it is the Kékes, located in the Mátra mountain range.===Highest independent peaks===1.Kékes Name Height Range Geographic region Kékestető 1,014 m Mátra North Hungarian Mountains Galya-tető 964 m Mátra North Hungarian Mountains Szilvási-kő 961 m Bükk North Hungarian Mountains Istállós-kő 959 m Bükk North Hungarian Mountains Bálvány 956 m Bükk North Hungarian Mountains Tar-kő 950 m Bükk North Hungarian Mountains Csóványos 938 m Börzsöny North Hungarian Mountains Magos-fa 916 m Börzsöny North Hungarian Mountains Nagy-Milic 895 m Zemplén Mountains North Hungarian Mountains Írott-kő 882 m Kőszeg Mountains Alpokalja" ], [ "Climate", "Hungary map of Köppen climate classification.Hungary has a mainly continental climate, with cold winters and warm to hot summers.", "The average annual temperature is about , in summer , and in winter , with extremes ranging from about in summer to in winter.", "Average yearly rainfall is about .", "Distribution and frequency of rainfall are unpredictable.", "The western part of the country usually receives more rain than the eastern part, where severe droughts may occur in summertime.", "Weather conditions in the Great Plain can be especially harsh, with hot summers, cold winters, and scant rainfall.By the 1980s, the countryside was beginning to show the effects of pollution, both from herbicides used in agriculture and from industrial pollutants.", "Most noticeable was the gradual contamination of the country's bodies of water, endangering fish and wildlife.", "Although concern was mounting over these disturbing threats to the environment, no major steps had yet been taken to arrest them." ], [ "Rivers and lakes", "'''Rivers'''The springs of the major Hungarian rivers are outside the country.", "The two most important rivers, the Danube and the Tisza are navigable on their whole Hungarian length.", "They have several tributaries.", "'''Name''''''Length in Hungary'''Danube417 kmTisza596 kmLeitha180 kmRábcaRába211 kmZala139 kmDráva125 kmIpoly143 kmZagyva160 kmSajó125 kmHernád118 kmBodrog52 kmSzamosKörösMaros48 km'''Lakes'''Hungary has several bodies of water, including the greatest lake of Central Europe, Lake Balaton, which is a famous tourist destination.", "Lake Hévíz, the largest thermal lake in the world (47,500 square metres in area) is located in Hungary as well.", "The Lake Cave (''Hungarian: Barlangtó'') of Tapolca is also notable as being a sub-surface lake.", "Major lakes include: '''Name''''''Surface in Hungary'''Balaton596 km2Tisza (''artificial'')127 km2Fertő75 km2Velence26 km2" ], [ "Agriculture", "Wheat field, HungaryHungary, with its plains and hilly regions, is highly suitable for agriculture.===Arable land===Doubtless, one of Hungary's most important natural resources is arable land.", "It covers about 48.57% of the country, which is outstanding in the world (see the related map).", "The mass majority of the fertile soil has a good quality.The most important agricultural zones are the Little Hungarian Plain (it has the highest quality fertile soil in average), Transdanubia, and the Great Hungarian Plain.", "The last covers more than half of the country (52,000 km2 in number), whereas soil quality varies extremely; the territory even contains a small, grassy semi-desert, the so-called puszta (steppe in English).", "Puszta is exploited by sheep and cattle raising.The most important Hungarian agricultural products include corn, wheat, barley, oat, sunflower, poppy, potato, millet, sugar-beet, flax, and many other plants.", "There are also some newly naturalized plants too, for example amaranth.", "Poppy seed is part of the traditional Hungarian cuisine.A greengrocer's in Hungary The country is well known for producing high quality peppers, which are often made into paprika.", "There are numerous fruits reared, including many subspecies of apple, pear, peach, grape, apricot, watermelon, cantaloupe, etc.Hungary does not grow any GMO products, thus these products are mainly imported from the United States.", "They cannot, however, be distributed without a mark on the wrapping.===Viticulture===Wine production has a long history in Hungary.", "There are two languages in Europe in which the word for \"wine\" does not derive from the Latin, being Greek – and Hungarian.", "The Hungarian word is ''bor''.Viticulture has been recorded in the territory of today's Hungary since the Roman times, who were responsible for the introduction of the cultivation of wines.", "The arriving Hungarians took over the practice and have maintained it ever since.Today, there are numerous wine regions in Hungary, producing quality and inexpensive wines as well, comparable to Western European ones.", "The majority of the country's wine regions are located in the mountains or in the hills, such as Transdanubian Mountains, North Hungarian Mountains, Villány Mountains, and so on.", "Important ones include the regions of Eger, Hajós, Somló, Sopron, Villány, Szekszárd, and Tokaj-Hegyalja.===Forestry===19% of the country is covered by forests.", "These are mainly mountainous areas, such as the North Hungarian and the Transdanubian Mountains, and the Alpokalja.", "The composition of forests is various, with trees like fir, beech, oak, willow, acacia, plane, etc." ], [ "Political geography", "Hungary's current counties are largely based on the country's historic regions.", "The counties are subdivided into ''districts'' (''járás''), and these are further divided into ''municipalities'' (''település'').", "Hungary has 19 counties, 174 districts + 23 districts in Budapest and 2,722 ''municipality''.right County Seat Area (km2) PopulationBaranya Pécs 4,430386,441Bács-Kiskun Kecskemét 8,445520,331Békés Békéscsaba 5,630359,948Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén Miskolc 7,250686,266Csongrád-Csanád Szeged 4,263417,456Fejér Székesfehérvár 4,358425,847Győr-Moson-Sopron Győr 4,208447,985Hajdú-Bihar Debrecen 6,211546,721Heves Eger 3,637308,882Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Szolnok 5,582386,594Komárom-Esztergom Tatabánya 2,265304,568Nógrád Salgótarján 2,545202,427Pest ''Budapest'' 6,3931,217,476Somogy Kaposvár 6,065317,307Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg Nyíregyháza 5,936559,272Tolna Szekszárd 3,703230,361Vas Szombathely 3,336256,629Veszprém Veszprém 4,464351,898Zala Zalaegerszeg 3,784282,179" ], [ "Area and boundaries", "=== Area ===*Total: 93,030 km2:''country comparison to the world:'' 108th*Land: 92,340 km2*Water: 690 km2 (0.74% of total land area)=== Boundaries ===*'''Land boundaries:''' ''total:'' .", "*'''Border countries and length:''' : , : , : , : , : , : and : === Area comparison ===*Brazil comparative: slightly smaller than Santa Catarina*China comparative: about half of Hubei*India comparative: slightly larger than West Bengal*Russia comparative: slightly smaller than Altai Republic*South Africa comparative: slightly smaller than KwaZulu-Natal*United Kingdom comparative: larger than Scotland*United States comparative: slightly smaller than Indiana*Sweden comparative slightly smaller than Norrbotten" ], [ "Resources and land use", "Natural resources of Hungary.", "Metals are in blue (Al — aluminium ore, Mn — manganese, Fe — iron ore, U — uranium, PM — polymetallic ores (Cu, Zn, Pb)).", "Fossil fuels are in red (C — coal, L — lignite, P — petroleum, G — natural gas).", "*'''Natural resources:''' bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land*'''Land use:''' ''arable land:'' 51%; ''permanent crops:'' 3.6%; ''permanent pastures'' 12.4%*'''Forests of Hungary and woodlands:''' 19%; ''other:'' 14% (1999 est.", ")*'''Irrigated land:''' 2,060 km.2 (1993 est.", ")*'''Important rivers: '''Danube (''Duna''), Tisza, Drava (''Dráva''), Körös, Mureș (''Maros''), Mur (''Mura'')" ], [ "Environmental concerns", "'''Natural hazards:''' occasional flooding'''National parks''''''Environment - current issues:'''The approximation of Hungary's standards in waste management, energy efficiency, and air, soil, and water pollution with environmental requirements for EU accession will require large investments.", "'''Environment - international agreements:'''''party to:''Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands''signed, but not ratified:''Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol'''Geography - note:'''landlocked; strategic location astride main land routes between Western Europe and Balkan Peninsula as well as between Ukraine and Mediterranean basin" ], [ "Extreme points", "Map of the extreme points of Hungary===Elevation===*'''Highest point''': Kékes, at 1,014 m, , Gyöngyös (Heves County)*'''Lowest point''': Gyálarét (Municipality of Szeged), at 78 m, , Szeged (Csongrád-Csanád County)===Latitude and longitude===*'''Westernmost settlement''': Felsőszölnök (Vas County), *'''Easternmost settlement''': Garbolc (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County), *'''Northernmost settlement''': Hidvégardó (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén County), *'''Southernmost settlement''': Kásád (Baranya County), === Centre ===*'''Geographical centre''': , Pusztavacs (Pest County)" ], [ "Pictures", "File:DonauknieVisegrad.jpg|A famous tourist destination: the Danube BendFile:Tajkep mderecskerol matra.jpg|The mountainous part of the county: in the North Hungarian Mountains, more precisely in MátraFile:Hortobagy-ziehbrunnen.jpg|Old wells in the Great AlföldFile:hu-countryside1.jpg|Typical countryside in TransdanubiaFile:Balaton2.jpg|Balaton, the greatest lake of Hungary is sometimes referred as the \"Hungarian sea\".File:Mecsek magyaro 1.jpg|Mecsek, Southern HungaryFile:Vizeses-Lillafured-Miskolc-Hungary-Europe.jpg|The waterfall of LillafüredFile:Villany, wine.jpg|Viticulture near Villány" ], [ "See also", "*Administrative divisions of Hungary*Extreme points of Hungary*Tourism in Hungary*List of cities and towns in Hungary*List of rivers of Hungary*List of mountains in Hungary*Geography of Europe" ], [ "References", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Hungary" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Hungary include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects." ], [ "Population", "district.Hungary's population has been slowly declining since 1980.The population composition at the foundation of Hungary (895) depends on the size of the arriving Hungarian population and the size of the Slavic (and remains of Avar-Slavic) population at the time.", "One source mentions 200 000 Slavs and 400 000 Hungarians, while other sources often don't give estimates for both, making comparison more difficult.", "The size of the Hungarian population around 895 is often estimated between 120 000 and 600 000, with a number of estimates in the 400-600 000 range.", "Other sources only mention a fighting force of 25 000 Magyar warriors used in the attack, while declining to estimate the total population including women and children and warriors not participating in the invasion.", "In the historical demographics the largest earlier shock was the Mongol Invasion of Hungary, several plagues also took a toll on the country's population.According to the demographers, about 80 percent of the population was made up of Hungarians before the Battle of Mohács, however the Hungarian ethnic group became a minority in its own country in the 18th century due to the resettlement policies and continuous immigration from neighboring countries.", "Major territorial changes made Hungary ethnically homogeneous after World War I. Nowadays, more than nine-tenths of the population is ethnically Hungarian and speaks Hungarian as the mother tongue.1400-2023 Historical population development on the territory of present-day Hungary===Population over time===Population of Hungary over time with estimated percentages of ethnic Hungarians within HungaryDateEstimated PopulationEstimated Percentages of Hungarian people, with and without Inclusion of the Kingdom of CroatiaNotes 900 AD* 250,000-350,000* 500,000-600,000* 600,000* 1,000,000-1,500,00066%''Size of the country was about 330 thousand square km, with a density of 3-4.5 or 0.56-1.06 persons per square km''10001,000,000-1,500,000center1060500,000-550,000''A density of 1.51-1.67 persons per square km.", "''11002,000,00011812,600,00012001,000,000-1,100,000''A density of 3.03-3.33 persons per square km (330 thousand square km).", "''12222,000,00070–80%''The time of the Golden Bull.", "The last estimate before the Tatar invasion.", "''1242*1,020,000-1,220,000*1,200,000''Population decreased after the Mongol invasion of Hungary (estimates of population loss range from 20% to 50%).", "''1300*1,400,000-1,600,000*2,000,000*3,000,0001348*5,000,000*3,000,000''Before the plague (at the time of the Angevin kings).", "''1370 2,000,00060–70% (including Croatia)1400*3,000,000-3,500,000*3,000,0001490*5,000,000*4,500,000-5,000,000*4,000,000-4,500,000*4,000,000*3,500,000-4,000,000*3,400,000*90%*80-85%*80%*77%*75-80%*60-70% (including Croatia)''Before the Ottoman conquest (about 3.2 million Hungarians).''", "center1600*4,000,000-4,500,000*3,500,000''Populations of Royal Hungary, Transylvania, and Ottoman Hungary combined.", "''1699*4,000,000*3,500,000-4,000,000*3,500,000*50–55%*50%''At the time of Treaty of Karlowitz (not more than 2 million Hungarians).", "''1711*4,000,000*2,500,000*53%*45%''At the end of the Kuruc War, starting date of the organized resettlement.", "''1720*4,000,000-4,500,000*4,000,000*3,500,000*2,600,000-4,000,000*55%*45%*44%*40%*35%1785-878,000,000''5% urban subjects.", "''1790*9,000,000*8,500,000*8,100,000-8,200,000*40%*39%*35%''End of the organized resettlement (around 800 new German villages had been established between 1711 and 1780).''", "center182811,495,5361830*37% (44 percent in central Hungary)1837*44%*37% (with Kingdom of Croatia)184612,033,399*40–45%*41.6%*36.5-40% (with Kingdom of Croatia)''Two years before the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.", "''185011,600,000*41.4%185713,830,87044.5%186913,508,00045.2%188013,749,60346%190016,838,25551.4%191018,264,533*54.4%*48.1% (with Kingdom of Croatia)''5% Jews (estimated according to their religion).''", "centerNote: The data refer to the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, and not that of the present-day republic.====Demographics of Kingdom of Hungary, (1910 Census)====Population of Hungary (1910–2009, with comments) Land '''Mother tongues (1910 census)''' Kingdom of Hungary Hungarian (54.4%), Romanian (16.1%), Slovak (10.7%), German (10.4%), Ruthenian (2.5%), Serbian (2.5%), Croatian (1.8%) Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia Croatian (62.5%), Serbian (24.6%), German (5.0%), Hungarian (4.1%) + Spoken languages in Transleithania (Hungary) (1910 census) Land Hungarian Romanian German Slovak Croatian Serbian Ruthenian Other Total Danube Right Bank 72% (2,221,295) 0% (833) 18% (555,694) 0.6% (17,188) 5.5% (168,436) 0.5% (15,170) 0% (232) 3.4% (105,556) 14.8% (3,084,404) Danube Left Bank 32.7% (711,654) 0% (704) 6.6% (144,395) 58.8% (1,279,574) 0.1% (2,294) 0% (200) 0% (393) 1.7% (36,710) 10.4% (2,175,924) Danube-Tisza 81.2% (3,061,066) 0.1% (4,813) 9.5% (357,822) 2.1% (79,354) 0.1% (4,866) 4.1% (154,298) 0.3% (11,121) 4.1% (96,318) 18% (3,769,658) Tisza Right Bank 53.5% (945,990) 0.1% (1,910) 5.6% (98,564) 25% (441,776) 0% (486) 0% (247) 14.3% (253,062) 1.6% (27,646) 8.5% (1,769,681) Tisza Left Bank 61.8% (1,603,924) 24% (621,918) 3.2% (83,229) 3.1% (81,154) 0% (327) 0% (321) 7.5% (194,504) 0.3% (8,547) 12.4% (2,594,924) Tisza-Maros 22.2% (474,988) 39.5% (845,850) 19.9% (427,253) 2.1% (44,715) 0.2% (4,950) 13.6% (290,434) 0.1% (3,188) 2.4% (50,391) 10.3% (2,141,769) Transylvania 34.3% (918,217) 55% (1,472,021) 8.7% (234,085) 0.1% (2,404) 0% (523) 0% (421) 0.1% (1,759) 1.8% (48,937) 12.8% (2,678,367) Fiume 13% (6,493) 0.3% (137) 4.6% (2,315) 0.4% (192) 26% (12,926) 0.9% (425) 0% (11) 54.8 (27,307, mostly Italian) 0.2% (49,806) Croatia-Slavonia 4% (105,948) 0% (846) 5.1% (134,078) 0.8% (21,613) 62.5% (1,638,354) 24.6% (644,955) 0.3% (8,317) 2.6% (67,843) 12.6% (2,621,954) Total 48.1% (10,050,575) 14.1% (2,949,032) 9.8% (2,037,435) 9.4% (1,967,970) 8.8% (1,833,162) 5.3% (1,106,471) 2.3% (472,587) 2.2% (469,255) 100% (20,886,487)=== Fertility ===}The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman.", "It is based on fairly good data for the entire period in the present-day Hungary.", "Sources: Our World In Data and Gapminder Foundation.", "Years 18501851185218531854185518561857185818591860Total Fertility Rate in Hungary5.185.15 5.125.095.065.0354.974.944.914.88 Years 1861186218631864186518661867186818691870Total Fertility Rate in Hungary4.855.11 5.415.035.115.024.645.095.125.14 Years 1871187218731874187518761877187818791880Total Fertility Rate in Hungary5.234.96 5.185.235.555.615.295.235.585.23 Years 1881188218831884188518861887188818891890Total Fertility Rate in Hungary5.285.4 5.55.595.485.575.415.365.354.93 Years 1891189218931894189518961897189818991900Total Fertility Rate in Hungary5.24.96 5.255.085.485.114.974.954.624.79 Year Total Fertility Rate 1901 5.32 1910 4.86 1921 3.80 1930 2.84 1941 2.48 1949 2.54 1955 2.81 1960 2.02 1965 1.82 1970 1.98 1975 2.34 1980 1.91 Year Total Fertility Rate 1985 1.85 1990 1.86 1995 1.57 2000 1.32 2005 1.30 2010 1.25 2015 1.44 2019 1.49 2020 1.56 2021 1.59 2022 1.52 2023 1.50'''Total Fertility Rate by county''' County 1980 1990 2001 2011 Baranya 1.70 1.65 1.52 1.47 Bács-Kiskun 1.81 1.73 1.59 1.56 Békés 1.82 1.75 1.62 1.57 Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 1.88 1.83 1.72 1.66 Csongrád 1.59 1.55 1.44 1.41 Fejér 1.85 1.79 1.62 1.56 Győr-Moson-Sopron 1.81 1.73 1.56 1.49 Hajdú-Bihar 1.92 1.82 1.65 1.56 Heves 1.79 1.69 1.57 1.53 Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok 1.90 1.80 1.67 1.62 Komárom-Esztergom 1.80 1.73 1.58 1.53 Nógrád 1.84 1.76 1.64 1.60 Pest 1.76 1.69 1.54 1.48 Somogy 1.74 1.68 1.58 1.53 Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg 2.21 2.05 1.85 1.75 Tolna 1.83 1.76 1.65 1.60 Vas 1.82 1.72 1.58 1.51 Veszprém 1.88 1.79 1.64 1.58 Zala 1.78 1.73 1.56 1.52 Budapest 1.25 1.27 1.17 1.13 '''All''' 1.71 1.65 1.53 1.47Source: 2011 census === Life expectancy ===Life expectancy in Hungary since 1900Life expectancy in Hungary since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195564.011955–1960 66.911960–1965 68.791965–1970 69.451970–1975 69.411975–1980 69.591980–1985 69.081985–1990 69.421990–1995 69.411995–2000 70.882000–2005 72.542005–2010 73.742010–2015 75.262015–2020 76.65==== Infant mortality rate ====The infant mortality rate (IMR) decreased considerably after WW II.", "In 1949, the IMR was 91.0.The rate decreased to 47.6 in 1960, 35.9 in 1970, 23.2 in 1980, 14.8 in 1990, 9.2 in 2000 and reached an all-time low in 2018: 3.4 per 1000 live born children." ], [ "Vital statistics", "Source: Hungarian Central Statistical OfficeAverage population (January 1)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration change (per 1000)Total fertility rates 1900 6,854,000 268,019 177,363 90,656 39.4 27.0 12.4 5.28 1901 260,439 166,662 93,77737.625.012.6 5.22 1902 270,385 179,260 91,12538.626.911.7 5.16 1903 258,209 179,518 78,69136.5 26.110.4 5.10 1904 260,446 172,704 87,74237.024.812.2 5.04 1905 252,501 203,516 48,98535.527.87.7 4.98 1906 258,296 176,938 81,35836.124.911.2 4.91 1907 261,231 180,216 81,01536.225.610.6 4.85 1908 268,637 177,872 90,76536.725.011.7 4.79 1909 271,177 184,445 86,73237.125.411.7 4.73 1910 7,612,000 265,457 168,875 96,58235.423.412.0 4.67 1911 261,375 184,009 77,36634.824.810.0 4.59 1912 270,804 172,148 98,65636.023.013.0 4.50 1913 264,418 174,241 90,17734.323.2 11.1 4.42 1914 270,690 176,574 94,11634.523.411.1 4.34 1915 187,734 189,418 -1,68423.725.3 -1.6 4.26 1916 135,443 159,810 -24,36716.820.9 -4.1 4.17 1917 130,817 163,507 -32,69016.020.7 -4.7 4.09 1918 127,894 207,395 -79,501 15.3 25.7 -10.4 4.01 1919 7,860,000 217,431 157,392 60,039 27.6 20.0 7.6 8.63.93 1920 7,987,000 249,458 169,717 79,741 31.4 21.4 10.0 -5.93.84 1921 8,020,000 255,453 170,059 85,394 31.8 21.2 10.6 -3.1 3.81 1922 8,080,000 249,279 173,351 75,928 30.8 21.4 9.4 1.73.60 1923 8,170,000 238,971 159,287 79,684 29.2 19.5 9.8 -3.73.39 1924 8,220,000 221,462 167,668 53,794 26.9 20.4 6.5 3.23.18 1925 8,300,000 235,480 142,150 93,330 28.3 17.1 11.2 -2.83.36 1926 8,370,000 229,484 139,905 89,579 27.4 16.7 10.7 3.63.24 1927 8,490,000 218,548 150,675 67,873 25.8 17.8 8.0 -5.63.05 1928 8,510,000 224,693 146,496 78,197 26.4 17.2 9.2 -1.0 3.08 1929 8,580,000 215,463 152,847 62,976 25.1 17.8 7.3 4.92.92 1930 8,685,000 219,784 134,341 85,443 25.4 15.5 9.9 -4.7 2.84 1931 8,730,000 206,925 144,968 61,957 23.7 16.6 7.1 -1.0 2.84 1932 8,783,000 205,529 157,106 48,423 23.4 17.9 5.5 1.6 2.78 1933 8,845,000 193,911 129,913 63,998 21.9 14.7 7.2 0.7 2.72 1934 8,915,000 194,279 129,049 65,230 21.8 14.5 7.3 0 2.57 1935 8,980,000 189,479 136,923 52,556 21.1 15.2 5.9 0.8 2.55 1936 9,040,000 183,369 128,333 55,036 20.3 14.2 6.1 0.52.48 1937 9,100,000 182,449 128,049 54,400 20.0 14.1 6.0 0.5 2.42 1938 9,159,000 182,206 130,628 51,578 19.9 14.3 5.6 0.8 2.46 1939 9,217,000 178,633 124,591 54,042 19.4 13.5 5.9 0.9 2.50 1940 9,280,000 185,562 132,735 52,827 20.0 14.3 5.7 -1.8 2.48 1941 9,316,000 177,047 123,349 53,698 19.0 13.2 5.7 2.5 2.52 1942 9,392,000 187,187 136,844 50,343 19.9 14.6 5.4 -0.3 2.55 1943 9,440,000 173,295 127,158 46,137 18.4 13.5 4.9 -25.0 2.55 1944 9,250,000 190,000 144,048 45,952 20.5 15.6 5.0 -26.1 2.61 1945 9,055,000 169,091 211,323 -42,232 18.7 23.3 -4.7 3.3 2.64 1946 9,042,000 169,120 135,486 33,634 18.7 15.0 3.7 1.9 2.67 1947 9,093,000 187,316 117,537 69,779 20.6 12.9 7.7 -0.6 2.70 1948 9,158,000 191,907 105,780 86,127 21.0 11.6 9.4 -4.3 2.73 1949 9,205,000 190,398 105,718 84,680 20.6 11.4 9.2 0.4 2.76 1950 9,293,000 195,567 106,902 88,665 20.9 11.4 9.5 0.2 2.77 1951 9,383,000 190,645 109,998 80,647 20.2 11.7 8.6 -0.1 2.76 1952 9,463,000 185,820 107,443 78,377 19.6 11.3 8.2 0.5 2.72 1953 9,545,000 206,926 112,039 94,887 21.6 11.7 9.9 0.6 2.67 1954 9,645,000 223,347 106,670 116,677 23.0 11.0 12.0 0.6 2.61 1955 9,767,000 210,430 97,848 112,582 21.4 10.0 11.5 0.4 2.53 1956 9,883,000 192,810 104,236 88,574 19.5 10.5 8.9 -14.4 2.44 1957 9,829,000 167,202 103,645 63,557 17.0 10.5 6.5 -4.4 2.34 1958 9,850,000 158,428 97,866 60,562 16.0 9.9 6.1 0.3 2.23 1959 9,913,000 151,194 103,880 47,314 15.2 10.5 4.8 0 2.12 1960 9,961,000 146,461 101,525 44,936 14.7 10.2 4.5 0.1 2.02 1961 10,007,000 140,365 96,410 43,955 14.0 9.6 4.4 0.1 1.94 1962 10,052,000 130,053 108,273 21,780 12.9 10.8 2.2 0 1.79 1963 10,074,000 132,335 99,871 32,464 13.1 9.9 3.2 0.2 1.82 1964 10,108,000 132,141 100,830 31,311 13.1 10.0 3.1 0.1 1.81 1965 10,140,000 133,009 108,119 24,890 13.1 10.7 2.5 0.1 1.82 1966 10,166,000 138,489 101,943 36,546 13.6 10.0 3.6 0 1.89 1967 10,203,000 148,886 109,530 39,356 14.6 10.7 3.9 0.1 2.01 1968 10,244,000 154,419 115,354 39,065 15.1 11.2 3.8 0.1 2.06 1969 10,284,000 154,318 116,659 37,659 15.0 11.3 3.7 0 2.03 1970 10,322,000 151,819 120,197 31,622 14.7 11.6 3.1 -0.2 1.98 1971 10,352,000 150,640 123,009 27,631 14.5 11.9 2.7 -0.2 1.93 1972 10,378,000 153,265 118,991 34,274 14.7 11.4 3.3 -0.2 1.92 1973 10,410,000 156,224 123,366 32,858 15.0 11.8 3.1 0 1.93 1974 10,442,000 186,288 125,816 60,472 17.8 12.0 5.8 -0.1 2.27 1975 10,501,000 194,240 131,102 63,138 18.4 12.4 6.0 -0.1 2.34 1976 10,563,000 185,405 132,240 53,165 17.5 12.5 5.0 -0.1 2.23 1977 10,615,000 177,574 132,031 45,543 16.7 12.4 4.3 -0.1 2.15 1978 10,660,000 168,160 140,121 28,039 15.7 13.1 2.6 -0.1 2.06 1979 10,687,000 160,364 136,829 23,535 15.0 12.8 2.2 -0.1 2.00 1980 10,709,000 148,673 145,355 3,318 13.9 13.6 0.3 -0.7 1.91 1981 10,705,000 142,890 144,757 -1,867 13.3 13.5 -0.2 -0.7 1.87 1982 10,695,000 133,559 144,318 -10,759 12.5 13.5 -1.0 -1.2 1.79 1983 10,671,000 127,258 148,643 -21,385 11.9 13.9 -2.0 -0.9 1.74 1984 10,640,000 125,359 146,709 -21,350 11.8 13.8 -2.0 -1.9 1.75 1985 10,599,000 130,200 147,614 -17,414 12.2 13.9 -1.6 -2.1 1.85 1986 10,560,000 128,204 147,089 -18,885 12.1 13.8 -1.8 -3.0 1.84 1987 10,509,000 125,840 142,601 -16,761 11.9 13.4 -1.6 -2.7 1.82 1988 10,464,000 124,296 140,042 -15,746 11.7 13.2 -1.5 -2.6 1.81 1989 10,421,000 123,304 144,695 -21,391 11.8 13.8 -2.0 -2.4 1.80 1990 10,375,000 125,679 145,660 -19,981 12.1 14.0 -1.9 1.7 1.87 1991 10,373,400 127,207 144,813 -17,606 12.3 14.0 -1.7 1.8 1.88 1992 10,374,000 121,724 148,781 -27,057 11.7 14.3 -2.6 1.7 1.78 1993 10,365,000 117,033 150,244 -33,211 11.3 14.5 -3.2 1.8 1.69 1994 10,350,000 115,598 146,889 -31,291 11.2 14.2 -3.0 1.7 1.64 1995 10,337,000 112,054 145,431 -33,377 10.8 14.1 -3.2 1.7 1.57 1996 10,321,000 105,272 143,130 -37,858 10.2 13.9 -3.7 1.8 1.46 1997 10,301,000 100,350 139,434 -39,084 9.8 13.5 -3.8 1.8 1.38 1998 10,280,000 97,301 140,870 -43,569 9.5 13.7 -4.2 1.6 1.32 1999 10,253,000 94,645 143,210 -48,565 9.2 14.0 -4.7 1.7 1.28 2000 10,222,000 97,597 135,601 -38,004 9.6 13.3 -3.7 1.5 1.32 2001 10,200,000 97,047 132,183 -35,136 9.5 13.0 -3.4 0.9 1.31 2002 10,175,000 96,804 132,833 -36,029 9.5 13.1 -3.5 0.3 1.30 2003 10,142,000 94,647 135,823 -41,176 9.3 13.4 -4.1 1.6 1.27 2004 10,117,000 95,137 132,492 -37,355 9.4 13.1 -3.7 1.8 1.27 2005 10,098,000 97,496 135,732 -38,236 9.7 13.5 -3.8 1.7 1.30 2006 10,077,000 99,871 131,603 -31,732 9.9 13.1 -3.2 2.1 1.34 2007 10,066,000 97,613 132,938 -35,325 9.7 13.2 -3.5 1.4 1.31 2008 10,045,000 99,149 130,027 -30,878 9.9 13.0 -3.1 1.7 1.35 2009 10,031,000 96,442 130,414 -33,972 9.6 13.0 -3.4 1.7 1.32 2010 10,014,000 90,335 130,456 -40,121 9.0 13.0 -4.0 1.2 1.25 2011 9,986,000 88,049 128,795 -40,746 8.8 12.9 -4.1 -1.3 1.23 2012 9,932,000 90,269 129,440 -39,171 9.1 13.0 -3.9 1.6 1.34 2013 9,909,000 88,689 126,778 -38,089 9.0 12.8 -3.9 0.7 1.34 2014 9,877,000 91,510 126,308 -34,798 9.3 12.8 -3.5 1.4 1.41 2015 9,856,000 91,690 131,697 -40,007 9.3 13.4 -4.1 1.5 1.44 2016 9,830,000 93,063 127,053 -33,990 9.5 12.9 -3.5 0.2 1.49 2017 9,798,000 91,577 131,674 -40,097 9.4 13.5 -4.1 2.1 1.49 2018 9,778,000 89,807 131,045 -41,238 9.2 13.4 -4.2 3.7 1.49 2019 9,773,000 89,193 129,603 -40,410 9.1 13.3 -4.1 3.8 1.49 2020 9,770,000 92,338 141,002 -48,664 9.5 14.5 -5.0 1.0 1.56 2021 9,731,000 93,039 155,621 -62,582 9.6 16.0 -6.4 2.1 1.59 2022 9,689,010 88,491 136,446 -47,955 9.1 14.1 -5.0 -4.2 1.52 2023 9,600,000 85,200 127,200 -42,000 8.9 13.3 -4.4 1.50===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January–December 2022''' 88,491 136,446 −47,955 '''January–December 2023''' 85,200 127,200 −42,000 '''Difference''' −3,291 (−3.7%) −9,246 (−6.8%) +5,955===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 4 663 794 5 066 978 9 730 772 100 0–4 241 553 228 350 469 903 4.83 5–9 235 461 222 548 458 009 4.71 10–14 250 542 238 779 489 321 5.03 15–19 250 935 236 815 487 750 5.01 20–24 269 584 252 965 522 549 5.37 25–29 321 164 300 576 621 740 6.39 30–34 321 542 300 563 622 105 6.39 35–39 322 953 310 447 633 400 6.51 40–44 404 753 394 017 798 770 8.21 45–49 396 980 389 352 786 332 8.08 50–54 340 428 344 513 684 941 7.04 55–59 271 871 294 030 565 901 5.82 60–64 279 106 334 279 613 385 6.30 65-69 283 306 374 078 657 384 6.76 70-74 203 869 299 041 502 910 5.17 75-79 137 540 234 575 372 115 3.82 80-84 77 655 166 734 244 389 2.51 85-89 37 559 94 389 131 948 1.36 90-94 12 938 38 093 51 031 0.52 95-99 3 096 10 430 13 526 0.14 100-104 725 1 958 2 683 0.03 105-109 201 414 615 0.01 110+ 33 32 65 <0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 727 556 689 677 1 417 233 14.56 15–64 3 179 316 3 157 557 6 336 873 65.12 65+ 756 922 1 219 744 1 976 666 20.31===Vital statistics by county===There are large variations in the birth rates as of 2016: Zala County has the lowest birth rate with 7.5 births per thousand inhabitants, while Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County has the highest birth rate with 11.2 births per thousand inhabitants.The death rates also differ greatly from as low as 11.3 deaths per thousand inhabitants in Pest County to as high as 15.7 deaths per thousand inhabitants in Békés County.", "Vital statistics as of 2016 CountyBirth rate (‰)Death rate (‰)Natural increaseBaranya 8.0 13.6 -5.6Bács-Kiskun 9.3 13.6 -4.3Békés 8.2 15.7 -7.5Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 11.0 14.2 -3.2Budapest 9.2 12.0 -2.9Csongrád 8.4 12.9 -4.5Fejér 9.4 12.5 -3.1Győr-Moson-Sopron 8.9 11.4 -2.4Hajdú-Bihar 10.3 11.6 -1.3Heves 9.4 14.5 -5.1Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok 9.9 14.8 -4.8Komárom-Esztergom 9.7 13.4 -3.7Nógrád 9.1 15.1 -6.0Pest 9.8 11.3 -1.5Somogy 8.8 14.3 -5.5Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg 11.2 12.2 -0.9Tolna 9.0 13.7 -4.7Vas 8.3 13.5 -5.2Veszprém 8.7 13.5 -4.8Zala 7.9 14.0 -6.1" ], [ "Ethnic groups and language", " County Hungarian Bulgarian Romani Greek Croat Polish German Armenian Romanian Rusyn Serbian Slovak Slovenian Ukrainian '''All''' 93.5% 0.1% 3.2% 0.0% 0.3% 0.1% 1.9% 0.0 0.4% 0.0% 0.1% 0.4% 0.0% 0.1% Budapest 95.5% 0.1% 1.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 1.7% 0.1% 0.5% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.0% 0.1% Bács-Kiskun 93.7% 0.0% 2.2% 0.0% 0.7% 0.0% 2.4% 0.0% 0.3% 0.0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.0% 0.0% Baranya 86.3% 0.1% 4.6% 0.0% 1.9% 0.1% 6.7% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Békés 91.9% 0.0% 2.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.9% 0.0% 1.7% 0.0% 0.1% 2.5% 0.0% 0.0% Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 90.0% 0.0% 8.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.6% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.0% 0.3% 0.0% 0.1% Csongrád 96.8% 0.0% 1.2% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.6% 0.0% 0.5% 0.0% 0.5% 0.2% 0.0% 0.0% Fejér 96.0% 0.0% 1.5% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 1.7% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.1% Győr-Moson-Sopron 95.0% 0.1% 0.8% 0.0% 0.7% 0.0% 2.7% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.4% 0.0% 0.0% Hajdú-Bihar 95.4% 0.1% 3.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.4% 0.0% 0.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% Heves 92.6% 0.0% 6.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.5% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.1% Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok 94.2% 0.0% 4.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.4% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Komárom-Esztergom 93.2% 0.1% 1.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 3.6% 0.0% 0.3% 0.0% 0.0% 1.2% 0.0% 0.1% Nógrád 90.0% 0.0% 7.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.7% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 1.4% 0.0% 0.0% Pest 94.2% 0.1% 1.7% 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 2.5% 0.0% 0.5% 0.0% 0.1% 0.6% 0.0% 0.1% Somogy 92.1% 0.0% 5.3% 0.0% 0.5% 0.0% 1.7% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg 90.8% 0.0% 8.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.5% 0.0% 0.2% 0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.3% Tolna 90.3% 0.0% 3.9% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 5.2% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% Vas 94.5% 0.0% 1.0% 0.0% 1.2% 0.0% 2.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.7% 0.0% Veszprém 94.8% 0.0% 1.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 3.2% 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.1% Zala 94.1% 0.0% 2.6% 0.0% 1.3% 0.0% 1.6% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%===History==='''Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920)'''The Red Map.", "Ethnic map of the Hungary proper publicized by the Hungarian delegation.", "Regions with population density below 20 persons/km2 are left blank and the corresponding population is represented in the nearest region with population density above that limit.", "The vibrant, dominant red color was deliberately chosen to mark Hungarians while the light purple color of the Romanians, who were already the majority in the whole of Transylvania back then, is shadow-like.Hungary lost 64% of its total population in consequence of the Treaty of Trianon, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnic Hungarians, Hungary lost five of its ten most populous cities.Hungary lost 72% of its territory, its sea access, half of its 10 biggest cities and all of its precious metal mines; 3,425,000 ethnic Hungarians found themselves separated from their motherland.", "Based on the 1910 census.", "Administrative Hungary in green, autonomous Croatia-Slavonia grey.According to the census of 1910, the largest ethnic group in the Kingdom of Hungary were Hungarians, who were 54.5% of the population of Kingdom of Hungary, excluding Croatia-Slavonia.Although the territories of the former Kingdom of Hungary that were assigned by the treaty to neighbouring states in total had a majority of non-Hungarian population, they also included areas of Hungarian majority and significant Hungarian minorities, numbering 3,318,000 in total.The number of Hungarians in the different areas based on census data of 1910.The present day location of each area is given in parentheses.", "* In Upper Hungary (mostly Slovakia): 885,000 - 30%* In Transylvania (Romania): 1,658,045 - 31.6%* In Vojvodina (Serbia): 425,672 - 28.1%* In Transcarpathia (Ukraine): 183,000 - 30%* In Croatia: 121,000 - 3.5%* In Prekmurje (Slovenia): 14,065 - 15%* In Burgenland (Austria): 26,200 - 9%'''Non-Hungarian population in the Kingdom of Hungary, based on 1910 census data'''Romanians, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Serbs, Croats and Germans, who represented the majority of the populations of the above-mentioned territories:* In Upper Hungary (mostly Slovakia): 1,687,977 Slovaks and 1,233,454 others (mostly Hungarians - 886,044, Germans, Ruthenians and Roma).", "However, according to the Czechoslovak census in 1921, there were 2,025,003 (67,5%) Slovaks, 650,597 (21,7%) Hungarians, 145,844 (4,9%) Germans, 88,970 (3,0%) Ruthenians and 90,456 (3,0%) others including Jews.", "* In Carpathian Ruthenia (Ukraine): 330,010 Ruthenians and 275,932 others (mostly Hungarians, Germans, Romanians, and Slovaks)* In Transylvania (Romania): 2,831,222 Romanians (53.8%) and 2,431,273 others (mostly Hungarians - 1,662,948 (31.6%) and Germans - 563,087 (10.7%).", "The 1919 and 1920 Transylvanian censuses indicate a greater percentage of Romanians (57.1%/57.3%) and a smaller Hungarian minority (26.5%/25.5%)* In Vojvodina and Croatia-Slavonia (Serbia, Croatia): 2,756,000 Croats and Serbs and 1,366,000 others (mostly Hungarians and Germans)* In Prekmurje (Slovenia): 74,199 Slovenes (80%), 14,065 Hungarians (15,2%), 2,540 Germans (2,7%)* In Burgenland (Austria): 217,072 Germans and 69,858 others (mainly Croatian and Hungarian)'''Post-Trianon Hungary'''+'''Population in the territory of present-day Hungary according to ethnic group 1495–1930''' Ethnicgroup estimation 1495 1715 1785 census 1880 census 1900 census 1910 census 1920 census 1930 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %Hungarians990,00095.6%1,176,00079.1%2,103,00079.0%4,402,36482.4%5,890,99985.9%6,730,29988.4%7,155,97389.6%8,000,33592.1%Germans17,0001.6%136,6009.2%291,90011.0%606,36311.3%604,7518.8%553,1797.3%550,0626.9%477,1535.5%Slovaks n.dn.d.37,7002.5%130,4004.9%199,7883.7%192,2272.8%165,3172.2%141,8771.8%104,7861.2%Croats1,2000.1%58,9004.0%71,7002.7%59,2511.1%68,1611.0%62,0180.8%58,9310.7%47,3370.5%Others23,8002.4%70,8004.8%66,2142.4%75,5981.5%98,2771.5%101,3011.3%80,0261.0%55,5030.6%'''Total'''1,032,0001,480,0002,663,2145,343,3646,854,4157,612,1147,986,8758,685,109According to the 1920 census 10.4% of the population spoke one of the minority languages as mother language:* 551,212 German (6.9%)* 141,882 Slovak (1.8%)* 23,760 Romanian (0.3%)* 36,858 Croatian (0.5%)* 23,228 Bunjevac and Šokci (0.3%)* 17,131 Serb (0.2%)* 7,000 Slovenes (0,08%)The number of bilingual people was much higher, for example 1,398,729 people spoke German (17%), 399,176 people spoke Slovak (5%), 179,928 people spoke Croatian (2.2%) and 88,828 people spoke Romanian (1.1%).", "Hungarian was spoken by 96% of the total population and was the mother language of 89%.", "The percentage and the absolute number of all non-Hungarian nationalities decreased in the next decades, although the total population of the country increased.Note: 300.000 Hungarian refugees fled to Hungary from the territory of successor states (Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia) after the WW I.", "'''From 1938 to 1945'''Ethnic map of Hungary in 1910, with 1941 borders superimposed.Ethnic map of Northern TransylvaniaHungary expanded its borders with territories from Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia following the First Vienna Award (1938) and Second Vienna Award (1940).", "The remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia and parts of Yugoslavia were occupied and annexed in 1939 and 1941, respectively.Regarding Northern Transylvania, the Romanian census from 1930 counted 38% Hungarians and 49% Romanians, while the Hungarian census from 1941 counted 53.5% Hungarians and 39.1% Romanians.The territory of Bácska had 789,705 inhabitants, and 45,4% or 47,2% declared themselves to be Hungarian native speakers or ethnic Hungarians.The percentage of Hungarian speakers was 84% in southern Czechoslovakia and 25% in the Sub-Carpathian Rus.+'''Population of Hungary in 1941''' Ethnicgroup census 1941 Number %Hungarians11,881,45580.9%Romanians1,051,0267.2%Ruthenians547,7703.7%Germans533,0453.6%Serbs213,5851.5%Slovaks175,5501.2%Jewish139,0410.9%Roma76,2090.5%Croats12,3460.1%Slovenes9,4000.1%Others29,2100.2%'''Total'''14,679,573'''After WW II: 1949–1990'''After World War II, about 200,000 Germans were deported to Germany according to the decree of the Potsdam Conference.", "Under the forced exchange of population between Czechoslovakia and Hungary, approximately 73,000 Slovaks left Hungary.", "After these population movements Hungary became an ethnically almost homogeneous country except the rapidly growing number of Romani people in the second half of the 20th century.+'''Population of Hungary 1949–1990''' Ethnicgroup census 1949 census 1960 census 1970 census 1980 census 1990 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %Hungarians9,076,04198.6%9,786,03898.2%10,166,23798.5%10,638,97499.3%10,142,07297.8%Roma21,3870.2%25,6330.3%34,9570.3%6,4040.1%142,6831.4%Germans22,4550.2%50,7650.5%35,5940.4%11,3100.1%30,8240.3%Slovaks25,9880.3%30,6300.3%21,1760.2%9,1010.1%10,4590.1%Croats20,4230.2%33,0140.3%17,6090.2%13,8950.1%13,5700.1%Romanians14,7130.2%15,7870.2%12,6240.1%8,8740.1%10,7400.1%Serbs5,1580.1%4,5830.1%12,2350.1%2,8050.0%2,9050.0%Slovenes4,4730.1% -4,2050.0%1,7310.0%1,9300.0%Others14,1610.1%14,5340.1%17,4620.2%16,3690.2%19,6400.2%'''Total'''9,204,7999,961,04410,322,09910,709,46310,374,823For historical reasons, significant Hungarian minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, notably in Ukraine (in Transcarpathia), Slovakia, Romania (in Transylvania), and Serbia (in Vojvodina).", "Austria (in Burgenland), Croatia, and Slovenia (Prekmurje) are also host to a number of ethnic Hungarians.", "'''2001–2022'''+'''Population of Hungary 2001–2022''' Ethnicgroup census 2001 census 2011 census 2022 Number % Number % Number %Hungarians9,416,04592.3%8,504,49285.6%8,438,12987.9%Roma189,9842.0%315,5833.2%209,9092.2%Germans62,1050.6%185,6961.9%142,5511.5%Romanians7,9950.1%35,6410.4%27,5540.3%Slovaks17,6930.2%35,2080.4%29,8810.3%Croats15,5970.2%26,7740.3%21,8240.2%Serbs3,8160.0%10,0380.1%11,6220.1%Slovenes3,0250.0%2,8200.0%3,9650.0%Others57,0590.6%73,3990.9%55,6100.6%Not stated570,5375.6%1,398,73114.1%1,086,23911.3%'''Total'''10,198,3159,937,6289,603,634*Note: In 2001 570,537, in 2011 1,398,731 people did not give answer for ethnicity.", "Moreover, people were able to give more than one answer on the question asking for the minorities (for example, people were allowed to write Hungarian as their first ethnic identity and German as an ethnic identity being influenced by), hence the sum of the above exceeds the number of population.", "*Methodology had changed in 2001 and 2011 also.", "*Roma people is estimated to be around 8.8% Roma===Historical ethnic groups of Hungary===Hungarians in Hungary (2001)Minorities of HungaryWhen the Hungarians invaded the Carpathian Basin, it was inhabited by Slavic and Avar peoples.", "Written sources from the 9th century also suggest that some groups of Onogurs and Bulgars occupied the valley of the river Mureș at the time of the Magyars’ invasion.", "There is a dispute as to whether Romanian population existed in Transylvania during that time.", "'''The Roma minority'''The first Romani groups arrived in Hungary in the fifteenth century from Turkey.", "Nowadays, the real number of Roma in Hungary is a disputed question.In the 2001 census only 190 046 (2%) called themselves Roma, but experts and Roma organisations estimate that there are between 450,000 and 1,000,000 Roma living in Hungary.", "Since then, the size of the Roma population has increased rapidly.", "Today every fifth or sixth newborn child belongs to the Roma minority.", "Based on current demographic trends, a 2006 estimate by Central European Management Intelligence claims that the proportion of the Roma population will double by 2050, putting the percentage of its Roma community at around 14-15% of the country's population.There are problems related to the Roma minority in Hungary, and the very subject is a heated and disputed topic.Objective problems:* Slightly more than 80% of Roma children complete primary education, but only one third continue studies into the intermediate (secondary) level.", "This is far lower than the more than 90% proportion of children of non-Roma families who continue studies at an intermediate level.", "Less than 1% of Roma hold higher educational certificates.", "* Poverty: most of the Roma people live in significantly worse conditions than others.", "* Bad health conditions: life expectancy is about 10 years less compared to non-Romas'''Kabars'''Three Kabar tribes joined to the Hungarians and participated in the Hungarian conquest of Hungary.", "They settled mostly in Bihar county.", "'''Böszörménys'''The Muslim Böszörménys migrated to the Carpathian Basin in the course of the 10th-12th centuries and they were composed of various ethnic groups.", "Most of them must have arrived from Volga Bulgaria and Khwarezm.", "'''Pechenegs'''Communities of Pechenegs (Besenyő in Hungarian) lived in the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11-12th centuries.", "They were most numerous in the county of Tolna.", "'''Oghuz Turks (Ouzes)'''Smaller groups of Oghuz Turk settlers ('Úzok' or 'Fekete Kunok/Black Cumans' in Hungarian) came to the Carphatian Basin from the middle of the 11th century.", "They were settled mostly in Barcaság.", "The city of Ózd got its name after them.", "'''Jassics'''The Jassic (Jász in Hungarian) people were a nomadic tribe which settled -with the Cumans- in the Kingdom of Hungary during the 13th century.", "Their name is almost certainly related to that of the Iazyges.", "Béla IV, king of Hungary granted them asylum and they became a privileged community with the right of self-government.", "During the centuries they were fully assimilated to the Hungarian population, their language disappeared, but they preserved their Jassic identity and their regional autonomy until 1876.Over a dozen settlements in Central Hungary (e.g.", "Jászberény, Jászárokszállás, Jászfényszaru) still bear their name.", "'''Cumans'''During the Russian campaign, the Mongols drove some 200,000 Cumans, a nomadic tribe who had opposed them, west of the Carpathian Mountains.", "There, the Cumans appealed to King Béla IV of Hungary for protection.", "In the Kingdom of Hungary, Cumans created two regions named Cumania (''Kunság'' in Hungarian): Greater Cumania (''Nagykunság'') and Little Cumania (''Kiskunság''), both located the Great Hungarian Plain.", "Here, the Cumans maintained their autonomy, language and some ethnic customs well into the modern era.", "According to Pálóczi's estimation originally 70–80,000 Cumans settled in Hungary.", "'''Romanians'''The oldest extant documents from Transylvania make reference to Vlachs too.", "Regardless of the subject of Romanian presence/non-presence in Transylvania prior to the Hungarian conquest, the first chronicles to write of Vlachs in the intra-Carpathian regions is the ''Gesta Hungarorum'', while the first written Hungarian sources about Romanian settlements derive from the 13th century, record was written about ''Olahteluk'' village in Bihar County from 1283.The 'land of Romanians', ''Terram Blacorum'' (1222, 1280) showed up in Fogaras and this area was mentioned under different name (Olachi) in 1285.The first appearance of a probably Romanian name 'Ola' in Hungary derives from a charter (1258).They were a significant population in Transylvania, Banat, Maramureș and Partium (Crișana).", "There are different estimations in connection with number of Romanians in Kingdom of Hungary.", "According to a research based on place-names made by István Kniezsa, 511 villages of Transylvania and Banat appear in documents at the end of the 13th century, however only 3 of them bore Romanian names, and around 1400 AD, Transylvania and Banat consisted of 1757 villages, though only 76 (4.3%) of them had names of Romanian origin.", "The number of Romanians started to increase significantly from the Early modern period, and by 1700 the Romanian ethnic group consisted of 40 percent of the Transylvanian population and their number raised even more in the 18th century.", "Although, in 1574, Pierre Lescalopier, relating his voyage from Venice to Constantinople, claimed that most of the inhabitants of Transylvania were Romanians and according to other estimates, the Romanian inhabitants who were primarily peasants, consisted of more than 60 percent of the population in 1600.Jean W. Sedlar estimates that Vlachs (Romanians) constituted about two-thirds of Transylvania's population in 1241 on the eve of the Mongol invasion, however according to Károly Kocsis and Eszter Kocsisné Hodosi the Hungarian ethnic group in Transylvania was in decent majority before Battle of Mohács and only lost its relative majority by the 17th century.", "Nevertheless, Grigore Ureche in ''Letopisețul Țării Moldovei'' (1642 - 1647) noticed that in Transylvania Romanians were more numerous than Hungarians.", "Official censuses with information on Hungary's ethnic composition have been conducted since the 19th century.In 1881, Romanian-majority settlements projected to the present-day territory of Hungary were: Bedő, Csengerújfalu, Kétegyháza, Körösszakál, Magyarcsanád, Méhkerék, Mezőpeterd, Pusztaottlaka and Vekerd.Important communities lived in the villages of Battonya, Elek, Körösszegapáti, Létavértes, Nyíradony, Pocsaj, Sarkadkeresztúr, Zsáka and in the town of Gyula.", "'''Slovaks'''The Slovak people lived mainly in Upper Hungary, northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary.", "Due to post-Ottoman resettlements, the regions of Vojvodina, Banat and Békés county received bigger Slovak communities in the 18th century, which revitalized many deserted villages and towns, such as Békéscsaba, where Slovaks became the biggest ethnic group, or Nyíregyháza, where they comprised more than a third of the population in 1881.After WWII a major population exchange with Czechoslovakia was carried out: 71,787 or 73,200 Slovaks from Hungary were transferred to Slovakia – the exact number depends on source consulted – were resettled in South Slovakia in exchange for, according to different estimations, 45,000 or 120,000 Hungarians.", "'''Serbs'''From the 14th century, escaping from the Ottoman threat, a large number of Serbs migrated to the Hungarian Kingdom.", "After the Battle of Mohács, most of the territory of Hungary got into Ottoman rule.", "In that time, especially in the 17th century, many Serb, and other Southern Slavic immigrants settled in Hungary.", "Most of the Ottoman soldiers in the territory of present-day Hungary were South Slavs (the Janissary).", "After the Turkish withdrawal, Kingdom of Hungary came under Habsburg rule, a new wave of Serb refugees migrated to the area around 1690, as a consequence of the Habsburg-Ottoman war.", "In the first half of the 18th century, Serbs and South Slavs were ethnic majority in several cities in Hungary.", "'''Germans'''Three waves of German migration can be distinguished in Hungary before the 20th century.", "The first two waves settled in Upper Hungary and in Southern Transylvania (Transylvanian Saxons), with the first being in the 11th century and the second in the 13th century.The third, largest wave of German-speaking immigrants into Hungary occurred after the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from Hungarian territory, after the Treaty of Karlowitz.", "Between 1711 and 1780, German-speaking settlers immigrated to the regions of Southern Hungary, mostly region of Bánát, Bács-Bodrog, Baranya and Tolna counties (as well as into present-day Romania and Yugoslavia), which had been depopulated by the Ottoman wars.", "At the end of the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary contained over one million German-speaking residents (collectively known as Danube Swabians).", "In 2011, 131,951 people declared to be German in Hungary (1,6%).", "'''Rusyns'''Rusyns had lived mostly in Carpathian Ruthenia, Northeast Hungary, however significant Rusyn population appeared in Vojvodina from the 18th century.", "'''Croats'''Croatia was in personal union with Hungary from 1102.Croat communities were spread mostly in the western and southern part of the country and along the Danube, including Budapest.", "'''Poles'''The Poles lived at the northern borders of Kingdom of Hungary from the arrival of the Hungarians.", "'''Slovenes'''The Slovenes (''Vendek'' in Hungarian) lived in the western part of the Carpathian basin before the Hungarian conquest.", "In the 11th and 12th century, the current linguistic and ethnic border between the Hungarian and Slovene people was established.", "Nowadays, they live in Vendvidék (''Slovenska krajina'' in Slovenians) between the Mura and the Rába rivers.", "In 2001, there were around 5,000 Slovenes in Hungary.", "'''Jews'''The first historical document about Jews of Hungary is the letter written about 960 to King Joseph of the Khazars by Hasdai ibn Shaprut, the Jewish statesman of Córdoba, in which he says Jews living in \"the country of Hungarin\".", "There are Jewish inscriptions on tombs and monuments in Pannonia (Roman Hungary) dated to the second or third century CE.", "'''Armenians'''The first Armenians came to Hungary from the Balkans in the 10 - 11th century.", "'''Greeks'''Greeks migrated to Kingdom of Hungary from the 15th and 16th centuries.", "Mass migrations did not occur until the 17th century, the largest waves being in 1718 and 1760–1770; they were primarily connected to the economic conditions of the period.", "It is estimated that 10,000 Greeks emigrated to Hungary in the second half of the 18th century.", "A number of Greeks Communists escaped to Hungaryafter the Greek Civil War, notably in the 'Greek' village of Beloiannisz.", "'''Bulgarians'''The town of Szentendre and the surrounding villages were inhabited by Bulgarians since the Middle Ages.", "However, present day Bulgarians are largely descended from gardeners who migrated to Hungary from the 18th century." ], [ "Religion", "+ Religious affiliation in Hungary (2022) Denominations Population % of total '''Catholicism''' '''2,886,619''' '''30''' ''Roman Catholics'' ''2,643,855'' ''28.3'' ''Greek Catholics'' ''165,135'' ''1.7'' '''Protestantism''' '''1,120,485''' '''11.6''' ''Calvinists'' ''943,982'' 9.8 ''Lutherans'' ''176,503'' 1.8 '''Orthodox Christianity''' '''15,578''' '''0.2''' '''Judaism''' '''7,635''' '''0.1''' '''Other religions''' '''171,174''' '''1.8''' '''Total religions''' '''4,201,491''' '''43.7''' No religion 1,549,610 16.2 Did not wish to answer 3,852,533 40.1 '''total''' 9,603,634 '''100.00'''The majority of Hungarians became Christian in the 11th century.", "Hungary remained predominantly Catholic until the 16th century, when the Reformation led to the first Lutherans, and later Calvinists, which were embraced by nearly the entire Hungarian population at the time.In the second half of the 16th century, Jesuits led a successful campaign of counterreformation among the Hungarians, although Protestantism survived as the faith of a significant minority, especially in the far east and northeast of the country.", "Orthodox Christianity in Hungary has been the religion mainly of some national minorities in the country, notably Romanians, Rusyns, Ukrainians, and Serbs.Faith Church, one of Europe's largest Pentecostal churches, is also located in Hungary.", "Hungary has historically been home to a significant Jewish community.Distribution of religions in HungaryAccording to 2011 census data, Christianity is the largest religion in Hungary, with around 5.2 million adherents (52.9%), while the largest denomination in Hungary is the Catholic Church (38.9% — Latin Church 37.1%; Hungarian Greek Catholic Church 1.8%).", "There is a significant Calvinist minority (11.6% of the population) and smaller Lutheran (2.2%), Orthodox (0.1%) and Jewish (0.1%) minorities.", "However, these census figures are representative of religious affiliation rather than attendance; around 12% of Hungarians attend religious services more than least once a week and around 50% more than once a year, while 30% of Hungarians do not believe in God at all.", "The census showed a large drop of religious adherents who wish to answer, from 74.6% to 54.7% in ten years' time, replacing them by people either who do not wish to answer or people who are not following a religion." ], [ "Immigration", "===Foreign citizenship population===+ Number of foreign citizens residing in Hungary on January 1:(countries with at least 2,000 persons) Country 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 20222023 Ukraine Germany China Romania Slovakia Vietnam Russia Austria Italy Serbia Turkey United Kingdom Netherlands United States France Mongolia Poland Syria '''Total''' '''151,132''' '''161,809''' '''180,773''' '''199,957''' '''194,491''' '''202,525''' '''226,267'''+ Foreign citizenship population by continent Continent 2017population % of total 2018population % of total 2019population % of total 2020population % of total 2021population % of total 2022population % of total 2023population % of total Europe 99,194 65.63 104,254 64.43 117,552 65.03 131,291 65.66 124,422 63.97 131,431 64.90 144,102 63.60 Asia 39,937 26.42 44,692 27.62 49,056 27.14 53,099 26.56 54,730 28.14 55,000 27.16 64,945 28.7 America 5,397 3.57 5,891 3.64 6,850 3.79 7,631 3.82 6,933 3.56 7,454 3.68 7,591 3.35 Africa 5,985 3.96 6,334 3.91 6,660 3.68 7,278 3.64 7,748 3.98 8,028 3.96 9,041 4.00 Other and unknown 619 0.41 638 0.39 655 0.36 658 0.33 658 0.34 612 0.30 588 0.26" ], [ "Largest cities", " NamePopulation (1949)Population (1990)Population (2011)Population (2022)AgglomerationStatus 25px Budapest1,590,3162,016,6811,729,0401,682,4263,310,786 (2022)Capital city 20px Debrecen115,399212,235211,320199,520281,432 (2022)Regional centre, county seat, urban county 20px Szeged104,867 169,930168,048158,022197,245 (2022)Regional centre, county seat, urban county 20px Miskolc109,841196,442167,754145,735231,034 (2022)Regional centre, county seat, urban county 20px Pécs89,470170,039156,049139,647181,342 (2022)Regional centre, county seat, urban county 20px Győr69,583129,331129,527128,050275,574 (2022)Regional centre, county seat, urban county 20px Nyíregyháza56,334114,152119,746116,439175,211 (2022)County seat, urban county 20px Kecskemét61,730102,516111,411108,334180,023 (2022)County seat, urban county 20px Székesfehérvár42,260108,958100,570Regional centre, county seat, urban county" ], [ "See also", "*Hungarian diaspora*Demographics of the Kingdom of Hungary by county*History of Hungary*Demographic history of Syrmia*Magyarization" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* KSH, vital statistics, 1960-2012* Hungarian Central Statistical Office (in English)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Hungary" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Hungary''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic.", "The prime minister is the head of government of a pluriform multi-party system, while the president is the head of state and holds a largely ceremonial position.Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the parliament.", "The party system since the last elections has been dominated by the conservative Fidesz.", "The three larger oppositions are Democratic Coalition (DK), Momentum and Jobbik; there are also opposition parties with a small fraction in parliament (e.g.", "Politics Can Be Different).", "The judiciary is theoretically independent of the executive and the legislature, but in practice is strongly influenced by the ruling Fidesz Party.Hungary is an independent state, which has been a member of the European Union since 2004.Since 1989 Hungary has been a parliamentary republic.", "Legislative power is exercised by the unicameral National Assembly that consists of 199 members.", "Members of the National Assembly are elected for four years.The Economist Intelligence Unit rated Hungary a \"flawed democracy\" in 2020.With a democracy score of 3.96/7, Freedom House no longer considers Hungary a democracy.", "Voicing hate speech or discriminatory language against marginalized groups, including but not limited to those based on race, religion, or sexual orientation, especially when presented in a humorous context, is often socially accepted in Hungary.In the April 2022 election, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán won a fourth consecutive term in office.", "His party, Fidesz, secured another two-thirds majority in parliament." ], [ "Executive branch", "|PresidentKatalin NovákFidesz10 May 2022Prime MinisterViktor OrbánFidesz29 May 2010The president of the republic, elected by the National Assembly every five years, has a largely ceremonial role, but they are nominally the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and their powers include the nomination of the prime minister, who is to be elected by a majority of the votes of the members of Parliament, based on the recommendation made by the president of the republic.", "If the president dies, resigns or is otherwise unable to carry out his duties, the speaker of the National Assembly becomes acting president.Due to the Hungarian Constitution, based on the post-World War II Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, the prime minister has a leading role in the executive branch as he selects Cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them (similarly to the competences of the German federal chancellor).", "Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings, survive a vote by the Parliament and must be formally approved by the president.In Communist Hungary, the executive branch of the Hungarian People's Republic was represented by the Council of Ministers." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Parliament of Hungary.The unicameral, 199-member National Assembly (''Országgyűlés'') is the highest organ of state authority and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister.", "Its members are elected for a four-year term.", "The election threshold is 5%, but it only applies to the multi-seat constituencies and the compensation seats, not the single-seat constituencies." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "There are basically two main factions in the Hungarian political system, the right-wing FIDESZ-KDNP coalition, and the center-right to left-wing United for Hungary which consists of the following parties: DK, MSZP, Jobbik, Dialogue, LMP-Greens, Momentum.", "There are also associate parties and movements such as ÚVNP, Liberals, New Start, MMM movement, 99M movement.", "There are also some minor parties which are not part of these two coalitions such as the far-right Our Homeland Movement, and the joke party called Hungarian Two Tailed Dog Party.", "Most of the Hungarian church also is involved with politics." ], [ "Judicial branches", "Constitutional Court of Hungary.A fifteen-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.", "This body was last filled in July 2010.Members are elected for a term of twelve years.", "Critics of the ruling coalition contend that since the Hungarian government filled the Constitutional Court with loyal judges, the institution mostly serves to legitimize government interests and has lost its original purpose as democratic defender of the rule of law and of human rights - as several reports of independent human rights NGOs, such as the Hungarian Helsinki Committee emphasize.The president of the Supreme Court of Hungary (Curia) and the Hungarian civil and penal legal system he leads is fully independent of the Executive Branch.The attorney general or chief prosecutor of Hungary is currently fully independent of the executive branch, but his status is actively debated.Several ombudsman offices exist in Hungary to protect civil, minority, educational and ecological rights in non-judicial matters.", "They have held the authority to issue legally binding decisions since late 2003." ], [ "Financial branch", "The central bank, the Hungarian National Bank was fully self-governing between 1990 and 2004, but new legislation gave certain appointment rights to the executive branch in November 2004 which is disputed before the Constitutional Court." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Hungary is divided in 19 counties (''megyék'', singular – ''megye''), 23 urban counties* (''megyei jogú városok'', singular – ''megyei jogú város''), and 1 capital city** (''főváros''); Bács-Kiskun, Baranya, Békés, Békéscsaba*, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Budapest**, Csongrád, Debrecen*, Dunaújváros*, Eger*, Érd*, Fejér, Győr*, Győr-Moson-Sopron, Hajdú-Bihar, Heves, Hódmezővásárhely*, Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok, Kaposvár*, Kecskemét*, Komárom-Esztergom, Miskolc*, Nagykanizsa*, Nógrád, Nyíregyháza*, Pécs*, Pest, Salgótarján*, Somogy, Sopron*, Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg, Szeged*, Szekszárd*, Székesfehérvár*, Szolnok*, Szombathely*, Tatabánya*, Tolna, Vas, Veszprém, Veszprém*, Zala, Zalaegerszeg*" ], [ "Involvement in international organisations", "Hungary is a member of the ABEDA, Australia Group, BIS, CE, CEI, CERN, CEPI EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (member, as by 1 May 2004), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, SECI, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNU, UPU, WCO, WFTU, Visegrád Group, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, and the Zangger Committee." ], [ "Ministries", "''Note: with restructuring and reorganisation, this information may change even within a governmental period.", "''+Ministries of Hungary English name Hungarian name Minister The Prime Minister's Office Miniszterelnökség Gergely Gulyás The Prime Minister's Cabinet Office A Miniszterelnöki Kabinetiroda Antal Rogán Ministry of Home Affairs Belügyminisztérium Sándor Pintér Ministry of Defence Honvédelmi Minisztérium Tibor Benkő Ministry of Human Resources Emberi Erőforrások Minisztériuma Miklós Kásler Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade Külgazdasági és Külügyminisztérium Péter Szijjártó Ministry of Justice Igazságügyi Minisztérium Judit Varga Ministry of Finance Pénzügyminisztérium Mihály Varga Ministry of Agriculture Agrárminisztérium István Nagy Ministry of Innovation and Technology Innovációs és Technológiai Minisztérium László Palkovics===Ministers without portfolio===* Ministers without portfolio: János Süli, Andrea Bártfai-Mager, Katalin Novák" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Hungary" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "History of the Hungarian economy", "Real GDP per capita development of Hungary=== Árpád Age ===In the age of feudalism the key economic factor was land.", "The new economic and social orders created private ownership of land.", "There are three forms of existence: the royal, ecclesiastical and secular private estate.", "The royal estate of the Árpád dynasty had evolved from the tribal lands.The origin of the secular private holdings dates back to the conquest tribal common estates, which are increasingly in charge of the society and grows over private ownership of the becoming leaders.However, from the founding of the state the royal gift also entered the multiplying factors secular private property line.", "This organization developed a feudal estate, which had two elements: the ancient estate and the possessions which were awarded by Saint Stephen I, and then the royal donations.", "Béla III was the wealthiest European monarch of his time, according to a list of his revenues, but the reliability of the list is questioned.", "Over the holder unrestricted right granted by the latter lineal heir almost returned to the king.", "In the Order of the laws changed in 1351, which abolished the nobility's possessions for free disposal.", "It forbidden the nobility to sale their inherited land.The Carpathian Basin was more suitable for agriculture than large livestock grazing, and therefore increased steadily in the former weight.", "In the 11th and 12th centuries natural farming and soil changer tillage systems met: grazing the animals, and they used the fertilized land until depletion.", "The most important tools for the agriculture were the plow and the ox.=== Anjou Age ===The Berthold and Manfred Weiss Canned Food Factory (1880)Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Budapest, beginning of the 20th century \t\t \tThe Hungarian economy prior to World War II was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing.", "Hungary's strategic position in Europe and its relative high lack of natural resources also have dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade.", "For instance, its largest car manufacturer, Magomobil (maker of the ''Magosix''), produced a total of a few thousand units.", "In the early 1920s the textile industry began to expand rapidly, by 1928 it became the most important industry in the foreign trade of Hungary exporting textile goods worth more than 60 million pengős in that year.", "Companies like MÁVAG exported locomotives to India and South-America, its locomotive no.", "601 was the largest and most powerful in Europe at the time.=== Post-war Hungarian communism ===From the late 1940s, the Communist government started to nationalize the industry.", "At first, only factories with more than 100 workers were nationalized; later, this limit was reduced to only 10.In the agriculture, the government started a successful program of collectivization.", "From the early 1950s, more and more new factories were built.", "This rapid and forced industrialization followed the standard Stalinist pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy.", "Most economic activity was conducted by state-owned enterprises or cooperatives and state farms.", "In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the \"New Economic Mechanism\", which reopened Hungary to foreign trade, gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.", "Although Hungary enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern Bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s, and Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly—from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion in 1993—due largely to consumer subsidies and unprofitable state enterprises.", "In the face of economic stagnation, Hungary opted to liberalize further by passing a joint venture law, instating an income tax, and joining the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.", "By 1988, Hungary had developed a two-tier banking system, and had enacted significant corporate legislation that paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.===Transition to a market economy (1990-1995)===ING headquarters in Budapest\t After the fall of communism, the former Eastern Bloc had to transition from a one-party, centrally planned economy to a market economy with a multi-party political system.", "With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc countries suffered a significant loss in both markets for goods, and subsidizing from the Soviet Union.", "Hungary, for example, \"lost nearly 70% of its export markets in Eastern and Central Europe.\"", "The loss of external markets in Hungary left \"800,000 unemployed people because all the unprofitable and unsalvageable factories had been closed.\"", "Another form of Soviet subsidizing that greatly affected Hungary after the fall of communism was the loss of social welfare programs.", "Because of the lack of subsidies and a need to reduce expenditures, many social programs in Hungary had to be cut in an attempt to lower spending.", "As a result, many people in Hungary suffered incredible hardships during the transition to a market economy.", "Following privatization and tax reductions on Hungarian businesses, unemployment suddenly rose to 12% in 1991 (it was 1.7% in 1990 ), gradually decreasing until 2001.Economic growth, after a fall in 1991 to −11.9%, gradually grew until the end of the 1990s at an average annual rate of 4.2%.", "With the stabilization of the new market economy Hungary experienced growth in foreign investment, with a \"cumulative foreign direct investment totaling more than $60 billion since 1989.\"", "The Antall government of 1990–94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system.", "By 1994, however, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible.", "Cuts in consumer subsidies led to increases in the price of food, medicine, transportation services, and energy.", "Reduced exports to the former Soviet bloc and shrinking industrial output contributed to a sharp decline in GDP.", "Unemployment rose rapidly to about 12% in 1993.The external debt burden, one of the highest in Europe, reached 250% of annual export earnings, while the budget and current account deficits approached 10% of GDP.", "The devaluation of the currency (in order to support exports), without effective stabilization measures, such as indexation of wages, provoked an extremely high inflation rate, that in 1991 reached 35% and slightly decreased until 1994, growing again in 1995.In March 1995, the government of Prime Minister Gyula Horn implemented an austerity program, coupled with aggressive privatization of state-owned enterprises and an export-promoting exchange raw regime, to reduce indebtedness, cut the current account deficit, and shrink public spending.", "By the end of 1997 the consolidated public sector deficit decreased to 4.6% of GDP—with public sector spending falling from 62% of GDP to below 50%—the current account deficit was reduced to 2% of GDP, and government debt was paid down to 94% of annual export earnings.", "Megyeri Bridge\tThe Government of Hungary no longer requires IMF financial assistance and has repaid all of its debt to the fund.", "Consequently, Hungary enjoys favorable borrowing terms.", "Hungary's sovereign foreign currency debt issuance carries investment-grade ratings from all major credit-rating agencies, although recently the country was downgraded by Moody's, S&P and remains on negative outlook at Fitch.", "In 1995 Hungary's currency, the Forint (HUF), became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to OECD membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well.", "Since 1995, Hungary has pegged the forint against a basket of currencies (in which the U.S. dollar is 30%), and the central rate against the basket is devalued at a preannounced rate, originally set at 0.8% per month, the Forint is now an entirely free-floating currency.", "The government privatization program ended on schedule in 1998: 80% of GDP is now produced by the private sector, and foreign owners control 70% of financial institutions, 66% of industry, 90% of telecommunications, and 50% of the trading sector.", "Kőröshegy Viaduct\tAfter Hungary's GDP declined about 18% from 1990 to 1993 and grew only 1%–1.5% up to 1996, strong export performance propelled GDP growth to 4.4% in 1997, with other macroeconomic indicators similarly improving.", "These successes allowed the government to concentrate in 1996 and 1997 on major structural reforms such as the implementation of a fully funded pension system (partly modelled after Chile's pension system with major modifications), reform of higher education, and the creation of a national treasury.", "Remaining economic challenges include reducing fiscal deficits and inflation, maintaining stable external balances, and completing structural reforms of the tax system, health care, and local government financing.", "Recently, the overriding goal of Hungarian economic policy has been to prepare the country for entry into the European Union, which it joined in late 2004.Prior to the change of regime in 1989, 65% of Hungary's trade was with Comecon countries.", "By the end of 1997, Hungary had shifted much of its trade to the West.", "Trade with EU countries now comprises 80% of the total.", "Germany is Hungary's single most important trading partner.", "The US has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72nd largest export market for the U.S.", "Bilateral trade between the two countries increased 46% in 1997 to more than $1 billion.", "The U.S. has extended to Hungary most-favored-nation status, the Generalized System of Preferences, Overseas Private Investment Corporation insurance, and access to the Export-Import Bank.", "With about $18 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) since 1989, Hungary has attracted over one-third of all FDI in central and eastern Europe, including the former Soviet Union.", "Of this, about $6 billion came from American companies.", "Foreign capital is attracted by skilled and relatively inexpensive labor, tax incentives, modern infrastructure, and a good telecommunications system.", "By 2006 Hungary's economic outlook had deteriorated.", "Wage growth had kept up with other nations in the region; however, this growth has largely been driven by increased government spending.", "This resulted in the budget deficit ballooning to over 10% of GDP and inflation rates predicted to exceed 6%.", "Nouriel Roubini, an economist in the Clinton administration, said that \"Hungary is an accident waiting to happen.", "\"===Privatization in Hungary===In January 1990, the State Privatization Agency (SPA, ''Állami Vagyonügynökség'') was established to manage the first steps of privatization.", "Because of Hungary's $21.2 billion foreign debt, the government decided to sell state property instead of distributing it to the people for free.", "The SPA was attacked by populist groups because several companies' management had the right to find buyers and discuss sale terms with them thus \"stealing\" the company.", "Another reason for discontent was that the state offered large tax subsidies and environmental investments, which sometimes cost more than the selling price of the company.", "Along with the acquisition of companies, foreign investors launched many \"greenfield investments\".The center-right Hungarian Democratic Forum government of 1990–1994 decided to abolish agricultural co-operatives by splitting them up and giving machinery and land to their former members.", "The government also introduced a Recompensation Law which offered vouchers to people who had owned land before it was nationalized in 1948.These people (or their descendants) could exchange their vouchers for land previously owned by agricultural co-operatives, who were forced to give up some of their land for this purpose.Small stores and retail businesses were privatized between 1990 and 1994, however, greenfield investments by foreign retail companies like Tesco, Cora and IKEA had a much bigger economic impact.", "Many public utilities, including the national telecommunications company Matáv, the national oil and gas conglomerate MOL Group, and electricity supply and production company MVM Group were privatized as well.Though most banks were sold to foreign investors, the largest bank, National Savings Bank (OTP), remained Hungarian-owned.", "20%–20% of the shares were sold to foreign institutional investors and given to the Social Security organizations, 5% were bought by employees, and 8% was offered at the Budapest Stock Exchange.===Hungary's economy since 1995===GDP growth, inflation, and active population in Hungary 1990–2010GDP per capita in USD at 2000 market prices in Hungary 1991–2010General government gross debt in Hungary amongst other countries and the EUReaching 1995, Hungary's fiscal indices deteriorated: foreign investment fell as well as judgement of foreign analysts on economic outlook.", "Due to high demand in import goods, Hungary also had a high trade deficit and budget gap, and it could not reach an agreement with the IMF, either.After not having a minister of finance for more than a month, prime minister Gyula Horn appointed Lajos Bokros as Finance Minister on 1 March 1995.He introduced a string of austerity measures (the \"Bokros Package\") on 12 March 1995 which had the following key points: one-time 9% devaluation of the forint, introducing a constant sliding devaluation, 8% additional customs duty on all goods except for energy sources, limitation of growth of wages in the public sector, simplified and accelerated privatization.", "The package also included welfare cutbacks, including abolition of free higher education and dental service; reduced family allowances, child-care benefits, and maternity payments depending on income and wealth; lowering subsidies of pharmaceuticals, and raising retirement age.These reforms not only increased investor confidence, but they were also supported by the IMF and the World Bank, however, they were not welcome widely by the Hungarians; Bokros broke the negative record of popularity: 9% of the population wanted to see him in an \"important political position\" and only 4% were convinced that the reforms would \"improve the country's finances in a big way\"In 1996, the Ministry of Finance introduced a new pension system instead of the fully state-backed one: private pension savings accounts were introduced, which were 50% social security based and 50% funded.In 2006 Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány was reelected on a platform promising economic \"reform without austerity\".However, after the elections in April 2006, the Socialist coalition under Gyurcsány unveiled a package of austerity measures which were designed to reduce the budget deficit to 3% of GDP by 2008.Because of the austerity program, the economy of Hungary slowed down in 2007.=== 2008–2009 financial crisis ===Declining exports, reduced domestic consumption and fixed asset accumulation hit Hungary hard during the financial crisis of 2008, making the country enter a severe recession of −6.4%, one of the worst economic contractions in its history.On 27 October 2008, Hungary reached an agreement with the IMF and EU for a rescue package of US$25 billion, aiming to restore financial stability and investors' confidence.Because of the uncertainty of the crisis, banks gave less loans which led to a decrease in investment.", "This along with price-awareness and fear of bankruptcy led to a fallback in consumption which then increased job losses and decreased consumption even further.", "Inflation did not rise significantly, but real wages decreased.The fact that the euro and the Swiss franc are worth a lot more in forints than they were before affected a lot of people.", "According to The Daily Telegraph, \"statistics show that more than 60 percent of Hungarian mortgages and car loans are denominated in foreign currencies\".", "After the election in 2010 of the new Fidesz-party government of Prime Minister Viktor Orbán, Hungarian banks were forced to allow the conversion of foreign-currency mortgages to the forint.", "The new government also nationalized $13 billion of private pension-fund assets, which could then be used to support the government debt position.=== Post 2008 recession Hungarian economy ===The economy showed signs of recovery in 2011 with decreasing tax rates and a moderate 1.7 percent GDP growth.From November 2011 to January 2012, all three major credit rating agencies downgraded Hungarian debt to a non-investment speculative grade, commonly called \"junk status\".", "In part this is because of political changes creating doubts about the independence of the Hungarian National Bank.European Commission President José Manuel Barroso wrote to Prime Minister Viktor Orbán stating that new central bank regulations, allowing political intervention, \"seriously harm\" Hungary's interests, postponing talks on a financial aid package.", "Orbán responded \"If we don't reach an agreement, we'll still stand on our own feet.\"", "The European Commission launched legal proceedings against Hungary on 17 January 2012.The procedures concern Hungary's central bank law, the retirement age for judges and prosecutors and the independence of the data protection office, respectively.", "One day later Orbán indicated in a letter his willingness to find solutions to the problems raised in the infringement proceedings.", "On 18 January he participated in plenary session of the European Parliament which also dealt with the Hungarian case.", "He said \"Hungary has been renewed and reorganised under European principles\".", "He also said that the problems raised by the European Union can be resolved \"easily, simply and very quickly\".", "He added that none of the EC's objections affected Hungary's new constitution.Following the mild recession of 2012, the GDP picked up again from 2014, and based on the commission's Winter 2015 forecast it was projected to have accelerated to 3.3%.", "The more dynamic economic performance attributed to a moderately growing domestic demand and supported the growth of gross fixed capital formation.", "The surge (3.8% in the first half of 2014), however was only achieved via temporary measures and factors, such as the stepped-up absorption of EU-funds and the central bank's Funding for Growth Scheme, which subsidised loans for small-and medium-sized enterprises.", "The fundaments of growth didn't considerably change in 2015 as well – the government supported EU-fund transfers along with the moderately successful central bank loans of economic revitalization – fueled the fair GDP growth.=== Hungarian economy during and after the covid pandemic ===The Hungarian GDP, GDP per capita, living standards and wages have been steadily rising until the start of the Covid-19 pandemic, when just like the rest of Europe, the stats above tanked.", "GDP fell to $155 Billion, GDP PPP has fallen to $322 Billion, GDP per capita to $15,855, inflation slightly rose to 4.54%.National debt rose considerably, to around 80% Debt-to-GDP from the previous 60–65%.The country was hard hit, unemployment was also higher than average until 2021 when after the lockdowns have stopped.", "The GDP, GDP per capita, GDP PPP, unemployment and national debt have all recovered to and beyond their pre-covid values.", "On the other hand, inflation has risen to the record levels, reaching 24.5% in December 2022, being the highest in Europe." ], [ "Physical properties", "=== Natural resources ===Topographic map of HungaryHungary's total land area is 93,030 km2 along with 690 km2 of water surface area which altogether makes up 1% of Europe's area.Nearly 75% of Hungary's landscape consists of flat plains.", "Additional 20% of the country's area consists of foothills whose altitude is 400 m at the most; higher hills and water surface makes up the remaining 5%.The two flat plains that take up three-quarters of Hungary's area are the Great Hungarian Plain and the Little Hungarian Plain.", "Hungary's most significant natural resource is arable land.", "About 83% of the country's total territory is suitable for cultivation; of this portion, 75% (around 50% of the country's area) is covered by arable land, which is an outstanding ratio compared to other EU countries.", "Hungary lacks extensive domestic sources of energy and raw materials needed for further industrial development.19% of the country is covered by forests.", "These are located mainly in the foothills such as the North Hungarian and the Transdanubian Mountains, and the Alpokalja.", "The composition of forests is various; mostly oak or beech, but the rest include fir, willow, acacia and plane.Medicinal bath in HévízIn European terms, Hungary's underground water reserve is one of the largest.", "Hence the country is rich in brooks and hot springs as well as medicinal springs and spas; as of 2003, there are 1250 springs that provide water warmer than 30 °C.", "90% of Hungary's drinking water is mostly retrieved from such sources.The major rivers of Hungary are the Danube and the Tisza.", "The Danube also flows through parts of Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Serbia, and Romania.", "It is navigable within Hungary for 418 km.", "The Tisza River is navigable for 444 km in the country.", "Hungary has three major lakes.", "Lake Balaton, the largest, is 78 km long and from 3 to 14 km wide, with an area of 592 km2.Lake Balaton is Central Europe's largest lake and a prosperous tourist spot and recreation area.", "Its shallow waters offer summer bathing and during the winter its frozen surface provides facilities for winter sports.", "Smaller bodies of water include Lake Velence (26 km2) in Fejér County and Lake Fertő (82 km2 within Hungary).The waters of the country are in danger, since more water is going out of the county than in.", "In 2022, a severe drought which has impacted all of Europe is endangering among others, Lake Velence, Lake Balaton, the Danube and Tisza rivers.", "The flow of the aforementioned rivers have been modified in the late 19th century, and while it prevented larger floods and helped water transport, it has its downsides, such as the inability to support large-scale watering of crops, worsening the drought of 2022.Large-scale reforms and rebuilding of the Alföld water system is needed, but no such plans are being announced by the government as of 2022.=== Infrastructure ======= Transport ====Total length of motorways in HungaryHungary has 31,058 km of roads and motorways of 1,118 km.", "The total length of motorways has doubled in the last ten years with the most (106) kilometers built in 2006.Budapest is directly connected to the Austrian, Slovakian, Slovenian, Croatian, Romanian and Serbian borders via motorways.Due to its location and geographical features, several transport corridors cross Hungary.", "Pan-European corridors no.", "IV, V, and X, and European routes no.", "E60, E71, E73, E75, and E77 go through Hungary.", "Thanks to its radial road system, all of these routes touch Budapest.Ferenc Liszt Airport There are five international, four domestic, four military and several non-public airports in Hungary.", "The largest airport is the Budapest Ferihegy International Airport (BUD) located at the southeastern border of Budapest.", "In 2008, the airport had 3,866,452 arriving and 3,970,951 departing passengers.In 2006, the Hungarian railroad system was 7,685 km long, 2,791 km of it electrified.==== Public utilities ====Electricity is available in every settlement in Hungary.Piped gas is available in 2873 settlements, 91.1% of all of them.", "To avoid gas shortages due to Ukrainian pipeline shutdowns like the one in January 2009, Hungary participates both in the Nabucco and the South Stream gas pipeline projects.", "Hungary also has strategical gas reserves: the latest reserve of 1.2 billion cubic meters was opened in October 2009.In 2008, 94.9% of households had running water.", "Though it is the responsibility of municipal governments to provide people with healthy water supply, the Hungarian government and the European Union offer subsidies to those who wish to develop water supplies or sewage systems.", "Partly because of these subsidies, 71.3% of all dwellings are connected to the sewage system, up from 50,1% in 2000.Internet penetration has been rising significantly over the past few years: the ratio of households having an internet connection has risen from 22.1% (49% of which was broadband) in 2005 to 48.4% (87.3% of which was broadband) in 2008.The Ministry of Economy and Transport introduced the eHungary program in 2004 aiming to provide every person in Hungary with internet access by setting up \"eHungary points\" in public spaces like libraries, schools and cultural centers.", "The program also includes \"the introduction of the eCounsellor network – a service through which professionals provide assistance for citizens in the effective usage of electronic information, services and knowledge\"." ], [ "Sectors", "In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Hungary is Services with 273,851 companies followed by Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate and Retail Trade with 113,153 and 87,237 companies respectively.=== Agriculture ===Tokaj vineyard with ripening grapesAgriculture accounted for 4.3% of GDP in 2008 and along with the food industry occupied roughly 7.7% of the labor force.", "These two figures represent only the primary agricultural production: along with related businesses, agriculture makes up about 13% of the GDP.", "Hungarian agriculture is virtually self-sufficient and due to traditional reasons export-oriented: exports related to agriculture make up 20–25% of the total.", "About half of Hungary's total land area is agricultural area under cultivation; this ratio is prominent among other EU members.", "This is due to the country's favorable conditions including continental climate and the plains that make up about half of Hungary's landscape.", "The most important crops are wheat, corn, sunflower, potato, sugar beet, canola and a wide variety of fruits (notably apple, peach, pear, grape, watermelon, plum etc.).", "Hungary has several wine regions producing among others the worldwide famous white dessert wine Tokaji and the red Bull's Blood.", "Another traditional world-famous alcoholic drink is the fruit brandy ''pálinka''.Mainly cattle, pigs, poultry and sheep are raised in the country.", "The livestock includes the Hungarian Grey Cattle which is a major tourist attraction in the Hortobágy National Park.", "An important component of the country's gastronomic heritage is foie gras with about 33,000 farmers engaged in the industry.", "Hungary is the second largest world producer and the biggest exporter of foie gras (exporting mainly to France).Another symbol of Hungarian agriculture and cuisine is the ''paprika'' (both sweet and hot types).", "The country is one of the leading paprika producers of the world with Szeged and Kalocsa being the centres of production.Hungary produced, in 2018, 7.9 million tons of maize (15th largest producer in the world); 5.2 million tons of wheat; 1.8 million tons of sunflower seed (8th largest producer in the world); 1.1 million tons of barley; 1 million tons of rapeseed (14th largest producer in the world); 941 thousand tons of sugar beet, which is used to produce sugar and ethanol; 674 thousand tons of apple; 539 thousand tons of grape; 330 thousand tons of potato; 330 thousand tons of triticale; in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.=== Health care ===Total health spending as a percentage of GDP for Hungary compared amongst various other first world nations from 2005 to 2008Hungary has a tax-funded universal healthcare system, organized by the state-owned National Healthcare Fund ().", "Health insurance is not directly paid for by children, mothers or fathers with baby, students, pensioners, people with socially poor background, handicapped people (including physical and mental disorders), priests and other church employees.", "Health in Hungary can be described with a rapidly growing life expectancy and a very low infant mortality rate (4.9 per 1,000 live births in 2012).", "Hungary spent 7.4% of the GDP on health care in 2009 (it was 7.0% in 2000), lower than the average of the OECD.", "Total health expenditure was 1,511 US$ per capita in 2009, 1,053 US$ governmental-fund (69.7%) and 458 US$ private-fund (30.3%) but has now risen to 2047 US$ per capita (as per 2018 data), roughly a 33% increase total, with the government funding 1439 US$ (70.3%) of the total versus the private funding 608 US$ (29.7%).", "This amount totals to 6.6% of the country's total GDP, roughly a percent decrease overall.=== Industry ===The main sectors of Hungarian industry are heavy industry (mining, metallurgy, machine and steel production), energy production, mechanical engineering, chemicals, food industry and automobile production.", "The industry is leaning mainly on processing industry and (including construction) accounted for 29.32% of GDP in 2008.Due to the sparse energy and raw material resources, Hungary is forced to import most of these materials to satisfy the demands of the industry.", "Following the transition to market economy, the industry underwent restructuring and remarkable modernization.", "The leading industry is machinery, followed by chemical industry (plastic production, pharmaceuticals), while mining, metallurgy and textile industry seemed to be losing importance in the past two decades.", "In spite of the significant drop in the last decade, food industry is still giving up to 14% of total industrial production and amounts to 7–8% of the country's exports.Nearly 50% of energy consumption is dependent on imported energy sources.", "Gas and oil are transported through pipelines from Russia forming 72% of the energy structure, while nuclear power produced by the nuclear power station of Paks accounts for 53,6%.==== Automobile production ====Final inspection of assembled Audi TT's in GyőrHungary is a favoured destination of foreign investors of automotive industry resulting in the presence of General Motors (Szentgotthárd), Magyar Suzuki (Esztergom), Mercedes-Benz (Kecskemét), and Audi factory (Győr) in Central Europe.Mercedes-Benz B-Class manufactured by the German carmaker Mercedes-Benz in Kecskemét17% of the total Hungarian exports comes from the exports of Audi, Opel and Suzuki.", "The sector employs about 90,000 people in more than 350 car component manufacturing companies.Audi has built the largest engine manufacturing plant of Europe (third largest in the world) in Győr becoming Hungary's largest exporter with total investments reaching over €3,300 million until 2007.Audi's workforce assembles the Audi TT, the Audi TT Roadster and the A3 Cabriolet in Hungary.", "The plant delivers engines to carmakers Volkswagen, Skoda, Seat and also to Lamborghini.Daimler-Benz invests €800 million ($1.2 billion) and creates up to 2,500 jobs at a new assembly plant in Kecskemét, Hungary with capacity for producing 100,000 Mercedes-Benz compact cars a year.Opel produced 80,000 Astra and 4,000 Vectra cars from March 1992 until 1998 in Szentgotthárd, Hungary.", "Today, the plant produces about half million engines and cylinder heads a year.=== Services ===The tertiary sector accounted for 64% of GDP in 2007 and its role in the Hungarian economy is steadily growing due to constant investments into transport and other services in the last 15 years.", "Located in the heart of Central-Europe, Hungary's geostrategic location plays a significant role in the rise of the service sector as the country's central position makes it suitable and rewarding to invest.The total value of imports was 68.62 billion euros, the value of exports was 68.18 billion euros in 2007.The external trade deficit decreased by 12.5% since the previous year, easing down from 2.4 billion to 308 million euros in 2007.In the same year, 79% of Hungary's export and 70% of the imports were transacted inside the EU.====Tourism====Lake BalatonTourism employs nearly 150 thousand people and the total income from tourism was 4 billion euros in 2008.One of Hungary's top tourist destinations is Lake Balaton, the largest freshwater lake in Central Europe, with a number of 1.2 million visitors in 2008.The most visited region is Budapest, the Hungarian capital attracted 3.61 million visitors in 2008.Hungary was the world's 24th most visited country in 2011.The Hungarian spa culture is world-famous, with thermal baths of all sorts and over 50 spa hotels located in many towns, each of which offer the opportunity of a pleasant, relaxing holiday and a wide range of quality medical and beauty treatments." ], [ "Currency", "The currency of Hungary is the Hungarian forint (HUF, Ft) since 1 August 1946.A forint consists of 100 fillérs; however, since these have not been in circulation since 1999, they are only used in accounting.There are six coins (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200) and six banknotes (500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10,000 and 20,000).", "The 1 and 2 Forint coins were withdrawn in 2008, yet prices remained the same as stores follow the official rounding scheme for the final price.", "The 200 Forint note was withdrawn on 16 November 2009.=== The fulfillment of the Maastricht criteria === Convergence criteria Obligation to adopt 4 Target date Euro coins designCountry 1 Inflation rate² Government finances ERM II membershipInterest rate ³ set by the country recommended by the Commission annual government deficit to GDP gross government debt to GDP '''Reference value''' 5 max 3.2% max.", "3% max.", "60% min.", "2 years max 6.5% N/A N/A N/A N/A '''''' '''2.7%'''(as of Dec 2020) '''2.0%'''(fiscal year 2019) '''66.3%''' '''0 years''' '''0.60%''' yes 2019–2020 N/A in progress1 Current EU member states that have not yet adopted the Euro, candidates and official potential candidates.", "² No more than 1.5% higher than the 3 best-performing EU member states.³ No more than 2% higher than the 3 best-performing EU member states.4 Formal obligation for Euro adoption in the country EU Treaty of Accession or the Framework for membership negotiations.5 Values from May 2008 report.", "To be updated each year." ], [ "Socioeconomic characteristics", "=== Human capital ===Language learning among students in upper secondary education in Hungary in 2007Education in Hungary is free and compulsory from the age of 5 to 16.The state provides free pre-primary schooling for all children, 8 years of general education and 4 years of upper secondary level general or vocational education.", "Higher education system follows the three-cycle structure and the credit system of the bologna process.", "Governments aim to reach European standards and encourage international mobility by putting emphasis on digital literacy, and enhancing foreign language studies: all secondary level schools teach foreign languages and at least one language certificate is needed for the acquisition of a diploma.", "Over the past decade, this resulted in a drastic increase in the number of people speaking at least one foreign language.Hungary's most prestigious universities are:* Semmelweis University with five schools (medical school, dentistry, pharmacy, nursing and physical education).", "* Eötvös Loránd University (''Eötvos Loránd Tudományegyetem'', or ELTE, which is among the top 500 universities in the world)* Budapest University of Technology and Economics (''Budapesti Műszaki és Gazdaságtudományi Egyetem'', or BME) BME is considered the oldest Institutes of Technology of university rank and structure in the world.", "Established 1782.", "* Corvinus University of Budapest (''Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem'', or BCE)* Central European University (''Közép-európai Egyetem'', or CEU)* University of Pécs (''Pécsi Tudományegyetem'', or PTE)* University of Miskolc (''Miskolci Egyetem'' or ME)* University of Szeged (''Szegedi Tudományegyetem'' or SZTE) In 2010, the QS World University Rankings put the University of Szeged as 451st–500th among universities globally.", "* University of Debrecen (''Debreceni Egyetem'' or DE)Financial sources for education are mainly provided by the state (making up 5.1–5.3% of the annual GDP).", "In order to improve the quality of higher education, the government encourages contributions by students and companies.", "Another important contributor is the EU.Mathematics score in PISA 2006 of Hungary among other countriesThe system has weaknesses, the most important being segregation and unequal access to quality education.", "The 2006 PISA report concluded that while students from comprehensive schools did better than the OECD average, pupils from vocational secondary schools did much worse.", "Another problem is of the higher education's: response to regional and labour market needs is insufficient.", "Government plans include improving the career guidance system and establishing a national digital network that will enable the tracking of jobs and facilitate the integration into the labour market.=== Social stratification ===As most post-communist countries, Hungary's economy is affected by its social stratification in terms of income and wealth, age, gender and racial inequalities.Lorenz curve of Denmark, Hungary, and NamibiaHungary's Gini coefficient of 0.269 ranks 11th in the world.", "The graph on the right shows that Hungary is close in equality to the world-leader Denmark.", "The highest 10% of the population gets 22.2% of the incomes.", "According to the business magazine ''Napi Gazdaság'', the owner of the biggest fortune, 300 billion HUF, is Sándor Demján.", "On the other hand, the lowest 10% gets 4% of the incomes.", "Considering the standard EU indicators (Percentage of the population living under 60% of the per capita median income), 13% of the Hungarian population is stricken by poverty.", "According to the Human Development Report, the country's HPI-1 value is 2.2% (3rd among 135 countries), and its HDI value is 0.879 (43rd out of 182).Population pyramid of HungaryThe fertility rate in Hungary, just like in many European countries, is very low: 1.34 children/women (205th in the world) Life expectancy at birth is 73.3 years., while the expected number of healthy years is 57.6 for females and 53.5 for males.", "The average life expectancy overall is 73.1 years.Hungary's GDI (gender-related development index) value of 0.879 is 100% of its HDI value (3rd best in the world).", "55.5% of the female population (between 15 and 64) participate in the labour force, and the ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education is 99%.Ethnic inequality, which strikes primarily Roma in Hungary, is a serious problem.", "Although the definition of the Roma identity is controversial, qualitative studies prove that the Roma employment rate decreased significantly following the fall of Communism: due to the tremendous layoffs of unskilled workers during the transition years, more than one-third of Roma were excluded from the labour market.", "Therefore, this ethnic conflict is inherently interconnected with the income inequalities in the country – at least two-thirds of the poorest 300,000 people in Hungary are Romas.", "Furthermore, ethnic discrimination is outstandingly high, 32% of Romas experience discrimination when looking for work.", "Consequently, new Roma entrants to the labour market are rarely able to find employment, which creates a motivation deficit and further reinforces segregation and unemployment.=== Institutional quality ===Twenty years after the change of the regime, corruption remains a severe issue in Hungary.", "According to Transparency International Hungary, almost one-third of top managers claim they regularly bribe politicians.", "Most people (42%) in Hungary think that the sector most affected by bribery is the political party system.", "Bribery is common in the healthcare system in the form of gratitude payment–92% of all people think that some payment should be made to the head surgeon conducting a heart operation or an obstetrician for a child birth.Another problem is the administrative burden: in terms of the ease of doing business, Hungary ranks 47th out of 183 countries in the world.", "The five days' time required to start a new business ranks 29th, and the country is 122nd concerning the ease of paying taxes.In accordance with the theory of the separation of powers, the judicial system is independent from the legislative and the executive branches.", "Consequently, courts and prosecutions are not influenced by the government.", "However, the legal system is slow and overburdened, which makes proceedings and rulings lengthy and inefficient.", "Such a justice system is hardly capable of prosecuting corruption and protecting the country's financial interests.===Unemployment in Hungary===" ], [ "State participation", "=== Monetary policy ===alt=Chart showing the base rate of Base rate of Hungarian National Bank (MNB).Hungarian National Bank (MNB)The Hungarian organization responsible for controlling the country's monetary policy is the Hungarian National Bank (Hungarian: ''Magyar Nemzeti Bank'', MNB) which is the central bank in Hungary.", "According to the Hungarian Law of National Bank (which became operative in 2001.– LVIII.", "Law about The Hungarian National Bank), the primary objective of MNB is to achieve and maintain price stability.", "This aim is in line with the European and international practice.Price stability means achieving and maintaining a basically low, but positive inflation rate.", "This level is around 2–2.5% according to international observations, while the European Central Bank \"aims at inflation rates of below, but close to 2% over the medium term\".", "Since Hungary is in the process of catching up (Balassa-Samuelson effect), the long-term objective is a slightly higher figure, around 2.3–3.2%.", "Therefore, the medium term inflation target of the Hungarian National Bank is 3%.Concerning the exchange rate system, the floating exchange rate system is in use since 26 February 2008, as a result of which HUF is fluctuating in accordance with the effects of the market in the face of the reference currency, the euro.Forint exchange rates from June 2008 to September 2009The chart on the right shows forint exchange rates for the British pound (GBP), euro (EUR), Swiss franc (CHF), and the U.S. dollar (USD) from June 2008 to September 2009.It indicates that a relatively strong forint weakened since the beginning of the financial crisis, and that its value has recently taken an upward turn.Compared to the euro the forint was at peak on 18 June 2008 when 1000 Ft was €4.36 and €1 was 229.11Ft.", "The forint was worth the least on 6 March 2009; this day 1000 Ft was €3.16 and €1 was 316Ft).Compared to USD, most expensive/cheapest dates are 22 June 2008 and 6 March 2009 with 1000HUF/USD rates 6.94 and 4.01 respectively.On 24 March 2015 the Euro was at 299.1450 and USD was at 274.1650,=== Fiscal policy ===Hungary bondsIn Hungary, state revenue makes up 44% and expenditure makes up 45% of the GDP which is relatively high compared to other EU members.", "This can be traced back to historical reasons such as socialist economic tradition as well as cultural characteristics that endorse paternalist behaviour on the state's part, meaning that people have a habitual reflex that make them call for state subsidies.", "Some economists dispute this point, claiming that expenditure ran up to today's critical amount from 2001, during two left-wing government cycles.Along with joining the EU the country undertook the task of joining the Eurozone as well.", "Therefore, the Maastricht criteria which forms the condition of joining the Eurozone acts as an authoritative guideline to Hungarian fiscal politics.", "Although there has been remarkable progress, recent years' statistics still point at significant discrepancies between the criteria and fiscal indices.", "The target date for adapting the Euro has not been fixed, either.General government deficit has shown a drastic decline to −3.4% (2008) from −9.2% (2006).", "According to an MNB forecast however, until 2011, the deficit will by a small margin fall short of the 3.0% criterion.Another criterion that is found lacking is the ratio of gross government debt to GDP which, since 2005, exceeds the allowed 60%.", "According to an ESA95 figure, in 2008 the ratio increased from 65.67% to 72.61%, which primarily results from the requisition of an IMF-arranged financial assistance package.Hungary's balance of payments on its current account has been negative since 1995, around 6–8% in the 2000s reaching a negative peak 8.5% in 2008.Still, current account deficit will expectedly decrease in the following period, as imports will diminish compared to exports as an effect of the financial crisis.=== Tax system ===In Hungary, the 1988 reform of taxes introduced a comprehensive tax system which mainly consists of central and local taxes, including a personal income tax, a corporate income tax and a value added tax.", "Among the total tax income the ratio of local taxes is solely 5% while the EU average is 30%.", "Until 2010, the taxation of an individual was progressive, determining the tax rate based on the individual's income: with earning up to 1,900,000 forints a year, the tax was 18%, the tax on incomes above this limit was 36% since 1 July 2009.Based on the new one-rate tax regime introduced January 2011, the overall tax rate for all income-earnings bands has been 16%.", "According to the income-tax returns of 2008, 14,6% of taxpayers was charged for 64,5% of the total tax burdens.", "Before the new corporate income tax regime, the corporate tax was fixed at 16% of the positive rateable value, with an additional tax called solidarity tax of 4%, the measure of which is calculated based on the result before tax of the company (the solidarity tax has been in use since September, 2006).", "The actual rateable value might be different is the two cases.", "From January 2011, under the new corporate income tax regime the tax rate was divided into two parts (i) corporations having income before tax below 500 million HUF (appr.", "USD 2.5 million) was lowered to 10% and (ii) 16% remained for all other companies until 2013.After this, the unified corporate income tax rate will be 10%, irrespectively from the size of the net income before tax.", "In January 2017, corporate tax was unified at a rate of 9% – the lowest in the European Union.", "The rate of value added tax in Hungary is 27%, the highest in Europe, since 1 January 2012." ], [ "Miscellaneous data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021.Inflation under 2% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment (in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198068.36,37623.00.2%9.3%0.6%n/a198176.87,18223.62.3%4.5%0.2%n/a198284.07,85024.12.8%7.0%0.2%n/a198387.98,23521.80.7%6.4%0.2%n/a198493.58,78421.22.7%8.7%0.1%n/a198596.29,07521.4−0.3%7.0%0.0%n/a198699.69,43424.71.5%5.3%0.2%n/a1987106.210,10827.14.0%8.7%0.3%n/a1988109.910,50229.7−0.1%15.8%0.5%n/a1989115.011,03930.30.7%17.0%0.5%n/a1990115.011,10134.4−3.5%29.0%2.1%n/a1991104.910,11434.8−11.9%34.2%8.4%n/a1992104.010,02738.7−3.1%23.0%9.3%n/a1993105.910,21440.1−0.6%22.5%11.3%n/a1994111.310,75543.22.9%18.9%10.1%n/a1995116.511,27446.42.5%28.3%10.2%84.1%1996118.711,50046.70.0%23.5%9.9%71.3%1997124.812,11247.33.3%18.3%8.7%61.9%1998131.512,79348.74.2%14.2%7.8%59.8%1999137.713,42749.13.2%10.0%7.0%59.7%2000146.714,34847.24.2%9.8%6.4%55.0%2001155.615,25953.83.8%9.2%5.7%51.6%2002165.316,24267.64.5%5.3%5.8%54.8%2003174.817,23685.33.8%4.7%5.9%57.4%2004188.518,632104.15.0%6.8%6.1%58.3%2005202.920,093113.24.4%3.6%7.2%60.2%2006217.121,544115.73.9%3.9%7.5%64.4%2007223.922,240140.20.4%8.0%7.4%65.3%2008230.222,913158.30.9%6.1%7.8%71.2%2009216.621,594131.1−6.6%4.2%10.0%77.5%2010220.622,026132.20.7%4.9%11.2%80.2%2011228.922,923141.91.7%3.9%11.0%80.4%2012229.523,107128.8−1.6%5.7%11.0%78.4%2013238.424,060135.72.0%1.7%10.2%77.1%2014253.125,623141.04.2%−0.2%7.7%76.6%2015264.826,863125.23.5%−0.1%6.8%76.7%2016273.627,833128.62.3%0.4%5.1%76.0%2017290.329,627143.14.1%2.4%4.2%73.4%2018312.131,914160.64.9%2.8%3.7%70.8%2019336.634,445164.04.9%3.4%3.3%65.3%2020325.533,320157.2-4.5%3.3%4.2%79.3%2021364.437,443182.37.1%5.1%4.1%76.8%'''Households with access to fixed and mobile telephony''' Quick facts – Telecommunication market in Hungary – Hungarian Statistical office (3Q 2011) * ''number of households'' – 4,001,976 (October 2011)* ''number of landline telephones'' – 2,884,000 (October 2011)* ''landline telephones / households'' – 72.1% (October 2011)* ''landline telephones / inhabitants'' – 28.9% (October 2011)* ''number of mobile telephone subscriptions'' – 11,669,000 (October 2011)* ''mobile telephone subscriptions / inhabitants (Mobile telephone penetration)'' – 117.1% (December 2011)'''Broadband penetration rate'''* ''number of fixed broadband'' – 2,111,967 (October 2011)* ''number of mobile broadband'' – 1,872,178 (October 2011)* ''fixed broadband per households'' – 52.8% (December 2011)* ''mobile broadband per households'' – 43.4% (January 2012)'''Individuals using computer and internet'''* ''computer'' – 65% (2009)* ''internet'' – 62% (2009)" ], [ "External relations", "Hungary joined the European Union on 05/01/2004 after a successful referendum among the EU-10.The EU's free trade system helps Hungary, as it is a relatively small country and thus needs export and import.After the accession to the EU, Hungarian workers could immediately go to work to Ireland, Sweden and the United Kingdom.", "Other countries imposed restrictions.In 2007, 25% of all exports of Hungary were of high technology, which is the 5th largest ratio in the European Union after Malta, Cyprus, Ireland, and the Netherlands.", "The EU10 average was 17.1% and the Eurozone average was 16% in 2007." ], [ "See also", "* List of Hungarian counties by GDP* List of Hungarians by net worth* Taxation in Hungary* Science and technology in Hungary* Education in Hungary* List of Hungarian companies* Budapest Stock Exchange* Budapest metropolitan area* Hungarian National Bank* Economy of Europe* Economy of the European Union" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Economy at the Hungarian Central Statistical Office* Ministry for National Economy – Leading economy news * Central Bank of Hungary – Leading finance news* Hungary profile at the CIA World Factbook* Hungarian economy profile at The World Bank* Hungarian economy profile at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development* Hungarian economy profile at the International Monetary Fund" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Hungary" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Hungary''' relies on several main modes, including transport by road, rail, air and water." ], [ "Roads", "Speed Limits in Hungary based on road type and vehicle categoryMap of planned motorway and expressway network in HungaryHungary has a total of of public roads, of which are paved (including 1481 km of motorways, as of 2016); and are unpaved (2005 etc.", "):Hungarian road categories are as follows:* '''Gyorsforgalmi út''' (controlled-access highway):**'''Autópálya''' (motorway): 2+2 travel lanes and 1+1 emergency lane, central reservation, no at-grade intersections, speed limit **'''Gyorsút''' (high-speed highway): 2+2 travel lanes, central reservation, few at-grade intersections, speed limit **'''Autóút''' (expressway): 2+2, 2+1 or 1+1 travel lanes, central reservation, some at-grade intersections, speed limit *'''Elsőrendű főút''' (primary arterial road or primary main road) (with one-digit number, e.g.", "6-os főút)*'''Másodrendű főút''' (secondary main road) (with two or three digits, e.g.", "57-es főút)*'''Helyi út''' (local road) (with three or more digits, e.g.", "4519-es közút)===Motorways and expressways===Hungarian motorways and expressways are part of the national road network.", "As of October 2016, there are of controlled-access highways.left Motorways (''autópályák'', singular - ''autópálya'') in Hungary:M1 | M3 | M4 | M5 | M6 | M7 | M8 | ''M15'' | M19 | M30 | M31 | M35 | M43 | M60left Expressways (''autóutak'', singular - ''autóút'') in Hungary:M0 | M2 | M9 | M51 |M70 | M85 | M86New motorway sections are being added to the existing network, which already connects many major economically important cities to the capital.===Bus transport===Bus transport between municipalities was provided by Volán Companies, twenty-four bus companies founded in 1970 and named after the regions they served.", "They also provided local transport in cities and towns that did not have their own public transport company (all cities except for Budapest, Miskolc, Pécs, Kaposvár and also Debrecen after 2009), and operated bus lines in cities where the local company operated only tram and trolley bus lines (Szeged and Debrecen, the latter until 2009, when DKV took over the bus lines).", "In early 2015 the 24 companies were organized into seven regional companies." ], [ "Railways", "Rail transport map of HungaryKeleti Railway Station, Budapest''Note:'' Hungary and Austria jointly manage the cross-border standard-gauge railway between Győr–Sopron–Ebenfurt (GySEV/ROeEE), a distance of about 101 km in Hungary and 65 km in Austria.In Budapest, the three main railway stations are the Eastern (Keleti), Western (Nyugati) and Southern (Déli), with other outlying stations like Kelenföld.", "Of the three, the Southern is the most modern but the Eastern and the Western are more decorative and architecturally interesting.Other important railway stations countrywide include Szolnok (the most important railway intersection outside Budapest), Tiszai Railway Station in Miskolc and the stations of Pécs, Győr, Debrecen, Szeged and Székesfehérvár.The only city with an underground railway system is Budapest with its Metro.In Budapest there is also a suburban rail service in and around the city, operated under the name HÉV.===Rail system===* Total: 7,606 km** Standard gauge: 7,394 km gauge (2,911 km electrified; 1,236 km double track)** Broad gauge: 36 km gauge** Narrow gauge: 176 km gauge (1998)====Rail links with adjacent countries====* Same gauge:** Austria (6 line)** Croatia (3 line)** Romania (5 line)** Serbia (2 line)** Slovakia (10 line)** Slovenia (1 line)* Break-of-gauge – / ** Ukraine (2 line)" ], [ "Airports", "Budapest Liszt Ferenc International Airport inside of SkyCourtHévíz–Balaton Airport - insideThere are 43-45 airports in Hungary, including smaller, unpaved airports, too.", "The five international airports are Budapest-Liszt Ferenc, Debrecen Airport, Hévíz–Balaton International Airport (previously ''Sármellék,'' also called FlyBalaton for its proximity to Lake Balaton, Hungary's number one tourist attraction), Győr-Pér and Pécs-Pogány (as of 2015.there are no regular passenger flights from Győr-Pér and Pécs-Pogány).", "Malév Hungarian Airlines ceased operations in 2012.;Airports with paved runways:Total: 20 (1999 est.", ")* Over 3,047 m: 2* 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4* 914 to 1,523 m: 1* Under 914 m: 1;Airports with unpaved runwaysTotal: 27 (1999 est.", ")*2,438 to 3,047 m: 3* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5* 914 to 1,523 m: 12* Under 914 m: 7===International airports===List of airports in Hungary;The following are the largest airports in Hungary (In descending order for 2015):* Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport (BUD)* Debrecen International Airport (DEB)* Hévíz–Balaton Airport (SOB)* Győr-Pér International Airport (QGY)* Pécs-Pogány International Airport (QPJ)===Heliports===Hungary has five heliports." ], [ "Waterways", "1,373 km permanently navigable (1997)===Ports and harbors===The most important port is Budapest, the capital.", "Other important ones include Dunaújváros and Baja.Ports on the Danube:* '''Győr-Gönyű''' (Port of Győr)* Komárom* '''Budapest''' (Port of Csepel)* '''Dunaújváros''' (Port of Dunaújváros)* Dunavecse* Madocsa* Paks* Fadd-Dombori* Bogyiszló* '''Baja''' (Port of Baja)* '''Mohács''' (Port of Mohács)Ports on the Tisza:* '''Szeged''' (Port of Szeged)===Merchant marine===* Total: 2 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /* Ships by type: cargo ship 2 (1999 est.)" ], [ "Transport in cities", "===Transport companies of cities===*BKK (Budapest) (buses, trams, trolley buses and metro)* DKV Zrt.", "(Debrecen) (buses, trams & trolley buses)* MVK Zrt.", "(Miskolc) (buses and trams)* SzKT Kft.", "(Szeged) (trams and trolley buses only; buses belong to Volánbusz)* Tüke Busz Zrt.", "(Pécs) (buses)* KT Zrt.", "(Kaposvár) (buses)* T-busz Kft.", "(Tatabánya) (buses) * V-busz Kft.", "(Veszprém) (buses) * KeKo (Kecskemét) (buses)In the rest of the cities and towns local transport is provided by Volánbusz companies that also provide intercity bus lines.=== Metro ===leftThe '''Budapest Metro''' () is the rapid transit system in the Hungarian capital Budapest.", "Its line 1 (opened in 1896) is the oldest electrified underground railway on the European continent.", "The second (red) line was opened in 1970, third (blue) line was opened in 1976, the newest line is the fourth (green), it was opened in 2014.File:Bajza utca platform.jpg|Bajza utca station, M1File:Budapest, metró 2, Batthyány tér, 11.jpg|Batthyány tér, M2File:Budapest Metro Határ út.JPG|Határ út, M3File:Budapest, metró 4, Móricz Zsigmond körtér, 17.jpg|Móricz Zsigmond körtér, M4===Trams===leftThe busiest traditional city tram line in the world is still route 4/6 in Budapest, where 50-meter long trams run at 120 to 180 second intervals at peak time and are usually packed with people.", "A part of this route is the same as where electric trams made their world first run in 1887.Since the 2000s, the Budapest tram network has been improved, by ordering new trams (Combino Supra and CAF Urbos 3) as well as extending some lines (such as line 1 to Kelenföld railway station).====Cities with tram lines====* Budapest (since November 28, 1887)* Miskolc (since July 10, 1897)* Szeged (since October 1, 1908)* Debrecen (since March 16, 1911)* Hódmezővásárhely (since November 29, 2021)====Cities with former tram lines====* Szombathely (1897–1974)* Sopron (1900–1923)* Nyíregyháza (1905–1969)* Pécs (1913 – August 31, 1960)Image:MiskolcV1V2.jpg|Trams in MiskolcImage:Szeged, Tatra KT4DM č.", "205.jpg|Trams in SzegedImage:Debrecen tram stop.jpg|Trams in DebrecenImage:Stadler CityLink in Hódmezővásárhely railway station terminus.jpg|Szeged-Hódmezővásárhely Tram-trainThere were some towns, where narrow gauge railways were used as tram lines or interurban lines (for example: Sárospatak, Sátoraljaújhely, Békéscsaba, Békés, Cegléd).", "These lines were closed in the 1970s.=== Trolleybus ===50pxTrolleybuses can be found in three cities: Budapest, Debrecen and Szeged." ], [ "Pipelines", "* Crude oil: 1,204 km* Natural gas: 4,387 km (1991)" ], [ "See also", "* Hungary* Hungarian State Railways* List of airports in Hungary* List of motorways in Hungary* Plug-in electric vehicles in Hungary* Suburban railway lines in Budapest" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Public Transport and Railways in Hungary" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hungarian Defence Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hungarian Defence Forces''' (, ) is the national defence force of Hungary.", "Since 2007, the Hungarian Armed Forces is under a unified command structure.", "The Ministry of Defence maintains the political and civil control over the army.", "A subordinate Joint Forces Command is coordinating and commanding the HDF corps.", "In 2020, the armed forces had 22,700 personnel on active duty.", "In 2019, military spending was $1.904 billion, about 1.22% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%.", "In 2016, the government adopted a resolution in which it pledged to increase defence spending to 2.0% of GDP and the number of active personnel to 37,650 by 2026.Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime.", "In a significant move for modernization, Hungary decided in 2001 to buy 14 JAS 39 Gripen fighter aircraft for about 800 million EUR.", "Hungary bought two used Airbus A319 and two Falcon 7X transport aircraft.", "Three C-17 III Globemaster transport aircraft are operating from Pápa Air Base under Hungarian nationality mark but are maintained by the NATO Heavy Airlift Wing (HAW).", "An intensive modernization program started in 2016 under the name \"Zrínyi 2026\".", "New helicopters, tanks, IFVs and artillery equipment were purchased beside others.", "Hungarian National Cyber Security Center was re-organized in 2016.In 2016, the Hungarian military has about 700 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including 100 HDF troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan, 210 Hungarian soldiers in Kosovo under command of KFOR, and 160 troops in Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "Hungary sent a 300-strong logistics unit to Iraq in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, though public opinion opposed the country's participation in the war.", "One soldier was killed in action by a roadside bomb in Iraq.During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the HDF drove Habsburg forces from the country in the Spring Campaign of 1849, but was defeated by an Austro-Russian offensive in the summer.", "The Royal Hungarian Honvéd was established in 1868.During World War I out of the eight million men mobilized by Austria-Hungary, over one million died.", "Conscription was introduced on a national basis in 1939.The peacetime strength of the Royal Hungarian Army grew to 80,000 men organized into seven corps commands.", "During World War II the Hungarian Second Army was destroyed on the banks of the Don River in December 1942 in the Battle of Stalingrad.", "During the Socialist and the Warsaw Pact era (1947–1989), the entire 200,000 strong Southern Group of Forces was garrisoned in Hungary, complete with artillery, tank regiments, air force and missile troops with nuclear weapons." ], [ "Structure", "Structure of the Hungarian Defence Forces, 2018 (click image to enlarge)" ], [ "Flag and emblem", "The central element of the emblem of the Hungarian Defence Forces is the Turul bird with extended wings holding the sword of King Saint Stephen in its claws.", "The element is surrounded by a turkey oak branch on the right and an olive branch on the left.", "At the meeting point of the branches is the \"Hungarian Defense Shield\" in the national color.", "The inscription ''\"A HAZÁÉRT\"'' can be read at the top as \"for the homeland\", and ''\"MAGYAR HONVÉDSÉG\"'' can be read in a semicircle at the bottom as \"Hungarian Defence Forces\".", "The flag of the Hungarian Defence Forces is white, and the emblem is placed in the middle of the flag." ], [ "History", "=== Ancient, medieval, and early modern military ===Military vehicles on showThe Hungarian tribes of ''Árpád vezér'' who came to settle in the Carpathian Basin were noted for their fearsome light cavalry, which conducted frequent raids throughout much of Western Europe (as far as present-day Spain), maintaining their military supremacy with long range and rapid-firing reflex bows.", "Not until the introduction of well-regulated, plate-armored knight heavy cavalry could German emperors stop the Hungarian armies.During the Árpáds the light cavalry based army was transformed slowly into a western-style one.", "The light cavalry lost its privileged position, replaced by a feudal army formed mainly from heavy cavalry.The Hungarian field armies were drawn up into an articulated formation (as it happened in Battle of Przemyśl (1099), Battle at Leitha (1146), Battle of Morvamező (1278), (1349), in three main battle (formation) (1146, 1278, 1349).", "According to the contemporary sources and later speculations, the first line was formed by light cavalry archers (Battle of Oslava (1116, 1146, 1260, 1278).", "Usually, they started the battle followed by a planned retreat (1116, 1146), Battle of Kressenbrunn (1260).", "The major decisive battles of the Hungarian army were placed in the second or third lines consisted mainly of the most valuable parts of the army – in general heavy cavalry (1146, 1278, 1349).The commanders of the Hungarian Kingdom's army used different tactics, based on a recognition of their own and the enemies' (Holy Roman Empire, Pechenegs, Uzes, Cumans, Mongols, Byzantine Empire) abilities and deficiencies.The Hungarian knight army had its golden age under King Louis the Great, who himself was a famed warrior and conducted successful campaigns in Italy due to family matters (his younger brother married Joanna I, Queen of Naples who murdered him later.)", "King Matthias Corvinus maintained very modern mercenary-based royal troops, called the ''Black Army''.", "King Matthias favoured ancient artillery (catapults) as opposed to cannons, which were the favourite of his father, Johannes Hunyadi, former Regent of Hungary.During the Ottoman invasion of Central Europe (between late 14th century and circa 1700) Hungarian soldiers protected fortresses and launched light cavalry attacks against the Turks (see Hungarian Hussars).", "The northern fortress of Eger was famously defended in the autumn of 1552 during the 39-day Siege of Eger against the combined force of two Ottoman armies numbering circa 120,000 men and 16 ultra-heavy siege guns.", "The victory was very important, because two much stronger forts of Szolnok and Temesvár had fallen quickly during the summer.", "Public opinion attributed Eger's success to the all-Hungarian garrison, as the above two forts have fallen due to treason by the foreign mercenaries manning them.", "In 1596, Eger fell to the Ottomans for the same reason.In the 1566 Battle of Szigetvár, Miklós Zrínyi defended Szigetvár for 30 days against the largest Ottoman army ever seen up to that day, and died leading his remaining few soldiers on a final suicide charge to become one of the best known national heroes.", "His great-grandson, Miklós Zrínyi, poet and general became one of the better-known strategists of the 1660s.", "In 1686, the capital city Buda was freed from the Ottomans by an allied Christian army composed of Austrian, Hungarian, and Western European troops, each roughly one-third of the army.", "The Habsburg empire then annexed Hungary.===Habsburg Hungarian military=== Hungarian hussars in battle during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848Under Habsburg rule, Hungarian Hussars rose to international fame and served as a model for light cavalry in many European countries.", "During the 18th and 19th centuries hundreds of thousands of forcibly enrolled Hungarian males served 12 years or more each as line infantry in the Austrian Imperial Army.Two independence wars interrupted this era, that of Prince Francis II Rákóczi between 1703 and 1711 and that of Lajos Kossuth in 1848–1849.A July 11, 1848 act of parliament in Budapest called for the formation of an army, the ''Honvédség'', of 200,000 which would use the Magyar language of command.", "It was to be formed around already extant imperial units, twenty battalions of infantry, ten hussar regiments, and two regiments of Székely from the Transylvanian Military Frontier.", "They were further joined by eight companies of two Italian regiments stationed in Hungary and parts of the Fifth Bohemian Artillery Regiment.In 1848–1849 the Honvédség (mostly made up of enthusiastic patriots with no prior military training) achieved incredible successes against better-trained and -equipped Austrian forces, despite the obvious advantage in numbers on the Austrian side.", "The Winter Campaign of Józef Bem and the Spring Campaign of Artúr Görgey are to this day taught at prestigious military schools around the globe, including at West Point Academy in the United States.", "Having suffered initial setbacks, including the loss of Pest-Buda, the Honvéd took advantage of the Austrians' lack of initiative and re-formed around the Debrecen-based Kossuth government.", "The Hungarians advanced again and by the end of spring 1849, Hungary was basically cleared of foreign forces, and would have achieved independence, were it not for the Russian intervention.", "At the request of the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph, the Russians invaded with a force of 190,000 soldiers – against the Honvédség's 135,000 – and decisively defeated Bem's Second Army in Transylvania, opening the path into the heart of Hungary.", "This way the Austrian-Russian coalition outnumbered Hungarian forces 3:1, which led to Hungary's surrender at Világos on 13 August 1849.Sándor Petőfi, the great Hungarian poet, went missing in action in the Battle of Segesvár, against invading Russian forces.In April 1867, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was established.", "Franz Josef, the head of the ancient Habsburg dynasty, was recognized as both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary.", "Nevertheless, the issue of what form the Hungarian military would take remained a matter of serious contention between Hungarian patriots and Austrian leaders.", "As the impasse threatened the political union, Emperor Franz Josef ordered a council of generals in November of the same year.", "Ultimately, the leaders resolved on the following solution: in addition to the joint (k.u.k.)", "army, Hungary would have its own defence force, whose members would swear their oath to the King of Hungary (who was also Emperor of Austria) and the national constitution, use the Hungarian language of command, and display their own flags and insignia.", "(Austria would also form its own parallel national defence force, the ''Landwehr''.)", "As a result of these negotiations, on 5 December 1868, the Royal Hungarian Landwehr (''Magyar Kiralyi Honvédség'', or Defence Force) was established.The Honvédség was usually treated generously by the Diet in Budapest.", "By 1873 it already had over 2,800 officers and 158,000 men organized into eighty-six battalions and fifty-eight squadrons.", "In 1872, the Ludovika Academy officially began training cadets (and later staff officers).", "Honvédség units engaged in manoeuvres and were organized into seven divisions in seven military districts.", "While artillery was not allowed, the force did form batteries of Gatling guns in the 1870s.In the midst of trouble between the imperial government and the parliament in 1906, the Honvédség was further expanded and finally received its own artillery units.", "In this form, the force approached the coming world war in most respects as a truly \"national\" Hungarian army.==== World War I ====Hungarian soldiers \"fought with distinction\" on every front contested by Austria-Hungary in the First World War.", "Honvédség units (along with the Austrian Landwehr) were considered fit for front line combat service and equal to those of the joint forces K.U.K.", "army.", "They saw combat especially on the Eastern Front and at the Battles of the Isonzo on the Italian Front.", "Out of the eight million men mobilized by Austria-Hungary, over one million died.", "Hungarians as a national group were second only to German Austrians in their share of this burden, experiencing twenty-eight war deaths for every thousand persons.After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire in late 1918, the Red Army of the Hungarian communist state (Hungarian Soviet Republic) conducted successful campaigns to protect the country's borders.", "However, in the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919 Hungary came under occupation by the Romanian, Serbian, American, and French troops, as after four years of extensive fighting, the country lacked both the necessary manpower and equipment to fend off foreign invaders.In accordance with the Treaty of Bucharest, upon leaving, the Romanian army took substantial compensation for reparations.", "This included agricultural goods and industrial machinery as well as raw materials.", "The Trianon Treaty limited the Hungarian National Army to 35,000 men and forbade conscription.", "The army was forbidden to possess tanks, heavy armor, or an air force.=== Mid-twentieth century ===On 9 August 1919, Admiral Miklós Horthy united various anti-communist military units into an 80,000-strong National Army (''Nemzeti Hadsereg'').", "On 1 January 1922, the National Army was once again redesignated the Royal Hungarian Army.During the 1930s and early 1940s, Hungary was preoccupied with the regaining the vast territories and huge amount of population lost in the Trianon peace treaty at Versailles in 1920.This required strong armed forces to defeat the neighbouring states and this was something Hungary could not afford.", "Instead, the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, made an alliance with Nazi Germany.", "In exchange for this alliance and via the First and Second Vienna Awards, Hungary received back parts of its lost territories from Yugoslavia, Romania, and Czechoslovakia.", "Hungary was to pay dearly during and after World War II for these temporary gains.On 5 March 1938, Prime Minister Kálmán Darányi announced a rearmament program (the so-called ''Győr Programme'', named after the city where it was announced to the public).", "Starting 1 October, the armed forces established a five-year expansion plan with Huba I-III revised orders of battle.", "Conscription was introduced on a national basis in 1939.The peacetime strength of the Royal Hungarian Army grew to 80,000 men organized into seven corps commands.In March 1939, Hungary launched an invasion of the newly formed Slovak Republic.", "Both the Royal Hungarian Army and the Royal Hungarian Air Force fought in the brief Slovak-Hungarian War.", "This invasion was launched to reclaim a part of the Slovakian territory lost after World War I.On 1 March 1940, Hungary organized its ground forces into three field armies.", "The Royal Hungarian Army fielded the Hungarian First Army, the Hungarian Second Army, and the Hungarian Third Army.", "With the exception of the independent \"Fast Moving Army Corps\" (''Gyorshadtest''), all three Hungarian field armies were initially relegated to defensive and occupation duties within the regained Hungarian territories.==== World War II ====In November 1940, Hungary signed the Tripartite Pact and became a member of the Axis with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.In April 1941, in order to regain territory and because of the German pressure, Hungary allowed the Wehrmacht to cross her territory in order to launch the invasion of Yugoslavia.", "The Hungarian foreign minister, Pál Teleki who wanted to maintain a pro-allied neutral stance for Hungary, could no longer keep the country out of the war, as the British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden had threatened to break diplomatic relations with Hungary if it did not actively resist the passage of German troops across its territory, and General Henrik Werth, chief of the Hungarian General Staff made a private arrangement - unsanctioned by the Hungarian government - with the German High Command for the transport of the German troops across Hungary.", "Pál Teleki, no longer being able to stop the unfolding events, committed suicide on April 3, 1941, and Hungary joined the war on April 11 after the proclamation of the Independent State of Croatia.After the controversial ''Kassa attack'', elements of the Royal Hungarian Army joined the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa, one week later than the start of the operation.", "In spite of the arguments made that Hungary (unlike Romania) had no territorial claims in the Soviet Union, the fateful decision was made to join the war in the East.", "In the late summer of 1941, the Hungarian \"Rapid Corps\" (''Gyorshadtest''), alongside German and Romanian army groups, scored a huge success against the Soviets at the Battle of Uman.", "A little more than a year later and contrasting sharply with the success at Uman, was the near total devastation of the Hungarian Second Army on banks of the Don River in December 1942 during the Battle for Stalingrad.During 1943, the Hungarian Second Army was re-built.", "In late 1944, as part of ''Panzerarmee Fretter-Pico'', it participated in the destruction of a Soviet mechanized group at the Battle of Debrecen.", "But this proved to be a Pyrrhic victory.", "Unable to re-build again, the Hungarian Second Army was disbanded towards the end of 1944.To keep Hungary as an ally, the Germans launched Operation Margarethe and occupied Hungary in March 1944.However, during the Warsaw Uprising, Hungarian troops refused to participate.Graves of a Royal Hungarian Army captain and 6 of his men who fell, fighting on the Polish side in Warsaw uprising 1944On 15 October 1944, the Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and forced Horthy to abdicate.", "Pro-Nazi Ferenc Szálasi was made prime minister by the Germans.On 28 December 1944, a provisional government under the control of the Soviet Union was formed in liberated Debrecen with Béla Miklós as its prime minister.", "Miklós was the commander of the Hungarian First Army, but most of the First Army sided with the Germans and most of what remained of it was destroyed about 200 kilometres north of Budapest between 1 January and 16 February.", "The pro-Communist government formed by Miklós competed with the pro-Nazi government of Ferenc Szálasi.", "The Germans, Szálasi, and pro-German Hungarian forces loyal to Szálasi fought on.", "On 20 January 1945, representatives of the provisional government of Béla Miklós signed an armistice in Moscow.", "But forces loyal to Szálasi still continued to fight on.The Red Army, with assistance from Romanian army units, completed the encirclement of Budapest on 29 December 1944 and the Siege of Budapest began.", "On 2 February 1945, the strength of the Royal Hungarian Army was 214,465 men, but about 50,000 of these had been formed into unarmed labor battalions.", "The siege of Budapest ended with the surrender of the city on 13 February.", "But, while the German forces in Hungary were generally in a state of defeat, the Germans had one more surprise for the Soviets.In early March 1945, the Germans launched the Lake Balaton Offensive with support from the Hungarians.", "This offensive was almost over before it began.", "By 19 March 1945, Soviet troops had recaptured all the territory lost during a 13-day German offensive.After the failed offensive, the Germans in Hungary were defeated.", "Most of what remained of the Hungarian Third Army was destroyed about 50 kilometres west of Budapest between 16 March and 25 March 1945.Officially, Soviet operations in Hungary ended on 4 April 1945 when the last German troops were expelled.Some pro-fascist Hungarians like Szálasi retreated with the Germans into Austria and Czechoslovakia.", "During the very last phase of the war, Fascist Hungarian forces fought in Vienna, Breslau, Küstrin, and along the Oder River.Uniform of the Hungarian People's Army (''Magyar Néphadsereg''): Hungarian military police summer uniform (enlisted, private, 1965–2005)On 7 May 1945, General Alfred Jodl, the German Chief of Staff, signed the document of unconditional surrender for all German forces.", "Jodl signed this document during a ceremony in France.", "On 8 May, in accordance with the wishes of the Soviet Union, the ceremony was repeated in Germany by Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel.", "On 11 June, the Allies agreed to make 9 May 1945 the official \"Victory in Europe\" day.", "Szálasi and many other pro-fascist Hungarians were captured and ultimately returned to Hungary's provisional government for trial.=== Warsaw Pact ===During the Socialist and the Warsaw Pact era (1947–1989), the Soviet Southern Group of Forces, 200,000 strong, was garrisoned in Hungary, complete with artillery, tank regiments, air force and missile troops (with nuclear weapons).", "It was, by all means, a very capable force but which had little contact with the local population.", "Between 1949 and 1955 there was also a huge effort to build a big Hungarian army.", "All procedures, disciplines, and equipment were exact copies of the Soviet Armed Forces in methods and material, but the huge costs collapsed the economy by 1956.During the autumn 1956 revolution, the army was divided.", "When the opening demonstrations on 23 October 1956 were fired upon by ÁVH secret policemen, Hungarian troops sent to crush the demonstrators instead provided their arms to the latter or joined them outright.", "While most major military units in the capital were neutral during the fighting, thousands of rank-and-file soldiers went over to the Revolution or at least provided the revolutionaries with arms.", "Many significant military units went over to the uprising in full, such as the armored unit commanded by Colonel Pál Maléter which joined forces with the insurgents at the Battle of the Corvin Passage.", "However, there were 71 recorded clashes between the people and the army between 24 and 29 October in fifty localities; these were typically either defending certain military targets from rebel attack or fighting the insurgents outright, depending on the commander.", "When the Soviets crushed the Revolution on 4 November, the Army put up sporadic and disorganized resistance; lacking orders, many of their divisions were simply overpowered by the invading Soviets.After the Revolution was crushed in Budapest, the Soviets took away most of the Hungarian People's Army's equipment, including dismantling the entire Hungarian Air Force, because a sizable percentage of the Army fought alongside the Hungarian revolutionaries.", "Three years later in 1959, the Soviets began helping rebuild the Hungarian People's Army and resupplying them with new arms and equipment as well as rebuilding the Hungarian Air Force.", "Satisfied that Hungary was stable and firmly committed once again to the Warsaw Pact, the Soviets offered the Hungarians a choice of withdrawal for all Soviet troops in the country.", "The new Hungarian leader, János Kádár, asked for all the 200,000 Soviet troops to stay, because it allowed the socialist Hungarian People's Republic to neglect its own draft-based armed forces, quickly leading to deterioration of the military.", "Large sums of money were saved that way and spent on feel-good socialist measures for the population, thus Hungary could become \"the happiest barrack\" in the Soviet Bloc.", "Limited modernization though, would happen from the mid-1970s onward to replace older stocks of military equipment with newer ones.", "Thus enabling the HPA, in a small way, to honor its Warsaw Pact commitments coupled with a mid-1980s organization which abolished divisions and replaced them with ground force brigades and a singular air force command.The HPA was divided into the Ground and Air Forces.", "Until 1985, the Ground Forces were organized into:* 5th Hungarian Army at Székesfehérvár** 7th Motor Rifle Division at Kiskunfélegyháza** 8th Motor Rifle Division at Zalaegerszeg** 9th Motor Rifle Division at Kaposvár** 11th Tank Division at Tata* 3rd Army Corps at Cegléd** 4th Motor Rifle Division at Gyöngyös** 15th Motor Rifle Division at NyíregyházaAir Forces Headquarters at Veszprém* 11th Air-defense Artillery Brigade at Budapest, after 1977 Érd* 1st Air Defense Division at Veszprém** 47th Fighter Regiment at Pápa** 31st Fighter Regiment at Taszár** 104th Air-defense Artillery Regiment Nagytarcsa after Szabadszállás* 2nd Air Defense Division at Miskolc** 59th Fighter Regiment at Szolnok** 105th Air-defense Artillery Regiment at MiskolcTraining for conscripts was poor and most of those drafted were actually used as a free labour force (esp.", "railway track construction and agricultural work) after just a few weeks of basic rifle training.", "Popular opinion grew very negative towards the Hungarian People's Army and most young men tried to avoid the draft with bogus medical excuses.=== The 1990s and Twenty-first century ===In 1997, Hungary spent about 123 billion HUF (US$560 million) on defence.", "Hungary became a member of NATO on 12 March 1999.Hungary provided airbases and support for NATO's air campaign against Serbia and has provided military units to serve in Kosovo as part of the NATO-led KFOR operation.", "Hungary has sent a 300 strong logistics unit to Iraq in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, though public opinion opposed the country's participation in the war.", "One soldier was killed in action due to a roadside bomb in Iraq.", "The parliament refused to extend the one year mandate of the logistics unit and all troops have returned from Iraq as of mid-January 2005.Hungarian troops were still in Afghanistan as of early 2005 as part of the International Security Assistance Force.", "There were reports that Hungary would most probably replace its old UAZ 4x4 vehicles with the modern Iveco LMV types, but it never happened.", "Hungarian forces deploy the Gepárd anti-materiel rifle, which is a heavy 12.7 mm portable gun.", "This equipment is also in use by the Turkish and Croatian armed forces, among other armies.In a significant move for modernization, Hungary decided in 2001 to lease 14 JAS 39 Gripen fighter aircraft (the contract includes 2 dual-seater airplanes and 12 single-seaters as well as ground maintenance facilities, a simulator, and training for pilots and ground crews) for 210 billion HUF (about 800 million EUR).", "Five Gripens (3 single-seaters and 2 two-seaters) arrived in Kecskemét on 21 March 2006, expected to be transferred to the Hungarian Air Force on March 30.10 or 14 more aircraft of this type might follow up in the coming years.In early 2015, Hungary and Sweden extended the lease-program for another 10 years with a total of 32,000 flight-hours (95% increase) for only a 45% increase in cost.=== Zrínyi 2026 Modernization Program ===Hungarian soldiers on exerciseIn 2016, PM Orbán confirmed that Hungary will meet its NATO obligations by increasing its defense spending to about 2 percent of GDP.", "The official government \"Zrínyi 2026\" program of upgrading military equipment is scheduled to last until 2026, but the timeline has been expanded until 2030–2032.New purchased and ordered equipment so far includes new CZ BREN 2 assault rifles (to be manufactured locally), helicopters, transport and trainer aircraft, tanks, armored vehicles, radars and surface-to-air missiles.Hungary ordered 20 H145M and 16 H225M in 2018.All H145M aircraft had been delivered by the end of 2021.H225M are expected to arrive between 2023 and 2024.In early 2019 the first batch of Carl Gustaf M4s has arrived, starting to replace the old RPG-7s.In late 2019, Hungary signed a contract for 44 Leopard 2 A7+ tanks and 24 PzH 2000 howitzers for €300 million to be delivered in 2021 to 2025.In 2020 Hungary and Rheinmetall Group have signed a contract to start manufacturing the Lynx infantry fighting vehicle family in Hungary.", "Estimated to start arriving around 2024–2025, the first batch of 200+ Lynx vehicles are expected to reach operational capability in the Hungarian Defence Forces by 2026-2027In 2020 the Hungarian airforce ordered two KC-390 cargo and tanker aircraft to be delivered in 2023 and 2024.This year Kongsberg and Raytheon were awarded a 410 million EUR contract by Hungary for NASAMS surface-to air missile systems.", "11 ELM-2084 radars were also ordered in late 2020.The Mistral SAM system has been upgraded: new M3 missiles were purchased and both the launchers and the MCPs were modernized.Hungarian special forcesIn 2021 Spike LR2 anti-tank missiles has been ordered, mainly for the Lynx IFVs.", "In August 2021 contract has been signed with SAAB to upgrade the Hungarian Gripen fleet to the MS20 Block 2 standard.", "This upgrade greatly increases both Gripen's combat and communication capabilities, as well as access to a wide range of weapons that can be integrated on Hungarian Air Force Gripen fighters.", "The cutting edge IRIS-T missile has been also ordered in 2021.Meteor and GBU-49 is planned to be purchased for the Gripen's arsenal.", "There is a plan to also set up a second fighter squadron, but it has not been confirmed.", "File:CZ BREN 2.jpg|CZ BREN 2 - standard issue rifle of the Hungarian Armed ForcesFile:Saab JAS-39D Gripen, Hungary - Air Force JP6627802.jpg|Gripen fighters of HungaryFile:Hungarian Lynx APC.jpg|Hungarian Lynx IFVFile:Hungarian Leopard 2.jpg|Hungarian Leopard 2A4File:Hungarian H145 Helicopters.jpg|Hungarian H145M on exerciseFile:Hungarian H225 Helicopter.jpg|Hungarian H225M" ], [ "Current international missions", "The Hungarian Defence Forces currently takes part in the following international missions:*EUFOR Operation Althea** HDF EUFOR Althea Contingent, Bosnia and Herzegovina* EUTM Mali** HDF Training Contingent, Mali* Kosovo Force** HDF KFOR Contingent, Kosovo*United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus** HDF UNFICYP Contingent, CyprusOther missions include: United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, EUNAVFOR MED, MINURSO and EUMM" ], [ "See also", "* Military history of Hungary* Military ranks of Hungary* Defence Force" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Matei, Florina Cristiana.", "\"The impact of NATO membership on military effectiveness: Hungary\" In The Routledge handbook of civil-military relations, pp.", "219–231.Routledge, 2013.", "* Martinusz, Zoltan.", "\"Defense Reform in Hungary: A Decade of Strenuous Efforts and Missed Opportunities.\"", "in Gyarmati & Winkler, eds., Post-Cold War Defense Reform: Lessons Learned in Europe and the United States (2002)." ], [ "External links", "* The homepage of the Hungarian Ministry of Defence * Soviet Nuclear Weapons in Hungary 1961-1991" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Hungary" ], [ "Introduction", "Hungary wields considerable influence in Central and Eastern Europe and is a middle power in international affairs.", "The foreign policy of Hungary includes commitments to international development, international law, European integration, Atlantic co-operation and increased co-operation with the Eastern World.", "The Hungarian economy is fairly open and relies strongly on international trade.Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955 and holds current membership with the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, the WTO, the World Bank, the AIIB and the IMF.", "Hungary took on the presidency of the Council of the European Union for half a year in 2011 and the next will be in 2024.In 2015, Hungary was the fifth largest OECD Non-DAC donor of development aid in the world, which represents 0.13% of its Gross National Income.", "In this regard, Hungary stands before Spain, Israel or Russia.Hungary's capital city, Budapest is home to more than 100 embassies and representative bodies as an international political actor.", "Hungary hosts the main and regional headquarters of many international organizations as well, including European Institute of Innovation and Technology, European Police College, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Centre for Democratic Transition, Institute of International Education, International Labour Organization, International Organization for Migration, International Red Cross, Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe, Danube Commission and even others.From 1989, Hungary's top foreign policy goal was achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations.", "Hungary joined the Partnership for Peace program in 1994 and has actively supported the IFOR and SFOR missions in Bosnia.", "Hungary also improved its often frosty neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Ukraine, Slovakia, and Romania.", "These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations.", "However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare up.", "Hungary since 1989 has signed all of the OSCE documents, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997.Hungary's record of implementing CSCE ''Helsinki Final Act'' provisions, including those on the reunification of divided families, remains among the best in Central and Eastern Europe.Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by the anti-Soviet leader Imre Nagy in November 1956, Hungary's foreign policy generally followed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989.During the Communist period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria.", "It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact and Comecon, and it was the first country to withdraw from those organizations.", "After 1989, Hungary oriented more towards the West, joining NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.In 2010, Hungary initiated its Eastern Opening Policy, marking a commitment to enhancing relations with nations in the global East.", "Meeting of Visegrád Group leaders, plus Germany and France in 2013United Nations conference in the assembly hall of House of Magnates in the Hungarian Parliament" ], [ "Overview", "As with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography.", "For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers—the Ottomans, the Habsburg dynasty, the Germans during World War II, and the Soviets during the Cold War—and a geography of regional instability and separation from Hungarian minorities living in neighboring countries.", "Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a direct response to these factors.", "From 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal was achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations.", "Hungary joined the Partnership for Peace program in 1994 and has actively supported the IFOR and SFOR missions in Bosnia.", "The Horn government achieved Hungary's most important foreign policy successes of the post-communist era by securing invitations to join both NATO and the European Union in 1997.Hungary became a member of NATO in 1999, and a member of the EU in 2004.Hungary also has improved its often frosty neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine.", "These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations.", "However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare up.", "Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the CSCE/OSCE follow-on documents since 1989, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997.Hungary's record of implementing CSCE '''Helsinki Final Act''' provisions, including those on the reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe.", "Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955.;The Gabčíkovo - Nagymaros Dams projectThis involves Hungary and Czechoslovakia, and was agreed on September 16, 1977 (\"Budapest Treaty\").", "The treaty envisioned a cross-border barrage system between the towns Gabčíkovo, Czechoslovakia and Nagymaros, Hungary.", "After an intensive campaign, the project became widely hated as a symbol of the old communist regime.", "In 1989 the Hungarian government decided to suspend it.", "In its sentence from September 1997, the International Court of Justice stated that both sides breached their obligation and that the 1977 Budapest Treaty is still valid.", "In 1998 the Slovak government turned to the International Court, demanding the Nagymaros part to be built.", "The international dispute was partially solved in 2017.On March 19, 2008, Hungary recognized Kosovo as an independent country.Relations between Hungary and its Western partners have strained, because Orban's government has maintained relations with Russia despite of sanctions against Russia after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "'''Illicit drugs:'''Major trans-shipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and cannabis and transit point for South American cocaine destined for Western Europe; limited producer of precursor chemicals, particularly for amphetamines and methamphetamines'''Refugee protection:'''The Hungarian border barrier was built in 2015, and Hungary was criticized by other European countries for using tear gas and water cannons on refugees of the Syrian Civil War as they were trying to pass the country.Since 2017, Hungary–Ukraine relations have rapidly deteriorated over the issue of the Hungarian minority in Ukraine." ], [ "Hungary and Central Asia", "Viktor Orbán at the 8th Summit of the Organization of Turkic StatesA number of Hungarian anthropologists and linguists have long had an interest in the Turkic peoples, fueled by the eastern origin of the Hungarians' ancestors.", "The Hungarian ethnomusicologist Bence Szabolcsi explained this motivation as follows: \"Hungarians are the outermost branch leaning this way from age-old tree of the great Asian musical culture rooted in the souls of a variety of peoples living from China through Central Asia to the Black Sea\".Since the political transformation in 1990, Hungary has prioritized its diplomatic engagements with the Turkic world.", "in 2018, Hungary became an observer within the Organisation of Turkic States, underscoring a deepened engagement in regional cooperation." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Hungary maintains diplomatic relations with (all UN member states except Bhutan and Vanuatu):425x425px#CountryDate1234—567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435''''''36''''''3738394041424344''''''45464726 February 48''''''4950515253545556''''''57''''''5859606162636421 March 1964654 April 196466''''''6768697071727313 August 1966742 7524 January 7622 February 19687729 May 1968788 June 19687930 March 8016 April 19698182838410 February 19708586878889909192939495969798991001011021031041058 February 197510610710826 June 1099 July 197511016 July 19751114 September 19751121 December 197511323 December 197511411511611711811928 June 12012112212312412512612712829 March 1983129130131—132133134135136—13713813914014114214314414514614714814915015115215315415515615715815916016116216316416516616716816917024 January 171172173174175176177178—179180181182183184185186187188189190" ], [ "Relations by region and country", "===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations BeganNotes (See Hungary in the European Union) * Hungary joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004.", "(See Hungary in NATO) * Hungary joined NATO as a full member on 12 March 1999.===Africa=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes * Cape Verde is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Hungary is accredited to Cape Verde from its embassy in Lisbon, Portugal and maintains an honorary consulate in Praia.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to Hungary from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in Geneva, Switzerland.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "(See Ghana–Hungary relations)* Ghana is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Prague, Czech Republic.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Accra.", "* Guinea-Bissau is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.", "* Hungary is accredited to Guinea-Bissau from its embassy in Lisbon, Portugal.", "* Hungary is accredited to Mauritania from its embassy in Rabat, Morocco.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Rabat.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Latifa Akharbach, Morocco's under-secretary of Minister of Foreign Affairs visited Hungary in 2007.", "*Hungary is represented in Uganda by its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya and an honorary consulate in Kampala.", "*Hungary is realizing the largest foreign development program in its history in Uganda.", "===Americas=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes(See Argentina–Hungary relations)* Argentina has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "* Belize does not have an accreditation to Hungary.", "* Hungary does not have an accreditation to Belize.1927(See Brazil–Hungary relations)* Brazil has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.", "1964(See Canada–Hungary relations)* Canada has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Ottawa and a consulate-general in Toronto.28 March 1973(See Colombia–Hungary relations)* Colombia has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Hungary is accredited to Dominica from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.1925(See Hungary–Mexico relations)Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1864, during the time of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "Diplomatic relations were established between Hungary and Mexico in 1925 and were suspended in 1941.They were re-established on 14 May 1974.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Budapest.1922(See Hungary–United States relations)Normal bilateral relations between Hungary and the U.S. were resumed in December 1945 when a U.S. ambassador was appointed and the embassy was re-opened.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Los Angeles, Chicago and New York.", "* United States has an embassy in Budapest.", "(See Hungary–Uruguay relations)* Hungary is accredited to Uruguay from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina and has an embassy office in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.===Asia=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes(See Armenia–Hungary relations)On 31 August 2012, Armenia severed relations with Hungary following the extradition of Ramil Safarov.", "* There are around 15,000 people of Armenian descent living in Hungary.", "(See Azerbaijan–Hungary relations)* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Baku.1949-10-04(See Hungary-China relations)* China has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Hong Kong and Shanghai.", "* Officials from Hungary regularly visit China on trade missions, a factor that helped enable the buyout of distressed Hungarian chemical maker Borsodchem by the Chinese company Wanhua Industrial Group.", "(See Hungary–India relations)* Hungary has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India has an embassy in Budapest.", "1955(See Hungary–Indonesia relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Jakarta.", "opened in Jakarta, the Indonesian capital, in 1957.Hungary has two honorary consuls in Indonesia, one in Bandung, West Java and another in Denpasar, Bali.", "A third consul will be opened in Surabaya, East Java.", "* Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Hungary * Indonesia has an embassy in Budapest.", "and there is a commercial developmental center too.1939* Since 1951, Hungary has an embassy in Tehran.", "* Iran has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary is committed to expand cooperation with the Islamic Republic of Iran.", "(See Hungary–Kurdistan Region relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Baghdad.", "* Iraq has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Between August 2003 and March 2005, Hungary had contributed to more than 300 soldiers to the Multinational force in Iraq.", "(See Hungary–Israel relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Tel Aviv and 4 honorary consulates (in Eilat, Haifa, Jerusalem and Tel Aviv).", "* Israel has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Szeged.", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "(See Hungary–Japan relations)* After World War II, both countries re-established diplomatic relations in August 1959.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Tokyo and 2 honorary consulates (in Hamamatsu and Osaka).", "* Japan has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary1969(See Hungary–Malaysia relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Malaysia Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Hungary * Hungary–Malaysia relations on www.kln.gov.my 1959-05-29* Hungary is accredited to Mongolia from its embassy in Beijing, China and though an honorary consulate in Ulaanbaatar.", "* Mongolia has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Mongolian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Hungary (in Mongolian only) (See Hungary–North Korea relations)* Relations between the two countries existed since the Korean War, but however have evolved into conflicts.1965-11-26(See Hungary–Pakistan relations)* Since 1970, Hungary has an embassy in Islamabad and an honorary consulate in Karachi.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Budapest1988-11-23(See Hungary–Palestine relations)* Hungary has a representative office in Ramallah.", "* Palestine has an embassy in Budapest.18 October 1990* Hungary has an embassy in Doha* Qatar has an embassy in Budapest* On 20 August 2023, President Katalin Novák welcomed Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani to an official visit in Hungary'''.'''", "During the visit, Qatar agreed to supply Hungary with LNG starting in 2027.1 February 1989 (See Hungary–South Korea relations)The establishment of diplomatic relations between Hungary and the Republic of Korea began on 1 February 1989.", "* Hungary and South Korea have good relations.", "* Permanent missions between the two countries were announced during the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul.", "The announcement made Hungary the first Eastern Bloc country to exchange ambassadors with South Korea.", "* Hungary has a Working Holiday Program Agreement with South Korea.", "** Hungarian embassy in Seoul.", "** South Korean embassy in Budapest.", "* South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary (See Hungary–Sri Lanka relations)Sri Lanka has an embassy in Vienna, Austria that is accredited to Hungary and has an honorary consulate in Budapest Hungary maintains an honorary consulate in Colombo, Sri Lanka.", "Hungary contributed to relief after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, and has since stepped up aid to Sri Lanka.1973-10-24* Since 1978, Hungary has an embassy in Bangkok and an honorary consulate in Pattaya.", "* Since 1989, Thailand has an embassy in Budapest.", "Thailand has also a commercial office in Budapest.", "(See Hungary–Turkey relations) freedom fighters of 1848–1849 at Protestant Cemetery in Şişli, Istanbul.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate–general in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Keszthely.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the OECD, the NATO, the OSCE and the WTO.", "Also, Hungary is an EU member and Turkey is a candidate.", "Hungary supports Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.", "Hungary is also an observer nation in the Turkic Council.", "* Both countries have historical ties dating back to the 16th century.", "Hungary hosts a number of Ottoman-era monuments in cities such as Budapest, Eger, and Pécs.", "* Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary 1950-02-03(See Hungary–Vietnam relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Hanoi and an honorary consulate in Ho Chi Minh City.", "* Vietnam has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary===Europe=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes(See Albania–Hungary relations)Austria-Hungary supported Albanian Declaration of Independence in 1912.", "* Albania has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Tirana.", "(See Austria–Hungary relations)Austrian-Hungarian relations are the neighborly relations between Austria and Hungary, two member states of the European Union.", "Both countries have a long common history since the ruling dynasty of Austria, the Habsburgs, inherited the Hungarian throne in the 16th century.", "Both have been part of the now-defunct Austro-Hungarian Monarchy from 1867 to 1918.The two countries established diplomatic relations in 1921, after their separation.", "* Austria has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Vienna and a consulate-general in Innsbruck.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "*Belgium has an embassy in Budapest.", "*Hungary has an embassy in Brussels and 2 honorary consulates (in Antwerp and Liège).", "*Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "*See also:Hungarians in Belgium and Belgians in Hungary1992-04-10* Hungary recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence on April 9, 1992.", "* Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Sarajevo.1920(See Bulgaria–Hungary relations)* Bulgaria has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Sofia and an honorary consulate in Varna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "(See Croatia–Hungary relations)* Croatia has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "(See Czech Republic–Hungary relations)* Czech Republic has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "(See Denmark–Hungary relations)* Denmark has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.1924-02-24*Estonia has an embassy in Budapest.", "*Hungary has an embassy in Tallinn and two honorary consulates (in Tallinn and Tartu).", "*Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "(See Finland–Hungary relations)* Hungary recognised Finland on August 23, 1920.Finland recognised Hungary on September 10, 1920.", "* Finland broke off diplomatic relations on September 20, 1944.", "* Diplomatic relations were re-established on May 20, 1947.", "* Both national languages, Finnish and Hungarian, are Uralic languages, which has led to cultural exchange albeit at a much smaller scale compared to the third major Uralic-speaking country, Estonia.", "* Finland has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Helsinki and four honorary consulates (in Turku, Mariehamn, Tampere and Joensuu).", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "(See France–Hungary relations)* France has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "(See Germany–Hungary relations)* Germany has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "(See Greece–Hungary relations)* Greece has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Athens.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.1976* Since 1991, Hungary has an embassy in Dublin and 2 honorary consulates (in Athlone and Cork).", "* Since 1996, Ireland has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and the Council of Europe.", "* There are approximately 8,034 Hungarians living in Ireland.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Rome, a general consulate in Milan, and 11 honorary consulates (in Bari, Bologna, Florence, Genoa, Naples, Palermo, Perugia, Trieste, Turin, Venice and Verona).", "* The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (today Lombardy, Veneto, South Tyrol, Trentino and Friuli-Venezia Giulia in Italy) and Hungary were crownlands of the Austrian Empire.", "* Italy has an embassy in Budapest and 3 honorary consulates (in Nyíregyháza, Pécs and Szeged).", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "(See Hungary–Kosovo relations)Hungary recognized Kosovo on 19 March 2008.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Pristina.", "* Kosovo has an embassy in Budapest.1921-07-21* Diplomatic relations between the two states were renewed on September 2, 1991.", "* Hungary has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary* Hungary has an embassy in Vilnius and an honorary consulate in Kaunas.", "* Lithuania has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Hungary (in Lithuanian only) * Hungary has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, of the European Union and of NATO.1964* Hungary is accredited to Malta from its embassy in Rome, Italy and through an honorary consulate in Valletta.", "* Malta is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Vienna, Austria and through an honorary consulate in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Direction of the Hungarian representations in Malta* Direction of the Maltese representations in HungaryHungary recognized Montenegro shortly after their declaration of independence.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Podgorica.", "* Montenegro has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary is an EU member and Montenegro is an candidate.", "(See Hungary–Netherlands relations)* The Netherlands has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.", "* Hungary has an embassy in The Hague and six honorary consulates (in Amsterdam, Arnhem, Aerdenhout, Winsum, 's-Hertogenbosch, and Curaçao).", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary1920* Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1920, but diplomatic representations were set up only in 1947–1948.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Oslo and 2 honorary consulates (in Stavanger and Sarpsborg).", "* Norway has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "(See Hungary-Poland relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Warsaw, a consulate-general in Kraków and a vice-consulate in Wrocław.", "* Poland has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.1974-07-01* Hungary has an embassy in Lisbon and 3 honorary consulates (in Funchal, Porto and Tavira).", "* Portugal has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.1920(See Hungary–Romania relations)* Relations between the two states date back from the Middle Ages.", "Until the end of World War I, Transylvania, Banat, Crişana and Maramureş were part of the Kingdom of Hungary, after the war they became part of the Romanian territory.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Bucharest, 2 general consulates in Miercurea Ciuc and Cluj, and 4 honorary consulates in Iași, Constanța, Drobeta-Turnu Severin and Timișoara.", "* Romania has an embassy in Budapest and 2 general consulates in Gyula and Szeged.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "(See Hungary–Russia relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Moscow and two consulate-generals (in Saint Petersburg and Yekaterinburg).", "* Russia has an embassy in Budapest and a consulate-general in Debrecen.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "* Both countries legalized homosexuality while opposing same-sex marriages, and outlawed LGBT propaganda towards minors since 2013 (Russia) and 2021 (Hungary) respectively.1882-11-21(See Hungary–Serbia relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Belgrade and a general consulate in Subotica.", "* Serbia has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Szeged.", "* Hungary is an EU member and Serbia is an candidate.1993(See Hungary–Slovakia relations)* Before 1920, the territory which called Slovakia today was an integral part of the Kingdom of Hungary * Hungary has an embassy in Bratislava.", "* Slovakia has an embassy Budapest and a general consulate in Békéscsaba.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Both countries have an ethnic minority from the other state: in Hungary there are around 3,000 Ethnic Slovenes, and in Slovenia there are around 7,713 Ethnic Hungarians.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "* Slovenia has an embassy in Budapest and a general consulate in Szentgotthárd.", "* The countries share 102 km of common border.", "* Both are full members of NATO, European Union and the Schengen Agreement.", "* See also Hungarian Slovenes1938-01-13(See Hungary–Spain relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Madrid, a consulate-general in Barcelona and 5 honorary consulates (in Gijón, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca, Tenerife, and Valencia).", "* Spain has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Spanish Ministry of Foreign Relations about the relation with Hungary (in Spanish only)1945-12-28(See Hungary–Sweden relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "(See Hungary–Ukraine relations)* Hungary has an embassy in Kyiv, a consulate general in Uzhhorod, a consulate in Berehove and an honorary consulate in Lviv.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Budapest and a general consulate in Nyíregyháza.", "* There are around 155,000 Hungarians in Ukraine who live in Ukraine, mostly in the Zakarpattia Oblast at the border with Hungary.", "* Both countries share 103 km of common border.", "* See also Hungarians in Ukraine* Hungarian consulate in Berehove (in Hungarian and Ukrainian only) 1920(See Hungary–United Kingdom relations)* Hungary has an embassy in London and 5 honorary consulates (in Belfast, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Liverpool and Torquay).", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "* See also Hungarian migration to the United Kingdom* British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relation with Hungary===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1972* Australia is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Vienna, Austria and maintains an honorary consulate in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Canberra, a consulate-general in Sydney and four honorary consulate (in Adelaide, Brisbane, Melbourne and Perth).", "* Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Hungary* Hungary has an embassy in Wellington.", "* New Zealand is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Rome, Italy and maintains an honorary consulate in Budapest." ], [ "Foreign criticism", "In December 2010, the Fidesz government adopted a press and media law which threatens fines on media that engage in \"unbalanced coverage\".", "The law aroused criticism in the European Union as possibly \"a direct threat to democracy\".In 2013, the government adopted a new constitution that modified several aspects of the institutional and legal framework in Hungary.", "These changes have been criticized by the Council of Europe, the European Union and Human Rights Watch as possibly undermining the rule of law and human rights protection." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Hungary* List of diplomatic missions of Hungary* Visa requirements for Hungarian citizens" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Borhi, László, \"In the Power Arena: U.S.-Hungarian Relations, 1942–1989,\" ''The Hungarian Quarterly'' (Budapest), 51 (Summer 2010), pp 67–81.", "* Glant, Tibor, \"Ninety Years of United States-Hungarian Relations,\" ''Eger Journal of American Studies,'' 13 (2012), pp 163–83.", "* Hornyak, Arpad.", "''Hungarian-Yugoslav Diplomatic Relations, 1918–1927'' (East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press; 2013) 426 pages.", "* Niklasson, Tomas.", "\"Regime stability and foreign policy change: interaction between domestic and foreign policy in Hungary 1956-1994\" (PhD dissertation Lund University, 2006) online.", "* Váli, Ferenc A, \"The Foreign Policy of Hungary\" in Kuhlman, James A (ed.", "), ''The Foreign Policies of Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Determinants'' (Sijthoff, Leyden, 1978)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henryk Sienkiewicz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz''' ( , ; 5 May 1846 – 15 November 1916), also known by the pseudonym '''Litwos''' (), was an epic Polish writer.", "He is remembered for his historical novels, such as the Trilogy series and especially for his internationally known best-seller ''Quo Vadis'' (1896).Born into an impoverished Polish noble family in Russian-ruled Congress Poland, in the late 1860s he began publishing journalistic and literary pieces.", "In the late 1870s he traveled to the United States, sending back travel essays that won him popularity with Polish readers.", "In the 1880s he began serializing novels that further increased his popularity.", "He soon became one of the most popular Polish writers of the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, and numerous translations gained him international renown, culminating in his receipt of the 1905 Nobel Prize in Literature for his \"outstanding merits as an epic writer.", "\"Many of his novels remain in print.", "In Poland he is known for his \"Trilogy\" of historical novels – ''With Fire and Sword'', ''The Deluge'', and ''Sir Michael'' – set in the 17th-century Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; internationally he is known for ''Quo Vadis'', set in Nero's Rome.", "''The Trilogy'' and ''Quo Vadis'' have been filmed, the latter several times, with Hollywood's 1951 version receiving the most international recognition." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life ===Sienkiewicz was born on 5 May 1846 in Wola Okrzejska, now a village in the central part of the eastern Polish region of Lubelskie, then part of the Russian Empire.", "His family were impoverished Polish nobles, on his father's side deriving from Tatars who had settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "His parents were Józef Sienkiewicz (1813–96) of the Oszyk coat of arms and Stefania Cieciszowska (1820–73).", "His mother descended from an old and affluent Podlachian family.", "He had five siblings: an older brother, Kazimierz (who died during January Uprising of 1863-1864), and four sisters: Aniela, Helena, Zofia and Maria.", "His family were entitled to use the Polish Oszyk coat of arms.", "Wola Okrzejska belonged to the writer's maternal grandmother, Felicjana Cieciszowska.", "His family moved several times, and young Henryk spent his childhood on family estates in Grabowce Górne, Wężyczyn and Burzec.", "In September 1858 he began his education in Warsaw, where the family would finally settle in 1861, having bought a tenement house (''kamienica'') in eastern Warsaw's Praga district.", "He received relatively poor school-grades except in the humanities, notably Polish language and history.", "Monument atop Sienkiewicz Mound at Okrzeja.", "At left is the writer's family's village, Wola Okrzejska, where he was born.Due to hard times, the 19-year-old Sienkiewicz took a job as tutor to the Weyher family in Płońsk.", "It was probably in this period that he wrote his first novel, ''Ofiara'' (Sacrifice); he is thought to have destroyed the manuscript of the never-published novel.", "He also worked on his first novel to be published, ''Na marne'' (In Vain).", "He completed extramural secondary-school classes, and in 1866 he received his secondary-school diploma.", "He first tried to study medicine, then law, at the Imperial University of Warsaw, but he soon transferred to the university's Institute of Philology and History, where he acquired a thorough knowledge of literature and Old Polish Language.", "Little is known about this period of his life, other than that he moved out of his parents' home, tutored part-time, and lived in poverty.", "His situation improved somewhat in 1868 when he became a tutor to the princely Woroniecki family.In 1867 he wrote a rhymed piece, \"''Sielanka Młodości''\" (\"Idyll of Youth\"), which was rejected by ''Tygodnik Illustrowany'' (The Illustrated Weekly).", "In 1869 he debuted as a journalist; ''Przegląd Tygodniowy'' (1866–1904) (The Weekly Review) ran his review of a play on 18 April 1869, and shortly afterward ''The Illustrated Weekly'' printed an essay of his about the late-Renaissance Polish poet Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński.", "He completed his university studies in 1871, though he failed to receive a diploma because he did not pass the examination in Greek language.", "Sienkiewicz also wrote for ''Gazeta Polska'' (The Polish Gazette) and ''Niwa'' (magazine), under the pen name \"Litwos\".", "In 1873 he began writing a column, ''\"Bez tytułu''\" (\"Without a title\"), in ''The Polish Gazette''; in 1874 a column, \"''Sprawy bieżące''\" (\"Current matters\") for ''Niwa''; and in 1875 the column, \"''Chwila obecna''\" (\"The present moment\").", "He also collaborated on a Polish translation, published in 1874, of Victor Hugo's last novel, ''Ninety-Three''.", "In June that year he became co-owner of ''Niwa'' (in 1878, he would sell his share in the magazine).Meanwhile, in 1872, he had debuted as a fiction writer with his short novel ''Na marne'' (In Vain), published in the magazine ''Wieniec'' (Garland).", "This was followed by ''Humoreski z teki Woroszyłły'' (Humorous Sketches from Woroszyłła's Files, 1872), ''Stary Sługa'' (The Old Servant, 1875), ''Hania'' (Sienkiewicz) (1876) and ''Selim Mirza'' (1877).", "The last three are known as the \"Little Trilogy\".", "These publications made him a prominent figure in Warsaw's journalistic-literary world, and a guest at popular dinner parties hosted by the actress Helena Modrzejewska.=== Travels abroad ===Sienkiewicz in safari outfit, 1890sIn 1874 Henryk Sienkiewicz was briefly engaged to Maria Keller, and traveled abroad to Brussels and Paris.", "Soon after he returned, his fiancée's parents cancelled the engagement.", "In 1876 Sienkiewicz went to the United States with Helena Modrzejewska (soon to become famous in the U.S. as actress Helena Modjeska) and her husband.", "He traveled via London to New York and then on to San Francisco, staying for some time in California.", "His travels were financed by ''Gazeta Polska'' (The Polish Gazette) in exchange for a series of travel essays: Sienkiewicz wrote Listy z podróży (Letters from a Journey) and ''Listy Litwosa z Podróży'' (Litwos' Letters from a Journey), which were published in ''The Polish Gazette'' in 1876–78 and republished as a book in 1880.Other articles by him also appeared in ''Przegląd Tygodniowy'' (The Weekly Review) and ''Przewodnik Naukowy i Literacki'' (The Learned and Literary Guide), discussing the situation of American Polonia.", "He briefly lived in the town of Anaheim, later in Anaheim Landing (now Seal Beach, California).", "He hunted, visited Native American camps, traveled in the nearby mountains (the Santa Ana, Sierra Madre, San Jacinto, and San Bernardino Mountains), and visited the Mojave Desert, Yosemite Valley, and the silver mines at Virginia City, Nevada.", "On 20 August 1877 he witnessed Modjeska's U.S. theatrical debut at San Francisco's California Theatre, which he reviewed for ''The Polish Gazette''; and on 8 September he published in the Daily Evening Post an article, translated into English for him by Modjeska, on \"Poland and Russia\".In America, he also continued writing fiction, in 1877 publishing Szkice węglem (Charcoal Sketches) in ''The Polish Gazette''.", "He wrote a play, ''Na przebój'', soon retitled ''Na jedną kartę'' (On a Single Card), later staged at Lviv (1879) and, to better reception, at Warsaw (1881).", "He also wrote a play for Modjeska, aimed at an American public, ''Z walki tutejszych partii'' (Partisan Struggles), but it was never performed or published, and the manuscript appears to be lost.On 24 March 1878 Sienkiewicz left the U.S. for Europe.", "He first stayed in London, then for a year in Paris, delaying his return to Poland due to rumors of possible conscription into the Imperial Russian Army on the eve of a predicted new war with Turkey.=== Return to Poland ===Sienkiewicz by Kazimierz Pochwalski, 1890In April 1879 Sienkiewicz returned to Polish soil.", "In Lviv (Lwów) he gave a lecture that was not well attended: \"''Z Nowego Jorku do Kalifornii''\" (\"From New York to California\").", "Subsequent lectures in Szczawnica and Krynica in July–August that year, and in Warsaw and Poznań the following year, were much more successful.", "In late summer 1879 he went to Venice and Rome, which he toured for the next few weeks, on 7 November 1879 returning to Warsaw.", "There he met Maria Szetkiewicz, whom he married on 18 August 1881.The marriage was reportedly a happy one.", "The couple had two children, Henryk Józef (1882–1959) and Jadwiga Maria (1883–1969).", "It was a short-lived marriage, however, because on 18 August 1885 Maria died of tuberculosis.In 1879 the first collected edition of Sienkiewicz's works was published, in four volumes; the series would continue until 1917, ending with a total of 17 volumes.", "He also continued writing journalistic pieces, mainly in ''The Polish Gazette'' and ''Niwa''.", "In 1881 he published a favorable review of the first collected edition of works by Bolesław Prus.In 1880 Sienkiewicz wrote a historical novella, Niewola tatarska (Tartar Captivity).", "In late 1881 he became editor-in-chief of a new Warsaw newspaper, ''Słowo'' (The Word).", "This substantially improved his finances.", "The year 1882 saw him heavily engaged in the running of the newspaper, in which he published a number of columns and short stories.", "Soon, however, he lost interest in the journalistic aspect and decided to focus more on his literary work.", "He paid less and less attention to his post of editor-in-chief, resigning it in 1887 but remaining editor of the paper's literary section until 1892.From 1883 he increasingly shifted his focus from short pieces to historical novels.", "He began work on the historical novel, ''Ogniem i Mieczem'' (With Fire and Sword).", "Initially titled ''Wilcze gniazdo'' (The Wolf's Lair), it appeared in serial installments in ''The Word'' from May 1883 to March 1884.It also ran concurrently in the Kraków newspaper, ''Czas'' (Time).Sienkiewicz soon began writing the second volume of his Trilogy, ''Potop'' (The Deluge).", "It ran in ''The Word'' from December 1884 to September 1886.Beginning in 1884, Sienkiewicz accompanied his wife Maria to foreign sanatoriums.", "After her death, he kept on traveling Europe, leaving his children with his late wife's parents, though he often returned to Poland, particularly staying for long periods in Warsaw and Kraków beginning in the 1890s.", "After his return to Warsaw in 1887, the third volume of his Trilogy appeared – ''Pan Wołodyjowski'' (Sir Michael) – running in ''The Word'' from May 1887 to May 1888.The Trilogy established Sienkiewicz as the most popular contemporary Polish writer.Sienkiewicz received 15,000 rubles, in recognition of his achievements, from an unknown admirer who signed himself \"Michał Wołodyjowski\" after the Trilogy character.", "Sienkiewicz used the money to set up a fund, named for his wife and supervised by the Academy of Learning, to aid artists endangered by tuberculosis.In 1886, he visited Istanbul; in 1888, Spain.", "At the end of 1890 he went to Africa, resulting in ''Listy z Afryki'' (Letters from Africa, published in ''The Word'' in 1891–92, then collected as a book in 1893).", "The turn of the 1880s and 1890s was associated with intensive work on several novels.", "In 1891 his novel ''Without dogma'' (''Bez Dogmatu''), previously serialized in 1889–90 in ''The Word'', was published in book form.", "In 1892 Sienkiewicz signed an agreement for another novel, Rodzina Połanieckich (Children of the Soil), which was serialized in ''The Polish Gazette'' from 1893 and came out in book form in 1894.=== Later years ===Sienkiewicz had several romances, and in 1892 Maria Romanowska-Wołodkowicz, stepdaughter of a wealthy Odesan, entered his life.", "He and Romanowska became engaged there in 1893 and married in Kraków on 11 November.", "Just two weeks later, however, his bride left him; Sienkiewicz blamed \"in-law intrigues\".", "On 13 December 1895 he obtained papal consent to dissolution of the marriage.", "In 1904 he married his niece, Maria Babska.Sienkiewicz used his growing international fame to influence world opinion in favor of the Polish cause (throughout his life and since the late 18th century, Poland remained partitioned by her neighbors, Russia, Austria and Prussia, later Germany).", "He often criticized German policies of Germanization of the Polish minority in Germany; in 1901 he expressed support of Września schoolchildren who were protesting the banning of the Polish language.", "More cautiously, he called on Russia's government to introduce reforms in Russian-controlled Congress Poland.", "During the Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland, he advocated broader Polish autonomy within the Russian Empire.Nobel laureate, 1905Sienkiewicz maintained some ties with Polish right-wing National Democracy politicians and was critical of the socialists, but he was generally a moderate and declined to become a politician and a deputy to the Russian Duma.", "In the cultural sphere, he was involved in the creation of the Kraków and Warsaw monuments to Adam Mickiewicz.", "He supported educational endeavors and co-founded the Polska Macierz Szkolna organization.", "\"Reasonably wealthy\" by 1908 thanks to sales of his books, he often used his new wealth to support struggling writers.", "He helped gather funds for social-welfare projects such as starvation relief, and for construction of a tuberculosis sanatorium at Zakopane.", "He was as prominent in philanthropy as in literature.In February 1895 he wrote the first chapters of ''Quo Vadis''.", "The novel was serialized, beginning in March 1895, in Warsaw's ''Polish Gazette'', Kraków's ''Czas'' (Time), and Poznań's ''Dziennik Poznański'' (Poznań Daily).", "The novel was finished by March 1896.The book edition appeared later the same year, and soon gained international renown.", "In February 1897 he began serializing a new novel, ''Krzyżacy'' (The Teutonic Knights, or The Knights of the Cross); serialization finished in 1900, and the book edition appeared that year.In 1900, with a three-year delay due to the approaching centenary of Mickiewicz's birth, Sienkiewicz celebrated his own quarter-century, begun in 1872, as a writer.", "Special events were held in a number of Polish cities, including Kraków, Lwów and Poznań.", "A jubilee committee presented him with a gift from the Polish people: an estate at Oblęgorek, near Kielce, where he later opened a school for children.In 1905 he won a Nobel Prize for his lifetime achievements as an epic writer.", "In his acceptance speech, he said this honor was of particular value to a son of Poland: \"She was pronounced dead – yet here is proof that she lives on.... She was pronounced defeated – and here is proof that she is victorious.", "\"Sienkiewicz's residence at OblęgorekHis social and political activities resulted in a diminished literary output.", "He wrote a new historical novel, ''Na polu chwały'' (On the Field of Glory), that was meant as the beginning of a new trilogy; it was, however, criticized as being a lesser version of his original ''Trilogy'', and was never continued.", "Similarly, his contemporary novel ''Wiry'' (Whirlpools), 1910, which sought to criticize some of Sienkiewicz's political opponents, received a mostly polemical and politicized response.", "His 1910 novel for young people, ''W pustyni i w puszczy'' (In Desert and Wilderness), serialized in ''Kurier Warszawski'' (The Warsaw Courier), finishing in 1911, was much better received and became widely popular among children and young adults.After the outbreak of World War I, Sienkiewicz was visited at Oblęgorek by a Polish Legions cavalry unit under Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski.", "Soon after, he left for Switzerland.", "Together with Ignacy Paderewski and Erazm Piltz, he established an organization for Polish war relief.", "He also supported the work of the Red Cross.", "Otherwise, he eschewed politics, though shortly before his death he endorsed the Act of 5th November 1916, a declaration by Emperors Wilhelm II of Germany and Franz Joseph of Austria and king of Hungary, pledging the creation of a Kingdom of Poland envisioned as a puppet state allied with, and controlled by, the Central Powers.=== Death ===Sienkiewicz's tomb, St. John's Cathedral, WarsawSienkiewicz died on 15 November 1916, at the Grand Hotel du Lac in Vevey, Switzerland, where he was buried on 22 November.", "The cause of death was ischemic heart disease.", "His funeral was attended by representatives of both the Central Powers and the Entente, and an address by Pope Benedict XV was read.In 1924, after Poland had regained her independence, Sienkiewicz's remains were repatriated to Warsaw, Poland, and placed in the crypt of St. John's Cathedral.", "During the coffin's transit, solemn memorial ceremonies were held in a number of cities.", "Thousands accompanied the coffin to its Warsaw resting place, and Poland's President Stanisław Wojciechowski delivered a eulogy." ], [ "Works", "Sienkiewicz's early works (e.g., the 1872 ''Humoreski z teki Woroszyłły'') show him a strong supporter of Polish Positivism, endorsing constructive, practical characters such as an engineer.", "Polish \"Positivism\" advocated economic and social modernization and deprecated armed irredentist struggle.", "Unlike most other Polish Positivist writers, Sienkiewicz was a conservative.", "His Little Trilogy (''Stary Sługa'', 1875; ''Hania'', 1876; ''Selim Mirza'', 1877) shows his interest in Polish history and his literary maturity, including fine mastery of humor and drama.", "His early works focused on three themes: the oppression and poverty of the peasants (\"Charcoal Sketches\", 1877); criticism of the partitioning powers (\"''Z pamiętnika korepetytora''\", \"''Janko Muzykant''\" \"Janko the Musician\", 1879); and his voyage to the United States (\"''Za chlebem''\", \"For Bread\", 1880).", "His most common motif was the plight of the powerless: impoverished peasants, schoolchildren, emigrants.His \"''Latarnik''\" (\"The Lighthouse keeper\", 1881) has been described as one of the best Polish short stories.", "His 1882 stories \"''Bartek Zwycięzca''\" (\"Bart the Conqueror\") and \"''Sachem''\" draw parallels between the tragic fates of their heroes and that of the occupied Polish nation.His novel ''With Fire and Sword'' (1883–84) was enthusiastically received by readers (as were the next two volumes of The Trilogy), becoming an \"instant classic\", though critical reception was lukewarm.", "The Trilogy is set in 17th-century Poland.", "While critics generally praised its style, they noted that some historic facts are misrepresented or distorted.", "The Trilogy merged elements of the epic and the historical novel, infused with special features of Sienkiewicz's style.", "The Trilogy's patriotism worried the censors; Warsaw's Russian censor I. Jankul warned Sienkiewicz that he would not allow publication of any further works of his dealing with Polish history.", "''Oszyk'', was a variant of this ''Łabędź'' (Swan) coat-of-arms.Sienkiewicz's ''Without dogma'' (''Bez dogmatu'', 1889–90) was a notable artistic experiment, a self-analytical novel written as a fictitious diary.", "His works of the period are critical of decadent and naturalistic philosophies.", "He had expressed his opinions on naturalism and writing, generally, early on in \"''O naturaliźmie w powieści''\" (\"Naturalism in the Novel\", 1881).", "A dozen years later, in 1893, he wrote that novels should strengthen and ennoble life, rather than undermining and debasing it.", "Later, in the early 1900s, he fell into mutual hostility with the Young Poland movement in Polish literature.These views informed his novel ''Quo Vadis'' (1896).", "This story of early Christianity in Rome, with protagonists struggling against the Emperor Nero's regime, draws parallels between repressed early Christians and contemporary Poles; and, due to its focus on Christianity, it became widely popular in the Christian West.", "The triumph of spiritual Christianity over materialist Rome was a critique of materialism and decadence, and also an allegory for the strength of the Polish spirit.His ''Teutonic Knights'' returned to Poland's history, describing the Battle of Grunwald (1410), a Polish-Lithuanian victory over the Teutonic Knights in the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War.", "Both in German and Polish culture the Teutonic Knights were incorrectly viewed as precursors to modern Germans while the Polish-Lithuanian union was regarded as a model for a future independent Polish state.", "These assumptions tied in well with the contemporary political context of ongoing Germanization efforts in German Poland.", "So, the book quickly became another Sienkiewicz bestseller in Poland, and was received by critics better than his Trilogy had been; it was also applauded by the Polish right-wing, anti-German National Democracy political movement, and became part of the Polish school curriculum after Poland regained independence in 1918.It is often incorrectly asserted that Sienkiewicz received his Nobel Prize for ''Quo Vadis''.", "While ''Quo Vadis'' is the novel that brought him international fame, the Nobel Prize does not name any particular novel, instead citing \"his outstanding merits as an epic writer\".Sienkiewicz often carried out substantial historic research for his novels, but he was selective in the findings that made it into the novels.", "Thus, for example, he prioritized Polish military victories over defeats.Sienkiewicz kept a diary, but it has been lost.", "A life of him written in English by Monica M. Gardner was published in 1926." ], [ "Recognition", "Quo Vadis'', near Villa Borghese in RomeAbout the turn of the 20th century, Sienkiewicz was the most popular writer in Poland, and one of the most popular in Germany, France, Russia, and the English-speaking world.", "The Trilogy went through many translations; ''With Fire and Sword'' saw at least 26 in his lifetime.", "''Quo Vadis'' became extremely popular, in at least 40 different language translations, including English-language editions totaling a million copies.", "The American translator Jeremiah Curtin has been credited with helping popularize his works abroad.", "However, as Russia (of which Sienkiewicz was a citizen) was not a signatory to the Berne Convention, he rarely received any royalties from the translations.Already in his lifetime his works were adapted for theatrical, operatic and musical presentations and for the emerging film industry.", "Writers and poets devoted works to him, or used him or his works as inspiration.", "Painters created works inspired by Sienkiewicz's novels, and their works were gathered in Sienkiewicz-themed albums and exhibitions.", "The names of his characters were given to a variety of products.", "The popularity of ''Quo Vadis'' in France, where it was the best-selling book of 1900, is shown by the fact that horses competing in a Grand Prix de Paris event were named for characters in the book.", "In the United States, ''Quo Vadis'' sold 800,000 copies in eighteen months.", "To avoid intrusive journalists and fans, Sienkiewicz sometimes traveled incognito.He was inducted into many international organizations and societies, including the Polish Academy of Learning, the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, the Royal Czech Society of Sciences, and the Italian Academy of Arcadia.", "He received the French ''Légion d'honneur'' (1904), honorary doctorates from the Jagiellonian University (1900) and Lwów University (1911), and honorary citizenship of Lwów (1902).", "In 1905 he received the most prestigious award in the world of literature, the Nobel Prize, after having been nominated in that year by Hans Hildebrand, member of the Swedish Academy.Named for Sienkiewicz, in Poland, are numerous streets and squares (the first street to bear his name was in Lwów, in 1907).", "Named for him is Białystok's ''Osiedle Sienkiewicza''; city parks in Wrocław, Łódź, and Włocławek; and over 70 schools in Poland.", "He has statues in a number of Polish cities, including Warsaw's Łazienki Park (the first statue was erected at Zbaraż, now in Ukraine), and in Rome A Sienkiewcz Mound stands at Okrzeja, near his birthplace, Wola Okrzejska.", "He has been featured on a number of postage stamps.", "''Quo Vadis'', 1951There are three museums dedicated to him in Poland.", "The first, the Henryk Sienkiewicz Museum in Oblęgorek (his residence), opened in 1958.The second, founded in 1966, is in his birthplace: the Henryk Sienkiewicz Museum in Wola Okrzejska.", "The third opened in 1978 at Poznań.In Rome (Italy), in the small church of \"Domine Quo Vadis\", there is a bronze bust of Henryk Sienkiewicz.", "It is said that Sienkiewicz was inspired to write his novel ''Quo Vadis'' while sitting in this church.Outside Poland, Sienkiewicz's popularity declined beginning in the interbellum, except for ''Quo Vadis'', which retained relative fame thanks to several film adaptations, including a notable American one in 1951.In Poland his works are still widely read; he is seen as a classic author, and his works are often required reading in schools.", "They have also been adapted for Polish films and television series.The first critical analyses of his works were published in his lifetime.", "He has been the subject of a number of biographies.", "His works have received criticism, in his lifetime and since, as being simplistic: a view expressed notably by the 20th-century Polish novelist and dramatist Witold Gombrowicz, who described Sienkiewicz as a \"first-rate second-rate writer\".", "Vasily Rozanov described ''Quo Vadis'' as \"not a work of art\", but a \"crude factory-made oleograph\", while Anton Chekhov called Sienkiewicz's writing \"sickeningly cloying and clumsy\".", "Nonetheless, the Polish historian of literature Henryk Markiewicz, writing the ''Polski słownik biograficzny'' (Polish Biographical Dictionary) entry on Sienkiewicz (1997), describes him as a master of Polish prose, as the foremost Polish writer of historical fiction, and as Poland's internationally best-known writer." ], [ "Selected works", "=== Novels ===* ''The Trilogy'' (''Trylogia''):** ''With Fire and Sword'' (''Ogniem i mieczem'', 1884) depicts the 17th-century Khmelnytsky Uprising of Ukraine's Cossacks against Poland; the novel has been made into a feature film of the same title and inspired the video game Mount & Blade: With Fire & Sword.", "** ''The Deluge'' (''Potop'', 1886) depicts the 17th-century Swedish invasion of Poland, the \"Deluge\"; the novel has been made into a feature film of the same title;** ''Sir Michael'' (''Pan Wołodyjowski'', 1888) depicts Poland's struggle against the Ottoman Empire, invading Poland in 1668–72; the novel has been made into a feature film, ''Colonel Wołodyjowski''.", "* ''Without dogma'' (''Bez dogmatu'', 1891).", "* ''The Polaniecki Family'', a.k.a.", "''Children of the Soil'' (''Rodzina Połanieckich'', 1894).", "* ''Quo Vadis'' (1895): a story of St. Peter in Rome in the reign of Emperor Nero.", "* ''The Teutonic Knights'' (a.k.a.", "''The Knights of the Cross'': ''Krzyżacy'', 1900) relates to the Battle of Grunwald; the novel was made into a 1960 feature film of the same title, by Aleksander Ford.", "* ''On the Field of Glory'' (''Na polu chwały'', 1906): a story of King John III Sobieski and the Battle of Vienna.", "* Whirlpool (novel) (''Wiry'', 1910).", "* '' In Desert and Wilderness'' (''W pustyni i w puszczy'', 1912): the adventures of a Polish boy, Staś, and a younger English girl, Nell, in Africa during the Mahdist War of 1881–99.=== Other ===* ''Yanko the Musician and other stories'' (1893)* ''Lillian Morris and other stories'' (1894)* ''Hania and other stories'' (1897)* ''Let Us Follow Him and other stories'' (1897, unauthorized)* ''Sielanka, a forest picture, and other stories'' (1898)* ''On the Bright Shore'' (1898)* ''In Vain'' (1899)* ''Life and Death and other legends and stories'' (1904)* ''So Runs the World'' (criticism, a story, and two short dramas, \"Whose Fault?\"", "and \"Win or Lose\")" ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Quo Vadis'' (dir.", "Enrico Guazzoni, 1913)* ''Obrona Częstochowy'' (dir.", "Edward Puchalski, 1913)* ''Quo Vadis'' (dir.", "Gabriellino D'Annunzio and Georg Jacoby, 1924)* ''Quo Vadis'' (dir.", "Mervyn LeRoy, 1951)* ''Szkice węglem'' (dir.", "Antoni Bohdziewicz, 1957)* ''Knights of the Teutonic Order'' (dir.", "Aleksander Ford, 1960)* ''Invasion 1700'' (dir.", "Fernando Cerchio, 1962)* ''Colonel Wolodyjowski'' (dir.", "Jerzy Hoffman, 1969)* ''In Desert and Wilderness'' (dir.", "Władysław Ślesicki, 1973)* ''The Deluge'' (dir.", "Jerzy Hoffman, 1974)* ''Quo Vadis'' (TV miniseries, dir.", "Franco Rossi, 1985)* ''With Fire and Sword'' (dir.", "Jerzy Hoffman, 1999)* ''In Desert and Wilderness'' (dir.", "Gavin Hood, 2001)* ''Quo Vadis'' (dir.", "Jerzy Kawalerowicz, 2001)" ], [ "See also", "* Onufry Zagłoba* Polish literature* List of Poles* List of Polish Nobel laureates" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* List of works* * * * * Henryk Sienkiewicz Books Collection* * * Works of Henryk Sienkiewicz at Polish Wikisource * Biography at the Polish American Center* Henryk Sienkiewicz at poezja.org (polish)* the Henryk Sienkiewicz Museum in Oblegorek* Henryk Sienkiewicz at culture.pl* * 4 Polish Writers Who Won the Nobel Prize in Literature*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hg''' is the symbol of chemical element mercury (from its Latin name ).", "'''Hg''', '''hg''', '''HG''', '''inHg''' or '''Hg''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Arts and media", "*H. G. Wells, English writer*''House & Garden'' or ''HG'', a former US magazine*Harry G. Nelson, half of the Roy and HG comedy duo*Hengwrt Chaucer or Hg, a manuscript of the Canterbury Tales*Masaki Sumitani or HG, Japanese professional wrestler" ], [ "Organizations", "* Hg (equity firm), headquartered in London and Munich* Hg Capital Trust, a British investment trust* Hengdian Group, a Chinese private conglomerate* Hlinka Guard, a militia movement of the Slovak People's Party from 1938 to 1945* Niki (airline) (IATA code HG)" ], [ "Places", "*HG postcode area, in Yorkshire, England*Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Germany (vehicle plate code HG)*Hillgrove Secondary School, a secondary school in Bukit Batok, Singapore" ], [ "Science and technology", "*Hg, the chemical symbol for mercury*hg, the driver program of Mercurial, a version Control system*Hectogram, a unit of weight equal to 100 grams*Hyperemesis gravidarum, a complication of pregnancy*Inch of mercury, a unit of measurement for pressure*Human geography, a branch of geography" ], [ "Other uses", "*His/Her Grace, a style used for various high-ranking personages*Huge-Gigantacus, a hero in the mobile video game Plants vs. Zombies Heroes" ], [ "See also", "*''Archer Maclean's Mercury'' or ''Hg Hydrium'', a video game*Hengdian, Zhejiang, China" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrology" ], [ "Introduction", "Rain over a Scottish catchment.", "Understanding the cycling of water into, through, and out of catchments is a key element of hydrology.", "'''Hydrology''' () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and drainage basin sustainability.", "A practitioner of hydrology is called a '''hydrologist'''.", "Hydrologists are scientists studying earth or environmental science, civil or environmental engineering, and physical geography.", "Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques, they collect and analyze data to help solve water related problems such as environmental preservation, natural disasters, and water management.Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine hydrology.", "Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage-basin management, and water quality.Oceanography and meteorology are not included because water is only one of many important aspects within those fields.Hydrological research can inform environmental engineering, policy, and planning." ], [ "Branches", "* Chemical hydrology is the study of the chemical characteristics of water.", "* Ecohydrology is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle.", "* Hydrogeology is the study of the presence and movement of groundwater.", "* Hydrogeochemistry is the study of how terrestrial water dissolves minerals weathering and this effect on water chemistry.", "* Hydroinformatics is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources applications.", "* Hydrometeorology is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere.", "* Isotope hydrology is the study of the isotopic signatures of water.", "* Surface hydrology is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near Earth's surface.", "* Drainage basin management covers water storage, in the form of reservoirs, and floods protection.", "* Water quality includes the chemistry of water in rivers and lakes, both of pollutants and natural solutes." ], [ "Applications", "* Calculation of rainfall.", "* Calculation of Evapotranspiration* Calculating surface runoff and precipitation.", "* Determining the water balance of a region.", "* Determining the agricultural water balance.", "* Designing riparian-zone restoration projects.", "* Mitigating and predicting flood, landslide and Drought risk.", "* Real-time flood forecasting, flood warning, Flood Frequency Analysis* Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity.", "* Part of the hazard module in catastrophe modeling.", "* Providing drinking water.", "* Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation.", "* Designing bridges.", "* Designing sewers and urban drainage systems.", "* Analyzing the impacts of antecedent moisture on sanitary sewer systems.", "* Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as erosion or sedimentation.", "* Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on water resources.", "* Assessing contaminant transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines.", "* Estimating the water resource potential of river basins.", "* Water resources management." ], [ "History", "The Roman aqueduct at Caesarea Maritima, bringing water from the wetter Carmel mountains to the settlement.Hydrology has been subject to investigation and engineering for millennia.", "Ancient Egyptians were one of the first to employ hydrology in their engineering and agriculture, inventing a form of water management known as basin irrigation.", "Mesopotamian towns were protected from flooding with high earthen walls.", "Aqueducts were built by the Greeks and Romans, while history shows that the Chinese built irrigation and flood control works.", "The ancient Sinhalese used hydrology to build complex irrigation works in Sri Lanka, also known for the invention of the Valve Pit which allowed construction of large reservoirs, anicuts and canals which still function.Marcus Vitruvius, in the first century BC, described a philosophical theory of the hydrologic cycle, in which precipitation falling in the mountains infiltrated the Earth's surface and led to streams and springs in the lowlands.", "With the adoption of a more scientific approach, Leonardo da Vinci and Bernard Palissy independently reached an accurate representation of the hydrologic cycle.", "It was not until the 17th century that hydrologic variables began to be quantified.Pioneers of the modern science of hydrology include Pierre Perrault, Edme Mariotte and Edmund Halley.", "By measuring rainfall, runoff, and drainage area, Perrault showed that rainfall was sufficient to account for the flow of the Seine.", "Mariotte combined velocity and river cross-section measurements to obtain a discharge value, again in the Seine.", "Halley showed that the evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea was sufficient to account for the outflow of rivers flowing into the sea.Advances in the 18th century included the Bernoulli piezometer and Bernoulli's equation, by Daniel Bernoulli, and the Pitot tube, by Henri Pitot.", "The 19th century saw development in groundwater hydrology, including Darcy's law, the Dupuit-Thiem well formula, and Hagen-Poiseuille's capillary flow equation.Rational analyses began to replace empiricism in the 20th century, while governmental agencies began their own hydrological research programs.", "Of particular importance were Leroy Sherman's unit hydrograph, the infiltration theory of Robert E. Horton, and C.V. Theis' aquifer test/equation describing well hydraulics.Since the 1950s, hydrology has been approached with a more theoretical basis than in the past, facilitated by advances in the physical understanding of hydrological processes and by the advent of computers and especially geographic information systems (GIS).", "(See also GIS and hydrology)" ], [ "Themes", "The central theme of hydrology is that water circulates throughout the Earth through different pathways and at different rates.", "The most vivid image of this is in the evaporation of water from the ocean, which forms clouds.", "These clouds drift over the land and produce rain.", "The rainwater flows into lakes, rivers, or aquifers.", "The water in lakes, rivers, and aquifers then either evaporates back to the atmosphere or eventually flows back to the ocean, completing a cycle.", "Water changes its state of being several times throughout this cycle.The areas of research within hydrology concern the movement of water between its various states, or within a given state, or simply quantifying the amounts in these states in a given region.", "Parts of hydrology concern developing methods for directly measuring these flows or amounts of water, while others concern modeling these processes either for scientific knowledge or for making a prediction in practical applications.=== Groundwater ===Building a map of groundwater contoursGround water is water beneath Earth's surface, often pumped for drinking water.", "Groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology) considers quantifying groundwater flow and solute transport.", "Problems in describing the saturated zone include the characterization of aquifers in terms of flow direction, groundwater pressure and, by inference, groundwater depth (see: aquifer test).", "Measurements here can be made using a piezometer.", "Aquifers are also described in terms of hydraulic conductivity, storativity and transmissivity.", "There are a number of geophysical methods for characterizing aquifers.", "There are also problems in characterizing the vadose zone (unsaturated zone).=== Infiltration ===Infiltration is the process by which water enters the soil.", "Some of the water is absorbed, and the rest percolates down to the water table.", "The infiltration capacity, the maximum rate at which the soil can absorb water, depends on several factors.", "The layer that is already saturated provides a resistance that is proportional to its thickness, while that plus the depth of water above the soil provides the driving force (hydraulic head).", "Dry soil can allow rapid infiltration by capillary action; this force diminishes as the soil becomes wet.", "Compaction reduces the porosity and the pore sizes.", "Surface cover increases capacity by retarding runoff, reducing compaction and other processes.", "Higher temperatures reduce viscosity, increasing infiltration.=== Soil moisture ===Soil moisture can be measured in various ways; by capacitance probe, time domain reflectometer or Tensiometer.", "Other methods include solute sampling and geophysical methods.=== Surface water flow ===flood hydrograph showing stage for the Shawsheen River at Wilmington.Hydrology considers quantifying surface water flow and solute transport, although the treatment of flows in large rivers is sometimes considered as a distinct topic of hydraulics or hydrodynamics.", "Surface water flow can include flow both in recognizable river channels and otherwise.", "Methods for measuring flow once the water has reached a river include the stream gauge (see: discharge), and tracer techniques.", "Other topics include chemical transport as part of surface water, sediment transport and erosion.One of the important areas of hydrology is the interchange between rivers and aquifers.", "Groundwater/surface water interactions in streams and aquifers can be complex and the direction of net water flux (into surface water or into the aquifer) may vary spatially along a stream channel and over time at any particular location, depending on the relationship between stream stage and groundwater levels.=== Precipitation and evaporation ===A standard NOAA rain gaugeIn some considerations, hydrology is thought of as starting at the land-atmosphere boundary and so it is important to have adequate knowledge of both precipitation and evaporation.", "Precipitation can be measured in various ways: disdrometer for precipitation characteristics at a fine time scale; radar for cloud properties, rain rate estimation, hail and snow detection; rain gauge for routine accurate measurements of rain and snowfall; satellite for rainy area identification, rain rate estimation, land-cover/land-use, and soil moisture, for example.Evaporation is an important part of the water cycle.", "It is partly affected by humidity, which can be measured by a sling psychrometer.", "It is also affected by the presence of snow, hail, and ice and can relate to dew, mist and fog.", "Hydrology considers evaporation of various forms: from water surfaces; as transpirationfrom plant surfaces in natural and agronomic ecosystems.", "Direct measurement of evaporation can be obtained using Simon's evaporation pan.Detailed studies of evaporation involve boundary layer considerations as well as momentum, heat flux, and energy budgets.=== Remote sensing ===Estimates of changes in water storage around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, measured by NASA's GRACE satellites.", "The satellites measure tiny changes in gravitational acceleration, which can then be processed to reveal movement of water due to changes in its total mass.Remote sensing of hydrologic processes can provide information on locations where ''in situ'' sensors may be unavailable or sparse.", "It also enables observations over large spatial extents.", "Many of the variables constituting the terrestrial water balance, for example surface water storage, soil moisture, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and snow and ice, are measurable using remote sensing at various spatial-temporal resolutions and accuracies.", "Sources of remote sensing include land-based sensors, airborne sensors and satellite sensors which can capture microwave, thermal and near-infrared data or use lidar, for example.=== Water quality ===In hydrology, studies of water quality concern organic and inorganic compounds, and both dissolved and sediment material.", "In addition, water quality is affected by the interaction of dissolved oxygen with organic material and various chemical transformations that may take place.", "Measurements of water quality may involve either in-situ methods, in which analyses take place on-site, often automatically, and laboratory-based analyses and may include microbiological analysis.=== Integrating measurement and modelling ===* Budget analyses*Parameter estimation* Scaling in time and space* Data assimilation* Quality control of data – see for example Double mass analysis=== Prediction ===Observations of hydrologic processes are used to make predictions of the future behavior of hydrologic systems (water flow, water quality).", "One of the major current concerns in hydrologic research is \"Prediction in Ungauged Basins\" (PUB), i.e.", "in basins where no or only very few data exist.=== Statistical hydrology ===The aims of Statistical hydrology is to provide appropriate statistical methods for analyzing and modeling various parts of the hydrological cycle.", "By analyzing the statistical properties of hydrologic records, such as rainfall or river flow, hydrologists can estimate future hydrologic phenomena.", "When making assessments of how often relatively rare events will occur, analyses are made in terms of the return period of such events.", "Other quantities of interest include the average flow in a river, in a year or by season.These estimates are important for engineers and economists so that proper risk analysis can be performed to influence investment decisions in future infrastructure and to determine the yield reliability characteristics of water supply systems.", "Statistical information is utilized to formulate operating rules for large dams forming part of systems which include agricultural, industrial and residential demands.=== Modeling ===Plan view of water flow through a catchment simulated by the SHETRAN hydrological modelling system.Hydrological models are simplified, conceptual representations of a part of the hydrologic cycle.", "They are primarily used for hydrological prediction and for understanding hydrological processes, within the general field of scientific modeling.", "Two major types of hydrological models can be distinguished:* Models based on data.", "These models are black box systems, using mathematical and statistical concepts to link a certain input (for instance rainfall) to the model output (for instance runoff).", "Commonly used techniques are regression, transfer functions, and system identification.", "The simplest of these models may be linear models, but it is common to deploy non-linear components to represent some general aspects of a catchment's response without going deeply into the real physical processes involved.", "An example of such an aspect is the well-known behavior that a catchment will respond much more quickly and strongly when it is already wet than when it is dry.", "* Models based on process descriptions.", "These models try to represent the physical processes observed in the real world.", "Typically, such models contain representations of surface runoff, subsurface flow, evapotranspiration, and channel flow, but they can be far more complicated.", "Within this category, models can be divided into conceptual and deterministic.", "Conceptual models link simplified representations of the hydrological processes in an area, whereas deterministic models seek to resolve as much of the physics of a system as possible.", "These models can be subdivided into single-event models and continuous simulation models.Recent research in hydrological modeling tries to have a more global approach to the understanding of the behavior of hydrologic systems to make better predictions and to face the major challenges in water resources management.=== Transport ===Water movement is a significant means by which other materials, such as soil, gravel, boulders or pollutants, are transported from place to place.", "Initial input to receiving waters may arise from a point source discharge or a line source or area source, such as surface runoff.", "Since the 1960s rather complex mathematical models have been developed, facilitated by the availability of high-speed computers.", "The most common pollutant classes analyzed are nutrients, pesticides, total dissolved solids and sediment." ], [ "Organizations", "=== Intergovernmental organizations ===* International Hydrological Programme (IHP)=== International research bodies ===* International Water Management Institute (IWMI)* UN-IHE Delft Institute for Water Education=== National research bodies ===* Centre for Ecology and Hydrology – UK* Centre for Water Science, Cranfield University, UK* eawag – aquatic research, ETH Zürich, Switzerland* Institute of Hydrology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany* United States Geological Survey – Water Resources of the United States* NOAA's National Weather Service – Office of Hydrologic Development, US* US Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center, US* Hydrologic Research Center, US* NOAA Economics and Social Sciences, United States* University of Oklahoma Center for Natural Hazards and Disasters Research, US* National Hydrology Research Centre, Canada* National Institute of Hydrology, India=== National and international societies ===* American Institute of Hydrology (AIH)*Geological Society of America (GSA) – Hydrogeology Division* American Geophysical Union (AGU) – Hydrology Section* National Ground Water Association (NGWA)* American Water Resources Association* Consortium of Universities for the Advancement of Hydrologic Science, Inc. (CUAHSI)* International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS)* Statistics in Hydrology Working Group (subgroup of IAHS)* German Hydrological Society (DHG: Deutsche Hydrologische Gesellschaft)* Italian Hydrological Society (SII-IHS) – Società Idrologica Italiana* Nordic Association for Hydrology* British Hydrological Society* Russian Geographical Society (Moscow Center) – Hydrology Commission* International Association for Environmental Hydrology* International Association of Hydrogeologists* Society of Hydrologists and Meteorologists – Nepal === Basin- and catchment-wide overviews ===* Connected Waters Initiative, University of New South Wales – Investigating and raising awareness of groundwater and water resource issues in Australia* Murray Darling Basin Initiative, Department of Environment and Heritage, Australia" ], [ "Research journals", "* International Journal of Hydrology Science and Technology * ''Hydrological Processes'', (electronic) 0885-6087 (paper), John Wiley & Sons* ''Hydrology Research'', , IWA Publishing (formerly ''Nordic Hydrology'')* ''Journal of Hydroinformatics'', , IWA Publishing* ''Journal of Hydrologic Engineering'', , ASCE Publication* ''Journal of Hydrology''* ''Water Research''* ''Water Resources Research''* ''Hydrological Sciences Journal ''- ''Journal of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences'' ''(IAHS)'' (Print), (Online)* Hydrology and Earth System Sciences* Journal of Hydrometeorology" ], [ "See also", "* Aqueous solution* Climatology* Environmental engineering science* Geological Engineering* Green Kenue a software tool for hydrologic modellers* Hydraulics* Hydrography* Hydrology (agriculture)* International Hydrological Programme* Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient* Outline of hydrology* Potamal* Socio-hydrology* Soil science* Water distribution on Earth* WEAP (Water Evaluation And Planning) software to model catchment hydrology from climate and land use data* Catchment hydrology; Other water-related fields* Oceanography is the more general study of water in the oceans and estuaries.", "* Meteorology is the more general study of the atmosphere and of weather, including precipitation as snow and rainfall.", "* Limnology is the study of lakes, rivers and wetlands ecosystems.", "It covers the biological, chemical, physical, geological, and other attributes of all inland waters (running and standing waters, both fresh and saline, natural or man-made).", "* Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful.", "Hydrology studies the availability of those resources, but usually not their uses." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Eslamian, S., 2014, (ed.)", "Handbook of Engineering Hydrology, Vol.", "1: Fundamentals and Applications, Francis and Taylor, CRC Group, 636 Pages, USA.", "* Eslamian, S., 2014, (ed.)", "Handbook of Engineering Hydrology, Vol.", "2: Modeling, Climate Change and Variability, Francis and Taylor, CRC Group, 646 Pages, USA.", "* Eslamian, S, 2014, (ed.)", "Handbook of Engineering Hydrology, Vol.", "3: Environmental Hydrology and Water Management, Francis and Taylor, CRC Group, 606 Pages, USA.", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Hydrology.nl – Portal to international hydrology and water resources* Decision tree to choose an uncertainty method for hydrological and hydraulic modelling (archived 1 June 2013)* Experimental Hydrology Wiki" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heinrich Himmler" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heinrich Luitpold Himmler''' (; 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945) was a German politician who was the of the (Protection Squadron; SS), a leading member of the Nazi Party of Germany, and one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany, primarily known for being a main architect of the Holocaust.As a member of a reserve battalion during the First World War, Himmler did not see active service or combat.", "Having joined the Nazi Party in 1923 and the SS in 1925, he was appointed by Adolf Hitler in 1929.Over the next sixteen years, Himmler developed the SS from a 290-man battalion into a million-strong paramilitary group.", "He was known for good organisational skills and for selecting highly competent subordinates, such as Reinhard Heydrich in 1931.From 1943 onwards, he was both Chief of the ''Kriminalpolizei'' (Criminal Police) and Minister of the Interior, overseeing all internal and external police and security forces, including the Gestapo (Secret State Police).", "He also controlled the ''Waffen-SS'', the military branch of the SS.Himmler's interest in occultism and ''Völkisch'' topics influenced the development of the racial policy of Nazi Germany; he also incorporated esoteric symbolism and rituals into the SS.", "He was the principal overseer of Nazi Germany's genocidal programs, forming the ''Einsatzgruppen'' and administering extermination camps.", "In this capacity, Himmler directed the killing of some six million Jews, between 200,000 and 500,000 Romani people, and other victims.", "A day before the launch of Operation Barbarossa, Himmler commissioned the drafting of ''Generalplan Ost'', which was approved by Hitler in May 1942.Approximately 14 million people, mostly Polish and Soviet citizens, were killed by the Nazi regime during the implementation of ''Generalplan Ost''.Late in the Second World War, Hitler briefly appointed Himmler as military commander and later Commander of the Replacement (Home) Army and General Plenipotentiary for the administration of the entire Third Reich (''Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung'').", "Specifically, he was given command of the Army Group Upper Rhine and the Army Group Vistula.", "After Himmler failed to achieve his assigned objectives, Hitler replaced him in these posts.", "Realising the war was lost, Himmler attempted to open peace talks with the western Allies without Hitler's knowledge, shortly before the end of the war.", "Hearing of this, Hitler dismissed him from all his posts in April 1945 and ordered his arrest.", "Himmler attempted to go into hiding but was detained and then arrested by British forces once his identity became known.", "While in British custody, he died by suicide on 23 May 1945." ], [ "Early life", "Himmler as a childHeinrich Luitpold Himmler was born in Munich on 7 October 1900 into a conservative middle-class Roman Catholic family.", "His father was Joseph Gebhard Himmler (1865–1936), a teacher, and his mother was Anna Maria Himmler (née Heyder; 1866–1941), a devout Roman Catholic.", "Heinrich had two brothers: Gebhard Ludwig (1898–1982) and Ernst Hermann (1905–1945).Himmler's first name, Heinrich, was that of his godfather, Prince Heinrich of Bavaria, a member of the royal family of Bavaria, who had been tutored by Gebhard Himmler.", "He attended a grammar school in Landshut, where his father was deputy principal.", "While he did well in his schoolwork, he struggled in athletics.", "He had poor health, suffering from lifelong stomach complaints and other ailments.", "In his youth he trained daily with weights and exercised to become stronger.", "Other boys at the school later remembered him as studious and awkward in social situations.Himmler's diary, which he kept intermittently from the age of 10, shows that he took a keen interest in current events, dueling, and \"the serious discussion of religion and sex\".", "In 1915, he began training with the Landshut Cadet Corps.", "His father used his connections with the royal family to get Himmler accepted as an officer candidate, and he enlisted with the reserve battalion of the 11th Bavarian Regiment in December 1917.His brother, Gebhard, served on the western front and saw combat, receiving the Iron Cross and eventually being promoted to lieutenant.", "In November 1918, while Himmler was still in training, the war ended with Germany's defeat, denying him the opportunity to become an officer or see combat.", "After his discharge on 18 December, he returned to Landshut.", "After the war, Himmler completed his grammar-school education.", "From 1919 to 1922, he studied agriculture at the Munich (now Technical University Munich) following a brief apprenticeship on a farm and a subsequent illness.Although many regulations that discriminated against non-Christians—including Jews and other minority groups—had been eliminated during the unification of Germany in 1871, antisemitism continued to exist and thrive in Germany and other parts of Europe.", "Himmler was antisemitic by the time he went to university, but not exceptionally so; students at his school would avoid their Jewish classmates.", "He remained a devout Catholic while a student and spent most of his leisure time with members of his fencing fraternity, the \"League of Apollo\", the president of which was Jewish.", "Himmler maintained a polite demeanor with him and with other Jewish members of the fraternity, in spite of his growing antisemitism.", "During his second year at university, Himmler redoubled his attempts to pursue a military career.", "Although he was not successful, he was able to extend his involvement in the paramilitary scene in Munich.", "It was at this time that he first met Ernst Röhm, an early member of the Nazi Party and co-founder of the (\"Storm Battalion\"; SA).", "Himmler admired Röhm because he was a decorated combat soldier, and at his suggestion Himmler joined his antisemitic nationalist group, the (Imperial War Flag Society).In 1922, Himmler became more interested in the \"Jewish question\", with his diary entries containing an increasing number of antisemitic remarks and recording a number of discussions about Jews with his classmates.", "His reading lists, as recorded in his diary, were dominated by antisemitic pamphlets, German myths, and occult tracts.", "After the murder of Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau on 24 June, Himmler's political views veered towards the radical right, and he took part in demonstrations against the Treaty of Versailles.", "Hyperinflation was raging, and his parents could no longer afford to educate all three sons.", "Disappointed by his failure to make a career in the military and his parents' inability to finance his doctoral studies, he was forced to take a low-paying office job after obtaining his agricultural diploma.", "He remained in this position until September 1923.=== Nazi activist ===Himmler joined the Nazi Party on 1 August 1923, receiving party number 14303.As a member of Röhm's paramilitary unit, Himmler was involved in the Beer Hall Putsch—an unsuccessful attempt by Hitler and the Nazi Party to seize power in Munich.", "This event would set Himmler on a life of politics.", "He was questioned by the police about his role in the putsch but was not charged because of insufficient evidence.", "However, he lost his job, was unable to find employment as a farm manager, and had to move in with his parents in Munich.", "Frustrated by these failures, he became ever more irritable, aggressive, and opinionated, alienating both friends and family members.In 1923–24, Himmler, while searching for a world view, came to abandon Catholicism and focused on the occult and in antisemitism.", "Germanic mythology, reinforced by occult ideas, became a religion for him.", "Himmler found the Nazi Party appealing because its political positions agreed with his own views.", "Initially, he was not swept up by Hitler's charisma or the cult of Führer worship.", "However, as he learned more about Hitler through his reading, he began to regard him as a useful face of the party, and he later admired and even worshipped him.", "To consolidate and advance his own position in the Nazi Party, Himmler took advantage of the disarray in the party following Hitler's arrest in the wake of the Beer Hall Putsch.", "From mid-1924 he worked under Gregor Strasser as a party secretary and propaganda assistant.", "Travelling all over Bavaria agitating for the party, he gave speeches and distributed literature.", "Placed in charge of the party office in Lower Bavaria by Strasser from late 1924, he was responsible for integrating the area's membership with the Nazi Party under Hitler when the party was re-founded in February 1925.That same year, he joined the (SS) as an (SS-Leader); his SS number was 168.The SS, initially part of the much larger SA, was formed in 1923 for Hitler's personal protection and was re-formed in 1925 as an elite unit of the SA.", "Himmler's first leadership position in the SS was that of (district leader) in Lower Bavaria from 1926.Strasser appointed Himmler deputy propaganda chief in January 1927.As was typical in the Nazi Party, he had considerable freedom of action in his post, which increased over time.", "He began to collect statistics on the number of Jews, Freemasons, and enemies of the party, and following his strong need for control, he developed an elaborate bureaucracy.", "In September 1927, Himmler told Hitler of his vision to transform the SS into a loyal, powerful, racially pure elite unit.", "Convinced that Himmler was the man for the job, Hitler appointed him Deputy , with the rank of .Around this time, Himmler joined the Artaman League, a youth group.", "There he met Rudolf Höss, who was later commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp, and Walther Darré, whose book ''The Peasantry as the Life Source of the Nordic Race'' caught Hitler's attention, leading to his later appointment as Reich Minister of Food and Agriculture.", "Darré was a firm believer in the superiority of the Nordic race, and his philosophy was a major influence on Himmler." ], [ "Rise in the SS", "Himmler in 1929Upon the resignation of SS commander Erhard Heiden in January 1929, Himmler assumed the position of ''Reichsführer-SS'' with Hitler's approval; he still carried out his duties at propaganda headquarters.", "One of his first responsibilities was to organise SS participants at the Nuremberg Rally that September.", "Over the next year, Himmler grew the SS from a force of about 290 men to about 3,000.By 1930 Himmler had persuaded Hitler to run the SS as a separate organisation, although it was officially still subordinate to the SA.To gain political power, the Nazi Party took advantage of the economic downturn during the Great Depression.", "The coalition government of the Weimar Republic was unable to improve the economy, so many voters turned to the political extreme, which included the Nazi Party.", "Hitler used populist rhetoric, including blaming scapegoats—particularly the Jews—for the economic hardships.", "In September 1930, Himmler was first elected as a deputy to the ''Reichstag''.", "In the 1932 election, the Nazis won 37.3 percent of the vote and 230 seats in the Reichstag.", "Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933, heading a short-lived coalition of his Nazis and the German National People's Party.", "The new cabinet initially included only three members of the Nazi Party: Hitler, Hermann Göring as minister without portfolio and Minister of the Interior for Prussia, and Wilhelm Frick as Reich Interior Minister.", "Less than a month later, the Reichstag building was set on fire.", "Hitler took advantage of this event, forcing Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial.", "The Enabling Act, passed by the Reichstag on 23 March 1933, gave the Cabinet—in practice, Hitler—full legislative powers, and the country became a de facto dictatorship.", "On 1 August 1934, Hitler's cabinet passed a law which stipulated that upon Hindenburg's death, the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor.", "Hindenburg died the next morning, and Hitler became both head of state and head of government under the title ''Führer und Reichskanzler'' (leader and chancellor).The Nazi Party's rise to power provided Himmler and the SS an unfettered opportunity to thrive.", "By 1933, the SS numbered 52,000 members.", "Strict membership requirements ensured that all members were of Hitler's Aryan ''Herrenvolk'' (\"Aryan master race\").", "Applicants were vetted for Nordic qualities—in Himmler's words, \"like a nursery gardener trying to reproduce a good old strain which has been adulterated and debased; we started from the principles of plant selection and then proceeded quite unashamedly to weed out the men whom we did not think we could use for the build-up of the SS.\"", "Few dared mention that by his own standards, Himmler did not meet his own ideals.Himmler and Rudolf Hess in 1936, viewing a scale model of Dachau concentration camp Himmler's organised, bookish intellect served him well as he began setting up different SS departments.", "In 1931 he appointed Reinhard Heydrich chief of the new Ic Service (intelligence service), which was renamed the ''Sicherheitsdienst'' (SD: Security Service) in 1932.He later officially appointed Heydrich his deputy.", "The two men had a good working relationship and a mutual respect.", "In 1933, they began to remove the SS from SA control.", "Along with Interior Minister Frick, they hoped to create a unified German police force.", "In March 1933, Reich Governor of Bavaria Franz Ritter von Epp appointed Himmler chief of the Munich Police.", "Himmler appointed Heydrich commander of Department IV, the political police.", "Thereafter, Himmler and Heydrich took over the political police of state after state; soon only Prussia was controlled by Göring.", "Effective 1 January 1933, Hitler promoted Himmler to the rank of SS-''Obergruppenführer'', equal in rank to the senior SA commanders.", "On 2 June Himmler, along with the heads of the other two Nazi paramilitary organizations, the SA and the Hitler Youth, was named a ''Reichsleiter'', the second highest political rank in the Nazi Party.", "On 10 July, he was named to the Prussian State Council.", "On 2 October 1933, he became a founding member of Hans Frank's Academy for German Law at its inaugural meeting.Himmler further established the SS Race and Settlement Main Office (''Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt'' or RuSHA).", "He appointed Darré as its first chief, with the rank of SS-''Gruppenführer''.", "The department implemented racial policies and monitored the \"racial integrity\" of the SS membership.", "SS men were carefully vetted for their racial background.", "On 31 December 1931, Himmler introduced the \"marriage order\", which required SS men wishing to marry to produce family trees proving that both families were of Aryan descent to 1800.If any non-Aryan forebears were found in either family tree during the racial investigation, the person concerned was excluded from the SS.", "Each man was issued a ''Sippenbuch'', a genealogical record detailing his genetic history.", "Himmler expected that each SS marriage should produce at least four children, thus creating a pool of genetically superior prospective SS members.", "The programme had disappointing results; less than 40 per cent of SS men married and each produced only about one child.In March 1933, less than three months after the Nazis came to power, Himmler set up the first official concentration camp at Dachau.", "Hitler had stated that he did not want it to be just another prison or detention camp.", "Himmler appointed Theodor Eicke, a convicted felon and ardent Nazi, to run the camp in June 1933.Eicke devised a system that was used as a model for future camps throughout Germany.", "Its features included isolation of victims from the outside world, elaborate roll calls and work details, the use of force and executions to exact obedience, and a strict disciplinary code for the guards.", "Uniforms were issued for prisoners and guards alike; the guards' uniforms had a special ''Totenkopf'' insignia on their collars.", "By the end of 1934, Himmler took control of the camps under the aegis of the SS, creating a separate division, the ''SS-Totenkopfverbände''.Initially the camps housed political opponents; over time, undesirable members of German society—criminals, vagrants, deviants—were placed in the camps as well.", "In 1936 Himmler wrote in the pamphlet \"The SS as an Anti-Bolshevist Fighting Organization\" that the SS were to fight against the \"Jewish-Bolshevik revolution of subhumans\".", "A Hitler decree issued in December 1937 allowed for the incarceration of anyone deemed by the regime to be an undesirable member of society.", "This included Jews, Gypsies, communists, and those persons of any other cultural, racial, political, or religious affiliation deemed by the Nazis to be ''Untermensch'' (sub-human).", "Thus, the camps became a mechanism for social and racial engineering.", "By the outbreak of World War II in autumn 1939, there were six camps housing some 27,000 inmates.", "Death tolls were high.=== Consolidation of power ===In early 1934, Hitler and other Nazi leaders became concerned that Röhm was planning a coup d'état.", "Röhm had socialist and populist views and believed that the real revolution had not yet begun.", "He felt that the SA—now numbering some three million men, far dwarfing the army—should become the sole arms-bearing corps of the state, and that the army should be absorbed into the SA under his leadership.", "Röhm lobbied Hitler to appoint him Minister of Defence, a position held by conservative General Werner von Blomberg.Göring had created a Prussian secret police force, the ''Geheime Staatspolizei'' or Gestapo in 1933 and appointed Rudolf Diels as its head.", "Göring, concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA, handed over its control to Himmler on 20 April 1934.Also on that date, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia.", "This was a radical departure from long-standing German practice that law enforcement was a state and local matter.", "Heydrich, named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934, also continued as head of the SD.Hitler decided on 21 June that Röhm and the SA leadership had to be eliminated.", "He sent Göring to Berlin on 29 June, to meet with Himmler and Heydrich to plan the action.", "Hitler took charge in Munich, where Röhm was arrested; he gave Röhm the choice to commit suicide or be shot.", "When Röhm refused to kill himself, he was shot dead by two SS officers.", "Between 85 and 200 members of the SA leadership and other political adversaries, including Gregor Strasser, were killed between 30 June and 2 July 1934 in these actions, known as the Night of the Long Knives.", "With the SA thus neutralised, the SS became an independent organisation answerable only to Hitler on 20 July 1934.Himmler's title of ''Reichsführer-SS'' became the highest formal SS rank, equivalent to a field marshal in the army.", "The SA was converted into a sports and training organisation.On 15 September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag.", "The laws banned marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households.", "The laws also deprived so-called \"non-Aryans\" of the benefits of German citizenship.", "These laws were among the first race-based measures instituted by the Third Reich.Himmler and Heydrich wanted to extend the power of the SS; thus, they urged Hitler to form a national police force overseen by the SS, to guard Nazi Germany against its many enemies at the time—real and imagined.", "Interior Minister Frick also wanted a national police force, but one controlled by him, with Kurt Daluege as his police chief.", "Hitler left it to Himmler and Heydrich to work out the arrangements with Frick.", "Himmler and Heydrich had greater bargaining power, as they were allied with Frick's old enemy, Göring.", "Heydrich drew up a set of proposals and Himmler sent him to meet with Frick.", "An angry Frick then consulted with Hitler, who told him to agree to the proposals.", "Frick acquiesced, and on 17 June 1936 Hitler decreed the unification of all police forces in the Reich and named Himmler Chief of German Police and a State Secretary in the Ministry of the Interior.", "In this role, Himmler was still nominally subordinate to Frick.", "In practice, however, the police were now effectively a division of the SS, and hence independent of Frick's control.", "This move gave Himmler operational control over Germany's entire detective force.", "He also gained authority over all of Germany's uniformed law enforcement agencies, which were amalgamated into the new ''Ordnungspolizei'' (Orpo: \"order police\"), which became a branch of the SS under Daluege.Himmler, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, and other SS officials visiting Mauthausen concentration camp in 1941Shortly thereafter, Himmler created the ''Kriminalpolizei'' (Kripo: criminal police) as an umbrella organisation for all criminal investigation agencies in Germany.", "The Kripo was merged with the Gestapo into the ''Sicherheitspolizei'' (SiPo: security police), under Heydrich's command.", "In September 1939, following the outbreak of World War II, Himmler formed the ''SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt'' (RSHA: Reich Security Main Office) to bring the SiPo (which included the Gestapo and Kripo) and the SD together under one umbrella.", "He again placed Heydrich in command.Under Himmler's leadership, the SS developed its own military branch, the ''SS-Verfügungstruppe'' (SS-VT), which later evolved into the Waffen-SS.", "Nominally under the authority of Himmler, the Waffen-SS developed a fully militarised structure of command and operations.", "It grew from three regiments to over 38 divisions during World War II, serving alongside the ''Heer'' (army), but never being formally part of it.In addition to his military ambitions, Himmler established the beginnings of a parallel economy under the umbrella of the SS.", "To this end, administrator Oswald Pohl set up the ''Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe'' (German Economic Enterprise) in 1940.Under the auspices of the SS Economy and Administration Head Office, this holding company owned housing corporations, factories, and publishing houses.", "Pohl was unscrupulous and quickly exploited the companies for personal gain.", "In contrast, Himmler was honest in matters of money and business.In 1938, as part of his preparations for war, Hitler ended the German alliance with China and entered into an agreement with the more modern Japan.", "That same year, Austria was unified with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss, and the Munich Agreement gave Nazi Germany control over the Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia.", "Hitler's primary motivations for war included obtaining additional ''Lebensraum'' (\"living space\") for the Germanic peoples, who were considered racially superior according to Nazi ideology.", "A second goal was the elimination of those considered racially inferior, particularly the Jews and Slavs, from territories controlled by the Reich.", "From 1933 to 1938, hundreds of thousands of Jews emigrated to the United States, Palestine, Great Britain, and other countries.", "Some converted to Christianity.=== Anti-church struggle ===According to Himmler biographer Peter Longerich, Himmler believed that a major task of the SS should be \"acting as the vanguard in overcoming Christianity and restoring a 'Germanic' way of living\" as part of preparations for the coming conflict between \"humans and subhumans\".", "Longerich wrote that, while the Nazi movement as a whole launched itself against Jews and Communists, \"by linking de-Christianisation with re-Germanization, Himmler had provided the SS with a goal and purpose all of its own\".", "Himmler was vehemently opposed to Christian sexual morality and the \"principle of Christian mercy\", both of which he saw as dangerous obstacles to his planned battle with \"subhumans\".", "In 1937, Himmler declared:In early 1937, Himmler had his personal staff work with academics to create a framework to replace Christianity within the Germanic cultural heritage.", "The project gave rise to the Deutschrechtliches Institut, headed by Professor Karl Eckhardt, at the University of Bonn." ], [ "World War II", "When Hitler and his army chiefs asked for a pretext for the invasion of Poland in 1939, Himmler, Heydrich, and Heinrich Müller masterminded and carried out a false flag project code-named Operation Himmler.", "German soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms undertook border skirmishes which deceptively suggested Polish aggression against Germany.", "The incidents were then used in Nazi propaganda to justify the invasion of Poland, the opening event of World War II.", "At the beginning of the war against Poland, Hitler authorised the killing of Polish civilians, including Jews and ethnic Poles.", "The ''Einsatzgruppen'' (SS task forces) had originally been formed by Heydrich to secure government papers and offices in areas taken over by Germany before World War II.", "Authorised by Hitler and under the direction of Himmler and Heydrich, the ''Einsatzgruppen'' units—now repurposed as death squads—followed the ''Heer'' (army) into Poland, and by the end of 1939 they had murdered some 65,000 intellectuals and other civilians.", "Militias and ''Heer'' units also took part in these killings.", "Under Himmler's orders via the RSHA, these squads were also tasked with rounding up Jews and others for placement in ghettos and concentration camps.Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose in 1942Germany subsequently invaded Denmark and Norway, the Netherlands, and France, and began bombing Great Britain in preparation for Operation Sea Lion, the planned invasion of the United Kingdom.", "On 21 June 1941, the day before invasion of the Soviet Union, Himmler commissioned the preparation of the ''Generalplan Ost'' (General Plan for the East); the plan was approved by Hitler in May 1942.It called for the Baltic States, Poland, Western Ukraine, and Byelorussia to be conquered and resettled by ten million German citizens.", "The current residents—some 31 million people—would be expelled further east, starved, or used for forced labour.", "The plan would have extended the borders of Germany to the east by .", "Himmler expected that it would take twenty to thirty years to complete the plan, at a cost of .", "Himmler stated openly: \"It is a question of existence, thus it will be a racial struggle of pitiless severity, in the course of which 20 to 30 million Slavs and Jews will perish through military actions and crises of food supply.", "\"Himmler declared that the war in the east was a pan-European crusade to defend the traditional values of old Europe from the \"Godless Bolshevik hordes\".", "Constantly struggling with the Wehrmacht for recruits, Himmler solved this problem through the creation of Waffen-SS units composed of Germanic folk groups taken from the Balkans and eastern Europe.", "Equally vital were recruits from among the Germanic considered peoples of northern and western Europe, in the Netherlands, Norway, Belgium, Denmark and Finland.", "Spain and Italy also provided men for Waffen-SS units.", "Among western countries, the number of volunteers varied from a high of 25,000 from the Netherlands to 300 each from Sweden and Switzerland.", "From the east, the highest number of men came from Lithuania (50,000) and the lowest from Bulgaria (600).", "After 1943 most men from the east were conscripts.", "The performance of the eastern Waffen-SS units was, as a whole, sub-standard.In late 1941, Hitler named Heydrich as Deputy Reich Protector of the newly established Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.", "Heydrich began to racially classify the Czechs, deporting many to concentration camps.", "Members of a swelling resistance were shot, earning Heydrich the nickname \"the Butcher of Prague\".", "This appointment strengthened the collaboration between Himmler and Heydrich, and Himmler was proud to have SS control over a state.", "Despite having direct access to Hitler, Heydrich's loyalty to Himmler remained firm.With Hitler's approval, Himmler re-established the ''Einsatzgruppen'' in the lead-up to the planned invasion of the Soviet Union.", "In March 1941, Hitler addressed his army leaders, detailing his intention to smash the Soviet Empire and destroy the Bolshevik intelligentsia and leadership.", "His special directive, the \"Guidelines in Special Spheres re Directive No.", "21 (Operation Barbarossa)\", read: \"In the operations area of the army, the ''Reichsführer-SS'' has been given special tasks on the orders of the ''Führer'', in order to prepare the political administration.", "These tasks arise from the forthcoming final struggle of two opposing political systems.", "Within the framework of these tasks, the ''Reichsführer-SS'' acts independently and on his own responsibility.\"", "Hitler thus intended to prevent internal friction like that occurring earlier in Poland in 1939, when several German Army generals (including Johannes Blaskowitz) had attempted to bring ''Einsatzgruppen'' leaders to trial for the murders they had committed.Himmler inspects a prisoner of war camp in Russia, Following the army into the Soviet Union, the ''Einsatzgruppen'' rounded up and killed Jews and others deemed undesirable by the Nazi state.", "Hitler was sent frequent reports.", "In addition, 2.8 million Soviet prisoners of war died of starvation, mistreatment or executions in just eight months of 1941–42.As many as 500,000 Soviet prisoners of war died or were executed in Nazi concentration camps over the course of the war; most of them were shot or gassed.", "By early 1941, following Himmler's orders, ten concentration camps had been constructed in which inmates were subjected to forced labour.", "Jews from all over Germany and the occupied territories were deported to the camps or confined to ghettos.", "As the Germans were pushed back from Moscow in December 1941, signalling that the expected quick defeat of the Soviet Union had failed to materialize, Hitler and other Nazi officials realised that mass deportations to the east would no longer be possible.", "As a result, instead of deportation, many Jews in Europe were destined for death." ], [ "Final Solution, the Holocaust, racial policy, and eugenics", "Himmler visiting the Dachau concentration camp in 1936Nazi racial policies, including the notion that people who were racially inferior had no right to live, date back to the earliest days of the party; Hitler discusses this in .", "Around the time of the German declaration of war on the United States in December 1941, Hitler resolved that the Jews of Europe were to be \"exterminated\".", "Heydrich arranged a meeting, held on 20 January 1942 at Wannsee, a suburb of Berlin.", "Attended by top Nazi officials, it was used to outline the plans for the \"final solution to the Jewish question\".", "Heydrich detailed how those Jews able to work would be worked to death; those unable to work would be killed outright.", "Heydrich calculated the number of Jews to be killed at 11 million and told the attendees that Hitler had placed Himmler in charge of the plan.In June 1942, Heydrich was assassinated in Prague in Operation Anthropoid, led by Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš, members of Czechoslovakia's army-in-exile.", "Both men had been trained by the British Special Operations Executive for the mission to kill Heydrich.", "During the two funeral services, Himmler—the chief mourner—took charge of Heydrich's two young sons, and he gave the eulogy in Berlin.", "On 9 June, after discussions with Himmler and Karl Hermann Frank, Hitler ordered brutal reprisals for Heydrich's death.", "Over 13,000 people were arrested, and the village of Lidice was razed to the ground; its male inhabitants and all adults in the village of Ležáky were murdered.", "At least 1,300 people were executed by firing squads.", "Himmler took over leadership of the RSHA and stepped up the pace of the killing of Jews in (Operation Reinhard), named in Heydrich's honour.", "He ordered the camps—three extermination camps—to be constructed at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka.Initially the victims were killed with gas vans or by firing squad, but these methods proved impracticable for an operation of this scale.", "In August 1941, Himmler attended the shooting of 100 Jews at Minsk.", "A “military virgin” this was the first time he heard a shot fired in anger or seen dead people, and in Minsk while looking into the open grave his coat and perhaps his face were splashed by the brains of a victim.", "He went very green and pale and swayed.", "Karl Wolff jumped forward, held him steady and led him away from the grave.", "Nauseated and shaken by the experience, he was concerned about the impact such actions would have on the mental health of his SS men.He decided that alternate methods of killing should be found.", "On his orders, by early 1942 the camp at Auschwitz had been greatly expanded, including the addition of gas chambers, where victims were killed using the pesticide Zyklon B. Himmler visited the camp in person on 17 and 18 July 1942.He was given a demonstration of a mass killing using the gas chamber in Bunker 2 and toured the building site of the new IG Farben plant being constructed at the nearby town of Monowitz.", "By the end of the war, at least 5.5 million Jews had been killed by the Nazi regime; most estimates range closer to 6 million.", "Himmler visited the camp at Sobibór in early 1943, by which time 250,000 people had been killed at that location alone.", "After witnessing a gassing, he gave 28 people promotions and ordered the operation of the camp to be wound down.", "In a prisoner revolt that October, the remaining prisoners killed most of the guards and SS personnel.", "Several hundred prisoners escaped; about a hundred were immediately re-captured and killed.", "Some of the escapees joined partisan units operating in the area.", "The camp was dismantled by December 1943.The Nazis also targeted Romani (Gypsies) as \"asocial\" and \"criminals\".", "By 1935, they were confined into special camps away from ethnic Germans.", "In 1938, Himmler issued an order in which he said that the \"Gypsy question\" would be determined by \"race\".", "Himmler believed that the Romani were originally Aryan but had become a mixed race; only the \"racially pure\" were to be allowed to live.", "In 1939, Himmler ordered thousands of Gypsies to be sent to the Dachau concentration camp and by 1942, ordered all Romani sent to Auschwitz concentration camp.Himmler was one of the main architects of the Holocaust, using his deep belief in the racist Nazi ideology to justify the murder of millions of victims.", "Longerich surmises that Hitler, Himmler, and Heydrich designed the Holocaust during a period of intensive meetings and exchanges in April–May 1942.The Nazis planned to kill Polish intellectuals and restrict non-Germans in the General Government and conquered territories to a fourth-grade education.", "They further wanted to breed a master race of racially pure Nordic Aryans in Germany.", "As a student of agriculture and a farmer, Himmler was acquainted with the principles of selective breeding, which he proposed to apply to humans.", "He believed that he could engineer the German populace, for example, through eugenics, to be Nordic in appearance within several decades of the end of the war.=== Posen speeches ===On 4 October 1943, during a secret meeting with top SS officials in the city of Poznań (Posen), and on 6 October 1943, in a speech to the party elite—the ''Gauleiters'' and ''Reichsleiters''—Himmler referred explicitly to the \"extermination\" () of the Jewish people.A translated excerpt from the speech of 4 October reads:Because the Allies had indicated that they were going to pursue criminal charges for German war crimes, Hitler tried to gain the loyalty and silence of his subordinates by making them all parties to the ongoing genocide.", "Hitler therefore authorised Himmler's speeches to ensure that all party leaders were complicit in the crimes and could not later deny knowledge of the killings.=== Germanization policies and ''Generalplan Ost'' ===Rudolf Hess, Himmler, Philipp Bouhler, Fritz Todt, Reinhard Heydrich, and others listening to Konrad Meyer at a exhibition, 20 March 1941As Reich Commissioner for the Consolidation of German Nationhood (RKFDV) with the incorporated VoMi, Himmler was deeply involved in the Germanization program for the East, particularly Poland.", "As laid out in ''Generalplan Ost'', the aim was to enslave, expel or exterminate the native population and to make (\"living space\") for (ethnic Germans).", "He continued his plans to colonise the east, even when many Germans were reluctant to relocate there, and despite negative effects on the war effort.", "Approximately 11 million Slavic and 3.4 million Jewish inhabitants of Eastern Europe were killed in Nazi Germany's extermination campaigns during the implementation of ''Generalplan Ost''.Himmler's racial groupings began with the , the classification of people deemed of German blood.", "These included Germans who had collaborated with Germany before the war, but also those who considered themselves German but had been neutral; those who were partially \"Polonized\" but \"Germanizable\"; and Germans who were of Polish nationality.", "Himmler ordered that those who refused to be classified as ethnic Germans should be deported to concentration camps, have their children taken away, or be assigned to forced labour.", "Himmler's belief that \"it is in the nature of German blood to resist\" led to his conclusion that Balts or Slavs who resisted Germanization were racially superior to more compliant ones.", "He declared that no drop of German blood would be lost or left behind to mingle with an \"alien race\".The plan also included the kidnapping of Eastern European children by Nazi Germany.", "Himmler urged:The \"racially valuable\" children were to be removed from all contact with Poles and raised as Germans, with German names.", "Himmler declared: \"We have faith above all in this our own blood, which has flowed into a foreign nationality through the vicissitudes of German history.", "We are convinced that our own philosophy and ideals will reverberate in the spirit of these children who racially belong to us.\"", "The children were to be adopted by German families.", "Children who passed muster at first but were later rejected were taken to in Łódź Ghetto, where most of them eventually died.By January 1943, Himmler reported that 629,000 ethnic Germans had been resettled; however, most resettled Germans did not live in the envisioned small farms, but in temporary camps or quarters in towns.", "Half a million residents of the annexed Polish territories, as well as from Slovenia, Alsace, Lorraine, and Luxembourg were deported to the General Government or sent to Germany as slave labour.", "Himmler instructed that the German nation should view all foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their German blood.", "In accordance with German racial laws, sexual relations between Germans and foreigners were forbidden as (race defilement)." ], [ "20 July plot", "On 20 July 1944, a group of German army officers led by Claus von Stauffenberg and including some of the highest-ranked members of the German armed forces attempted to assassinate Hitler, but failed to do so.", "The next day, Himmler formed a special commission that arrested over 5,000 suspected and known opponents of the regime.", "Hitler ordered brutal reprisals that resulted in the execution of more than 4,900 people.", "Though Himmler was embarrassed by his failure to uncover the plot, it led to an increase in his powers and authority.General Friedrich Fromm, commander-in-chief of the Replacement Army (''Ersatzheer'') and Stauffenberg's immediate superior, was one of those implicated in the conspiracy.", "Hitler removed Fromm from his post and named Himmler as his successor.", "Since the Replacement Army consisted of two million men, Himmler hoped to draw on these reserves to fill posts within the Waffen-SS.", "He appointed Hans Jüttner, director of the SS Leadership Main Office, as his deputy, and began to fill top Replacement Army posts with SS men.", "By November 1944 Himmler had merged the army officer recruitment department with that of the Waffen-SS and had successfully lobbied for an increase in the quotas for recruits to the SS.By this time, Hitler had appointed Himmler as ''Reichsminister'' of the Interior, succeeding Frick, and General Plenipotentiary for Administration (''Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung'').", "At the same time (24 August 1943) he also joined the six-member Council of Ministers for the Defense of the Reich, which operated as the war cabinet.", "In August 1944 Hitler authorised him to restructure the organisation and administration of the Waffen-SS, the army, and the police services.", "As head of the Replacement Army, Himmler was now responsible for prisoners of war.", "He was also in charge of the Wehrmacht penal system, and controlled the development of Wehrmacht armaments until January 1945." ], [ "Command of army group", "On 6 June 1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France during Operation Overlord.", "In response, Army Group Upper Rhine (''Heeresgruppe Oberrhein'') group was formed to engage the advancing US 7th Army (under command of General Alexander Patch) and French 1st Army (led by General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny) in the Alsace region along the west bank of the Rhine.", "In late 1944, Hitler appointed Himmler commander-in-chief of Army Group Upper Rhine.Himmler (at podium) with Heinz Guderian and Hans Lammers in October 1944On 26 September 1944 Hitler ordered Himmler to create special army units, the ''Volkssturm'' (\"People's Storm\" or \"People's Army\").", "All males aged sixteen to sixty were eligible for conscription into this militia, over the protests of Armaments Minister Albert Speer, who noted that irreplaceable skilled workers were being removed from armaments production.", "Hitler confidently believed six million men could be raised, and the new units would \"initiate a people's war against the invader\".", "These hopes were wildly optimistic.", "In October 1944, children as young as fourteen were being enlisted.", "Because of severe shortages in weapons and equipment and lack of training, members of the ''Volkssturm'' were poorly prepared for combat, and about 175,000 of them died in the final months of the war.On 1 January 1945, Hitler and his generals launched Operation North Wind.", "The goal was to break through the lines of the US 7th Army and French 1st Army to support the southern thrust in the Battle of the Bulge (Ardennes offensive), the final major German offensive of the war.", "After limited initial gains by the Germans, the Americans halted the offensive.", "By 25 January, Operation North Wind had officially ended.On 25 January 1945, despite Himmler's lack of military experience, Hitler appointed him as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula (''Heeresgruppe Weichsel'') to halt the Soviet Red Army's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania – a decision that appalled the German General Staff.", "Himmler established his command centre at Schneidemühl, using his special train, ''Sonderzug Steiermark'', as his headquarters.", "The train had only one telephone line, inadequate maps, and no signal detachment or radios with which to establish communication and relay military orders.", "Himmler seldom left the train, only worked about four hours per day, and insisted on a daily massage before commencing work and a lengthy nap after lunch.General Heinz Guderian talked to Himmler on 9 February and demanded that Operation Solstice, an attack from Pomerania against the northern flank of Marshal Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front, should be in progress by the 16th.", "Himmler argued that he was not ready to commit himself to a specific date.", "Given Himmler's lack of qualifications as an army group commander, Guderian convinced himself that Himmler tried to conceal his incompetence.", "On 13 February Guderian met Hitler and demanded that General Walther Wenck be given a special mandate to command the offensive by Army Group Vistula.", "Hitler sent Wenck with a \"special mandate\", but without specifying Wenck's authority.", "The offensive was launched on 16 February 1945, but soon stuck in rain and mud, facing mine fields and strong antitank defenses.", "That night Wenck was severely injured in a car accident, but it is doubtful that he could have salvaged the operation, as Guderian later claimed.", "Himmler ordered the offensive to stop on the 18th by a \"directive for regrouping\".", "Hitler officially ended Operation Solstice on 21 February and ordered Himmler to transfer a corps headquarter and three divisions to Army Group Center.Himmler was unable to devise any viable plans for completion of his military objectives.", "Under pressure from Hitler over the worsening military situation, Himmler became anxious and unable to give him coherent reports.", "When the counter-attack failed to stop the Soviet advance, Hitler held Himmler personally liable and accused him of not following orders.", "Himmler's military command ended on 20 March, when Hitler replaced him with General Gotthard Heinrici as Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Vistula.", "By this time Himmler, who had been under the care of his doctor since 18 February, had fled to the Hohenlychen Sanatorium.", "Hitler sent Guderian on a forced medical leave of absence, and he reassigned his post as chief of staff to Hans Krebs on 29 March.", "Himmler's failure and Hitler's response marked a serious deterioration in the relationship between the two men.", "By that time, the inner circle of people whom Hitler trusted was rapidly shrinking.=== Peace negotiations ===In early 1945, the German war effort was on the verge of collapse and Himmler's relationship with Hitler had deteriorated.", "Himmler considered independently negotiating a peace settlement.", "His masseur, Felix Kersten, who had moved to Sweden, acted as an intermediary in negotiations with Count Folke Bernadotte, head of the Swedish Red Cross.", "Letters were exchanged between the two men, and direct meetings were arranged by Walter Schellenberg of the RSHA.In March 1945, Himmler issued a directive that Jews were to be marched from the South-east wall (''Südostwall'') fortifications construction project on the Austro-Hungarian border, to Mauthausen.", "He desired hostages for potential peace negotiations.", "Thousands died on the marches.Himmler in 1945Himmler and Hitler met for the last time on 20 April 1945—Hitler's birthday—in Berlin, and Himmler swore unswerving loyalty to Hitler.", "At a military briefing on that day, Hitler stated that he would not leave Berlin, in spite of Soviet advances.", "Along with Göring, Himmler quickly left the city after the briefing.", "On 21 April, Himmler met with Norbert Masur, a Swedish representative of the World Jewish Congress, to discuss the release of Jewish concentration camp inmates.", "As a result of these negotiations, about 20,000 people were released in the White Buses operation.", "Himmler falsely claimed in the meeting that the crematoria at camps had been built to deal with the bodies of prisoners who had died in a typhus epidemic.", "He also claimed very high survival rates for the camps at Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen, even as these sites were liberated and it became obvious that his figures were false.On 23 April, Himmler met directly with Bernadotte at the Swedish consulate in Lübeck.", "Representing himself as the provisional leader of Germany, he claimed that Hitler would be dead within the next few days.", "Hoping that the British and Americans would fight the Soviets alongside what remained of the Wehrmacht, Himmler asked Bernadotte to inform General Dwight Eisenhower that Germany wished to surrender to the Western Allies, and not to the Soviet Union.", "Bernadotte asked Himmler to put his proposal in writing, and Himmler obliged.Meanwhile, Göring had sent a telegram, a few hours earlier, asking Hitler for permission to assume leadership of the ''Reich'' in his capacity as Hitler's designated deputy—an act that Hitler, under the prodding of Martin Bormann, interpreted as a demand to step down or face a coup.", "On 27 April, Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin, Hermann Fegelein, was caught in civilian clothes preparing to desert; he was arrested and brought back to the ''Führerbunker''.", "On the evening of 28 April, the BBC broadcast a Reuters news report about Himmler's attempted negotiations with the western Allies.", "Hitler had long considered Himmler to be second only to Joseph Goebbels in loyalty; he called Himmler \"the loyal Heinrich\" ().", "Hitler flew into a rage at this betrayal, and told those still with him in the bunker complex that Himmler's secret negotiations were the worst treachery he had ever known.", "Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest, and Fegelein was court-martialed and shot.By this time, the Soviets had advanced to the Potsdamer Platz, only from the Reich Chancellery, and were preparing to storm the Chancellery.", "This report, combined with Himmler's treachery, prompted Hitler to write his last will and testament.", "In the testament, completed on 29 April—one day prior to his suicide—Hitler declared both Himmler and Göring to be traitors.", "He stripped Himmler of all of his party and state offices and expelled him from the Nazi Party.Hitler named Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as his successor.", "Himmler met Dönitz in Flensburg and offered himself as second-in-command.", "He maintained that he was entitled to a position in Dönitz's interim government as ''Reichsführer-SS'', believing the SS would be in a good position to restore and maintain order after the war.", "Dönitz repeatedly rejected Himmler's overtures and initiated peace negotiations with the Allies.", "He wrote a letter on 6 May—two days before the German Instrument of Surrender—formally dismissing Himmler from all his posts." ], [ "Capture and death", "Himmler's corpse after his suicide by cyanide poisoning, May 1945Rejected by his former comrades and hunted by the Allies, Himmler attempted to go into hiding.", "He had not made extensive preparations for this, but he carried a forged paybook under the name of Sergeant Heinrich Hizinger.", "On 11 May 1945, with a small band of companions, he headed south to Friedrichskoog, without a final destination in mind.", "They continued on to Neuhaus, where the group split up.", "On 21 May, Himmler and two aides were stopped and detained at a checkpoint in Bremervörde set up by former Soviet POWs.", "Over the following two days, he was moved around to several camps and was brought to the British 31st Civilian Interrogation Camp near Lüneburg, on 23 May.", "The officials noticed that Himmler's identity papers bore a stamp which British military intelligence had seen being used by fleeing members of the SS.The duty officer, Captain Thomas Selvester, began a routine interrogation.", "Himmler admitted who he was, and Selvester had the prisoner searched.", "Himmler was taken to the headquarters of the Second British Army in Lüneburg, where a doctor conducted a medical exam on him.", "The doctor attempted to examine the inside of Himmler's mouth, but the prisoner was reluctant to open it and jerked his head away.", "Himmler then bit into a hidden potassium cyanide pill and collapsed onto the floor.", "He was dead within 15 minutes, despite efforts to expel the poison from his system.", "Shortly afterward, Himmler's body was buried in an unmarked grave near Lüneburg.", "The grave's location remains unknown." ], [ "Mysticism and symbolism", "The stylised lightning bolts of the SS insignia were based on the Armanen runes of Guido von List.Himmler was interested in mysticism and the occult from an early age.", "He tied this interest into his racist philosophy, looking for proof of Aryan and Nordic racial superiority from ancient times.", "He promoted a cult of ancestor worship, particularly among members of the SS, as a way to keep the race pure and provide immortality to the nation.", "Viewing the SS as an \"order\" along the lines of the Teutonic Knights, he had them take over the Church of the Teutonic Order in Vienna in 1939.He began the process of replacing Christianity with a new moral code that rejected humanitarianism and challenged the Christian concept of marriage.", "The Ahnenerbe, a research society founded by Himmler in 1935, searched the globe for proof of the superiority and ancient origins of the Germanic race.All regalia and uniforms of Nazi Germany, particularly those of the SS, used symbolism in their designs.", "The stylised lightning bolt logo of the SS was chosen in 1932.The logo is a pair of runes from a set of 18 Armanen runes created by Guido von List in 1906.The ancient Sowilō rune originally symbolised the sun, but was renamed \"Sieg\" (victory) in List's iconography.", "Himmler modified a variety of existing customs to emphasise the elitism and central role of the SS; an SS naming ceremony was to replace baptism, marriage ceremonies were to be altered, a separate SS funeral ceremony was to be held in addition to Christian ceremonies, and SS-centric celebrations of the summer and winter solstices were instituted.", "The ''Totenkopf'' (death's head) symbol, used by German military units for hundreds of years, had been chosen for the SS by Julius Schreck.", "Himmler placed particular importance on the death's-head rings; they were never to be sold, and were to be returned to him upon the death of the owner.", "He interpreted the death's-head symbol to mean solidarity to the cause and a commitment unto death." ], [ "Relationship with Hitler", "As second in command of the SS and then Reichsführer-SS, Himmler was in regular contact with Hitler to arrange for SS men as bodyguards; Himmler was not involved with Nazi Party policy-making decisions in the years leading up to the seizure of power.", "From the late 1930s, the SS was independent of the control of other state agencies or government departments, and he reported only to Hitler.Hitler promoted and practised the ''Führerprinzip''.", "The principle required absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors; thus Hitler viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex.", "Accordingly, Himmler placed himself in a position of subservience to Hitler, and was unconditionally obedient to him.", "However, he—like other top Nazi officials—had aspirations to one day succeed Hitler as leader of the Reich.", "Himmler considered Speer to be an especially dangerous rival, both in the Reich administration and as a potential successor to Hitler.Hitler called Himmler's mystical and pseudoreligious interests \"nonsense\".", "Himmler was not a member of Hitler's inner circle; the two men were not very close, and rarely saw each other socially.", "Himmler socialised almost exclusively with other members of the SS.", "His unconditional loyalty and efforts to please Hitler earned him the nickname of ''der treue Heinrich'' (\"the faithful Heinrich\").", "However, in the last days of the war, when it became clear that Hitler planned to die in Berlin, Himmler left his long-time superior to try to save himself." ], [ "Marriage and family", "Gudrun Himmler met his future wife, Margarete Boden, in 1927.Seven years his senior, she was a nurse who shared his interest in herbal medicine and homoeopathy, and was part owner of a small private clinic.", "They were married in July 1928, and their only child, Gudrun, was born on 8 August 1929.The couple were also foster parents to a boy named Gerhard von Ahe, son of an SS officer who had died before the war.", "Margarete sold her share of the clinic and used the proceeds to buy a plot of land in Waldtrudering, near Munich, where they erected a prefabricated house.", "Himmler was constantly away on party business, so his wife took charge of their efforts—mostly unsuccessful—to raise livestock for sale.", "They had a dog, Töhle.After the Nazis came to power the family moved first to Möhlstrasse in Munich, and in 1934 to Tegernsee, where they bought a house.", "Himmler also later obtained a large house in the Berlin suburb of Dahlem, free of charge, as an official residence.", "The couple saw little of each other as Himmler became totally absorbed by work.", "The relationship was strained.", "The couple did unite for social functions; they were frequent guests at the Heydrich home.", "Margarete saw it as her duty to invite the wives of the senior SS leaders over for afternoon coffee and tea on Wednesday afternoons.Gudrun Hedwig Potthast, Himmler's young secretary starting in 1936, became his mistress by 1939.She left her job in 1941.He arranged accommodation for her, first in Mecklenburg and later at Berchtesgaden.", "He fathered two children with her: a son, Helge (born 15 February 1942, Mecklenburg) and a daughter, Nanette Dorothea (born 20 July 1944, Berchtesgaden).", "Margarete, by then living in Gmund with her daughter, learned of the relationship sometime in 1941; she and Himmler were already separated, and she decided to tolerate the relationship for the sake of her daughter.", "Working as a nurse for the German Red Cross during the war, Margarete was appointed supervisor in one of Germany's military districts, Wehrkreis III (Berlin-Brandenburg).", "Himmler was close to his first daughter, Gudrun, whom he nicknamed ''Püppi'' (\"dolly\"); he phoned her every few days and visited as often as he could.Margarete's diaries record that Gerhard left the National Political Educational Institute in Berlin due to poor examination results.", "At 16 he joined the SS in Brno and fought on the Eastern Front.", "He was captured by the Russians but was later returned to Germany.Hedwig and Margarete both remained loyal to Himmler.", "Writing to Gebhard in February 1945, Margarete said, \"How wonderful that he has been called to great tasks and is equal to them.", "The whole of Germany is looking to him.\"", "Hedwig expressed similar sentiments in a letter to Himmler in January.", "Margarete and Gudrun left Gmund as Allied troops advanced into the area.", "They were arrested by American troops in Bolzano, Italy, and held in various internment camps in Italy, France, and Germany.", "They were brought to Nuremberg to testify at the trials and were released in November 1946.Gudrun emerged from the experience embittered by her alleged mistreatment and remained devoted to her father's memory.", "She later worked for the West German spy agency ''Bundesnachrichtendienst'' (BND) from 1961 to 1963." ], [ "Historical assessment", "Peter Longerich observes that Himmler's ability to consolidate his ever-increasing powers and responsibilities into a coherent system under the auspices of the SS led him to become one of the most powerful men in the Third Reich.", "Historian Wolfgang Sauer says that \"although he was pedantic, dogmatic, and dull, Himmler emerged under Hitler as second in actual power.", "His strength lay in a combination of unusual shrewdness, burning ambition, and servile loyalty to Hitler.\"", "In 2008, the German news magazine described Himmler as one of the most brutal mass murderers in history and the architect of the Holocaust.Historian John Toland relates a story by Günter Syrup, a subordinate of Heydrich.", "Heydrich showed him a picture of Himmler and said: \"The top half is the teacher, but the lower half is the sadist.\"", "Historian Adrian Weale comments that Himmler and the SS followed Hitler's policies without question or ethical considerations.", "Himmler accepted Hitler and Nazi ideology and saw the SS as a chivalric Teutonic order of new Germans.", "Himmler adopted the doctrine of (\"mission command\"), whereby orders were given as broad directives, with authority delegated downward to the appropriate level to carry them out in a timely and efficient manner.", "Weale states that the SS ideology gave the men a doctrinal framework, and the mission command tactics allowed the junior officers leeway to act on their own initiative to obtain the desired results." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of Nazi Germany* Heinrich Himmler papers* ''Lebensborn''* List of Nazi Party leaders and officials* List of SS personnel" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Bibliography ==='''Printed'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Online'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Further reading'''* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* List of Himmler speeches This list of Himmler speeches includes online sources and material in the US National Archives.", "* Heinrich Himmler at the Holocaust Research Project* Register of the Heinrich Himmler Papers, 1914–1944 at the Hoover Institution Archives* Footage of Himmler's corpse and the cyanide capsule he used to kill himself*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "HTTP" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hypertext Transfer Protocol''' ('''HTTP''') is an application layer protocol in the Internet protocol suite model for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems.", "HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, where hypertext documents include hyperlinks to other resources that the user can easily access, for example by a mouse click or by tapping the screen in a web browser.Development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989 and summarized in a simple document describing the behavior of a client and a server using the first HTTP version, named 0.9.That version was subsequently developed, eventually becoming the public 1.0.Development of early HTTP Requests for Comments (RFCs) started a few years later in a coordinated effort by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), with work later moving to the IETF.HTTP/1 was finalized and fully documented (as version 1.0) in 1996.It evolved (as version 1.1) in 1997 and then its specifications were updated in 1999, 2014, and 2022.Its secure variant named HTTPS is used by more than 85% of websites.HTTP/2, published in 2015, provides a more efficient expression of HTTP's semantics \"on the wire\".", "it is used by 36% of websites and supported by almost all web browsers (over 98% of users).", "It is also supported by major web servers over Transport Layer Security (TLS) using an Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation (ALPN) extension where TLS 1.2 or newer is required.HTTP/3, the successor to HTTP/2, was published in 2022.It is now used on 28% of websites and is supported by most web browsers, i.e.", "(at least partially) supported by 97% of web browsers.", "HTTP/3 uses QUIC instead of TCP for the underlying transport protocol.", "Like HTTP/2, it does not obsolesce previous major versions of the protocol.", "Support for HTTP/3 was added to Cloudflare and Google Chrome first, and is also enabled in Firefox.", "HTTP/3 has lower latency for real-world web pages, if enabled on the server, load faster than with HTTP/2, and even faster than HTTP/1.1, in some cases over 3× faster than HTTP/1.1 (which is still commonly only enabled)." ], [ "Technical overview", "HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server model.", "A web browser, for example, may be the ''client'' whereas a process, named web server, running on a computer hosting one or more websites may be the ''server''.", "The client submits an HTTP ''request'' message to the server.", "The server, which provides ''resources'' such as HTML files and other content or performs other functions on behalf of the client, returns a ''response'' message to the client.", "The response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body.A web browser is an example of a ''user agent'' (UA).", "Other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers (web crawlers), voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content.HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers.", "High-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time.", "Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them, whenever possible, to reduce network traffic.", "HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, by relaying messages with external servers.To allow intermediate HTTP nodes (proxy servers, web caches, etc.)", "to accomplish their functions, some of the HTTP headers (found in HTTP requests/responses) are managed hop-by-hop whereas other HTTP headers are managed end-to-end (managed only by the source client and by the target web server).HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite.", "Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol.", "In the latest version HTTP/3, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is no longer used, but the older versions are still more used and they most commonly use TCP.", "They have also been adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which HTTP/3 also (indirectly) always builds on, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol (SSDP).HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), using the Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI's) schemes ''http'' and ''https''.", "As defined in , URIs are encoded as hyperlinks in HTML documents, so as to form interlinked hypertext documents.In HTTP/1.0 a separate TCP connection to the same server is made for every resource request.In HTTP/1.1 instead a TCP connection can be reused to make multiple resource requests (i.e.", "of HTML pages, frames, images, scripts, stylesheets, etc.", ").HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead, especially under high traffic conditions.HTTP/2 is a revision of previous HTTP/1.1 in order to maintain the same client–server model and the same protocol methods but with these differences in order:* to use a compressed binary representation of metadata (HTTP headers) instead of a textual one, so that headers require much less space;* to use a single TCP/IP (usually encrypted) connection per accessed server domain instead of 2 to 8 TCP/IP connections;* to use one or more bidirectional streams per TCP/IP connection in which HTTP requests and responses are broken down and transmitted in small packets to almost solve the problem of the HOLB (head-of-line blocking).", "* to add a push capability to allow server application to send data to clients whenever new data is available (without forcing clients to request periodically new data to server by using polling methods).HTTP/2 communications therefore experience much less latency and, in most cases, even higher speeds than HTTP/1.1 communications.HTTP/3 is a revision of previous HTTP/2 in order to use QUIC + UDP transport protocols instead of TCP.", "Before that version, TCP/IP connections were used; but now, only the IP layer is used (which UDP, like TCP, builds on).", "This slightly improves the average speed of communications and to avoid the occasional (very rare) problem of TCP connection congestion that can temporarily block or slow down the data flow of all its streams (another form of \"''head of line blocking''\")." ], [ "History", "Tim Berners-Lee The term hypertext was coined by Ted Nelson in 1965 in the Xanadu Project, which was in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush's 1930s vision of the microfilm-based information retrieval and management \"memex\" system described in his 1945 essay \"As We May Think\".", "Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP, along with HTML and the associated technology for a web server and a client user interface called web browser.", "Berners-Lee designed HTTP in order to help with the adoption of his other idea: the \"WorldWideWeb\" project, which was first proposed in 1989, now known as the World Wide Web.The first web server went live in 1990.The protocol used had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server.", "The response from the server was always an HTML page.=== Summary of HTTP milestone versions ===VersionYear introducedCurrent statusHTTP/0.91991HTTP/1.01996HTTP/1.11997HTTP/22015HTTP/32022;HTTP/0.9:In 1991, the first documented official version of HTTP was written as a plain document, less than 700 words long, and this version was named HTTP/0.9, which supported only GET method, allowing clients to only retrieve HTML documents from the server, but not supporting any other file formats or information upload.", ";HTTP/1.0-draft:Since 1992, a new document was written to specify the evolution of the basic protocol towards its next full version.", "It supported both the simple request method of the 0.9 version and the full GET request that included the client HTTP version.", "This was the first of the many unofficial HTTP/1.0 drafts that preceded the final work on HTTP/1.0.", ";W3C HTTP Working Group:After having decided that new features of HTTP protocol were required and that they had to be fully documented as official RFCs, in early 1995 the HTTP Working Group (HTTP WG, led by Dave Raggett) was constituted with the aim to standardize and expand the protocol with extended operations, extended negotiation, richer meta-information, tied with a security protocol which became more efficient by adding additional methods and header fields.", ":The HTTP WG planned to revise and publish new versions of the protocol as HTTP/1.0 and HTTP/1.1 within 1995, but, because of the many revisions, that timeline lasted much more than one year.", ":The HTTP WG planned also to specify a far future version of HTTP called HTTP-NG (HTTP Next Generation) that would have solved all remaining problems, of previous versions, related to performances, low latency responses, etc.", "but this work started only a few years later and it was never completed.", ";HTTP/1.0:In May 1996, was published as a final HTTP/1.0 revision of what had been used in previous 4 years as a pre-standard HTTP/1.0-draft which was already used by many web browsers and web servers.", ": In early 1996 developers started to even include unofficial extensions of the HTTP/1.0 protocol (i.e.", "keep-alive connections, etc.)", "into their products by using drafts of the upcoming HTTP/1.1 specifications.", ";HTTP/1.1:Since early 1996, major web browsers and web server developers also started to implement new features specified by pre-standard HTTP/1.1 drafts specifications.", "End-user adoption of the new versions of browsers and servers was rapid.", "In March 1996, one web hosting company reported that over 40% of browsers in use on the Internet used the new HTTP/1.1 header \"Host\" to enable virtual hosting.", "That same web hosting company reported that by June 1996, 65% of all browsers accessing their servers were pre-standard HTTP/1.1 compliant.", ":In January 1997, was officially released as HTTP/1.1 specifications.", ":In June 1999, was released to include all improvements and updates based on previous (obsolete) HTTP/1.1 specifications.", ";W3C HTTP-NG Working Group:Resuming the old 1995 plan of previous HTTP Working Group, in 1997 an ''HTTP-NG Working Group'' was formed to develop a new HTTP protocol named HTTP-NG (HTTP New Generation).", "A few proposals / drafts were produced for the new protocol to use multiplexing of HTTP transactions inside a single TCP/IP connection, but in 1999, the group stopped its activity passing the technical problems to IETF.", ";IETF HTTP Working Group restarted:In 2007, the IETF HTTP Working Group (HTTP WG bis or HTTPbis) was restarted firstly to revise and clarify previous HTTP/1.1 specifications and secondly to write and refine future HTTP/2 specifications (named httpbis).", ";SPDY an unofficial HTTP protocol developed by Google:In 2009, Google, a private company, announced that it had developed and tested a new HTTP binary protocol named SPDY.", "The implicit aim was to greatly speed up web traffic (specially between future web browsers and its servers).", ":SPDY was indeed much faster than HTTP/1.1 in many tests and so it was quickly adopted by Chromium and then by other major web browsers.", ":Some of the ideas about multiplexing HTTP streams over a single TCP/IP connection were taken from various sources, including the work of W3C HTTP-NG Working Group.", ";HTTP/2:In January–March 2012, HTTP Working Group (HTTPbis) announced the need to start to focus on a new HTTP/2 protocol (while finishing the revision of HTTP/1.1 specifications), maybe taking in consideration ideas and work done for SPDY.", ":After a few months about what to do to develop a new version of HTTP, it was decided to derive it from SPDY.", ":In May 2015, HTTP/2 was published as and quickly adopted by all web browsers already supporting SPDY and more slowly by web servers.", ";2014 updates to HTTP/1.1:In June 2014, the HTTP Working Group released an updated six-part HTTP/1.1 specification obsoleting ::* , ''HTTP/1.1: Message Syntax and Routing'':* , ''HTTP/1.1: Semantics and Content'':* , ''HTTP/1.1: Conditional Requests'':* , ''HTTP/1.1: Range Requests'':* , ''HTTP/1.1: Caching'':* , ''HTTP/1.1: Authentication'';HTTP/0.9 Deprecation:In Appendix-A, HTTP/0.9 was deprecated for servers supporting HTTP/1.1 version (and higher)::Since 2016 many product managers and developers of user agents (browsers, etc.)", "and web servers have begun planning to gradually deprecate and dismiss support for HTTP/0.9 protocol, mainly for the following reasons::* it is so simple that an RFC document was never written (there is only the original document);:* it has no HTTP headers and lacks many other features that nowadays are required for minimal security reasons;:* it has not been widespread since 1999..2000 (because of HTTP/1.0 and HTTP/1.1) and is commonly used only by some very old network hardware, i.e.", "routers, etc.", ":;HTTP/3:In 2020, the first drafts HTTP/3 were published and major web browsers and web servers started to adopt it.", ":On 6 June 2022, IETF standardized HTTP/3 as .", ";Updates and refactoring in 2022:In June 2022, a batch of RFCs was published, deprecating many of the previous documents and introducing a few minor changes and a refactoring of HTTP semantics description into a separate document.", ":* , ''HTTP Semantics'':* , ''HTTP Caching'':* , ''HTTP/1.1'':* , ''HTTP/2'':* , ''HTTP/3'' (see also the section above):* , ''QPACK: Field Compression for HTTP/3'':* , ''Extensible Prioritization Scheme for HTTP''" ], [ "HTTP data exchange", "HTTP is a stateless application-level protocol and it requires a reliable network transport connection to exchange data between client and server.", "In HTTP implementations, TCP/IP connections are used using well-known ports (typically port 80 if the connection is unencrypted or port 443 if the connection is encrypted, see also List of TCP and UDP port numbers).", "In HTTP/2, a TCP/IP connection plus multiple protocol channels are used.", "In HTTP/3, the application transport protocol QUIC over UDP is used.=== Request and response messages through connections ===Data is exchanged through a sequence of request–response messages which are exchanged by a session layer transport connection.", "An HTTP client initially tries to connect to a server establishing a connection (real or virtual).", "An HTTP(S) server listening on that port accepts the connection and then waits for a client's request message.", "The client sends its HTTP request message.", "Upon receiving the request the server sends back an HTTP response message, which includes header(s) plus a body if it is required.", "The body of this response message is typically the requested resource, although an error message or other information may also be returned.", "At any time (for many reasons) client or server can close the connection.", "Closing a connection is usually advertised in advance by using one or more HTTP headers in the last request/response message sent to server or client.=== Persistent connections ===In '''HTTP/0.9''', the TCP/IP connection is always closed after server response has been sent, so it is never persistent.In '''HTTP/1.0''', as stated in RFC 1945, the TCP/IP connection should always be closed by server after a response has been sent.In '''HTTP/1.1''' a keep-alive-mechanism was officially introduced so that a connection could be reused for more than one request/response.", "Such persistent connections reduce request latency perceptibly because the client does not need to re-negotiate the TCP 3-Way-Handshake connection after the first request has been sent.", "Another positive side effect is that, in general, the connection becomes faster with time due to TCP's slow-start-mechanism.", "'''HTTP/1.1''' added also HTTP pipelining in order to further reduce lag time when using persistent connections by allowing clients to send multiple requests before waiting for each response.", "This optimization was never considered really safe because a few web servers and many proxy servers, specially transparent proxy servers placed in Internet / Intranets between clients and servers, did not handle pipelined requests properly (they served only the first request discarding the others, they closed the connection because they saw more data after the first request or some proxies even returned responses out of order etc.).", "Besides this only HEAD and some GET requests (i.e.", "limited to real file requests and so with URLs without query string used as a command, etc.)", "could be pipelined in a safe and idempotent mode.", "After many years of struggling with the problems introduced by enabling pipelining, this feature was first disabled and then removed from most browsers also because of the announced adoption of HTTP/2.", "'''HTTP/2''' extended the usage of persistent connections by multiplexing many concurrent requests/responses through a single TCP/IP connection.", "'''HTTP/3''' does not use TCP/IP connections but QUIC + UDP (see also: technical overview).=== Content retrieval optimizations ===; HTTP/0.9: a requested resource was always sent entirely.", "; HTTP/1.0: HTTP/1.0 added headers to manage resources cached by client in order to allow conditional GET requests; in practice a server has to return the entire content of the requested resource only if its last modified time is not known by client or if it changed since last full response to GET request.", "One of these headers, \"Content-Encoding\", was added to specify whether the returned content of a resource was or was not compressed.", ": If the total length of the content of a resource was not known in advance (i.e.", "because it was dynamically generated, etc.)", "then the header \"Content-Length: number\" was not present in HTTP headers and the client assumed that when server closed the connection, the content had been entirely sent.", "This mechanism could not distinguish between a resource transfer successfully completed and an interrupted one (because of a server / network error or something else).", "; HTTP/1.1: HTTP/1.1 introduced::* new headers to better manage the conditional retrieval of cached resources.", ":* chunked transfer encoding to allow content to be streamed in chunks in order to reliably send it even when the server does not know in advance its length (i.e.", "because it is dynamically generated, etc.).", ":* byte range serving, where a client can request only one or more portions (ranges of bytes) of a resource (i.e.", "the first part, a part in the middle or in the end of the entire content, etc.)", "and the server usually sends only the requested part(s).", "This is useful to resume an interrupted download (when a file is really big), when only a part of a content has to be shown or dynamically added to the already visible part by a browser (i.e.", "only the first or the following n comments of a web page) in order to spare time, bandwidth and system resources, etc.", "; HTTP/2, HTTP/3: Both HTTP/2 and HTTP/3 have kept the above mentioned features of HTTP/1.1." ], [ "HTTP authentication", "HTTP provides multiple authentication schemes such as basic access authentication and digest access authentication which operate via a challenge–response mechanism whereby the server identifies and issues a challenge before serving the requested content.HTTP provides a general framework for access control and authentication, via an extensible set of challenge–response authentication schemes, which can be used by a server to challenge a client request and by a client to provide authentication information.The authentication mechanisms described above belong to the HTTP protocol and are managed by client and server HTTP software (if configured to require authentication before allowing client access to one or more web resources), and not by the web applications using a web application session.=== Authentication realms ===The HTTP Authentication specification also provides an arbitrary, implementation-specific construct for further dividing resources common to a given root URI.", "The realm value string, if present, is combined with the canonical root URI to form the protection space component of the challenge.", "This in effect allows the server to define separate authentication scopes under one root URI." ], [ "HTTP application session {{anchor|HTTP session}}", "HTTP is a stateless protocol.", "A stateless protocol does not require the web server to retain information or status about each user for the duration of multiple requests.Some web applications need to manage user sessions, so they implement states, or server side sessions, using for instance HTTP cookies or hidden variables within web forms.To start an application user session, an interactive authentication via web application login must be performed.", "To stop a user session a logout operation must be requested by user.", "These kind of operations do not use HTTP authentication but a custom managed web application authentication." ], [ "HTTP/1.1 request messages{{anchor|Request_message}}", "Request messages are sent by a client to a target server.=== Request syntax ===A client sends ''request messages'' to the server, which consist of:* a '''request line''', consisting of the case-sensitive request method, a space, the requested URL, another space, the protocol version, a carriage return, and a line feed, e.g.", ":* zero or more request header fields (at least 1 or more headers in case of HTTP/1.1), each consisting of the case-insensitive field name, a colon, optional leading whitespace, the field value, an optional trailing whitespace and ending with a carriage return and a line feed, e.g.", ": Host: www.example.com Accept-Language: en* an empty line, consisting of a carriage return and a line feed;* an optional message body.In the HTTP/1.1 protocol, all header fields except Host: hostname are optional.A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 specification in .=== Request methods ===request message, response header section, and response body are highlighted.HTTP defines methods (sometimes referred to as ''verbs'', but nowhere in the specification does it mention ''verb'') to indicate the desired action to be performed on the identified resource.", "What this resource represents, whether pre-existing data or data that is generated dynamically, depends on the implementation of the server.", "Often, the resource corresponds to a file or the output of an executable residing on the server.", "The HTTP/1.0 specification defined the GET, HEAD, and POST methods, and the HTTP/1.1 specification added five new methods: PUT, DELETE, CONNECT, OPTIONS, and TRACE.", "Any client can use any method and the server can be configured to support any combination of methods.", "If a method is unknown to an intermediate, it will be treated as an unsafe and non-idempotent method.", "There is no limit to the number of methods that can be defined, which allows for future methods to be specified without breaking existing infrastructure.", "For example, WebDAV defined seven new methods and specified the PATCH method.Method names are case sensitive.", "This is in contrast to HTTP header field names which are case-insensitive.", "; GET: The GET method requests that the target resource transfer a representation of its state.", "GET requests should only retrieve data and should have no other effect.", "(This is also true of some other HTTP methods.)", "For retrieving resources without making changes, GET is preferred over POST, as they can be addressed through a URL.", "This enables bookmarking and sharing and makes GET responses eligible for caching, which can save bandwidth.", "The W3C has published guidance principles on this distinction, saying, \"Web application design should be informed by the above principles, but also by the relevant limitations.\"", "See safe methods below.", "; HEAD: The HEAD method requests that the target resource transfer a representation of its state, as for a GET request, but without the representation data enclosed in the response body.", "This is useful for retrieving the representation metadata in the response header, without having to transfer the entire representation.", "Uses include checking whether a page is available through the status code and quickly finding the size of a file (Content-Length).", "; POST: The POST method requests that the target resource process the representation enclosed in the request according to the semantics of the target resource.", "For example, it is used for posting a message to an Internet forum, subscribing to a mailing list, or completing an online shopping transaction.", "; PUT: The PUT method requests that the target resource create or update its state with the state defined by the representation enclosed in the request.", "A distinction from POST is that the client specifies the target location on the server.", "; DELETE: The DELETE method requests that the target resource delete its state.", "; CONNECT: The CONNECT method requests that the intermediary establish a TCP/IP tunnel to the origin server identified by the request target.", "It is often used to secure connections through one or more HTTP proxies with TLS.", "See HTTP CONNECT method.", "; OPTIONS: The OPTIONS method requests that the target resource transfer the HTTP methods that it supports.", "This can be used to check the functionality of a web server by requesting '*' instead of a specific resource.", "; TRACE: The TRACE method requests that the target resource transfer the received request in the response body.", "That way a client can see what (if any) changes or additions have been made by intermediaries.", "; PATCH: The PATCH method requests that the target resource modify its state according to the partial update defined in the representation enclosed in the request.", "This can save bandwidth by updating a part of a file or document without having to transfer it entirely.All general-purpose web servers are required to implement at least the GET and HEAD methods, and all other methods are considered optional by the specification.+Properties of request methods Request method RFC Request has payload body Response has payload body Safe Idempotent Cacheable GET HEAD POST PUT DELETE CONNECT OPTIONS TRACE PATCH ==== Safe methods ====A request method is ''safe'' if a request with that method has no intended effect on the server.", "The methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS, and TRACE are defined as safe.", "In other words, safe methods are intended to be read-only.", "They do not exclude side effects though, such as appending request information to a log file or charging an advertising account, since they are not requested by the client, by definition.In contrast, the methods POST, PUT, DELETE, CONNECT, and PATCH are not safe.", "They may modify the state of the server or have other effects such as sending an email.", "Such methods are therefore not usually used by conforming web robots or web crawlers; some that do not conform tend to make requests without regard to context or consequences.Despite the prescribed safety of GET requests, in practice their handling by the server is not technically limited in any way.", "Careless or deliberately irregular programming can allow GET requests to cause non-trivial changes on the server.", "This is discouraged because of the problems which can occur when web caching, search engines, and other automated agents make unintended changes on the server.", "For example, a website might allow deletion of a resource through a URL such as '''', which, if arbitrarily fetched, even using GET, would simply delete the article.", "A properly coded website would require a DELETE or POST method for this action, which non-malicious bots would not make.One example of this occurring in practice was during the short-lived Google Web Accelerator beta, which prefetched arbitrary URLs on the page a user was viewing, causing records to be automatically altered or deleted ''en masse''.", "The beta was suspended only weeks after its first release, following widespread criticism.==== Idempotent methods ====A request method is ''idempotent'' if multiple identical requests with that method have the same effect as a single such request.", "The methods PUT and DELETE, and safe methods are defined as idempotent.", "Safe methods are trivially idempotent, since they are intended to have no effect on the server whatsoever; the PUT and DELETE methods, meanwhile, are idempotent since successive identical requests will be ignored.", "A website might, for instance, set up a PUT endpoint to modify a user's recorded email address.", "If this endpoint is configured correctly, any requests which ask to change a user's email address to the same email address which is already recorded—e.g.", "duplicate requests following a successful request—will have no effect.", "Similarly, a request to DELETE a certain user will have no effect if that user has already been deleted.In contrast, the methods POST, CONNECT, and PATCH are not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further modify the state of the server or have further effects, such as sending multiple emails.", "In some cases this is the desired effect, but in other cases it may occur accidentally.", "A user might, for example, inadvertently send multiple POST requests by clicking a button again if they were not given clear feedback that the first click was being processed.", "While web browsers may show alert dialog boxes to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to handle cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once.Note that whether or not a method is idempotent is not enforced by the protocol or web server.", "It is perfectly possible to write a web application in which (for example) a database insert or other non-idempotent action is triggered by a GET or other request.", "To do so against recommendations, however, may result in undesirable consequences, if a user agent assumes that repeating the same request is safe when it is not.==== Cacheable methods ====A request method is ''cacheable'' if responses to requests with that method may be stored for future reuse.", "The methods GET, HEAD, and POST are defined as cacheable.In contrast, the methods PUT, DELETE, CONNECT, OPTIONS, TRACE, and PATCH are not cacheable.=== Request header fields ===Request header fields allow the client to pass additional information beyond the request line, acting as request modifiers (similarly to the parameters of a procedure).", "They give information about the client, about the target resource, or about the expected handling of the request." ], [ "HTTP/1.1 response messages <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Response_message\"></span>", "A response message is sent by a server to a client as a reply to its former request message.=== Response syntax ===A server sends ''response messages'' to the client, which consist of:* a '''status line''', consisting of the protocol version, a space, the response status code, another space, a possibly empty reason phrase, a carriage return and a line feed, e.g.", ":*: HTTP/1.1 200 OK* zero or more response header fields, each consisting of the case-insensitive field name, a colon, optional leading whitespace, the field value, an optional trailing whitespace and ending with a carriage return and a line feed, e.g.", ":*: Content-Type: text/html* an empty line, consisting of a carriage return and a line feed;* an optional message body.=== Response status codes ===In HTTP/1.0 and since, the first line of the HTTP response is called the ''status line'' and includes a numeric ''status code'' (such as \"404\") and a textual ''reason phrase'' (such as \"Not Found\").", "The response status code is a three-digit integer code representing the result of the server's attempt to understand and satisfy the client's corresponding request.", "The way the client handles the response depends primarily on the status code, and secondarily on the other response header fields.", "Clients may not understand all registered status codes but they must understand their class (given by the first digit of the status code) and treat an unrecognized status code as being equivalent to the x00 status code of that class.The standard ''reason phrases'' are only recommendations, and can be replaced with \"local equivalents\" at the web developer's discretion.", "If the status code indicated a problem, the user agent might display the ''reason phrase'' to the user to provide further information about the nature of the problem.", "The standard also allows the user agent to attempt to interpret the ''reason phrase'', though this might be unwise since the standard explicitly specifies that status codes are machine-readable and ''reason phrases'' are human-readable.The first digit of the status code defines its class:; 1XX (informational): The request was received, continuing process.", "; 2XX (successful): The request was successfully received, understood, and accepted.", "; 3XX (redirection): Further action needs to be taken in order to complete the request.", "; 4XX (client error): The request contains bad syntax or cannot be fulfilled.", "; 5XX (server error): The server failed to fulfill an apparently valid request.=== Response header fields ===The response header fields allow the server to pass additional information beyond the status line, acting as response modifiers.", "They give information about the server or about further access to the target resource or related resources.Each response header field has a defined meaning which can be further refined by the semantics of the request method or response status code." ], [ "HTTP/1.1 example of request / response transaction", "Below is a sample HTTP transaction between an HTTP/1.1 client and an HTTP/1.1 server running on www.example.com, port 80.=== Client request ===GET / HTTP/1.1Host: www.example.comUser-Agent: Mozilla/5.0Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,*/*;q=0.8Accept-Language: en-GB,en;q=0.5Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate, brConnection: keep-aliveA client request (consisting in this case of the request line and a few headers that can be reduced to only the \"Host: hostname\" header) is followed by a blank line, so that the request ends with a double end of line, each in the form of a carriage return followed by a line feed.", "The \"Host: hostname\" header value distinguishes between various DNS names sharing a single IP address, allowing name-based virtual hosting.", "While optional in HTTP/1.0, it is mandatory in HTTP/1.1.", "(A \"/\" (slash) will usually fetch a /index.html file if there is one.", ")=== Server response ===HTTP/1.1 200 OKDate: Mon, 23 May 2005 22:38:34 GMTContent-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8Content-Length: 155Last-Modified: Wed, 08 Jan 2003 23:11:55 GMTServer: Apache/1.3.3.7 (Unix) (Red-Hat/Linux)ETag: \"3f80f-1b6-3e1cb03b\"Accept-Ranges: bytesConnection: close An Example Page Hello World, this is a very simple HTML document.", "The ETag (entity tag) header field is used to determine if a cached version of the requested resource is identical to the current version of the resource on the server.", "\"Content-Type\" specifies the Internet media type of the data conveyed by the HTTP message, while \"Content-Length\" indicates its length in bytes.", "The HTTP/1.1 webserver publishes its ability to respond to requests for certain byte ranges of the document by setting the field \"Accept-Ranges: bytes\".", "This is useful, if the client needs to have only certain portions of a resource sent by the server, which is called byte serving.", "When \"Connection: close\" is sent, it means that the web server will close the TCP connection immediately after the end of the transfer of this response.Most of the header lines are optional but some are mandatory.", "When header \"Content-Length: number\" is missing in a response with an entity body then this should be considered an error in HTTP/1.0 but it may not be an error in HTTP/1.1 if header \"Transfer-Encoding: chunked\" is present.", "Chunked transfer encoding uses a chunk size of 0 to mark the end of the content.", "Some old implementations of HTTP/1.0 omitted the header \"Content-Length\" when the length of the body entity was not known at the beginning of the response and so the transfer of data to client continued until server closed the socket.A \"Content-Encoding: gzip\" can be used to inform the client that the body entity part of the transmitted data is compressed by gzip algorithm." ], [ "Encrypted connections", "The most popular way of establishing an encrypted HTTP connection is HTTPS.", "Two other methods for establishing an encrypted HTTP connection also exist: Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and using the HTTP/1.1 Upgrade header to specify an upgrade to TLS.", "Browser support for these two is, however, nearly non-existent." ], [ "Similar protocols", "* The Gopher protocol is a content delivery protocol that was displaced by HTTP in the early 1990s.", "* The SPDY protocol is an alternative to HTTP developed at Google, superseded by HTTP/2.", "* The Gemini protocol is a Gopher-inspired protocol which mandates privacy-related features." ], [ "See also", "* InterPlanetary File Systemcan replace HTTP* Comparison of file transfer protocols* Constrained Application Protocol – a semantically similar protocol to HTTP but used UDP or UDP-like messages targeted for devices with limited processing capability; re-uses HTTP and other internet concepts like Internet media type and web linking ()* Content negotiation* Digest access authentication* HTTP compression* HTTP/2 – developed by the IETF's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (httpbis) working group* List of HTTP header fields* List of HTTP status codes* Representational state transfer (REST)* Variant object* Web cache* WebSocket" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * A detailed technical history of HTTP.", "* Design Issues by Berners-Lee when he was designing the protocol." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heinrich Hertz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heinrich Rudolf Hertz''' ( ; ; 22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist who first conclusively proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves predicted by James Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism.", "The unit of frequency, cycle per second, was named the \"hertz\" in his honor." ], [ "Biography", "Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was born in 1857 in Hamburg, then a sovereign state of the German Confederation, into a prosperous and cultured Hanseatic family.", "His father was Gustav Ferdinand Hertz.", "His mother was Anna Elisabeth Pfefferkorn.While studying at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums in Hamburg, Hertz showed an aptitude for sciences as well as languages, learning Arabic.", "He studied sciences and engineering in the German cities of Dresden, Munich and Berlin, where he studied under Gustav R. Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz.", "In 1880, Hertz obtained his PhD from the University of Berlin, and for the next three years remained for post-doctoral study under Helmholtz, serving as his assistant.", "In 1883, Hertz took a post as a lecturer in theoretical physics at the University of Kiel.", "In 1885, Hertz became a full professor at the University of Karlsruhe.In 1886, Hertz married Elisabeth Doll, the daughter of Max Doll, a lecturer in geometry at Karlsruhe.", "They had two daughters: Johanna, born on 20 October 1887 and Mathilde, born on 14 January 1891, who went on to become a notable biologist.", "During this time Hertz conducted his landmark research into electromagnetic waves.Hertz took a position of Professor of Physics and Director of the Physics Institute in Bonn on 3 April 1889, a position he held until his death.", "During this time he worked on theoretical mechanics with his work published in the book ''Die Prinzipien der Mechanik in neuem Zusammenhange dargestellt'' (''The Principles of Mechanics Presented in a New Form''), published posthumously in 1894." ], [ "Death", "In 1892, Hertz was diagnosed with an infection (after a bout of severe migraines) and underwent operations to treat the illness.", "He died after complications in surgery in attempts to fix his condition that was causing these migraines, which some consider to have been a malignant bone condition.", "He died at the age of 36 in Bonn, Germany, in 1894, and was buried in the Ohlsdorf Cemetery in Hamburg.Hertz's wife, Elisabeth Hertz (''née'' Doll; 1864–1941), did not remarry and he was survived by his daughters, Johanna (1887–1967) and Mathilde (1891–1975).", "Neither ever married or had children, hence Hertz has no living descendants." ], [ "Scientific work", "===Electromagnetic waves===In 1864 Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell proposed a comprehensive theory of electromagnetism, now called Maxwell's equations.", "Maxwell's theory predicted that coupled electric and magnetic fields could travel through space as an \"electromagnetic wave\".", "Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength, but no one had been able to prove this, or generate or detect electromagnetic waves of other wavelengths.During Hertz's studies in 1879 Helmholtz suggested that Hertz's doctoral dissertation be on testing Maxwell's theory.", "Helmholtz had also proposed the \"Berlin Prize\" problem that year at the Prussian Academy of Sciences for anyone who could experimentally prove an electromagnetic effect in the polarization and depolarization of insulators, something predicted by Maxwell's theory.", "Helmholtz was sure Hertz was the most likely candidate to win it.", "Not seeing any way to build an apparatus to experimentally test this, Hertz thought it was too difficult, and worked on electromagnetic induction instead.", "Hertz did produce an analysis of Maxwell's equations during his time at Kiel, showing they did have more validity than the then prevalent \"action at a distance\" theories.In the autumn of 1886, after Hertz received his professorship at Karlsruhe, he was experimenting with a pair of Riess spirals when he noticed that discharging a Leyden jar into one of these coils produced a spark in the other coil.", "With an idea on how to build an apparatus, Hertz now had a way to proceed with the \"Berlin Prize\" problem of 1879 on proving Maxwell's theory (although the actual prize had expired uncollected in 1882).", "He used a dipole antenna consisting of two collinear one-meter wires with a spark gap between their inner ends, and zinc spheres attached to the outer ends for capacitance, as a radiator.", "The antenna was excited by pulses of high voltage of about 30 kilovolts applied between the two sides from a Ruhmkorff coil.", "He received the waves with a resonant single-loop antenna with a micrometer spark gap between the ends.", "This experiment produced and received what are now called radio waves in the very high frequency range.capacitance loaded dipole resonator consisting of a pair of one meter copper wires with a 7.5 mm spark gap between them, ending in 30 cm zinc spheres.", "When an induction coil applied a high voltage between the two sides, sparks across the spark gap created standing waves of radio frequency current in the wires, which radiated radio waves.", "The frequency of the waves was roughly 50 MHz, about that used in modern television transmitters.Between 1886 and 1889 Hertz conducted a series of experiments that would prove the effects he was observing were results of Maxwell's predicted electromagnetic waves.", "Starting in November 1887 with his paper \"On Electromagnetic Effects Produced by Electrical Disturbances in Insulators\", Hertz sent a series of papers to Helmholtz at the Berlin Academy, including papers in 1888 that showed transverse free space electromagnetic waves traveling at a finite speed over a distance.", "In the apparatus Hertz used, the electric and magnetic fields radiated away from the wires as transverse waves.", "Hertz had positioned the oscillator about 12 meters from a zinc reflecting plate to produce standing waves.", "Each wave was about 4 meters long.", "Using the ring detector, he recorded how the wave's magnitude and component direction varied.", "Hertz measured Maxwell's waves and demonstrated that the velocity of these waves was equal to the velocity of light.", "The electric field intensity, polarization and reflection of the waves were also measured by Hertz.", "These experiments established that light and these waves were both a form of electromagnetic radiation obeying the Maxwell equations.Hertz did not realize the practical importance of his radio wave experiments.", "He stated that,It's of no use whatsoever ... this is just an experiment that proves Maestro Maxwell was right—we just have these mysterious electromagnetic waves that we cannot see with the naked eye.", "But they are there.Asked about the applications of his discoveries, Hertz replied,Nothing, I guessHertz's proof of the existence of airborne electromagnetic waves led to an explosion of experimentation with this new form of electromagnetic radiation, which was called \"Hertzian waves\" until around 1910 when the term \"radio waves\" became current.", "Within 10 years researchers such as Oliver Lodge, Ferdinand Braun, and Guglielmo Marconi employed radio waves in the first wireless telegraphy radio communication systems, leading to radio broadcasting, and later television.", "In 1909, Braun and Marconi received the Nobel Prize in physics for their \"contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy\".", "Today radio is an essential technology in global telecommunication networks, and the communications medium used by modern wireless devices.=== Cathode rays ===In 1892, Hertz began experimenting and demonstrated that cathode rays could penetrate very thin metal foil (such as aluminium).", "Philipp Lenard, a student of Heinrich Hertz, further researched this \"ray effect\".", "He developed a version of the cathode tube and studied the penetration by X-rays of various materials.", "However, Lenard did not realize that he was producing X-rays.", "Hermann von Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays.", "He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement.", "It was formed on the basis of the electromagnetic theory of light (''Wiedmann's Annalen'', Vol.", "XLVIII).", "However, he did not work with actual X-rays.=== Photoelectric effect ===Hertz helped establish the photoelectric effect (which was later explained by Albert Einstein) when he noticed that a charged object loses its charge more readily when illuminated by ultraviolet radiation (UV).", "In 1887, he made observations of the photoelectric effect and of the production and reception of electromagnetic (EM) waves, published in the journal Annalen der Physik.", "His receiver consisted of a coil with a spark gap, whereby a spark would be seen upon detection of EM waves.", "He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better.", "He observed that the maximum spark length was reduced when in the box.", "A glass panel placed between the source of EM waves and the receiver absorbed UV that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap.", "When removed, the spark length would increase.", "He observed no decrease in spark length when he substituted quartz for glass, as quartz does not absorb UV radiation.", "Hertz concluded his months of investigation and reported the results obtained.", "He did not further pursue investigation of this effect, nor did he make any attempt at explaining how the observed phenomenon was brought about.===Contact mechanics===Memorial of Heinrich Hertz on the campus of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, which translates as ''At this site, Heinrich Hertz discovered electromagnetic waves in the years 1885–1889.", "''In 1881 and 1882, Hertz published two articles on what was to become known as the field of contact mechanics, which proved to be an important basis for later theories in the field.", "Joseph Valentin Boussinesq published some critically important observations on Hertz's work, nevertheless establishing this work on contact mechanics to be of immense importance.", "His work basically summarises how two axi-symmetric objects placed in contact will behave under loading, he obtained results based upon the classical theory of elasticity and continuum mechanics.", "The most significant flaw of his theory was the neglect of any nature of adhesion between the two solids, which proves to be important as the materials composing the solids start to assume high elasticity.", "It was natural to neglect adhesion at the time, however, as there were no experimental methods of testing for it.To develop his theory Hertz used his observation of elliptical Newton's rings formed upon placing a glass sphere upon a lens as the basis of assuming that the pressure exerted by the sphere follows an elliptical distribution.", "He used the formation of Newton's rings again while validating his theory with experiments in calculating the displacement which the sphere has into the lens.", "Kenneth L. Johnson, K. Kendall and A. D. Roberts (JKR) used this theory as a basis while calculating the theoretical displacement or ''indentation depth'' in the presence of adhesion in 1971.Hertz's theory is recovered from their formulation if the adhesion of the materials is assumed to be zero.", "Similar to this theory, however using different assumptions, B. V. Derjaguin, V. M. Muller and Y. P. Toporov published another theory in 1975, which came to be known as the DMT theory in the research community, which also recovered Hertz's formulations under the assumption of zero adhesion.", "This DMT theory proved to be premature and needed several revisions before it came to be accepted as another material contact theory in addition to the JKR theory.", "Both the DMT and the JKR theories form the basis of contact mechanics upon which all transition contact models are based and used in material parameter prediction in nanoindentation and atomic force microscopy.", "These models are central to the field of tribology and he was named as one of the 23 \"Men of Tribology\" by Duncan Dowson.", "Despite preceding his great work on electromagnetism (which he himself considered with his characteristic soberness to be trivial), Hertz's research on contact mechanics has facilitated the age of nanotechnology.Hertz also described the \"Hertzian cone\", a type of fracture mode in brittle solids caused by the transmission of stress waves.===Meteorology===Hertz always had a deep interest in meteorology, probably derived from his contacts with Wilhelm von Bezold (who was his professor in a laboratory course at the Munich Polytechnic in the summer of 1878).", "As an assistant to Helmholtz in Berlin, he contributed a few minor articles in the field, including research on the evaporation of liquids, a new kind of hygrometer, and a graphical means of determining the properties of moist air when subjected to adiabatic changes.=== Philosophy of science ===In the introduction of his 1894 book ''Principles of Mechanics'', Hertz discusses the different \"pictures\" used to represent physics in his time including the picture of Newtonian mechanics (based on mass and forces), a second picture (based on energy conservation and Hamilton's principle) and his own picture (based uniquely on space, time, mass and the Hertz principle), comparing them in terms of 'permissibility’, ‘correctness’ and ‘appropriateness’.", "Hertz wanted to remove \"empty assumptions\" and argue against the Newtonian concept of force and against action at a distance.", "Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein inspired by Hertz's work, extended his picture theory into a picture theory of language in his 1921 ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' which influenced logical positivism''.''" ], [ "Third Reich treatment", "Because Hertz's family converted from Judaism to Lutheranism two decades before his birth, his legacy ran afoul of the Nazi government in the 1930s, a regime that classified people by \"race\" instead of religious affiliation.Hertz's name was removed from streets and institutions and there was even a movement to rename the frequency unit named in his honor (hertz) after Hermann von Helmholtz instead, keeping the symbol (Hz) unchanged.His family was also persecuted for their non-Aryan status.", "Hertz's youngest daughter, Mathilde, lost a lectureship at Berlin University after the Nazis came to power and within a few years she, her sister, and their mother left Germany and settled in England." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "Heinrich HertzHeinrich Hertz's nephew Gustav Ludwig Hertz was a Nobel Prize winner, and Gustav's son Carl Helmut Hertz invented medical ultrasonography.", "His daughter Mathilde Carmen Hertz was a well-known biologist and comparative psychologist.", "Hertz's grandnephew Hermann Gerhard Hertz, professor at the University of Karlsruhe, was a pioneer of NMR-spectroscopy and in 1995 published Hertz's laboratory notes.The SI unit ''hertz'' (Hz) was established in his honor by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930 for frequency, an expression of the number of times that a repeated event occurs per second.", "It was adopted by the CGPM (Conférence générale des poids et mesures) in 1960, officially replacing the previous name, \"cycles per second\" (cps).In 1928 the Heinrich-Hertz Institute for Oscillation Research was founded in Berlin.", "Today known as the ''Fraunhofer Institute for Telecommunications, Heinrich Hertz Institute, HHI''.In 1969, in East Germany, a Heinrich Hertz memorial medal was cast.The IEEE Heinrich Hertz Medal, established in 1987, is \"''for outstanding achievements in Hertzian waves ''...'' presented annually to an individual for achievements which are theoretical or experimental in nature''\".The Submillimeter Radio Telescope at Mt.", "Graham, Arizona, constructed in 1992 is named after him.A crater that lies on the far side of the Moon, just behind the eastern limb, is the Hertz crater, named in his honor.On his birthday in 2012, Google honored Hertz with a Google doodle, inspired by his life's work, on its home page." ], [ "Works", "* * * Hertz1880.jpg|''Ueber die Induction in rotirenden Kugeln'', 1880Hertz, Heinrich – Schriften vermischten Inhalts, 1895 – BEIC 11924476.jpg|''Schriften vermischten Inhalts'', 1895" ], [ "See also", ";Lists and histories* Fraunhofer Institute for Telecommunications, Heinrich Hertz Institute* History of radio* Invention of radio* List of physicists* Outline of physics* Timeline of mechanics and physics* Electromagnetism timeline* Wireless telegraphy; Electromagnetic radiation* Microwave; Other* List of German inventors and discoverers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Hertz, H.R.", "\"Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen\", ''Annalen der Physik'', vol.", "267, no.", "7, p. 421–448, May 1887 * Hertz, H.R.", "\"Ueber einen Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung\", ''Annalen der Physik'', vol.", "267, no.", "8, p. 983–1000, June 1887 * Hertz, H.R.", "\"Ueber die Einwirkung einer geradlinigen electrischen Schwingung auf eine benachbarte Strombahn\", ''Annalen der Physik'', vol.", "270, no.", "5, p. 155–170, March 1888 * Hertz, H.R.", "\"Ueber die Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der electrodynamischen Wirkungen\", ''Annalen der Physik'', vol.", "270, no.", "7, p. 551–569, May 1888 * Hertz, H. R.(1899) ''The Principles of Mechanics Presented in a New Form'', London, Macmillan, with an introduction by Hermann von Helmholtz (English translation of ''Die Prinzipien der Mechanik in neuem Zusammenhange dargestellt'', Leipzig, posthumously published in 1894).", "* Jenkins, John D. \"The Discovery of Radio Waves – 1888; Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1847–1894)\" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008)* Naughton, Russell.", "\"Heinrich Rudolph (alt: Rudolf) Hertz, Dr : 1857 – 1894\" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008)* Roberge, Pierre R. \"Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, 1857–1894\" (retrieved 27 Jan 2008)* Appleyard, Rollo.", "(1930).", "''Pioneers of Electrical Communication''\".", "London: Macmillan and Company.", "reprinted by Ayer Company Publishers, Manchester, New Hampshire: * Bodanis, David.", "(2006).", "''Electric Universe: How Electricity Switched on the Modern World.''", "New York: Three Rivers Press.", "* Buchwald, Jed Z.", "(1994).", "''The Creation of Scientific Effects: Heinrich Hertz and Electric Waves.''", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "* Bryant, John H. (1988).", "''Heinrich Hertz, the Beginning of Microwaves: Discovery of Electromagnetic Waves and Opening of the Electromagnetic Spectrum by Heinrich Hertz in the Years 1886–1892.''", "New York: IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).", "* Lodge, Oliver Joseph.", "(1900).", "''Signaling Across Space without Wires by Electric Waves: Being a Description of the work of Heinrich Hertz and his Successors.''", "reprinted by Arno Press, New York, 1974.", "* Maugis, Daniel.", "(2000).", "''Contact, Adhesion and Rupture of Elastic Solids.''", "New York: Springer-Verlag.", "* Susskind, Charles.", "(1995).", "''Heinrich Hertz: A Short Life.''", "San Francisco: San Francisco Press." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hebrew alphabet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hebrew alphabet''' (, ), known variously by scholars as the '''Ktav Ashuri''', '''Jewish script''', '''square script''' and '''block script''', is traditionally an abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages, most notably Yiddish, Ladino, Judeo-Arabic, and Judeo-Persian.", "In modern Hebrew, vowels are increasingly introduced.", "It is also used informally in Israel to write Levantine Arabic, especially among Druze.", "It is an offshoot of the Imperial Aramaic alphabet, which flourished during the Achaemenid Empire and which itself derives from the Phoenician alphabet.Historically, two separate abjad scripts have been used to write Hebrew.", "The original, old Hebrew script, known as the paleo-Hebrew alphabet, has been largely preserved in a variant form as the Samaritan alphabet.", "The present \"Jewish script\" or \"square script\", on the contrary, is a stylized form of the Aramaic alphabet and was technically known by Jewish sages as Ashurit (lit.", "\"Assyrian script\"), since its origins were alleged to be from Assyria.Various \"styles\" (in current terms, \"fonts\") of representation of the Jewish script letters described in this article also exist, including a variety of cursive Hebrew styles.", "In the remainder of this article, the term \"Hebrew alphabet\" refers to the square script unless otherwise indicated.The Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters.", "It does not have case.", "Five letters have different forms when used at the end of a word.", "Hebrew is written from right to left.", "Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants, but is now considered an \"impure abjad\".", "As with other abjads, such as the Arabic alphabet, during its centuries-long use scribes devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew as ''niqqud.''", "In both biblical and rabbinic Hebrew, the letters can also function as ''matres lectionis'', which is when certain consonants are used to indicate vowels.", "There is a trend in Modern Hebrew towards the use of ''matres lectionis'' to indicate vowels that have traditionally gone unwritten, a practice known as \"full spelling\".The Yiddish alphabet, a modified version of the Hebrew alphabet used to write Yiddish, is a true alphabet, with all vowels rendered in the spelling, except in the case of inherited Hebrew words, which typically retain their Hebrew consonant-only spellings.The Arabic and Hebrew alphabets have similarities because they are both derived from the Aramaic alphabet, which in turn derives either from paleo-Hebrew or the Phoenician alphabet, both being slight regional variations of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet used in ancient times to write the various Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Moabite, Phoenician, Punic, et cetera)." ], [ "History", "Paleo-Hebrew alphabet containing 22 letters, period, geresh, and gershayimThe ''Aleppo Codex'', a tenth century Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible.", "Book of Joshua 1:1The Canaanite dialects were largely indistinguishable before around 1000 BCE.", "An example of related early Semitic inscriptions from the area include the tenth-century Gezer calendar over which scholars are divided as to whether its language is Hebrew or Phoenician and whether the script is Proto-Canaanite or paleo-Hebrew.A Hebrew variant of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, called the paleo-Hebrew alphabet by scholars, began to emerge around 800 BCE.", "An example is the Siloam inscription ().The paleo-Hebrew alphabet was used in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah.", "Following the exile of the Kingdom of Judah in the 6th century BCE (the Babylonian captivity), Jews began using a form of the Imperial Aramaic alphabet, another offshoot of the same family of scripts, which flourished during the Achaemenid Empire.", "The Samaritans, who remained in the Land of Israel, continued to use the paleo-Hebrew alphabet.", "During the 3rd century BCE, Jews began to use a stylized, \"square\" form of the Aramaic alphabet that was used by the Persian Empire (and which in turn had been adopted from the Assyrians), while the Samaritans continued to use a form of the paleo-Hebrew script called the Samaritan alphabet.", "After the fall of the Persian Empire in 330 BCE, Jews used both scripts before settling on the square Assyrian form.The square Hebrew alphabet was later adapted and used for writing languages of the Jewish diaspora – such as Karaim, the Judeo-Arabic languages, Judaeo-Spanish, and Yiddish.", "The Hebrew alphabet continued in use for scholarly writing in Hebrew and came again into everyday use with the rebirth of the Hebrew language as a spoken language in the 18th and 19th centuries, especially in Israel." ], [ "Description", "===General===In the traditional form, the Hebrew alphabet is an abjad consisting only of consonants, written from right to left.", "It has 22 letters, five of which use different forms at the end of a word.===Vowels===In the traditional form, vowels are indicated by the weak consonants Aleph (), He (), Waw/Vav (), or Yodh () serving as vowel letters, or ''matres lectionis'': the letter is combined with a previous vowel and becomes silent, or by imitation of such cases in the spelling of other forms.", "Also, a system of vowel points to indicate vowels (diacritics), called niqqud, was developed.", "In modern forms of the alphabet, as in the case of Yiddish and to some extent Modern Hebrew, vowels may be indicated.", "Today, the trend is toward full spelling with the weak letters acting as true vowels.When used to write Yiddish, vowels are indicated, using certain letters, either with niqqud diacritics (e.g.", "or ) or without (e.g.", "or ), except for Hebrew words, which in Yiddish are written in their Hebrew spelling.To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of vocalization and diacritical symbols called ''nequdot'' (, literally \"points\").", "One of these, the Tiberian system, eventually prevailed.", "Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, and his family for several generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system.", "These points are normally used only for special purposes, such as Biblical books intended for study, in poetry or when teaching the language to children.", "The Tiberian system also includes a set of cantillation marks, called ''trope'' or , used to indicate how scriptural passages should be chanted in synagogue recitations of scripture (although these marks do not appear in the scrolls).", "In everyday writing of modern Hebrew, ''niqqud'' are absent; however, patterns of how words are derived from Hebrew roots (called ''shorashim'' or \"triliterals\") allow Hebrew speakers to determine the vowel-structure of a given word from its consonants based on the word's context and part of speech.===Alphabet===Unlike the Paleo-Hebrew writing script, the modern Ashuri script has five letters that have special final forms, called '''sofit''' (, meaning in this context \"final\" or \"ending\") form, used only at the end of a word, somewhat as in the Greek or in the Arabic and Mandaic alphabets.", "These are shown below the normal form in the following table (letter names are Unicode standard).", "Although Hebrew is read and written from right to left, the following table shows the letters in order from left to right:'''Alef''''''Bet''''''Gimel''''''Dalet''''''He''''''Waw/Vav''''''Zayin''''''Chet''''''Tet''''''Yod''''''Kaf''' '''Lamed''''''Mem''''''Nun''''''Samech''''''Ayin''''''Pe''''''Tsadi''''''Qof''''''Resh''''''Shin''''''Tav'''" ], [ "Pronunciation", "===Alphabet===The descriptions that follow are based on the pronunciation of modern standard Israeli Hebrew.letterIPAName of letterPronunciationUnicodeHebrewModern HebrewpronunciationYiddish / Ashkenazipronunciation'''Sephardi''''''pronunciation'''Approximate western European equivalent , , Alefa as in ''all''Bet, b as in ''black'', /vɛt/v as in ''vogue''Gimel /ˈɡimɛl/g as in ''gourd'' ɣ gh as in Arabic ''ghoul''Dalet , , /ˈdalɛt/d as in ''doll'' /ðalεt/th as in ''that'' , , He , h as in ''hold''Vav/vav/v as in ''vogue''Zayin , z as in ''z''''oo'' χChet/ħɛt/ch as in ''Bach''Tet/tɛt/t as in ''tool''Yod , y as in ''yolk''Kaf/kaf/k as in ''king''ch as in ''bach'' k as in ''king'' ~/χaf sofit/ch as in ''bach'' Lamedl as in ''luck'' Memm as in ''mother'' Nun/nun/n as in ''night'' n as in ''night''Samekhs as in ''sight'' ~, Ayin , /ajin/When ʔ, as in ''button'' ˈbʌʔn̩ or ''clipboard'' ˌklɪʔ⁠ˈbɔɹd.", "When ʕ, no English equivalent.Pe , p as in ''pool'' , /fe/f as in ''full'' , p as in ''pool'' , f as in ''full'' Tsadi, /ˈtsadik/ts as in ''cats'' , Qof , k as in ''king''Reshr as in French \"r\" Shinsh as in ''shop''/sin/s as in ''sight''Tav , , /tav/t as in ''tool'' , /θav/th as in ''thin''By analogy with the other dotted/dotless pairs, dotless tav, ת, would be expected to be pronounced /θ/ (voiceless dental fricative), and dotless dalet ד as /ð/ (voiced dental fricative), but these were lost among most Jews due to these sounds not existing in the countries where they lived (such as in nearly all of Eastern Europe).", "Yiddish modified /θ/ to /s/ (cf.", "seseo in Spanish), but in modern Israeli Hebrew, it is simply pronounced /t/.", "Likewise, historical /ð/ is simply pronounced /d/.====Shin and sin====''Shin'' and ''sin'' are represented by the same letter, , but are two separate phonemes.", "When vowel diacritics are used, the two phonemes are differentiated with a ''shin''-dot or ''sin''-dot; the ''shin''-dot is above the upper-right side of the letter, and the ''sin''-dot is above the upper-left side of the letter.", "Symbol Name Transliteration IPA Example (right dot) ''shin'' sh '''sh'''ower (left dot) ''sin'' s '''s'''ourHistorically, ''left-dot-sin'' corresponds to Proto-Semitic *, which in biblical-Judaic-Hebrew corresponded to the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative , as evidenced in the Greek transliteration of Hebrew words such as ''balsam'' () (the ''ls'' – 'שׂ') as is evident in the ''Targum Onkelos''.====Dagesh====Historically, the consonants ''bet'', ''gimmel'', ''daleth'', ''kaf'', ''pe'' and ''tav'' each had two sounds: one hard (plosive), and one soft (fricative), depending on the position of the letter and other factors.", "When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot called ''dagesh'' (), while the soft sounds lack a ''dagesh''.", "In modern Hebrew, however, the ''dagesh'' only changes the pronunciation of ''bet'', ''kaf'', and ''pe'', and does not affect the name of the letter.", "The differences are as follows: Name With dagesh Without dageshSymbol Transliteration IPA Example Symbol Transliteration IPA Example ''bet/vet'' b /b/ '''b'''un v, ḇ /v/ '''v'''an ''kaf'' k /k/ '''k'''angaroo kh, ch, ḵ, x /χ/ lo'''ch''' ''pe'' p /p/ '''p'''ass f, p̄, ph /f/ '''f'''indIn other dialects (mainly liturgical) there are variations from this pattern.", "*In some Sephardi and Mizrahi dialects, ''bet'' without dagesh is pronounced , like ''bet'' with dagesh*In Syrian and Yemenite Hebrew, ''gimel'' without dagesh is pronounced .", "*In Yemenite Hebrew, and in the Iraqi pronunciation of the word \"Adonai\", ''dalet'' without dagesh is pronounced as in \"these\"*In Ashkenazi Hebrew, as well as Krymchaki Hebrew, ''tav'' without dagesh is pronounced as in \"silk\"*In Iraqi and Yemenite Hebrew, and formerly in some other dialects, ''tav'' without dagesh is pronounced as in \"thick\"====Sounds represented with diacritic geresh====The sounds , , , written ⟨⟩, ⟨⟩, ⟨⟩, and , non-standardly sometimes transliterated ⟨⟩, are often found in slang and loanwords that are part of the everyday Hebrew colloquial vocabulary.", "The symbol resembling an apostrophe after the Hebrew letter modifies the pronunciation of the letter and is called a ''geresh''.", "Hebrew slang and loanwords Name Symbol IPA Transliteration Example Gimel with a geresh ǧ '''ǧ'''áḥnun Zayin with a geresh ž kolá'''ž''' Tsadi with a geresh č '''č'''upár (treat) Vav with a gereshor double Vav or (non standard) w a'''w'''ánta (boastful act) The pronunciation of the following letters can also be modified with the geresh diacritic.", "The represented sounds are however foreign to Hebrew phonology, i.e., these symbols mainly represent sounds in foreign words or names when transliterated with the Hebrew alphabet, and not loanwords.", "Transliteration of non-native sounds Name Symbol IPA Arabic letter Example Comment Dalet with a geresh '''' () Voiced th '''' ()‎ * Also used for English voiced th * Often a simple is written.", "Tav with a geresh '''' ()Voiceless th '''Th'''urston Chet with a geresh '''' () Shei'''kh''' ()‎ * Unlike the other sounds in this table, the sound represented by is indeed a native sound in Hebrew; the geresh is however used only when transliteration must distinguish between and , in which case transliterates the former and ח the latter, whereas in everyday usage ח without geresh is pronounced only dialectically but commonly.", "Ayin with a geresh''or''Resh with a geresh ''or'' '''' () '''' ();'''' () The guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language prefer Resh with a geresh (); however, this guideline is not universally followed''Geresh'' is also used to denote an abbreviation consisting of a single Hebrew letter, while ''gershayim'' (a doubled ''geresh'') are used to denote acronyms pronounced as a string of letters; ''geresh'' and ''gershayim'' are also used to denote Hebrew numerals consisting of a single Hebrew letter or of multiple Hebrew letters, respectively.", "Geresh is also the name of a cantillation mark used for Torah recitation, though its visual appearance and function are different in that context.====Identical pronunciation====In much of Israel's general population, especially where Ashkenazic pronunciation is prevalent, many letters have the same pronunciation.", "They are as follows: Letters Transliteration Pronunciation (IPA) ''Alef''* ''Ayin''* nottransliterated Usually when in medial word position:(separation of vowels in a hiatus) When in initial or final word position, sometimes also in medial word position:silent alternatingly ʼ (glottal plosive) ''Bet'' (without ''dagesh'') Vet ''Vav'' v ''Chet''* ''Kaf'' (without ''dagesh'')Khaf* kh/ch/h ''Tet''''Tav'' t ''Kaf'' (with ''dagesh'')''Qof'' k ''Samekh'' ''Sin'' (with left dot) s ''Tsadi''* ''Tav-Samekh''* ''and'' ''Tav-Sin''*ts/tz ''Tsadi (with geresh)'' ''Tet-Shin''* ''and'' ''Tav-Shin''*ch/tsh (chair)* Varyingly====Ancient Hebrew pronunciation====Some of the variations in sound mentioned above are due to a systematic feature of Ancient Hebrew.", "The six consonants were pronounced differently depending on their position.", "These letters were also called ''BeGeD KeFeT'' letters .", "The full details are very complex; this summary omits some points.", "They were pronounced as plosives at the beginning of a syllable, or when doubled.", "They were pronounced as fricatives when preceded by a vowel (commonly indicated with a macron, ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ).", "The plosive and double pronunciations were indicated by the ''dagesh''.", "In Modern Hebrew the sounds ḏ and ḡ have reverted to and , respectively, and ṯ has become , so only the remaining three consonants show variation.", "''resh'' may have also been a \"doubled\" letter, making the list ''BeGeD KePoReT''.", "(Sefer Yetzirah, 4:1)* ''chet'' and ''ayin'' represented the pharyngeal fricatives and , respectively, ''tsadi'' represented the emphatic consonant , ''tet'' represented the emphatic consonant , and ''qof'' represented the uvular plosive .", "All these are common Semitic consonants.", "* ''sin'' (the variant of ''shin'') was originally different from both ''shin'' and ''samekh'', but had become the same as ''samekh'' by the time the vowel pointing was devised.", "Because of cognates with other Semitic languages, this phoneme is known to have originally been a lateral consonant, most likely the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative (the sound of modern Welsh ''ll'') or the voiceless alveolar lateral affricate (like Náhuatl ''tl'').====Regional and historical variation====The following table contains the pronunciation of the Hebrew letters in reconstructed historical forms and dialects using the International Phonetic Alphabet.", "The apostrophe-looking symbol after some letters is not a yud but a geresh.", "It is used for loanwords with non-native Hebrew sounds.", "The dot in the middle of some of the letters, called a \"dagesh kal\", also modifies the sounds of the letters ב, כ and פ in modern Hebrew (in some forms of Hebrew it modifies also the sounds of the letters ג, ד and/or ת; the \"dagesh chazak\" – orthographically indistinguishable from the \"dagesh kal\" – designates gemination, which today is realized only rarely – e.g.", "in biblical recitations or when using Arabic loanwords).", ": Symbol Pronunciation Israeli Ashkenazi Sephardi Yemenite ReconstructedArabic equivalent Tiberian Mishnaic Biblical – / ?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "(1) (2) (3) ִ ?", "?", "?", "/ ʕ, -  – -  (1) (2) , , ~ ~ ~ # velarized or pharyngealized# pharyngealized# sometimes said to be ejective but more likely glottalized.===Vowels=======Matres lectionis==== ''alef'', ''ayin'', ''waw/vav'' and ''yod'' are letters that can sometimes indicate a vowel instead of a consonant (which would be, respectively, ).", "When they do, and are considered to constitute part of the vowel designation in combination with a niqqud symbol – a vowel diacritic (whether or not the diacritic is marked), whereas and are considered to be mute, their role being purely indicative of the non-marked vowel.", ":LetterNameof letterConsonant indicatedwhen letterconsonantalVoweldesignationName ofvowel designationIndicatedVowel ''alef'' — — ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô ''ayin'' or — — ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô ''waw/vav'' or ḥolám malé ô shurúq û ''yud'' ḥiríq malé îtseré malé ê, ệ====Vowel points====''Niqqud'' is the system of dots that help determine vowels and consonants.", "In Hebrew, all forms of ''niqqud'' are often omitted in writing, except for children's books, prayer books, poetry, foreign words, and words which would be ambiguous to pronounce.", "Israeli Hebrew has five vowel phonemes, , but many more written symbols for them: Name SymbolWritten PositionIsraeli Hebrew IPA Transliteration Englishexample Hiriq 35px''vowel written below consonant'' i m'''ee'''t Tsere 35px''vowel written below consonant'' , ( withsucceeding yod)eh (precise pronunciation); ei (imprecise due to modern pronunciation, even if with succeeding yod – see '''Note 2''')b'''e'''d, p'''e'''nguin Segol 35px''vowel written below consonant'' e m'''e'''n Patach 35px''vowel written below consonant'' af'''a'''ther Kamatz 35px''vowel written below consonant'' , (or )ah, (or oh) f'''a'''ther, l'''o'''ɡin Holam Haser 23px''vowel written above consonant'' oh'''o'''me Holam Male''isolated vowel written on its own'' Shuruk''isolated vowel written on its own'' u f'''oo'''d Kubutz 35px''vowel written below consonant'''''Note 1:''' The circle represents whatever Hebrew letter is used.", "'''Note 2:''' The pronunciation of ''tsere'' and sometimes ''segol'' – with or without the letter ''yod'' – is sometimes ''ei'' in Modern Hebrew.", "This is not correct in the normative pronunciation and not consistent in the spoken language.", "'''Note 3:''' The ''dagesh'', ''mappiq'', and ''shuruk'' have different functions, even though they look the same.", "'''Note 4:''' The letter ו (''waw/vav'') is used since it can only be represented by that letter.=====Meteg=====By adding a vertical line (called ''Meteg'') underneath the letter and to the left of the vowel point, the vowel is made long.", "The ''meteg'' is only used in Biblical Hebrew, not Modern Hebrew.=====Sh'va=====By adding two vertical dots (called ''Sh'va'') underneath the letter, the vowel is made very short.", "When sh'va is placed on the first letter of the word, mostly it is \"è\" (but in some instances, it makes the first letter silent without a vowel (vowel-less): e.g.", "'''וְ''' ''wè'' to \"w\") Name SymbolIsraeli Hebrew IPA Transliteration Englishexample Shva 35px ''or'' ''apostrophe'', e,''or silent'' m'''e'''t or silent Reduced Segol 35px e m'''e'''t Reduced Patach 35px a c'''a'''t Reduced Kamatz 35px o '''o'''n=====Comparison table=====+ Vowel comparison table Vowel length(phonetically not manifested in Israeli Hebrew) IPA Transliteration Englishexample Long Short Very Short a f'''a'''ll e m'''e'''n o j'''o'''ke u d'''u'''ty i med'''i'''a '''Note I:''' By adding two vertical dots (''sh'va'') the vowel is made very short.", "'''Note II:''' The short ''o'' and long ''a'' have the same ''niqqud''.", "'''Note III:''' The short ''o'' is usually promoted to a long ''o''in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation '''Note IV:''' The short ''u'' is usually promoted to a long ''u''in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation===Gershayim===The symbol is called a gershayim and is a punctuation mark used in the Hebrew language to denote acronyms.", "It is written before the last letter in the acronym, e.g.", ".", "Gershayim is also the name of a cantillation mark in the reading of the Torah, printed above the accented letter, e.g.", "." ], [ "Stylistic variants", "The following table displays typographic and chirographic variants of each letter.", "For the five letters that have a different final form used at the end of words, the final forms are displayed beneath the regular form.The block (square, or \"print\" type) and cursive (\"handwritten\" type) are the only variants in widespread contemporary use.", "Rashi is also used, for historical reasons, in a handful of standard texts.", "Lettername(Unicode) Variants Contemporary Early modern AncestralBlock serifBlock sans-serifCursiveRashiPhoenicianPaleo-HebrewAramaic Alef א א 17px File:Alef (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤀 Alef 20px Bet ב ב 17px File:Bet (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤁 Bet 20px Gimel ג ג 17px File:Gimel (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤂 Gimel 20px Dalet ד ד 17px File:Daled (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg 𐤃 Daled 20px He ה ה 17px File:He (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤄 Heh 20px Vav (Unicode) / Waw ו ו 17px File:Vav (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤅 Vav 20px Zayin ז ז 17px File:Zayin (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg 𐤆 Zayin 20px Chet ח ח 17px File:Het (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg 𐤇 Khet 20px Tet ט ט 17px File:Tet (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg 𐤈 Tet 20px Yod י י 17px File:Yud (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤉 Yud 20px Kaf כ כ 17px File:Kaf-nonfinal (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤊 Khof 20px Final Kaf ך ך 17px File:Kaf-final (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg Lamed ל ל 17px 35x35px𐤋 Lamed 20px Mem מ מ 17px File:Mem-nonfinal (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤌 Mem 20px Final Mem ם ם 17px File:Mem-final (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg Nun נ נ 17px File:Nun-nonfinal (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤍 Nun 20px Final Nun ן ן 17px File:Nun-final (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg Samekh ס ס 17px File:Samekh (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg 𐤎 Samekh 20px Ayin ע ע 17px File:Ayin (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤏 Ayin 20px Pe פ פ 17px File:Pe-nonfinal (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤐 Pey 20px Final Pe ף ף 17px File:Pe-final (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg Tsadi צ צ 17px File:Tsadik-nonfinal (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤑 Tzadi 20px, 20px Final Tsadi ץ ץ 17px File:Tsadik-final (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg Qof ק ק 17px File:Kuf (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤒 Quf 20px Resh ר ר 17px File:Resh (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤓 Resh 20px Shin ש ש 17px File:Shin (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤔 Shin 20px Tav ת ת 17px File:Taf (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg𐤕 Tof 20px===Yiddish symbols=== Symbol Explanation These are intended for Yiddish.", "They are not used in Hebrew, aside from in loan words.", "They are possible to visually recreate using a sequence of letters, , except when a diacritic is inserted underneath that would not appear in the middle.", "The ''rafe'' () diacritic is no longer regularly used in Hebrew.", "In Masoretic Texts and some other older texts, lenited consonants and sometimes ''matres lectionis'' are indicated by a small line on top of the letter.", "Its use has been largely discontinued in modern printed texts.", "It is still used to mark fricative consonants in the YIVO orthography of Yiddish." ], [ "Numeric values of letters", "Following the adoption of Greek Hellenistic alphabetic numeration practice, Hebrew letters started being used to denote numbers in the late 2nd century BC, and performed this arithmetic function for about a thousand years.", "Nowadays alphanumeric notation is used only in specific contexts, e.g.", "denoting dates in the Hebrew calendar, denoting grades of school in Israel, other listings (e.g.", "שלב א׳, שלב ב׳ – \"phase a, phase b\"), commonly in Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) in a practice known as gematria, and often in religious contexts.Jewish Town Hall building in Prague, with Hebrew numerals in counterclockwise order.letternumeric valueletternumeric valueletternumeric value'''א'''1'''י'''10'''ק'''100'''ב'''2'''כ'''20'''ר'''200'''ג'''3'''ל'''30'''ש'''300'''ד'''4'''מ'''40'''ת'''400'''ה'''5'''נ'''50'''ו'''6'''ס'''60'''ז'''7'''ע'''70'''ח'''8'''פ'''80'''ט'''9'''צ'''90The numbers 500, 600, 700, 800 and 900 are commonly represented by the juxtapositions ק״ת, ר״ת, ש״ת, ת״ת, and ק״תת respectively.Adding a geresh (\"׳\") to a letter multiplies its value by one thousand, for example, the year 5778 is portrayed as ה׳תשע״ח, where ה׳ represents 5000, and תשע״ח represents 778." ], [ "Transliterations and transcriptions", "The following table lists transliterations and transcriptions of Hebrew letters used in Modern Hebrew.Clarifications:*For some letters, the Academy of the Hebrew Language offers a ''precise'' transliteration that differs from the ''regular'' standard it has set.", "When omitted, no such precise alternative exists and the regular standard applies.", "*The IPA phonemic transcription is specified whenever it uses a different symbol from the one used for the '''regular''' standard Israeli transliteration.", "*The IPA phonetic transcription is specified whenever it differs from IPA '''phonemic''' transcription.Note: SBL's transliteration system, recommended in its ''Handbook of Style'', differs slightly from the 2006 ''precise'' transliteration system of the Academy of the Hebrew Language; for \"צ\" SBL uses \"ṣ\" (≠ AHL \"ẓ\"), and for בג״ד כפ״ת with no dagesh, SBL uses the same symbols as for with dagesh (i.e.", "\"b\", \"g\", \"d\", \"k\", \"f\", \"t\").Click \"show\" to view extended table including examples.Hebrew letter exampleTranslationStandardIsraelitransliteration– ''regular''examplestandardIsraelitransliteration– ''precise''exampleIPA phonemictranscriptionexampleIPA phonetictranscriptionexample אconsonantal, ininitial wordpositionsאִם if ''none'' im אconsonantal, innon initial wordpositions שָׁאַל asked ' sha'ál ʾ shaʾál אsilent רִאשׁוֹן first ''none'' rishón בּ בֵּן son b ben ב טוֹב good v tov גּ גַּג roof g gag g gaḡגḡג׳ ג׳וּק roach ǧǧuk דּ דּוּד boiler d dud d duḏדḏ הconsonantal הֵד echo h hed הsilent פֹּה here ''none'' po וconsonantal וָו hook v vav w waw וּ הוּא he u hu וֹ לוֹ to him o lo or ז זֶה this z ze ז׳ זָ׳רְגוֹן jargon žžargón ח חַם hot ẖ ẖam ḥ ḥam or dialectical ט קָט tiny t kat ṭ kaṭ יconsonantal יָם sea y yam יpart of hirik male(/i/ vowel) בִּי in me i bi יpart of tsere male(/e/ vowel or/ei/ diphthong) מֵידָע information e medá é médá or or or or כּ, ךּ כֹּה so k ko כ, ך סְכָךְ branch-roofing kh skhakh ḵ sḵaḵ or ל לִי to me l li מ, ם מוּם defect m mum נ, ן נִין great-grandson n nin ס סוֹף end s sof עin initial or finalword positions עַדְלֹאיָדַע Purim-parade ''none'' adloyáda ʿ ʿadloyádaʿ only in initialword position dialectical עin medialword positions מוֹעִיל useful ' mo'íl ʿ moʿíl dialectical פּ טִיפּ tip p tip פ, ף פִסְפֵס missed f fisfés צ, ץ צִיץ bud ts tsits ẓ ẓiẓ צ׳, ץ׳ ריצ׳רץ׳ zip čríčrač ק קוֹל sound k kol q qol ר עִיר city r ir or or dialectical or or שׁ שָׁם there sh sham š šam שׂ שָׂם put s sam ś śam תּ תּוּת strawberry t tut t tuṯ ת ṯHebrew letterStandardIsraelitransliteration– ''regular'' standardIsraelitransliteration– ''precise''IPA phonemictranscriptionIPA phonetictranscription אconsonantal, ininitial wordpositions ''none'' אconsonantal, innon initial wordpositions ' ʾ אsilent ''none'' בּ b ב v גּ g gגḡג׳ǧ דּ d dדḏ הconsonantal h הsilent ''none'' וconsonantal v w וּ u וֹ o or ז z ז׳ž ח ẖ ḥ or dialectical ט t ṭ יconsonantal y יpart of hirik male(/i/ vowel) i יpart of tsere male(/e/ vowel or/ei/ diphthong) e é or or כּ, ךּ k כ, ך kh ḵ or ל l מ, ם m נ, ן n ס s עin initial or finalword positions ''none'' ʿ only in initialword positiondialectical עin medialword positions ' ʿ dialectical פּ p פ, ף f צ, ץ ts ẓ צ׳, ץ׳č ק k q ר r or dialectical or שׁ sh š שׂ s ś תּ t t ת ṯ;Notes:'''A'''1234In transliterations of modern Israeli Hebrew, initial and final ע (in regular transliteration), silent or initial א, and silent ה are ''not'' transliterated.", "To the eye of readers orientating themselves on Latin (or similar) alphabets, these letters might seem to be transliterated as vowel letters; however, these are in fact transliterations of the vowel diacritics – niqqud (or are representations of the spoken vowels).", "E.g., in אִם (\"if\", ), אֵם (\"mother\", ) and אֹם (\"nut\", ), the letter א always represents the same consonant: (glottal stop), whereas the vowels /i/, /e/ and /o/ respectively represent the spoken vowel, whether it is orthographically denoted by diacritics or not.", "Since the Academy of the Hebrew Language ascertains that א in initial position is not transliterated, the symbol for the glottal stop  ʾ  is omitted from the transliteration, and only the subsequent vowels are transliterated (whether or not their corresponding vowel diacritics appeared in the text being transliterated), resulting in \"im\", \"em\" and \"om\", respectively.", "'''B'''123The diacritic geresh – \"׳\" – is used with some other letters as well (ד׳, ח׳, ט׳, ע׳, ר׳, ת׳), but only to transliterate ''from'' other languages ''to'' Hebrew – never to spell Hebrew words; therefore they were not included in this table (correctly translating a Hebrew text with these letters would require using the spelling in the language from which the transliteration to Hebrew was originally made).", "The non-standard \"ו׳\" and \"וו\" are sometimes used to represent , which like , and appears in Hebrew slang and loanwords.", "'''C'''12The Sound (as \"ch\" in loch) is often transcribed \"ch\", inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language: חם → \"cham\"; סכך → \"schach\".", "'''D'''Although the Bible does include a single occurrence of a final pe with a dagesh (Book of Proverbs 30, 6: \"\"), in modern Hebrew is always represented by pe in its regular, not final, form \"פ\", even when in final word position, which occurs with loanwords (e.g.", "שׁוֹפּ ''\"shop\"''), foreign names (e.g.", "פִילִיפּ ''\"Philip\"'') and some slang (e.g.", "חָרַפּ ''\"slept deeply\"'')." ], [ "Religious use", "The letters of the Hebrew alphabet have played varied roles in Jewish religious literature over the centuries, primarily in mystical texts.", "Some sources in classical rabbinical literature seem to acknowledge the historical provenance of the currently used Hebrew alphabet and deal with them as a mundane subject (the Jerusalem Talmud, for example, records that \"the Israelites took for themselves square calligraphy\", and that the letters \"came with the Israelites from Ashur Assyria\"); others attribute mystical significance to the letters, connecting them with the process of creation or the redemption.", "In mystical conceptions, the alphabet is considered eternal, pre-existent to the Earth, and the letters themselves are seen as having holiness and power, sometimes to such an extent that several stories from the Talmud illustrate the idea that they cannot be destroyed.The idea of the letters' creative power finds its greatest vehicle in the Sefer Yezirah, or ''Book of Creation'', a mystical text of uncertain origin which describes a story of creation highly divergent from that in the Book of Genesis, largely through exposition on the powers of the letters of the alphabet.", "The supposed creative powers of the letters are also referenced in the Talmud and Zohar.ShinAnother book, the 13th-century Kabbalistic text Sefer HaTemunah, holds that a single letter of unknown pronunciation, held by some to be the four-pronged shin on one side of the teffilin box, is missing from the current alphabet.", "The world's flaws, the book teaches, are related to the absence of this letter, the eventual revelation of which will repair the universe.", "Another example of messianic significance attached to the letters is the teaching of Rabbi Eliezer that the five letters of the alphabet with final forms hold the \"secret of redemption\".In addition, the letters occasionally feature in aggadic portions of non-mystical rabbinic literature.", "In such aggada the letters are often given anthropomorphic qualities and depicted as speaking to God.", "Commonly their shapes are used in parables to illustrate points of ethics or theology.", "An example from the Babylonian Talmud (a parable intended to discourage speculation about the universe before creation):Extensive instructions about the proper methods of forming the letters are found in Mishnat Soferim, within Mishna Berura of Yisrael Meir Kagan." ], [ "Mathematical use", "In set theory, , pronounced aleph-naught or aleph-zero, is used to mark the cardinal number of an infinite countable set, such as , the set of all integers.", "More generally, the aleph number notation marks the ordered sequence of all distinct infinite cardinal numbers.Less frequently used, the beth number notation is used for the iterated power sets of .", "The second element is the cardinality of the continuum.", "Very occasionally, a gimel function is used in cardinal notation." ], [ "Unicode and HTML", "An example of a Hebrew keyboard.The Unicode Hebrew block extends from U+0590 to U+05FF and from U+FB1D to U+FB4F.", "It includes letters, ligatures, combining diacritical marks (''Niqqud'' and cantillation marks) and punctuation.", "The Numeric Character References is included for HTML.", "These can be used in many markup languages, and they are often used in Wiki to create the Hebrew glyphs compatible with the majority of web browsers.Standard Hebrew keyboards have a 101-key layout.", "Like the standard QWERTY layout, the Hebrew layout was derived from the order of letters on Hebrew typewriters." ], [ "See also", "*Hebrew braille*Hebrew diacritics*Cursive Hebrew*Hebrew punctuation*Hebrew spelling*Help:Hebrew*Inverted nun*Koren Type*Ktiv hasar niqqud (\"spelling lacking niqqud\")*Significance of numbers of Judaism" ], [ "Notes", "a\"Alef-bet\" is commonly written in Israeli Hebrew without the '''' (, \"Hebrew hyphen\"), , as opposed to with the hyphen, .bThe Arabic letters generally (as six of the primary letters can have only two variants) have four forms, according to their place in the word.", "The same goes with the Mandaic ones, except for three of the 22 letters, which have only one form.cIn forms of Hebrew older than Modern Hebrew, '''כ״ף''', '''בי״ת''' and '''פ״א''' can only be read ''b'', ''k'' and ''p'', respectively, at the beginning of a word, while they will have the sole value of ''v'', ''kh'' and ''f'' in a ''sofit'' (final) position, with few exceptions.", "In medial positions, both pronunciations are possible.", "In Modern Hebrew this restriction is not absolute, e.g.", "פִיזִיקַאי and never (= \"physicist\"), סְנוֹבּ and never (= \"snob\").", "A ''dagesh'' may be inserted to unambiguously denote the plosive variant: בּ = , כּ = , פּ =; similarly (though today very rare in Hebrew and common only in Yiddish) a rafé placed above the letter unambiguously denotes the fricative variant: בֿ = , כֿ = and פֿ = .", "In Modern Hebrew orthography, the sound at the end of a word is denoted by the regular form \"פ\", as opposed to the final form \"ף\", which always denotes (see table of transliterations and transcriptions, comment).dHowever, וו (two separate vavs), used in Ktiv male, is to be distinguished from the ''Yiddish ligature'' װ (also two vavs but together as one character).e1e2e3e4e5The Academy of the Hebrew Language states that both and be indistinguishably represented in Hebrew using the letter Vav.", "Sometimes the Vav is indeed doubled, however not to denote as opposed to but rather, when spelling without niqqud, to denote the phoneme /v/ at a non-initial and non-final position in the word, whereas a single Vav at a non-initial and non-final position in the word in spelling without niqqud denotes one of the phonemes /u/ or /o/.", "To pronounce foreign words and loanwords containing the sound , Hebrew readers must therefore rely on former knowledge and context.Explanatory footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ff.", "* Hoffman, Joel M.", "2004.", "''In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language.''", "New York: New York University Press.", "* Saenz-Badillos, Angel.", "1993.", "''A History of the Hebrew Language.''", "Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.", "* Steinberg, David.", "''History of the Hebrew Language.", "''* Mathers table" ], [ "External links", "===General===* How to draw letters* Official Unicode standards document for Hebrew* Unicode collation charts—including Hebrew letters, sorted by shape===Keyboards===* LiteType.com – Virtual & Interactive Hebrew Keyboard* Mikledet.com – For typing Hebrew with an English keyboard (Hebrew keyboard|Hebrew layout)* Prize Find: Oldest Hebrew Inscription Biblical Archaeology Review" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horace Walpole" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford''' (; 24 September 1717 – 2 March 1797), better known as '''Horace Walpole''', was an English writer, art historian, man of letters, antiquarian, and Whig politician.He had Strawberry Hill House built in Twickenham, southwest London, reviving the Gothic style some decades before his Victorian successors.", "His literary reputation rests on the first Gothic novel, ''The Castle of Otranto'' (1764), and his ''Letters'', which are of significant social and political interest.", "They have been published by Yale University Press in 48 volumes.", "In 2017, a volume of Walpole's selected letters was published.The youngest son of the first British Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, he became the 4th and last Earl of Orford of the second creation on his nephew's death in 1791." ], [ "Early life: 1717–1739", "Walpole by Jonathan Richardson, 1735.Walpole was born in London, the youngest son of British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole and his wife, Catherine.", "Like his father, he received early education in Bexley; in part under Edward Weston.", "He was also educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge.Walpole's first friends were probably his cousins Francis and Henry Conway, to whom he became strongly attached, especially Henry.", "At Eton he formed a schoolboy confederacy, the \"Triumvirate\", with Charles Lyttelton (later an antiquary and bishop) and George Montagu (later a member of parliament and Private Secretary to Lord North).", "More important were another group of friends dubbed the \"Quadruple Alliance\": Walpole, Thomas Gray, Richard West, and Thomas Ashton.At Cambridge, Walpole came under the influence of Conyers Middleton, an unorthodox theologian.", "Walpole came to accept the sceptical nature of Middleton's attitude to some essential Christian doctrines for the rest of his life, including a hatred of superstition and bigotry even though he was a nominal Anglican.", "Ceasing to reside at Cambridge at the end of 1738, Walpole left without taking a degree.In 1737, Walpole's mother died.", "According to one biographer, his love for his mother \"was the most powerful emotion of his entire life ... the whole of his psychological history was dominated by it\".", "Walpole did not have any serious relationships with women; he has been called \"a natural celibate\".", "His sexual orientation has been the subject of speculation.", "He never married, engaging in a succession of unconsummated flirtations with unmarriageable women, and counted among his close friends a number of women such as Anne Seymour Damer and Mary Berry named by a number of sources as lesbian.", "Many contemporaries described him as effeminate (one political opponent called him \"a hermaphrodite horse\").", "Biographers, such as W. S. Lewis, Brian Fothergill, and Robert Wyndham Ketton-Cremer, interpreted Walpole as asexual.", "Walpole's father secured for him three sinecures which afforded him an income: in 1737 he was appointed Inspector of the Imports and Exports in the Custom House, which he resigned to become Usher of the Exchequer, which gave him at first £3900 per annum but this increased over the years.", "Upon coming of age he became Comptroller of the Pipe and Clerk of the Estreats which gave him an income of £300 per annum.", "Walpole decided to go travelling with Thomas Gray and wrote a will in which he left Gray all his belongings.", "In 1744, he wrote in a letter to Conway that these offices gave him nearly £2,000 per annum; after 1745 when he was appointed Collectorship of Customs, his total income from these offices was around £3,400 per annum." ], [ "Grand Tour: 1739–1741", "Walpole by Rosalba Carriera, .Walpole went on the Grand Tour with Gray, but as Walpole recalled in later life: \"We had not got to Calais before Gray was dissatisfied, for I was a boy, and he, though infinitely more a man, was not enough to make allowances\".", "They left Dover on 29 March and arrived at Calais later that day.", "They then travelled through Boulogne, Amiens and Saint-Denis, arriving at Paris on 4 April.", "Here they met many aristocratic Englishmen.", "In early June they left Paris for Reims, then in September going to Dijon, Lyon, Dauphiné, Savoy, Aix-les-Bains, Geneva, and then back to Lyons.In October they left for Italy, arriving in Turin in November, then going to Genoa, Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Modena, Bologna, and in December arriving at Florence.", "Here he struck up a friendship with Horace Mann, an assistant to the British Minister at the Court of Tuscany.", "In Florence he also wrote ''Epistle from Florence to Thomas Ashton, Esq., Tutor to the Earl of Plymouth'', a mixture of Whig history and Middleton's teachings.", "In February 1740, Walpole and Gray left for Rome with the intention of witnessing the papal conclave upon the death of Pope Clement XII but never saw it.", "Walpole wanted to attend fashionable parties and Gray wanted to visit antiquities.", "At social occasions in Rome, he saw the Old Pretender, James Francis Edward Stuart, and his two sons, Charles Edward Stuart and Henry Stuart, although there is no record of them conversing.Walpole and Gray returned to Florence in July.", "However, Gray disliked the idleness of Florence as compared to the educational pursuits in Rome, and animosity grew between them, eventually leading to an end to their friendship.", "On their way back to England they had a furious argument, although it is unknown what it was about.", "Gray went to Venice, leaving Walpole at Reggio.", "In later life Walpole admitted that the fault lay primarily with himself:Walpole then visited Venice, Genoa, Antibes, Toulon, Marseille, Aix, Montpellier, Toulouse, Orléans and Paris.", "He returned to England on 12 September 1741, reaching London on the 14th." ], [ "Early parliamentary career: 1741–1754", "By 1735, Walpole was a student at King's College, Cambridge.", "He had long periods of absence from the college, often returning to Norwich to live at Houghton Hall, in Norfolk.", "Interested in local politics, he and the \"wealthy\" Mayor of Norwich, Philip Meadows, encouraged local merchant Thomas Vere to run for a seat in Parliament \"in the Whig interest\" with Vere becoming the MP for Norwich in 1735.At the 1741 general election Walpole was elected Whig Member of Parliament for the rotten borough of Callington, Cornwall.", "He held this seat for thirteen years although he never visited Callington.", "Walpole entered Parliament shortly before his father's fall from power.", "In December 1741 the Opposition won its first majority vote in the Commons for twenty years.", "In January 1742 Walpole's government was still struggling in Parliament although by the end of the month Horace and other family members had successfully urged the Prime Minister to resign after a parliamentary defeat.", "Walpole's philosophy mirrored that of Edmund Burke, who was his contemporary.", "He was a classical liberal on issues such as abolitionism and the agitations of the American colonists.Walpole delivered his maiden speech on 19 March against the successful motion that a Secret Committee be set up to enquire into Sir Robert Walpole's last ten years as Prime Minister.", "For the next three years, Walpole spent most of his time with his father at his country house Houghton Hall in Norfolk.", "His father died in 1745 and left Walpole the remainder of the lease of his house in Arlington Street, London; £5,000 in cash; and the office of Collector of the Customs (worth £1,000 per annum).", "However, he had died in debt, the total of which was in between £40,000 and £50,000.In late 1745 Walpole and Gray resumed their friendship.", "Also that year the Jacobite Rising began.", "The position of Walpole was the fruit of his father's support for the Hanoverian dynasty and he knew that he was in danger: :\"Now comes the Pretender's boy, and promises all my comfortable apartments in the Exchequer and Custom House to some forlorn Irish peer, who chooses to remove his pride and poverty out of some large old unfurnished gallery at St. Germain's.", "Why really, Mr. Montagu, this is not pleasant!", "I shall wonderfully dislike being a loyal sufferer in a threadbare coat, and shivering in an antechamber at Hanover, or reduced to teach Latin and English to the young princes at Copenhagen\"." ], [ "Strawberry Hill", "Strawberry Hill House in TwickenhamWalpole's lasting architectural creation is Strawberry Hill, the home he built from 1749 onward in Twickenham, southwest of London, which at the time overlooked the Thames.", "Here he revived the Gothic style many decades before his Victorian successors.", "This fanciful neo-Gothic concoction began a new architectural trend.", "Long-connected with the Blue Stockings Society, Walpole played host to its members and associates at Strawberry Hill, including Anna Laetitia Barbauld in 1774." ], [ "Later parliamentary career: 1754–1768", "Horace Walpole by John Giles Eccardt, .In the House of Commons, Walpole represented one of the many rotten boroughs, Castle Rising, which consisted of underlying freeholds in four villages near Kings Lynn, Norfolk, from 1754 until 1757.At his home, he hung a copy of the warrant for the execution of King Charles I with the inscription \"Major Charta\" and wrote of \"the least bad of all murders, that of a King\".", "In 1756 he wrote:Walpole worried that while his fellow Whigs fought amongst themselves, the Tories were gaining power, the result of which would be England delivered to an unlimited, absolute monarchy, \"that authority, that torrent which I should in vain extend a feeble arm to stem\".In 1757, he wrote the anonymous pamphlet ''A Letter from Xo Ho, a Chinese Philosopher at London, to his Friend Lien Chi at Peking'', the first of his works to be widely reviewed.In early 1757, old Horace Walpole of Wolterton died and was succeeded in the peerage by his son, who was then an MP for King's Lynn, thereby creating a vacancy.", "The electors of King's Lynn did not wish to be represented by a stranger and instead wanted someone with a connection to the Walpole family.", "The new Lord Walpole, therefore, wrote to his cousin requesting that he stand for the seat, saying his friends \"were all unanimously of opinion that you were the only person who from your near affinity to my grandfather, whose name is still in the greatest veneration, and your own known personal abilities and qualifications, could stand in the gap on this occasion and prevent opposition and expense and perhaps disgrace to the family\".", "In early 1757, Walpole was out of Parliament after vacating Castle Rising until his election that year to King's Lynn, a seat he would hold until his retirement from the Commons in 1768.Walpole became a prominent opponent of the 1757 decision to execute Admiral John Byng." ], [ "Later life: 1768–1788", "Without a seat in Parliament, Walpole recognised his limitations as to political influence.He wrote to Mann critical of the activities of the East India Company on 13 July 1773: He opposed the recent Catholic accommodative measures, writing to Mann in 1784: \"You know I have ever been averse to toleration of an intolerant religion\".", "He wrote to the same correspondent in 1785 that \"as there are continually allusions to parliamentary speeches and events, they are often obscure to me till I get them explained; and besides, I do not know several of the satirized heroes even by sight\".", "His political sympathies were with the Foxite Whigs, the successors of the Rockingham Whigs, who were themselves the successors of the Whig Party as revived by Walpole's father.", "He wrote to William Mason, expounding his political philosophy:" ], [ "Last years: 1788–1797", "Horace Walpole by Sir Thomas Lawrence, Walpole was horrified by the French Revolution and commended Edmund Burke's ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'': \"Every page shows how sincerely he is in earnest — a wondrous merit in a political pamphlet—All other party writers ''act'' zeal for the public, but it never seems to flow from the heart\".", "He admired the purple passage in the book on Marie Antoinette: \"I know the tirade on the Queen of France is condemned and yet I must avow I admire it much.", "It paints her exactly as she appeared to me the first time I saw her when Dauphiness.", "She...shot through the room like an aerial being, all brightness and grace and without seeming to touch earth\".After he heard of the execution of King Louis XVI he wrote to Lady Ossory on 29 January 1793:He was not impressed with Thomas Paine's reply to Burke, ''Rights of Man'', writing that it was \"so coarse, that you would think he means to degrade the language as much as the government\".His father was created Earl of Orford in 1742.Horace's elder brother, the 2nd Earl of Orford (), passed the title on to his son, the 3rd Earl of Orford (1730–1791).", "When the 3rd Earl died unmarried, Horace Walpole became, at the age of 74, the 4th Earl of Orford, and the title died with him in 1797.The massive amount of correspondence he left behind has been published in many volumes, starting in 1798.Likewise, a large collection of his works, including historical writings, was published immediately after his death.Horace Walpole was buried in the same location as his father Sir Robert Walpole, at the Church of St Martin at Tours on the Houghton Hall estate." ], [ "Rumours of paternity", "Blue plaque at Arlington Street, City of Westminster, London commemorating Horace and his father Robert After Walpole's death, Lady Louisa Stuart, in the introduction to the letters of her grandmother, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1837), wrote of rumours that Horace's biological father was not Sir Robert Walpole but Carr, Lord Hervey (1691–1723), elder half-brother of the more famous John Hervey.", "T. H. White writes: \"Catherine Shorter, Sir Robert Walpole's first wife, had five children.", "Four of them were born in a sequence after the marriage; the fifth, Horace, was born eleven years later, at a time when she was known to be on bad terms with Sir Robert, and known to be on romantic terms with Carr, Lord Hervey.\"", "The lack of physical resemblance between Horace and Sir Robert, and his close resemblance to members of the Hervey family, encouraged these rumours.", "Peter Cunningham, in his introduction to the letters of Horace Walpole (1857), vol.", "1, p. x, wrote:" ], [ "Personal characteristics", "The novelist Laetitia Matilda Hawkins, a younger contemporary of Walpole, wrote of him as follows:In his old age, according to G. G. Cunningham, he \"was afflicted with fits of an hereditary gout which a rigid temperance failed to remove\"." ], [ "Writings", "Strawberry Hill had its own printing press, the Strawberry Hill Press, which supported Horace Walpole's intensive literary activity.In 1764, not using his own press, he anonymously published his Gothic novel, ''The Castle of Otranto'', claiming on its title page that it was a translation \"from the Original Italian of Onuphrio Muralto\".", "The second edition's preface, according to James Watt, \"has often been regarded as a manifesto for the modern Gothic romance, stating that his work, now subtitled 'A Gothic Story', sought to restore the qualities of imagination and invention to contemporary fiction\".", "However, there is a playfulness in the prefaces to both editions and in the narration within the text itself.", "The novel opens with the son of Manfred (the Prince of Otranto) being crushed under a massive helmet that appears as a result of supernatural causes.", "However, that moment, along with the rest of the unfolding plot, includes a mixture of both ridiculous and sublime supernatural elements.", "The plot finally reveals how Manfred's family is tainted in a way that served as a model for successive Gothic plots.From 1762 on, Walpole published his ''Anecdotes of Painting in England'', based on George Vertue's manuscript notes.", "His memoirs of the Georgian social and political scene, though heavily biased, are a useful primary source for historians.Portrait of ''George Montagu'' by John Giles Eccardt after Jean-Baptiste van Loo ()Peterborough Museum and Art GalleryA close friend and correspondent of Horace WalpoleSmith, noting that Walpole never did any work for his well-paid government sinecures, turns to the letters and argues that:Walpole served his country, not by drudgery in the Exchequer and Customs, which paid him, but by transmitting to posterity an incomparable vision of England as it was in his day – London and Westminster with all their festivities and riots, the machinations of politicians and the turmoil of elections.Walpole's numerous letters are often used as a historical resource.", "In one, dating from 28 January 1754, he coined the word serendipity which he said was derived from a \"silly fairy tale\" he had read, ''The Three Princes of Serendip''.", "The oft-quoted epigram, \"This world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel\", is from a letter of Walpole's to Anne, Countess of Upper Ossory, on 16 August 1776.The original, fuller version appeared in a letter to Sir Horace Mann on 31 December 1769: \"I have often said, and oftener think, that this world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel – a solution of why Democritus laughed and Heraclitus wept.", "\"In ''Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard III'' (1768), Walpole defended Richard III against the common belief that he murdered the Princes in the Tower.", "In this he has been followed by other writers, such as Josephine Tey and Valerie Anand.", "This work, according to Emile Legouis, shows that Walpole was \"capable of critical initiative\".", "However, Walpole later changed his views following The Terror and declared that Richard could have committed the crimes he was accused of." ], [ "Walpole Society", "The Walpole Society was formed in 1911 to promote the study of the history of British art.", "Its headquarters is located in the Department of Prints and Drawings at The British Museum and its director is Simon Swynfen Jervis." ], [ "Works", "===Non-fiction===* * * * * * *   Vol.", "1 •  Vol.", "2 •  Vol.", "3 •  Vol.", "4 •  Vol.", "5 • (1st edition: Vol.", "1 •  Vol.", "2)*   Vol.", "1 •  Vol.", "2 •  Vol.", "3 (reprint of 1st ed., 1846)*   Vol.", "1 •  Vol.", "2 •  Vol.", "3 •  Vol.", "4*   Vol.", "1 •  Vol.", "2 •  Vol.", "3 •  Vol.", "4 (bound with Vol.", "3) •  Vol.", "5 •  Vol.", "6 •  Vol.", "7 •  Vol.", "8 •  Vol.", "9 •  Vol.", "10 •  Vol.", "11 •  Vol.", "12 •  Vol.", "13 •  Vol.", "14 •  Vol.", "15 •  Vol.", "16 •  Suppl.", "Vol.", "1 •  Suppl.", "Vol.", "2 •  Suppl.", "Vol.", "3*   Vol.", "1 •  Vol.", "2 •  Vol.", "3* ''Selected Letters'', edited and introduced by Stephen Clarke.", "New York: Everyman's Library, Alfred A. Knopf, 2017.Reviewed by Margaret Drabble===Fiction===* ''The Castle of Otranto'' (1764)* ''The Mysterious Mother: A Tragedy'' (1768)* ''Hieroglyphic Tales'' (1785)" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===**** * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Frank, Frederick, \"Introduction\" in ''The Castle of Otranto''.", "* * Hiller, Bevis.", "findarticles.com Who's Horry now?", "''The Spectator'', 14 September 1996* Carlo Stasi, ''Otranto e l'Inghilterra (episodi bellici in Puglia e nel Salento)'', in 'Note di Storia e Cultura Salentina', anno XV, pp.", "127–159, (Argo, Lecce, 2003)* Carlo Stasi, ''Otranto nel Mondo'', in 'Note di Storia e Cultura Salentina', anno XVI, pp.", "207–224, (Argo, Lecce, 2004)* Carlo Stasi, ''Otranto nel Mondo, dal 'Castello' di Walpole al 'Barone' di Voltaire'' (Editrice Salentina, Galatina 2018)" ], [ "External links", "* * ** The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 1 (1735–1748)** The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 2 (1749–1759)** The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 3 (1759–1769)** The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 4 (1770–1797)** Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume I (1736–1764)** Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume II (1764–1795)** The Castle of Otranto* * * Horace Walpole at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)* The Literary Encyclopedia.", "* * The Friends of Strawberry Hill* The Twickenham Museum – Horace Walpole* * * Lord Carr Hervey (1691–1723) as a Youth.", "(National Trust Collections).", "* * \"The View From Strawberry Hill: Horace Walpole and the American Revolution\"* Horace Walpole Correspondence | Lewis Walpole Library, Yale University*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horace Engdahl" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Horace Oscar Axel Engdahl''' (born 30 December 1948) is a Swedish literary historian and critic, and has been a member of the Swedish Academy since 1997.He was the permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy from 1999 to June 2009, when he was succeeded by Swedish author and historian Peter Englund." ], [ "Biography", "Engdahl was born in Karlskrona, Blekinge, Sweden.", "He earned his B.A.", "in 1970 at Stockholm University; he earned his doctoral degree (PhD) in 1987, with a study on Swedish romanticism, but had meanwhile been active as a literary critic, translator and journal editor, and was one of the introducers of the continental tradition of literary scholarship in Sweden.", "He is adjunct professor of Scandinavian Literature at the University of Aarhus in Denmark.", "He speaks Swedish, English, German, French and Russian fluently.Engdahl was member of the ''Kris'' editorial staff.On 16 October 1997, Engdahl became a member of the Swedish Academy, elected to seat number 17 vacated by the death of Johannes Edfelt; on 1 June 1999, he succeeded Sture Allén as the Academy's permanent secretary, i.e.", "its executive member and spokesperson.", "As such, he had the annual task of announcing the recipient of the Nobel prize in literature to the public.", "On 20 December 2008 it was announced that after ten years Engdahl would step down as the Academy's permanent secretary on 1 June 2009.Between 1989 and 2014 he was married to Ebba Witt-Brattström, professor of literature at Södertörn University outside Stockholm.", "They have three sons." ], [ "Controversy", "In October 2008, Engdahl told the ''Associated Press'' that the United States is \"too isolated, too insular\" to challenge Europe as \"the center of the literary world\" and that \"they don't translate enough and don't really participate in the big dialogue of literature ...That ignorance is restraining.\"", "At the time of the interview, no American author had received a Nobel Prize in Literature since 1993.His comments generated controversy across the Atlantic, with Harold Augenbraum, head of the U.S. National Book Foundation offering to send him a reading list.", "In April 2018, the New York Times reported that Engdahl had railed against former Academy members who left following allegations of sexual abuse by Jean-Claude Arnault." ], [ "Bibliography", "* Om det utopiska tänkesättet : föreläsning i Stockholm (1982)* Swedish ballet and dance : a contemporary view (1984)* Den romantiska texten : en essä i nio avsnitt (1986)* Om uppmärksamheten (1988)* Stilen och lyckan : essäer om litteratur (1992)* Beröringens ABC : en essä om rösten i litteraturen (1994)* Stagnelius Kärleken (1996)* Meteorer (1999)* Ärret efter drömmen (2009)* Cigaretten efteråt (2011)* Den sista grisen (2016)* Nattens mänsklighet (2019)* De obekymrade (2019)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Presentation at the official website of the Swedish Academy" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hebrew language" ], [ "Introduction", "The word IVRIT (\"Hebrew\") written in modern Hebrew language (top) and in Paleo-Hebrew alphabet (bottom)'''Hebrew''' (; ''ʿÎbrit''; ) is a Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic language family.", "A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and remained in regular use as a first language until after 200 CE and as the liturgical language of Judaism (since the Second Temple period) and Samaritanism.", "The language was revived as a spoken language in the 19th century, and is the only successful large-scale example of linguistic revival.", "It is the only Canaanite language, as well as one of only two Northwest Semitic languages, with the other being Aramaic, still spoken today.The earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date back to the 10th century BCE.", "Nearly all of the Hebrew Bible is written in Biblical Hebrew, with much of its present form in the dialect that scholars believe flourished around the 6th century BCE, during the time of the Babylonian captivity.", "For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as ''Lashon Hakodesh'' (, ) since ancient times.", "The language was not referred to by the name ''Hebrew'' in the Bible, but as ''Yehudit'' () or ''Səpaṯ Kəna'an'' ().", "Mishnah Gittin 9:8 refers to the language as ''Ivrit'', meaning Hebrew; however, Mishnah Megillah refers to the language as ''Ashurit'', meaning Assyrian, which is derived from the name of the alphabet used, in contrast to ''Ivrit'', meaning the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet.Hebrew ceased to be a regular spoken language sometime between 200 and 400 CE, as it declined in the aftermath of the unsuccessful Bar Kokhba revolt, which was carried out against the Roman Empire by the Jews of Judaea.", "Aramaic and, to a lesser extent, Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among societal elites and immigrants.", "Hebrew survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and Jewish poetic literature.", "The first dated book printed in Hebrew was published by Abraham Garton in Reggio (Calabria, Italy) in 1475.With the rise of Zionism in the 19th century, the Hebrew language experienced a full-scale revival as a spoken and literary language.", "The creation of a modern version of the ancient language was led by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda.", "Modern Hebrew (''Ivrit'') became the main language of the Yishuv in Palestine, and subsequently the official language of the State of Israel.", "Estimates of worldwide usage include five million speakers in 1998, and over nine million people in 2013.After Israel, the United States has the largest Hebrew-speaking population, with approximately 220,000 fluent speakers (see Israeli Americans and Jewish Americans).", "Modern Hebrew and Arabic are the official languages of the State of Israel, while pre-revival forms of Hebrew are used for prayer or study in Jewish and Samaritan communities around the world today; the latter group utilizes the Samaritan dialect as their liturgical tongue.", "As a non-first language, it is studied mostly by non-Israeli Jews and students in Israel, by archaeologists and linguists specializing in the Middle East and its civilizations, and by theologians in Christian seminaries." ], [ "Etymology", "The modern English word \"Hebrew\" is derived from Old French , via Latin from the Ancient Greek () and Aramaic '''ibrāy'', all ultimately derived from Biblical Hebrew (), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people (Hebrews).", "It is traditionally understood to be an adjective based on the name of Abraham's ancestor, Eber, mentioned in .", "The name is believed to be based on the Semitic root ''ʕ-b-r'' (), meaning \"beyond\", \"other side\", \"across\"; interpretations of the term \"Hebrew\" generally render its meaning as roughly \"from the other side of the river/desert\"—i.e., an exonym for the inhabitants of the land of Israel and Judah, perhaps from the perspective of Mesopotamia, Phoenicia or Transjordan (with the river referred to being perhaps the Euphrates, Jordan or Litani; or maybe the northern Arabian Desert between Babylonia and Canaan).", "Compare the word ''Habiru'' or cognate Assyrian ''ebru'', of identical meaning.One of the earliest references to the language's name as \"''Ivrit''\" is found in the prologue to the Book of Sirach, from the 2nd century BCE.", "The Hebrew Bible does not use the term \"Hebrew\" in reference to the language of the Hebrew people; its later historiography, in the Book of Kings, refers to it as ''Yehudit'' \"Judahite (language)\"." ], [ "History", "Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages.", "Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages.According to Avraham Ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during the period from about 1200 to 586 BCE.", "Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a spoken vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile when the predominant international language in the region was Old Aramaic.Hebrew was extinct as a colloquial language by late antiquity, but it continued to be used as a literary language, especially in Spain, as the language of commerce between Jews of different native languages, and as the liturgical language of Judaism, evolving various dialects of literary Medieval Hebrew, until its revival as a spoken language in the late 19th century.===Oldest Hebrew inscriptions===Shebna Inscription, from the tomb of a royal steward found in Siloam, dates to the 7th century BCE.In May 2023, Scott Stripling published the finding of what he claims to be the oldest known Hebrew inscription, a curse tablet found at Mount Ebal, dated from around 3200 years ago.", "The presence of the Hebrew name of god, Yahweh, as three letters, ''Yod-Heh-Vav'' (YHV), according to the author and his team meant that the tablet is Hebrew and not Canaanite.", "However, practically all professional archeologists and epigraphers apart from Stripling's team claim that there is no text on this object.In July 2008, Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa that he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating from around 3,000 years ago.", "Hebrew University archaeologist Amihai Mazar said that the inscription was \"proto-Canaanite\" but cautioned that differentiation between the scripts, and between the languages themselves in that period, remains unclear\", and suggested that calling the text Hebrew might be going too far.The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic period, the traditional time of the reign of David and Solomon.", "Classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities.", "The Gezer calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that, through the Greeks and Etruscans, later became the Latin alphabet of ancient Rome.", "The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places in which later Hebrew spelling requires them.Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example, Proto-Sinaitic.", "It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle.", "The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from that of Egyptian.", "One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone, written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew.", "Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraca found near Lachish, which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian captivity of 586 BCE.===Classical Hebrew=======Biblical Hebrew====In its widest sense, Biblical Hebrew refers to the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between and .", "It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects.", "The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them.", "* Archaic Biblical Hebrew, also called Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew, from the 10th to the 6th century BCE, corresponding to the Monarchic Period until the Babylonian exile and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), notably the Song of Moses (Exodus 15) and the Song of Deborah (Judges 5).", "It was written in the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet.", "A script descended from this, the Samaritan alphabet, is still used by the Samaritans.", "* writing a Torah scroll.", "Note ornamental \"crowns\" on tops of certain letters.", "Standard Biblical Hebrew, also called Biblical Hebrew, Early Biblical Hebrew, Classical Biblical Hebrew or Classical Hebrew (in the narrowest sense), around the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, corresponding to the late Monarchic period and the Babylonian exile.", "It is represented by the bulk of the Hebrew Bible that attains much of its present form around this time.", "* Late Biblical Hebrew, from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BCE, corresponding to the Persian period and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible, notably the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.", "Basically similar to Classical Biblical Hebrew, apart from a few foreign words adopted for mainly governmental terms, and some syntactical innovations such as the use of the particle ''she-'' (alternative of \"asher\", meaning \"that, which, who\").", "It adopted the Imperial Aramaic script (from which the modern Hebrew script descends).", "* Israelian Hebrew is a proposed northern dialect of biblical Hebrew, believed to have existed in all eras of the language, in some cases competing with late biblical Hebrew as an explanation for non-standard linguistic features of biblical texts.====Early post-Biblical Hebrew====* Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, corresponding to the Hellenistic and Roman Periods before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, and represented by the Qumran Scrolls that form most (but not all) of the Dead Sea Scrolls.", "Commonly abbreviated as DSS Hebrew, also called Qumran Hebrew.", "The Imperial Aramaic script of the earlier scrolls in the 3rd century BCE evolved into the Hebrew square script of the later scrolls in the 1st century CE, also known as ''ketav Ashuri'' (Assyrian script), still in use today.", "* Mishnaic Hebrew from the 1st to the 3rd or 4th century CE, corresponding to the Roman Period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the bulk of the Mishnah and Tosefta within the Talmud and by the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the Bar Kokhba letters and the Copper Scroll.", "Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew.Sometimes the above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into \"Biblical Hebrew\" (including several dialects from the 10th century BCE to 2nd century BCE and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and \"Mishnaic Hebrew\" (including several dialects from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE and extant in certain other Dead Sea Scrolls).", "However, today most Hebrew linguists classify Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew as a set of dialects evolving out of Late Biblical Hebrew and into Mishnaic Hebrew, thus including elements from both but remaining distinct from either.By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century CE, Classical Hebrew ceased as a regularly spoken language, roughly a century after the publication of the Mishnah, apparently declining since the aftermath of the catastrophic Bar Kokhba revolt around 135 CE.===Displacement by Aramaic===Rashi scriptA silver matchbox holder with inscription in HebrewIn the early 6th century BCE, the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the ancient Kingdom of Judah, destroying much of Jerusalem and exiling its population far to the east in Babylon.", "During the Babylonian captivity, many Israelites learned Aramaic, the closely related Semitic language of their captors.", "Thus, for a significant period, the Jewish elite became influenced by Aramaic.After Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon, he allowed the Jewish people to return from captivity.", "As a result, a local version of Aramaic came to be spoken in Israel alongside Hebrew.", "By the beginning of the Common Era, Aramaic was the primary colloquial language of Samarian, Babylonian and Galileean Jews, and western and intellectual Jews spoke Greek, but a form of so-called Rabbinic Hebrew continued to be used as a vernacular in Judea until it was displaced by Aramaic, probably in the 3rd century CE.", "Certain Sadducee, Pharisee, Scribe, Hermit, Zealot and Priest classes maintained an insistence on Hebrew, and all Jews maintained their identity with Hebrew songs and simple quotations from Hebrew texts.While there is no doubt that at a certain point, Hebrew was displaced as the everyday spoken language of most Jews, and that its chief successor in the Middle East was the closely related Aramaic language, then Greek, scholarly opinions on the exact dating of that shift have changed very much.", "In the first half of the 20th century, most scholars followed Abraham Geiger and Gustaf Dalman in thinking that Aramaic became a spoken language in the land of Israel as early as the beginning of Israel's Hellenistic period in the 4th century BCE, and that as a corollary Hebrew ceased to function as a spoken language around the same time.", "Moshe Zvi Segal, Joseph Klausner and Ben Yehuda are notable exceptions to this view.", "During the latter half of the 20th century, accumulating archaeological evidence and especially linguistic analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls has disproven that view.", "The Dead Sea Scrolls, uncovered in 1946–1948 near Qumran revealed ancient Jewish texts overwhelmingly in Hebrew, not Aramaic.The Qumran scrolls indicate that Hebrew texts were readily understandable to the average Jew, and that the language had evolved since Biblical times as spoken languages do.", "Recent scholarship recognizes that reports of Jews speaking in Aramaic indicate a multilingual society, not necessarily the primary language spoken.", "Alongside Aramaic, Hebrew co-existed within Israel as a spoken language.", "Most scholars now date the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language to the end of the Roman period, or about 200 CE.", "It continued on as a literary language down through the Byzantine period from the 4th century CE.The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew remain hotly debated.", "A trilingual scenario has been proposed for the land of Israel.", "Hebrew functioned as the local mother tongue with powerful ties to Israel's history, origins and golden age and as the language of Israel's religion; Aramaic functioned as the international language with the rest of the Middle East; and eventually Greek functioned as another international language with the eastern areas of the Roman Empire.", "William Schniedewind argues that after waning in the Persian period, the religious importance of Hebrew grew in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, and cites epigraphical evidence that Hebrew survived as a vernacular language – though both its grammar and its writing system had been substantially influenced by Aramaic.", "According to another summary, Greek was the language of government, Hebrew the language of prayer, study and religious texts, and Aramaic was the language of legal contracts and trade.", "There was also a geographic pattern: according to Bernard Spolsky, by the beginning of the Common Era, \"Judeo-Aramaic was mainly used in Galilee in the north, Greek was concentrated in the former colonies and around governmental centers, and Hebrew monolingualism continued mainly in the southern villages of Judea.\"", "In other words, \"in terms of dialect geography, at the time of the tannaim Palestine could be divided into the Aramaic-speaking regions of Galilee and Samaria and a smaller area, Judaea, in which Rabbinic Hebrew was used among the descendants of returning exiles.\"", "In addition, it has been surmised that Koine Greek was the primary vehicle of communication in coastal cities and among the upper class of Jerusalem, while Aramaic was prevalent in the lower class of Jerusalem, but not in the surrounding countryside.", "After the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in the 2nd century CE, Judaeans were forced to disperse.", "Many relocated to Galilee, so most remaining native speakers of Hebrew at that last stage would have been found in the north.The Christian New Testament contains some Semitic place names and quotes.", "The language of such Semitic glosses (and in general the language spoken by Jews in scenes from the New Testament) is often referred to as \"Hebrew\" in the text, although this term is often re-interpreted as referring to Aramaic instead and is rendered accordingly in recent translations.", "Nonetheless, these glosses can be interpreted as Hebrew as well.", "It has been argued that Hebrew, rather than Aramaic or Koine Greek, lay behind the composition of the Gospel of Matthew.", "(See the Hebrew Gospel hypothesis or Language of Jesus for more details on Hebrew and Aramaic in the gospels.", ")===Mishnah and Talmud===The term \"Mishnaic Hebrew\" generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible.", "The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnaic Hebrew I), which was a spoken language, and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a literary language.", "The earlier section of the Talmud is the Mishnah that was published around 200 CE, although many of the stories take place much earlier, and were written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect.", "The dialect is also found in certain Dead Sea Scrolls.", "Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of the dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel.", "A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah.", "These include the halachic Midrashim (Sifra, Sifre, Mekhilta etc.)", "and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the Tosefta.", "The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is ''Baraitot''.", "The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew.About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language.", "The later section of the Talmud, the Gemara, generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in two forms of Aramaic.", "Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amoraic Hebrew, which sometimes occurs in the text of the Gemara.Hebrew was always regarded as the language of Israel's religion, history and national pride, and after it faded as a spoken language, it continued to be used as a ''lingua franca'' among scholars and Jews traveling in foreign countries.", "After the 2nd century CE when the Roman Empire exiled most of the Jewish population of Jerusalem following the Bar Kokhba revolt, they adapted to the societies in which they found themselves, yet letters, contracts, commerce, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry and laws continued to be written mostly in Hebrew, which adapted by borrowing and inventing terms.===Medieval Hebrew===Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing (Joshua 1:1).Kochangadi Synagogue in Kochi, India dated to 1344.After the Talmud, various regional literary dialects of Medieval Hebrew evolved.", "The most important is Tiberian Hebrew or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of Tiberias in Galilee that became the standard for vocalizing the Hebrew Bible and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew.", "This Tiberian Hebrew from the 7th to 10th century CE is sometimes called \"Biblical Hebrew\" because it is used to pronounce the Hebrew Bible; however, properly it should be distinguished from the historical Biblical Hebrew of the 6th century BCE, whose original pronunciation must be reconstructed.", "Tiberian Hebrew incorporates the scholarship of the Masoretes (from ''masoret'' meaning \"tradition\"), who added vowel points and grammar points to the Hebrew letters to preserve much earlier features of Hebrew, for use in chanting the Hebrew Bible.", "The Masoretes inherited a biblical text whose letters were considered too sacred to be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters.", "The Syriac alphabet, precursor to the Arabic alphabet, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time.", "The Aleppo Codex, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century, likely in Tiberias, and survives into the present day.", "It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence.During the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic.", "Important Hebrew grammarians were , Jonah ibn Janah, Abraham ibn Ezra and later (in Provence), .", "A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as , Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi, Moses ibn Ezra and Abraham ibn Ezra, in a \"purified\" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative or strophic meters.", "This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets.The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Classical Greek and Medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew.", "This is used in the translations made by the family.", "(Original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic.)", "Another important influence was Maimonides, who developed a simple style based on Mishnaic Hebrew for use in his law code, the .", "Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud.Hebrew persevered through the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses—not only liturgy, but also poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts.", "There have been many deviations from this generalization such as Bar Kokhba's letters to his lieutenants, which were mostly in Aramaic, and Maimonides' writings, which were mostly in Arabic; but overall, Hebrew did not cease to be used for such purposes.", "For example, the first Middle East printing press, in Safed (modern Israel), produced a small number of books in Hebrew in 1577, which were then sold to the nearby Jewish world.", "This meant not only that well-educated Jews in all parts of the world could correspond in a mutually intelligible language, and that books and legal documents published or written in any part of the world could be read by Jews in all other parts, but that an educated Jew could travel and converse with Jews in distant places, just as priests and other educated Christians could converse in Latin.", "For example, Rabbi Avraham Danzig wrote the '''' in Hebrew, as opposed to Yiddish, as a guide to ''Halacha'' for the \"''average'' 17-year-old\" (Ibid.", "Introduction 1).", "Similarly, Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan's purpose in writing the '''' was to \"produce a work that could be studied daily so that Jews might know the proper procedures to follow minute by minute\".", "The work was nevertheless written in Talmudic Hebrew and Aramaic, since, \"the ordinary Jew of Eastern Europe of a century ago, was fluent enough in this idiom to be able to follow the Mishna Berurah without any trouble.", "\"===Revival===Eliezer Ben-YehudaHebrew has been revived several times as a literary language, most significantly by the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th-century Germany.", "In the early 19th century, a form of spoken Hebrew had emerged in the markets of Jerusalem between Jews of different linguistic backgrounds to communicate for commercial purposes.", "This Hebrew dialect was to a certain extent a pidgin.", "Near the end of that century the Jewish activist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, owing to the ideology of the national revival (, , later Zionism), began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language.", "Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of the Second Aliyah, it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time.", "Those languages were Jewish dialects of local languages, including Judaeo-Spanish (also called \"Judezmo\" and \"Ladino\"), Yiddish, Judeo-Arabic and Bukhori (Tajiki), or local languages spoken in the Jewish diaspora such as Russian, Persian and Arabic.The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew.", "New words and expressions were adapted as neologisms from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Ben-Yehuda) and older Aramaic and Latin.", "Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French.", "Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of the newly declared State of Israel.", "Hebrew is the most widely spoken language in Israel today.In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously ''Israeli Hebrew'', ''Modern Israeli Hebrew'', ''Modern Hebrew'', ''New Hebrew'', ''Israeli Standard Hebrew'', ''Standard Hebrew'' and so on.", "Israeli Hebrew exhibits some features of Sephardic Hebrew from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic.The literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah movement.", "The first secular periodical in Hebrew, (The Gatherer), was published by maskilim in Königsberg (today's Kaliningrad) from 1783 onwards.", "In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g.", ", founded in Ełk in 1856) multiplied.", "Prominent poets were Hayim Nahman Bialik and Shaul Tchernichovsky; there were also novels written in the language.The revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue was initiated in the late 19th century by the efforts of Ben-Yehuda.", "He joined the Jewish national movement and in 1881 immigrated to Palestine, then a part of the Ottoman Empire.", "Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora \"shtetl\" lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the literary and liturgical language into everyday spoken language.", "However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in Eastern Europe by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like Ahad Ha'am and others.", "His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the vernacularization activity into a gradually accepted movement.", "It was not, however, until the 1904–1914 Second Aliyah that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants.", "When the British Mandate of Palestine recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion.", "A constructed modern language with a truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in phonology, was to take its place among the current languages of the nations.While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the British Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages.", "A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established.", "After the establishment of Israel, it became the Academy of the Hebrew Language.", "The results of Ben-Yehuda's lexicographical work were published in a dictionary (''The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew'', Ben-Yehuda Dictionary).", "The seeds of Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine.", "At the time, members of the Old Yishuv and a very few Hasidic sects, most notably those under the auspices of Satmar, refused to speak Hebrew and spoke only Yiddish.In the Soviet Union, the use of Hebrew, along with other Jewish cultural and religious activities, was suppressed.", "Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew \"reactionary\" since it was associated with Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the People's Commissariat for Education as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to secularize education (the language itself did not cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes).", "The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being the spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language.", "Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s.", "Despite numerous protests, a policy of suppression of the teaching of Hebrew operated from the 1930s on.", "Later in the 1980s in the USSR, Hebrew studies reappeared due to people struggling for permission to go to Israel (refuseniks).", "Several of the teachers were imprisoned, e.g.", "Yosef Begun, Ephraim Kholmyansky, Yevgeny Korostyshevsky and others responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many cities of the USSR.===Modern Hebrew===Hebrew, Arabic and English multilingual signs on an Israeli highwayHebrew and English keyboardStandard Hebrew, as developed by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, was based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation.", "However, the earliest speakers of Modern Hebrew had Yiddish as their native language and often introduced calques from Yiddish and phono-semantic matchings of international words.Despite using Sephardic Hebrew pronunciation as its primary basis, modern Israeli Hebrew has adapted to Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in some respects, mainly the following:* the elimination of pharyngeal articulation in the letters ''chet'' () and ''ayin'' () by most Hebrew speakers.", "* the conversion of () from an alveolar flap to a voiced uvular fricative or uvular trill , by most of the speakers, like in most varieties of standard German or Yiddish.", "''see Guttural R''* the pronunciation (by many speakers) of ''tzere'' as in some contexts (''sifréj'' and ''téjša'' instead of Sephardic ''sifré'' and ''tésha'')* the partial elimination of vocal ''Shva'' (''zmán'' instead of Sephardic ''zĕman'')* in popular speech, penultimate stress in proper names (''Dvóra'' instead of ''Dĕvorá''; ''Yehúda'' instead of ''Yĕhudá'') and some other words* similarly in popular speech, penultimate stress in verb forms with a second person plural suffix (''katávtem'' \"you wrote\" instead of ''kĕtavtém'').The vocabulary of Israeli Hebrew is much larger than that of earlier periods.", "According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann:In Israel, Modern Hebrew is currently taught in institutions called Ulpanim (singular: Ulpan).", "There are government-owned, as well as private, Ulpanim offering online courses and face-to-face programs." ], [ "Current status", " Academy of the Hebrew LanguageModern Hebrew is the primary official language of the State of Israel.", ", there are about 9 million Hebrew speakers worldwide, of whom 7 million speak it fluently.Currently, 90% of Israeli Jews are proficient in Hebrew, and 70% are highly proficient.", "Some 60% of Israeli Arabs are also proficient in Hebrew, and 30% report having a higher proficiency in Hebrew than in Arabic.", "In total, about 53% of the Israeli population speaks Hebrew as a native language, while most of the rest speak it fluently.", "In 2013 Hebrew was the native language of 49% of Israelis over the age of 20, with Russian, Arabic, French, English, Yiddish and Ladino being the native tongues of most of the rest.", "Some 26% of immigrants from the former Soviet Union and 12% of Arabs reported speaking Hebrew poorly or not at all.Steps have been taken to keep Hebrew the primary language of use, and to prevent large-scale incorporation of English words into the Hebrew vocabulary.", "The Academy of the Hebrew Language of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem currently invents about 2,000 new Hebrew words each year for modern words by finding an original Hebrew word that captures the meaning, as an alternative to incorporating more English words into Hebrew vocabulary.", "The Haifa municipality has banned officials from using English words in official documents, and is fighting to stop businesses from using only English signs to market their services.", "In 2012, a Knesset bill for the preservation of the Hebrew language was proposed, which includes the stipulation that all signage in Israel must first and foremost be in Hebrew, as with all speeches by Israeli officials abroad.", "The bill's author, MK Akram Hasson, stated that the bill was proposed as a response to Hebrew \"losing its prestige\" and children incorporating more English words into their vocabulary.Hebrew is one of several languages for which the constitution of South Africa calls to be respected in their use for religious purposes.", "Also, Hebrew is an official national minority language in Poland, since 6 January 2005." ], [ "Phonology", "Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic consonant inventory, with pharyngeal , a series of \"emphatic\" consonants (possibly ejective, but this is debated), lateral fricative , and in its older stages also uvular .", "merged into in later Biblical Hebrew, and underwent allophonic spirantization to (known as begadkefat).", "The earliest Biblical Hebrew vowel system contained the Proto-Semitic vowels as well as , but this system changed dramatically over time.By the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls, had shifted to in the Jewish traditions, though for the Samaritans it merged with instead.", "The Tiberian reading tradition of the Middle Ages had the vowel system , though other Medieval reading traditions had fewer vowels.A number of reading traditions have been preserved in liturgical use.", "In Oriental (Sephardi and Mizrahi) Jewish reading traditions, the emphatic consonants are realized as pharyngealized, while the Ashkenazi (northern and eastern European) traditions have lost emphatics and pharyngeals (although according to Ashkenazi law, pharyngeal articulation is preferred over uvular or glottal articulation when representing the community in religious service such as prayer and Torah reading), and show the shift of to .", "The Samaritan tradition has a complex vowel system that does not correspond closely to the Tiberian systems.Modern Hebrew pronunciation developed from a mixture of the different Jewish reading traditions, generally tending towards simplification.", "In line with Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation, emphatic consonants have shifted to their ordinary counterparts, to , and are not present.", "Most Israelis today also merge with , do not have contrastive gemination, and pronounce as a uvular fricative or a voiced velar fricative rather than an alveolar trill, because of Ashkenazi Hebrew influences.", "The consonants and have become phonemic due to loan words, and has similarly been re-introduced.===Consonants=== Proto-Semitic IPA Hebrew Example written Biblical Tiberian Modern Word Meaning 3 / house 3 / bear 3 / camel 3 / coal 3 / palm 3 / star cook tomb / 2 male / threw / sugar / 2 sky / eight / 1 left / shadow / screamed / laughed ~ raven ten father ~ 2 five rope emigrated water prophet leg tongue hand rose Proto-Semitic IPA Hebrew Biblical Tiberian Modern ExampleNotes:# Proto-Semitic was still pronounced as in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the Phoenician alphabet, so the letter had two pronunciations, representing both and .", "Later on, however, merged with , but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of were distinguished graphically in Tiberian Hebrew as vs. for and for .", "In all of these cases, however, the sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions.# Hebrew and Aramaic underwent begadkefat spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds were softened to the corresponding fricatives (written ''ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ'') when occurring after a vowel and not geminated.", "This change probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes disappeared in the 7th century BCE, and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew .", "It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century.", "After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low functional load), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.", "In Modern Hebrew, the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives are still preserved (the fricative is pronounced in modern Hebrew).", "(The others are pronounced like the corresponding stops, as Modern Hebrew pronunciation was based on the Sephardic pronunciation which lost the distinction)" ], [ "Grammar<!--'Hebrew grammar' redirects here-->", "Hebrew grammar is partly analytic, expressing such forms as dative, ablative and accusative using prepositional particles rather than grammatical cases.", "However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of verbs and nouns.", "For example, nouns have a construct state, called \"''smikhut''\", to denote the relationship of \"belonging to\": this is the converse of the genitive case of more inflected languages.", "Words in ''smikhut'' are often combined with hyphens.", "In modern speech, the use of the construct is sometimes interchangeable with the preposition \"''shel''\", meaning \"of\".", "There are many cases, however, where older declined forms are retained (especially in idiomatic expressions and the like), and \"person\"-enclitics are widely used to \"decline\" prepositions.===Morphology===Like all Semitic languages, the Hebrew language exhibits a pattern of stems consisting typically of \"triliteral\", or 3-consonant consonantal roots, from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways: e.g.", "by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels and/or adding prefixes, suffixes or infixes.", "4-consonant roots also exist and became more frequent in the modern language due to a process of coining verbs from nouns that are themselves constructed from 3-consonant verbs.", "Some triliteral roots lose one of their consonants in most forms and are called \"Nakhim\" (Resting).Hebrew uses a number of one-letter prefixes that are added to words for various purposes.", "These are called inseparable prepositions or \"Letters of Use\" ().", "Such items include: the definite article ''ha-'' () (= \"the\"); prepositions ''be-'' () (= \"in\"), ''le-'' () (= \"to\"; a shortened version of the preposition ''el''), ''mi-'' () (= \"from\"; a shortened version of the preposition ''min''); conjunctions ''ve-'' () (= \"and\"), ''she-'' () (= \"that\"; a shortened version of the Biblical conjunction ''asher''), ''ke-'' () (= \"as\", \"like\"; a shortened version of the conjunction ''kmo'').cursive formThe vowel accompanying each of these letters may differ from those listed above, depending on the first letter or vowel following it.", "The rules governing these changes are hardly observed in colloquial speech as most speakers tend to employ the regular form.", "However, they may be heard in more formal circumstances.", "For example, if a preposition is put before a word that begins with a moving Shva, then the preposition takes the vowel (and the initial consonant may be weakened): colloquial ''be-kfar'' (= \"in a village\") corresponds to the more formal ''bi-khfar''.The definite article may be inserted between a preposition or a conjunction and the word it refers to, creating composite words like ''mé-ha-kfar'' (= \"from the village\").", "The latter also demonstrates the change in the vowel of ''mi-''.", "With ''be'', ''le'' and ''ke'', the definite article is assimilated into the prefix, which then becomes ''ba'', ''la'' or ''ka''.", "Thus *''be-ha-matos'' becomes ''ba-matos'' (= \"in the plane\").", "This does not happen to ''mé'' (the form of \"min\" or \"mi-\" used before the letter \"he\"), therefore ''mé-ha-matos'' is a valid form, which means \"from the airplane\".", ":''* indicates that the given example is grammatically non-standard''.===Syntax===Like most other languages, the vocabulary of the Hebrew language is divided into verbs, nouns, adjectives and so on, and its sentence structure can be analyzed by terms like object, subject and so on.", "* Though early Biblical Hebrew had a VSO ordering, this gradually transitioned to a subject-verb-object ordering.", "Many Hebrew sentences have several correct orders of words.", "* In Hebrew, there is no indefinite article.", "* Hebrew sentences do not have to include verbs; the copula in the present tense is omitted.", "For example, the sentence \"I am here\" ( '''') has only two words; one for I () and one for here ().", "In the sentence \"I am that person\" ( ''''), the word for \"am\" corresponds to the word for \"he\" ().", "However, this is usually omitted.", "Thus, the sentence () is more often used and means the same thing.", "*Negative and interrogative sentences have the same order as the regular declarative one.", "A question that has a yes/no answer begins with (''ha'im'', an interrogative form of 'if'), but it is largely omitted in informal speech.", "* In Hebrew there is a specific preposition ( '''') for direct objects that would not have a preposition marker in English.", "The English phrase \"he ate the cake\" would in Hebrew be '''' (literally, \"He ate the cake\").", "The word , however, can be omitted, making '''' (\"He ate the cake\").", "Former Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion was convinced that should never be used as it elongates the sentence without adding meaning.", "* In spoken Hebrew ‏‏ is also often contracted to ‏‏ , e.g.", "instead of (the ' indicates non-standard use).", "This phenomenon has also been found by researchers in the Bar Kokhba documents: , writing instead of , as well as and so on.==Writing system==Hebrew alphabetUsers of the language write Modern Hebrew from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet – an \"impure\" abjad, or consonant-only script, of 22 letters.", "The ancient paleo-Hebrew alphabet resembles those used for Canaanite and Phoenician.", "Modern scripts derive from the \"square\" letter form, known as ''Ashurit'' (Assyrian), which developed from the Aramaic script.", "A cursive Hebrew script is used in handwriting: the letters tend to appear more circular in form when written in cursive, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents.", "The medieval version of the cursive script forms the basis of another style, known as Rashi script.", "When necessary, vowels are indicated by diacritic marks above or below the letter representing the syllabic onset, or by use of ''matres lectionis'', which are consonantal letters used as vowels.", "Further diacritics may serve to indicate variations in the pronunciation of the consonants (e.g.", "''bet''/''vet'', ''shin''/''sin''); and, in some contexts, to indicate the punctuation, accentuation and musical rendition of Biblical texts (see Hebrew cantillation)." ], [ "Liturgical use in Judaism", "Hebrew has always been used as the language of prayer and study, and the following pronunciation systems are found.Ashkenazi Hebrew, originating in Central and Eastern Europe, is still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad, particularly in the Haredi and other Orthodox communities.", "It was influenced by Yiddish pronunciation.Sephardi Hebrew is the traditional pronunciation of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews and Sephardi Jews in the countries of the former Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Yemenite Hebrew.", "This pronunciation, in the form used by the Jerusalem Sephardic community, is the basis of the Hebrew phonology of Israeli native speakers.", "It was influenced by Ladino pronunciation.Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew is actually a collection of dialects spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the Arab and Islamic world.", "It was derived from the old Arabic language, and in some cases influenced by Sephardi Hebrew.", "Yemenite Hebrew or ''Temanit'' differs from other Mizrahi dialects by having a radically different vowel system, and distinguishing between different diacritically marked consonants that are pronounced identically in other dialects (for example gimel and \"ghimel\".", ")These pronunciations are still used in synagogue ritual and religious study in Israel and elsewhere, mostly by people who are not native speakers of Hebrew.", "However, some traditionalist Israelis use liturgical pronunciations in prayer.Many synagogues in the diaspora, even though Ashkenazi by rite and by ethnic composition, have adopted the \"Sephardic\" pronunciation in deference to Israeli Hebrew.", "However, in many British and American schools and synagogues, this pronunciation retains several elements of its Ashkenazi substrate, especially the distinction between tsere and segol." ], [ "See also", "* Paleo-Hebrew alphabet* List of Hebrew dictionaries* List of Hebrew words of Persian origin* Hebraism* Hebraization of English* Hebrew abbreviations* Hebrew literature* Hebrew numerals* Jewish languages* List of English words of Hebrew origin* Romanization of Hebrew* Study of the Hebrew language" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ===Government===* Official website of the Academy of the Hebrew Language* Ma'agarim – The Historical Dictionary Project by the Academy of the Hebrew Language* Hebrew Phrases by the Israeli Ministry of Tourism===General information===* Hebrew language at the ''Jewish Encyclopedia''* A Guide to Hebrew at BBC Online* ''A Short History of the Hebrew Language'' by Chaim Menachem Rabin*===Tutorials, courses and dictionaries===* Hebrew language at the University of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts* Hebrew Basic Course by the Foreign Service Institute* Phonetically Transcribed Modern Hebrew Course by Polyglot Daniel Epstein" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horror film" ], [ "Introduction", "Max Schreck as Count Orlok in the 1922 film ''Nosferatu''.", "Critic and historian Kim Newman declared it as a film that set the template for the horror film.", "'''Horror''' is a film genre that seeks to elicit fear or disgust in its audience for entertainment purposes.Horror films often explore dark subject matter and may deal with transgressive topics or themes.", "Broad elements include monsters, apocalyptic events, and religious or folk beliefs.Horror films have existed for more than a century.", "Early inspirations from before the development of film include folklore, religious beliefs and superstitions of different cultures, and the Gothic and horror literature of authors such as Edgar Allan Poe, Bram Stoker, and Mary Shelley.", "From origins in silent films and German Expressionism, horror only became a codified genre after the release of ''Dracula'' (1931).", "Many sub-genres emerged in subsequent decades, including body horror, comedy horror, slasher films, splatter films, supernatural horror and psychological horror.", "The genre has been produced worldwide, varying in content and style between regions.", "Horror is particularly prominent in the cinema of Japan, Korea, Italy and Thailand, among other countries.Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter, some horror films and franchises have seen major commercial success, influenced society and spawned several popular culture icons." ], [ "Characteristics", "''The Dictionary of Film Studies'' defines the horror film as representing \"disturbing and dark subject matter, seeking to elicit responses of fear, terror, disgust, shock, suspense, and, of course, horror from their viewers.\"", "In the chapter \"The American Nightmare: Horror in the 70s\" from ''Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan'' (2002), film critic Robin Wood declared that commonality between horror films are that \"normality is threatened by the monster.\"", "This was further expanded upon by ''The Philosophy of Horror, or Parodoxes of the Heart'' by Noël Carroll who added that \"repulsion must be pleasurable, as evidenced by the genre's popularity.", "\"Prior to the release of ''Dracula'' (1931), historian Gary Don Rhodes explained that the idea and terminology of horror film did not exist yet as a codified genre, although critics used the term \"horror\" to describe films in reviews prior to ''Dracula''s release.", "\"Horror\" was a term used to describe a variety of meanings.", "In 1913, ''Moving Picture World'' defined \"horrors\" as showcasing \"striped convicts, murderous Indians, grinning 'black-handers', homicidal drunkards\" Some titles that suggest horror such as ''The Hand of Horror'' (1914) was a melodrama about a thief who steals from his own sister.", "During the silent era, the term horror was used to describe everything from \"battle scenes\" in war films to tales of drug addiction.", "Rhodes concluded that the term \"horror film\" or \"horror movie\" was not used in early cinema.The mystery film genre was in vogue and early information on ''Dracula'' being promoted as mystery film was common, despite the novel, play and film's story relying on the supernatural.", "Newman discussed the genre in British Film Institute's ''Companion to Horror'' where he noted that Horror films in the 1930s were easy to identify, but following that decade \"the more blurred distinctions become, and horror becomes less like a discrete genre than an effect which can be deployed within any number of narrative settings or narratives patterns\".Various writings on genre from Altman, Lawrence Alloway (''Violent America: The Movies 1946-1964'' (1971)) and Peter Hutchings (''Approaches to Popular Film'' (1995)) implied it easier to view films as cycles opposed to genres, suggesting the slasher film viewed as a cycle would place it in terms of how the film industry was economically and production wise, the personnel involved in their respective eras, and how the films were marketed exhibited and distributed.Mark Jancovich in an essay declared that \"there is no simple 'collective belief' as to what constitutes the horror genre\" between both fans and critics of the genre.", "Jancovich found that disagreements existed from audiences who wanted to distinguish themselves.", "This ranged from fans of different genres who may view a film like ''Alien'' (1979) as belonging to science fiction, and horror fan bases dismissing it as being inauthentic to either genre.", "Further debates exist among fans of the genre with personal definitions of \"true\" horror films, such as fans who embrace cult figures like Freddy Kruger of the ''A Nightmare on Elm Street'' series, while others disassociate themselves from characters and series and focusing on genre ''auteur'' directors like Dario Argento, while others fans would deem Argento's films as too mainstream, having preferences more underground films.", "Andrew Tudor wrote in ''Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie'' suggested that \"Genre is what we collectively believe it to be\"=== Cinematic techniques ===Mirrors are often used to create a sense of tension in horror films.In a study by Jacob Shelton, the many ways that audience members are manipulated through horror films was investigated in detail.", "Negative space is one such method that can play a part in inducing a reaction, causing one's eyes to remotely rest on anything in the frame – a wall, or the empty black void in the shadows.The jump scare is a horror film trope, where an abrupt change in image accompanied with a loud sound intends to surprise the viewer.", "This can also be subverted to create tension, where an audience may feel more unease and discomfort by anticipating a jump scare.Mirrors are often used in horror films is to create visual depth and build tension.", "Shelton argues mirrors have been used so frequently in horror films that audiences have been conditioned to fear them, and subverting audience expectations of a jump scare in a mirror can further build tension.", "Tight framing and close-ups are also commonly used; these can build tension and induce anxiety by not allowing the viewer to see beyond what is around the protagonist.=== Music ===Filmmaker and composer John Carpenter, who has directed and scored numerous horror films, performing in 2016Music is a key component of horror films.", "In ''Music in the Horror Film'' (2010), Lerner writes \"music in horror film frequently makes us feel threatened and uncomfortable\" and intends to intensify the atmosphere created in imagery and themes.", "Dissonance, atonality and experiments with timbre are typical characteristics used by composers in horror film music.=== Themes ===In the book ''Dark Dreams'', author Charles Derry conceived horror films as focusing on three broad themes: the horror of personality, horror of Armageddon and the horror of the demonic.", "The horror of personality derives from monsters being at the centre of the plot, such Frankenstein's monster whose psychology makes them perform unspeakable horrific acts ranging from rapes, mutilations and sadistic killings.", "Other key works of this form are Alfred Hitchcock's ''Psycho,'' which feature psychotic murderers without the make-up of a monster.", "The second 'Armageddon' group delves on the fear of large-scale destruction, which ranges from science fiction works but also of natural events, such as Hitchcock's ''The Birds'' (1963).", "The last group of the \"Fear of the Demonic\" features graphic accounts of satanic rites, witchcraft, exorcisms outside traditional forms of worship, as seen in films like ''The Exorcist'' (1973) or ''The Omen'' (1976).Some critics have suggested horror films can be a vessel for exploring contemporary cultural, political and social trends.", "Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, agrees with the use of horror films in easing the process of understanding issues by making use of their optical elements.", "The use of horror films can help audiences understand international prior historical events occurs, for example, to depict the horrors of the Vietnam War, the Holocaust, the worldwide AIDS epidemic or post-9/11 pessimism.", "In many occurrences, the manipulation of horror presents cultural definitions that are not accurate, yet set an example to which a person relates to that specific cultural from then on in their life." ], [ "History" ], [ "Sub-genres of horror films", "Horror is a malleable genre and often can be altered to accommodate other genre types such as science fiction, making some films difficult to categorize.===Body horror===A genre that emerged in the 1970s, body horror films focus on the process of a bodily transformation.", "In these films, the body is either engulfed by some larger process or heading towards fragmentation and collapse.", "In these films, the focus can be on apocalyptic implication of an entire society being overtaken, but the focus is generally upon an individual and their sense of identity, primarily them watching their own body change.", "The earliest appearance of the sub-genre was the work of director David Cronenberg, specifically with early films like ''Shivers'' (1975).", "Mark Jancovich of the University of Manchester declared that the transformation scenes in the genre provoke fear and repulsion, but also pleasure and excitement such as in ''The Thing'' (1982) and ''The Fly'' (1986).=== Christmas horror ===Christmas horror is a film genre that emerged in the 1970s with films such as ''Whoever Slew Auntie Roo?''", "(1971) and ''Silent Night, Bloody Night'' (1972), which were soon followed by the influential ''Black Christmas'' (1974).", "Defining the Christmas horror genre has been described as challenging, as it has generally been regarded as a sub-genre of the slasher film.", "Adam Rockoff, in ''Rue Morgue'', noted that the sub-genre sits within a trend of holiday-themed slasher films, alongside films such as ''My Bloody Valentine'' (1981) and ''April Fool's Day'' (1986).", "Others take a broader view that Christmas horror is not limited to the slasher genre, noting how it evolved from the English Christmas tradition of telling ghost stories.", "Christmas in literature has historically included elements of \"darkness\"—fright, misery, death and decay—tracing its literary antecedents as far back as the biblical account of the Massacre of the Innocents and more recently in works such as E. T. A. Hoffmann's \"The Nutcracker and the Mouse King\" (1816) and Charles Dickens' ''A Christmas Carol'' (1843).", "Although ghosts have largely been replaced by serial killers, Christmas horror creates an outlet through which to explore \"a modern reinvention of the Christmas ghost story\".=== Erotic horror ===Erotic horror is a subgenre of horror fiction that blends sensual and sexual imagery with horrific themes for the sake of sexual arousal.", "Erotic horror has had influences on French and American horror cinema.", "The works of Jean Rollin, such as ''Le Viol du Vampire'' and ''Fascination'', are considered quintessential erotic horror films, blending deeply sexual imagery with gore.", "American cinema has also featured notable erotic horror film franchises, such as ''Candyman.''", "An example of a British erotic horror film series is ''Hellraiser''.", "''Alien'' features heavy erotic imagery, with the design of the Xenomorph by H. R. Giger featuring both phallic and vaginal imagery, intended to symbolize patriarchal guilt as well as sex, rape, and pregnancy.=== Folk horror ===Folk horror uses elements of folklore or other religious and cultural beliefs to instil fear in audiences.", "Folk horror films have featured rural settings and themes of isolation, religion and nature.", "Frequently cited examples are ''Witchfinder General'' (1968), ''The Blood on Satan's Claw'' (1971), ''The Wicker Man'' (1973), ''The Witch'' (2015), and ''Midsommar'' (2019).", "Local folklore and beliefs have been noted as being prevalent in horror films from the Southeast Asia region, including Thailand and Indonesia.===Found footage horror===The found footage horror film \"technique\" gives the audience a first person view of the events on screen, and presents the footage as being discovered after.", "Horror films which are framed as being made up of \"found-footage\" merge the experiences of the audience and characters, which may induce suspense, shock, and bafflement.", "Alexandra Heller-Nicholas noted that the popularity of sites like YouTube in 2006 sparked a taste for amateur media, leading to the production of further films in the found footage horror genre later in the 2000s including the particularly financially successful ''Paranormal Activity'' (2007).===Gothic horror===In their book ''Gothic film'', Richard J. McRoy and Richard J.", "Hand stated that \"Gothic\" can be argued as a very loose subgenre of horror, but argued that \"Gothic\" as a whole was a style like ''film noir'' and not bound to certain cinematic elements like the Western or science fiction film.", "The term \"gothic\" is frequently used to describe a stylized approach to showcasing location, desire, and action in film.", "Contemporary views of the genre associate it with imagery of castles at hilltops and labyrinth like ancestral mansions that are in various states of disrepair.", "Narratives in these films often focus on an audiences fear and attraction to social change and rebellion.", "The genre can be applied to films as early as ''The Haunted Castle'' (1896), ''Frankenstein'' (1910) as well as to more complex iterations such as Park Chan-wook's ''Stoker'' (2013) and Jordan Peele's ''Get Out'' (2017).The gothic style is applied to several films throughout the history of the horror film.", "This includes Universal Pictures' horror films of the 1930s, the revival of gothic horror in the 1950s and 1960s with films from Hammer, Roger Corman's Poe-cycle, and several Italian productions.", "By the 1970s American and British productions often had vampire films set in a contemporary setting, such as Hammer Films had their ''Dracula'' stories set in a modern setting and made other horror material which pushed the erotic content of their vampire films that was initiated by ''Black Sunday''.", "In the 1980s, the older horror characters of Dracula and Frankenstein's monster rarely appeared, with vampire themed films continued often in the tradition of authors like Anne Rice where vampirism becomes a lifestyle choice rather than plague or curse.", "Following the release of Francis Ford Coppola's ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992), a small wave of high-budgeted gothic horror romance films were released in the 1990s.===Natural horror===Also described as \"eco-horror\", the natural horror film is a subgenre \"featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts, carnivorous insects, and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold-blooded killers.\"", "In 1963, Hitchcock defined a new genre nature taking revenge on humanity with ''The Birds'' (1963) that was expanded into a trend into the 1970s.", "Following the success of ''Willard'' (1971), a film about killer rats, 1972 had similar films with ''Stanley'' (1972) and an official sequel ''Ben'' (1972).", "Other films followed in suit such as ''Night of the Lepus'' (1972), ''Frogs'' (1972), ''Bug'' (1975), ''Squirm'' (1976) and what Muir described as the \"turning point\" in the genre with ''Jaws'' (1975), which became the highest-grossing film at that point and moved the animal attacks genres \"towards a less-fantastic route\" with less giant animals and more real-life creatures such as ''Grizzly'' (1976) and ''Night Creature'' (1977), ''Orca'' (1977), and ''Jaws 2'' (1978).", "The film is linked with the environmental movements that became more mainstream in the 1970s and early 1980s such vegetarianism, animal rights movements, and organizations such as Greenpeace.", "Following ''Jaws'', sharks became the most popular animal of the genre, ranging from similar such as ''Mako: The Jaws of Death'' (1976) and ''Great White'' (1981) to the ''Sharknado'' film series.", "James Marriott found that the genre had \"lost momentum\" since the 1970s while the films would still be made towards the turn of the millennium.=== Religious horror ===Religious horror is a subgenre of horror film whose common themes are based on religion and focus heavily on supernatural beings, often with demons as the main antagonists that bring a sense of threat.", "Such films commonly use religious elements, including the crucifix or cross, holy water, the Bible, the rosary, the sign of the cross, the church, and prayer, which are forms of religious symbols and rituals used to depict the use of faith to defeat evil.=== Slasher film ===The slasher film is a horror subgenre which involves a killer murdering a group of people (often teenagers), usually by use of bladed tools.", "In his book on the genre, author Adam Rockoff wrote that these villains represented a \"rogue genre\" of films that are \"tough, problematic, and fiercely individualistic.\"", "Following the financial success of ''Friday the 13th'' (1980), at least 20 other slasher films appeared in 1980 alone.", "These films usually revolved around three properties: unique social settings (campgrounds, schools, holidays) and a crime from the past committed (an accidental drowning, infidelity, a scorned lover) and a ready made group of victims (camp counselors, students, wedding parties).", "The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Ebert, and often were highly profitable in the box office.", "The release of ''Scream'' (1996), led to a brief revival of the slasher films for the 1990s.", "Other countries imitated the American slasher film revival, such as South Korea's early 2000s cycle with ''Bloody Beach'' (2000), ''Nightmare'' (2000) and ''The Record'' (2000).=== Supernatural horror ===Supernatural horror films integrate supernatural elements, such as the afterlife, spirit possession and religion into the horror genre.=== Teen horror ===Teen horror is a horror subgenre that victimizes teenagers while usually promoting strong, anti-conformity teenage leads, appealing to young generations.", "This subgenre often depicts themes of sex, under-aged drinking, and gore.", "Horror films aimed a young audience featuring teenage monsters grew popular in the 1950s with several productions from American International Pictures (AIP) and productions of Herman Cohen with ''I Was a Teenage Werewolf'' (1957) and ''I Was a Teenage Frankenstein'' (1957).", "This led to later productions like ''Daughter of Dr. Jekyll'' (1957) and ''Frankenstein's Daughter'' (1958).", "Teen horror cycle in the 1980s often showcased explicit gore and nudity, with John Kenneth Muir described as cautionary conservative tales where most of the films stated if you partook in such vices such as drugs or sex, your punishment of death would be handed out.Prior to ''Scream'', there were no popular teen horror films in the early 1990s.", "After the financial success of ''Scream'', teen horror films became increasingly reflexive and self-aware until the end of the 1990s with films like ''I Know What You Did Last Summer'' (1997) and non-slasher ''The Faculty'' (1998).", "The genre lost prominence as teen films dealt with threats with more realism in films like ''Donnie Darko'' (2001) and ''Crazy/Beautiful'' (2001).", "In her book on the 1990s teen horror cycle, Alexandra West described the general trend of these films is often looked down upon by critics, journals, and fans as being too glossy, trendy, and sleek to be considered worthwhile horror films.=== Psychological horror ===Psychological horror is a subgenre of horror and psychological fiction with a particular focus on mental, emotional, and psychological states to frighten, disturb, or unsettle its audience.", "The subgenre frequently overlaps with the related subgenre of psychological thriller, and often uses mystery elements and characters with unstable, unreliable, or disturbed psychological states to enhance the suspense, drama, action, and paranoia of the setting and plot and to provide an overall unpleasant, unsettling, or distressing atmosphere." ], [ "Regional horror films", "===Asian horror films===Horror films in Asia have been noted as being inspired by national, cultural or religious folklore, particularly beliefs in ghosts or spirits.", "In ''Asian Horror'', Andy Richards writes that there is a \"widespread and engrained acceptance of supernatural forces\" in many Asian cultures, and suggests this is related to animist, pantheist and karmic religious traditions, as in Buddhism and Shintoism.", "Although Chinese, Japanese, Thai and Korean horror has arguably received the most international attention, horror also makes up a considerable proportion of Cambodian and Malaysian cinema.==== Hong Kong ====The Hong Kong film industry has long been associated with genre cinema, specifically for action films.", "The Hong Kong horror films are generally broad and often feature demons, wraiths and reanimated corpses and have been described by authors Gary Bettinson and Daniel Martin as \"generically diffuse and resistant to Western definitions.\"", "This was due to Hong Kong cinema often creating various hybrid films which mesh traditional horror films with elements of other genres such as ''A Chinese Ghost Story'' (1987), which led to Hong Kong critic Chen Yu to suggest that this form was \"one more indication of the Hong Kong cinema's inability to establish a proper horror genre.", "\"Various interpretations of the Hong Kong horror film have included Bettinson and Martin stating that Hong Kong films frequently prioritize comedy and romance over fear.", "Author Felicia Chan described Hong Kong cinema as being noted for its extensive use of parody and pastiche and the horror and ghost films of Hong Kong often turn to comedy and generally follow forms of ghost erotica and ''jiangshi'' ().", "Early horror-related cinema in Mandarin and Cantonese featured ghost stories that occasionally had rational explanations.", "The literary source of Hong Kong horror films is Pu Songling's ''Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio'', a series of short stories with supernatural themes written in the 17th century.", "Unlike Western stories, Pu focuses on the value of the human form which is essential for reincarnation, leading to stories about ghosts such as Fox spirit trying to seal a mortal man's life essence, usually through sex.", "This led to a relatively large degree of Hong Kong horror films, even more than their Korean and Japanese counterparts, featuring chimeric creatures exhibiting bodily features of various animals.", "According to author Stephen Teo, corporeal 'trans-substantiation', such as in the form of a human to werewolf or vampire to bat, is \"unthinkable in Chinese culture since the rule of pragmatism requires that one's physical, human shape be kept intact for reincarnation and for the wheel of life to keep revolving\"Early Hong Kong horror films of the 1950s were often described by terms such as ''shenguai'' (gods/spirits and the strange/bizarre), ''qi guai'' (strange) and ''shen hua'' (godly story).", "Most of these films involved a man meeting a ''neoi gwei'' (female ghost), followed by a flashback illustrating how the woman had died and usually concluded with a happy ending involving reincarnation and romance.", "Examples include the ghost story ''Beauty Raised from the Dead'' (1956) and ''The Nightly Cry of the Ghost'' (1957) which suggests the supernatural but concludes with a rational explanation for the proceedings.", "Other trends included humorous variations such as ''The Dunce Bumps into a Ghost'' (1957) as well as films about snake demons that were imitating films from the Philippines and made co-productions with the country with ''Sanda Wong'' (1955) and ''The Serpent's Girls' Worldy Fancies'' (1958).Director Kuei Chih-Hung in 1979, one of the few Hong Kong directors to specialize in horror filmsOther Early works include ''The Enchanting Shadow'' (1960) based on Pu's work, which did not create a cycle of ghost films.", "In the 1970s films such as the Shaw Brothers and Hammer Film Productions co-production ''Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires'' would not take off worldwide and not produce cycles of similar horror films.", "King Hu's films such as ''Touch of Zen'' would touch upon Pu's work, including plot points of fox spirits, while his other work such as ''Legend of the Mountain'' would be full on ghost stories.Veteran stuntman, actor and director Sammo Hung decided to blend horror with more humour, leading to ''Encounters of the Spooky Kind'' (1980).", "The film was popular at the box office leading to several kung-fu-oriented ghost comedies.", "Directors ranging from Ann Hui to Tsui Hark would all dabble with the genre, with Sammo Hung producing ''Mr.", "Vampire'' and Tsui Hark producing ''A Chinese Ghost Story'', which would be stories from Pu Songling's work.According to Gary Bettinson and Daniel Martin, the critical attitude towards Hong Kong horror was that it reached its commercial and artistic peaks in the 1980s, partially in response to the audience's decline in the dominance of kung fu films.", "The rise of Asian horror films in the 2000s has been described by Laikwan Pang in ''Screen'' as setting Hong Kong horror films back, stating that \"once famous for churning out hundreds of formulaic horror films have almost completely died out - precisely because of the industry's fraught efforts to adapt to a Chinese market and its policy environment.\"", "In 2003, author Daniel O'Brien stated that the Hong Kong film industry still turned out horror films.", "Still, the number of them turned out much lower, with the genre rarely attracting major filmmakers and operating on the low-budget side of the industry with films like the ''Troublesome Night'' series, which had 18 entries.", "In 2018, Bettinson and Martin found that the Hong Kong horror film had become nostalgic and contemporary, noting films like ''Rigor Mortis'' (2013) as referencing the older ''Mr.", "Vampire'' film while also as adapting to the shifting global market for Asian cinema.=====Exploitation and Category III=====In the 1970s a shift in style and type of Hong Kong horror films began being produced, depicting more explicit depictions of sex.", "Actor Kam Kwok-leung who appeared in some of these films such as the Shaw Brothers produced ''The Killer Snakes'' (1974) stated that the studio's \"attitude was rather shameless; they threw in nude scenes or sex scenes regardless of the genre ... As long as they could insert these scenes, they didn't mind throwing logic out the window.", "''The Killer Snakes'' was no exception\" The film was directed by Kuei Chih-Hung, it was his first horror film and led to him being one of the few Hong Kong directors to specialize in horror.", "These films were sometimes described as exploitation, characterized by their gratuitous or excessive nudity, extreme violence, and gore are generally regarded by critics as \"bad\" rather than quality or serious cinema.", "Keui would return to horror in various films after such as ''Ghost Eyes'' (1974), ''Hex'' (1980), ''Hex vs Witcraft'' (1980), ''Hex After Hex'' (1982) ''Curse of Evil'' (1982) and ''The Boxer's Omen'' (1984).", "These films were swept aside by the late 1980s when an even more raw form of exploitation cinema arose with the Category III film creation in 1988.Category III films from the era such as ''Dr.", "Lamb'' (1992) and ''The Untold Story'' (1993) were linked to horror from their excessive violence and blood-letting of their serial killer central characters.Other horror films borrowing from Western trends were made such as Dennis Yu's two films ''The Beasts'' (1980) resembling ''Last House on the Left'' and ''The Imp'' (1981), Patrick Tam's ''Love Massacre'' (1981) resembling the American slasher film trend.", "Later cases of the genre often exclude the ghost story style, such as ''The Untold Story'' (1993) and ''Dream Home'' (2010) which have lead characters within scientific explanation.==== India ====The Cinema of India produces the largest amount of films in the world, ranging from Bollywood (Hindi cinema based in Mumbai) to other regions such as West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.", "Unlike Hollywood and most Western cinematic traditions, horror films produced in India incorporate romance, song-and-dance, and other elements in the \"masala\" format, where as many genres as possible are bundled into a single film.", "Odell and Le Blanc described the Indian horror film as \"a popular, but minor part of the country's film output\" and that \"has not found a true niche in mainstream Indian cinema.\"", "These films are made outside of Mumbai, and are generally seen as disreputable to their more respectable popular cinema.", "As of 2007, the Central Board of Film Certification, India's censorship board has stated films \"pointless or unavoidable scenes of violence, cruelty and horror, scenes of violence intended to provide entertainment and such scene that may have the effect of desensitising or dehumanizing people are not shown.", "\"Still of Madhubala in ''Mahal'' (1949), an early Indian horror filmThe earliest Indian horror films were films about ghosts and reincarnation or rebirth such as ''Mahal'' (1949).", "These early films tended to be spiritual pieces or tragic dramas opposed to having visceral content.", "While prestige films from Hollywood productions had been shown in Indian theatres, the late 1960s had seen a parallel market for minor American and European co-productions to films like the James Bond film series and the films of Mario Bava.", "In the 1970s and 1980s, the Ramsay Brothers created a career in the lower reaches of the Bombay film industry making low-budget horror films, primarily influenced by Hammer's horror film productions, with little known about their production or distribution history.", "The Ramsay Brothers were a family of seven brothers who made horror films that were featured monsters and evil spirits that mix in song and dance sections as well as comic interludes.", "Most of their films played at smaller cinema in India, with Tulsi Ramsay, one of the brothers, later stating \"Places where even the trains don't stop, that's where our business was.\"", "Their horror films are generally dominated by low-budget productions, such as those by the Ramsay Brothers.", "Their most successful film was ''Purana Mandir'' (1984), which was the second highest-grossing film in India that year.", "The influence of American productions would have an effect on later Indian productions such as ''The Exorcist'' which would lead to films involving demonic possession such as ''Gehrayee'' (1980).", "India has also made films featuring zombies and vampires that drew from American horror films opposed to indigenous myths and stories.", "Other directors, such as Mohan Bhakri made low budget highly exploitive films such as ''Cheekh'' (1985) and his biggest hit, the monster movie ''Khooni Mahal'' (1987).Horror films are not self-evident categories in Tamil and Telugu films and it was only until the late 1980s that straight horror cinema was regularly produced with films like ''Uruvam'' (1991), ''Sivi'' (2007), and ''Eeram'' (2009) were released.", "The first decade of the twenty-first century saw a flurry of commercially successful Telugu horror films like ''A Film by Aravind'' (2005), ''Mantra'' (2007), and ''Arundhati'' (2009) were released.", "Ram Gopal Varma made films that generally defied the conventions of popular Indian cinema, making horror films like ''Raat'' (1992) and ''Bhoot'' (2003), with the latter film not containing and comic scenes or musical numbers.", "In 2018, the horror film ''Tumbbad'' premiered in the critics' week section of the 75th Venice International Film Festival—the first ever Indian film to open the festival.==== Indonesia ======== Japan ====The Japanese film industry began in the late 1800s with its most films from the 1920s to the 1970s being made through its studio system.", "Following World War II, Donald Richie noted that directors and screenwriters were no longer as interested in subjects that promoted a rosy future.", "This led to development of ghost story and monster movies being made in Japan during the 1950s.", "The term \"horror\" as a genre, only began circulating in Japan in the 1960s in press and everyday language.", "Prior to this, horror fiction as it may be known was referred to with terms like \"mystery\", \"terror\", and \"dread\".", "According to manga author and critic Yoshihiro Yonezawa, the first boom of horror manga with the success of the ''Kaiki shōsetsu zenshū''' and the success of the British horror films from Hammer Films which began circulating in Japan and gaining popularity.", "Due to the circulation of these magazines, a growing interest in the supernatural developed, inspired by traditional Japanese ghost stories (''kaidan'') such as ''Yotsuya Kaidan'' as well as classical Japanese woodcut prints with themes of Japanese ghosts.Colette Balmain in her book ''Introduction to Japanese Horror Film'' stated the two most important films that would influence the growth of the horror genre were ''Ugetsu'' (1953), exploring fears around modernization, and ''Godzilla'' (1954), with its monster and its atomic breath reminding about the devastation caused by nuclear weapons.", "''Ugetsu'' would also lay the groundwork for several forms of Japanese horror films.", "This included gothic ghost stories which accounted for most of Japanese horror films of the 1950s and 1960s, the erotic-themed ghost story films of the as well as later Japanese ghost story films like ''Ring'' (1998) and ''Ju-On: The Grudge''.", "''Ugetsu'' would borrow from traditional Japanese theatre forms such as ''Kabuki'' and ''Noh'' .", "''Noh'' was marked for estrained understatement and abstraction with more focus on emotion than narrative of dialogue which would be reflected in later Japanese films like ''Onibaba'' (1964) and ''Kuroneko'' (1968).In 1964, Shochiku released ''Daydream'', the first Japanese New Wave to have a blatantly erotic story.", "These films later became known as pink films, a term of American origin applied to low-budget and low-profile films.", "These softcore films helped struggling studios with the first wave of them being between 1964 and 1972.One sub-genre of these films was the erotic ghost story, which were less explicit than the usual pink cinema.", "These films often featured wronged women, such as the vengeful ghostly cat woman in ''Kuroneko'' (1968).", "Stories of ghost cats and similar creatures were part of the sub-genre known as ''bakeneko mono'', or monster-cat tales starting with ''The Ghost Cat of Otama Pond'' (1960).In 1985, the Japanese film producer Ogura Satoru developed the series and directed the first installment: ''Guinea Pig: Devil's Experiment''.", "The series was controversial in Japan, due in part to the public scrutiny the videos faced after the capture of Tsutomu Miyazaki, a child murderer who had the films in his collection.", "The series circulated enough within horror film fan circles that in a March 1994 issue of ''Fangoria'', a fan wrote in to ask the magazine to shift its toward underground films such as \"the notorious gorefests from Japan ... the infamous ''Guinea Pig'' series.\"", "The magazine responded that the independent film market was fading away and that major studios had taken over the b-film industry and \"that is where the power - and commercial success - lies.", "''Guinea Pig'' is not the future of horror.\"", "Jay McRoy, author of ''Nightmare Japan: Contemporary Japanese Horror Cinema'' declared that films like Toshiharu Ikeda's ''Evil Dead Trap'' (1988) and ''Tetsuo: The Iron Man'' (1989) \"spurred the emergence of an increasingly visceral and graphically violent wave of Japanese horror films\" with the latter film being \"one of the most influential Japanese horror films ever produced.Author and critic Kim Newman described the release of Hideo Nakata's ''Ring'' (1998) as one of the major \"cultural phenomenons\" in the horror film in the late 1990s.", "Along with the South Korean film ''Whispering Corridors'' (1998), it was a major hit across Asia leading to sequels and similar ghost stories from Asian countries.", "With more than 24 million sales worldwide, the ''Resident Evil'' video game franchise began in 1996.Several Japanese productions involving zombies followed the games success, such as ''Wild Zero'' (1999) and ''Versus'' (2000), and ''Junk'' (2000).", "These films zombies resembled the monsters from the 1970s such ''Dawn of the Dead'' (1978) and ''Zombi 2'' (1979).", "In 2003, independent films had overtaken studio-produced films with 234 of the 287 total films released in 2003 were independent.", "The independent Japanese zombie film ''One Cut of the Dead'' (2017) became a sleeper hit in Japan, receiving general acclaim worldwide and making Japanese box office history by earning over a thousand times its budget.==== South Korea ====The Korean horror film originated in the 1960s and became a more prominent part of the countries film production in the early 2000s.", "While ghosts have appeared as early as 1924 in Korean film, attempting to chart the history of the genre from this period was described by Alison Peirse and Daniel Martin, the authors of \"Korean Horror Cinema\" as \"problematic\", due to the control of the Japanese colonial government blocking artistic or politically independent films.", "Regardless of settings or time period, many Korean horror films such as ''Song of the Dead'' (1980) have their stories focused on female relationships, rooted in Korean Confucianism tradition with an emphasis on biological families.", "Despite the influence of folklore in some films, there is no key single canon to define the Korean horror film.", "Korean horror cinema is also defined by melodrama, as it does in most of Korean cinema.", "''The Housemaid'' (1960) is widely credited as initiating the first horror cycle in Korean cinema, which involved films of the 1960s about supernatural revenge tales, focused on cruelly murdered women who sought out revenge.", "Several of these films are in dept to Korean folklore and ghost stories, with stories of animal transformation.", "Traces of international cinema are found in early Korean horror cinema.", "such as Shin Sang-ok's ''Madame White Snake'' (1960) from the traditional Chinese folktale Legend of the White Snake.", "Despite bans of Japanese cultural products that lasted from 1945 to 1998, the influence of Japanese culture are still found in ''Kaibyō eiga'' (ghost cats) themed films, such as ''A Devilish Homicide'' (1965) and ''Ghosts of Chosun'' (1970).", "Other 1960s films featured narratives involving ''kumiho'' such as ''The Thousand Year Old Fox'' (''Cheonnyeonho'') (1969).", "These tales based on folklore and ghosts continued into the 1970s.", "Korea also produced giant monster films that received release in the United States such as ''Yongary, Monster from the Deep'' (1967) and ''Ape'' (1976).Park Chan-wook, the director of ''Thirst'' (2009), one of the many varied Korean horror films from the early 21st centuryBy the end of the 1970s, the Korean horror film entered a period known commonly as the \"dark time\" for South Korean cinema with audience attracted to Hong Kong and American imports.", "The biggest influence on this was the \"3S\" policy adopted by the Chun Doo-hwan government which promoted the production of \"sports, screen and sex\" for the film industry leading to more relaxed censorship leading to a boom in Erotic Korean films.", "Horror films followed this trend with ''Suddenly at Midnight'' (1981), a reimagining of ''The Housemaid'' (1960).", "As of 2013, many pre-1990 Korean horror films are only available through the Korean Film Archive (KOFA) in Seoul.", "It was not until the 1998 release of ''Whispering Corridors'' was the Korean horror film reinvigorated, with its style containing traces of traditional Korean cinema (culturally specific themes and melodrama) but also the American pattern of making a franchise of horror films, as the film received four sequels.", "Since the film's release, Korean horror films had had strong diversity with gothic tales like ''A Tale of Two Sisters'' (2003), gory horror films like ''Bloody Reunion'' (2006), horror comedy (''To Catch a Virgin Ghost'' (2004)), vampire films (''Thirst'' (2009)), and independent productions (''Teenage Hooker Became a Killing Machine'' (2000)).", "These films varied in popularity with Ahn Byeong-ki's ''Phone'' (2002) reaching the top ten in the domestic box office sales in 2002 while in 2007, no locally produced Korean horror films were financially successful with local audiences.", "In 2020, Anton Bitel declared in ''Sight & Sound'' that South Korea was one of the international hot spots for horror film production in the last decade, citing the international and popular releases of films like ''Train to Busan'' (2016), ''The Odd Family: Zombie on Sale'' (2019) ''Peninsula'' (2020) and ''The Wailing'' (2016).==== Thailand =======Oceania======= Australia ====It is unknown when Australia's cinema first horror title may have been, with thoughts ranging from ''The Strangler's Grip'' (1912) to ''The Face at the Window'' (1919) while stories featuring ghosts would appear in ''Guyra Ghost Mystery'' (1921).", "By 1913, the more prolific era of Australian cinema ended with production not returning with heavy input of government finance in the 1970s.", "It took until the 1970s for Australia to develop sound film with television films that eventually received theatrical release with ''Dead Easy'' (1970) and ''Night of Fear'' (1973).", "''The Cars That Ate Paris'' (1974) was the first Australian horror production made for theatrical release.", "1970s Australian art cinema was funded by state film corporations, who considered them more culturally acceptable than local exploitation films (Ozploitation), which was part of the Australian phenomenon called the cultural cringe.", "The greater success of genre films like ''Mad Max'' (1979), ''The Last Wave'' (1977) and ''Patrick'' (1978) led to the Australian Film Commission to change its focus to being a more commercial operation.", "This closed in 1980 as its funding was abused by investors using them as tax avoiding measures.", "A new development known as the 10BA tax shelter scheme was developed ushering a slew of productions, leading to what Peter Shelley, author of ''Australian Horror Films'', suggested meant \"making a profit was more important than making a good film.\"", "Shelley called these films derivative of \"American films and presenting generic American material\".", "These films included the horror film productions of Antony I. Ginnane.", "While Australia would have success with international films between the mid-1980s and the 2000s, less than five horror films were produced in the country between 1993 and 2000.It was only after the success of ''Wolf Creek'' (2005) that a new generation of filmmakers would continuously make horror genre films in Australia that continued into the 2010s.==== New Zealand ====By 2005, New Zealand has produced around 190 feature films, with about 88% of them being made after 1976.New Zealand horror film history was described by Philip Matthews of Stuff as making \"po-faced gothic and now we do horror for laughs.\"", "Among the earliest known New Zealand horror films productions are ''Strange Behavior'' (1981), a co-production with Australia and ''Death Warmed Up'' (1984) a single production.", "Early features such as Melanie Read's ''Trial Run'' (1984) where a mother is sent to remote cottage to photograph penguins and finds it habitat to haunted spirits, and Gaylene Preston's ''Mr.", "Wrong'' (1984) purchases a car that is haunted by its previous owner.", "Other films imitate American slasher and splatter films with ''Bridge to Nowhere'' (1986), and the early films of Peter Jackson who combined splatter films with comedy with ''Bad Taste'' (1988) and ''Braindead'' (1992) which has the largest following of the mentioned films.", "Film producer Ant Timpson had an influence curating New Zealand horror films, creating the Incredibly Strange Film Festival in the 1990s and producing his own horror films over the 2010s including ''The ABCs of Death'' (2012), ''Deathgasm'' (2015), and ''Housebound'' (2014).", "Timpson noted the latter horror entries from New Zealand are all humorous films like ''What We Do in the Shadows'' (2014) with Jonathan King, director of ''Black Sheep'' (2006) and ''The Tattooist'' (2007) stating \"I'd love to see a genuinely scary New Zealand film but I don't know if New Zealand audiences – or the funding bodies – are keen.", "\"===European horror films===Ian Olney described the horror films of Europe were often more erotic and \"just plain stranger\" than their British and American counter-parts.", "European horror films (generally referred to as Euro Horror) draw from distinctly European cultural sources, including surrealism, romanticism, decadent tradition, early 20th century pulp-literature, film serials, and erotic comics.", "In comparison to the narrative logic in American genre films, these films focused on imagery, excessiveness, and the irrational.Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, European horror films emerged from countries like Italy, Spain and France and were shown in the United States predominantly at drive-in theatre and grindhouse theatres.As producers and distributors all over the world were interested in horror films, regardless of their origin, changes started occurring in European low-budget filmmaking that allowed for productions in the 1960s and 1970s for horror films from Italy, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Spain, as well as co-productions between these countries.", "Several productions, such as those in Italy, were co-productions due to the lack of international stars within the country.", "European horror films began developing strong cult following since the late 1990s.==== France ====French director Julia Ducournau (centre) won the for horror film ''Titane''.", "She is pictured with actors Agathe Rousselle and Vincent Lindon, who star in the film, at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival.France never truly developed a horror film movement to the volume that the United Kingdom or Italy had produced.", "In their book ''European Nightmares'', editors Patricia Allmer, Emily Brick, and David Huxley noted that French cinema was generally perceived as having a tradition of the fantastic, rather than horror films.", "The editors noted that French cinema had produced a series of outstanding individual horror films, from directors who did not specialize in the field.", "In their book ''Horror Films'', Colin Odell & Michelle Le Blanc referred to director Jean Rollin as one of the countries most consistent horror ''auteurs'' with 40 years of productions described as \"highly divisive\" low budget horror films often featuring erotic elements, vampires, low budgets, pulp stories and references to both high and low European art.", "Another of the few French directors who specialized in horror is Alexandre Aja, who stated that \"the problem with the French is that they don't trust their own language when it comes to horror.", "American horror movies do well, but in their own language, the French just aren't interested.", "\"A 21st-century movement of transgressive French cinema known as New French Extremity was named by film programmer James Quandt in 2004, who declared and derided that films of Catherine Breillat, Claire Denis, Gaspar Noé, and Bruno Dumont, among others, had made \"cinema suddenly determined to break every taboo, to wade in rivers of viscera and spumes of sperm, to fill each frame with flesh, nubile, or gnarled, and subject it to all manner of penetration mutilation and defilement.\"", "In her book ''Films of the New French Extremity'', Alexandra West described the phenomenon as initially an art house movement, but as the directors of those films started making horror films fitting arthouse standards such as ''Trouble Every Day'' (2001) and Marina de Van's ''In My Skin'' (2002), other directors began making more what West described as \"outright horror films\" such as Aja's ''High Tension'' (2003) and Xavier Gens' ''Frontier(s)'' (2007).", "Some of these horror films of the New French Extremity movement would regularly place on \"Best Of\" genre lists, such as ''Martyrs'' (2008), ''Inside'' (2007) and ''High Tension'' (2003) while Julia Ducournau's film ''Titane'' (2021) won the at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival.====Germany====Jörg Buttgereit in 2015.Buttgereit was described by Kai-Uwe Werbeck as \"arguably the most visible German horror director of the 1980s and early 1990s\".German postwar horror films remained marginal after its success during the silent film era.", "The Third Reich ended production of horror films and German productions never gained a mass audience in Germany's horror film output leading the genre to not return in any major form until the late 1960s.", "Between 1933 and 1989, Randall Halle stated about only 34 films that could be described as horror films and 45 which were co-productions with other countries, primarily Spain and Italy.", "Outside of Herzog's ''Nosferatu'' (1979) most of these films low-budget that focused on erotic themes over horrific turns in narrative.", "In the mid-1970s, ''Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons'' was tasked with protection of minors from violent, racist and pornographic content in literature and comic books which led to increased the code which became law in 1973.These laws expanded to home video in 1985 following the release of titles such as Sam Raimi's ''The Evil Dead'' (1981) and the political change when Helmut Kohl became chancellor in 1982.The amount of West German film productions were already low in the 1980s, leaving the genre to be shot by amateurs who had little to no budgets.", "In the early 1980s, West Germany's government cracked down on graphic horror films similar to the United Kingdom's Video nasty panic.", "A direct response to this led to West German independent directors in the late 1980s and early 1990s, West German indie directors to release a comparatively high number of what Kai-Uwe Werbeck described as low-budget \"hyper-violent horror films\" sometimes described as German underground horror.", "Werbeck described the most prominent of these were of Jörg Buttgereit, described by Werbeck as \"arguably the most visible German horror director of the 1980s and early 1990s\", one which Harald Harzheim claimed to be \"the first German director since the 1920s to give the horror genre new impulses\".", "Similar gory films such as Olaf Ittenbach's ''The Burning Moon'' was the first, and last film to be made in Germany that is still banned there as of 2016.German horror films made a comeback in what Werbeck described as a mainstream fashion in the 21st century.", "This included the box office hit ''Anatomy'' (2000) and ''Antibodies'' (2005), who Odell and Le Blanc described as being a similar to the 1960s ''krimi'' genre of crime films.", "The second were films made for international markets such as ''Legion of the Dead'' (2001) and the video game adaptations directed Uwe Boll such as ''House of the Dead'' (2003) and ''Alone in the Dark'' (2005).====Italy====Early silent Italian ''fantastique'' films focused more on adventure and farce opposed to Germany's expressionism.", "The National Fascist Party in Italy had forced film in the early sound era to \"spread the civilization of Rome throughout the world as quickly as possible.\"", "Another influence was the Centro Cattolico Cinematografico (Catholic Cinematic Centre) that was described by Curti as \"permissive towards propaganda and repressive against anything related to sexuality or morality.\"", "The Vatican City's newspaper ''L'Osservatore Romano'' for example, critiqued the circulation of films like ''Bride of Frankenstein'' (1935) in 1940.As Italian neorealism had monopolized Italian cinema in the 1940s, and as the average Italian standard for living increased, Italian critic and historian Gian Piero Brunetta stated that it would \"appear legitimate to start exploring the fantastic.\"", "Italian film historian Goffredo Fofi echoed these statements, stating in 1963 that \"ghosts, monsters and the taste for the horrible appears when a society that became wealthy and evolves by industrializing, and are accompanied by a state of well-being which began to exist and expand in Italy only since a few years\" Initially, this was a rise in ''peplum'' films after the release of ''Hercules'' (1958).", "Italy started moving beyond peplums making Westerns and horror films which were less expensive to produce than the previous sword-and-sandal films.Italy's initial wave of horror films were gothic horror were rooted in popular cinema, and were often co-productions with other countries.", "Curti described the initial wave of the 1960s Italian gothic horror allowed directors like Mario Bava, Riccardo Freda and Antonio Margheriti to helm what Curti described as \"some of their very best works.\"", "Bava's ''Black Sunday'' (1960) was particularly influential.", "Many productions of this era were often written in a hurry, sometimes developed during filming production by production companies that often did not last very long, sometimes for only one film production.", "After 1966, the gothic cycle ended, primarily through a broader crisis that effected the Italian film industry with its audience rapidly shrinking.", "Some gothics continued to be produced into the beginning of the 1970s, while the influence of the genre was felt in other Italian genres like the Spaghetti Western.The term ''giallo'', which means \"yellow\" in Italian, is derived from ''Il Giallo Mondadori'', a long-running series of mystery and crime novels identifiable by their distinctive uniform yellow covers, and is used in Italy to describe all mystery and thriller fiction.", "English-language critics use the term to describe more specific films within the genre, involving a murder mystery that revels in the details of the murder rather than the deduction of it or police procedural elements.", "Tim Lucas deemed early films in the genre such as Bava's ''The Girl Who Knew Too Much'' (1963) while Curti described ''Blood and Black Lace'' (1964) as predominantly a series of violent, erotically charged set pieces that are \"increasingly elaborate and spectacular\" in their construction, and that Bava pushed these elements to the extreme which would solidify the genre.", "It was not until the success of Dario Argento's 1970 film ''The Bird with the Crystal Plumage'' that the ''giallo'' genre started a major trend in Italian cinema.Other smaller trends permutated in Italy in the 1970s such as films involving cannibals, zombies and Nazis which Newman described as \"disreputable crazes\".", "In Italy entered the 1980s, the Italian film industry would gradually move towards making films for television.", "The decade started with a high-budgeted production of Argento's ''Inferno'' (1980) and with the death of Mario Bava, Fulci became what historian Roberto Curti called \"Italy's most prominent horror film director in the early 1980s\".", "Several zombie films were made in the country in the early 80s from Fulci and others while Argento would continue directing and producing films for others such as Lamberto Bava.", "As Fulci's health deteriorated towards the end of the decade, many directors turned to making horror films for Joe D'Amato's Filmirage company, independent films or works for television and home video.====Spain====The highest point of production of Spanish horror films took place during late Francoism, between 1968 and 1975, a period associated to the so-called Fantaterror, the local expression of Euro Horror, identifiable for its \"disproportionate doses of sex and violence\".", "During this period, several Spanish filmmakers appeared with unique styles and themes such as Jesús Franco's ''The Awful Dr. Orloff'' (1962), first internationally successful horror and exploitation film production from Spain.", "Dr. Orloff would appears in other films of Franco's during the period.", "Paul Naschy, the actor and screenwriter., and Amando de Ossorio with his zombie like medieval knights in ''Tombs of the Blind Dead'' (1972).", "These directors adapted established monsters from popular films, comics and pulp fiction and imbuing them with what Lazaro-Reboll described as \"certain local flavour and relevance.\"", "A partial overview of films from this era focused on classic monsters (''Frankenstein's Bloody Terror'' (1968), ''Dr.", "Jekyll y el Hombre Lobo'' (1972)) and films that grew from trends created by ''Night of the Living Dead'' and ''The Exorcist'' (''The Living Dead at the Manchester Morgue'' (1974), ''Exorcismo'' (1975)).", "Most films of the period were low-budget films with short shooting schedules, while occasional films had respectable budgets such as ''99 Women'' (1969) and others that had art house directors attempt commercial production such as Vicente Aranda's ''The Blood Spattered Bride'' and Jorge Grau's ''Bloody Ceremony'' (1973) Antonio Lazaro-Reboll wrote in 2012 that in the last forty years, the horror film has formed as a significant part of Spain's local transnational filmic production, that created its own ''auteurs'', stars and cycles.", "For decades, it was described by Beck and Rodríguez-Ortega in ''Contemporary Spanish Cinema and Genre'' that the view of the genre has been \"almost exclusively been constructed negatively\" and that the rise in horror film productions in the late 1960s and 1970s in Spain was \"reviled by contemporary critics, film historians and scholars\".", "In his 1974 book ''Cine español, cine de subgéneros'', author Román Gurbern saw contemporary Spanish horror films as \"derivative of Authentic American and European traditions\" that will \"never make it into the histories of Spanish cinema, unless it is dealt with in a succinct footnote.", "\"Film production decreased dramatically in the late 1970s and 1980s for several reasons, including the boom in historical and political films in Spain during early year of democracy.", "The film legislation implemented by general director of cinematography Pilar Miró in 1983 introduced a selective subvention system, causing the overall number of annually made films (including horror films) to shrink, thereby dealing a heavy blow to horror industry and the Fantaterror craze.", "In addition, there were changing habits on audiences and the visual material they sought.", "It was not until the late 1990s and the 2000s that Spanish horror reached another production peak.After the success of private television operator Canal+ from the 1990s onward investing in the production of films by the likes of Álex de la Iglesia (''The Day of the Beast''; 1995) or Alejandro Amenábar (''Tesis''; 1996 and ''The Others''; 2001) through Sogecine, other television companies such as Antena 3 and Telecinco (through Telecinco Cinema) came to see horror as a profitable niche, and the genre thereby became a successful formula for box-office hits in the 2000s, underpinning the wider switch in the industry from the largely State-dependent model of the 1980s to the hegemony of mass media holdings in domestic film production.", "Jaume Balagueró's ''The Nameless'' (1999), which became a popular film both in Spain and abroad, paved the way for new Spanish horror films.", "Filmax tried to capitalise on the success of the former film by creating the Fantastic Factory genre label and eventually came to develop one of the most successful Spanish film franchises with the ''Rec'' film series.", "The success of Juan Antonio Bayona's ''The Orphanage'' (2007) ensued with the release of ersatz gothic films featuring creepy children.", "Other key names for the development of the genre in the 21st-century Spanish industry include Juan Carlos Fresnadillo and Paco Plaza.==== United Kingdom ======= Americas ======= Mexico ====After the 1931 release of a US-produced Spanish-language version of ''Dracula'' by George Melford for the Latin-American market employing Mexican actors, Mexican horror films were produced throughout the 1930s and 1940s, often reflecting on the overarching theme of science vs. religion conflict.", "Ushered by the release of ''El vampiro'', the Mexploitation horror film era started in 1957, with films characterised by their low production values and camp appeal, often featuring vampires, wrestlers, and Aztec mummies.", "A key figure in the Mexican horror scene (particularly in Germán Robles-starred vampire films) was producer Abel Salazar.", "The late 1960s saw the advent of the prominence of Carlos Enrique Taboada as an standout Mexican horror filmmaker, with films such as ''Hasta el viento tiene miedo'' (1967), ''El libro de piedra'' (1968), ''Más negro que la noche'' (1975) or ''Veneno para las hadas'' (1984).", "Mexican horror cinema has been noted for the mashup of classic gothic and romantic themes and characters with autochthonous features of the Mexican culture such as the Ranchería setting, the colonial past or the myth of La Llorona (shared with other Hispanic-American nations).Horror has proven to be a dependable genre at the Mexican box office in the 21st-century, with Mexico ranking as having the world's largest relative popularity of the genre among viewers (ahead of South Korea), according to a 2016 research." ], [ "Effects on audiences", "=== Psychological effects ===In a study done by Uri Hasson et al., brain waves were observed via functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).", "This study used the inter-subject correlation analysis (ISC) method of determining results.", "It was shown that audience members tend to focus on certain facets in a particular scene simultaneously and tend to sit as still as possible while watching horror films.In another study done by John Greene & Glenn Sparks, it was found that the audience tends to experience the excitation transfer process (ETP) which causes a physiological arousal in audience members.", "The ETP refers to the feelings experienced immediately after an emotion-arousing experience, such as watching a horror film.", "In this case, audience members' heart rate, blood pressure and respiration all increased while watching films with violence.", "Audience members with positive feedback regarding the horror film have feelings similar to happiness or joy felt with friends, but intensified.", "Alternatively, audience members with negative feedback regarding the film would typically feel emotions they would normally associate with negative experiences in their life.Only about 10% of the American population enjoy the physiological rush felt immediately after watching horror films.", "The population that does not enjoy horror films could experience emotional fallout similar to that of PTSD if the environment reminds them of particular scenes.A 2021 study suggested horror films that explore grief can provide psychological benefits to the bereaved, with the genre well suited to representing grief through its genre conventions.=== Physical effects ===In a study by Medes et al., prolonged exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noise (<500 Hz) in long durations has an effect on vocal range (i.e.", "longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range).", "Another study by Baliatsas et al.", "observed that there is a correlation between exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noises and sleep-related problems.", "Though most horror films keep the audio around 20–30 Hz, the noise can still be unsettling in long durations.Another technique used in horror films to provoke a response from the audience is cognitive dissonance, which is when someone experiences tension in themselves and is urged to relieve that tension.", "Dissonance is the clashing of unpleasant or harsh sounds.", "A study by Prete et al.", "identified that the ability to recognize dissonance relied on the left hemisphere of the brain, while consonance relied on the right half.", "There is a stronger preference for consonance; this difference is noticeable even in early stages of life.", "Previous musical experience also can influence a dislike for dissonance.Skin conductance responses (SCRs), heart rate (HR), and electromyographic (EMG) responses vary in response to emotional stimuli, showing higher for negative emotions in what is known as the \"negative bias.\"", "When applied to dissonant music, HR decreases (as a bodily form of adaptation to harsh stimulation), SCR increases, and EMG responses in the face are higher.", "The typical reactions go through a two-step process of first orienting to the problem (the slowing of HR), then a defensive process (a stronger increase in SCR and an increase in HR).", "This initial response can sometimes result in a fight-or-flight response, which is the characteristic of dissonance that horror films rely on to frighten and unsettle viewers." ], [ "Reception", "=== In film criticism ===Critic Robin Wood was not the first film critic to take the horror film seriously, but his article ''Return of the Repressed'' in 1978 helped inaugurate the horror film into academic study as a genre.", "Wood later stated that he was surprised that his work, as well as the writing of Richard Lippe and Andrew Britton would receive \"historic importance\" intellectual views of the film genre.", "William Paul in his book ''Laughing Screaming'' comments that \"the negative definition of the lower works would have it that they are less subtle than higher genres.", "More positively, it could be said that they are more direct.", "Where lower forms are explicit, higher forms tend to operate more by indirection.", "Because of this indirection the higher forms are often regarded as being more metaphorical, and consequently more resonant, more open to the exegetical analyses of the academic industry.", "\"Steffen Hantke noted that academic criticism about horror cinema had \"always operated under duress\" noting that challenges in legitimizing its subject, finding \"career-minded academics might have always suspected that they were studying something that was ultimately too frivolous, garish, and sensationalistic to warrant serious critical attention\".Some commentary has suggested that horror films have been underrepresented or underappreciated as serious works worthy of film criticism and major films awards.", "As of 2021, only six horror films have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, with ''The Silence of the Lambs'' being the sole winner.", "However, horror films have still won major awards.Critics have also commented on the representation of women and disability in horror films, as well as the prevalence of racial stereotypes.=== Censorship ===Many horror films have been the subject of moral panic, censorship and legal controversy.In the United Kingdom, film censorship has frequently been applied to horror films.", "A moral panic over several slasher films in the 1980s led to many of them being banned but released on videotape; the phenomenon became popularly termed \"video nasties\".", "Constraints on permitted subject matter in Indonesian films has also influenced Indonesian horror films.", "In March 2008, China banned all horror films from its market.In the U.S., the Motion Picture Production Code which was implemented in 1930, set moral guidelines for film content, restraining movies containing controversial themes, graphic violence, explicit sexuality and/or nudity.", "The gradual abandonment of the Code, and its eventual formal repeal in 1968 (when it was replaced by the MPAA film rating system) offered more freedom to the movie industry." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Dixon, Wheeler Winston.", "''A History of Horror''.", "(Rutgers University Press; 2010), .", "* Steffen Hantke, ed.", "''American Horror Film: The Genre at the Turn of the Millennium'' (University Press of Mississippi; 2010), 253 pages.", "* Petridis, Sotiris (2014). \"", "A Historical Approach to the Slasher Film\".", "Film International 12 (1): 76–84." ], [ "External links", "* Horror genre on IMDb" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "House of Pain" ], [ "Introduction", "'''House of Pain''' was an American hip hop trio that released three albums in the 1990s.", "The group consisted of DJ Lethal, Danny Boy, and Everlast.", "The group's 1992 hit single \"Jump Around\" reached number 3 in their native United States of America, number 6 in Ireland and number 8 in the United Kingdom.", "The group broke up in 1996.Lead rapper Everlast went on to pursue a solo career as a blues rock artist and member of the supergroup La Coka Nostra which also featured DJ Lethal.", "DJ Lethal would later join and find commercial success with the nu metal band Limp Bizkit.", "House of Pain reunited briefly in 2010 for a world tour.The group's name is a reference to the H. G. Wells novel ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'', a reference carried further by the naming of their 2011 tour ''He Who Breaks the Law''." ], [ "Band history", "===1990–1992: Formation and breakthrough===In 1990, Daniel O'Connor (Danny Boy O'Connor) got together with fellow rapper Erik Schrody (Everlast) who had just released a rap album called ''Forever Everlasting'' (1990), that didn't have much success.", "O'Connor knew Schrody when he went to William Howard Taft High School in Woodland Hills, California (1984–1986), and various hip hop events they attended in their teens.", "Both of Irish American descent, they decided to make a hip hop group with this identity.", "While hanging out at O'Connor's home, Schrody noticed a cassette with the title ''House of Pain'', which was a demo of a Punk group O'Connor tried to put together.", "Schrody really liked the name and felt they should re-use as their name.", "Schrody brought in his former DJ Leor Dimant (DJ Lethal), who is of Latvian descent, and House of Pain was created.", "Schrody would become the lead rapper, while O'Connor acted as the hype man, second emcee, art director and the graphic artist of the group.", "After they recorded a demo, for which O'Connor designed the cover, that created a bidding war among labels.", "The label they chose was Tommy Boy Records, who credited O'Connor's art work with having initially caught their attention.In 1992, they released their debut album ''House of Pain'', subtitled ''Fine Malt Lyrics.''", "Their first single \"Jump Around\" was a major hit.", "In the United States, it peaked at number 3 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, while reaching number 5 on the Hot Rap Songs, 13 on Rhythmic Top 40, 1 on Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales, number 17 on the ''Billboard'' Dance Club Songs, and is certified platinum.", "The song was produced by Lawrence Muggerud (DJ Muggs) and performed by Schrody.", "Both Muggerud and Schrody knew each other since Rhyme Syndicate.", "Muggerud who had a beat he had submitted to various artist, eventually invited Schrody to give it a try.", "Schrody wrote lyrics in his driveway and being influenced by dance hall singer Shabba Ranks part of the lyrics were “Jump around, if you love freedom.", "Jump around, if you love culture”, which Muggerud suggested they trim down to \"Jump Around\".", "While re-working his lyrics, Muggerud came up with the iconic horn that accompany the song.", "Their second single \"Shamrocks and Shenanigans (Boom Shalock Lock Boom)\" peaked at 65 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, 75 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, 14 on the Dance Club Songs, and 74 on Radio Songs.", "The album peaked at 14 on the ''Billboard'' 200, 14 on the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top Current Albums, 16 on the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, 14 on the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top Album Sales, and is certified platinum.=== 1993–1996: Subsequent success and group's breakup ===In 1993, they were among the rap artists who had cameo roles in Ted Demme's film ''Who's the Man?''.", "For this project they provided a theme song by the same name, which was also used as a single for the soundtrack and their subsequent album.", "It rose to number 97 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, 77 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks, and 10 on the US ''Billboard'' Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales.", "Also that year, they participated together with Helmet, along with several other rap acts, on the 1993 rap rock collaborative ''Judgment Night'' film soundtrack.In 1994, they released ''Same as It Ever Was''.", "The album peaked at 12 equally on the ''Billboard'' 200, the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top Current Albums, the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top Album Sales, and is certified gold.", "''AllMusic'' gave it four out five stars.", "Matt Carlson of ''The Michigan Daily'' found the album quite good and noted \"the music is laid back with some heavy driving forces underlying and strengthening it\".", "J.D.", "Constantine of ''The Baltimore Sun'' did not like album and found it monotonous and unimaginative.", "Roger Catlin of the ''Hartford Courant'' said that while finding the continuity monotonous it's \"hard and compelling\" as well as a \"strong outing\".", "Andrew Love of ''The Ocala Star-Banner'' gave it four stars saying \"this is a band that has definitely progressed over the course of one album\".", "Music critic Robert Christgau, who did not like their previous and subsequent album, gave it an A− and described it as \"the hardest hip hop of the year\".In 1996, they released ''Truth Crushed to Earth Shall Rise Again''.", "The album peaked at 47 on the ''Billboard'' 200, 47 on the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top Current Albums, 31 on the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, and 47 on the U.S. ''Billboard'' Top Album Sales.", "At the release party, Schrody decided to disband the group.", "Sputnikmusic wrote that \"the trio’s most rounded, consistent & memorable LP is grossly under-appreciated.\"", "Dave Ferman of the ''Fort Worth Star-Telegram'' gave it one star and a half, calling it a \"woeful mess\".", "Steve Juon of ''RapReviews'' gave it a seven out of ten.", "''AllMusic'' music gave it two point five stars out of five.=== 1997–present day: solo projects and reunions ===From then on, the members continued their separate careers.", "Schrody achieved multi-platinum solo fame in 1998 with his album ''Whitey Ford Sings the Blues,'' where he developed a style that blended rap with acoustic guitar, as well as singing.Dimant became the DJ of multi-platinum nu metal band Limp Bizkit.O'Connor, did some freelance work designing clothes, and was involved in several music projects.In late 2004, the creation of the rap supergroup La Coka Nostra started when O'Connor was mentoring young artists.", "He took notice of two up and comers which included George Carroll (Slaine) and brought them to meet his former DJ from House of Pain, Leor Dimant, who at the time was working on a compilation album and championing a new artist as well.", "They decided to make a group and asked O'Connor to become a member as a hype man and art director.", "After accepting, O'Connor felt that there was a void and asked experienced rapper William Braunstein (Ill Bill) to join.", "The group's name came about, when O'Connor teased Carroll and Braunstein with that nickname, after they both had a night out.", "The group started releasing music on MySpace, and went viral.", "Eventually, O'Connor received a letter from former House of Pain colleague Erik Schrody, who asked if he could join.", "By 2006, the group consisted of O'Connor, Carroll, Dimant, Braunstein, and Schrody.In 2009, La Coka Nostra released ''A Brand You Can Trust'' was released on July 14, 2009, on Suburban Noize Records.", "It sold over 500,000 units.", "''AllMusic'' gave four out of five stars.", "Andrew Kameka of ''HipHopDX'' wrote that \"the album is a mostly solid effort and exactly what someone would expect from a supergroup of like-minded members known for high-energy music\".", "Adam Kennedy of the ''BBC'' while praising some the moments of the album said \"it’s a tantalising parting taste of potential capabilities, yet until they improve a customer satisfaction hit rate that barely troubles one in three tunes here\".", "Steve Juon of ''RapReviews'' gave it a seven out of ten.", "''Sputnikmusic'' described it as \"a disjointed effort, but still pretty decent in and of itself and gave it three point five out of five.", "Thomas Quinlan of ''Exclaim!''", "said \"La Coka Nostra are an interesting collection of collaborators that live up to the hype\".On March 2, 2012, it was announced that Schrody would be leaving La Coka Nostra due to his daughter's medical issues, while O'Connor and Dimant pursued two more project with the group ''Masters of the Dark Arts'' (2012) and ''To Thine Own Self Be True'' (2016).House of Pain reunited at a private event held by UFC president Dana White in Boston on St. Patrick's Day 2009.It was officially announced on August 10, 2010, that House of Pain had reunited and performed their first \"official\" show in a decade at the second annual Epicenter music festival in Fontana, California, on September 25, 2010.Though Dimant is still a member of the group, he did not join them on their 2011 reunion tour due to prior obligations with Limp Bizkit.", "In April–May 2011 House of Pain attended the Groovin' the Moo touring festival in Australia, and also performed at Scotland's T in the Park festival on July 9, 2011, as well as Sonisphere UK Festival on July 12 of the same year.House of Pain reunited in 2017 for a 25th Anniversary Tour.", "The tour included shows in DC, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, and California.Between reunions and projects together, Schrody continues with his solo career, while Dimant still works with Limp Bizkit, and in 2019 O'Connor opened The Outsiders House Museum dedicated to both the novel and the film ''The Outsiders''." ], [ "Discography", "*''House of Pain'' (1992)*''Same as It Ever Was'' (1994)*''Truth Crushed to Earth Shall Rise Again'' (1996)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**** House Of Pain/La Coka Nostra discography" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Haakon VII (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Haakon VII''' (1872–1957) was King of Norway from 1905 to 1957.", "'''Haakon VII''' or '''King Haakon VII''' or ''variation'', may also refer to:" ], [ "Ships", "* HNoMS ''King Haakon VII'', a Royal Norwegian Navy escort ship in commission from 1942 to 1951* HNoMS ''Haakon VII'' (A537), a Royal Norwegian Navy training ship in commission from 1958 to 1974" ], [ "Places", "===Norway===* Haakon VII Land, Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway* Haakon VII street, Trondheim, Norway* Haakon VII Toppen (Haakon VII Peak), a peak on Beerenberg, Jan Mayan, Norway===Antarctica===* King Haakon VII Vidde (Haakon VII Plateau), a plateau in Antarctica* King Haakon VII Sea, East Antarctica, Southern Ocean<!--" ], [ "Other uses", "-->" ], [ "See also", "* * Haakon (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Head of state" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''head of state''' (or '''chief of state''') is the public persona of a sovereign state.", "The specific naming of the head of state depends on the country's form of government and separation of powers, the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more.In a parliamentary system, such as India or the United Kingdom, the head of state usually has mostly ceremonial powers, with a separate head of government.", "However, in some parliamentary systems, like South Africa, there is an executive president that is both head of state and head of government.", "Likewise, in some parliamentary systems the head of state is not the head of government, but still has significant powers, for example Morocco.", "In contrast, a semi-presidential system, such as France, has both heads of state and government as the ''de facto'' leaders of the nation (in practice they divide the leadership of the nation between themselves).", "Meanwhile, in presidential systems, the head of state is also the head of government.", "In one-party ruling communist states, the position of president has no tangible powers by itself, however, since such a head of state, as a matter of custom, simultaneously holds the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party, they are the executive leader with their powers deriving from their status of being the party leader, rather than the office of president.Former French president Charles de Gaulle, while developing the current Constitution of France (1958), said that the head of state should embody '''' (\"the spirit of the nation\")." ], [ "Constitutional models", "Grassalkovich Palace in Bratislava is the seat of the President of Slovakia.Some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of \"models\".An independent nation state normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions.", "In terms of protocol: the head of a sovereign, independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning monarch, in the case of a monarchy; or the president, in the case of a republic.Among the state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:# The parliamentary system, with two subset models;## The ''standard model'', in which the head of state, in theory, possesses key executive powers, but such power is exercised on the binding advice of a head of government (e.g.", "United Kingdom, India, Germany).## The ''non-executive model'', in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role (e.g.", "Sweden, Japan, Israel).# The semi-presidential system, in which the head of state shares key executive powers with a head of government or cabinet (e.g.", "Russia, France, Sri Lanka); and# The presidential system, in which the head of state is also the head of government and has all executive powers (e.g.", "United States, Indonesia, South Korea).In a federal constituent or a dependent territory, the same role is fulfilled by the holder of an office corresponding to that of a head of state.", "For example, in each Canadian province the role is fulfilled by the lieutenant governor, whereas in most British Overseas Territories the powers and duties are performed by the governor.", "The same applies to Australian states, Indian states, etc.", "Hong Kong's constitutional document, the Basic Law, for example, specifies the chief executive as the head of the special administrative region, in addition to their role as the head of government.", "These non-sovereign-state heads, nevertheless, have limited or no role in diplomatic affairs, depending on the status and the norms and practices of the territories concerned.===Parliamentary system===World's parliamentary states (as of ):====Standard model====In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power.", "In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet, presided over by a head of government who is answerable to the legislature.", "This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition – a subtle but important difference).", "It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution.", "The executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to the head of state.King Harald V of NorwayIn parliamentary '''constitutional monarchies''', the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives.", "Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III); likewise, Edward VIII's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch.", "In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is created under the constitution and could be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment.", "In many cases there are significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain).In '''republics''' with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel), the head of state is usually titled ''president'' and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system.", "The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices.", "Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and then the Kingdom of Italy, the ''Statuto Albertino''—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law.", "So, Italy had a parliamentary system, but a \"presidential\" system.Examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King Leopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government.", "Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium.", "(Leopold's decision proved highly controversial.", "After World War II, Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him to resume his monarchical powers and duties, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.)", "The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as \"unable to reign\" for twenty-four hours.====Non-executive model====These officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government.", "Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of ''His/Her Majesty's Government'' or ''His/Her Excellency's Government''.", "Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.The was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system.", "The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69).", "The emperor is defined in the constitution as \"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people\" (article 1), and is generally recognised throughout the world as the Japanese head of state.", "Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate \"as designated by the Diet\", without any right to decline appointment.", "He is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.Since the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government.", "Today, the speaker of the Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag) the prime minister and terminates their commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation.", "Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister.", "Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing \"On Behalf of the Government\" and the government—not the monarch—is the high contracting party with respect to international treaties.", "The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.In contrast, the only contact the president of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president.", "However, the president has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach.", "The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.The most extreme non-executive republican head of state is the President of Israel, which holds no reserve powers whatsoever.", "The least ceremonial powers held by the president are to provide a mandate to attempt to form a government, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by the prime minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.====Executive model====Some parliamentary republics (like South Africa, Botswana and Kiribati) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system).", "While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.===Semi-presidential systems===Charles de Gaulle, President and head of state of the French Fifth Republic (1959–1969)Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably (in the president-parliamentary subtype) a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature.", "The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly.", "Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation.", "President François Mitterrand, a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988.In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system.", "Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the Reichstag, which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag.", "Initially, the president was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes.", "By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German president, Paul von Hindenburg, was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not.", "Subsequently, President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.===Presidential system===George Washington, the first president of the United States, set the precedent for an executive head of state in republican systems of government''Note: The head of state in a \"presidential\" system may not actually hold the title of \"president\" - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office.", "''Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature.", "This system is known as a \"presidential system\" and sometimes called the \"imperial model\", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature.", "It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America).", "In this case the debate centers on confirming them into office, not removing them from office, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members ''en bloc'', so accountability does not operate in the same sense understood as a parliamentary system.Presidential systems are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, including those of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico and Venezuela; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century.", "Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or ''coup d'état'', as often seen in Latin American, Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes.", "Some of the characteristics of a presidential system, such as a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature can also be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g., Communist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.===Single-party states===In certain states under Marxist–Leninist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics, real political power belonged to the sole legal party.", "In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person.", "In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles as ''Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR''; ''Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet''; and in the case of the Soviet Russia ''Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets'' (pre-1922), and ''Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR'' (1956–1966).", "This position may or may not have been held by the de facto Soviet leader at the moment.", "For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government).This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea, where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il Sung, the office was vacant for years.", "The late president was granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of ''\"Eternal President\"''.", "All substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il.", "The post of president was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared \"the highest post of the state\", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China.In China, under the current country's constitution, the Chinese President is a largely ceremonial office with limited power.", "However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the top leader in the one party system.", "The presidency is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the President serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress, the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative.===Complications with categorisation===George V, Emperor of India, and Empress Mary at the Delhi Durbar, 1911.While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to.", "In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.Constitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince, constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet.", "It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category.", "Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model.Another complication exists with South Africa, in which the president is in fact elected by the National Assembly (legislature) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognised as the head of state.", "The offices of president of Nauru and president of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency.Panama, during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega, was nominally a presidential republic.", "However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces.Historically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920–1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through the Viceroy and Governor-General of India." ], [ "Roles", "Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state.", "A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance.", "There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after.", "This may be the swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch.===Symbolic role===One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state.", "For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the \"personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians\".In many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, or other public buildings.", "The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times.", "Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag.Other common representations are on coins, postage and other stamps and banknotes, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state.", "In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective \"royal\" on demand based on existence for a given number of years.", "However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.Heads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state.", "They assume a host role during a state visit, and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band, inspection of military troops, official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host.At home, heads of state are expected to render lustre to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations, dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon, groundbreaking, ship christening, laying the first stone.", "Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.The Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse, a head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offence) just a military officer or civil servant.For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government).", "This means that the government discreetly approves agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.", "*''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Section 56 (1) of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 states:**''The King is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence.", "He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy):'' Article 2 of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 states:**''(1) The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.", "''**''(2) The Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand.", "''*''Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy):'' Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan states:**''The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.", "''*''Example 4 (parliamentary republic):'' Title II, Article 87 of the Constitution of Italy states:**''The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and represents national unity.", "''*''Example 5 (parliamentary republic):'' Article 67 of the Iraqi constitution of 2005 states:**''The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country.", "He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.", "''*''Example 6 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of the Constitution of Portugal states:**''The President of the Republic represents the Portuguese Republic, guarantees national independence, the unity of the state and the proper operation of the democratic institutions, and is ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.", "''*''Example 7 (presidential republic):'' Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:**''(1)The President shall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states.", "''**''(2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution.", "''*''Example 8 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter VI, Article 77 of the Constitution of Lithuania states:**''The President of the Republic shall be Head of State.", "''**''He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws.", "''*''Example 9 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of the Constitution of Russia states:**''1.The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Head of State.", "''**''2.The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms.", "In accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.", "''*''Example 10 (presidential republic):'' Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of the Constitution of Argentina provides that:**''The Executive Power of the Nation shall be vested in a citizen with the title of \"President of the Argentine Nation\".", "''===Executive role===In the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state.", "In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer.", "Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers.", "This produces such terms as \"Her Majesty's Government\" and \"His Excellency's Government.\"", "Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, India, Italy, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom.", "*''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953:**''Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy):'' Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900:**''The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.", "''*''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece:**''The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government.", "''*''Example 4 (parliamentary republic):'' According to Article 53 (1) of the Constitution of India:**''The executive power of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.", "''*''Example 5 (semi-presidential republic):'' Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the Constitution of Russia:**''The President of the Russian Federation shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.", "''*''Example 6 (presidential republic):'' Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the Constitution of Brazil:**''The Executive Power is exercised by the President of the Republic, assisted by the Ministers of State.", "''*''Example 7 (presidential republic):'' Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states:**''The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.", "''The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Japan and Sweden.====Appointment of senior officials====The head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service, foreign service and commissioned officers in the military.", "In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.In practice, these decisions are often a formality.", "The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the Senate has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.The head of state may also dismiss office-holders.", "There are many variants on how this can be done.", "For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the president on the advice of the taoiseach; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.", "In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority.", "In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion.", "In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the heads of the executive departments to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.", "*''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 96 of the Constitution of Belgium:**''The King appoints and dismisses his ministers.The Federal Government offers its resignation to the King if the House of Representatives, by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence.", "The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic):'' Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland:**''The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann, appoint the Taoiseach.", "''*''Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:**''The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.", "''*''Example 4 (presidential republic):'' Article 84 of the Constitution of Brazil:**''The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to:'' ***''I - appoint and dismiss the Ministers of State:''***''XIII -...appoint the commanders of Navy, Army and Air Force, to promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them;''***''XIV - appoint, after approval by the Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Federal Court and those of the superior courts, the Governors of the territories, the Attorney-General of the Republic, the President and the Directors of the Central Bank and other civil servants, when established by law;''***''XV - appoint, with due regard for the provisions of article 73, the Justices of the Federal Court of Accounts;''***''XVI - appoint judges in the events established by this Constitution and the Advocate-General of the Union;''***''XVII - appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII''***''XXV - fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law''.Some countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: In Sweden, under the Instrument of Government of 1974, the Speaker of the Riksdag has the role of formally appointing the prime minister, following a vote in the Riksdag, and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.====Diplomatic role====Tekiso Hati, ambassador of the Kingdom of Lesotho, presenting his credentials to Russian president Vladimir PutinDaniel B. Shapiro, U.S. ambassador to Israel, presents his credentials to Israeli president Shimon Peres on 3 August 2011A 1992 Letter of Credence, written in French, for the Czechoslovakian Ambassador to Lithuania, signed by the President of Czechoslovakia and addressed to his Lithuanian counterpartAlthough many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognised as such by other countries.", "In a monarchy, the monarch is generally understood to be the head of state.The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e.", "ambassador or nuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.", "The head of state accredits (i.e.", "formally validates) their country's ambassadors (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as high commissioner or papal nuncio) through sending formal a Letter of Credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.", "Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status.", "The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2017) 191 sovereign states has ratified.However, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a chargé d'affaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or equivalent).The head of state is often designated the high contracting party in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, may rest with the legislature.", "The treaties constituting the European Union and the European Communities are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.", "However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g., between the ''Government of X and the Government of Y'', rather than between ''His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y''.", "*''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 8 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein states:**''1) The Reigning Prince shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible Government.", "''**''2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of Parliament to attain legal force.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary republic):'' Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states:**''The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations.", "He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation.", "He shall accredit and receive envoys.''.", "*''Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 14 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:**''The President of the Republic shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.", "''*''Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the Constitution of Russia states:**''The President of the Russian Federation:''***''a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;''***''b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;''***''c) shall sign instruments of ratification;''***''d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.", "''*''Example 5 (single party republic):'' Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states:**''The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.", "''In Canada, these head of state powers belong to the monarch as part of the royal prerogative, but the Governor General has been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.====Military role====Albert II, King of the Belgians inspecting troops on Belgium's national day in 2011Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France and General Jean-Louis Georgelin, Chief of the Defence Staff, reviewing troops during the 2008 Bastille Day military parade on the Champs-Élysées in ParisA head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of that nation's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command.In a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may de jure hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the de facto ultimate decision making on military manoeuvres is made elsewhere.", "The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a royal family may also appear in military garb.", "This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.In military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups d'état, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond the normal constitutional role, as King Albert I of Belgium did during World War I.", "In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often executive ministers whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.", "*''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:**''The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 25 of the Constitution of Norway states:**''The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm.", "These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the Storting.", "They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting.", "''**''The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.", "''*''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' Chapter II, Article 87, 4th section of the Constitution of Italy states:**''The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy.", "''*''Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 15 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:**''The President of the Republic shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.", "He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees.", "''*''Example 5 (semi-presidential republic):'' According to Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1 of the Constitution of Russia:**''The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.", "''*''Example 6 (presidential republic):'' Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states:**''The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.", "''*''Example 7 (executive monarchy):'' Article 65 of the Constitution of Qatar provides that:**''The Emir is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.", "He shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority.", "The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.", "''Some countries with a parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers.", "* In Germany, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic vests this authority in the Minister of Defence in normal peacetime (article 65a), and that command authority is transferred to the federal chancellor when a State of Defence is invoked (article 115b): something which has never happened so far.", "* In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel as a collective body.", "The authority of the Government is exercised by the minister of defence on behalf of the Government, and subordinate to the minister is the chief of general staff who holds the highest level of command within the military.The armed forces of the Communist states are under the absolute control of the Communist party.", "* In China, the command-in-chief of the People's Liberation Army is the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, but not the President of China, however, in practice, these offices are held by the same person, who is also General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party.===Legislative roles===It is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g.", "the annual State Opening of Parliament with the Speech from the Throne in Britain.", "Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g.", "the State of the Union address in the United States of America, or the State of the Nation Address in South Africa.Most countries require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state.", "In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature.", "However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures.", "The signing of a bill into law is formally known as ''promulgation''.", "Some monarchical states call this procedure ''royal assent''.", "*''Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy):'' Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Swedish ''Riksdag Act'' provides that:**''The formal opening of a Riksdag session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session.", "At this meeting, the Head of State declares the session open at the invitation of the Speaker.", "If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 9 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein provides that:**''Every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force.", "''*''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' Section 11.a.1.of the Basic Laws of Israel states:**''The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.", "''*''Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):'' According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:**''The President of the Russian Federation:''***''a) shall announce elections to the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;''***''c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;''***''d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;''***''e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;''***''f) shall address the Federal Assembly with annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.", "''*''Example 5 (presidential republic):'' Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states:**''Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approves he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated... ''*''Example 6 (presidential republic):'' Article 84 of the Brazilian Constitution provides that:**''The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to:'' ***''III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;''***''IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;''***''V - veto bills, wholly or in part;''***''XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the National Congress, describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary;'' ***''XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution;'' ***''XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session''.", "*''Example 7 (ruling monarchy):'' Article 106 of the Constitution of Qatar states:**''1.Any draft law passed by the Council shall be referred to the Emir for ratification.", "''**''2.If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.", "''**''3.In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it.", "The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country.", "If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.", "''In some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain discretionary powers in relation to bills to be exercised.", "They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with royal prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a referendum.If the head of state also serves as the chief executive, the head of state can politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.===Summoning and dissolving the legislature===A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature.", "In most parliamentary systems, this is often done on the advice of the head of government.", "In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative.", "Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g., Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution).", "In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances.", "Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.", "*''Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic):'' Article 13.2.2.of the Constitution of Ireland states:**''The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann.", "''*''Example 2 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 12, first sentence of the French Constitution of 1958 states:**''The President of the Republic may, after consulting the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament, declare the National Assembly dissolved.", "''*''Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):'' Chapter 4, article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation provides:**''The President of the Russian Federation:''***''b) shall dissolve the State Duma in the cases and in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation;''===Other prerogatives=======Granting titles and honours====*''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 113 of the Constitution of Belgium states:**''The King may confer titles of nobility, without ever having the power to attach privileges to them.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 23 of the Constitution of Norway states:**''The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office.", "The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State.", "Senior officials honourably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office.", "This does not apply, however, to Members of the Council of State or the State Secretaries.No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.", "''*''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' Title II, Article 87, 8th section of the Constitution of Italy states:**''The President shall confer the honorary distinctions of the Republic.", "''====Immunity====*''Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy):'' Chapter 5, Article 8 of the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974 states:**''The King or Queen who is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions.", "Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Article 5 of the Constitution of Norway states:**''The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused.", "The responsibility rests with his Council.", "''*''Example 3 (parliamentary republic):'' Chapter 3, Article 65 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic states:**''(1) President of the Republic may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offence or other administrative delict.", "''**''(2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the Constitutional Court based on the Senate's suit.", "The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it.", "''**''(3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offences committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever.", "''*''Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of the Constitution of Portugal states:**''1.The President of the Republic answers before the Supreme Court of Justice for crimes committed in the exercise of his functions.", "''**''2.Proceedings may only be initiated by the Assembly of the Republic, upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office.", "''**''3.Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election.", "''**''4.For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended.", "''*''Example 5 (executive monarchy):'' Article 64 of the Constitution of Qatar:**''The Emir is the head of State.", "His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.", "''====Reserve powers====*''Example 1 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 16 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:**''Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the Prime Minister, the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council.He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties.", "The Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.Parliament shall sit as of right.The National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the President of the National Assembly, the President of the Senate, sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty Senators, so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply.", "The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible.", "It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.", "''*''Example 2 (executive monarchy):'' Articles 69 & 70 of the Constitution of Qatar:**'''Article 69'''***''The Emir may, be a decree, declare Martial Laws in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties.", "However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation.", "Al-Shoura Council shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening.", "Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.", "''**'''Article 70'''***''The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law.", "Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.", "''====Right of pardon====*''Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):'' Section 24 of the Constitution of Denmark states:**''The King can grant pardons and amnesties.", "He may only pardon Ministers convicted by the Court of Impeachment with the consent of Parliament.", "''*''Example 2 (parliamentary republic):'' According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany:**''He The President shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation.", "''*''Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):'' Title II, Article 17 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:**''The President of the Republic is vested with the power to grant individual pardons.", "''*''Example 4 (presidential republic):'' Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution of the United States provides that:**''...and he The President shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.", "''*''Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic):'' Part XI, Article 80 of the Constitution of Nauru:**''The President may-''***''(a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;''***''(b) grant to a person a respite, either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;''***''(c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or''***''(d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.''" ], [ "Official title", "In a republic, the head of state nowadays usually bears the title of President, but some have or have had other titles.", "Titles commonly used by monarchs are King/Queen or Emperor/Empress, but also many other; e.g., Grand Duke, Prince, Emir and Sultan.Though president and various monarchical titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning leader in the national language, e.g., Germany's single national socialist party chief and combined head of state and government, Adolf Hitler, as the ''Führer'' between 1934 and 1945.In 1959, when former British crown colony Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style ''Yang di-Pertuan Negara'' (head of state) in Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch).", "The second and last incumbent of the office, Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after 16 September 1963 accession to Malaysia as a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level).", "After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first president.In 1959 after the resignation of Vice President Mohammad Hatta, President Sukarno abolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet.", "He also proclaimed himself president for life (Indonesian: ''Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi''; \"''panglima''\" meaning \"commander or martial figurehead\", \"''tertinggi''\" meaning \"highest\"; roughly translated to English as \"Supreme Commander of the Revolution\").", "He was praised as \"''Paduka Yang Mulia''\", a Malay honorific originally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague.", "During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, following the downfall of Chinese President Liu Shaoqi, no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Vice Presidents Soong Ching-ling and Dong Biwu, then to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, but Chairman Mao Zedong was still the paramount leader.", "This situation was later changed: the President of the People's Republic of China is now the head of state.", "Although the presidency is a largely ceremonial office with limited power, the symbolic role of a head of state is now generally performed by Xi Jinping, who is also General Secretary of the Communist Party (Communist Party leader) and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (Supreme Military Command), making him the most powerful person in China.In North Korea, the late Kim Il Sung was named \"Eternal President\" four years after his death and the presidency was abolished.", "As a result, some of the duties previously held by the president were constitutionally delegated to the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly, who performs some of the roles of a head of state, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits.", "However, the ''de jure'' role of head of state lies within the President of the State Affairs Commission, currently Kim Jong Un, who as the General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of North Korea, is the most powerful person in North Korea.There is debate as to whether Samoa was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title ''O le Ao o le Malo'' and the nature of the head of state's office.In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature.", "Colonel Muammar Gaddafi initially ruled as combined head of state and briefly head of government of the Libyan Arab Republic, styled as Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council.", "In 1977, the Libyan ''Jamahiriya'' (\"state of the masses\") replaced the previous republic, and in March 1979 the role of head of state was transferred to the Secretary-General of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker); in practice however Gaddafi remained the ''de facto'' leader as \"Guide of the Revolution\" until his overthrow in 2011.Sometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic Cameroon (''Cameroun'', a former French colony), the first president, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo, was at first not styled but 'merely' known as (French for \"head of state\") until 5 May 1960.In Uganda, Idi Amin the military leader after the coup of 25 January 1971 was formally styled ''military head of state'' till 21 February 1971, only from then on as regular (but unconstitutional, unelected) president.In certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate imperfect statehood, e.g., the title ''Sadr-i-Riyasat'' was used in Kashmir after its accession to India, and the Palestine Liberation Organization leader, Yasser Arafat, was styled the first \"President of the Palestinian National Authority\" in 1994.In 2008, the same office was restyled as \"President of the State of Palestine\"." ], [ "Historical European perspectives", "* The polis in Greek Antiquity and the equivalent city states in the feudal era and later, (many in Italy, the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish ''taifa'' in Iberia, essentially tribal-type but urbanised regions throughout the world in the Maya civilisation, etc.)", "offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see Chief magistrate.", "* Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but \"reigned\" as sovereign dukes.", "* The paradoxical term crowned republic refers to various state arrangements that combine \"republican\" and \"monarchic\" characteristics.", "* The Netherlands historically had officials called stadholders and stadholders-general, titles meaning \"lieutenant\" or \"governor\", originally for the Habsburg monarchs.In medieval Catholic Europe, it was universally accepted that the Pope ranked first among all rulers and was followed by the Holy Roman Emperor.", "The Pope also had the sole right to determine the precedence of all others.", "This principle was first challenged by a Protestant ruler, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and was later maintained by his country at the Congress of Westphalia.", "Great Britain would later claim a break of the old principle for the Quadruple Alliance in 1718.However, it was not until the 1815 Congress of Vienna, when it was decided (due to the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the weak position of France and other catholic states to assert themselves) and remains so to this day, that all sovereign states are treated as equals, whether monarchies or republics.", "On occasions when multiple heads of state or their representatives meet, precedence is by the host usually determined in alphabetical order (in whatever language the host determines, although French has for much of the 19th and 20th centuries been the ''lingua franca'' of diplomacy) or by date of accession.", "Contemporary international law on precedence, built upon the universally admitted principles since 1815, derives from the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (in particular, articles 13, 16.1 and Appendix iii).File:Machiavelli Principe Cover Page.jpg|Title page of 1550 Italian edition of Machiavelli's ''The Prince''File:Albergati Discorsi politici.jpg|Bodin named on title page of ''Discorsi politici'' (1602) by Fabio Albergati who compared Bodin's political theories unfavourably with those of AristotleFile:Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.jpg|Frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' ''Leviathan (1651)''Niccolò Machiavelli used ''Prince'' () as a generic term for the ruler, similar to contemporary usage of ''head of state'', in his classical treatise ''The Prince'', originally published in 1532: in fact that particular literary genre it belongs to is known as Mirrors for princes.", "Thomas Hobbes in his ''Leviathan'' (1651) used the term ''Sovereign''.", "In Europe the role of a monarchs has gradually transitioned from that of a sovereign rulerin the sense of Divine Right of Kings as articulated by Jean Bodin, Absolutism and the \"L'etat c'est moi\"to that of a constitutional monarch; parallel with the conceptual evolution of sovereignty from merely the personal rule of a single person, to Westphalian sovereignty (Peace of Westphalia ending both the Thirty Years' War & Eighty Years' War) and popular sovereignty as in consent of the governed; as shown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England & Scotland, the French Revolution in 1789, and the German Revolution of 1918–1919.The monarchies who survived through this era were the ones who were willing to subject themselves to constitutional limitations." ], [ "Interim and exceptional cases", "Whenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body.", "In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a vice-president, the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer.", "In a monarchy, this is usually a regent or collegial regency (council).", "For example, in the United States the vice-president acts when the president is incapacitated, and in the United Kingdom the monarch's powers may be delegated to counselors of state when they are abroad or unavailable.", "Neither of the two co-princes of Andorra is resident in Andorra; each is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.There are also several methods of head of state succession in the event of the removal, disability or death of an incumbent head of state.In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead or be suspended in favour of an emergency office (such as the original Roman dictator) or eliminated by a new \"provisionary\" regime, such as a collective of the junta type, or removed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost)." ], [ "{{anchor|SharedSovereign}}<!-- [[Shared sovereign]] redirects here-->Shared head of multiple states", "In early modern Europe, a single person was often monarch simultaneously of separate states.", "A composite monarchy is a retrospective label for those cases where the states were governed entirely separately.", "Of contemporary terms, a personal union had less government co-ordination than a real union.", "One of the two co-princes of Andorra is the president of France.Such arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolic, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g., Head of the Commonwealth (held by the British monarch, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the King of Iraq, during its short-lived Hashemite federation with Jordan).===Commonwealth realms===The Commonwealth realms share a monarch, currently Charles III.", "In the realms other than the United Kingdom, a governor-general (''governor general'' in Canada) is appointed by the sovereign, usually on the advice of the relevant prime minister (although sometimes it is based on the result of a vote in the relevant parliament, which is the case for Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands), as a representative and to exercise almost all the royal prerogative according to established constitutional authority.", "In Australia the present king is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as his \"representatives\".", "However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionally been referred to as head of state in political and media discussion.", "To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state.", "New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Tuvalu explicitly name the monarch as their head of state (though Tuvalu's constitution states that \"references in any law to the Head of State shall be read as including a reference to the governor-general\").", "Governors-general are frequently treated as heads of state on state and official visits; at the United Nations, they are accorded the status of head of state in addition to the sovereign.An example of a governor-general departing from constitutional convention by acting unilaterally (that is, without direction from ministers, parliament, or the monarch) occurred in 1926, when Canada's governor general refused the head of government's formal advice requesting a dissolution of parliament and a general election.", "In a letter informing the monarch after the event, the Governor General said: \"I have to await the verdict of history to prove my having adopted a wrong course, and this I do with an easy conscience that, right or wrong, I have acted in the interests of Canada and implicated no one else in my decision.", "\"Another example occurred when, in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the governor-general unexpectedly dismissed the prime minister in order to break a stalemate between the House of Representatives and Senate over money bills.", "The governor-general issued a public statement saying he felt it was the only solution consistent with the constitution, his oath of office, and his responsibilities, authority, and duty as governor-general.", "A letter from the queen's private secretary at the time, Martin Charteris, confirmed that the only person competent to commission an Australian prime minister was the governor-general and it would not be proper for the monarch to personally intervene in matters that the Constitution Act so clearly places within the governor-general's jurisdiction.Other Commonwealth realms that are now constituted with a governor-general as the viceregal representative of Charles III are: Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines." ], [ "Religious heads of state", "Francis, from March 2013 the sovereign of the Vatican City State, an ''ex officio'' role of the PopeSince antiquity, various dynasties or individual rulers have claimed the right to rule by divine authority, such as the Mandate of Heaven and the divine right of kings.", "Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, such as Egyptian pharaohs and Sapa Incas, who claimed descent from their respective sun gods and often sought to maintain this bloodline by practising incestuous marriage.", "In Ancient Rome, during the Principate, the title ('divine') was conferred (notably posthumously) on the emperor, a symbolic, legitimating element in establishing a de facto dynasty.===Christianity===In Roman Catholicism, the pope was once sovereign pontiff and head of state, first, of the politically important Papal States.", "After Italian unification, the pope remains head of state of Vatican City.", "Furthermore, the bishop of Urgell is ''ex officio'' one of the two co-princes of Andorra.", "In the Church of England, the reigning monarch holds the title Defender of the Faith and acts as supreme governor of the Church of England, although this is purely a symbolic role.===Islam===Abdulmecid II is the 150th and last Caliph of Islam from Ottoman dynastyDuring the early period of Islam, caliphs were spiritual and temporal absolute successors of Muhammad.", "Various political Muslim leaders since have styled themselves ''Caliph'' and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the Ottoman Sultan.", "Historically, some theocratic Islamic states known as ''imamates'' have been led by imams as head of state, such as in what is now Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia.In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader, at present Ali Khamenei serves as head of state.", "The Aga Khans, a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading the Nizari offshoot of Shia Islam in Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India's princely states, continue to the present day.===Hinduism===In Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as \"servant\" of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a viceroy under an absentee god-king, ruling \"in the name of\" the patron god(ess), such as Patmanabha Dasa (servant of Vishnu) in the case of the Maharaja of Travancore.===Buddhism===From the time of the 5th Dalai Lama until the political retirement of the 14th Dalai Lama in 2011, Dalai Lamas were both political and spiritual leaders (\"god-king\") of Tibet.Outer Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial dynasty of Genghis Khan, was another lamaist theocracy from 1585, using various styles, such as tulku.", "The establishment of the Communist Mongolian People's Republic replaced this regime in 1924." ], [ "{{anchor|CollectiveHead}}<!-- [[Collective heads of state]] redirects here-->Multiple or collective heads of state", "Sometimes multiple individuals are co-equal heads of state, or a corporate person embodies the functions of head of state.", "In some cases precedence rotates among the members of the collective as the term of office progresses.", "Of multiple royal systems, a diarchy, in which two rulers is the constitutional norm, may be distinguished from a coregency, in which a monarchy experiences an exceptional period of multiple rulers.", "Examples of collective republican systems include nominal triumvirates; the French Directory of the 1790s; the seven-member Swiss Federal Council, where each member acts in turn as President for one year; the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina with members from three nations; the two Captains Regent of San Marino, which maintains the tradition of Italian medieval republics that had always had an even number of consuls.In the Roman Republic there were two heads of state, styled consul, both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office, similarly there was an even number of supreme magistrates in the Italic republics of Ancient Age.", "In the Athenian Republic there were nine supreme magistrates, styled archons.", "In Carthage there were two supreme magistrates, styled kings or suffetes (judges).", "In ancient Sparta there were two hereditary kings, belonging to two dynasties.", "In the Soviet Union, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (between 1938 and 1989) served as the collective head of state.", "After World War II the Soviet model was subsequently adopted by almost all countries belonged to its sphere of influence.", "Czechoslovakia remained the only country among them that retained an office of president as a form of a single head of state throughout this period; Poland and Hungary, which initially had western-style constitutions (and therefore, western-style presidencies), switched to the presidium model with the adoption of new Soviet-influenced constitutions; Romania, which was a monarchy before the Soviet takeover, was the only country to move to a unitary presidency from a collective head of state, a move done by dictator Nicolae Ceausescu in 1974.A modern example of a collective head of state is the Sovereignty Council of Sudan, the interim ruling council of Sudan.", "The Sovereignty Council comprises 11 ministers, who together have exercised all governmental functions for Sudan since the fall of President Omar Al-Bashir.", "Decisions are made either by consensus or by a super majority vote (8 members).The National Government of the Republic of China, established in 1928, had a panel of about 40 people as collective head of state.", "Though beginning that year, a provisional constitution made the Kuomintang the sole government party and the National Government bound to the instructions of the Central Executive Committee of that party." ], [ "Legitimacy", "The position of head of state can be established in different ways, and with different sources of legitimacy.===By fiction or fiat===Power can come from force, but formal legitimacy is often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previous dynasty).", "There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied by orders of succession (as may be the case in a dynastic split).", "Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common with self-determination granted after nationalist revolts.", "This occurred with the last Attalid king of Hellenistic Pergamon, who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.===By divine appointment===Under a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority under divine law.", "This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to a priesthood.", "In this way, the Amun priesthood reversed the reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten after his death.", "The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor in the investiture conflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitimacy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of unction during coronation.===By social contract===The notion of a social contract holds that the nation—either the whole people or the electorate—gives a mandate, through acclamation or election.===By constitution===Individual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of a constitution.", "An example is the Seychelles, as the 1976 Independence Constitution of the Seychelles, Article 31, stated that James Mancham would be the first President of the Republic by name, rather than by the fact he was the Prime Minister of colonial Seychelles immediately before independence.===By hereditary succession===Absolute cognatic primogeniture diagram.", "Legend: The position of a monarch is usually hereditary, but in constitutional monarchies, there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth.", "In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline.", "This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession.", "However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led to wars of succession.Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy.", "The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender.", "Historically \"agnatic primogeniture\" or \"patrilineal primogeniture\" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession.", "This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law.", "Another variation on agnatic primogeniture was the so-called semi-Salic law, or \"agnatic-cognatic primogeniture\", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator.Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in coregency – a senior king and a junior king.", "Examples include Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France.Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line.", "In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted.", "In 1980, Sweden, by rewriting its 1810 Act of Succession, became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.", "Other European monarchies (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990 and Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit.", "Similar reforms were proposed in 2011 for the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, which came into effect in 2015 after having been approved by all of the affected nations.", "Sometimes religion is affected; under the Act of Settlement 1701 all Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.In some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after the death of the monarch, to choose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legitimate descendants of the dynasty's founder.", "Rules of succession may be further limited by state religion, residency, equal marriage or even permission from the legislature.Other hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Agnatic seniority.", "In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).===By election===Countries where the electoral system directly elects their head of state, by type Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college of electors (such as the Electoral College in the United States), or as an exclusive prerogative.", "Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in the United Arab Emirates and Malaysia.", "The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointed cardinals under 80 years of age from among themselves in a papal conclave.===By appointment===A head of state can be empowered to designate his successor, such as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell, who was succeeded by his son Richard.===By force or revolution===A head of state may seize power by force or revolution.", "This is not the same as the use of force to ''maintain'' power, as is practised by authoritarian or totalitarian rulers.", "Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs.", "Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon I of France and King Zog of Albania.", "In Spain, general Francisco Franco adopted the formal title ''Jefe del Estado'', or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy.", "Uganda's Idi Amin was one of several who named themselves President for Life.===By foreign imposition===A foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests.", "This was often the outcome of the wars fought between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire over control of Armenia, a vital buffer state between the two realms.The Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 ended with a compromise: a Parthian prince of the Arsacid line would henceforth sit on the Armenian throne, but his nomination had to be approved by the Roman emperor.===Loss===Apart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office, abdication, or resignation.", "In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British King Edward VIII.", "The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish their term.", "Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.Heads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds.", "This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which the head of state violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch.", "By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid." ], [ "Former heads of state", "The National Monument to Emperor Wilhelm I in Berlin, Germany, dedicated 1897, nearly 10 years after his death.", "The monument was destroyed by the communist government in 1950.Effigies, memorials and monuments of former heads of state can be designed to represent the history or aspirations of a state or its people, such as the equestrian bronze sculpture of Kaiser Wilhelm I, first Emperor of a unified Germany erected in Berlin at the end of the nineteenth century; or the Victoria Memorial erected in front of Buckingham Palace London, commemorating Queen Victoria and her reign (1837–1901), and unveiled in 1911 by her grandson, King George V; or the monument, placed in front of the Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (Calcutta) (1921), commemorating Queen Victoria's reign as Empress of India from 1876.Another, twentieth century, example is the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, a group sculpture constructed (1927–1941) on a conspicuous skyline in the Black Hills of South Dakota (40th state of the Union, 1889), in the midwestern United States, representing the territorial expansion of the United States in the first 130 years from its founding, which is promoted as the \"Shrine of Democracy\".===Personal influence or privileges===Former presidents of the United States, while holding no political powers per se, sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.A monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did King Leopold III of Belgium, who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role.", "Napoleon transformed the Italian principality of Elba, where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his ''Cent Jours'' escape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren Saint Helena.By tradition, deposed monarchs who have not freely abdicated continue to use their monarchical titles as a courtesy for the rest of their lives.", "Hence, even after Constantine II ceased to be ''King of the Hellenes'', it is still common to refer to the deposed king and his family as if Constantine II were still on the throne, as many European royal courts and households do in guest lists at royal weddings, as in Sweden in 2010, Britain in 2011 and Luxembourg in 2012.The current Hellenic Republic opposes the right of their deposed monarch and former royal family members to be referred to by their former titles or bearing a surname indicating royal status, and has enacted legislation which hinders acquisition of Greek citizenship unless those terms are met.", "The former king brought this issue, along with property ownership issues, before the European Court of Human Rights for alleged violations of the European Convention on Human Rights, but lost with respect to the name issue.However, some other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being referred to by their former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's diplomatic passport.The Italian constitution provides that a former president of the Republic takes the title President Emeritus of the Italian Republic and he or she is also a senator for life, and enjoys immunity, flight status and official residences certain privileges." ], [ "See also", "* 21-gun salute* Aide-de-camp* Air transports of heads of state and government* Bodyguard* Cult of personality* Directorial system* Head of government* Honors music* Leadership* Mirrors for princes* National day of mourning* Oath of allegiance* Oath of office* Official residence* Official state car* Power behind the throne* President* Sacred king* State funeral* State visit* Strongman (politics)===Lists===* List of current heads of state and government* List of heads of state by diplomatic precedence* List of longest reigning current monarchs* List of state leaders by year* Records of heads of state* ''World Leaders''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*****" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heredity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heredity''', also called '''inheritance''' or '''biological inheritance''', is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents.", "Through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate and cause species to evolve by natural selection.", "The study of heredity in biology is genetics." ], [ "Overview", "Heredity of phenotypic traits: a father and son with prominent ears and crowns.DNA structure.", "Bases are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a double helix.In humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic: an individual might inherit the \"brown-eye trait\" from one of the parents.", "Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome is called its genotype.The complete set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype.", "These traits arise from the interaction of the organism's genotype with the environment.", "As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited.", "For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children.", "However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in their genotype: a striking example is people with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information.", "DNA is a long polymer that incorporates four types of bases, which are interchangeable.", "The Nucleic acid sequence (the sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule) specifies the genetic information: this is comparable to a sequence of letters spelling out a passage of text.", "Before a cell divides through mitosis, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence.", "A portion of a DNA molecule that specifies a single functional unit is called a gene; different genes have different sequences of bases.", "Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes.", "Organisms inherit genetic material from their parents in the form of homologous chromosomes, containing a unique combination of DNA sequences that code for genes.", "The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus.", "If the DNA sequence at a particular locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.", "DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles.", "If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism.However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by multiple interacting genes within and among organisms.", "Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlie some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalization.Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that cannot be explained by direct agency of the DNA molecule.", "These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes.", "Research into modes and mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance is still in its scientific infancy, but this area of research has attracted much recent activity as it broadens the scope of heritability and evolutionary biology in general.", "DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference, and the three dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.", "Heritability may also occur at even larger scales.", "For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment.", "This generates a legacy of effect that modifies and feeds back into the selection regime of subsequent generations.", "Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors.", "Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits, group heritability, and symbiogenesis.", "These examples of heritability that operate above the gene are covered broadly under the title of multilevel or hierarchical selection, which has been a subject of intense debate in the history of evolutionary science." ], [ "Relation to theory of evolution", "When Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in 1859, one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity.", "Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits (pangenesis).", "Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and then would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act.", "This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in later editions of ''On the Origin of Species'' and his later biological works.", "Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits that were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction could be inherited, that certain traits could be sex-linked, etc.)", "rather than suggesting mechanisms.Darwin's initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin Francis Galton, who laid the framework for the biometric school of heredity.", "Galton found no evidence to support the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model, which relied on acquired traits.The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the 1880s when August Weismann cut the tails off many generations of mice and found that their offspring continued to develop tails." ], [ "History", "Aristotle's model of inheritance.", "The heat/cold part is largely symmetrical, though influenced on the father's side by other factors, but the form part is not.Scientists in Antiquity had a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastus proposed that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen; Hippocrates speculated that \"seeds\" were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time of conception; and Aristotle thought that male and female fluids mixed at conception.", "Aeschylus, in 458 BC, proposed the male as the parent, with the female as a \"nurse for the young life sown within her\".Ancient understandings of heredity transitioned to two debated doctrines in the 18th century.", "The Doctrine of Epigenesis and the Doctrine of Preformation were two distinct views of the understanding of heredity.", "The Doctrine of Epigenesis, originated by Aristotle, claimed that an embryo continually develops.", "The modifications of the parent's traits are passed off to an embryo during its lifetime.", "The foundation of this doctrine was based on the theory of inheritance of acquired traits.", "In direct opposition, the Doctrine of Preformation claimed that \"like generates like\" where the germ would evolve to yield offspring similar to the parents.", "The Preformationist view believed procreation was an act of revealing what had been created long before.", "However, this was disputed by the creation of the cell theory in the 19th century, where the fundamental unit of life is the cell, and not some preformed parts of an organism.", "Various hereditary mechanisms, including blending inheritance were also envisaged without being properly tested or quantified, and were later disputed.", "Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as well as crops through artificial selection.", "The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a part of early Lamarckian ideas on evolution.During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) discovered \"animalcules\" in the sperm of humans and other animals.", "Some scientists speculated they saw a \"little man\" (homunculus) inside each sperm.", "These scientists formed a school of thought known as the \"spermists\".", "They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb.", "An opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg.", "Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception.An early research initiative emerged in 1878 when Alpheus Hyatt led an investigation to study the laws of heredity through compiling data on family phenotypes (nose size, ear shape, etc.)", "and expression of pathological conditions and abnormal characteristics, particularly with respect to the age of appearance.", "One of the projects aims was to tabulate data to better understand why certain traits are consistently expressed while others are highly irregular.===Gregor Mendel: father of genetics===Table showing how the genes exchange according to segregation or independent assortment during meiosis and how this translates into Mendel's lawsThe idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel who published his work on pea plants in 1865.However, his work was not widely known and was rediscovered in 1901.It was initially assumed that Mendelian inheritance only accounted for large (qualitative) differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants – and the idea of additive effect of (quantitative) genes was not realised until R.A. Fisher's (1918) paper, \"The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance\" Mendel's overall contribution gave scientists a useful overview that traits were inheritable.", "His pea plant demonstration became the foundation of the study of Mendelian Traits.", "These traits can be traced on a single locus.===Modern development of genetics and heredity===In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the modern evolutionary synthesis.", "The modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between both and palaeontologists, stating that:# All evolutionary phenomena can be explained in a way consistent with known genetic mechanisms and the observational evidence of naturalists.# Evolution is gradual: small genetic changes, recombination ordered by natural selection.", "Discontinuities amongst species (or other taxa) are explained as originating gradually through geographical separation and extinction (not saltation).# Selection is overwhelmingly the main mechanism of change; even slight advantages are important when continued.", "The object of selection is the phenotype in its surrounding environment.", "The role of genetic drift is equivocal; though strongly supported initially by Dobzhansky, it was downgraded later as results from ecological genetics were obtained.# The primacy of population thinking: the genetic diversity carried in natural populations is a key factor in evolution.", "The strength of natural selection in the wild was greater than expected; the effect of ecological factors such as niche occupation and the significance of barriers to gene flow are all important.The idea that speciation occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much debated.", "In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation.", "Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another' were proposed rather later.", "The traditional view is that developmental biology ('evo-devo') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of Gavin de Beer's work by Stephen Jay Gould suggests he may be an exception.Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success.", "There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology.", "It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research in the post-World War II era.Trofim Lysenko however caused a backlash of what is now called Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union when he emphasised Lamarckian ideas on the inheritance of acquired traits.", "This movement affected agricultural research and led to food shortages in the 1960s and seriously affected the USSR.There is growing evidence that there is transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic changes in humans and other animals.===Common genetic disorders===:*Fragile X syndrome:*Sickle cell disease:*Phenylketonuria (PKU):*Haemophilia" ], [ "Types", "An example pedigree chart of an autosomal dominant disorder.An example pedigree chart of an autosomal recessive disorder.An example pedigree chart of a sex-linked disorder (the gene is on the X chromosome).The description of a mode of biological inheritance consists of three main categories::'''1.Number of involved loci''':*Monogenetic (also called \"simple\") – one locus:*Oligogenic – few loci:*Polygenetic – many loci:'''2.Involved chromosomes''':*Autosomal – loci are not situated on a sex chromosome:*Gonosomal – loci are situated on a sex chromosome:**X-chromosomal – loci are situated on the X-chromosome (the more common case):**Y-chromosomal – loci are situated on the Y-chromosome:*Mitochondrial – loci are situated on the mitochondrial DNA:'''3.Correlation genotype–phenotype''':*Dominant:*Intermediate (also called \"codominant\"):*Recessive:*Overdominant:*UnderdominantThese three categories are part of every exact description of a mode of inheritance in the above order.", "In addition, more specifications may be added as follows::'''4.Coincidental and environmental interactions''':*Penetrance:**Complete:**Incomplete (percentual number):*Expressivity:**Invariable:**Variable:*Heritability (in polygenetic and sometimes also in oligogenetic modes of inheritance):*Maternal or paternal imprinting phenomena (also see epigenetics):'''5.Sex-linked interactions''':*Sex-linked inheritance (gonosomal loci):*Sex-limited phenotype expression (e.g., cryptorchism):*Inheritance through the maternal line (in case of mitochondrial DNA loci):*Inheritance through the paternal line (in case of Y-chromosomal loci):'''6.Locus–locus interactions''':*Epistasis with other loci (e.g., overdominance):*Gene coupling with other loci (also see crossing over):*Homozygotous lethal factors:*Semi-lethal factorsDetermination and description of a mode of inheritance is also achieved primarily through statistical analysis of pedigree data.", "In case the involved loci are known, methods of molecular genetics can also be employed.===Dominant and recessive alleles===An allele is said to be dominant if it is always expressed in the appearance of an organism (phenotype) provided that at least one copy of it is present.", "For example, in peas the allele for green pods, ''G'', is dominant to that for yellow pods, ''g''.", "Thus pea plants with the pair of alleles '''''either''''' ''GG'' (homozygote) '''''or''''' ''Gg'' (heterozygote) will have green pods.", "The allele for yellow pods is recessive.", "The effects of this allele are only seen when it is present in both chromosomes, ''gg'' (homozygote).", "This derives from Zygosity, the degree to which both copies of a chromosome or gene have the same genetic sequence, in other words, the degree of similarity of the alleles in an organism.File:Autosomal recessive inheritance for affected enzyme.png|Hereditary defects in enzymes are generally inherited in an autosomal fashion because there are more non-X chromosomes than X-chromosomes, and a recessive fashion because the enzymes from the unaffected genes are generally sufficient to prevent symptoms in carriers.Autosomal dominant inheritance for structural protein.png|On the other hand, hereditary defects in structural proteins (such as osteogenesis imperfecta, Marfan's syndrome and many Ehlers–Danlos syndromes) are generally autosomal dominant, because it is enough that some components are defective to make the whole structure dysfunctional.", "This is a dominant-negative process, wherein a mutated gene product adversely affects the non-mutated gene product within the same cell." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heredity and Heritability* \"\"Experiments in Plant Hybridization\" (1866), by Johann Gregor Mendel\", by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of historical films set in Near Eastern and Western civilization" ], [ "Introduction", "The historical drama or period drama is a film genre in which stories are based upon historical events and famous people.", "Some historical dramas are docudramas, which attempt an accurate portrayal of a historical event or biography, to the degree that the available historical research will allow.", "Other historical dramas are fictionalized tales that are based on an actual person and their deeds, such as ''Braveheart'', which is loosely based on the 13th-century knight William Wallace's fight for Scotland's independence.Due to the sheer volume of films included in this genre and in the interest of continuity, this list is primarily focused on films pertaining to the history of Near Eastern and Western civilization.For films pertaining to the history of East Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia, please refer also to the List of historical films set in Asia." ], [ "Films set in the Stone Age (before 3300 BC)", " Title Release date Time Era Time Period Notes on setting''Early Man''2018Paleolithic1 Million B.C.Stop motion animated comedy about a group of caveman fighting against Lord Nooth and his Bronze Age City to save their home.", "''Quest for Fire''1981Paleolithic80,000 BCThe story is set in Paleolithic Europe, with its plot surrounding the struggle for control of fire by early humans.", "''The Clan of the Cave Bear''1986Paleolithic40,000 – 35,000 BCIn times of Neanderthal extinction ''Alpha''2018Paleolithic20,000 BCDog domestication''Creatures the World Forgot'' 1971Paleolithic''Year One'' 2009NeolithicComedy about two hunter-gatherers who after being banished from their tribe encounter Biblical characters and eventually wind up in the city of Sodom.", "''Conan the Barbarian''1982Neolithic32,000 – 10,000 BCOccurs in the pseudo-historical \"Hyborian Age\", set after the destruction of Atlantis and before the rise of any known ancient civilization''Conan the Destroyer''1984 Neolithic32,000 – 10,000 BC''10,000 BC''2008Neolithic10,000 BC Set in the prehistoric era (12,000 years ago) and depicts the journeys of a prehistoric tribe of mammoth hunters.", "''Ice Age''2002Neolithic9,000 BCFictional story about sub-zero heroes: a woolly mammoth, a saber-toothed tiger, and a sloth.", "''Iceman'' 2017Neolithic3,300 BCFictional story about the life of Ötzi, a natural mummy of a man found in 1991 in the Ötztal Alps." ], [ "Films set in the Bronze Age (3300–1200 BC)", " Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''Gods of Egypt'' 2016 3200 BC A fantasy action film based on the ancient Egyptian deities and story of god Horus (Horus may be shown as a falcon on the Narmer Palette, dating from about the 3300–3200 BC).", "''The Scorpion King'' 2002 3200–3000 BC A fantasy action film based on historical king of the Protodynastic Period of Egypt, King Scorpion.", "''The Pharaohs' Woman'' 1960 3100 BC A beautiful girl and a young physician fall in love in the midst of a family, and power struggle between rival princes of Upper and Lower Egypt.", "Set shortly after the unification of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt by the First Dynasty of Egypt.", "''Land of the Pharaohs'' 1956 2589–2566 BC Based on the reign of Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops), a member of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt.", "''Cleopatra's Daughter'' 1960 2589–2566 BC Based on the reign of Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops), a member of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt.", "''Sudan'' 1945 2558–2532 BC Set during the reign of the pharaoh Khafre (Chephren), a member of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt.", "''The Scorpion King 2: Rise of a Warrior'' 2008 2334–2284 BC/ 1792 – c. 1750 BC A fictional story about Mathayus who aims to avenge the death of his father at the hand of Sargon, now king of Akkad.", "In this movie appear a fictional version of king Hammurabi of Babylon.", "''The Bible: In the Beginning...'' 1966 approx.", "3761 BC – 1644 BC (according to the Hebrew Calendar) It recounts the first 22 chapters of the biblical Book of Genesis, covering the stories from Adam and Eve to the binding of Isaac.", "''Sodom and Gomorrah'' 1962 2100 BC An epic film which is loosely based on the tale of the cities Sodom and Gomorrah in the Book of Genesis.", "''The Eloquent Peasant''19702160–2025 BCEgyptian short film based on the tale of The Eloquent Peasant from the Middle Kingdom period ''Abraham'' 19932100–2000 BC A television film based on the life of the patriarch Abraham.", "''The Bible'' 20132100 BC – 67 AD Television miniseries based on the Bible, starting with Abraham.", "''Mohenjo Daro''20162016 BC Film set in 2016 BC, in the ancient city of Mohenjo-daro.", "The historical city was one of the largest settlements of the Indus Valley civilisation, and one of the world's earliest major cities.", "''Jacob'' 1994 2000 BC (according to the Hebrew calendar) A German/Italian/American television film based on the novel ''Giacobbe'' by Francesco Maria Nappi.", "The novel is in turn based on the depiction of the patriarch Jacob in the Book of Genesis.", "''Slave of Dreams'' 1995 1901–1850 BC Set in Ancient Egypt and based on the story of Joseph, a Vizier depicted in the Book of Genesis.", "The era of the film's setting corresponds to the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt.", "''Joseph'' 1995 1901–1850 BC Set in Ancient Egypt and based on the story of Joseph, a Vizier depicted in the Book of Genesis.", "The era of the film's setting corresponds to the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt.", "''The Red Tent'' 2014 1700–1750 BC Miniseries set in The Holy Land during the time of the Old Testament patriarchs of the Book of Genesis.", "Dinah, the only daughter of Leah and Jacob, chronicles her story from youth through adulthood.", "''Atlantis: End of a World, Birth of a Legend'' 2011 1600 BC Docudrama which depicts a re-enactment of the events surrounding the Minoan eruption, a major catastrophic volcanic eruption in the island of Thera (modern Santorini).", "The historical eruption devastated the island, and communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands and Crete.", "The event is thought to be connected to a decline and eventual downfall for the Minoan civilization, an incident believed to have inspired the legend of Atlantis.", "''Atlantis'' 2013–2015 1600 BC Far from home, Jason washes up on the shores of the ancient and mysterious city of Atlantis.", "''Nefertiti, Queen of the Nile'' 1961 1370–1330 BC Set in Ancient Egypt; loosely based on the life of Nefertiti, Great Royal Wife of the Pharaoh Akhenaten.", "Nefertiti and her husband were members of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, and were ruling figures of the Amarna Period.", "''The Egyptian'' 1954 1350 BC Based on the novel ''The Egyptian'' by Mika Waltari, who adapted the Story of Sinuhe.", "The film mentions the pharaoh Akhenaten, the Hittite Empire, and iron technology.", "''Tut'' 2015 1332–1323 BC The three-part miniseries is based on the life of Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, a member of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.", "''Jason and the Argonauts'' 1963 1300 BC The story of Jason and Argonauts, a band of heroes in Greek mythology, who in the years before the Trojan War (around 1300 BC) accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece.", "''The Ten Commandments'' 1956 1290–1213 BC Set in Ancient Egypt, during the reign of Ramesses II, a member of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt.", "The film is based on the founding narrative of the Exodus, as depicted in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.", "''Exodus: Gods and Kings'' 2014 1290–1213 BC Set in Ancient Egypt, during the reign of Ramesses II, a member of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt.", "The film is based on the founding narrative of the Exodus, as depicted in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.", "''The Prince of Egypt'' 1998 1290–1213 BC Set in Ancient Egypt, during the reign of Ramesses II, a member of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt.", "The film is based on the founding narrative of the Exodus, as depicted in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.", "''Immortals'' 2011 1228 BC Loosely based on the Greek myth of Theseus and the Minotaur and the Titanomachy.", "''Iphigenia'' 1977 1200–1150 BC Set in the port town of Aulis, Greece immediately before the Greek expeditionary force set sails to attack Troy.", "Due to unfavorable weather conditions, king Agamemnon of Mycenae offers his daughter Iphigenia as a human sacrifice to the goddess Artemis.", "The film is based on the theatrical play ''Iphigenia in Aulis'' by Euripides.", "''Helen of Troy'' 1956 1200–1150 BC Set in western Anatolia during the Trojan War, largely based on the epic poems ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' by Homer.", "''Helen of Troy'' 2003 1200–1150 BC TV miniseries set in western Anatolia during the Trojan War, loosely based on the epic poem ''Iliad'' by Homer.", "''Troy'' 2004 1200–1150 BC Set in western Anatolia during the Trojan War, loosely based on the epic poem ''Iliad'' by Homer.", "''Troy: Fall of a City'' 2018 1200–1150 BC Miniseries that tells the story of the 10-year siege of Troy.", "''The Fury of Achilles'' 1962 1200–1150 BC Set in western Anatolia in the 9th year of the Trojan War, based on the epic poem ''Iliad'' by Homer.", "King Agamemnon of Mycenae has lost his slave concubine Chryseis, and demands Briseis as a replacement concubine.", "Briseis is the slave concubine of Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidons, and Achilles feels insulted due to having to give her up to his superior.", "In retaliation, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces.", "The Trojans temporarily start gaining an advantage in the ongoing war.", "''The Trojan Horse'' 1961 1200–1150 BC Set in western Anatolia in the 10th and final year of the Trojan War.", "''The Trojan Women'' 1971 1200–1150 BC Set in the immediate aftermath of the Trojan War, based on the theatrical play ''The Trojan Women'' by Euripides.", "The city of Troy has been sacked and the victors of the war are taking decisions on the fates of surviving captives.", "The film focuses on the fates of female captives Hecuba, Andromache, Cassandra, and Helen of Sparta.", "Meanwhile, Astyanax, the underage heir to the Trojan throne and relative of all four women, is scheduled for execution.", "''The Avenger'' 1962 1200–1150 BC Aeneas struggles to establish a new home-land in the Italian Peninsula for his fellow survivors of the Trojan War.", "The film is based on the epic poem ''Aeneid'' by Virgil, which depicts Aeneas and his Trojan colonists as ancestor of the Romans.", "''Electra'' 1962 1200–1150 BC Set in the aftermath of the Trojan War in Mycenae, based on the theatrical play ''Electra'' by Euripides and the traditional accounts of conflicts within the family of the Atreidai.", "Agamemnon, King of Mycenae returned victorious from the Trojan War, but was assassinated by his own wife Clytemnestra and by his first cousin Aegisthus (who served as Clytemnestra's lover and a rival claimant to the throne).", "Years, later Electra (the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra) seeks revenge for her father's murder, by plotting the assassinations of both her mother and her stepfather.", "''Ulysses'' 1954 1200–1150 BC Set in the aftermath of the Trojan War, based on the epic poem ''Odyssey'' by Homer.", "It depicts the ten-year struggle of war veteran Odysseus to return home to the island of Ithaca following the war.", "''The Odyssey'' 1968 1200–1150 BC Based on the epic poem ''Odyssey'' by Homer.", "''The Odyssey'' 1997 1200–1150 BC Set in the aftermath of the Trojan War, based on the epic poem ''Odyssey'' by Homer.", "It depicts the ten-year struggle of war veteran Odysseus to return home to the island of Ithaca following the war." ], [ "Films set in the Iron Age (1200 BC–500 BC)", " Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''Samson and Delilah'' 1949 1118–1078 BC A romantic biblical drama film which depicts the story of Samson, a strongman whose secret lies in his uncut hair, and his love for Delilah, the woman who seduces him.", "Samson and Delilah are characters in the Book of Judges, where Samson is depicted as the last of the Biblical judges in its narrative, and Delilah as a woman of Nahal Sorek who was bribed by the lords of the Philistines to learn his secrets.", "''Samson'' 2018 1118–1078 BC Samson is a 2018 Biblical drama film directed by Bruce Macdonald and inspired by the story of Samson in the Book of Judges.", "''Pharaoh'' 1966 1069 BC Set in Ancient Egypt during the reign of a fictitious king \"Ramses XIII\" (there were only 11 kings by that name).", "The film is based on the novel ''Pharaoh'' by Bolesław Prus, and depicts the final years of the historical Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt.", "Ramses XIII rises to the throne when still in his 20s, following the deaths of his father, and the incapacitating illnesses and (one suicide) of a number of older brothers.", "Egypt is in decline due to a combination of internal and external threats, and Ramses is pushing for necessary reforms but his efforts are resisted by the powerful, bureaucratic priesthood.", "Ramses dies young, before accomplishing his goals.", "His political rival \"Herhor\" (the historical Herihor) succeeds him on the throne and attempts some of the same reforms, but still fails to rescue Egypt from its decline.", "''King David'' 1985 1040–970 BC Set in the Southern Levant, it depicts the life and reign of David, Kings of Israel.", "Based on the ''Books of Samuel''.", "David is the supposed founder of the House of David (Davidic line).", "''A Story of David'' 1960 1040–970 BC Set in the Southern Levant, it depicts the complex relationship between Saul, Kings of Israel and his son-in-law and eventual successor David.", "Based on the ''Books of Samuel'', where Saul is depicted as the founder of the Kingdom of Israel.", "''David and Goliath'' 1960 1040–970 BC Set in the Southern Levant, focused on the conflict between rival kings Saul and Asrod, and their representatives in champion warfare: David and Goliath of Gath.", "Based on the ''Books of Samuel'', which depict Achish as a king of Gath who was in conflict with Saul and recruited David to serve in his army.", "''David and Bathsheba'' 1951 1040–970 BC Set in the Southern Levant, during the reign of David, Kings of Israel.", "David is married to Michal, daughter of his predecessor Saul.", "David has an extramarital affair with Bathsheba, wife of the soldier Uriah the Hittite.", "Uriah is one of David's Mighty Warriors (a group of soldiers personally loyal to David), but David arranges for Uriah to be killed in battle and then claims Bathsheba as his new wife.", "Based on the ''Books of Samuel''.", "''Solomon and Sheba'' 1959 1011–931 BC Set in the Southern Levant, during the reign of Solomon, Kings of Israel.", "Solomon forms a political alliance with the Queen of Sheba, becomes a lover of his new ally, and introduces pagan rituals in his kingdom.", "His exiled half-brother Adonijah offers his military services to Ancient Egypt and leads an Egyptian army in an invasion of Kingdom of Israel.", "The events of the film are loosely based on narratives from the Books of Kings and the Books of Chronicles.", "The Books of Kings depict Adonijah and Solomon as sons of David and rival claimants to the throne of Israel, but do not feature Adonijah as loyal to Egypt.", "Instead, Solomon himself is traditionally depicted as an ally of Egypt and as husband of a Pharaoh's daughter.", "''Sins of Jezebel'' 1953 874–853 BC Set in the Southern Levant, during the reign of Ahab, Kings of Israel.", "The film depicts the reign of the Omrides, based on Books of Kings and the Books of Chronicles.", "Jezebel, Ahab's queen consort, is depicted as having an extramarital affair with the military commander Jehu.", "This contradicts the traditional narrative, where Jezebel never has extramarital affairs and where she is assassinated by Jehu during the coup d'état which elevated him to the throne.", "''I Am Semiramis'' 1963 810 BC Set in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, during the reign of semi-legendary queen Semiramis.", "The legends are in part based on the historical Shammuramat, queen consort of Shamshi-Adad V and regent for her son Adad-nirari III.", "''King Lear'' (many adaptations) 1905– 800 BC Celtic Britain ''Romulus'' 2020– 800 BC Set in the 8th century BC, narrates the events preceding the founding of Rome.", "''Duel of the Titans'' 1961 753 BC Based on the story of Romulus and Remus, and the founding of the city of Rome and the Roman Kingdom.", "''The First King: Birth of an Empire'' 2019 753 BC Set in the 8th century BC, it is about the shepherd brothers Romulus and Remus and the founding of Rome.", "''Romulus and the Sabines'' 1961 750 BC Based on the Rape of the Sabine Women, an origin myth for the Roman Kingdom.", "Shortly after the founding of the kingdom and the start of the reign of Romulus, Rome still lacks a female population and its residents can not reproduce.", "Romulus organizes bride kidnappings from neighboring people, primarily targeting the Sabines.", "This leads to a war between the Roman and Sabines, and the eventual assimilation of the Sabines by the Romans.", "''The Rape of the Sabine Women'' 1962 750 BC Adaptation of the Roman foundation myth about the abduction of Sabine women by the Romans shortly after the foundation of the city of Rome.", "''Duel of Champions'' 1961 650 BC Based on the Roman legend of the Horatii, set in the reign of Tullus Hostilius.", "The Roman Kingdom is at war with the city of Alba Longa and the outcome will by decided by champion warfare.", "Rome sends three brothers from gens Horatia and Alba Longa sends three brothers from gens Curiatia gens.", "Publius Horatius emerges as the sole survivor of the combat, and Alba Longa is annexed by the Roman Kingdom.", "''War Gods of Babylon'' 1962 627 BC Set in the Neo-Assyrian Empire; focusing largely on Sardanapalus (probably the Greek name for Ashurbanipal, but anachronistically including Zoroaster (11th–10th century BC) and Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC).", "''The Book of Daniel'' 2013 605 BC In 605 B.C.", "Jerusalem was conquered by the Babylonians and many of their best young men were taken into captivity, including Daniel.", "''Queen of Babylon'' 1954 600 BC Set in the Neo-Babylonian Empire, depicts Semiramis as a Babylonian queen.", "''Tomyris'' 2019 600 – 530 BC The film is based on the story of Herodotus about the death of the Persian King Cyrus the Great during the war with Massagetae, which was commanded by the queen Tomiris.", "''The Beast of Babylon Against the Son of Hercules'' 1963 539 BC A fictionalized account of the downfall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and its conquest by the Achaemenid Empire under the Cyrus the Great.", "The cruel Balthazar (Belshazzar) has usurped the Babylonian throne and rules through state terrorism.", "He systematically offers young women as human sacrifice to his gods.", "Nippur, a descendant of former king Sargon II, fails to stop the usurper on his own.", "His life is saved by Zairus (Cyrus the Great) and he agrees to help the Persian king in his campaign to conquer Babylon.", "The historical Belshazzar was a son of king Nabonidus and served as a regent in his father's absence, but never became a king in his own right.", "During Cyrus' conquest, Nabonidus was captured and his life apparently spared, but Belshazzar may have died during the fall of the city.", "''Hero of Rome'' 1964 509 BC The story combines the Roman legends of Gaius Mucius Scaevola and the expulsion of king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.", "In the film, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus has already been deposed, and the Roman Kingdom has been replaced by a Roman Republic.", "Lars Porsena, King of Clusium wages war against the Republic in an attempt to restore his ally Tarquinius to the throne.", "The Roman Senate offers the military leadership to Gaius Mucius Scaevola, a recently released prisoner of war whose right hand is permanently disabled.", "Scaevola trains himself to fight with his left hand, and leads his troops to victory against Lars Porsena.", "''Coriolanus: Hero without a Country'' 1964 493 BC The Roman legend of Gaius Marcius Coriolanus.", "Coriolanus is a Roman general who distinguishes himself in a war between the Roman Republic and the Volsci.", "When the aristocratic Coriolanus proposes political reforms which will severely reduce the rights of the plebs, most of the Romans turn against him and he is exiled.", "The vengeful Coriolanus offers his military services to the Volsci, and leads an invasion army against Rome.", "Coriolanus refuses requests for a peaceful resolution by his former countrymen, but changes his mind when the Romans send his own mother and his wife as their representatives." ], [ "Films set in the Classical Era (500 BC – 600 AD)", " Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''The Giant of Marathon'' 1959 490 BC Greece: Battle of Marathon ''Esther and the King'' 1960 486–482 BC the biblical story of Esther ''One Night with the King'' 2006 486–482 BC the biblical story of Esther set in the Achaemenid Empire ''The 300 Spartans'' 1961 480 BC Greece: Battle of Thermopylae ''300'' 2007 480 BC Greece: Battle of Thermopylae ''300: Rise of an Empire'' 2014 480 BC Greece: Battle of Salamis ''Damon and Pythias'' 1961 400 BC Syracuse, Sicily ''Socrates'' 1971 399 BC A false accusation leads the philosopher Socrates to trial and condemnation in 5th century BC Athens.", "''Brennus, Enemy of Rome'' 1963 387 BC the Gallic sack of Rome ''Hercules'' 2014 358 BC An American action fantasy adventure film based on the graphic novel ''Hercules: The Thracian Wars'', which presents a realistic and more human version of Hercules.", "''Alexander the Great'' 1956 356–323 BC Ancient kingdom of Macedonia and Persia ''Alexander'' 2004 356–323 BC Ancient kingdom of Macedonia and Persia ''The Cleopatras'' 1983 305–30 BC Egypt – The entire Ptolemaic dynasty ''The Colossus of Rhodes'' 1961 280 BC Fictional account of the island of Rhodes during its Classical period in the late third century before coming under Roman control ''Revak the Rebel'' 1960 218 BC Iberian Peninsula immediately before the Second Punic War ''Cabiria'' 1914 (silent) 218–202 BC during the Second Punic War ''Jupiter's Darling'' 1955 218–202 BC during the Second Punic War ''Hannibal'' 1959 218–202 BC during the Second Punic War ''Hannibal – Rome's Worst Nightmare'' 2006 218–202 BC during the Second Punic War ''Siege of Syracuse'' 1960 214–212 BC the Roman Siege of Syracuse during the Second Punic War ''Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of Hannibal'' 1937 202 BC Battle of Zama which ended the Second Punic War ''Scipio the African'' 1971 185 BC About the later life of Scipio.", "''Carthage in Flames'' 1960 149–146 BC Depicts the last of the Punic Wars between the Roman Republic and Carthage.", "''The Centurion'' 1961 146 BC Battle of Corinth between Rome and the Achaean League ''Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire'' 2006 146 BC–410 AD From Tiberius Gracchus to the Sack of Rome (410).", "BBC Docu-drama.", "''Julius Caesar'' 2002 100–44 BC a bio-pic of Julius Caesar, '''not''' the Shakespeare play about his death and the aftermath ''Burebista'' 1980 82–44 BC The reign of King Burebista of Dacia (modern day Romania) ''Julius Caesar Against the Pirates'' 1962 75 BC loosely based on actual events from the early life of Julius Caesar.", "''Sins of Rome'' 1953 73–71 BC the Third Servile War in Rome ''Spartacus'' 1960 73–71 BC the Third Servile War in Rome ''Spartacus'' 2004 73–71 BC the Third Servile War in Rome ''Spartacus'' 2010–2013 73–71 BC the Third Servile War in Rome ''Caesar the Conqueror'' 1962 58–50 BC Julius Caesar leads the Roman army to battle against rebels in Gaul.", "''Druids'' 2001 58–51 BC the struggle between Julius Caesar and Vercingetorix in the Gallic Wars ''Giants of Rome'' 1964 52 BC The film involves a group of soldiers infiltrating the enemy's stronghold to locate and destroy a secret weapon prior to the Battle of Alesia.", "''Rome'' 2005–2007 52–30 BC from the end of the Gallic Wars to the death of Mark Antony and the beginning of the Principate ''Imperium: Augustus'' 2003 49 BC–14 AD Rome – the life of Augustus, the first emperor ''The Slave'' 1962 48 BC Unofficial sequel to Stanley Kubrick's 1960 film ''Spartacus'' ''A Queen for Caesar'' 1962 48 BC Egypt leading up to the arrival of Julius Caesar ''Caesar and Cleopatra'' 1945 48–47 BC Egypt during the stay of Julius Caesar ''Cleopatra'' 1917 48–30 BC Egypt and Rome – follows her relationships first with Julius Caesar and then with Mark Antony ''Cleopatra'' 1934 48–30 BC Egypt and Rome – follows her relationships first with Julius Caesar and then with Mark Antony ''Cleopatra'' 1963 48–30 BC Egypt and Rome – follows her relationships first with Julius Caesar and then with Mark Antony ''Cleopatra'' 1999 48–30 BC Egypt and Rome – follows her relationships first with Julius Caesar and then with Mark Antony ''Julius Caesar'' (many adaptations) 1908- 44–42 BC Shakespeare's play about the death and aftermath of this famous dictator ''Antony and Cleopatra'' (many adaptations) 1908- 44–30 BC Shakespeare's play about the relationship between Cleopatra and Mark Antony ''Serpent of the Nile'' 1953 44–30 BC Tells the story of the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra and her relationship with the Roman general Mark Anthony from just after the assassination of Julius Caesar.", "''Empire'' 2005 44 BC Covers the struggle of a young Octavius to become the first emperor of Rome.", "''Domina'' 2021 43–22 BC The life and rise of Livia Drusilla, the powerful wife of the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar.", "''The Cantabrians'' 1980 29 BC About the Cantabrian Wars during the final stage of the two-century long Roman conquest of Hispania.", "''The Caesars'' 1967 27 BC–68 AD Rome – the Julio-Claudian dynasty ''I, Claudius'' 1976 12 BC–54 AD Rome – the reigns and family life of the Julio-Claudians ''The Nativity Story'' 2006 4 BC Judea – The Biblical account of the nativity of Jesus, following the story of Mary and Joseph until the birth of Jesus occurs.", "''King of Kings'' 1961 4 BC to 30–33 AD Judea – Dramatization of the story of Jesus of Nazareth from his birth and ministry to his crucifixion and resurrection.", "''Jesus of Nazareth'' 1977 4 BC to 30–33 AD Judea – the life of Jesus Christ ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' 1979 6-4 BC to 30 AD Judea - Comedy parodying the life of Jesus Christ, through a man who lived his life parallel to Jesus.", "''Massacre in the Black Forest'' 1967 9 AD Germany – The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, where the Cherusci ambushed and annihilated three Roman legions.", "''Barbarians'' 2020 9 AD Series is a fictional account of events during the Roman Empire's occupation of Germania, and the resulting rebellion of the Germanic tribes led by Arminius.", "''Ben-Hur'' 1959 26–30 AD Based on the 1880 novel ''Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ'' by Lew Wallace ''Ben-Hur''201626–30 AD Based on the 1880 novel ''Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ'' by Lew Wallace ''The Last Temptation of Christ'' 1988 27–30 AD Judea – the life of Jesus Christ ''The Robe'' 1953 30–36 Rome – ending reign of Tiberius, the beginning of Caligula ''Pontius Pilate'' 1962 33 AD Judea – The events surrounding the Passion of Jesus Christ focusing on Pontius Pilate.", "''The Passion of the Christ'' 2004 33 AD Judea – The final 12 hours of Jesus Christ's life ''Risen'' 2016 33 AD Judea – Immediately after Jesus' crucifixion ''Barrabas'' 1961 33–64 Rome – ending reign of Tiberius, the reign of Nero ''Imperium: Saint Peter'' 2005 33–67 Saint Peter ''A.D.", "The Bible Continues'' 2015 33–41 Beginning with the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus, and continues with the first ten chapters of the Book of Acts.", "''The Inquiry'' 2006 37 Roman province of Judea shortly after the death of Jesus ''Caligula'' 1979 37–41 Rome – the reign of the third emperor ''Demetrius and the Gladiators'' 1954 41 Ancient Rome – the end Caligula reign ''Messalina'' 1951 41–48 Rome – about the reign of Messalina and Claudius ''Messalina'' 1960 41–48 Rome – about the reign of Messalina and Claudius ''Nero'' 2004 41–68 Rome – spanning the reigns of Claudius and Nero ''Britannia'' 2018 43 Set in AD 43, the series follows the Roman conquest of Britain ''St.", "Thomas'' 1975 52–72 Rome – low budget Indian film on the missionary work of Thomas the Apostle in India.", "''Quo Vadis'' 1951 54–68 Rome during the reign of Nero ''Quo Vadis'' 1985 54–68 Rome during the reign of Nero ''Quo Vadis'' 2001 54–68 Rome during the reign of Nero ''The Viking Queen'' 1967 60 Britain – loosely based on the revolt of Boudica ''Boudica'' 2003 60 Britain – a rebellion shortly after the area had been conquered by Rome ''Boudica'' 2023 60 Britain – a rebellion shortly after the area had been conquered by Rome ''Pompeii'' 2014 62–79 Pompeii in the days leading up to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius ''The Sign of the Cross'' 1932 64 Persecution of the Christians immediately after the Great Fire of Rome''The Dovekeepers'' 2015 70 Judea – the Siege of Masada during the First Jewish–Roman War ''Masada'' 1981 72–73 Roman province of Judea during the First Jewish–Roman War ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' 1950 79 Pompeii in the days leading up to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' 1959 79 Pompeii in the days leading up to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius ''Pompeii: The Last Day'' 2003 79 Docu-drama that tells of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius on August 24 79 AD ''Dacii'' 1967 86–87 Dacia (modern Romania) – Domitian's Dacian War ''The Apocalypse'' 2002 90–96 Rome – Ephesus ''Revolt of the Praetorians'' 1964 96 Rome – the assassination of Domitian ''The Column'' 1968 105–106 the Roman emperor Trajan conquering Dacia ''Centurion'' 2010 117 Roman Britain – the supposed fate of the Ninth Legion ''The Eagle'' 2011 140 Roman Britain – a young Roman man attempts to find out what happened to his father and the Ninth Legion ''Androcles and the Lion'' 1952 161 Rome – Based on the 1912 George Bernard Shaw play of the same name.", "''The Two Gladiators'' 1964 180–192 Rome during the reign of Commodus ''The Fall of the Roman Empire'' 1964 180–192 Rome during the reign of Commodus ''Gladiator'' 2000 180–192 Rome – spanning the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus ''The Magnificent Gladiator'' 1964 260–268 Rome during the reign of Gallienus ''Sheba and the Gladiator'' 1959 260–273 Rome and the Palmyrene Empire during the reigns of Aurelian and Zenobia ''Santa Barbara (film)'' 2012 273-306 Rome the story of Saint Barbara, a Christian martyr ''Sebastiane'' 1976 288 Rome Low-budget homo-erotic film about Saint Sebastian ''Constantine and the Cross'' 1962 306–312 Rome's first Christian emperor from the death of Constantius Chlorus to the Battle of the Milvian Bridge ''Katherine of Alexandria'' 2012 307 Roman province of Egypt shortly before the legalization of Christianity ''Fabiola'' 1949 312 Rome early in the reign of Constantine I ''The Fall of Rome'' 1963 337 Rome based on the persecution of Christians after the death of Emperor Constantine ''Augustine: The Decline of the Roman Empire'' 2010 354–430 Roman province of Africa – focusing on the life of Augustine of Hippo, and including the Vandal conquest of Carthage ''Agora'' 2009 360–415 Life and death of scientist/philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria and the destruction of the Library.", "''St.", "Patrick: The Irish Legend'' 2000 387–493 Ireland and Roman Britain during the life of Saint Patrick ''Roar'' 1997 400 Ireland – Celtic warriors attempt to repel a fictitious Roman invasion ''Hagbard and Signe'' 1967 5th century Scandinavia during the Germanic Heroic Age ''Arthur of the Britons'' 1972–1973 5th century Britain after the Roman withdrawal ''Sign of the Pagan'' 1954 406–453 Rome – the Huns conquests and the downfall of the Roman Empire ''Attila'' 1954 406–453 Rome – the Hunnic leader up to his retreat from the Po river ''Attila'' 2001 406–453 Rome – the life and death of the famous Hunnic leader ''Revenge of the Barbarians'' 1960 410 the Visigothic sack of Rome ''The Voyage Home'' 2004 415 Rome – loosely based on the 5th-century poem ''De reditu suo'' by Rutilius Claudius Namatianus ''Die Nibelungen'' 1924 450 about the Germanic hero Siegfried, his murder, and his widow's vengeance ''Die Nibelungen'' 1966–1967 450 about the Germanic hero Siegfried, his murder, and his widow's vengeance ''Ring of the Nibelungs'' 2004 450 about the Germanic hero Siegfried ''King Arthur'' 2004 452–467 the Roman withdrawal from Britain and the Battle of Mount Badon ''The Last Legion'' 2007 476–490 connecting (in heavily fictionalized fashion) the deposition of the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustus by Odoacer with the Battle of Mount Badon ''The Mists of Avalon'' 2001 late 5th – early 6th centuries heavily fictionalized story of King Arthur ''Lovespell'' 1981 6th century Britain and Ireland – adaptation of the Brythonic legend of Tristan and Iseult ''Fire and Sword'' 1982 6th century Britain and Ireland – adaptation of the Brythonic legend of Tristan and Iseult ''Tristan & Isolde'' 2006 6th century Britain and Ireland – adaptation of the Brythonic legend of Tristan and Iseult ''Grendel Grendel Grendel'' 1981 6th century animated film based on the 1971 novel ''Grendel'', retelling the Anglo-Saxon poem from the monster's perspective ''Beowulf & Grendel'' 2005 6th century Denmark in the Germanic Heroic Age – loose adaptation of the Anglo-Saxon poem of ''Beowulf'' ''Grendel'' 2007 6th century Denmark in the Germanic Heroic Age – very loose adaptation of the Anglo-Saxon poem of ''Beowulf'' ''Beowulf'' 2007 6th century Denmark in the Germanic Heroic Age – loose adaptation of the Anglo-Saxon poem of ''Beowulf'' ''Hamlet'' 1948 6th century Denmark in the Germanic Heroic Age – adaptation of the Shakespeare play based on the Danish legend of Amleth ''Hamlet'' 1964 6th century Denmark in the Germanic Heroic Age – this is a Russian adaptation of the Shakespeare play based on the Danish legend of Amleth ''Ophelia'' 2018 6th century Denmark in the Germanic Heroic Age – follows the story of Hamlet from Ophelia's perspective ''Prince of Jutland'' 1994 6th century Denmark in the Germanic Heroic Age – legend of Amleth from the Danish ''Gesta Danorum'' ''Teodora'' 1921 500–548 Byzantine empress Theodora ''Theodora, Slave Empress'' 1954 500–548 Byzantine empress Theodora ''The Last Roman'' 1968/1969 526–553 the Ostrogoths' struggle against the Byzantine emperor Justinian I and his generals Belisarius and Narses – adaption of a novel by Felix Dahn ''Sword of the Conqueror'' 1961 567–572 Alboin and the Lombard invasion of Italy ''Goliath and the Barbarians'' 1959 568 the Lombard invasion of Italy ''The Message'' 1976 570–632 Arabian Peninsula – the life of Muhammad ''The Messenger of God'' 2015 570–632 Arabian Peninsula – the life of Muhammad ''Omar'' 2012 595–644 the life of Omar ibn Al-Khattab, one of the companions of Muhammad" ], [ "Films set in the medieval era (600–1500)", "===Early Middle Ages (7th–10th centuries)=== Title Release date Time period Setting Notes''The Lady of Heaven''2021605–632ArabiaBiopic about Fatimah, daughter of the prophet Muhammad''681 AD: The Glory of Khan'' 1981 632–681 Bulgaria Epic about the fall of Old Great Bulgaria and the creation of First Bulgarian Empire; focuses on Kanasubigi Asparuh's life''Al Qadisiyya''1981636Sasanian EmpireDepicts the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah ''Redbad'' 2018 c.680–719 Frisia a Dutch drama film based on the life of Redbad, King of the Frisians, who is often considered the last independent ruler of Frisia before Frankish domination ''Outlander'' 2008 709 Scandinavia Loosely based on the Anglo-Saxon epic poem ''Beowulf'', adapted to a science-fiction backstory involving a spaceship crashing in Iron Age Norway ''Charlemagne, le prince à cheval'' 1993 768–800 France Charlemagne's reign up to his coronation as emperor in 800 ''Roland the Mighty'' 1956 778 France Roland, a knight of Charlemagne's court who was killed at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass''Erik the Conqueror'' 1961 786–806 England Two estranged brothers confront each other as rivals when war breaks out between Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the Vikings.", "''Vikings'' 2013–2020 793–825 Western Europe Series inspired by the sagas of Viking Ragnar Lothbrok, one of the best-known legendary Norse heroes and notorious as the scourge of England and France.", "''An Ancient Tale: When the Sun Was a God'' 2003 800 Poland The death of Popiel and the rise of Piast the Wheelwright''The Gaelic King'' 2017 800 Scotland Tells the story of warrior-king Alpin.", "When his young brother is captured, Alpin must hunt the kidnappers though a dark forest that hides an ancient evil.", "''Attack of the Normans'' 1962 early 9th century England set in England during the Viking Age (\"Normans\" in the title being used in its original continental sense, meaning \"Vikings\") ''Útlaginn'' 1981 9th century Iceland Adaptation of the saga of Gisli Sursson ''Pope Joan'' 1972 9th–11th century France, Italy Fictitious medieval legend of a woman who disguised herself as a man and rose to the status of Pope in the Middle Ages.", "''Pope Joan'' 2009 814–855 France, Italy Fictitious medieval legend of a woman who disguised herself as a man and rose to the status of Pope in the Middle Ages.", "''The Vikings'' 1958 860s England highly fictionalized account of the death of Ragnar Lodbrok and the subsequent invasion of Northumbria by two of his sons ''The Last Kingdom'' 2015–2022 866–late 9th century England Viking Age ''Alfred the Great'' 1969 870–899 England Alfred the Great, king of Wessex repels the army of Guthrum and begins the unification of England ''A Viking Saga'' 2008 870s Russia The Rus prince Oleg of Novgorod defeats Askold and Dir''The Northman'' 2022 895 Scandinavia Set in the Viking Age ''The Conquest'' 1996 896 Hungary About the Magyar settlement in Hungary ''When the Raven Flies'' 1984 897 Iceland Set in the Viking Age ''Pathfinder'' 1987 900 Finnmark Based on a Sami legend ''In the Shadow of the Raven'' 1988 900 Iceland Set in the Viking Age ''The 13th Warrior'' 1999 922 Kievan Rus' blends elements of the historical account of the travels of Ahmad ibn Fadlan (AD 922), the legend of Beowulf (6th century), and the Kurosawa film Seven Samurai ''The Last Kingdom: Seven Kings Must Die'' 2023 924-937 England Set in the Viking Age ''The Legend of Princess Olga'' 1983 950–1015 Kievan Rus' Olga of Kiev, the princess of Kievan Rus in the middle of the 10th century, the first of the Russian rulers to adopt Christianity.", "''Vikings: Valhalla'' 2022–2023 950–1066 Western Europe Set one hundred years after the events of ''Vikings'', the series chronicles the beginning of the end of the Viking Age, marked by the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066.", "''The Castilian'' 1963 930–970 Spain Ferdinand Gonzalez: an early hero of the Spanish Reconquista ''Viking'' 2016 976–1016 Kievan Rus' Biopic of Vladimir I of Kiev, the ruler of the Kievan Rus', depicting his year in exile after his father's death and his subsequent rise to power ''Gniazdo'' 1974 972 Poland about Mieszko I of Poland ''The Ceremony of Innocence'' 1970 978–1016 England a fictionalized version of the reign of Æthelred the Unready ''Prince Vladimir'' 2006 980–1015 Kievan Rus Vladimir I of Kiev ''The Long Ships'' 1964 982–990 Scandinavia, Africa A vagabond Viking adventurer and a Moor both compete to find \"The Mother of All Voices\", a legendary golden bell near the Pillars of Hercules.", "''White Viking'' 1991 995–1000 Iceland and Norway Set in the Viking Age during the reign of Olaf Tryggvason of Norway and his project to Christianize Norway and Iceland.", "''The Viking Sagas'' 1995 late 10th, early 11th centuries Iceland Borrows elements from several Icelandic sagas, most notably Laxdœla saga and Njáls saga===Films set in the 11th century=== Title Release date Time period Setting Notes ''The Viking'' 1928 1000 Norway, North America Leif Ericson and the expedition to North America ''Severed Ways'' 2009 1007 America Two Scandinavians left behind in North America after the settlements made by Leif Ericson were abandoned ''The Physician'' 2013 1021–1041 England - Kakuyid Persia In 11th-century England, a travelling barber surgeon attempted to supply medical care to the ordinary population decided to meet the famous doctor Ibn Sina in Isfahan, the most important school for aspiring practitioners in the world at that time.", "''William the Conqueror'' 2015 1034–1066 France the life of William of Normandy prior to the Norman conquest ''William the Conqueror'' 1982 1035–1066 France, England William the Conqueror from his recognition as Duke of Normandy to his coronation as King of England ''El Cid'' 1961 1040–1099 Spain / Kingdom of Castile Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, an 11th-century Spanish warrior known as El Cid ''El Cid'' 2020–2021 1040–1099 Spain / Kingdom of Castile Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, an 11th-century Spanish warrior known as El Cid ''Macbeth'' 1908 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1909 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1909 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1911 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1913 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1915 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''The Real Thing at Last'' 1916 1050s Scotland Satirical silent movie based on the play ''Macbeth'' ''Macbeth'' 1916 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1922 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1948 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1954 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Throne of Blood'' 1957 1050s Japan (Scotland) Transposes the plot of William Shakespeare's play ''Macbeth'' from Medieval Scotland to feudal Japan ''Macbeth'' 1960 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1960 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1961 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1971 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1979 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1981 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1982 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 1987 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 2004 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 2006 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 2010 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Macbeth'' 2015 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''The Tragedy of Macbeth'' 2021 1050s Scotland Scottish king Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ''Lady Godiva of Coventry'' 1955 1050s England an English noble woman who allegedly rode naked through the streets of Coventry in protest of unfair taxation ''1066: The Battle for Middle Earth'' 2009 1066 England The Norman Conquest of England through the eye of ordinary people in the village of Crowhurst''Valhalla Rising'' 2009 1069 Scandinavian Scotland, North America Follows a Norse warrior named One-Eye and a boy as they travel with a band of Christian Crusaders by ship in the hopes of finding the Holy Land.", "''The Crusaders'' 1911 1096–1099 Jerusalem Depicts the Siege of Jerusalem during the First Crusade ''The Mighty Crusaders'' 1958 1096–1099 Jerusalem Depicts the Siege of Jerusalem during the First Crusade ''Rytsarskiy roman'' 2000 1096–1099 Byzantine Empire First Crusade ''The Crusaders'' 2001 1096–1099 Italy and the Levant First Crusade===Films set in the 12th century=== Title Release date Time period Setting Notes''Vision'' 20091098–1179Holy Roman Empire The life of Benedictine nun and Medieval German Roman Catholic Saint Hildegard von Bingen ''Stealing Heaven'' 1988 1120 France Peter Abelard and Héloïse ''The Pillars of the Earth'' 2010 1120–1170 England during the civil wars between King Stephen and his cousin Maud ''Didgori: Land of Sacrificed Knights'' 2009 1121 Kingdom of Georgia Battle of Didgori, in which Georgia's king David IV defeated the Seljuks ''Destiny'' 1997 1126–1198 Spain about Averroes, the 12th-century philosopher from Muslim-controlled Andalusia in Spain whose commentaries would become a staple for subsequent generations of students of Aristotle in Europe ''The Devil's Crown'' 1978 1154–1216 England During the reigns of Henry II, Richard I and John ''Becket'' 1964 1155–1170 England archbishop Thomas Becket, once a close personal friend of Henry II''The Flame and the Arrow'' 1950 1155–1190 Northern Italy Dardo, a Robin Hood-like figure, and his loyal followers use a Roman ruin in Medieval Lombardy as their headquarters as they conduct an insurgency against their Hessian conquerors.", "''Nemanjić Dynasty: The Birth of the Kingdom'' 2018 1165–1227 Serbia Serbian historical drama television series about the Serbian medieval dynasty Nemanjići''Murder in the Cathedral''19511170EnglandFictionalized account of the last moment of Archbishop Thomas Becket immediately before his murder in the Canterbury Cathedral''Richard the Lionheart'' 2013 1173 England King Henry II decides to evaluate the courage of his son Richard the Lionheart, his possible successor.", "''Barbarossa'' 2009 1176 Northern Italy Battle of Legnano ''Arn – The Knight Templar'' 2007 1179–1187 Kingdom of Jerusalem a Swedish knight is sent to Jerusalem as penance while his lover languishes in a convent ''The Flowers of St. Francis'' 1950 1181–1226 Italy Francis of Assisi ''Francis of Assisi'' 1961 1181–1226 Italy Francis of Assisi ''Brother Sun, Sister Moon'' 1972 1181–1226 Italy Francis of Assisi ''Francesco'' 1989 1181–1226 Italy Francis of Assisi ''The Lion in Winter'' 1968 1183 Chinon, Angevin Empire (France) Henry II is in power as his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine plots with their sons ''The Lion in Winter'' 2003 1183 Chinon, Angevin Empire (France) Henry II is in power as his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine plots with their sons ''Kingdom of Heaven'' 2005 1183–1190 Kingdom of Jerusalem events which led to the Third Crusade (the Battle of Hattin and the Siege of Jerusalem) ''Soldier of God'' 2005 1187 Kingdom of Jerusalem a Templar who has survived the Battle of Hattin ''Saladin'' 1963 1187–1192 Levant events leading up to and including the Third Crusade ''Arn – The Kingdom at Road's End'' 2008 1187–1205 The Levant and Sweden following the Battle of Hattin, the knight returns home to Sweden and participates in the civil wars ''Richard the Lion-Hearted'' 1992 1189 Levant based on Sir Walter Scott's ''The Talisman'' and set in the Third Crusade''The Crusades'' 1935 1190–1192 Levant About the Third Crusade ''Richard the Lion-Hearted'' 1923 1190 Levant based on Sir Walter Scott's ''The Talisman'' and set in the Third Crusade ''Robin Hood'' 1912 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''Robin Hood'' 1922 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''The Adventures of Robin Hood'' 1938 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart after his release from captivity in 1194 ''The Story of Robin Hood'' 1952 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''The Arrows of Robin Hood'' 1975 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''Robin of Sherwood'' 1984 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''Robin Hood'' 1991 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves'' 1991 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart after his release from captivity in 1194 ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'' 1993 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''Robin Hood - fourth arrow'' 1997 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''The New Adventures of Robin Hood'' 1997 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''Robin Hood'' 2006 1190s England During the life of Richard the Lionheart ''King Richard and the Crusaders'' 1954 1191 Levant While leading the Third Crusade, King Richard Lionheart battles treachery in his own camp as well as the Saracens and their charismatic leader Saladin.", "''Ivanhoe'' 1913 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered''Ivanhoe'' 1913 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered''Ivanhoe'' 1952 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered''Ivanhoe'' 1958 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered''The Revenge of Ivanhoe'' 1965 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered''Ivanhoe'' 1970 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered''Ivanhoe'' 1982 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered''The Ballad of the Valiant Knight Ivanhoe'' 1983 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered''Young Ivanhoe'' 1995 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered ''Ivanhoe'' 1997 1192 England adaptation of the novel by Sir Walter Scott about the English knight who returns from the Third Crusade to find that his name has been falsely slandered ''Robin Hood'' 2010 1199 England from the death of Richard the Lionheart until the early reign of King John ''Robin and Marian'' 1976 1199–1201 England from the death of Richard the Lionheart until the early reign of King John===Films set in the 13th century=== Title Release date Time period Setting Notes ''Valley of the Bees'' 1968 13th century Kingdom of Bohemia The film follows a young man who's sent to join Teutonic order by his father.", "''Diriliş: Ertuğrul'' 2014 early-to-late 13th century Anatolia 13th century Turkish warrior Ertuğrul agrees to fight the enemies of Seljuk Sultan Ala ad-Din Kay Qubadh I in exchange for land when a good deed endangers his clan.", "It centres around the life of Ertuğrul, the father of Osman I, who was the founder of the Ottoman Empire ''The Last King'' 2016 1204 Norway Set during the civil war era in Norway during the 13th-century, centers on the efforts of the Birkebeiner loyalists to protect the infant, Haakon Haakonsson, the heir to the Norwegian throne after the death of his father, King Haakon Sverresson.", "''Gates to Paradise'' 1968 1212 France the ill-fated Children's Crusade ''Ironclad'' 2011 1215 England the siege of Rochester Castle during the First Baron's War ''Eye of the Eagle'' 1997 1218 Denmark Adventure film about the prince of Denmark stopping a conspiracy to seize the crown ''Ironclad: Battle for Blood'' 2014 1221 England A survivor of the Great Siege of Rochester Castle fights to save his clan from Celtic raiders.", "A sequel to the 2011 film, Ironclad.", "''The Tartars'' 1962 1236-1242 Kievan Rus' Mongol invasion of Russia ''Prince Daniil Galitsky'' 1987 1238–1253 Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia King Daniel of Galicia, the first King of Rus'.", "''King Danylo – Kingdom Of Swords'' 2018 1238–1253 Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia King Daniel of Galicia, the first King of Rus'.", "''Alexander Nevsky'' 1938 1241 North-eastern Europe Prince Alexander Nevsky and the Battle of the Ice ''The Adventures of Marco Polo'' 1938 1254–1325 China the Italian explorer who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan ''Marco Polo'' 1962 1254–1325 China the Italian explorer who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan ''Marco the Magnificent'' 1965 1254–1325 China the Italian explorer who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan ''Marco'' 1973 1254–1325 China the Italian explorer who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan ''Marco Polo'' 1975 1254–1325 China the Italian explorer who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan ''Marco Polo'' 1982 1254–1325 China the Italian explorer who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan ''Marco Polo'' 2007 1254–1325 China the Italian explorer who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan ''Marco Polo'' 2014 1254–1325 China the Italian explorer who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan ''Northern Crusades'' 1972 1260–1273 Prussia the Great Prussian Uprising against the Teutonic Knights during the Northern Crusades ''King Mindaugas (Valdžia)'' 1992 1263 Lithuania Two-part psychological costume drama about the life of Lithuanian king Mindaugas based on a play by Latvian playwright Mārtiņš Zīverts, aired by Lithuania's national broadcaster.", "''Knights of the Quest'' 2001 1271 Europe French knights journey to Greece to retrieve the Shroud of Turin ''Les ''Rois maudits'''' 1972 1285–1328 France the later Capetian dynasty and the arrest of the order of the Knights Templar and the seizure of their wealth by the French crown in 1307 ''''Les Rois maudits'''' 2005 1285–1328 France the later Capetian dynasty and the arrest of the order of the Knights Templar and the seizure of their wealth by the French crown in 1307 ''Knightfall'' 2017–2019 1291–1307 France recounts the success, fall, persecution, and suppression of the Knights Templar ''Braveheart'' 1995 1296–1305 Kingdom of Scotland William Wallace, a Scotsman who fought for Scotland's independence in the 1290s ''The Virgin Spring'' 1960 late 13th century Sweden adaptation of the 13th century Swedish ballad, ''Töres döttrar i Wänge''===Films set in the 14th century=== Title Release date Time period Setting Notes ''Kristin Lavransdatter'' 1995 early-to-mid-14th century Norway About a noblewoman with an arranged marriage who falls in love with someone else.", "''Kings of the Sun'' 1963 1300s Mexico On the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, the Native American tribe of chief Black Eagle clashes with the Mayan tribe of King Balam ''Outlaw King'' 2018 1304–1307 Scotland Robert the Bruce rebels against Edward I's rule over Scotland, thus becoming an \"outlaw\", depicts the Battle of Loudoun Hill ''The Bruce'' 1996 1305–1314 Scotland Robert the Bruce, who took over the rebellion against Edward \"Longshanks\" following the death of William Wallace in 1305 ''Robert the Bruce'' 2019 1306–1314 Scotland The story follows Robert the Bruce during the First War of Scottish Independence ''Tower of Lust'' 1955 1314 France Margaret of Burgundy, Queen of France ''Cathedral of the Sea'' 2018 1320–1370 Spain – Barcelona The action takes place in 14th century Barcelona at the height of the city's trade and military power in the Mediterranean, during the construction of Santa Maria del Mar serving as background to the story.", "''Anchoress'' 1993 1329 England Christina Carpenter, an anchoress from Shere, in southern England ''Journey to Mecca'' 2009 1325 Middle-East A dramatised documentary film charting the first real-life journey made by the Islamic scholar Ibn Battuta from his native Morocco to Mecca for the Hajj ''The Name of the Rose'' 1986 1327 Italy set in an Italian monastery ''The Name of the Rose'' 2019 1327 Italy Miniseries set in an Italian monastery.", "A dispute over the evangelical counsel of poverty between representatives of the Franciscan Order and the Avignon Papacy ''World Without End'' 2012 1327–1361 England A sequel to the 2010 miniseries The Pillars of the Earth, set in England at the outset of the Hundred Years War ''Kazimierz Wielki'' 1976 1333–1370 Poland Casimir III the Great of Poland ''The Decameron'' 1971 1348 Italy based on the novel ''Il Decameron'' by Giovanni Boccaccio.", "''Black Death'' 2010 1348 England During the initial outbreak of the plague ''The Seventh Seal'' 1957 1351 Sweden During the initial outbreak of the plague ''Du Guesclin'' 1948 1354–1380 France Bertrand du Guesclin, a Constable of France in the Hundred Years' War ''A Knight's Tale'' 2001 1356 England loose adaptation of ''The Knight's Tale'' by Geoffrey Chaucer, this tale is partially inspired by the exploits of William Marshall, but set in the 1350s (with mention made of Edward, the Black Prince and the Battle of Poitiers (1356)) ''A Walk with Love and Death'' 1969 1358 France near Paris and Meaux Angelica Huston in the turmoil of the Jacquerie ''The Dark Avenger'' 1955 1359 England Edward, the Black Prince ''Andrei Rublev'' 1966 1360–1430 Russia about the life of Andrei Rublev, who was considered to be the greatest medieval Russian painter of icons and frescoes ''John Wycliffe: The Morning Star'' 1984 1378–1384 England the life and teachings of John Wycliffe, the 14th-century English theologian who is often seen as a fore-runner of the Protestant Reformation ''The Reckoning'' 2003 1380 England A priest on the lam takes up with a traveling band of actors, who then discover a murder has occurred and try to solve it by recreating the crime in a play.", "''The Last Duel'' 2021 1386 FranceBased on the book The Last Duel: A True Story of Trial by Combat in Medieval France by Eric Jager.", "''Mircea'' 1989 1386–1418 Wallachia Mircea the Elder, who repelled the Ottoman Empire during his reign ''Boj na Kosovu'' 1989 1389 Serbia, Montenegro a battle between Medieval Serbia and the Ottoman Empire ''Banović Strahinja'' 1983 1389 Serbia a battle between Medieval Serbia and the Ottoman Empire ''An Age of Kings'' 1960 1398–1485 England TV series based on Shakespeare's plays depicting the lives of Richard II of England, Henry IV of England, Henry V of England, Henry VI of England, and Richard III of England ''The Hollow Crown'' 2012–2016 1398–1485 England series of films based on Shakespeare's plays depicting the lives of Richard II of England, Henry IV of England, Henry V of England, Henry VI of England, and Richard III of England ''The Canterbury Tales'' 1972 late 14th century England Based on the medieval narrative poem ''The Canterbury Tales'' by Geoffrey Chaucer.===Films set in the 15th century=== Title Release date Time period Setting Notes ''Tirante el Blanco'' 2006 15th century France and Constantinople Adaptation of the 1490 romance, ''Tirant lo Blanc'', about a French knight in the service of the Byzantine emperor in campaigns against the Ottoman Turks.", "''Chimes at Midnight (Falstaff)'' 1966 1400–1413 England William Shakespeare's recurring character Sir John Falstaff and the father-son relationship he has with Prince Hal ''John Hus'' 1977 1400–1415 Kingdom of Bohemia Biography of church reformer Jan Hus.", "''12 Paces Without a Head'' 2009 1401 Baltic Sea medieval German folk-hero Klaus Störtebeker, a pirate captain in the Baltic Sea who was said to have walked 12 paces after being decapitated by officials of the Hanseatic League ''Margrete: Queen of the North'' 2021 1402 Scandinavia The film is a fictionalised account of the Man from Graudenz, an impostor who in 1402 claimed to be the deceased King Olaf II/Olav IV of Denmark-Norway, son of the Margrete I of Denmark.", "''Jan Hus'' 2015 1402–1415 Kingdom of Bohemia Biography of church reformer Jan Hus ''Medieval'' 2022 1402–1419 Kingdom of Bohemia fictionalised account of Czech military commander Jan Žižka prior to the Hussite Wars ''The King'' 2019 1403–1420 England and northern France Henry V of England, depicts the Siege of Harfleur and the Battle of Agincourt ''Krzyzacy'' 1960 1406–1410 Central Europe the Battle of Grunwald ''Medici'' 2016–2019 1409–1492 Republic of Florence The series follows the Medici family, bankers of the Pope, during Renaissance Florence.", "''Jan Hus'' 1954 1412–1415 Kingdom of Bohemia Biography of church reformer Jan Hus.", "''Joan of Arc'' 1999 1412–1431 France Miniseries about Joan of Arc from her birth in 1412 until her execution in 1431 ''Henry V'' 1944 1413–1422 England and northern France Henry V of England's wars in France ''Henry V'' 1989 1413–1422 England and northern France Henry V of England's wars in France ''Jan Žižka'' 1955 1419–1420 Kingdom of Bohemia Biopic about Hussite reformer Jan Želivský.", "''Against All'' 1956 1420 Kingdom of Bohemia Hussite reformation.", "''Joan of Arc'' 1948 1426–1431 France Joan of Arc, the French heroine of the Hundred Years' War ''Saint Joan'' 1957 1429–1456 France The story of Joan of Arc, told from the perspective of Charles VII, from the time she first met him at court until 25 years after he executed her.", "''The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc'' 1999 1429–1431 France Joan of Arc, the French heroine of the Hundred Years' War ''Joan the Maiden, Part 1: The Battles, Part 2: The Prisons'' 1994 1429–1431 France Joan of Arc, the French heroine of the Hundred Years' War, from her first encounter with Charles VII until her execution ''The Silence of Joan'' 2011 1430–1431 France Joan of Arc, the French heroine of the Hundred Years' War, from her capture in late 1430 until her execution in 1431 ''The Passion of Joan of Arc'' 1928 1431 England The trial and execution of Joan of Arc ''Vlad Tepes'' 1979 1439–1476 Wallachia about prince Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia, who fought to repel the invading Muslim Ottoman Empire throughout his reign ''Dracula Untold'' 2014 1439–1476 Wallachia Origin story of Dracula, alter ego of prince Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia ''Dark Prince: The True Story of Dracula'' 2000 1439–1476 Wallachia about prince Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia, who fought to repel the invading Muslim Ottoman Empire throughout his reign ''Rise of Empires: Ottoman'' 2020 1444–1453 Constantinople the Fall of Constantinople to Mehmed the Conqueror, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ending the Byzantine Empire ''The Hour of the Pig'' 1993 1452 France A public defender in a remote, rural province finds himself expected to defend a pig in a murder trial ''Richard III'' 1912 1452–1485 England Richard III of England ''Richard III'' 1955 1452–1485 England Richard III of England ''Looking for Richard'' 1996 1452–1485 England Documentary film about William Shakespeare's ''Richard III'' ''The Life of Leonardo da Vinci'' 1971 1452–1519 Italy, France The life of the Italian Renaissance genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519).", "''Io, Leonardo'' 2019 1452–1519 Italy, France A journey in Leonardo da Vinci's mind.", "''Leonardo'' 2021 1452–1519 Italy Leonardo da Vinci accused of the murder of a fictional Caterina da Cremona.", "''The Conquest of Constantinople'' 1951 1453 Constantinople the Fall of Constantinople to Mehmed the Conqueror, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ending the Byzantine Empire ''Fetih 1453'' 2012 1453 Constantinople the Fall of Constantinople to Mehmed the Conqueror, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ending the Byzantine Empire ''The Black Arrow'' 1948 1455–1485 Englandadaptation of the Robert Louis Stevenson novel about the Lancastrian hero in the Wars of the Roses ''Black Arrow'' 1985 1455–1485 Englandadaptation of the Robert Louis Stevenson novel about the Lancastrian hero in the Wars of the Roses ''The Conclave'' 2006 1458 Papal StatesDepicting a tense, politically charged Papal conclave ''Isabel'' 2012–2014 1460–1504 SpainBiography about the Queen of Castile, Isabella the Catholic.", "''Tower of London'' 1939 1462–1483 Englandduring the reign of Edward IV of England ''The White Queen'' 2013 1464 Englandthe House of York and the House of Lancaster, are in violent conflict over the throne''Stephen the Great - Vaslui 1475''19751475MoldaviaBattle of Vaslui ''Leonardo'' 2011–2012 1475–1490 Italy Set in 15th-century Florence, the show follows the adventures of a teenage Leonardo da Vinci ''Da Vinci's Demons'' 2013–2015 1475–1490 ItalyHistorical fantasy drama series that presents a fictional account of Leonardo da Vinci's early life ''Maximilian and Marie De Bourgogne'' 2017 1477–1507 AustriaMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Mary of Burgundy ''The Hunchback of Notre-Dame'' (many adaptations) 1905- 1482 FranceVictor Hugo's novel, set in Paris.", "''Tower of London'' 1962 1483–1485 Englandduring the reign of Richard III of England ''The Shadow of the Tower'' 1972 1485–1509 Englandduring the reign of Henry VII of England ''The White Princess'' 2017 1485 England Elizabeth of York's marriage to Henry VII, as well as his early reign ''Princes in the Tower'' 2005 1490s Englandthe trial of Perkin Warbeck, who claimed to be prince Richard, rightful heir to the throne before his untimely death in the Tower as a child ''Christopher Columbus'' 1949 1492 New Worldthe discovery and conquest of the New World by Christopher Columbus ''Christopher Columbus'' 1985 1492 New Worldthe discovery and conquest of the New World by Christopher Columbus ''Christopher Columbus: The Discovery'' 1992 1492 New Worldthe discovery and conquest of the New World by Christopher Columbus ''1492: Conquest of Paradise'' 1992 1492–1506 New Worldthe discovery and conquest of the New World by Christopher Columbus ''The Borgias'' 1981 1492–1503 Italythe family life and papacy of Rodrigo Borgia, widely considered to be the epitome of papal corruption of the era ''Los Borgia'' 2006 1492–1503 Italythe family life and papacy of Rodrigo Borgia, widely considered to be the epitome of papal corruption of the era ''Borgia'' 2011 1492–1503 Italythe family life and papacy of Rodrigo Borgia, widely considered to be the epitome of papal corruption of the era ''The Borgias'' 2011 1492–1503 Italythe family life and papacy of Rodrigo Borgia, widely considered to be the epitome of papal corruption of the era ''Muhteşem Yüzyıl'' 2011–2014 1494–1566 Ottoman EmpireBased on the life of Ottoman Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent''Lucrèce Borgia''19531497–1501ItalyLucrezia Borgia from the annulment of her first marriage to Giovanni Sforza until her final marriage to Alfonso d'Este" ], [ "Renaissance era (1500–1700)", "===Films set in the 16th century=== Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''Viy'' 1967 16th century Soviet horror film set in 16th century Ukraine, based on the story of the same name by Nikolai Gogol.", "''Ever After'' 1998 early 1500s A modern interpretation of the Cinderella story, involving several historical figures like Francis I, King Henry (later Henry II of France) and Leonardo da Vinci ''The Man Who Laughs'' 1966 1500-1502 Set during the war between the Borgia family and Astorre Manfredi, prince of Faenza.", "''Prince of Foxes'' 1949 1500-1507 About fictional Andrea Orsini, a captain in the service of Cesare Borgia.", "''The Black Duke'' 1963 1500-1510 The domain of Cesare Borgia is opposed by Caterina Sforza.", "''Conspiracy of the Borgias'' 1959 1500-1510 Cesare Borgia and Lucrezia Borgia chasing a conspiracy document.", "''Don Juan'' 1926 1500-1510 Fictional Don Juan famous as a lover and pursued by many women, including the powerful Lucrezia Borgia.", "''Lucrezia Borgia'' 1912 1500-1510 Silent film about Lucrezia Borgia.", "''Lucrezia Borgia'' 1922 1500-1510 Silent film about Lucrezia Borgia.", "''Lucrezia Borgia'' 1935 1500-1510 French film about Lucrezia Borgia.", "''Lucrezia Borgia'' 1947 1500-1510 Argentine film about Lucrezia Borgia.", "''Meriota the Dancer'' 1922 1500-1510 Love affair between Cesare Borgia and the dancer Meriota.", "''A Season of Giants'' 1990 1500-1550 Depicts real life events of Michelangelo.", "''Lucrezia Borgia'' 1940 1501 Lucrezia Borgia's marriage to Alfonso d'Este ''Bride of Vengeance'' 1949 1501 Lucrezia Borgia's brother Cesare Borgia has her second husband Prince Bisceglie killed in order to marry her to Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara.", "''The Spanish Princess'' 2019 1501–1509 Catherine of Aragon ''Apocalypto'' 2006 1502 Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, the declining period of the Maya civilization.", "''La corona partida'' 2016 1504–1516 After the death of Queen Isabella I of Castile, both Ferdinand II of Aragon and Felipe el Hermoso fight to succeed her.", "''The Mandrake'' 1965 1504 Set in Florence in 1504, based on Niccolò Machiavelli's play.", "''Luther'' 2003 1505–1530 Martin Luther, from the time he became a friar until his trial before the Diet of Augsburg.", "''The Agony and the Ecstasy'' 1965 1508–1512 The painting of the Sistine Chapel.", "''A Princess of Destiny'' 1929 1509–1547 Henry VIII of England ''Henry VIII and His Six Wives'' 1972 1509–1547 Henry VIII of England ''Henry the Ache'' 1934 1509–1547 Short film burlesque of the 1933 film ''The Private Life of Henry VIII'' ''Condottieri'' 1937 1510–1520 Depicts the life of Giovanni delle Bande Nere, a famous 16th century Condottiero.", "''Nostradamus'' 1994 1510–1566 The life story of Nostradamus.", "''Sin'' 2019 1513 The life of the famous sculptor and painter of the Renaissance, Michelangelo Buonarroti of Florence, set immediately after the death of Pope Julius II.", "''Judgement'' 1970 1514 Rebellion of György Dózsa, Hungary.", "''When Knighthood Was in Flower'' 1922 1514–1515 The story of Mary Tudor, and her marriages to Louis XII and Charles Brandon.", "''The Sword and the Rose'' 1953 1514–1515 The story of Mary Tudor, and her marriages to Louis XII and Charles Brandon.", "''Emperor'' 2018 1516–1558 In the 16th century, a young woman asked Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor to help her in her revenge.", "''Henry VIII'' 1911 1520–1530 British silent historical film based on William Shakespeare and John Fletcher's play ''Henry VIII'' ''The Other Boleyn Girl'' 2003 1520–1536 Anne and Mary Boleyn ''The Other Boleyn Girl'' 2008 1520–1536 Anne and Mary Boleyn ''The Other Conquest'' 1998 1521 Mexico, depicting the secret adherence to traditional religious beliefs of the converted Aztec survivors.", "''Diane'' 1956 1523–1559 Based on the relationship between Diane de Poitiers and Henry II of France.", "''Diane de Poitiers'' 2022 1523–1559 The story of Diane de Poitiers and her destiny as the favorite of King Henry II of France.", "''Anna Boleyn'' 1920 1524–1536 Anne Boleyn, Queen Consort of King Henry VIII and the mother of Queen Elizabeth I.", "''Anne of the Thousand Days'' 1969 1524–1536 Anne Boleyn, Queen Consort of King Henry VIII and the mother of Queen Elizabeth I.", "''God's Outlaw'' 1986 1525 Depicts the historical figure of William Tyndale and his struggles with the authorities in the time of Henry VIII for translating the Bible into English.", "''The Headsman'' 2005 1525 An executioner in Tyrol (part of the Holy Roman Empire).", "''A Man for All Seasons'' 1966 1525–1535 Thomas More ''A Man for All Seasons'' 1988 1525–1535 Thomas More''The Profession of Arms''20011526Ludovico de' Medici and the War of the League of Cognac.", "''The Royal Hunt of the Sun'' 1969 1532 Francisco Pizarro's capture of Atahualpa, Sapa Inca.", "''Wara Wara'' 1930 1535 Romance set at the time of the Spanish conquest of Bolivia.", "''Carry On Henry'' 1971 1536–1540 Fictionalised story involving Henry VIII, ends with his marriage to Catherine Howard ''The Private Life of Henry VIII'' 1933 1536–1543 Henry VIII of England, from immediately after the execution of Anne Boleyn until his marriage to Catherine Parr.", "''Young Bess'' 1953 1536–1558 From the death of Anne Boleyn to the coronation of Elizabeth I of England.", "''The Return of Martin Guerre''19821542–1560Imposture of French peasant Martin Guerre in Artigat, France.", "''Jodhaa Akbar'' 2008 1542–1605 The love story of Mughal emperor Akbar the Great and Rajput princess \"Jodhaa\" i.e.", "Empress Mariam uz-Zamani.", "''Gunpowder, Treason & Plot'' 2004 1542–1605 The reigns of Mary, Queen of Scots and her son James I of England.", "''Firebrand''20231544–1547Catherine Parr, from her time as regent until the death of her husband Henry VIII.", "''Monarch'' 2000 1547 The final days of Henry VIII of England ''Ivan the Terrible'' 1944, 1958 1547–1569 Two-part film about Ivan IV of Russia, beginning with his coronation as Tsar of Russia and ending with the death of Vladimir of Staritsa.", "''The Prince and the Pauper'' (many adaptations) 1909- 1547 Mark Twain's novel, featuring a fictional portrayal of Edward VI of England.", "''The Return of Martin Guerre'' 1982 1548–1588 The case of Martin Guerre in France – a true case of identity theft.", "''Stars of Eger'' 1968 1552 During the Ottoman–Hungarian wars, after the Ottomans have taken Buda, the Hungarian Capital (in 1541), the siege of Eger (1552).", "''Tudor Rose (Nine Days a Queen)'' 1936 1553 About Lady Jane Grey, Queen Regnant of the Kingdom of England for nine days.", "''Lady Jane'' 1986 1553 About Lady Jane Grey, Queen Regnant of the Kingdom of England for nine days.", "''Elizabeth'' 1998 1554–1563 The early reign of Elizabeth I of England.", "''Mughal-e-Azam'' 1960 1556–1605 The Story of Akbar the Great, Mughal emperor and his son Jahangir.", "Jahangir's relationship with slave girl Anarkali is featured.", "''Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth'' 1912 1558–1603 Love affair between Elizabeth I of England and the Earl of Essex.", "''The Virgin Queen'' 1923 1558–1603 The reign of Elizabeth I of England.", "''The Virgin Queen'' 1928 1558–1603 The reign of Elizabeth I of England.", "''The Virgin Queen'' 1955 1558–1603 It focuses on the relationship between Elizabeth I of England and Sir Walter Raleigh.", "''Elizabeth R'' 1971 1558–1603 The reign of Elizabeth I of England.", "''The Virgin Queen'' 2005 1558–1603 The reign of Elizabeth I of England.", "''Aguirre, the Wrath of God'' 1972 1560 Lope de Aguirre's ill-fated expedition down the Amazon in search of El Dorado.", "''Mary, Queen of Scots'' 1971 1560–1587 Mary, Queen of Scots ''Queens: The Virgin and the Martyr'' 2017 1561 The rivalry between Mary, Queen of Scots and Elizabeth I of England ''Mary of Scotland'' 1936 1561–1587 Mary, Queen of Scots ''Das Herz der Königin'' 1940 1561–1587 Selective use of the life story of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her execution by Queen Elizabeth I for anti-English and pro-Scottish propaganda.", "''The crown is made of gold '' 1979 1561–1587 Mary, Queen of Scots ''Mary Queen of Scots'' 2013 1561–1587 Mary, Queen of Scots ''Mary, Queen of Scots'' 2018 1561–1587 Mary, Queen of Scots ''Dangerous Beauty'' 1998 1562–1583 The film is about Veronica Franco, a courtesan in 16th-century Venice who becomes a hero to her city, but later becomes the target of an inquisition by the Church for witchcraft.", "''The Mill and the Cross'' 2011 1564 Life in Flanders under Spanish Habsburg rule as depicted in Pieter Bruegel the Elder's 1564 painting The Procession to Calvary.", "''Tsar'' 2009 1566–1569 Film about Ivan IV of Russia during the Oprichnina and the Livonian War ''El Greco'' 2007 1567–1600 Greek biographical film about the life of the Greek painter of the Spanish Renaissance, Doménikos Theotokópoulos, known as El Greco.", "''Otello'' 1906 1570–1573 During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) fought for the control of the Island of Cyprus ''Othello'' 1922 1570–1573 During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) fought for the control of the Island of Cyprus ''Othello'' 1951 1570–1573 During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) fought for the control of the Island of Cyprus ''Othello'' 1955 1570–1573 During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) fought for the control of the Island of Cyprus ''Othello'' 1965 1570–1573 During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) fought for the control of the Island of Cyprus ''Otello'' 1979 1570–1573 During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) fought for the control of the Island of Cyprus ''Otello'' 1986 1570–1573 During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) fought for the control of the Island of Cyprus ''Othello'' 1995 1570–1573 During the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) fought for the control of the Island of Cyprus ''Anonymous'' 2011 1570–1604 Life of Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, an Elizabethan courtier, playwright, poet and patron of the arts, suggested as the actual author of William Shakespeare's plays.", "''Countess Dracula'' 1971 1570–1614 Based on the legends surrounding the \"Blood Countess\" Elizabeth Báthory.", "''Bathory'' 2008 1570–1614 Based on the story of Elizabeth Báthory, a Hungarian countess in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "''The Countess'' 2009 1570–1614 Based on the story of Elizabeth Báthory, a Hungarian countess in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "''La Reine Margot'' 1954 1572 France during the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.", "The massacre was part of the French Wars of Religion.", "''La Reine Margot'' 1994 1572 France during the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.", "The massacre was part of the French Wars of Religion.", "''The Princess of Montpensier'' 2010 1572 France during the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.", "The massacre was part of the French Wars of Religion.", "''Beatrice Cenci'' 1909 1577–1599 About the life events of Beatrice Cenci.", "''Beatrice Cenci'' 1926 1577–1599 About the life events of Beatrice Cenci.", "''Beatrice Cenci'' 1941 1577–1599 About the life events of Beatrice Cenci.", "''Beatrice Cenci'' 1956 1577–1599 About the life events of Beatrice Cenci.", "''Beatrice Cenci'' 1969 1577–1599 It depicts real life events of Francesco and Beatrice Cenci.", "''Elizabeth I'' 2005 1578–1603 The last 25 years of the reign of Elizabeth I of England.", "''Ermak'' 1996 1580–1690 Yermak Timofeyevich and the Russian conquest of Siberia.", "''Elizabeth: The Golden Age'' 2007 1585–1590 The reign of Elizabeth I of England and the Spanish Armada.", "''The Testament of Aga Koppanyi'' 1967 1586 Hungarian adventure film based on the eponymous novel by István Fekete.", "It talks about the adventourous life of the Hungarian soldiers in the Ottoman Hungary, during the Ottoman–Hungarian wars.", "''The Execution of Mary Stuart'' 1895 1587 The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.", "''Fire Over England'' 1937 1588 The Spanish Armada during the Anglo-Spanish War.", "''The Sea Hawk'' 1940 1588 The Spanish Armada during the Anglo-Spanish War.", "''''Will'' (TV series)'' 2017 1589 The young upstart actor/playwright William Shakespeare, a Catholic from the small town of Stratford, arrives in wild and turbulent Elizabethan era' London during a time of religious turmoil looking for fame and fortune.", "''Goltzius and the Pelican Company''20121590Dutch artist Hendrick Goltzius ''Bill'' 2015 1593–1598 Set during Shakespeare's \"lost years\" —the crucial period, long a mystery to scholars, covering his rise from obscurity in Stratford-upon-Avon to fame as a playwright in Elizabethan era' London.", "When hopeless lute player Bill Shakespeare leaves his family and home to follow his dream.", "It’s a tale of murderous kings, spies, lost loves, and a plot to blow up Queen Elizabeth I.", "''Shakespeare in Love'' 1998 1593 Fictional love affair involving playwright William Shakespeare and Viola de Lesseps while Shakespeare was writing ''Romeo and Juliet''.", "''Mihai Viteazul'' 1970 1593–1601 Michael the Brave, prince of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania.", "''The Merchant of Venice'' 2004 1596 Set in the Republic of Venice.", "The film focuses on the Venetian Ghetto.", "''Nova Zembla'' 2011 1596–1597 About the last journey of Willem Barentsz and Jacob van Heemskerk, when they and their crew attempted sail to the Indies via Northeast Passage over Russia.", "They were stranded on the island of Nova Zembla.", "''The Favourite of the Queen'' 1922 1596–1601 Elizabeth I of England ''The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex'' 1939 1596–1601 Elizabeth I of England and Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex.", "''Elizabeth the Queen'' 1968 1596–1601 Elizabeth I of England and Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex.", "''Galileo'' 1968 1597–1642 Depicts the life of Galileo Galilei and particularly his clash with the Catholic Church.===Films set in the 17th century=== Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''Shōgun'' 1980 1600- Miniseries adaptation of the novel by James Clavell, which is loosely based on the adventures of English navigator William Adams, who journeyed to Japan in 1600 and rose to high rank in the service of the shōgun.", "''Hamlet A.D.D.''", "2014 1602–future Re-imagines Hamlet Shakespeare's play as a bizarre and comical tour through the ages.", "The story begins in 1602 and leaps chronologically through time to the present, then into the distant future.", "''Gunpowder'' 2017 1603–1605 English Catholic Robert Catesby and the Gunpowder Plot ''Orlando'' 1992 1603– Set in the Elizabethan era, loosely based on Virginia Woolf's novel ''Orlando: A Biography''''Rembrandt''19361606–1669Life of Dutch painter Rembrandt ''The New World'' 2005 1607–1608 The colonization of Jamestown, Virginia''Captain John Smith and Pocahontas''19531607–1609Relationship between Captain John Smith and Pocahontas in Jamestown, Virginia''Galileo''19751609–1633Biopic about the life of Galileo Galilei, focusing on his conflict with the Catholic church ''1612'' 2007 1612 The Tsardom of Russia during the Time of Troubles ''All Is True'' 2018 1613–1616 later years in the life of William Shakespeare ''The Last Valley'' 1970 1618–1648 Set in the Kingdom of Germany, Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War.", "''Jamestown'' 2017–2019 1619–1622 The colonization of Jamestown, Virginia''Benedetta''20211619-1661About the life of Italian nun Benedetta Carlini''Squanto: A Warrior's Tale''19941620The life of Patuxet man Squanto and arrival of the ''Mayflower'' ''Molière'' 1978 1622–1673 The French playwright Molière ''Royal Affairs in Versailles'' 1954 1623 A historical film showing Palace of Versailles from its beginnings to the present day ''Day of Wrath'' 1943 1624 Loosely based on the case of alleged witch Anne Pedersdotter, and using a fictitious witchcraft trial as a metaphor for the then-current Nazi persecution of Jews.", "''The Three Musketeers'' Several adaptations (1903–2014) 1625–1673 Based on the novels (''The Three Musketeers'' and its sequels) by Alexandre Dumas.", "The protagonists are loosely based on historical figures Charles de Batz-Castelmore d'Artagnan, Armand d'Athos, Isaac de Porthau, and Henri d'Aramitz.", "''Cardinal Richelieu'' 1935 1626–1642 The life of the great 17th-century French statesman Cardinal Richelieu and his dealings with Louis XIII of France ''Silence'' 2016 1630s–1638 Jesuit priests from Portugal attempt to spread Catholic Christianity in Edo-era Japan ''Queen Christina'' 1933 1632–1654 Christina, Queen of Sweden ''Le Roi danse'' 2000 1632–1687 Jean-Baptiste Lully, an Italian immigrant to France and noted composer of Baroque music.", "''Black Robe'' 1991 1634 Jesuit missionary among the Hurons.", "''The Devils'' 1971 1634 The life and trial of Urbain Grandier, who was convicted of witchcraft and burned.", "He was blamed for the Loudun possessions.", "''The Devil's Whore'' 2008 1638–1660 The English Civil War and the reign of Oliver Cromwell ''Witchfinder General'' 1968 1640s Set during the English Civil War.", "A fictionalized depiction of Matthew Hopkins, a witch-hunter.", "''Admiral'' 2015 1640s–1650s The life of Michiel de Ruyter and the Dutch civil war ''A Field in England'' 2013 1640s During the English Civil War ''Barbara'' 1997 1640 Set in Faroe Islands.", "About a love triangle between the pastor for the parish of Vágar, his unfaithful wife, and her foppish lover.", "''Cromwell'' 1970 1640–1653 The English Civil War and the dissolution of the Rump Parliament''Cyrano''20211640–1655The life of Cyrano de Bergerac in early 17th century Paris ''Alatriste'' 2006 1643 Life of a Spanish soldier (Capitaine Alatriste) until the Battle of Rocroi.", "Based on the novel by Arturo Perez-Reverte ''Molière'' 2007 1645 The French playwright Molière ''The Libertine'' 2004 1647–1680 Life of the poet John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester ''With Fire and Sword'' 1999 1648–1654 The Khmelnytsky uprising in Ukraine against the control of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "It led to the period of the Commonwealth known as the Deluge.", "''To Kill a King'' 2003 1648–1658 The reign of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector.", "''Charles II: The Power and The Passion'' 2003 1649–1685 The reign of Charles II of England ''Restoration'' 1995 1649–1685 Set during the reign of Charles II of England ''The First Churchills'' 1969 1650–1722 A BBC serial about the life of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough and his wife, Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough ''The Deluge'' 1974 1655–1660 The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Second Northern War ''The Man in the Iron Mask'' 1977 1660–1667 Loosely based on the existence of the Man in the Iron Mask.", "Set in France in the reign of Louis XIV ''The Great Fire'' 2014 1666 Set during the Great Fire of London in England in 1666 ''Versailles'' 2015 1660s Fictionalized drama about the reign of King Louis XIV of France and the building of Versailles ''Cutthroat Island'' 1995 1668 A female pirate and her companion race against their rivals to find a hidden island that contains a fabulous treasure.", "''Colonel Wolodyjowski'' 1968 1668 The Ottoman invasion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, part of the Polish–Ottoman Wars.", "''Time of Violence'' 1988 1668 Bulgarian Christian region is selected by the Ottoman rulers to serve as an example of conversion to Islam ''England, My England'' 1995 1670–1695 Depicts the life of the composer Henry Purcell ''Vatel'' 2000 1671 France during the life of master chef François Vatel ''The Prince of Homburg'' 1997 1675 Adaptation of the Heinrich von Kleist play fictionalizing the deeds of Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg in the Battle of Fehrbellin against Sweden.", "The Battle was part of the Scanian War.", "''Witchhammer''19701678–1696Northern Moravia witch trials ''The Red Violin''19981681One section of the film is set in 1681 in Cremona ''A Little Chaos''20141682King Louis XIV of France and the design and construction of the Gardens of Versailles ''Peter the Great'' 1984 1682–1725 The reign of Peter I of Russia ''The Day of the Siege: September Eleven 1683 '' 2012 1683 Second Ottoman siege of Vienna.", "''The Cantor of St Thomas's'' 1984 1685–1750 German composer Johann Sebastian Bach ''The Crucible'' 1957 1692–1693 Dramatization of the Salem witch trials that took place in Province of Massachusetts Bay ''The Crucible'' 1996 1692–1693 Dramatization of the Salem witch trials that took place in Province of Massachusetts Bay ''Salem'' 2014 1692–1693 Loosely inspired by the real Salem witch trials in the 17th century ''The Draughtsman's Contract'' 1982 1694 Set during the reign of William III and Mary II in England.", "''Robinson Crusoe'' 1997 1694–early 18th century Robinson Crusoe flees Britain on a ship after killing his friend over love for the same woman.", "A fierce ocean storm wrecks his ship and leaves him stranded by himself on an uncharted island where he must fight for survival.", "''Tous les matins du monde'' 1991 late 17th century French composer Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe." ], [ "Films set in the industrial era (1700–1900)", "===Films set in the 18th century=== Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''Rákóczi hadnagya'' 1954 1708 Adventure movie in Hungary during Rákóczi's War of Independence (1703–11).", "''The Sovereign's Servant'' 2007 1709 The Battle of Poltava during the Great Northern War.", "''A Glass of Water''19601710Set in London during the War of Spanish Succession ''The Favourite'' 2018 1711 A frail Queen Anne occupies the throne and her close friend, Lady Sarah, governs the country in her stead.", "When a new servant, Abigail, arrives, her charm endears her to Sarah.", "''Rob Roy: The Highland Rogue'' 1953 1713 Scottish folk hero Robert Roy MacGregor ''Rob Roy'' 1995 1713 Scottish folk hero Robert Roy MacGregor ''Black Sails'' 2014–2017 1715–1726 Set roughly two decades before the events of Treasure Island and during the Golden Age of Piracy ''Farinelli'' 1994 1715–1740 Depicts the life of Farinelli, one of the most famous castrati''Our Flag Means Death''20221717Television series depicting the relationship between pirates Stede Bonnet and Blackbeard (Edward Teach) during the Golden Age of Piracy''Blackbeard, the Pirate''19521718British Navy Lieutenant Robert Maynard aboard pirate Blackbeard's ship.", "''Blackbeard'' 2006 1718 the infamous pirate Edward Teach ''Maria Theresia'' 2017 1723–1741 Depicts the life of the young Maria Theresa ''King of the Wind'' 1990 1727 Depicts the life of the Godolphin Arabian, an Arabian colt in 18th-century Kingdom of Great Britain during the reign of George II of Great Britain.", "''Of Love and Other Demons'' 2009 1730s Depicts the daily life in the colonial port-city of Cartagena de Indias, at the Viceroyalty of New Granada at a time of extreme religious intolerance (thanks to the Holy Inquisition) and slavery.", "''The Great King'' 1942 1740–1786 It depicts the life of Frederick the Great ''Maria Theresa'' 1951 1740–1780 Depicts the life of Maria Theresa ''Joseph Andrews'' 1977 1742 An adaption of the novel Joseph Andrews by Henry Fielding.", "''''Outlander'' (TV series)'' 2014 1743–ongoing Depicts events leading up to the Jacobite Rising of 1745 ''George Washington'' 1984 1743–1783 George Washington's life up to the American Revolutionary War ''The Scarlet Empress'' 1934 1744–1762 Catherine II of Russia ''The Rise of Catherine the Great'' 1934 1744–1762 Catherine II of Russia ''Young Catherine'' 1991 1744 Catherine II of Russia ''Catherine the Great'' 1995 1744–1762 Catherine II of Russia ''Ekaterina'' 2014–2019 1744–1782 Catherine II of Russia ''Catherine the Great'' 2015 1744–1782 Catherine II of Russia ''The Master of Ballantrae'' 1953 1745–1746 Jacobite Rising of 1745 ''Culloden'' 1964 1745–1746 Jacobite Rising of 1745 ''The Master of Ballantrae'' 1984 1745–1746 Jacobite Rising of 1745 ''The Great'' 2020 1745 Loosely based on the rise to power of Catherine the Great, Empress of All Russia ''Chasing the Deer'' 1994 1745–1746 Jacobite Rising of 1745 ''Mein Name ist Bach'' 2003 1747 Depicts Johann Sebastian Bach's visit to Frederick the Great in Potsdam, Prussia, when The Musical Offering was composed.", "''Horseman'' 2003 1747 Set in the borders between the regions of Bosnia and Dalmatia, the crossroads of the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice.", "It deals with issues relating to the region's native Croats as they struggle to live between two empires and two faiths: Catholicism and Islam.", "Also covers the possibility of a love affair between a Christian soldier and a Muslim noblewoman.", "''The Amazing Grace'' 2006 1748 Tells the story of John Newton's transformation from slave trader to Anglican priest; story is set in Calabar, Nigeria.", "''Plunkett & Macleane'' 1999 1748 Loosely based on The Gentlemen Highwaymen William Plunkett and Captain James MacLaine.", "They were highwaymen noted for their restrained and courteous behavior towards their victims.", "''Treasure Island'' 1934 1750 Adaptation of the famous pirate story by Robert Louis Stevenson ''Treasure Island'' 1950 1750 Adaptation of the famous pirate story by Robert Louis Stevenson ''Treasure Island'' 1972 1750 Adaptation of the famous pirate story by Robert Louis Stevenson ''Treasure Island'' 1990 1750 Adaptation of the famous pirate story by Robert Louis Stevenson ''Casanova'' 2005 1753–1757 Giacomo Casanova ''Lady Oscar'' 1979 1755–1789 The woman Oscar François de Jarjayes is raised as a man by her father, later gaining a career as a guard for Marie Antoinette.", "''A Tale of Two Cities'' 1911 1755–1792 England and France prior and during the French Revolution.", "''A Tale of Two Cities'' 1935 1755–1792 England and France prior and during the French Revolution.", "''A Tale of Two Cities'' 1958 1755–1792 England and France prior and during the French Revolution.", "''A Tale of Two Cities'' 1980 1755–1792 England and France prior and during the French Revolution.", "''A Tale of Two Cities'' 1980 1755–1792 England and France prior and during the French Revolution.", "''Amadeus'' 1984 1756–1791 Austria composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ''Barry Lyndon'' 1975 1756–1789 The Seven Years' War, etc.", "''The Last of the Mohicans'' 1936 1757 French and Indian War ''The Last of the Mohicans'' 1992 1757 French and Indian War ''Northwest Passage'' 1940 1757 French and Indian War and the ranger campaign of Robert Rogers ''Clive of India'' 1935 1757 Robert Clive, Commander-in-Chief, India and the Battle of Plassey.", "The Battle was part of the Carnatic Wars.", "''John Paul Jones'' 1959 1759-1792 Biographical adventure film about American Revolutionary War naval hero John Paul Jones.", "''The Mission'' 1986 1760–1763 Jesuit missionaries in South America ''Belle'' 2013 1761–1804 The true history of Dido Elizabeth Belle, a mixed–race daughter of British Naval officer John Lindsay and an African woman.", "She was taken to England by her father to be raised by his uncle, William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, as an aristocratic Lady, as befits her blood line.", "This forces Lord Mansfield, the Lord Chief Justice, to confront his own views on race, society and the antiquated laws of the time.", "''Mozart's Sister'' 2010 1763 The early life of Maria Anna Mozart, older sister of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.", "''Unconquered'' 1947 1763 Pontiac's War focusing on the Siege of Fort Pitt.", "''Brotherhood of the Wolf'' 2001 1764–1767 Based on a real-life series of killings that took place in France in the 18th century and on the famous legend of the Beast of Gévaudan ''Catherine the Great'' 2019 1764–1796 Catherine II of Russia ''Sons of Liberty'' 2015 1765–1776 A story about the Founding Fathers of the United States and the American Revolution.", "''A Royal Affair'' 2012 1766–1783 Set at the court of the mentally ill King Christian VII of Denmark, and focuses on the romance between his wife, Caroline Matilda of Great Britain, and the royal physician Johann Friedrich Struensee.", "''Napoléon (1955 film)'' 1955 1769–1821 French historical epic film that depicts major events in the life of Napoleon.", "''John Adams'' 2008 1770–1826 The story about the American Founding Father John Adams from the Boston Massacre in 1770 to his death in 1826.", "''Louis van Beethoven'' 2020 1770s–1827 Life of Ludwig van Beethoven, called Louis in family ''The Duchess'' 2008 1774–1806 The life of Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire ''Marie Antoinette'' 1938 1774–1792 Marie Antoinette, Queen consort of France ''Marie Antoinette Queen of France'' 1956 1774–1792 Marie Antoinette, Queen consort of France ''Marie Antoinette'' 2006 1774–1792 Marie Antoinette, Queen consort of France ''Marie Antoinette'' 2022 1774–1792 Marie Antoinette, Queen consort of France ''Drums Along the Mohawk'' 1939 1776 Settlers during the American Revolution.", "They are raided by a combined force of British, Loyalist, and Indian raiders.", "''1776'' 1972 1776 A musical retelling of the American Revolution's political struggle in the Continental Congress to declare independence.", "''The Crossing'' 2000 1776 George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River and the Battle of Trenton ''Revolution'' 1985 1776–1777 Fictionalized story of the American Revolution in New York ''La Fayette'' 1961 1776–1781 The film depicts the life of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, in particular his role in the American War of Independence.", "''The Patriot'' 2000 1776–1781 Based on the life of Francis Marion, an officer of the Continental Army officer during the American Revolutionary War.", "''Benedict Arnold: A Question of Honor'' 2003 1776–1782 Depicting Benedict Arnold, both an early hero of the American Revolution and a notorious defector.", "''Turn: Washington's Spies'' 2014–2017 1776–1814 American Revolutionary War ''The Queen's Necklace'' 1946 1780s Based on the Affair of the Diamond Necklace.", "Jeanne of Valois-Saint-Rémy, a descendant of the House of Valois and courtesan takes revenge by scamming Marie Antoinette, Cardinal de Rohan, and others.", "The scandal kindling the flames of the French Revolution.", "''Admiral Ushakov'' 1953 1780–1792 Portrays the career of Feodor Ushakov, a celebrated naval officer and contemporary of Horatio Nelson ''The Affair of the Necklace'' 2001 1780s Based on the Affair of the Diamond Necklace.", "Jeanne of Valois-Saint-Rémy, a descendant of the House of Valois and courtesan takes revenge by scamming Marie Antoinette, Cardinal de Rohan, and others.", "The scandal kindling the flames of the French Revolution.", "''Poldark'' 1975–1977 1781–1799 Adaptation of Winston Graham's novels set in Cornwall in the late 18th century ''Poldark'' 2015–2019 1781–1801 Adaptation of Winston Graham's novels set in Cornwall in the late 18th century ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' 1959 1782 Adaptation of 1782 French novel Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, originally set in pre-Revolution Paris.", "This adaptation is set in present-day France.", "''Dangerous Liaisons'' 1988 1782 Adaptation of 1782 French novel Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, set in pre-Revolution Paris ''Valmont'' 1989 1782 Adaptation of 1782 French novel Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, set in pre-Revolution Paris ''Dangerous Liaisons'' 2022 1782 Prequel of 1782 French novel Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, set in pre-Revolution Paris ''Ridicule'' 1996 1783–1794 On the brink of the French Revolution.", "A minor baron and engineer from Lyon tries to gain audience with King Louis XVI of France to fund drainage of the mosquito-infested swamps bringing sickness and death to his region.", "''The Liberator (film)'' 2013 1783–1830 Life of Simon Bolivar ''Jefferson in Paris'' 1995 1784–1788 A semi-fictional account of Thomas Jefferson's tenure as the Ambassador of the United States to France before his presidency and of his alleged relationships with British artist Maria Cosway and his slave, Sally Hemings.", "''Botany Bay'' 1953 1787 Fictional story about the First Fleet sailing to Botany Bay, New South Wales ''The Madness of King George'' 1994 1788 The deteriorating mental health of George III of the United Kingdom, King of Great Britain and Ireland ''George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation'' 1986 1788–1797 George Washington's life during his time as President of the United States.", "''Mutiny on the Bounty'' 1935 1789 the Mutiny on the Bounty ''Mutiny on the Bounty'' 1962 1789 the Mutiny on the Bounty ''The Bounty'' 1984 1789 The Mutiny on the Bounty ''Farewell, My Queen'' 2012 1789 Marie Antoinette, Queen consort of France ''La Révolution française'' 1989 1789–1794 French Revolution ''The Scarlet Pimpernel'' 1934 1792 French Revolution ''The Scarlet Pimpernel'' 1982 1792 French Revolution ''Madame Sans-Gêne'' 1961 1792–1811 Historical comedy drama during the reign of Napoleon ''Charlotte Corday''20081793Trial and execution of Charlotte Corday after her murder of Jean-Paul Marat.", "Marat was a Jacobin journalist and politician.", "''Danton'' 1983 1794 Conflict between Georges Danton and Maximilien Robespierre during the French Revolution.", "''La Pola'' 2010 1795–1822 Historical series which explored the life and the times of Policarpa Salavarrieta, also known as La Pola, Icon of Colombia, a Neogranadine seamstress who spied for the Revolutionary Forces during the Spanish Reconquista of the Viceroyalty of New Granada a woman who became one of the most important figures during the tumultuous years of the Colombian Declaration of Independence for preferring death instead of submission.", "''Napoléon (miniseries)'' 2002 1795–1821 Historical miniseries which explored the life of Napoleon Bonaparte ''Beau Brummell'' 1954 1795 Beau Brummell, a 19th-century arbiter of fashion in England who popularized the man's suit and necktie ''Kranthiveera Sangolli Rayanna'' 1967 1798–1831 Films are about Sangolli Rayanna, a prominent general from Karnataka, who fought against the East India Company until he was captured and executed in 1831.", "''Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna'' 2012 1798–1831 ''Attack from the Sea'' 1953 1798–1811 Russian naval commander Fyodor Ushakov during the Mediterranean campaign ''Northanger Abbey'' 1986 late 18th century (1798) adaptation of Jane Austen's 1817 novel set during the time Miss Austen wrote the novel.", "''Sleepy Hollow'' 1999 1799 Set in the years after the American Revolution, when a Headless Horseman haunted a little town, Sleepy Hollow, New York.", "''The Remains of Nothing'' 2004 1799 Eleonora Fonseca Pimentel ''Désirée'' 1954 1799–1815 The love story between Désirée Clary and Napoleon I ''Napoléon'' 1927 1799–1815 Napoléon I of France===Films set in the 19th century=== Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''Sense and Sensibility'' 1971 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1811 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Sense and Sensibility'' 1981 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1811 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Sense and Sensibility'' 1995 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1811 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Sense and Sensibility'' 2008 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1811 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1940 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1813 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1980 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1813 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1995 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1813 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Pride and Prejudice'' 2005 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1813 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Mansfield Park'' 1983 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1814 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Mansfield Park'' 1999 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1814 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Mansfield Park'' 2007 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1814 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Emma'' 1972 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1815 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Emma'' 1996 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1815 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Emma'' 1996 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1815 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Emma'' 2009 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1815 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Emma'' 2020 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1815 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Persuasion'' 1971 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1817 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Persuasion'' 1995 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1817 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Persuasion'' 2007 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1817 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Northanger Abbey'' 2007 early 19th century adaptation of Jane Austen's 1817 novel set during the Regency era in Great Britain ''Centennial'' 1979 19th century miniseries based on the James A. Michener novel chronicling the history of the American frontier in a fictional town in Colorado ''The Divine Lady'' 1929 1803–1815 Tells the story of the love affair between Horatio Nelson and Emma Hamilton ''That Hamilton Woman'' 1941 1803–1815 Set during the Napoleonic Wars, the film tells the story of the rise and fall of Emma Hamilton, dance-hall girl and courtesan, who married Sir William Hamilton, British ambassador to the Kingdom of Naples.", "''Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World'' 2003 1803–1805 During the Napoleonic Wars ''Vanity Fair'' 2004 1803–1814 The Napoleonic era ''War and Peace'' 1956 1803–1815 The Russian Empire during the Napoleonic era ''Eroica'' 2003 1804 first performance of Beethoven's third symphony ''The Duellists'' 1977 1804–1814 The Napoleonic Wars ''Tripoli'' 1950 1805 Battle of Derne ''Austerlitz'' 1960 1805 Portrays Napoleon in this film about his victory at the Battle of Austerlitz ''War & Peace'' 2016 1805–1812 The Russian Empire during the Napoleonic era ''Conquest'' 1937 1806–1816 The love story between Marie Walewska and Napoleon I ''Captain Horatio Hornblower R.N.''", "1951 1807 The Napoleonic Wars ''The Pride and the Passion'' 1957 1807–1814 The Napoleonic Wars, the Peninsular War in Spain ''Lady Caroline Lamb'' 1972 1810–1828 Lady Caroline Lamb, the British aristocrat, novelist and Lord Byron's lover''Mary Shelley''20171813–1821Depicts the affair between poets Mary Shelley and Percy Shelley ''Napoleon and Me'' 2006 1814 Principality of Elba during the Napoleonic Wars ''Waterloo'' 1970 1815 Battle of Waterloo during the Napoleonic Wars.", "''Les Misérables'' 1934 1815–1832 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy) ''Les Misérables'' 1935 1815–1832 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy) ''Les Misérables'' 1995 1815–1832 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy) ''Les Misérables'' 1998 1815–1832 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy) ''Les Misérables'' 2012 1815–1832 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy) ''Les Misérables'' 2018 1815–1832 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy) ''The Count of Monte Cristo'' 1934 1815–1838 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy) ''The Count of Monte Cristo'' 1975 1815–1838 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy) ''The Count of Monte Cristo'' 2002 1815–1831 France after Napoleon I (Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy); Unlike the first two films, this version states 1814 at the start.", "Dantes' plan happens over a three-year period, having been imprisoned for thirteen years, as is stated during the film.", "The ending is set shortly after Albert's sixteenth birthday, having been born in 1815.", "''Bright Star'' 2009 1818–1821 The last three years of poet John Keats' life ''Peterloo'' 2018 1819 based on the Peterloo massacre of 1819 ''In the Heart of the Sea'' 2015 1820–1850 the story of the whaleship ''Essex'' which inspired the writing of Moby-Dick ''The Greatest Showman'' 2017 1820–1860 Based on the story and life of P.T.", "Barnum, a famous showman and entertainer, and his creation of the Barnum & Bailey Circus ''The White Slave '' 2016 1821 In the newly formed Great Colombia, a Spanish plantation burns down and only the baby of some planters is saved.", "She is sent to Kingdom of Spain, but as an adult, she hatches a plan to return home and become an abolitionist.", "''El Santo de la Espada'' 1970 1821–1822 José de San Martín and the Spanish American wars of independence ''Bouboulina'' 1959 1821–1829 Laskarina Bouboulina, heroine of the Greek War of Independence ''The Revenant'' 2015 1823 American frontiersman Hugh Glass fights for survival in the unincorporated Dakotas ''Copying Beethoven'' 2006 1824 final years of Ludwig van Beethoven ''The Deceivers'' 1988 1825 British officer in India investigates the Thugee cult ''Mr.", "Turner'' 2014 1826-1851 Based on the last 25 years of the life of artist J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851) ''Immortal Beloved'' 1994 1827 aftermath of the death of Beethoven ''The Enigma of Kaspar Hauser'' 1974 1828–1833 The story of foundling Kaspar Hauser in the German Confederation.", "''Bleak House'' 2005 1830s Based on Charles Dickens' 1852–1853 novel ''The Devil's Violinist'' 2013 1830s Based on the life story of the 19th-century Italian violinist and composer Niccolò Paganini ''A Song to Remember'' 1945 1830–1849 Based on the life story of the Polish pianist and composer Frédéric Chopin ''La Note bleue'' 1991 1830–1849 Based on the life story of the Polish pianist and composer Frédéric Chopin ''Impromptu'' 1991 1830–1849 Based on the life story of the Polish pianist and composer Frédéric Chopin ''Chopin: Desire for Love'' 2002 1830–1849 Based on the life story of the Polish pianist and composer Frédéric Chopin ''Disraeli'' 1916 1830–1880 It details the life and times of Benjamin Disraeli, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom ''Disraeli'' 1921 1830–1880 It details the life and times of Benjamin Disraeli, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom ''Disraeli'' 1929 1830–1880 It details the life and times of Benjamin Disraeli, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom ''The Prime Minister'' 1941 1830–1880 It details the life and times of Benjamin Disraeli, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom ''Disraeli'' 1978 1830–1880 It details the life and times of Benjamin Disraeli, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom ''The Horseman on the Roof'' 1995 1832 Second cholera pandemic in July Monarchy France ''Young Mr. Lincoln''19391832–1837Early career of future president Abraham Lincoln''Miss Marx''20201833–1898Story of the daughter of Karl Marx, Eleanor Marx ''The Alamo'' 1960 1836 Battle of the Alamo during the Texas Revolution.", "''Victoria in Dover'' 1936 1836 Young Queen Victoria meets her future husband Prince Albert ''Victoria in Dover'' 1954 1836 Young Queen Victoria meets her future husband Prince Albert ''Victoria the Great'' 1937 1836–1861 Life of Queen Victoria ''The Young Victoria'' 2009 1836–1840 Early reign of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and her marriage to Albert, Prince Consort ''Sixty Years a Queen'' 1913 1837–1901 Life of Queen Victoria ''Victoria Regina'' 1961 1837–1897 Life of Queen Victoria ''Victoria'' 2016–2019 1837–1850s Life of Queen Victoria ''Amistad'' 1997 1839–1841 Mutiny aboard La Amistad, a ship containing slaves from Africa.", "The ship had left Havana and was bound for Camagüey, both ports being in Spanish Cuba.", "The film follows the ship's entry into United States custody and the subsequent trial.", "The case was resolved by the trial United States v. The Amistad.", "''How the West Was Won'' 1962 1839–1889 United States expansion into and settlement of the West.", "''Belgravia'' 2020 1840 British society during the early Victorian era ''The Emigrants'' 1971 1840s The Swedish immigrants in Minnesota''Ammonite''20201840sThe romance between British paleontologist Mary Anning and Charlotte Murchison ''Livingstone'' 1925 1840–1871 Depicts the life of the African missionary David Livingstone ''David Livingstone'' 1936 1840–1871 Portrays the expedition of the British explorer David Livingstone to Africa ''Song of Love'' 1947 1840–1856 The marriage of Robert and Clara Schumann and their close friendship with Johannes Brahms.", "All three were notable composers.", "''12 Years a Slave'' 2013 1841–1853 The story of free African American Solomon Northup after he was abducted and sold into slavery.", "Based on the autobiography of the same name ''Edward the Seventh'' 1975 1841–1910 The life of Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.", "''Alias Grace''20171843The story of Grace Marks, a maid who allegedly murder her employer and his wife in 1843''The Young Karl Marx''20171844–1848Karl Marx''To Walk Invisible''20161845–1848Based on the later lives of the Brontës as they wrote and published their written works.", "''Angelique's Isle''20181845Based on the story of Angelique Mott, an Anishnaabe woman and her voyageur husband Charlie Mott who were stranded on Isle Royal in Lake Superior during the Ontario copper rush ''Harriet'' 2019 1840s–1863 biographical film about Harriet Tubman ''Gangs of New York'' 2002 1846–1863 New York City prior and during the American Civil War.", "The events occur in the crime- infested neighborhood of Five Points, Manhattan.", "The film opens in 1846 with a conflict between a Nativist gang and the Dead Rabbits.", "The action then moves forward to the 1860s with the Nativists still active and involved with William M. Tweed, \"boss\" of Tammany Hall.", "The action culminates in the New York City draft riots of 1863.", "''80 Hussars'' 1978 1848 Hungarian movie about the 1848–49 Revolution and War of Freedom in Hungary.", "Under the leadership of Farkas Paál a small Hussar troupe escapes from Poland to Hungary to join the Independence war against the Habsburgs.", "Their adventurous journey is full of thousands of dangers.", "''The Sea Has Risen'' 1953 1848–49 Epic Hungarian movie in Communist style about the 1848–49 Revolution and War of Freedom in Hungary, and about the great Hungarian poet Sándor Petőfi.", "Known with the title: Föltámadott a tenger ''Men and Banners'' 1965 1848–49 Epic Hungarian movie about the 1848–49 Revolution and War of Freedom in Hungary.", "Known with the title A kőszívű ember fiai ''Flowers of Reverie'' 1984 1849 Hungarian movie which talks about the time after the defeat of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Surrender at Világos '' Dead or Alive'' 1980 1851 Hungarian movie which talks about the failed assassination by Gáspár Noszlopy on Franz Joseph I of Austria''The Sisters Brothers''20181851Takes place during the California Gold Rush ''The Empress'' 2022 1853 Historical drama series on the life of Empress Elisabeth of Austria.", "''Eureka Stockade'' 1949 1854 Peter Lalor and the Eureka Rebellion, a gold miners' rebellion at the ''Eureka Stockade'' (Ballarat, Australia).", "''Mountains of the Moon'' 1990 1854–1864 Journey of Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke in their expedition to Central Africa and the rivalry that followed ''The Charge of the Light Brigade'' 1968 1854 The disaster of the Crimean War known as the Charge of the Light Brigade.", "It took place within the Battle of Balaclava.", "''Sissi'' 1955 1854 It is the first installment in the trilogy of films about Empress Elisabeth of Austria, nicknamed Sissi.", "''Sisi'' 2021 1854–1860 TV series about Empress Elisabeth of Austria, nicknamed Sissi.", "''Sisi & I'' 2023 1854–1860 Fictionalised story of Empress Elisabeth of Austria from the point of view of her lady-in-waiting, Irma Sztáray.", "''Sissi – The Young Empress'' 1956 1855–1856 Sissi adapts to life as Empress of Austria.", "''Dickinson''20191856–1862A TV series on the early life of American poet Emily Dickson, taking place in part during the American Civil War ''Sissi – Fateful Years of an Empress'' 1957 1857–1860 Last film in the Sissi trilogy.", "''Quanto è bello lu murire acciso'' 1976 1857 Failed rising organized by Carlo Pisacane in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ''Garibaldi'' 1961 1860 Giuseppe Garibaldi leads a military campaign known as the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860''The Leopard''19631860The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies during the ''Risorgimento'' ''Sixty Glorious Years'' 1938 1861–1901 Life of Queen Victoria, sequel to the 1937 film ''Victoria the Great'' ''Ride with the Devil'' 1999 1861–1864 depicts the activities of pro-Confederate Bushwhackers, guerrilla fighters, in Missouri during the American Civil War ''Cold Mountain'' 2003 1861–1864 A couple in North Carolina is separated during the American Civil War and try to find each other again.", "''Gone with the Wind'' 1939 1861–1877 Georgia during the American Civil War and the Reconstruction Era.", "''Mrs Brown'' 1997 1861–1883 The relationship between Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and her personal servant John Brown.", "''Gods and Generals'' 2003 1861–1863 The American Civil War from the outset of the war to the Battle of Chancellorsville ''Glory'' 1989 1862–1863 The American Civil War from the Battle of Antietam to the Second Battle of Fort Wagner ''Copperhead'' 2013 1862 based on novel by Harold Frederic, set in upstate New York during the American Civil War ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' 1966 1862 Two bounty hunters in an uneasy alliance against a third attempt to find a stash of hidden Confederate gold in New Mexico in the middle of the chaos of the American Civil War ''Gettysburg'' 1993 1863 The Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War ''Lillie'' 1978 1863–1929 British television about Lillie Langtry ''Wyatt Earp'' 1994 1863–1884 Events leading up to and following the Gunfight at the O.K.", "Corral ''Dances with Wolves'' 1990 1863–1870 Fictional story set during the American Civil War and its aftermath in the American West, interaction with the Lakota Sioux ''Ludwig'' 1973 1864–1886 Life and death of King Ludwig II of Bavaria.", "''Lincoln'' 2012 Early 1865 Events chronicling the last few months of the life of President of the United States Abraham Lincoln.", "''The Conspirator'' 2011 April 1865 Based on the events of the aftermath of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.", "''Hell on Wheels'' 2011–2016 1865–1867 based on the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad.", "''Senso''19541866An Italian countess as an affair with an Austrian soldier in Venice during the Third Italian War of Independence ''Tommy's Honour'' 2016 1866–1876 The complex and bittersweet relationship between the pioneering and legendary Scottish golfing champions Old Tom Morris and Young Tom Morris.", "''Riel'' 1979 The activities of Louis Riel, a Métis in both the Red River Rebellion of Manitoba and the North-West Rebellion in the District of Saskatchewan.", "''The Lone Ranger'' 2013 1869 The Lone Ranger and his sidekick Tonto bring justice to the wild west.", "''Stanley and Livingstone'' 1939 1870–1871 Welsh reporter Sir Henry M. Stanley's quest to find Dr. David Livingstone ''Lust for Life'' 1956 1870–1890 The life of the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh ''Vincent & Theo'' 1990 1870–1890 About the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh and his brother Theo ''News of the World'' 2020 1870 based on the 2016 American Western novel ''Lonesome Dove'' 1989 1870s the closing years of the Old West ''Daniel Deronda'' 2002 1870s based on George Eliot's 1876 novel''Citizen Kane'' 1941 Chronicles the life of fictional yellow journalist Charles Foster Kane.", "''Young Winston'' 1972 1874–1902 The biography Winston Churchill before he became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War II.", "''Quigley Down Under'' 1990 1874 A Sharpshooter from Wyoming is hired by an Australian rancher paying a very high price.", "But when Quigley arrives Down Under, all is not as it seems.", "''Cannibal!", "The Musical'' 1993 1873-1883 Comedic musical retelling the story of cannibal Alferd Packer.", "''Centennial Summer'' 1946 1876 Set in Philadelphia at the time of the Centennial Exposition ''Wild Bill'' 1995 1876 The last days of legendary lawman Wild Bill Hickok ''The Last Samurai'' 2003 1876–1877 Events in the wake of the Meiji Restoration in the Empire of Japan, 1876–1877 ''Corsage'' 2022 1877 Empress Elisabeth of Austria nearing her 40th birthday ''Ned Kelly'' 1970 1878–1880 British-Australian biographical film of 19th-century Australian bushranger Ned Kelly ''Ned Kelly'' 2003 1878–1879 Biographical film of Ned Kelly based on the historical novel ''Our Sunshine'' ''Warrior'' 2019– 1878 set during the Tong Wars in San Francisco ''Zulu Dawn'' 1979 1879 The Battle of Isandlwana during the Anglo-Zulu War ''Zulu'' 1964 1879 The Battle of Rorke's Drift during the Anglo-Zulu War ''The English Game'' 2020 1879–1883 early association football in Great Britain ''The Great McGonagall'' 1974 1880s Humorous biopic of the Scottish poet William McGonagall''The Current War''20171880–1893 the 19th-century competition between Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse over which electric power delivery system would be used in the United States (often referred to as the \"war of the currents\").", "''Thousand Pieces of Gold'' 1991 1880s Chinese immigrant woman in the American Old West.", "''Thariode: The Lost City'' TBA 1880s Based on the 2019 documentary film \"Thariode\" by Nirmal Baby Varghese.", "History of gold mining in Thariode, one of the most ancient cities of Malabar region, British India on 19th century.", "''Canadian Pacific''19491880sFollows surveyors for the Canadian Pacific Railroad ''The Miracle Worker'' 1962 1880–1887 The early childhood of Helen Keller, her infancy contraction of blindness and deafness and Anne Sullivan's arrival ''Unforgiven'' 1992 1881 set in the American Old West ''Tombstone'' 1993 1881–1884 Events leading up to and following the Gunfight at the O.K.", "Corral ''The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford'' 2007 1881–1892 The end of Jesse James' career as a criminal and the man who eventually kills him, Robert Ford in 1882''The Electrical Life of Louis Wain''20211881–1930The life of English artist Louis Wain ''The Gilded Age'' 2022 1882 society in New York City during the Gilded Age ''The Four Feathers'' 1939 1882–1888 During the British Army's Nile Expedition ''The Four Feathers'' 2002 1882–1888 During the British Army's Nile Expedition''Wilde''19971882–1897Oscar Wilde ''Khartoum'' 1966 1884 Charles George Gordon defense of the Sudanese city of Khartoum from the forces of the army of Muhammad Ahmad during the Siege of Khartoum.", "Muhammad Ahmad had proclaimed himself to be the Mahdi.", "''Tesla'' 2020 1884-1900 Biographical drama film about Nikola Tesla '' Houdini'' 2014 1884-1926 Miniseries about the life of the legendary illusionist and escape artist Harry Houdini from poverty to worldwide fame.", "''The Mudlark'' 1950 1885 A fictional account of how Queen Victoria was eventually brought out of her mourning for her dead husband, Prince Albert.", "''Arms and the Man''19581885Takes place during the Serbo-Bulgarian War ''Melba (film)'' 1953 1886-1900 Musical biopic drama film of the life of Australian-born soprano Nellie Melba ''Geronimo: An American Legend'' 1993 1886 Events leading up to the capture of Geronimo, a prominent Apache leader during the Apache Wars.", "''Freud'' 2020 1886 Depicts early career of Sigmund Freud, centred around a fictional criminal case in Vienna ''Princess Kaiulani'' 2009 1887–1898 based on the life of Princess Kaiulani of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi ''Victoria & Abdul'' 2017 1887–1901 About the real-life relationship between Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and her Indian Muslim servant Abdul Karim ''Mayerling'' 1968 1888–1889 Based on the Mayerling Incident, a series of events leading to the apparent murder–suicide of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria and his lover Baroness Mary Vetsera.", "''At Eternity's Gate'' 2018 1888–1890 the final years of painter Vincent van Gogh's life''The Illusionist'' 2006 1889 tells the story of a magician in turn-of-the-century Vienna''Man of God'' 2021 1889 brings to life the incredible true story of Saint Nectarios of Aegina, Greece.", "''Van Gogh'' 1991 1890 Set in 1890, the film follows the last 67 days of Vincent van Gogh's life ''Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee'' 2007 1890 Wounded Knee massacre ''Woman Walks Ahead'' 2017 1890 the story of Catherine Weldon, a portrait painter who travels from New York to Dakota to paint a portrait of Sitting Bull ''The English'' 2022 1890 an Englishwoman travels to the American West ''The Prestige'' 2006 1890s rival stage magicians in Victorian London ''Colette'' 2018 1890s Based upon the life of the French novelist Colette ''Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid'' 1969 1890s–1908 Covers the activities of Butch Cassidy and Harry Longabaugh, prominent members of Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch.", "The Wild Bunch was a loosely organized outlaw gang from Wyoming.", "''Loving Vincent''20171890–1891The circumstances of Vincent Van Gogh's death and aftermath ''Heaven's Gate'' 1980 1892 Covers the Johnson County War''Hostiles'' 2017 1892 A U.S. Cavalry officer who must escort a Cheyenne war chief and his family back to their home in Montana''Lizzie''20181892The Lizzie Border murders ''Gandhi'' 1982 1893–1947 Biopic about the life and activism of Mahatma Gandhi''Mao Zedong''20131893–1949 Television series about Mao Zedong, from his childhood to the foundation of the People's Republic of China''Radioactive''20191893–1934Biopic about the life and scientific discoveries of Marie Curie''An Officer and a Spy''20191894Depicts the events of the Dreyfus Affair''The Last Czars''20191894–1918Docudrama miniseries about the reign of Tsar Nicholas II from his coronation until his assassination ''El Presidente''20121896–1964 Philippine Revolution and the final years and death of President Emilio Aguinaldo ''Entente cordiale'' 1939 1898–1904 Depicts events between the Fashoda crisis in 1898 and the 1904 signing of the Entente Cordiale creating an alliance between Britain and France and ending their historic rivalry ''Rough Riders'' 1997 1898 Depicts The Battle of San Juan Hill, part of the Spanish–American War ''A merénylet (The assassination)'' 2018 1898 Depicts the tragic assassination of Empress Elisabeth of Austria ''Heneral Luna''20151898–1899 The Second Phase of the Philippine Revolution and the heroism of General Antonio Luna''Trotsky'' 2017 1898–1918 Biographical television miniseries about Leon Trotsky ''There Will Be Blood'' 2007 1898—1927 Epic drama set during the Southern California Oil Boom, loosely based on the book Oil!", "''Ohm Krüger'' 1941 1899 The film depicts the life of the South African politician Paul Kruger and his eventual defeat by the British during the Boer War ''Gold'' 2013 1899 the Klondike Gold Rush in the Yukon Territory''Newsies''19921899Based on the Newsboys' strike of 1899 in New York City" ], [ "Films set in the modern era (1900–1949)", " Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''The Knick'' 2014 1900 Doctors, Nurses, and others work at The Knickerbocker hospital ''55 Days at Peking'' 1963 1900 Depicts the Battle of Peking during the Boxer Rebellion.", "''Breaker Morant'' 1980 1901 An Australian Lieutenant, Harry \"Breaker\" Morant, who ordered the summary execution of several prisoners during the Second Boer War ''The Godfather Part II'' 1974 1901–1958 Second installment in ''The Godfather'' trilogy, the film serves as both a sequel and a prequel to ''The Godfather'' ''The Battle of Port Arthur'' 1980 1904–1905 The film depicts the fiercest battles in Siege of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War 1904 - 1905.", "''Nicholas and Alexandra'' 1971 1904–1918 Covers the last 14 years of the life and reign of Nicholas II of Russia, last Emperor of Russia.", "Includes the events of World War I, the Russian Revolution, the Russian Civil War and the shooting of the Romanov family.", "''A Dangerous Method'' 2011 1904–1912 Covers personal and professional relationships between Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud and Sabina Spielrein ''Rosa Luxemburg'' 19861904–1919Biography Of Marxist And Anti-War Activist Rosa Luxemburg and her assassination in 1919.", "''The Battleship Potemkin'' 1925 1905 The Russian battleship ''Potemkin'' uprising, part of the Revolution of 1905 in the Russian Empire.", "''The Real Glory'' 1939 1906 Moro Rebellion ''The Passion of Marie'' 2012 1910 Biopic about Marie, the wife of Danish painter Peder Severin Krøyer ''Tolkien'' 2019 1890s–1930s Biopic about the life of J. R. R. Tolkien ''Titanic'' 1943 1912 the ''Titanic'' disaster ''Titanic'' 1953 1912 the ''Titanic'' disaster ''A Night to Remember'' 1958 1912 the ''Titanic'' disaster ''S.O.S.", "Titanic'' 1979 1912 the ''Titanic'' disaster ''Titanic'' 1997 1912 the ''Titanic'' disaster ''Titanic'' 2012 1912 the ''Titanic'' disaster ''War Horse'' 2011 1912–1918 journey of a horse raised by a British teenager during World War I ''Reds'' 1981 1912–1920 Russian Revolution ''Doctor Zhivago'' 1965 1912–1923 World War I, the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War ''Iron Jawed Angels'' 2004 1913–1920 American women's suffrage movement during the 1910s ''Gallipoli'' 1981 1914–1915 Gallipoli Campaign of World War I ''Flyboys'' 2006 1914–1917 Focusing on the Lafayette Escadrille, a unit of American volunteer combat pilots in service for the Allies of World War I.", "''Admiral'' 2008 1914–1917, 1964 Covers the last three years of the naval career of Alexander Kolchak, a vice-admiral in the Imperial Russian Navy and leader of the anti-communist White Movement during the Russian Civil War.", "The film also depicts the love triangle between the Admiral, his wife, and the poet Anna Timiryova.", "''All Quiet on the Western Front'' 1930 1914–1918 Western Front of World War I ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' 1979 1914–1918 Western Front of World War I ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' 2022 1914–1918 Western Front of World War I ''A Very Long Engagement'' 2004 1914–1920s Western Front of World War I ''La Masseria Delle Allodole'' 2007 1915 Set during World War I in the Ottoman Empire, depicting the Armenian genocide.", "''Ararat'' 2002 1915 Based on the Defense of Van in 1915, an Armenian insurgence in the Ottoman Empire during the Armenian genocide.", "''The Promise'' 2017 1915 The Armenian genocide''Renoir''20121915–1919Biopic about French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir focusing on the last four years of his life ''Shimon Haber'' 2008 1915–1919 Development and usage of Chemical weapons in World War I ''Sinking of the Lusitania: Terror at Sea'' 2007 1915 The Sinking of the RMS Lusitania''Rebellion''20161916Miniseries dramatization of the Easter Rebellion in Dublin ''Lawrence of Arabia'' 1962 1916–1918 T. E. Lawrence and the Arab Revolt in the Ottoman Empire.", "''Michael Collins'' 1996 1916–1922 Later life of Irish resistance leader Michael Collins and his participation in the Irish War of Independence and the Irish Civil War.", "''1917''20191917European theatre of World War I ''The Lighthorsemen'' 1987 1917 Battle of Beersheba in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I.", "''Stalin'' 19921917–1953 Brutal Career and Corruption of Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin ''Erna i krig'' 2020 1918 A woman disguises herself as a man to join the army in order to protect her educationally subnormal son who has been called up to fight in World War I ''The Wind Rises'' 2013 1918–1945 The life of Jiro Horikoshi ''The Lost Battalion'' 1919 1918 Covers the fate of the Lost Battalion, units of the 77th Infantry Division.", "The units under the command of Major Charles White Whittlesey penetrated deep into the Forest of Argonne in France during World War I.", "They were trapped and surrounded by the German Army.", "''The Lost Battalion'' 2001 1918 Covers the fate of the Lost Battalion, units of the 77th Infantry Division.", "The units under the command of Major Charles White Whittlesey penetrated deep into the Forest of Argonne in France during World War I.", "They were trapped and surrounded by the German Army.", "''1918'' 1985 1918 Written by Horton Foote, depicts life in Texas and the devastating effect of the great flu epidemic of 1918.", "''La Vie en Rose'' 2007 1918–1963 Biopic of French singer Édith Piaf ''The Wind that Shakes the Barley'' 2006 1919–1923 The Irish War of Independence and the Irish Civil War ''Chariots of Fire'' 1981 1919–1924 British runners face prejudice and compete in the 1924 Summer Olympics.", "The runners are Eric Liddell and Harold Abrahams.", "Liddell was a Scottish man and Abrahams was A British Jew.", "''Al Capone''19591919–1929Biopic of American gangster Al Capone from the beginning of his career in 1919 until his arrest in 1929''Rebel in the Rye''20171919–1951Biopic of American author J.D.", "Salinger, from his childhood until the publication of his debut novel ''Catcher in the Rye'' in 1959 ''Evita'' 1996 1919–1952 Biopic of Eva Perón, First Lady of Argentina.", "''J.", "Edgar'' 2011 1919–1972 Life and career of J. Edgar Hoover, Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation from 1935 to 1972.", "''The Wind that Shakes the Barley''20061920–1923War film set during the Irish War of Independence and Irish Civil War ''Maria Cano'' 1990 1920s Life of Maria Cano a Colombian poet and writer who was the country's first female political leader.", "Called the \"Flor del trabajo\" (Labor flower), Cano led the struggle for basic civil rights and for the rights of salaried workers.", "She was the leader of several workers' strikes Anastasia 1956 1920s Based upon theories on the survival of Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia and the activities of Anna Anderson.", "Anderson was the most famous of the Romanov impostors.", "''Vita & Virginia''20181920sDepicts the relationship between Virginia Woolf and Vita Sackville-West''A Real Vermeer''20151920sBiopic about Dutch art forger Han van Meegeren ''Legionnaire'' 1998 1920–1926 Rif War ''The First of the Few'' 1942 1922–1936 Aerospace engineer R.J. Mitchell designs the Spitfire despite his failing health.", "''Little Ashes''20081922–1938Depicts the love affair between artist Salvador Dalí and poet Federico García Lorca ''Frida'' 2002 1922–1953 A biography of artist Frida Kahlo''Rosewood''19971923Depicts the Rosewood massacre ''Bertie and Elizabeth'' 2002 1923–1952 Explores the relationship between King George VI and his wife Queen Elizabeth from their first meeting to the King's death in the winter of 1952.", "''The King's Speech'' 2010 1924–1939 The quest of George VI, King of the United Kingdom to overcome his stammer.", "''Togo'' 2019 1925 the story of Togo, a lead dog during the 1925 serum run to Nome''Inherit the Wind''19601925Fictionalized account of the Scopes Trial in Tennessee ''The Ogre'' 1996 1925–1945 The account of a simple Frenchman caught up in the events of World War II.", "He involuntarily serves in the French Army, spends time as a prisoner of war in East Prussia, and gets hired to take care of the animals in the local estate of Hermann Göring.", "When fired, the Frenchman finds a new job at nearby Kaltenborn Castle, a Nazi Germany military academy for boys.", "He gets tasked with recruiting children to serve the cause.", "Continuing service while Nazi Germany deteriorates and East Prussia faces a Soviet invasion.", "''Death Defying Acts'' 2007 1926 An episode in the life of Hungarian-American escapologist Harry Houdini at the height of his career in the 1920s.", "''Murderous Maids''20001926–1933Set in Le Mans, France, tells the story of two French maids, Christine and Léa Papin who murdered their employer in 1933.", "''Hacksaw Ridge'' 2016 1926–1945 Early life and World War II experiences of Desmond Doss ''Downton Abbey'' 2019 1927 film sequel to the television series of the same name''Ma Rainey's Black Bottom''20201927A fictional story about real blues singer Ma Rainey, taking place during a single recording session.", "''The Aviator'' 2004 1927–1947 Biopic about Howard Hughes, an aviation pioneer, director, and successful film producer.", "''Changeling''20081928Based on the Wineville Chicken Coop murders ''Downton Abbey: A New Era'' 2022 1928 film sequel to the television series of the same name ''Phar Lap'' 1983 1928–1932 Biography about the New Zealand-born Australian racehorse Phar Lap ''The Imitation Game'' 2014 1928–1950 British cryptanalyst Alan Turing, who decrypted German intelligence messages for the British government during the Second World War ''Lion of the Desert'' 1981 1929–1931 About the struggle of Libyan rebels under Omar Mukhtar against the Italian Royal Army in the years leading up to World War II.", "''Joe MacBeth'' 1955 1930s Modern retelling of Shakespeare's ''Macbeth'', set in a 1930s American criminal underworld.", "''Mildred Pierce'' 2011 1930s based on the 1941 novel, set during the Great Depression ''Richard III'' 1995 1930s Adapts Richard III story and characters to a setting based on 1930s Britain, with Richard depicted as a fascist plotting to usurp the thron''Mank''20201930–1940Biopic about screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz and the development of the screenplay for ''Citizen Kane'' ''Henry & June'' 1990 1931 Biopic about two writers Henry Miller and Anais Nin ''Hugo (film)''20111931A young boy discovers the history of early filmmaking ''Rabbit-Proof Fence'' 2002 1931 Australia's Stolen Generations ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'' 2000 1931 Set in Savannah, Georgia, during the Great Depression; loosely based on the Bhagavad Gita.", "The story starts by setting a background.", "A noteworthy golf player went off to fight in World War I.", "He returned a decorated veteran but traumatized by the deaths of his unit in battle.", "He then sank into a life of habitual alcohol intoxication.", "In 1931, there is to be an exhibition match between famous golfers Bobby Jones and Walter Hagen.", "The veteran is asked to participate and compete against them.", "A mysterious man volunteers to be his caddie, helping the veteran to come to grips with his personal demons and play golf again.", "''Road to Perdition'' 2002 winter 1931 A film set in Illinois during the Great Depression, and featuring Prohibition Era-organized crime figures.", "The protagonist is a mob enforcer for an Irish mob boss.", "The son of the boss wants to kill him, however, and manages to kill his wife and one of his sons.", "The protagonist and his remaining son escape to Chicago, attempting to find new work under Al Capone and his Chicago Outfit.", "Underboss Frank Nitti rejects the offers of the protagonist to join them.", "Nitti also contacts the Irish mob boss and they agree to have the protagonist killed.", "Starting an escalating conflict.", "''Perry Mason'' 2020 1931–1932 a fictional detective in Depression-era Los Angeles, based on the award-winning series of the same name broadcast from 1957 to 1966''Christopher and His Kind''20111931–1952Biopic about playwright and novelist Christopher Isherwood, focusing on his years in Berlin before the Second World War ''Bonnie and Clyde'' 1967 1931–1934 About the exploits of Bonnie and Clyde, American outlaws and robbers during the Great Depression.", "''Frances'' 19821931–1958Life of actress Frances Farmer ''Last Man Standing'' 19961932During Prohibition in the United States, gun-wielding mercenary John Smith, arrives at the small town Jericho, Texas, close to the Mexico–United States border.", "He plays on both sides in a gang war between the Irish Mob and the American Mafia, while scheming to eliminate both gangs.", "The film is a loose remake of ''Yojimbo'' (1961), which was set in Japan during the Tokugawa shogunate.", "The original film was a loose adaptation of the novels ''Red Harvest'' (1929) and ''The Glass Key'' (1931) by Dashiell Hammett.", "''Gosford Park'' 2001 1932 murder mystery set at an English country house during the Interwar period ''The Grand Budapest Hotel'' 2014 1932 (1968, 1985) Two men team up to try and make a fortune ''King Kong (2005 film)'' 2005 1933 A greedy film producer assembles a team of moviemakers and sets out for the infamous Skull Island.", "''Public Enemies'' 2009 1933–1934 Set during the Great Depression, it chronicles the final years of the notorious bank robber John Dillinger.", "''Race'' 2016 1933-1936 The life of Jesse Owens who won four gold medals during Athletics.", "''The First Lady'' 2022 1933–2017 It portrays life and family events of three first ladies of the United States: Eleanor Roosevelt, Betty Ford, and Michelle Obama.", "''Murder on the Orient Express'' 2017 1934 murder mystery set aboard the Orient Express train traveling from Istanbul to London''The Highwaymen''20191934Film about two Texas Rangers tasked with apprehending Bonnie and Clyde ''The National Anthem'' 1999 1934–1935 Set in Shanghai during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria and the resulting conflict.", "''A Pearl in the Forest'' 2008 1934–1938 Set during the Great Purge initiated by Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union.", "The film focuses on the spillover effects of the Purge on the Mongolian People's Republic, a satellite state of the Soviet Union.", "''The Gathering Storm''20021934–1939Biopic about British prime minister Winston Churchill in the years leading up to the outbreak of World War 2 ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' 1984 1935 In 1935, Indiana Jones arrives in India, still part of the British Empire, and is asked to find a mystical stone.", "''Cinderella Man'' 2005 1935 biographical sports film about American boxer James J. Braddock ''Atonement'' 2007 1935–1940 A romantic suspense war film.", "Opening in the interwar period of the United Kingdom, during the late 1930s, and continuing to the early days of World War II.", "The film opens in 1935 with the interactions between the girls of the wealthy Tallis family and their cousin Lola on one side, and a lower class-man by the name of Robbie Turner on the other.", "When Lola gets raped, Robbie gets blamed for the act, arrested, and imprisoned.", "Four years later, Robbie is released on condition of serving in the British Army as part of the British Expeditionary Force on the areas of the French Third Republic.", "''Olga'' 2004 1935–1942 The relationship between German-Brazilian communist militant Olga Benário and Luís Carlos Prestes, one of the main leaders of the opposition against Brazilian dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas.", "''Elvis''20221935–1956Biopic about the early life and career of Elvis Presley ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'' 1981 1936 In 1936, archaeologist and adventurer Indiana Jones is hired by the U.S. government to find the Ark of the Covenant.", "''Unbroken'' 2014 1936–1998 The life of Louis Zamperini.", "''The Hindenburg'' 1975 1937 The Hindenburg disaster at Naval Air Station Lakehurst, New Jersey.", "''O Brother, Where Art Thou?''", "2000 1937 set in 1937 rural Mississippi during the Great Depression.", "Its story is a modern satire loosely based on Homer's epic poem ''The Odyssey'' that incorporates mythology from the American South ''Seabiscuit'' 2003 1937 Race horse Seabiscuit''I Saw the Light''20151937–1953Biopic about country singer Hank Williams ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' 1989 1938 An art collector appeals to Jones to embark on a search for the Holy Grail.", "''The Good Shepherd'' 2006 1938–1961 Rise of Central Intelligence Agency's counterintelligence, leading up to the Bay of Pigs Invasion ''Voyage of the Damned'' 1976 1939 Based on the events of the MS ''St.", "Louis'' ''The Dig'' 2021 1939 The 1939 excavation of Sutton Hoo ''Hyde Park on Hudson'' 2012 1939 The 1939 visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to Roosevelt's country estate.", "''The Last Bastion'' 1984 1939–1945 Australia during World War II ''Schindler's List'' 1993 1939–1945 German industrialist Oskar Schindler's efforts to keep Jewish people from being interred in Nazi concentration camps during World War II.", "''The Pianist'' 2002 1939–1945 World War II experiences of Polish-Jewish pianist/composer and Holocaust survivor Władysław Szpilman''Max Manus: Man of War'' 2008 1939–1945 Norway during World War II and Winter War ''The Zookeeper's Wife'' 2017 1939–1945 the story of Antonina Żabińska and Jan Żabiński, who saved the lives of 300 Jews imprisoned in the Warsaw Ghetto following the German invasion of Poland during World War II ''Battle of Britain'' 1969 1940 The Battle of Britain ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' 2005 1940 Four kids travel through a wardrobe to the land of Narnia''April 9th'' 2015 1940 9 April, German invasion of Denmark.", "A group of Danish bicycle infantry is sent as a vanguard to slow down the German advance until reinforcements can arrive.", "''Kongens nei (The King's Choice)'' 2016 1940 The film focuses on King Haakon VII and the Norwegian Royal family in the days before and immediately after the German invasion of Norway in April 1940.", "''Darkest Hour'' 2017 1940 May–June 1940.Winston Churchill's early days as Prime Minister, as Hitler closes in on Britain during World War II.", "''Dunkirk'' 2017 1940 The Dunkirk evacuation of World War II ''Hurricane'' 2018 1940 The Battle of Britain''The Exception''20161940Deposed Kaiser Wilhelm II living in exile in Nazi-occupied Netherlands.", "''Malèna'' 2000 1940–1944 Italy during World War II''Un village français'' 2009 1940-2000 German military forces invade the fictional French village of Villeneuve, near the French-Swiss border.", "''Life Is Beautiful'' 1997 early 1940s A Jewish-Italian man and his son during their internment in a Nazi concentration camp ''The Way Back'' 2010 1941 Escape from a Siberian Gulag ''The Good Traitor'' 2020 1941 Henrik Kauffmann and the signing of the Greenland treaty with the United States ''Sink the Bismarck!''", "1960 May 1941 Depicts German battleship Bismarck and its last battle.", "''Defiance'' 2008 August 1941 Story of three Jewish brothers of the Bielski partisans who saved and recruited Jews during the Nazi occupation of Belarus.", "''Das Boot'' 1981 October 1941 Battle of the Atlantic ''Tora!", "Tora!", "Tora!''", "1970 7 December 1941 The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor ''Pearl Harbor'' 2001 December 1941 – April 1942 The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and the subsequent American retaliation in the Doolittle Raid.", "''Hong Kong 1941'' 1984 December 1941 The Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, and the story of local resistance against Japanese forces.", "''The Gallant Hours'' 1960 1942 U.S. Navy admiral William Halsey in the crucial early weeks of his command of American forces in the Guadalcanal campaign of World War II.", "''U-571'' 2000 1942 Battle of the Atlantic ''The Water Horse: Legend of the Deep'' 2007 1942 A boy named Angus MacMorrow lives in the manor house of Lord Killin on Loch Ness with his mother Anne MacMorrow and his sister, Kirstie.", "''The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas'' 2008 1942 Set during the Holocaust ''Allied'' 2016 1942 a Canadian intelligence officer and a French Resistance fighter pose as a married couple during a mission in Casablanca ''Das Boot'' 2018 1942 Battle of the Atlantic, sequel to ''Das Boot'' (1981) ''Greyhound'' 2020 1942 Battle of the Atlantic ''Midway'' 1976 June 1942 The Battle of Midway ''Midway'' 2019 June 1942 The Battle of Midway ''Kokoda'' 2006 August 1942 Australia's 39th Battalion during the early days of the Kokoda Track campaign ''The Bridge on the River Kwai'' 1957 1942–1943 Construction of the Burma Railway by forced labour, mainly British prisoners of war, during the Burma Campaign of World War II.", "Captain America: The First Avenger 2011 1942–1945 Steve Rogers, a rejected military soldier, transforms into Captain America ''Band of Brothers'' 2001 August 1942 – May 1945 Miniseries portraying the soldiers in Easy Company of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment of the 101st Airborne Division, from training in boot camp to action in the European Theatre of World War II.", "''The Pacific'' 2010 August 1942 – August 1945 Miniseries portraying the Pacific Theater of World War II ''Stalingrad'' 1993 August 1942 – February 1943 The Battle of Stalingrad from a German perspective.", "''The Thin Red Line'' 1998 August 1942 – February 1943 The Guadalcanal Campaign ''Enemy at the Gates'' 2001 winter 1942–1943 The activities of Soviet sniper Vasily Zaytsev in the Battle of Stalingrad ''Patton'' 1970 1943–1945 The exploits of United States Army General George S. Patton during World War II ''Sophie Scholl – The Final Days'' 2005February 1943The ultimate days of Sophie Scholl, a White Rose revolutionary.", "She actively opposing Nazi Germany until her execution and death.", "''Cross of Iron'' 1977 spring 1943 Eastern Front ''Hvidsten Gruppen (This Life)'' 2012 1943 the story about the Danish resistance movement Hvidsten Gruppen.", "''The Dam Busters'' 1955 May 1943 Development of the ''Upkeep'' bouncing bomb and its use in Operation Chastise ''Memphis Belle'' 1990 May 1943 About the 25th and last mission of the ''Memphis Belle'', an American Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bomber flying over Nazi Germany as part Strategic bombing operations.", "''Eye of the Needle'' 1981 1944 a German spy in England who discovers vital information about the upcoming D-Day invasion ''Black Book'' 2006 1944 a Dutch-Jewish singer becomes a spy for the resistance in German-occupied Netherlands ''Flame & Citron'' 2008 1944 the story of two Danish resistance movement fighters nicknamed Flame and Citron, during the Nazi occupation of Denmark ''Red Tails'' 2012 1944 Tuskegee Airmen during World War II ''The Longest Day'' 1962 6 June 1944 The Normandy landings, the first stage of the Invasion of Normandy ''Saving Private Ryan'' 1998 June 1944 The Normandy landings and their aftermath ''Windtalkers'' 2002 June–July 1944 Focuses on Navajo code talkers during the Battle of Saipan ''Valkyrie'' 2008 July 1944 Set in Nazi Germany during World War II.", "It depicts the 20 July plot in 1944 by German army officers to assassinate Adolf Hitler and to use the Operation Valkyrie national emergency plan to take control of the country.", "''A Bridge Too Far'' 1977 September 1944 Operation Market Garden ''Kanal'' 1956 September 1944 Warsaw uprising ''When Trumpets Fade'' 1998 September 1944 The Battle of Hürtgen Forest ''Saints and Soldiers'' 2003 December 1944 – January 1945 The Malmedy massacre and its aftermath during the Battle of the Bulge.", "''Battle of the Bulge'' 1965 December 1944 – January 1945 The Battle of the Bulge.", "Based on the last major German offensive campaign on the Western Front during World War II.", "It was launched through the densely forested Ardennes region of Wallonia in eastern Belgium, northeast France, and Luxembourg, towards the end of the war in Europe.", "''The Great Raid'' 2005 January 1945 Liberation of the Cabanatuan Prison Camp on the island of Luzon, Philippines.", "The camp was set up during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines.", "''Flags of Our Fathers'' 2006 February–March 1945 the Battle of Iwo Jima from an American perspective.", "''Letters from Iwo Jima'' 2006 February–March 1945 The Battle of Iwo Jima from a Japanese perspective.", "''The Shadow In My Eye'' 2021 21 March 1945 Operation Carthage ''Grave of the Fireflies'' 1988 March–September 1945 Japanese sibling struggle to survive toward the end of World War II during the firebombing of Kobe and its aftermath.", "''Fury'' 2014 April 1945 2nd Armored Division Tank crewmen during the Western Allied invasion of Germany ''The Captain'' 2017 April 1945 German war Criminal Willi Herold assumes command after finding a Nazi uniform.", "''Downfall'' 2004 April–May 1945 Depicting the final ten days of Adolf Hitler's reign over Nazi Germany and their immediate aftermath.", "Events take place during the Battle of Berlin.", "''Ashes and Diamonds'' 1958 May 1945 Polish Home Army soldiers assigned to assassinate a Communist commissar ''A Royal Night Out'' 2015 May 1945 The teenaged Princess Elizabeth, with younger sister Princess Margaret, ventures out of Buckingham Palace to enjoy the VE Day celebrations.", "''USS Indianapolis: Men of Courage'' 2016 July 1945 The sinking of the .", "''The Good German'' 2006 July–August 1945 During the Potsdam Conference ''Nuremberg'' 2000 November 1945 – October 1946 The first of the Nuremberg trials ''42 (film)'' 2013 1945-47 Jackie Robinson biopic of MLB playing career ''The Godfather'' 1972 1945–1955 Vito Corleone, the aging patriarch of an organized crime dynasty, transfers control of his clandestine empire to his reluctant son Michael Corleone.", "The film is set primarily in New York City, and is based on the novel ''The Godfather'' by Mario Puzo.", "The novel and film fictionalize actual people and events connected to the Five Families.", "Vito Corleone himself was a composite of real-life organized crime bosses Frank Costello and Carlo Gambino.", "''Judgment at Nuremberg'' 1961 1947 The Judges' Trial ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' 1988 1947 A toon-hating detective is a cartoon rabbit's only hope to prove his innocence when he is accused of murder.", "''The Black Dahlia'' 2006 1947 The murder of Elizabeth Short and subsequent investigation.", "''Exodus'' 1960 1947–1948 Foundation of Israel ''Roa (film)'' 2013 1948 The final days in the life of Juan Roa Sierra, the man who was blamed for the 1948 assassination of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, the charismatic liberal candidate for president of the Republic of Colombia his murder provoked the Bogotazo rioting and the imminent beginning of the bloody La Violencia ''Cast a Giant Shadow'' 1966 1948 United States Army colonel Mickey Marcus's involvement in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War ''The Pact'' 2021 1948 The intense friendship between Karen Blixen, the Danish author best known for her autobiographical novel Out of Africa, and Thorkild Bjørnvig, a young and promising poet." ], [ "Films set in the atomic era (1950–1999)", " Title Release date Time period Notes on setting ''Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom'' 2013 1925–1995 Nelson Mandela ''Walk the Line'' 2005 1944–1968 Johnny Cash''The Notorious Bettie Page''20051949–1959Bettie Page ''The Right Stuff (film)''19831947–1963History of the space race ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 1994 1947–1987 takes place in a state penitentiary set in mid-century New England ''A Beautiful Mind'' 2001 1947–1994 based on the life of John Nash, a Nobel Laureate in Economics ''The Crown''2016 1947–presentFollows the political rivalries and romance of Queen Elizabeth II's reign and the events that shaped the second half of the 20th century.", "''American Hot Wax'' 1978 1950 Disc jockey Alan Freed's involvement in the emergence of rock and roll ''Snow Falling on Cedars (film)'' 1999 1950 A Japanese-American fisherman is accused of killing his neighbor at sea.", "In the 1950s, race figures into the trial.", "So does reporter Ishmael.", "''71: Into the Fire'' 2010 1950 The story of student-soldiers trying to protect a middle school during the early days of the Korean War ''Taegukgi'' 2004 1950–1953 A drama about the fate of brothers forced to fight in the Korean War ''Sayonara'' 1957 1950–1953 the story of an American Air Force pilot during the Korean War who falls in love with a famous Japanese dancer ''Rocketman'' 2019 1950s–1982 Elton John ''A Funny Man'' 2011 1950s–1980 Dirch Passer ''Hail, Caesar!''", "2016 1951 A Hollywood fixer in the 1950s works to keep the studio's stars in line ''The Queen's Sister'' 2005 1952-1975 A semi-fictionalized account of the life of Princess Margaret, the younger sister of Queen Elizabeth II, from 1952 until the mid-1970s ''The Finest Hours'' 2016 1952 The SS ''Pendleton'' Coast Guard rescue mission attempt ''The Motorcycle Diaries'' 2004 1952–1967 The life of Che Guevara ''The Kennedys''20111952–1968 The triumphs and tragedies of the Kennedy family ''The Front Line'' 2011 1953 A drama centered on the Korean War's final battle which will determine the border between North Korea and South Korea''The Death of Stalin'' 2017 1953 The events that transpired after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 ''Good Night, and Good Luck'' 2005 1953 The conflict between veteran radio and television journalist Edward R. Murrow and U.S.", "Senator Joseph McCarthy relating to the anti-Communist Senator's actions with the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations''Being the Ricardos''20211953Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz deal with accusations that Lucille is a communist in Cold War America while preparing to film an episode of ''I Love Lucy'' ''Elvis'' 1979 1953–1972 The story follows the life and career of rock and roll icon Elvis Presley ''The People vs. Larry Flynt'' 1996 1953–1988 Biopic about Larry Flynt, publisher of ''Hustler'' magazine ''The Quiet American'' 2002 1954 The film covers early American covert involvement in Vietnam during the last days of the First Indochina War.", "It set the stage for the subsequent Vietnam War.", "''The Founder''20161954 The story of Ray Kroc, a salesman who turned the innovative fast food eatery of Richard and Maurice McDonald, McDonald's, into one of the biggest restaurant businesses in the world.", "Th film depicts Kroc using a combination of ambition, persistence, and ruthlessness.", "''Shutter Island''20101954 In Massachusetts, U.S.", "Marshal Edward \"Teddy\" Daniels investigates the disappearance of murderer Rachel Solando, who escaped from a hospital for the criminally insane.", "The film is set in Boston Harbor, and is based on the novel ''Shutter Island'' (2003) by Dennis Lehane.", "The hospital is loosely based on the Chronic Disease Hospital of Long Island.", "''The Battle of Algiers'' 1966 1954–1960 During the Algerian War ''Forrest Gump'' 1994 1954–1981 The remarkable life story of a kind and brave Alabama man with an IQ of 75.", "''Lumumba'' 2000 1955–1961 Path of the first Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo Patrice Lumumba and his killing.", "The Republic itself was the former Belgian Congo following its independence.", "''Che'' 2008 1955–1967 The life and death of Che Guevara ''Goodfellas'' 1990 1955–1980 Biopic about mobster Henry Hill.", "Hill was an associate of the Lucchese crime family, who later became an informant of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.", "''Blow'' 2001 1955–1994 Biopic about drug trafficker George Jung ''The Club'' 2021 1950-1955 Multiple depictions that show an anti-Greek sentiment in Turkey, Varlık Vergisi and in the last episode the Istanbul pogrom is depicted.", "''Pains of Autumn'' 2009 September 1955 Istanbul pogrom against Greek minority.", "''Nasser 56'' 1996 1956 The Suez Crisis from the Egyptian point of view ''Children of Glory'' 2006 1956 Hungarian Revolution of 1956 ''Great Balls of Fire!''", "1989 1956–1958 The early career of Rock and roll pioneer Jerry Lee Lewis ''Quiz Show'' 1994 1956–1958 ''Twenty-One'' Quiz show scandals ''My Week with Marilyn''2011 1956 The film focuses on the week during the shooting of the 1957 film ''The Prince and the Showgirl''.", "Marilyn Monroe was escorted around London by Colin Clark, after her husband Arthur Miller had returned to the United States.", "''The Iron Giant''1999 1957 Animated film; A young boy befriends a giant robot from outer space that a paranoid government agent wants to destroy.", "''Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull'' 2008 1957 In 1957, archaeologist and adventurer Dr. Henry \"Indiana\" Jones, Jr. is called back into action.", "''Motherless Brooklyn'' 2019 1957 A private investigator struggling with Tourette syndrome works to solve the mystery of his mentor's demise during the 1950s in New York City ''Bridge of Spies'' 2015 1957–1961 During the Cold War, an American lawyer is recruited to defend an arrested Soviet spy in court, and then help the CIA facilitate an exchange of the spy for the Soviet-captured American U2 spy plane pilot, Francis Gary Powers.", "''The Butler''20131957–1986Based on the life of White House butler Eugene Allen ''Loving'' 2016 1958–1967 Based on the lives of Mildred and Richard Loving and the events surrounding the landmark court case of Loving v. Virginia.", "''In Cold Blood'' 1967 1959 Based on Truman Capote's nonfiction book of the same name about the murdered Clutter family in Holcomb, Kansas.", "''Black and White'' 2002 1959 Biographical film about the Max Stuart case where an Indigenous Australia man was found guilty of murder and the legal fight to have his death sentence commuted.", "''Hollywoodland'' 2006 1959 a private detective investigates the circumstances surrounding the death of actor George Reeves ''Scandal'' 1989 1959–1963 Christine Keeler, Stephen Ward and the Profumo affair''Respect''20211959–1972Follows the career of African American singer Aretha Franklin ''Heaven & Earth'' 1993 1960–1980 Vietnam War''The Courier''20201960–1966Greville Wynne ''The Odd Angry Shot'' 1979 1960s Experiences of Australian soldiers during the Vietnam War.", "''The German Doctor'' 20131960The life of Josef Mengele in Argentina.", "He was a former Nazi wanted for War crimes.", "He was a target for Nazi hunters.", "''Gagarin: First in Space'' 2013 1960–1961 The Vostok 1 mission, making the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin the first human to cross into outer space.", "It was the first human spaceflight.", "''City of God'' 2002 1960–1980 The growth of organized crime in Cidade de Deus, Rio de Janeiro.", "''Selena (film)'' 1997 1961; 1981–1995 Biographic of Selena Quintanilla-Pérez.", "''The Eichmann Show''20151961The behind the scenes of the television broadcast of the Eichmann Trial ''Hidden Figures'' 2016 1961 The black female mathematicians who worked at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) during the Space Race''Experimenter''20151961Milgram experiment ''K-19: The Widowmaker'' 2002 1961, 1989 Soviet submarine K-19 nuclear disaster ''Saving Mr. Banks'' 2013 1961–1964 Events surrounding the development of the film ''Mary Poppins'' ''JFK'' 1991 1961–1966 The assassination of President of the United States John F. Kennedy and subsequent investigation ''First Man'' 2018 1961–1969 About the life of Neil Armstrong and the decade leading up to the Apollo 11 lunar mission ''Thirteen Days'' 2000 1962 The Cuban Missile Crisis''Green Book'' 2018 1962 a tour of the Deep South by African American classical and jazz pianist Don Shirley and Italian American bouncer Frank \"Tony Lip\" Vallelonga who served as Shirley's driver and bodyguard ''The Sandlot''19931962 Boys playing baseball in Los Angeles fearing a big dog''Dear Comrades!", "''20201962Novocherkassk massacre ''Z'' 1969 1963 The assassination of Grigoris Lambrakis ''A Perfect World'' 1993 1963 A kidnapped boy strikes up a friendship with his captor: an escaped convict on the run from the law, while the search is headed up by an honorable Texas Ranger.", "''The Help'' 2011 1963 Race relations in the Deep South during the Civil Rights Movement ''Parkland''20131963Immediate aftermath of the JFK assassination''Jackie''20161963Jacqueline Kennedy in the immediate aftermath of the JFK assassination ''The Kennedys: After Camelot'' 2017 1963–1994 Follow-up to the 2011 miniseries The Kennedys, the triumphs and tragedies of the Kennedy family.", "''All the Way'' 2016 1963–1965 Lyndon Baines Johnson becomes the President of the United States in the chaotic aftermath of the Assassination of John F. Kennedy.", "He spends his first year in office fighting to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964.", "''LBJ'' 2016 1963–1969 The story of President of the United States Lyndon Baines Johnson from his young days in West Texas to the White House.", "''Catch Me If You Can'' 2002 1963–1974 The life of Frank Abagnale, a con artist and famous check forger.", "''Ghosts of Mississippi'' 1996 1963–1990 Events surrounding the murder of NAACP field secretary Medgar Evers during the civil rights movement in Mississippi ''The Theory of Everything''20141963–1998 Stephen Hawking biographic ''1965'' 2014 1963–1966 Singapore in Malaysia, 1964 race riots in Singapore (Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation) and National Day of 1965 ''Mississippi Burning'' 1988 1964 The U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation investigation into the murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner ''The Doors'' 1991 1964–1971 Biopic about the 1960s–1970s rock band of the same name which emphasizes the life of its lead singer, Jim Morrison ''The Year of Living Dangerously'' 1982 1965 Set in Indonesia during the overthrow of President Sukarno ''We Were Soldiers'' 2002 1965 The Battle of Ia Drang in the Vietnam War ''An American Crime'' 2007 1965 The film tells the story of the torture and murder of Sylvia Likens by Indianapolis housewife Gertrude Baniszewski.", "''Selma'' 2014 1965 Selma to Montgomery march in Alabama during the civil rights movement ''Born on the Fourth of July'' 1989 1965–1968 Ron Kovic's experiences in the Vietnam War ''Coming Home'' 2014 1966–1976 Cultural Revolution in China.", "''Ultraman Mebius'' 2006 1966-1981 Mirai Hinbino, a rejected member of The rookie team Crew GUYS, and transforms into a giant hero Ultraman Mebius ''Ultraman Mebius & Ultra Brothers'' 2006 1966-1981 Mirai Hinbino, a rejected member of the rookie team Crew GUYS, and transforms into a giant hero Ultraman Mebius ''W.''", "2008 1966–2003 The life and presidency of President of the United States George W. Bush ''Platoon'' 1985 1967–1968 Vietnam War ''Half of a Yellow Sun'' 2013 1967–1970 the Nigerian Civil War''Detroit''20171967The 12th Street Riot in Detroit, Michigan ''Coming Home'' 1978 1968 Vietnam War ''Full Metal Jacket'' 1987 1968 Battle of Huế in the Vietnam War ''Bobby'' 2006 1968 The assassination of Senator Robert F. Kennedy''Judy''20191968American actress and singer Judy Garland performs a series of concerts in London in the last year of her life''Rose Island''20201968Establishment of the Republic of Rose Island off the coast of Rimini ''The Trial of the Chicago 7''20201968Follows the story of the Chicago Seven ''The Deer Hunter'' 1978 1968–1975 Vietnam War ''The Damned United'' 2009 1968–1975 Brian Clough as manager of Derby County and Leeds United ''American Gangster'' 2007 1968–1976 Frank Lucas and his heroin drug trade.", "''Hamburger Hill'' 1987 1969 Battle of Hamburger Hill in the Vietnam War ''Apocalypse Now'' 1979 1969 Vietnam War ''Four Days in September'' 1997 1969 Kidnapping of the United States Ambassador to Brazil, Charles Burke Elbrick, by members of 8th October Revolutionary Movement and Ação Libertadora Nacional ''Chappaquiddick'' 2017 1969 Chronicles the untold story of Ted Kennedy and the Chappaquiddick incident during July 1969.", "''Once Upon a Time in Hollywood'' 2019 1969 follows an actor and his stunt double as they navigate the changing film industry in Los Angeles, set during the time of the Manson murders''Judas and the Black Messiah''20211969The betrayal and assassination of Chicago based Black Panther Fred Hampton''Belfast'' 2021 1969 A young boy's childhood in Belfast, Northern Ireland during The Troubles ''Secretariat'' 2010 1969–1973 Race horse Secretariat.", "''Nixon'' 1995 1969–1974 The political life of President of the United States Richard M. Nixon ''Zodiac'' 2007 1969–1975 the Zodiac murders in Northern California ''Apollo 13'' 1995 1970 Apollo 13 lunar mission ''Dekada '70''''(The 70s)'' 2002 1970 Based on the novel of the same name by Lualhati Bautista.", "The setting is the period of martial law in the Philippines, under the control of President Ferdinand Marcos.", "''Inherent Vice (film)''20141970Based on the novel following detective Doc Sportello.", "''Elvis & Nixon''20161970The untold true story behind the meeting between Elvis Presley, the King of rock and roll, and President Richard Nixon.", "''Misbehaviour''20201970The disruption of the 1970 Miss World competition in London by the women's liberation movement''Roma''20181970–1971The story of a Mixteco maid living in Mexico City during the Corpus Christi Massacre ''Milk'' 2008 1970–1978 Gay rights activist Harvey Milk ''Bohemian Rhapsody'' 2018 1970–1985 Follows the band Queen from their formation all the way to the Live Aid concert.", "''Diana: Her True Story'' 1993 1970–1992 The story of Diana, Princess of Wales, based on the publication of the same name by Andrew Morton.", "''Remember the Titans'' 2000 1971 Follows a desegregated high school's football team in 1970s Alexandria, Virginia'''71'' 2014 1971 Northern Ireland during The TroublesThe Post20171971–1972Journalists from ''The Washington Post'' and ''The New York Times'' who published the ''Pentagon Papers'', regarding the United States' covert political and military involvement during the Vietnam War.", "''The Last King of Scotland'' 2006 1971–1976 President of Uganda Idi Amin ''Whatever Love Means'' 2005 1971–1981 About Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall and Charles, Prince of Wales ''Pirates of Silicon Valley'' 1999 1971–1997 Follows the growth of the personal computer industry through the lives of Bill Gates and Steve Jobs ''Bloody Sunday'' 2002 1972 Bloody Sunday shootings in Northern Ireland ''All the President's Men'' 1976 1972 The Nixon-era Watergate scandal ''Alive'' 1993 1972 Crash of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 ''Cry Freedom'' 1987 1972–1978 Steve Biko and Donald Woods in the apartheid era of South Africa ''Munich'' 2005 1972–1979 Mossad efforts to avenge the Munich massacre, the murder of Israeli athletes during the 1972 Summer Olympics ''Missing'' 1982 1973 The 1973 Chilean coup d'état and the murder of Charles Horman ''Colonia'' 2015 1973 The 1973 Chilean coup d'etat and the Colonia Dignidad ''Vinyl'' 2016 1973 The musical industry in 1973.", "''All the Money in the World'' 2017 1973 The kidnapping of John Paul Getty III in July 1973.", "''The Killing Fields'' 1984 1973–1979 The Cambodian genocide under the Khmer Rouge regime of Pol Pot''Jobs''20131974–2001Biopic about the career of Steve Jobs''West Beirut''19981975High school students living in Beirut during the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War ''The Amityville Horror'' 2005 1975 A year after the murders of the DeFeo family in Amity, New York another family moves into the house where the murders took place.", "Soon, it becomes clear that the house is haunted.", "The film was based on the novel ''The Amityville Horror'' (1977) by Jay Anson.", "The novel was inspired by real-life reports of a haunted house in Amity, and by the house's connection to six murders performed by former resident Ronald DeFeo Jr. in 1974.", "''Balibo'' 2009 1975 the Indonesian invasion of East Timor and the Balibo Five ''Raid on Entebbe''19771976The July 1976 rescue of passengers from a hijacked plane in Uganda by the IDF ''Dazed and Confused'' 1993 1976 Based on Richard Linklater's life experiences.", "''Invincible'' 2006 1976–1978 story of Vince Papale, who played for the Philadelphia Eagles from 1976 to 1978 ''Summer of Sam'' 1999 1977 The Son of Sam murders in New York City ''Frost/Nixon'' 2008 1977 the Frost-Nixon interviews ''Romero'' 1989 1977–1980 The assassination of Archbishop Oscar Romero at the height of the Salvadorian Civil War ''Boogie Nights'' 1997 1977–1984 Golden Age of Porn: The rise and fall of fictional pornographic film actor Dirk Diggler ''Detroit Rock City'' 1999 1978 Four teenagers embark on a roadtrip from Columbus, Ohio, to Detroit, Michigan, to attend a concert by KISS, their favourite band.", "The film is named after the song ''Detroit Rock City'' (1976) and depicts a concert within Cobo Center.", "''Gracie'' 2007 1978 Six years after the introduction of Title IX ''American Hustle'' 2013 1978 Abscam operation ''The Godfather: Part III'' 1990 1979 Aging Mafia Don Michael Corleone seeks to avow for his sins, while taking his nephew Vincent Mancini under his wing.", "The film is loosely based on the sudden death of Pope John Paul I (1978), whose entire term lasted 33 days, and the Banco Ambrosiano scandal (1981–1982).", "''54'' 1998 1979 The last year of Studio 54 in New York City.", "''Super 8'' 2011 1979 Kids filming a horror movie film something out of this world instead.", "''Escape from Pretoria''20201979The prison escape of three white South Africans, Tim Jenkins, Stephen Lee and Dennis Goldberg who were imprisoned for anti-Apartheid activism ''Argo'' 2012 1979–1980 A portrayal of the CIA's role in the Canadian Caper.", "''The 9th Company'' 2005 1979–1989 Young Soviet Army recruits are stuck in the bloody War in Afghanistan, that was started by politicians.", "''The Iron Lady'' 2011 1979–1990 An elderly Margaret Thatcher talks to the imagined presence of her recently deceased husband Denis Thatcher, as she struggles to come to terms with his death.", "Scenes from her past life, from girlhood to her terms as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, intervene.", "''House of Saddam'' 2008 1979–2006 A mini-series that explores the inner workings of President of Iraq Saddam Hussein's family and his relationship with his closest advisers.", "''Walesa: Man of Hope'' 2013 1980–1989 Portrayal of Polish labor leader Lech Walesa and the Solidarity movement.", "''Miracle'' 2004 1980 The United States men's national ice hockey team's gold medal victory at the 1980 Winter Olympics ''No Country For Old Men'' 2007 1980 While hunting in West Texas, Llewelyn Moss stumbles upon several dead men and dogs, and a suitcase full of cash.", "This makes him the target for psychotic hitman Anton Chigurh, who hunts him down to retrieve the stolen money.", "The film is based on the novel ''No Country for Old Men'' by Cormac McCarthy, and dramatizes the illegal drug trade across the Mexico–United States border.", "The character Llewelyn Moss is depicted as a veteran of the Vietnam War.", "''The Falklands Play'' 2002 1980–1982 Diplomacy leading up to and during the Falklands War ''The Reagans'' 2003 1980–1989Legacy and career of Ronald Reagan and his wife, Nancy Reagan.", "''Charlie Wilson's War'' 2007 1980–1989 CIA's covert involvement in the Soviet–Afghan War ''Oranges and Sunshine'' 2010 1980s Based on the book ''Empty Cradles'' by Margaret Humphreys about her investigations in British Home Children.", "''Goodbye Bafana'' 2007 1980–1990 Nelson Mandela's imprisonment ''Scarface'' 1983 1980–1983 Ruthless Cuban criminal Tony Montana arrives in Miami, Florida as part of the Mariel boatlift (1980) and builds a drug empire.", "The film was a remake of ''Scarface'' (1932), and dramatizes the war on drugs and the illegal drug trade.", "''Catch a Fire'' 2006 1980–1994 Set during the early 1980s concerning the plight of the ANC's military wing in the apartheid-era of South Africa ''Wonderland'' 2003 1981 Wonderland murders ''Hunger'' 2008 1981 1981 Irish hunger strike (Part of the Cold War and The Troubles) ''Joker'' 2019 1981 Backstory of the character Joker (character).", "''The Americans'' 2013–2018 1981–1987 spy thriller series detailing the lives of KGB agents posing as Americans during the Cold War ''Barry'' 2016 1981–2009 A look into the early life of President of the United States Barack Obama.", "''An Ungentlemanly Act'' 1992 1982 The first days of the Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands ''Tumbledown'' 1988 1982 Falklands War (Part of the Cold War and The Troubles) ''Heartbreak Ridge'' 1986 1983United States invasion of Grenada: A hard-nosed, hard-living Marine gunnery sergeant clashes with his superiors and his ex-wife, as he takes command of a spoiled recon platoon with a bad attitude.", "''Halt and Catch Fire'' 2014–2017 1983–1995Set in the years from 1983 to 1995, the series depicts a fictionalized insider's view of the personal computer revolution of the 1980s and the growth of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s ''The Hunt for Red October'' 1990 1984 Soviet submarine during the late Cold War era''Steve Jobs'' 2015 1984–1998 Covers fourteen years of Steve Jobs' computing career ''The Lives of Others'' 2006 1984–1993 In East Berlin, a Stasi agent is assigned to wire-tap a playwright and his lover, who are suspected to be disloyal to the GDR.", "However, the agent finds himself increasingly absorbed by their lives.", "''Paid in Full'' 2002 1985 During the Crack epidemic of the 1980s ''Climber's High'' 2008 1985 Historical drama about Japan Airlines Flight 123 ''Shizumanu Taiyō'' 2009 1985 Historical drama about Japan Airlines Flight 123''Dallas Buyers Club''20131986The story of Ron Woodroof who was diagnosed with AIDS during the AIDS epidemic ''Chernobyl'' 2019 1986–1987 Mini-series depicting the Chernobyl disaster.", "''Donald Trump's The Art of the Deal: The Movie'' 2016 1986–2016 A satirical rendition of Donald Trump's 1987 best selling business book, ''The Art of the Deal''.", "''Foxcatcher'' 2014 1986–1996 Wrestling coach John Eleuthère du Pont and Wrestlers Mark Schultz and Dave Schultz and the events of Foxcatcher farm in the lead up to, and following, the 1988 Summer Olympics.", "''Straight Outta Compton'' 2015 1986–1996 The story behind hip hop group, N.W.A''Hamlet Goes Business'' 1987 1987 Based on William Shakespeare's play ''Hamlet'', but the events are housed in a modern Finnish wood processing family business.", "''Endgame'' 2009 1987–1990 final days of apartheid in South Africa''Polytechnique''20091989Polytechnique Massacre in Montreal ''Narcos'' 2015 1989 Pablo Escobar rules the Medellín Cartel.", "''Atomic Blonde'' 2017 1989 Spy thriller set in the days before, during and after the Fall of the Wall ''Good Bye, Lenin!''", "2003 1989–1990 Fall of the Berlin Wall and German reunification ''Jarhead'' 2005 1989–1991 Gulf War ''The Big Lebowski''1998early 1990sJeff \"The Dude\" Lebowski needs a new rug after being mistaken for another Lebowski ''Beans''20201990A young Mohawk girl lives through the Oka Crisis in Quebec''tick, tick...BOOM!", "''20211990Adaptation of musical by the same name as well as biopic of its creator Jonathan Larson ''Joy'' 2015 1990–1995 Joy Mangano and the invention of the Miracle Mop ''Three Kings'' 1999 1991 1991 Iraqi uprisings against Saddam Hussein and aftermath of the Gulf War and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union ''The Perfect Storm'' 2000 1991 1991 Perfect Storm''Spencer''20211991Princess Diana spends a Christmas with the British royal family at the Queen's Sandringham House ''Invictus'' 2009 1991–1995 Post-apartheid South Africa and the 1995 Rugby World Cup ''Welcome to Sarajevo'' 1997 1992 Bosnian War ''No Man's Land'' 2001 1992 Bosnian War ''As If I Am Not There'' 2010 1992 Bosnian War ''In the Land of Blood and Honey'' 2011 1992 Bosnian War ''Snowtown'' 2011 1992–1999 Snowtown murders ''Black Hawk Down'' 2001 1993 The Battle of Mogadishu, Somali Civil War ''The Fighter'' 2010 1993 About boxer Micky Ward and his family ''Hotel Rwanda'' 2004 1994 Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira and Rwandan genocide ''Shooting Dogs'' 2005 1994 Rwandan genocide ''Sometimes in April'' 2005 1994 Rwandan genocide''Shake Hands with the Devil''20071994Rwandan genocide ''The Special Relationship'' 2010 1994–2001 The United Kingdom–United States Special Relationship between Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair and President of the United States Bill Clinton ''Savior'' 1998 1995 During the Bosnian War in former Yugoslavia ''Behind Enemy Lines'' 2001 1995 the Mrkonjić Grad incident during the Bosnian War in former Yugoslavia ''Pain & Gain'' 2013 1995 Based on the criminal activities of the short-lived Sun Gym gang (1994–1995) of Miami Lakes, Florida, which consisted mostly of bodybuilders.", "In the film, a trio of bodybuilders in Florida get caught up in an extortion ring and a kidnapping scheme that goes terribly wrong.", "''Diana''20131995–1997Depicts the last two years of Princess Diana of Wales' life, from her divorce from Prince Charles to her death in 1997''Bernie''20111996Murder of Marjorie Nugent by Bernie Tiede ''The Queen'' 2006 1997 A fictional account of the immediate events following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales ''Diana: Last Days of a Princess'' 2007 1997 A fairly accurate (albeit semi-fictionalized) account of the last two months in the life of Diana, Princess of Wales, leading up to her death on 31 August 1997.", "''Open Water'' 2003 1998 Tom and Eileen Lonergan ''I'm Not Ashamed'' 2016 1998–1999 Based on the writings of Rachel Scott ''American Sniper'' 2014 1998–2011 Based on the 2012 memoir of former US Navy SEAL, Chris Kyle''Coach Carter'' 2005 1999 Story of high school basketball coach Ken Carter who suspended his team due to poor academic results ''Blood Diamond'' 2006 1999 During the Sierra Leone Civil War ''The Rookie'' 2002 1999–2000 The story of Jim Morris, an American baseball player who reached the major leagues at the age of 35" ], [ "Films set in the information era (after 2000)", " Title Release date Time period Notes on setting''Holy Spider''20222000–2002Iranian serial killer Saeed Hanaei ''Mary: The Making of a Princess'' 2015 2000-2004 the relationship between Mary Donaldson and Prince Frederik ''World Trade Center'' 2006 2001 September 11 attacks''United 93'' 2006 2001 September 11 attacks ''Flight 93'' 2006 2001 September 11 attacks ''William & Kate: The Movie'' 2011 2001 the relationship between Prince William and Catherine \"Kate\" Middleton (now The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge)''Diaz - Don't Clean Up This Blood''20122001The 2001 G8 Summit in Genoa, Italy and the storming of the Armando Diaz school by police ''Spotlight'' 2015 2001 ''The Boston Globe'''s investigative story on the Sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic archdiocese of Boston and the September 11 attacks''Zero Dark Thirty'' 2012 2001–2012 The finding and assassination of Osama Bin Laden''Moneyball (film)'' 2011 2002 Based on Michael Lewis's 2003 nonfiction book of the same name, an account of the Oakland Athletics baseball team's 2002 season and their general manager Billy Beane's attempts to assemble a competitive team.", "''The Dropout''20222002–2017Disgraced biotechnology company ''Theranos'' and its founder Elizabeth Holmes ''The Social Network'' 2010 2003–2007 The founding of the social networking service-website Facebook ''127 Hours'' 2010 April 2003 The true story about Aron Ralston, a mountain climber who had his arm trapped by a boulder while climbing in an isolated slot canyon in Utah.", "''The Hurt Locker'' 2008 2004 the Iraq War, just before the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami ''The Impossible'' 2012 2004 The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, from the viewpoint of a tourist family in Thailand ''Lone Survivor'' 2013 2005 Based on the 2007 non-fiction book of the same name about Operation Red Wings by Marcus Luttrell and Patrick Robinson ''The Big Short'' 2015 2005–2008 Based on the 2010 book of the same name, about numerous financial experts who predict and proceed to take advantage of the 2008 financial meltdown ''The Fifth Estate'' 2013 2007–2010 About Julian Assange and the foundation of his news-leaking site WikiLeaks ''Too Big to Fail'' 2011 2008 The 2008 financial meltdown ''Million Dollar Arm'' 2014 2008 the story of Indian baseball pitchers Rinku Singh and Dinesh Patel ''Captain Phillips'' 2013 2009 Kidnapping of merchant mariner Richard Phillips by Somalian pirates ''Sully'' 2016 2009 the story of Captain Chesley \"Sully\" Sullenberger and the aftermath of US Airways Flight 1549 ''Deepwater Horizon'' 2016 2010 Deepwater Horizon explosion ''13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi'' 2016 2012 2012 Benghazi attack: During an attack on a U.S. compound in Benghazi, Libya, a security team struggles to make sense out of the chaos.", "''Uncut Gems''20192012Kevin Garnett's performance in the 2012 NBA Eastern Conference Semi-finals ''Patriots Day'' 2016 2013 The Boston Marathon Bombing.", "''Daniel'' 2019 2013–2014 the experiences of Daniel Rye who was held hostage by ISIS for 13 months ''Operation Red Sea'' 2018 2015 The People's Liberation Army Navy entered the Yemeni Civil War and the International military intervention against ISIL.", "''Zola''20212015Based on a viral Twitter thread about a part-time stripper who is convinced to travel to Tampa by her new friend for a gig.", "''Brexit: The Uncivil War''20192015–2016The lead up to the 2016 Brexit referendum from the perspective of strategists in the Vote Leave campaign" ], [ "See also", "* Lists of historical films* List of war films and TV specials** List of World War II films* List of films set in ancient Rome* List of films set in ancient Greece* List of films set in ancient Egypt* List of films based on Greco-Roman mythology* List of films featuring dinosaurs* List of films based on actual events* Lists of Western films* Middle Ages in film** List of films based on Arthurian legend* Asian period drama films**Jidaigeki** Samurai cinema* Historical drama* Historical fantasy* Historical fiction* Alternate history" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* History on Film—A historian looks at how Hollywood has presented historical events in the films.", "* Fraser, George McDonald, ''The Hollywood History of the World, from One Million Years B.C.", "to 'Apocalypse Now''', London: M. Joseph, 1988; \"First U.S.", "ed.", "\", New York: Beech Tree Books, cop.", "1988.Both eds.", "collate thus: xix, 268 p., amply ill. (b&w photos).", "(U.K.", "ed.", "), 0-688-07520-7 (U.S.", "ed.", ")* The Period-Drama Timeline—listing costume dramas according to the year in which they are set.", "* Enchanted Serenity of Period Films—A fansite dedicated to period films.", "* Period Movies and Dramas—listings of period films and costume dramas according to various criteria (century, subject, alphabetical, directors, and actors).", "* Recycled Movie Costumes—Site dedicated to documenting costumes used in more than one film* Frock Flicks—Blog and podcast about costumes in historical costume movies and TV shows.", "* Period Movies Box—Blog with information on latest period movies, exciting facts and honest reviews." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "H. G. Wells" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herbert George Wells''' (21 September 1866 – 13 August 1946) was an English writer.", "Prolific in many genres, he wrote more than fifty novels and dozens of short stories.", "His non-fiction output included works of social commentary, politics, history, popular science, satire, biography, and autobiography.", "Wells' science fiction novels are so well regarded that he has been called the \"father of science fiction\".In addition to his fame as a writer, he was prominent in his lifetime as a forward-looking, even prophetic social critic who devoted his literary talents to the development of a progressive vision on a global scale.", "As a futurist, he wrote a number of utopian works and foresaw the advent of aircraft, tanks, space travel, nuclear weapons, satellite television and something resembling the World Wide Web.", "His science fiction imagined time travel, alien invasion, invisibility and biological engineering before these subjects were common in the genre.", "Brian Aldiss referred to Wells as the \"Shakespeare of science fiction\", while Charles Fort called him a \"wild talent\".", "He also pioneered modern miniature wargaming, such as with his set of rules called ''Little Wars'' in 1913.Wells rendered his works convincing by instilling commonplace detail alongside a single extraordinary assumption per workdubbed \"Wells's law\"leading Joseph Conrad to hail him in 1898 with \"O Realist of the Fantastic!\".", "His most notable science fiction works include ''The Time Machine'' (1895), which was his first novel, ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'' (1896), ''The Invisible Man'' (1897), ''The War of the Worlds'' (1898), the military science fiction ''The War in the Air'' (1907), and the dystopian ''When the Sleeper Wakes'' (1910).", "Novels of social realism such as ''Kipps'' (1905) and ''The History of Mr Polly'' (1910), which describe lower-middle-class English life, led to the suggestion that he was a worthy successor to Charles Dickens, but Wells described a range of social strata and even attempted, in ''Tono-Bungay'' (1909), a diagnosis of English society as a whole.", "Wells was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature four times.Wells's earliest specialised training was in biology, and his thinking on ethical matters took place in a Darwinian context.", "He was also an outspoken socialist from a young age, often (but not always, as at the beginning of the First World War) sympathising with pacifist views.", "In his later years, he wrote less fiction and more works expounding his political and social views, sometimes giving his profession as that of journalist.", "Wells was a diabetic and co-founded the charity The Diabetic Association (Diabetes UK) in 1934." ], [ "Life", "===Early life===Young Wells, \"Bertie\" as he was known, Herbert George Wells was born at Atlas House, 162 High Street in Bromley, Kent, on 21 September 1866.Called \"Bertie\" by his family, he was the fourth and last child of Joseph Wells, a former domestic gardener, and at the time a shopkeeper and professional cricketer and Sarah Neal, a former domestic servant.", "An inheritance had allowed the family to acquire a shop in which they sold china and sporting goods, although it failed to prosper in part because the stock was old and worn out, and the location was poor.", "Joseph Wells managed to earn a meagre income, but little of it came from the shop and he received an unsteady amount of money from playing professional cricket for the Kent county team.A defining incident of young Wells's life was an accident in 1874 that left him bedridden with a broken leg.", "To pass the time he began to read books from the local library, brought to him by his father.", "He soon became devoted to the other worlds and lives to which books gave him access; they also stimulated his desire to write.", "Later that year he entered Thomas Morley's Commercial Academy, a private school founded in 1849, following the bankruptcy of Morley's earlier school.", "The teaching was erratic, and the curriculum mostly focused, Wells later said, on producing copperplate handwriting and doing the sort of sums useful to tradesmen.", "Wells continued at Morley's Academy until 1880.In 1877, his father, Joseph Wells, fractured his thigh.", "The accident effectively put an end to Joseph's career as a cricketer, and his subsequent earnings as a shopkeeper were not enough to compensate for the loss of the primary source of family income.Wells spent the winter of 1887–88 convalescing at Uppark, where his mother, Sarah, was the housekeeper.No longer able to support themselves financially, the family instead sought to place their sons as apprentices in various occupations.", "From 1880 to 1883, Wells had an unhappy apprenticeship as a draper at Hide's Drapery Emporium in Southsea.", "His experiences at Hide's, where he worked a thirteen-hour day and slept in a dormitory with other apprentices, later inspired his novels ''The Wheels of Chance'', ''The History of Mr Polly'', and ''Kipps'', which portray the life of a draper's apprentice as well as providing a critique of society's distribution of wealth.Wells's parents had a turbulent marriage, owing primarily to his mother being a Protestant and his father being a freethinker.", "When his mother returned to work as a lady's maid (at Uppark, an country house in Sussex), one of the conditions of work was that she would not be permitted to have living space for her husband and children.", "Thereafter, she and Joseph lived separate lives, though they never divorced and remained faithful to each other.", "As a consequence, Herbert's personal troubles increased as he subsequently failed as a draper and also, later, as a chemist's assistant.", "However, Uppark had a magnificent library in which he immersed himself, reading many classic works, including Plato's ''Republic'', Thomas More's ''Utopia'', and the works of Daniel Defoe.", "When he became the first doyen of science fiction as a distinct genre of fiction, Wells referenced Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'' in relation to his works, writing, \"they belong to a class of writing which includes the story of ''Frankenstein''.", "\"===Teacher===Commemorative plaque in Midhurst, West Sussex, marking where Wells lodged while a teacher at Midhurst Grammar School between 1883 and 1884In October 1879, Wells's mother arranged through a distant relative, Arthur Williams, for him to join the National School at Wookey in Somerset as a pupil–teacher, a senior pupil who acted as a teacher of younger children.", "In December that year, however, Williams was dismissed for irregularities in his qualifications and Wells was returned to Uppark.", "After a short apprenticeship at a chemist in nearby Midhurst and an even shorter stay as a boarder at Midhurst Grammar School, he signed his apprenticeship papers at Hyde's.", "In 1883, Wells persuaded his parents to release him from the apprenticeship, taking an opportunity offered by Midhurst Grammar School again to become a pupil–teacher; his proficiency in Latin and science during his earlier short stay had been remembered.The years he spent in Southsea had been the most miserable of his life to that point, but his good fortune in securing a position at Midhurst Grammar School meant that Wells could continue his self-education in earnest.", "The following year, Wells won a scholarship to the Normal School of Science (later the Royal College of Science in South Kensington, which became part of Imperial College London) in London, studying biology under Thomas Henry Huxley.", "As an alumnus, he later helped to set up the Royal College of Science Association, of which he became the first president in 1909.Wells studied in his new school until 1887, with a weekly allowance of 21 shillings (a guinea) thanks to his scholarship.", "This ought to have been a comfortable sum of money (at the time many working class families had \"round about a pound a week\" as their entire household income), yet in his ''Experiment in Autobiography'' Wells speaks of constantly being hungry, and indeed photographs of him at the time show a youth who is very thin and malnourished.He soon entered the Debating Society of the school.", "These years mark the beginning of his interest in a possible reformation of society.", "At first approaching the subject through Plato's ''Republic'', he soon turned to contemporary ideas of socialism as expressed by the recently formed Fabian Society and free lectures delivered at Kelmscott House, the home of William Morris.", "He was also among the founders of ''The Science School Journal'', a school magazine that allowed him to express his views on literature and society, as well as trying his hand at fiction; a precursor to his novel ''The Time Machine'' was published in the journal under the title ''The Chronic Argonauts''.", "The school year 1886–87 was the last year of his studies.Wells studying in London 1890During 1888, Wells stayed in Stoke-on-Trent, living in Basford.", "The unique environment of The Potteries was certainly an inspiration.", "He wrote in a letter to a friend from the area that \"the district made an immense impression on me.\"", "The inspiration for some of his descriptions in ''The War of the Worlds'' is thought to have come from his short time spent here, seeing the iron foundry furnaces burn over the city, shooting huge red light into the skies.", "His stay in The Potteries also resulted in the macabre short story \"The Cone\" (1895, contemporaneous with his famous ''The Time Machine''), set in the north of the city.After teaching for some time—he was briefly on the staff of Holt Academy in Wales—Wells found it necessary to supplement his knowledge relating to educational principles and methodology and entered the College of Preceptors (College of Teachers).", "He later received his Licentiate and Fellowship FCP diplomas from the college.", "It was not until 1890 that Wells earned a Bachelor of Science degree in zoology from the University of London External Programme.", "In 1889–90, he managed to find a post as a teacher at Henley House School in London, where he taught A.", "A. Milne (whose father ran the school).", "His first published work was a ''Text-Book of Biology'' in two volumes (1893).Upon leaving the Normal School of Science, Wells was left without a source of income.", "His aunt Mary—his father's sister-in-law—invited him to stay with her for a while, which solved his immediate problem of accommodation.", "During his stay at his aunt's, he grew increasingly interested in her daughter, Isabel, whom he later courted.", "To earn money, he began writing short humorous articles for journals such as ''The Pall Mall Gazette'', later collecting these in ''Select Conversations with an Uncle'' (1895) and ''Certain Personal Matters'' (1897).", "So prolific did Wells become at this mode of journalism that many of his early pieces remain unidentified.", "According to David C. Smith, \"Most of Wells's occasional pieces have not been collected, and many have not even been identified as his.", "Wells did not automatically receive the byline his reputation demanded until after 1896 or so .", "... As a result, many of his early pieces are unknown.", "It is obvious that many early Wells items have been lost.\"", "His success with these shorter pieces encouraged him to write book-length work, and he published his first novel, ''The Time Machine'', in 1895.===Personal life===141 Maybury Rd, Woking, where Wells lived from May 1895 until late 1896In 1891, Wells married his cousin Isabel Mary Wells (1865–1931; from 1902 Isabel Mary Smith).", "The couple agreed to separate in 1894, when he had fallen in love with one of his students, Amy Catherine Robbins (1872–1927; later known as Jane), with whom he moved to Woking, Surrey, in May 1895.They lived in a rented house, 'Lynton' (now No.141), Maybury Road, in the town centre for just under 18 months and married at St Pancras register office in October 1895.His short period in Woking was perhaps the most creative and productive of his whole writing career, for while there he planned and wrote ''The War of the Worlds'' and ''The Time Machine'', completed ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'', wrote and published ''The Wonderful Visit'' and ''The Wheels of Chance'', and began writing two other early books, ''When the Sleeper Wakes'' and ''Love and Mr Lewisham''.Wells's second wife, Amy Catherine \"Jane\" WellsIn late summer 1896, Wells and Jane moved to a larger house in Worcester Park, near Kingston upon Thames, for two years; this lasted until his poor health took them to Sandgate, near Folkestone, where he constructed a large family home, Spade House, in 1901.He had two sons with Jane: George Philip (known as \"Gip\"; 1901–1985) and Frank Richard (1903–1982) (grandfather of film director Simon Wells).", "Jane died on 6 October 1927, in Dunmow, at the age of 55, which left Wells devastated.", "She was cremated at Golders Green, with friends of the couple present including George Bernard Shaw.Wells had multiple love affairs.", "Dorothy Richardson was a friend with whom he had a brief affair which led to a pregnancy and miscarriage, in 1907.Wells' wife had been a schoolmate of Richardson.", "In December 1909, he had a daughter, Anna-Jane, with the writer Amber Reeves, whose parents, William and Maud Pember Reeves, he had met through the Fabian Society.", "Amber had married the barrister G. R. Blanco White in July of that year, as co-arranged by Wells.", "After Beatrice Webb voiced disapproval of Wells's \"sordid intrigue\" with Amber, he responded by lampooning Beatrice Webb and her husband Sidney Webb in his 1911 novel ''The New Machiavelli'' as 'Altiora and Oscar Bailey', a pair of short-sighted, bourgeois manipulators.", "Between 1910 and 1913, novelist Elizabeth von Arnim was one of his mistresses.", "In 1914, he had a son, Anthony West (1914–1987), by the novelist and feminist Rebecca West, 26 years his junior.", "In 1920–21, and intermittently until his death, he had a love affair with the American birth control activist Margaret Sanger.Between 1924 and 1933 he partnered with the 22-year-younger Dutch adventurer and writer Odette Keun, with whom he lived in ''Lou Pidou'', a house they built together in Grasse, France.", "Wells dedicated his longest book to her (''The World of William Clissold'', 1926).", "When visiting Maxim Gorky in Russia 1920, he had slept with Gorky's mistress Moura Budberg, then still Countess Benckendorf and 27 years his junior.", "In 1933, when she left Gorky and emigrated to London, their relationship renewed and she cared for him through his final illness.", "Wells repeatedly asked her to marry him, but Budberg strongly rejected his proposals.In ''Experiment in Autobiography'' (1934), Wells wrote: \"I was never a great amorist, though I have loved several people very deeply\".", "David Lodge's novel ''A Man of Parts'' (2011)a 'narrative based on factual sources' (author's note)gives a convincing and generally sympathetic account of Wells's relations with the women mentioned above, and others.Director Simon Wells (born 1961), the author's great-grandson, was a consultant on the future scenes in ''Back to the Future Part II'' (1989).===Artist===One of the ways that Wells expressed himself was through his drawings and sketches.", "One common location for these was the endpapers and title pages of his own diaries, and they covered a wide variety of topics, from political commentary to his feelings toward his literary contemporaries and his current romantic interests.", "During his marriage to Amy Catherine, whom he nicknamed Jane, he drew a considerable number of pictures, many of them being overt comments on their marriage.", "During this period, he called these pictures \"picshuas\".", "These picshuas have been the topic of study by Wells scholars for many years, and in 2006, a book was published on the subject.===Writer===tripod from ''The War of the Worlds'' in Woking, England.", "The book is a seminal depiction of a conflict between humankind and an extraterrestrial race.Some of his early novels, called \"scientific romances\", invented several themes now classic in science fiction in such works as ''The Time Machine'', ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'', ''The Invisible Man'', ''The War of the Worlds'', ''When the Sleeper Wakes'', and ''The First Men in the Moon''.", "He also wrote realistic novels that received critical acclaim, including ''Kipps'' and a critique of English culture during the Edwardian period, ''Tono-Bungay''.", "Wells also wrote dozens of short stories and novellas, including, \"The Flowering of the Strange Orchid\", which helped bring the full impact of Darwin's revolutionary botanical ideas to a wider public, and was followed by many later successes such as \"The Country of the Blind\" (1904).According to James E. Gunn, one of Wells's major contributions to the science fiction genre was his approach, which he referred to as his \"new system of ideas\".", "In his opinion, the author should always strive to make the story as credible as possible, even if both the writer and the reader knew certain elements are impossible, allowing the reader to accept the ideas as something that could really happen, today referred to as \"the plausible impossible\" and \"suspension of disbelief\".", "While neither invisibility nor time travel was new in speculative fiction, Wells added a sense of realism to the concepts which the readers were not familiar with.", "He conceived the idea of using a vehicle that allows an operator to travel purposely and selectively forwards or backwards in time.", "The term \"time machine\", coined by Wells, is almost universally used to refer to such a vehicle.", "He explained that while writing ''The Time Machine'', he realized that \"the more impossible the story I had to tell, the more ordinary must be the setting, and the circumstances in which I now set the Time Traveller were all that I could imagine of solid upper-class comforts.\"", "In \"Wells's Law\", a science fiction story should contain only a single extraordinary assumption.", "Therefore, as justifications for the impossible, he employed scientific ideas and theories.", "Wells's best-known statement of the \"law\" appears in his introduction to a collection of his works published in 1934:Dr. Griffin / The Invisible Man is a brilliant research scientist who discovers a method of invisibility, but finds himself unable to reverse the process.", "An enthusiast of random and irresponsible violence, Griffin has become an iconic character in horror fiction.", "''The Island of Doctor Moreau'' sees a shipwrecked man left on the island home of Doctor Moreau, a mad scientist who creates human-like hybrid beings from animals via vivisection.", "The earliest depiction of uplift, the novel deals with a number of philosophical themes, including pain and cruelty, moral responsibility, human identity, and human interference with nature.", "In ''The First Men in the Moon'' Wells used the idea of radio communication between astronomical objects, a plot point inspired by Nikola Tesla's claim that he had received radio signals from Mars.", "In addition to science fiction, Wells produced work dealing with mythological beings like an angel in ''The Wonderful Visit'' (1895) and a mermaid in ''The Sea Lady'' (1902).Though ''Tono-Bungay'' is not a science-fiction novel, radioactive decay plays a small but consequential role in it.", "Radioactive decay plays a much larger role in ''The World Set Free'' (1914), a book dedicated to Frederick Soddy who would receive a Nobel for proving the existence of radioactive isotopes.", "This book contains what is surely Wells's biggest prophetic \"hit\", with the first description of a nuclear weapon (which he termed \"atomic bombs\").", "Scientists of the day were well aware that the natural decay of radium releases energy at a slow rate over thousands of years.", "The ''rate'' of release is too slow to have practical utility, but the ''total amount'' released is huge.", "Wells's novel revolves around an (unspecified) invention that accelerates the process of radioactive decay, producing bombs that explode with no more than the force of ordinary high explosives—but which \"continue to explode\" for days on end.", "\"Nothing could have been more obvious to the people of the earlier twentieth century, than the rapidity with which war was becoming impossible ... but they did not see it until the atomic bombs burst in their fumbling hands\".", "In 1932, the physicist and conceiver of nuclear chain reaction Leó Szilárd read ''The World Set Free'' (the same year Sir James Chadwick discovered the neutron), a book which he wrote in his memoirs had made \"a very great impression on me.\"", "In 1934, Szilárd took his ideas for a chain reaction to the British War Office and later the Admiralty, assigning his patent to the Admiralty to keep the news from reaching the notice of the wider scientific community.", "He wrote, \"Knowing what this a chain reaction would mean—and I knew it because I had read H.G.", "Wells—I did not want this patent to become public.\"H.G.", "Wells crater, located on the far side of the Moon, was named after the author of ''The First Men in the Moon'' (1901) in 1970.Wells also wrote non-fiction.", "His first non-fiction bestseller was ''Anticipations of the Reaction of Mechanical and Scientific Progress upon Human Life and Thought'' (1901).", "When originally serialised in a magazine it was subtitled \"An Experiment in Prophecy\", and is considered his most explicitly futuristic work.", "It offered the immediate political message of the privileged sections of society continuing to bar capable men from other classes from advancement until war would force a need to employ those most able, rather than the traditional upper classes, as leaders.", "Anticipating what the world would be like in the year 2000, the book is interesting both for its hits (trains and cars resulting in the dispersion of populations from cities to suburbs; moral restrictions declining as men and women seek greater sexual freedom; the defeat of German militarism, and the existence of a European Union) and its misses (he did not expect successful aircraft before 1950, and averred that \"my imagination refuses to see any sort of submarine doing anything but suffocate its crew and founder at sea\").His bestselling two-volume work, ''The Outline of History'' (1920), began a new era of popularised world history.", "It received a mixed critical response from professional historians.", "However, it was very popular amongst the general population and made Wells a rich man.", "Many other authors followed with \"Outlines\" of their own in other subjects.", "He reprised his ''Outline'' in 1922 with a much shorter popular work, ''A Short History of the World'', a history book praised by Albert Einstein, and two long efforts, ''The Science of Life'' (1930)—written with his son G. P. Wells and evolutionary biologist Julian Huxley, and ''The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind'' (1931).", "The \"Outlines\" became sufficiently common for James Thurber to parody the trend in his humorous essay, \"An Outline of Scientists\"—indeed, Wells's ''Outline of History'' remains in print with a new 2005 edition, while ''A Short History of the World'' has been re-edited (2006).rightFrom quite early in Wells's career, he sought a better way to organise society and wrote a number of Utopian novels.", "The first of these was ''A Modern Utopia'' (1905), which shows a worldwide utopia with \"no imports but meteorites, and no exports at all\"; two travellers from our world fall into its alternate history.", "The others usually begin with the world rushing to catastrophe, until people realise a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a comet causing people to behave rationally and abandoning a European war (''In the Days of the Comet'' (1906)), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in ''The Shape of Things to Come'' (1933, which he later adapted for the 1936 Alexander Korda film, ''Things to Come'').", "This depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombs.", "He also portrayed the rise of fascist dictators in ''The Autocracy of Mr Parham'' (1930) and ''The Holy Terror'' (1939).", "''Men Like Gods'' (1923) is also a utopian novel.", "Wells in this period was regarded as an enormously influential figure; the literary critic Malcolm Cowley stated: \"by the time he was forty, his influence was wider than any other living English writer\".Wells contemplates the ideas of nature and nurture and questions humanity in books such as ''The First Men in the Moon'', where nature is completely suppressed by nurture, and ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'', where the strong presence of nature represents a threat to a civilized society.", "Not all his scientific romances ended in a Utopia, and Wells also wrote a dystopian novel, ''When the Sleeper Wakes'' (1899, rewritten as ''The Sleeper Awakes'', 1910), which pictures a future society where the classes have become more and more separated, leading to a revolt of the masses against the rulers.", "''The Island of Doctor Moreau'' is even darker.", "The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the Houyhnhnms, he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting to their animal natures.Wells also wrote the preface for the first edition of W. N. P. Barbellion's diaries, ''The Journal of a Disappointed Man'', published in 1919.Since \"Barbellion\" was the real author's pen name, many reviewers believed Wells to have been the true author of the ''Journal''; Wells always denied this, despite being full of praise for the diaries.Time'' magazine, 20 September 1926In 1927, a Canadian teacher and writer Florence Deeks unsuccessfully sued Wells for infringement of copyright and breach of trust, claiming that much of ''The Outline of History'' had been plagiarised from her unpublished manuscript, ''The Web of the World's Romance'', which had spent nearly nine months in the hands of Wells's Canadian publisher, Macmillan Canada.", "However, it was sworn on oath at the trial that the manuscript remained in Toronto in the safekeeping of Macmillan, and that Wells did not even know it existed, let alone seen it.", "The court found no proof of copying, and decided the similarities were due to the fact that the books had similar nature and both writers had access to the same sources.", "In 2000, A.", "B. McKillop, a professor of history at Carleton University, produced a book on the case, ''The Spinster & The Prophet: Florence Deeks, H.G.", "Wells, and the Mystery of the Purloined Past''.", "According to McKillop, the lawsuit was unsuccessful due to the prejudice against a woman suing a well-known and famous male author, and he paints a detailed story based on the circumstantial evidence of the case.", "In 2004, Denis N. Magnusson, professor emeritus of the Faculty of Law, Queen's University, Ontario, published an article on ''Deeks v. Wells''.", "This re-examines the case in relation to McKillop's book.", "While having some sympathy for Deeks, he argues that she had a weak case that was not well presented, and though she may have met with sexism from her lawyers, she received a fair trial, adding that the law applied is essentially the same law that would be applied to a similar case today (i.e., 2004).H.", "G. Wells Society plaque at Chiltern Court, Baker Street in the City of Westminster, London, where Wells lived between 1930 and 1936In 1933, Wells predicted in ''The Shape of Things to Come'' that the world war he feared would begin in January 1940, a prediction which ultimately came true four months early, in September 1939, with the outbreak of World War II.", "In 1936, before the Royal Institution, Wells called for the compilation of a constantly growing and changing World Encyclopaedia, to be reviewed by outstanding authorities and made accessible to every human being.", "He also presented on his conception of a world encyclopedia at the World Congress of Universal Documentation in Paris in 1937.In 1938, he published a collection of essays on the future organisation of knowledge and education, ''World Brain'', including the essay \"The Idea of a Permanent World Encyclopaedia\".Prior to 1933, Wells's books were widely read in Germany and Austria, and most of his science fiction works had been translated shortly after publication.", "By 1933, he had attracted the attention of German officials because of his criticism of the political situation in Germany, and on 10 May 1933, Wells's books were burned by the Nazi youth in Berlin's Opernplatz, and his works were banned from libraries and book stores.", "Wells, as president of PEN International (Poets, Essayists, Novelists), angered the Nazis by overseeing the expulsion of the German PEN club from the international body in 1934 following the German PEN's refusal to admit non-Aryan writers to its membership.", "At a PEN conference in Ragusa, Wells refused to yield to Nazi sympathisers who demanded that the exiled author Ernst Toller be prevented from speaking.", "Near the end of World War II, Allied forces discovered that the SS had compiled lists of people slated for immediate arrest during the invasion of Britain in the abandoned Operation Sea Lion, with Wells included in the alphabetical list of \"The Black Book\".====Wartime works====page=7Seeking a more structured way to play war games, Wells wrote ''Floor Games'' (1911) followed by ''Little Wars'' (1913), which set out rules for fighting battles with toy soldiers (miniatures).", "A pacifist prior to the First World War, Wells stated \"how much better is this amiable miniature war than the real thing\".", "According to Wells, the idea of the game developed from a visit by his friend Jerome K. Jerome.", "After dinner, Jerome began shooting down toy soldiers with a toy cannon and Wells joined in to compete.During August 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the First World War, Wells published a number of articles in London newspapers that subsequently appeared as a book entitled ''The War That Will End War''.", "He coined the expression with the idealistic belief that the result of the war would make a future conflict impossible.", "Wells blamed the Central Powers for the coming of the war and argued that only the defeat of German militarism could bring about an end to war.", "Wells used the shorter form of the phrase, \"the war to end war\", in ''In the Fourth Year'' (1918), in which he noted that the phrase \"got into circulation\" in the second half of 1914.In fact, it had become one of the most common catchphrases of the war.In 1918 Wells worked for the British War Propaganda Bureau, also called Wellington House.", "Wells was also one of fifty-three leading British authors — a number that included Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle — who signed their names to the \"Authors' Declaration.\"", "This manifesto declared that the German invasion of Belgium had been a brutal crime, and that Britain \"could not without dishonour have refused to take part in the present war.", "\"===Travels to Russia and the Soviet Union===Wells (left) pictured with Soviet physiologist Ivan PavlovWells visited Russia three times: 1914, 1920 and 1934.After his visits to Petrograd and Moscow, in January 1914, he came back to England, \"a staunch Russophile\".", "His views were recorded in a newspaper article, \"Russia and England: A Study on Contrasts\", published in ''The Daily News'' on 1 February 1941, and in his novel ''Joan and Peter'' (1918).", "During his second visit, he saw his old friend Maxim Gorky and with Gorky's help, met Vladimir Lenin.", "In his book ''Russia in the Shadows'', Wells portrayed Russia as recovering from a total social collapse, \"the completest that has ever happened to any modern social organisation.\"", "On 23 July 1934, after visiting U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Wells went to the Soviet Union and interviewed Joseph Stalin for three hours for the ''New Statesman'' magazine, which was extremely rare at that time.", "He told Stalin how he had seen 'the happy faces of healthy people' in contrast with his previous visit to Moscow in 1920.However, he also criticised the lawlessness, class discrimination, state violence, and absence of free expression.", "Stalin enjoyed the conversation and replied accordingly.", "As the chairman of the London-based PEN International, which protected the rights of authors to write without being intimidated, Wells hoped by his trip to USSR, he could win Stalin over by force of argument.", "Before he left, he realised that no reform was to happen in the near future.===Final years===H.G.", "Wells in 1943Wells's greatest literary output occurred before the First World War, which was lamented by younger authors whom he had influenced.", "In this connection, George Orwell described Wells as \"too sane to understand the modern world\", and \"since 1920 he has squandered his talents in slaying paper dragons.\"", "G. K. Chesterton quipped: \"Mr Wells is a born storyteller who has sold his birthright for a pot of message\".Wells had diabetes, and was a co-founder in 1934 of The Diabetic Association (now Diabetes UK, the leading charity for people with diabetes in the UK).On 28 October 1940, on the radio station KTSA in San Antonio, Texas, Wells took part in a radio interview with Orson Welles, who two years previously had performed a famous radio adaptation of ''The War of the Worlds''.", "During the interview, by Charles C Shaw, a KTSA radio host, Wells admitted his surprise at the sensation that resulted from the broadcast but acknowledged his debt to Welles for increasing sales of one of his \"more obscure\" titles.===Death===Commemorative blue plaque at Wells's final home in Regent's Park, LondonWells died on 13 August 1946, aged 79, at his home at 13 Hanover Terrace, overlooking Regent's Park, London.", "In his preface to the 1941 edition of ''The War in the Air'', Wells had stated that his epitaph should be: \"I told you so.", "You ''damned'' fools\".", "Wells's body was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 16 August 1946; his ashes were subsequently scattered into the English Channel at Old Harry Rocks, the most eastern point of the Jurassic Coast and about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) from Swanage in Dorset.A commemorative blue plaque in his honour was installed by the Greater London Council at his home in Regent's Park in 1966." ], [ "Futurist", "\"Novelist and thinker\".", "Statue of H.G.", "Wells by Wesley Harland in WokingA futurist and \"visionary\", Wells foresaw the advent of aircraft, tanks, space travel, nuclear weapons, satellite television, and something resembling the World Wide Web.", "Asserting that \"Wells's visions of the future remain unsurpassed\", John Higgs, author of ''Stranger Than We Can Imagine: Making Sense of the Twentieth Century'', states that in the late 19th century Wells \"saw the coming century clearer than anyone else.", "He anticipated wars in the air, the sexual revolution, motorised transport causing the growth of suburbs and a proto-Wikipedia he called the \"world brain\".", "In his novel ''The World Set Free'', he imagined an \"atomic bomb\" of terrifying power that would be dropped from aeroplanes.", "This was an extraordinary insight for an author writing in 1913, and it made a deep impression on Winston Churchill.", "\"In 2011, Wells was among a group of science fiction writers featured in the ''Prophets of Science Fiction'' series, a show produced and hosted by film director Sir Ridley Scott, which depicts how predictions influenced the development of scientific advancements by inspiring many readers to assist in transforming those futuristic visions into everyday reality.", "In a 2013 review of ''The Time Machine'' for the ''New Yorker'' magazine, Brad Leithauser writes, \"At the base of Wells's great visionary exploit is this rational, ultimately scientific attempt to tease out the potential future consequences of present conditions—not as they might arise in a few years, or even decades, but millennia hence, epochs hence.", "He is world literature's Great Extrapolator.", "Like no other fiction writer before him, he embraced \"deep time\"." ], [ "Political views", "Churchill avidly read Wells.", "An October 1906 Churchill speech was partly inspired by Wells's ideas of a supportive state as a \"Utopia\".", "Two days earlier, Churchill had written Wells: \"I owe you a great debt.", "\"Wells was a socialist and a member of the Fabian Society.", "He stood as a Labour Party candidate for London University in the 1922 and 1923 general elections.Winston Churchill was an avid reader of Wells's books, and after they first met in 1902 they kept in touch until Wells died in 1946.As a junior minister Churchill borrowed lines from Wells for one of his most famous early landmark speeches in 1906, and as Prime Minister the phrase \"the gathering storm\"—used by Churchill to describe the rise of Nazi Germany—had been written by Wells in ''The War of the Worlds'', which depicts an attack on Britain by Martians.", "Wells's extensive writings on equality and human rights, most notably his most influential work, ''The Rights of Man'' (1940), laid the groundwork for the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the United Nations shortly after his death.His efforts regarding the League of Nations, on which he collaborated on the project with Leonard Woolf with the booklets ''The Idea of a League of Nations'', ''Prolegomena to the Study of World Organization'', and ''The Way of the League of Nations'', became a disappointment as the organization turned out to be a weak one unable to prevent the Second World War, which itself occurred towards the very end of his life and only increased the pessimistic side of his nature.", "In his last book ''Mind at the End of Its Tether'' (1945), he considered the idea that humanity being replaced by another species might not be a bad idea.", "He referred to the era between the two World Wars as \"The Age of Frustration\".Wells was initially an opponent of Zionism, but later following the Holocaust became a strong supporter of the State of Israel.He was a member of The Other Club, a London dining club." ], [ "Religious views", "Wells' views on God and religion changed over his lifetime.", "Early in his life he distanced himself from Christianity, and later from theism, and finally, late in life, he was essentially atheistic.", "Martin Gardner summarises this progression:In ''God the Invisible King'' (1917), Wells wrote that his idea of God did not draw upon the traditional religions of the world: Later in the work, he aligns himself with a \"renascent or modern religion ... neither atheist nor Buddhist nor Mohammedan nor Christian ... that he has found growing up in himself\".Of Christianity, he said: \"it is not now true for me. ...", "Every believing Christian is, I am sure, my spiritual brother ... but if systemically I called myself a Christian I feel that to most men I should imply too much and so tell a lie\".", "Of other world religions, he writes: \"All these religions are true for me as Canterbury Cathedral is a true thing and as a Swiss chalet is a true thing.", "There they are, and they have served a purpose, they have worked.", "Only they are not true for me to live in them. ...", "They do not work for me\".", "In ''The Fate of Homo Sapiens'' (1939), Wells criticised almost all world religions and philosophies, stating \"there is no creed, no way of living left in the world at all, that really meets the needs of the time....", "When we come to look at them coolly and dispassionately, all the main religions, patriotic, moral and customary systems in which human beings are sheltering today, appear to be in a state of jostling and mutually destructive movement, like the houses and palaces and other buildings of some vast, sprawling city overtaken by a landslide.", "\"Wells's opposition to organised religion reached a fever pitch in 1943 with publication of his book ''Crux Ansata'', subtitled \"An Indictment of the Roman Catholic Church\"." ], [ "Literary influence and legacy", "H.G.", "Wells as depicted in Gernsback's ''Science Wonder Stories'' in 1929The science fiction historian John Clute describes Wells as \"the most important writer the genre has yet seen\", and notes his work has been central to both British and American science fiction.", "Science fiction author and critic Algis Budrys said Wells \"remains the outstanding expositor of both the hope, and the despair, which are embodied in the technology and which are the major facts of life in our world\".", "He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1921, 1932, 1935, and 1946.Wells so influenced real exploration of space that impact craters on Mars and the Moon were named after him:Magazine reprint of Wells's 1910 dystopian science fiction ''When the Sleeper Wakes''In the United Kingdom, Wells's work was a key model for the British \"scientific romance\", and other writers in that mode, such as Olaf Stapledon, J. D. Beresford, S. Fowler Wright, and Naomi Mitchison, all drew on Wells's example.", "Wells was also an important influence on British science fiction of the period after the Second World War, with Arthur C. Clarke and Brian Aldiss expressing strong admiration for Wells's work.", "A self-declared fan of Wells, John Wyndham, author of ''The Day of the Triffids'' and ''The Midwich Cuckoos'', echoes Wells's obsession with catastrophe and its aftermath.", "His early work (pre 1920) made Wells the literary hero of dystopian novelist George Orwell.", "Among contemporary British science fiction writers, Stephen Baxter, Christopher Priest and Adam Roberts have all acknowledged Wells's influence on their writing; all three are vice-presidents of the H. G. Wells Society.", "He also had a strong influence on British scientist J.", "B. S. Haldane, who wrote ''Daedalus; or, Science and the Future'' (1924), \"The Last Judgement\" and \"On Being the Right Size\" from the essay collection ''Possible Worlds'' (1927), and ''Biological Possibilities for the Human Species in the Next Ten Thousand Years'' (1963), which are speculations about the future of human evolution and life on other planets.", "Haldane gave several lectures about these topics which in turn influenced other science fiction writers.leftIn the United States, Hugo Gernsback reprinted most of Wells's work in the pulp magazine ''Amazing Stories'', regarding Wells's work as \"texts of central importance to the self-conscious new genre\".", "Later American writers such as Ray Bradbury, Isaac Asimov, Frank Herbert, Carl Sagan, and Ursula K. Le Guin all recalled being influenced by Wells.Sinclair Lewis's early novels were strongly influenced by Wells's realistic social novels, such as ''The History of Mr Polly''; Lewis also named his first son Wells after the author.", "Lewis nominated H.G.", "Wells for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1932.In an interview with ''The Paris Review'', Vladimir Nabokov described Wells as his favourite writer when he was a boy and \"a great artist.\"", "He went on to cite ''The Passionate Friends'', ''Ann Veronica'', ''The Time Machine'', and ''The Country of the Blind'' as superior to anything else written by Wells's British contemporaries.", "Nabokov said: \"His sociological cogitations can be safely ignored, of course, but his romances and fantasies are superb.", "\"2016 illustrated postal envelope with an image from ''The War of the Worlds'', Russian Post, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the author's birthJorge Luis Borges wrote many short pieces on Wells in which he demonstrates a deep familiarity with much of Wells's work.", "While Borges wrote several critical reviews, including a mostly negative review of Wells's film ''Things to Come'', he regularly treated Wells as a canonical figure of fantastic literature.", "Late in his life, Borges included ''The Invisible Man'' and ''The Time Machine'' in his ''Prologue to a Personal Library'', a curated list of 100 great works of literature that he undertook at the behest of the Argentine publishing house Emecé.", "Canadian author Margaret Atwood read Wells's books, and he also inspired writers of European speculative fiction such as Karel Čapek and Yevgeny Zamyatin.In 2021, Wells was one of six British writers commemorated on a series of UK postage stamps issued by Royal Mail to celebrate British science fiction.", "Six classic science fiction novels were depicted, one from each author, with ''The Time Machine'' chosen to represent Wells." ], [ "Representations", "===Literary===* The superhuman protagonist of J. D. Beresford's 1911 novel, ''The Hampdenshire Wonder'', Victor Stott, was based on Wells.", "* In M. P. Shiel's short story \"The Primate of the Rose\" (1928), there is an unpleasant womaniser named E.P.", "Crooks, who was written as a parody of Wells.", "Wells had attacked Shiel's ''Prince Zaleski'' when it was published in 1895, and this was Shiel's response.", "Wells praised Shiel's ''The Purple Cloud'' (1901); in turn Shiel expressed admiration for Wells, referring to him at a speech to the Horsham Rotary Club in 1933 as \"my friend Mr.", "Wells\".", "* In C. S. Lewis's novel ''That Hideous Strength'' (1945), the character Jules is a caricature of Wells, and much of Lewis's science fiction was written both under the influence of Wells and as an antithesis to his work (or, as he put it, an \"exorcism\" of the influence it had on him).", "* In Brian Aldiss's novella ''The Saliva Tree'' (1966), Wells has a small off-screen guest role.", "* In Saul Bellow's novel ''Mr.", "Sammler's Planet'' (1970), Wells is one of several historical figures the protagonist met when he was a young man.", "* In ''The Dancers at the End of Time'' by Michael Moorcock (1976) Wells has an important part.", "* In ''The Map of Time'' (2008) by Spanish author Félix J. Palma; Wells is one of several historical characters.", "* Wells is one of the two Georges in Paul Levinson's 2013 time-travel novelette, \"Ian, George, and George\", published in ''Analog'' magazine.", "* David Lodge's novel ''A Man of Parts'' (2011) is a literary retelling of the life of Wells.===Dramatic===* Rod Taylor portrays Wells in the 1960 science fiction film ''The Time Machine'' (based on the novel of the same name), in which Wells uses his time machine to try to find his Utopian society.", "* Malcolm McDowell portrays Wells in the 1979 science fiction film ''Time After Time'', in which Wells uses a time machine to pursue Jack the Ripper to the present day.", "In the film, Wells meets \"Amy\" in the future who then returns to 1893 to become his second wife Amy Catherine Robbins.", "* Wells is portrayed in the 1985 story ''Timelash'' from the 22nd season of the BBC science-fiction television series ''Doctor Who''.", "In this story, Herbert, an enthusiastic temporary companion to the Doctor, is revealed to be a young H.G.", "Wells.", "The plot is loosely based upon the themes and characters of ''The Time Machine'' with references to ''The War of the Worlds'', ''The Invisible Man'' and ''The Island of Doctor Moreau''.", "The story jokingly suggests that Wells's inspiration for his later novels came from his adventure with the Sixth Doctor.", "* In the BBC2 anthology series ''Encounters'' about imagined meetings between historical figures, ''Beautiful Lies'', by Paul Pender (15 August 1992) centred on an acrimonious dinner party attended by Wells (Richard Todd), George Orwell (Jon Finch), and William Empson (Patrick Ryecart).", "* The character of Wells also appeared in several episodes of ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' (1993–1997), usually pitted against the time-travelling villain known as Tempus (Lane Davies).", "Wells's younger self was played by Terry Kiser, and the older Wells was played by Hamilton Camp.", "* In the British TV mini-series ''The Infinite Worlds of H.G.", "Wells'' (2001), several of Wells's short stories are dramatised but are adapted using Wells himself (Tom Ward) as the main protagonist in each story.", "* In the Disney Channel Original Series ''Phil of the Future'', which centres on time-travel, the present-day high school that the main characters attend is named \"H.G.", "Wells\".", "* In the 2006 television docudrama ''H.G.", "Wells: War with the World'', Wells is played by Michael Sheen.", "* Television episode \"World's End\" of Cold Case (2007) is about how the discovery of human remains in the bottom of a well leads to the reinvestigation of the case of a housewife who went missing during Orson Welles' radio broadcast of \"War of the Worlds\".", "* On the science fiction television series ''Warehouse 13'' (2009–2014), there is a female version Helena G. Wells.", "When she appeared, she explained that her brother was her front for her writing because a female science fiction author would not be accepted.", "* Comedian Paul F. Tompkins portrays a fictional Wells as the host of ''The Dead Authors Podcast'', wherein Wells uses his time machine to bring dead authors (played by other comedians) to the present and interview them.", "* H.G.", "Wells as a young boy appears in the ''Legends of Tomorrow'' episode \"The Magnificent Eight\".", "In this story, the boy Wells is dying of consumption but is cured by a time-travelling Martin Stein.", "* In the four-part series ''The Nightmare Worlds of H.G.", "Wells'' (2016), Wells is played by Ray Winstone.", "* In the 2017 television series version of ''Time After Time'', based on the 1979 film, H.G.", "Wells is portrayed by Freddie Stroma.", "* In the 2019 television adaptation of ''The War of the Worlds'', the character of 'George', played by Rafe Spall, demonstrates a number of elements of Wells's own life, including his estrangement from his wife and unmarried co-habitation with the character of 'Amy'.", "* Wells is played by Nick Cave in the 2021 film ''The Electrical Life of Louis Wain''." ], [ "Film adaptations", "The novels and short stories of H.G.", "Wells have been adapted for cinema.", "These include ''Island of Lost Souls'' (1932), ''The Invisible Man'' (1933), ''Things to Come'' (1936), ''The Man Who Could Work Miracles'' (1937), ''The War of the Worlds'' (1953), ''The Time Machine'' (1960), ''First Men in the Moon'' (1964), ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' (1977), ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' (1996), ''The Time Machine'' (2002) and ''War of the Worlds'' (2005)." ], [ "Literary papers", "In 1954, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign purchased the H.G.", "Wells literary papers and correspondence collection.", "The university's Rare Book & Manuscript Library holds the largest collection of Wells manuscripts, correspondence, first editions and publications in the United States.", "Among these is unpublished material and the manuscripts of such works as ''The War of the Worlds'' and ''The Time Machine''.", "The collection includes first editions, revisions and translations.", "The letters contain general family correspondence, communications from publishers, material regarding the Fabian Society, and letters from politicians and public figures, most notably George Bernard Shaw and Joseph Conrad." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "See also", "* ''''''''''* Scientific Marvelous" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Dickson, Lovat.", "''H.G.", "Wells: His Turbulent Life & Times''.", "1969.", "* * Gilmour, David.", "''The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling''.", "New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 (paperback, ); 2003 (paperback, ).", "* * Gomme, A. W., ''Mr.", "Wells as Historian''.", "Glasgow: MacLehose, Jackson, and Co., 1921.", "* Gosling, John.", "''Waging the War of the Worlds''.", "Jefferson, North Carolina, McFarland, 2009 (paperback, ).", "* * Jasanoff, Maya, \"The Future Was His\" (review of Sarah Cole, ''Inventing Tomorrow: H.G.", "Wells and the Twentieth Century'', Columbia University Press, 374 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXVII, no.", "12 (23 July 2020), pp.", "50–51.Writes Jasanoff (p. 51): \"Although Wells was prophetically right, and right-minded, about some things... nowhere was he more disturbingly wrong than in his loathsome affinity for eugenics....\"* Lynn, Andrea ''The secret love life of H.G.", "Wells''* Mackenzie, Norman and Jean, ''The Time Traveller: the Life of H.G.", "Wells'', London: Weidenfeld, 1973, * Mauthner, Martin.", "''German Writers in French Exile, 1933–1940'', London: Vallentine and Mitchell, 2007, .", "* * McLean, Steven.", "'The Early Fiction of H.G.", "Wells: Fantasies of Science'.", "Palgrave, 2009, .", "* * * Partington, John S. ''Building Cosmopolis: The Political Thought of H.G.", "Wells''.", "Ashgate, 2003, .", "*Roberts, Adam.", "''H.G.", "Wells A Literary Life.''", "Springer International Publishing, 2019, ISBN 978-3-03-026421-5.", "* Roukema, Aren.", "2021.", "\"The Esoteric Roots of Science Fiction: Edward Bulwer-Lytton, H.G.", "Wells, and the Occlusion of Magic.\"", "''Science Fiction Studies'' 48 (2): 218–42.", "* Shadurski, Maxim.", "''The Nationality of Utopia: H.G.", "Wells, England, and the World State''.", "London: Routledge, 2020, ." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * ''Future Tense – The Story of H.G.", "Wells'' at BBC One – 150th anniversary documentary (2016)* \"In the footsteps of H.G.", "Wells\" at ''New Statesman'' – \"The great author called for a Human Rights Act; 60 years later, we have it\" (2000)===Sources—collections===* * * * * * Free H.G.", "Wells downloads for iPhone, iPad, Nook, Android, and Kindle in PDF and all popular eBook reader formats (AZW3, EPUB, MOBI) at ebooktakeaway.com* H.G.", "Wells at the British Library* H.G.", "Wells papers at University of Illinois* Ebooks by H.G.", "Wells at Global Grey Ebooks* ===Sources—letters, essays and interviews===* Archive of Wells's BBC broadcasts* Film interview with H.G.", "Wells * \"Stephen Crane.", "From an English Standpoint\", by Wells, 1900.", "* Rabindranath Tagore: In conversation with H.G.", "Wells.", "Rabindranath Tagore and Wells conversing in Geneva in 1930.", "* \"Introduction\", to W.N.P.", "Barbellion's ''The Journal of a Disappointed Man'', by Wells, 1919.", "* \"Woman and Primitive Culture\", by Wells, 1895.", "* Letter, to M. P. Shiel, by Wells, 1937.===Biography===* * \"H.G.", "Wells\".", "In ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.", "* * ===Critical essays===* An introduction to ''The War of the Worlds'' by Iain Sinclair on the British Library's Discovering Literature website.", "* \"An Appreciation of H.G.", "Wells\", by Mary Austin, 1911.", "* \"Socialism and the Family\" (1906) by Belfort Bax, Part 1, Part 2.", "* \"H.G.", "Wells warned us how it would feel to fight a ''War of the Worlds''\", by Niall Ferguson, in ''The Telegraph'', 24 June 2005.", "* \"H.G.", "Wells's Idea of a World Brain: A Critical Re-assessment\", by W. Boyd Rayward, in ''Journal of the American Society for Information Science'' 50 (15 May 1999): 557–579* \"Mr H.G.", "Wells and the Giants\", by G.K. Chesterton, from his book ''Heretics'' (1908).", "* \"The Internet: a world brain?", "\", by Martin Gardner, in ''Skeptical Inquirer'', Jan–Feb 1999.", "* \"Science Fiction: The Shape of Things to Come\", by Mark Bould, in ''The Socialist Review'', May 2005.", "* \"Who needs Utopia?", "A dialogue with my utopian self (with apologies, and thanks, to H.G.", "Wells)\", by Gregory Claeys in ''Spaces of Utopia: An Electronic Journal'', no 1, Spring 2006.", "* \"When H.G.", "Wells Split the Atom: A 1914 Preview of 1945\", by Freda Kirchwey, in ''The Nation'', posted 4 September 2003 (original 18 August 1945 issue).", "* \"War of the Worldviews\", by John J. Miller, in ''The Wall Street Journal'' Opinion Journal, 21 June 2005.", "* \"Wells's Autobiography\", by John Hart, from ''New International'', Vol.2 No.2, Mar 1935, pp. 75–76.", "* \"History in the Science Fiction of H.G.", "Wells\", by Patrick Parrinder, ''Cycnos'', 22.2 (2006).", "* \"From the World Brain to the Worldwide Web\", by Martin Campbell-Kelly, Gresham College Lecture, 9 November 2006.", "* \"The Beginning of Wisdom: On Reading H.G.", "Wells\", by Vivian Gornick, ''Boston Review'', 31.1 (2007).", "* John Hammond, The Complete List of Short Stories of H.G.", "Wells* \"H.G.", "Wells Predictions Ring True, 143 Years Later\" at ''National Geographic''* \"H.G.", "Wells, the man I knew\" Obituary of Wells by George Bernard Shaw, at the ''New Statesman''* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hypertext" ], [ "Introduction", "Documents that are connected by hyperlinksEngineer Vannevar Bush wrote \"As We May Think\" in 1945 in which he described the Memex, a theoretical proto-hypertext device which in turn helped inspire the subsequent invention of hypertext.Douglas Engelbart in 2009, at the 40th anniversary celebrations of \"The Mother of All Demos\" in San Francisco, a 90-minute 1968 presentation of the NLS computer system which was a combination of hardware and software that demonstrated many hypertext ideas'''Hypertext''' is text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can immediately access.", "Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress set, or screen touch.", "Apart from text, the term \"hypertext\" is also sometimes used to describe tables, images, and other presentational content formats with integrated hyperlinks.", "Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, where Web pages are often written in the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).", "As implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet." ], [ "Etymology", "The English prefix \"hyper-\" comes from the Greek prefix \"ὑπερ-\" and means \"over\" or \"beyond\"; it has a common origin with the prefix \"super-\" which comes from Latin.", "It signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text.The term \"hypertext\" is often used where the term \"hypermedia\" might seem appropriate.In 1992, author Ted Nelson – who coined both terms in 1963 – wrote:" ], [ "Types and uses of hypertext", "Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input, such as dynamic web pages).", "Static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs.", "A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines.", "Links used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document.", "A lesser known feature is StretchText, which expands or contracts the content in place, thereby giving more control to the reader in determining the level of detail of the displayed document.", "Some implementations support transclusion, where text or other content is included by reference and automatically rendered in place.Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing.", "The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, written in the final months of 1990 and released on the Internet in 1991." ], [ "History", "In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published \"The Garden of Forking Paths\", a short story that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext.In 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in ''The Atlantic Monthly'' called \"As We May Think\", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex.", "A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command.", "The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails.", "Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in a relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is now regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart.Ted Nelson gives a presentation on Project Xanadu, a theoretical hypertext model conceived in the 1960s whose first and incomplete implementation was first published in 1998.In 1963, Ted Nelson coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965).", "He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System (text editing) in 1967 at Brown University.", "It was implemented using the terminal IBM 2250 with a light pen which was provided as a pointing device.", "By 1976, its successor FRESS was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community which van Dam says \"foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds\".", "Ted Nelson said in the 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized, which was named Project Xanadu, but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998.Douglas Engelbart independently began working on his NLS system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968.In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as \"The Mother of All Demos\".In 1971 a system called Scrapbook, produced by David Yates and his team at the UK's National Physical Laboratory, went live.", "It was an information storage and retrieval system that included what would now be called word processing, e-mail and hypertext.", "ZOG, an early hypertext system, was developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s, used for documents on Nimitz class aircraft carriers, and later evolving as KMS (Knowledge Management System).The first hypermedia application is generally considered to be the Aspen Movie Map, implemented in 1978.The Movie Map allowed users to arbitrarily choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape, in two seasons (from actual photographs) as well as 3-D polygons.In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987.The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental \"hyperediting\" functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the World Wide Web.", "Guide, the first significant hypertext system for personal computers, was developed by Peter J.", "Brown at the University of Kent in 1982.In 1980, Roberto Busa, an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis, published the ''Index Thomisticus'', as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of Aquinas's works.", "Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J. Watson, the project lasted about 30 years (1949–1980), and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the ''Index Thomisticus'' the first important hypertext work about Saint Thomas Aquinas books and of a few related authors.In 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation.", "They studied many designs before adopting the blue color for links.", "Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document and then the first commercial electronic book ''Hypertext Hands-On!", "''.In August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention.", "Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J.", "Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia, led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general.", "The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) academic conference took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the branched literature writing software Storyspace, were also demonstrated.Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades) convinced Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas.", "The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released.In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN, proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions.", "He called the project \"WorldWideWeb\".In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet web browser.", "Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet.As new web browsers were released, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994.As a result, all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as integrated browsers/editors (a feature of the original WorldWideWeb browser, which was not carried over into most of the other early Web browsers)." ], [ "Implementations", "Besides the already mentioned Project Xanadu, Hypertext Editing System, NLS, HyperCard, and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets:Hypertext Editing System (HES) IBM 2250 Display console – Brown University 1969* FRESS – a 1970s multi-user successor to the Hypertext Editing System.", "* ZOG – a 1970s hypertext system developed at Carnegie Mellon University.", "* Electronic Document System – an early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer-aided instruction.", "* Information Presentation Facility – used to display online help in IBM operating systems.", "* Intermedia – a mid-1980s program for group web-authoring and information sharing.", "* HyperTies - a mid-1980s program commercially applied to hundreds of projects, including July 1988 Communications of the ACM and Hypertext Hands-On!", "book.", "* Texinfo – the GNU help system.", "* KMS – a 1980s successor to ZOG developed as a commercial product.", "* Storyspace – a mid-1980s program for hypertext narrative.", "* Document Examiner - an hypertext system developed in 1985 at Symbolics for their Genera operating system.", "* Adobe's Portable Document Format – a widely used publication format for electronic documents.", "* Amigaguide – released on the Commodore Amiga Workbench 1990.", "* Windows Help – released with Windows 3.0 in 1990.", "* Wikis – aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers.", "Various wiki software have slightly different conventions for formatting, usually simpler than HTML.", "* PaperKiller – a document editor specifically designed for hypertext.", "Started in 1996 as IPer (educational project for ED-Media 1997).", "* XML with the XLink extension – a newer hypertext markup language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by HTML." ], [ "Academic conferences", "Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media.", "The Electronic Literature Organization hosts annual conferences discussing hypertext fiction, poetry and other forms of electronic literature.", "Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by IW3C2, also include many papers of interest.", "There is a list on the Web with links to all conferences in the series." ], [ "Hypertext fiction", "Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks.", "Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of electronic literature, or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media.", "Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, ''Storyspace'' and Intermedia, became available in the 1990s.", "Judy Malloy's ''Uncle Roger'' (1986) and Michael Joyce's ''afternoon, a story'' (1987) are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction.An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments.", "An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text.One of the most successful computer games, ''Myst'', was first written in HyperCard.", "The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack.", "The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards.", "In some ways, ''Myst'' redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative.Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on.", "This can also been seen as contributing to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds.", "In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext Gamebooks), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives.", "However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way.", "This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media.", "New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a \"paradigm shift\" as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world, and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media.", "So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links.In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works.", "Linda Dement's ''Cyberflesh Girlmonster'' a hypertext CD-ROM that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes.", "Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella These Waves of Girls (2001) is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory.", "The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.", "It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips.", "Adrienne Eisen (pen name for Penelope Trunk) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into the mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post-feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the American psyche.===Forms of hypertext===Patchwork Girl,'' where windows layer on top of each otherThere are various forms of hypertext, each of which are structured differently.", "Below are four of the existing forms of hypertext:* '''Axial''' hypertexts are the most simple in structure.", "They are situated along an axis in a linear style.", "These hypertexts have a straight path from beginning to end and are fairly easy for the reader to follow.", "An example of an axial hypertext is The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam.", "* '''Arborescent''' hypertexts are more complex than the axial form.", "They have a branching structure which resembles a tree.", "These hypertexts have one beginning but many possible endings.", "The ending that the reader finishes on depends on their decisions whilst reading the text.", "This is much like gamebook novels that allow readers to choose their own ending.", "* '''Networked''' hypertexts are more complex still than the two previous forms of hypertext.", "They consist of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation.", "Unlike the arborescent form, networked hypertexts do not have any designated beginning or any designated endings.", "An example of a networked hypertext is Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl.", "* '''Layered''' hypertext consist of two layers of linked pages.", "Each layer is doubly linked sequentially and a page in the top layer is doubly linked with a corresponding page in the bottom layer.", "The top layer contains plain text, the bottom multimedia layer provides photos, sounds and video.", "In the Dutch historical novel '''' designed as layered hypertext in 2006 by Eisjen Schaaf, Pauline van de Ven, and Paul Vitányi, the structure is proposed to enhance the atmosphere of the time, to enrich the text with research and family archive material and to enable readers to insert memories of their own while preserving tension and storyline." ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of hypertext technology* Cybertext* Distributed Data Management Architecture* HTML (HyperText Markup Language)* Hyperwords* HTTP* Hyperkino" ], [ "References" ], [ "Documentary film", "* Andries van Dam: ''Hypertext: an Educational Experiment in English and Computer Science at Brown University.''", "Brown University, Providence, RI, U.S. 1974, Run time 15:16, , Full Movie on the Internet Archive" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Barnet, Belinda.", "(2013) ''Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext'' (Anthem Press; 2013) A technological history of hypertext," ], [ "External links", "* Hypertext: Behind the Hype * Reviving Advanced Hypertext, whether and how concepts from hypertext research can be used on the Web.===Hypertext conferences===* EdMedia + Innovate Learning, an international conference organized by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.", "* HyperText - ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harald Tveit Alvestrand" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harald Tveit Alvestrand''' (born 29 June 1959) is a Norwegian computer scientist.", "He was chair of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) from 2001 until 2005, succeeding Fred Baker.", "Within the IETF, Alvestrand was earlier the chair of the Areas for Applications from 1995 until 1997, and of Operations and Management in 1998." ], [ "Biography", "Alvestrand was born in Namsos, Norway, received his education from Bergen Cathedral School and the Norwegian Institute of Technology, and has worked for Norsk Data, UNINETT, EDB Maxware, Cisco Systems, and Google.He is an author of several important Request for Comments (RFCs), many in the general area of Internationalization and localization, most notable the documents required for interoperability between SMTP and X.400.Since the start of the use of OIDs he has run a front end to the hierarchy of assignments according to X.208.At the end of 2007 Alvestrand was selected for the ICANN Board, where he remained until December 2010.In 2001 he became a member of the Unicode Board of Directors.", "He was a co-chair of the IETF EAI and USEFOR WGs.Harald Alvestrand was the executive director of the Linux Counter organization.", "He was a member of the Norid Board, and the RFC Independent Submissions Editorial Board.", "he lived in Trondheim, Norway, and has been working for Google since 2006." ], [ "Publications", "===Best Current Practices===* (BCP 15) Deployment of the Internet White Pages Service* (BCP 18) IETF Policy on Character Sets and Languages* (BCP 26) Guidelines for Writing an IANA Considerations Section in RFCs* (BCP 27) Advancement of MIB specifications on the IETF Standards Track* Tags for the Identification of Languages ''(was BCP 47)''* (BCP 92) The IESG and RFC Editor Documents: Procedures* (BCP 95) A Mission Statement for the IETF===Other important RFCs===* X.400 Use of Extended Character Sets* ''(this memo prepared the UTF-8 50-years plan in RFC 2277)''* Mapping between X.400 and RFC-822/MIME Message Bodies* Content Language Headers ''(draft standard)''* Getting Rid of the Cruft ''(major RFC cleanup work)''* A Generalized Unified Character Code: Western European and CJK Sections (with John Klensin) ''April 1, 2008''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Biography at ICANN" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harlan Ellison" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harlan Jay Ellison''' (May 27, 1934 – June 28, 2018) was an American writer, known for his prolific and influential work in New Wave speculative fiction and for his outspoken, combative personality.", "His published works include more than 1,700 short stories, novellas, screenplays, comic book scripts, teleplays, essays, and a wide range of criticism covering literature, film, television, and print media.", "Some of his best-known works include the 1967 ''Star Trek'' episode \"The City on the Edge of Forever\", considered by some to be the greatest episode of ''Star Trek'' ever (he subsequently wrote a book about the experience that includes his original teleplay), his ''A Boy and His Dog'' cycle (which was made into a film), and his short stories \"I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream\" and \"'Repent, Harlequin!'", "Said the Ticktockman\".", "He was also editor and anthologist for ''Dangerous Visions'' (1967) and ''Again, Dangerous Visions'' (1972).", "Ellison won numerous awards, including multiple Hugos, Nebulas, and Edgars." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and career===Ellison's 1957 novella \"The Savage Swarm\", cover-featured in ''Amazing Stories'', has never been included in an authorized collection or anthology.A few months later, another Ellison novella, \"The Steel Napoleon\", also took the cover of ''Amazing''.", "It also remains uncollected.", "Another uncollected Ellison novella, \"Satan Is My Ally\", was the cover story on the May 1957 issue of ''Fantastic Science Fiction''.house name \"Clyde Mitchell\".", "The novella has never been republished.Ellison's \"Suicide World\", the cover story for the October 1958 ''Fantastic'', also remains uncollected.Ellison's \"The Abnormals\", the cover story for the April 1959 ''Fantastic'', appears in Ellison collections as \"The Discarded\".Ellison was born to a Jewish family in Cleveland, Ohio, on May 27, 1934, the son of Serita (née Rosenthal) and Louis Laverne Ellison, a dentist and jeweler.", "He had an older sister, Beverly (Rabnick), who was born in 1926.She died in 2010 without having spoken to him since their mother's funeral in 1976.His family subsequently moved to Painesville, Ohio, but returned to Cleveland in 1949, following his father's death.", "Ellison frequently ran away from home (in an interview with Tom Snyder he would later claim it was due to discrimination by his high school peers), taking an array of odd jobs—including, by age 18, \"tuna fisherman off the coast of Galveston, itinerant crop-picker down in New Orleans, hired gun for a wealthy neurotic, nitroglycerine truck driver in North Carolina, short-order cook, cab driver, lithographer, book salesman, floorwalker in a department store, door-to-door brush salesman, and as a youngster, an actor in several productions at the Cleveland Play House\".", "In 1947, a fan letter he wrote to ''Real Fact Comics'' became his first published writing.Ellison attended Ohio State University for 18 months (1951–53) before being expelled.", "He said the expulsion was for hitting a professor who had denigrated his writing ability, and over the next 20 or so years he sent that professor a copy of every story that he published.Ellison published two serialized stories in the ''Cleveland News'' during 1949, and he sold a story to EC Comics early in the 1950s.", "During this period, Ellison was an active and visible member of science fiction fandom, and published his own science fiction fanzines, such as ''Dimensions'' (which had previously been the ''Bulletin of the Cleveland Science Fantasy Society'' for the Cleveland Science Fantasy Society, and later ''Science Fantasy Bulletin''.)", "Ellison moved to New York City in 1955 to pursue a writing career, primarily in science fiction.", "Over the next two years, he published more than 100 short stories and articles.", "The short stories collected as ''Sex Gang'' — which Ellison described in a 2012 interview as \"mainstream erotica\" — date from this period.He served in the U.S. Army from 1957 to 1959.His first novel, ''Web of the City'', was published during his military service in 1958, and he said that he had written the bulk of it while undergoing basic training at Fort Benning, Georgia.After leaving the army, he relocated to Chicago, where he edited ''Rogue'' magazine.===Hollywood and beyond===Ellison speaking at an SF convention, 2006Ellison moved to California in 1962 and began selling his writing to Hollywood.", "He co-wrote the screenplay for ''The Oscar'' (1966), starring Stephen Boyd and Elke Sommer.", "Ellison also sold scripts to many television shows: ''The Loretta Young Show'' (using the name Harlan Ellis),''The Flying Nun'', ''Burke's Law'', ''Route 66,'' ''The Outer Limits'', ''Star Trek'', ''The Man from U.N.C.L.E.", "'', ''Cimarron Strip'', and ''The Alfred Hitchcock Hour''.Ellison's screenplay for the ''Star Trek'' episode \"The City on the Edge of Forever\" has been considered the best of the 79 episodes in the series.In 1965, he participated in the second and third Selma to Montgomery marches, led by Martin Luther King Jr.In 1966, in an article that ''Esquire'' magazine later named as the best magazine piece ever written, the journalist Gay Talese wrote a profile of Frank Sinatra.", "The article, entitled \"Frank Sinatra Has a Cold\", briefly describes a clash between Sinatra and a young Harlan Ellison, in which the crooner took exception to Ellison's boots during a billiards game.Ellison was hired as a writer for Walt Disney Studios, but was fired on his first day after Roy O. Disney overheard him in the studio commissary joking about making a pornographic animated film featuring Disney characters.Ellison continued to publish short fiction and nonfiction pieces in various publications, including some of his best known stories.", "\"'Repent, Harlequin!'", "Said the Ticktockman\" (1965) is a celebration of civil disobedience against repressive authority.", "\"I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream\" (1967) is a story where five humans are tormented by an all-knowing computer throughout eternity.", "The story was the basis of a 1995 computer game; Ellison participated in the game's design and provided the voice of the god-computer AM.", "Another story, \"A Boy and His Dog\", examines the nature of friendship and love in a violent, post-apocalyptic world and was made into the 1975 film of the same name, starring Don Johnson.In 1967, Ellison edited the ''Dangerous Visions'' collection, which attracted 'special citation at the 26th World SF Convention for editing \"the most significant and controversial SF book published in 1967.\"'", "In his introduction Isaac Asimov described it epitomising a 'second revolution' in Science Fiction as 'science receded and modern fictional techniques came to the fore.", "'From 1968 to 1970, Ellison wrote a regular column on television for the ''Los Angeles Free Press''.", "Titled \"The Glass Teat\", Ellison's column examined television's impact on the politics and culture of the time, including its presentations of sex, politics, race, the Vietnam War, and violence.", "The essays were collected in two anthologies, ''The Glass Teat: Essays of Opinion on Television'' followed by ''The Other Glass Teat''.Ellison served as creative consultant to the 1980s version of ''The Twilight Zone'' science fiction TV series and ''Babylon 5''.", "As a member of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), he had voice-over credits for shows, including ''The Pirates of Dark Water'', ''Mother Goose and Grimm'', ''Space Cases'', ''Phantom 2040'', and ''Babylon 5'', as well as making an onscreen appearance in the ''Babylon 5'' episode \"The Face of the Enemy\".A frequent guest on the Los Angeles science fiction / fantasy culture radio show ''Hour 25,'' hosted by Mike Hodel, Ellison took over as host when Hodel died.", "Ellison's tenure was from May 1986 to June 1987.Ellison's short story \"The Man Who Rowed Christopher Columbus Ashore\" (1992) was selected for inclusion in the 1993 edition of ''The Best American Short Stories''.Ellison as an audio actor/reader was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children twice and has won several Audie Awards.In 2014, Ellison made a guest appearance on the album ''Finding Love in Hell'' by the stoner metal band Leaving Babylon, reading his piece \"The Silence\" (originally published in ''Mind Fields'') as an introduction to the song \"Dead to Me.", "\"Ellison's official website, harlanellison.com, was launched in 1995 as a fan page; for several years, Ellison was a regular poster in its discussion forum.===Personal life and death===Ellison married five times; each relationship ended within a few years, except the last.", "His first wife was Charlotte Stein, whom he married in 1956.They divorced in 1960, and he later described the marriage as \"four years of hell as sustained as the whine of a generator.\"", "Later that year he married Billie Joyce Sanders; they divorced in 1963.His 1966 marriage to Loretta Patrick lasted only seven weeks.", "In 1976, he married Lori Horowitz.", "He was 41 and she was 19, and he later said of the marriage, \"I was desperately in love with her, but it was a stupid marriage on my part.\"", "They were divorced after eight months.", "He and Susan Toth married in 1986, and they remained together, living in Los Angeles, until his death 32 years later.", "Susan died in August 2020.Ellison described himself as a Jewish atheist.In 1994, he had a heart attack and was hospitalized for quadruple coronary artery bypass surgery.", "From 2010, he received treatment for clinical depression.In September 2007, Ellison attended the Midwestern debut of the documentary about his life, ''Dreams with Sharp Teeth'', at the Cleveland Public Library in his hometown of Cleveland, Ohio.", "This would be Ellison's last public appearance in his hometown.On about October 10, 2014, Ellison had a stroke.", "Although his speech and cognition were unimpaired, he suffered paralysis on his right side, for which he was expected to spend several weeks in physical therapy before being released from the hospital.Ellison died in his sleep at his home in Los Angeles on the morning of June 28, 2018.His literary estate is currently executed by ''Babylon 5'' creator J. Michael Straczynski." ], [ "Pseudonyms", "Ellison on occasion used the pseudonym '''Cordwainer Bird''' to alert members of the public to situations in which he felt his creative contribution to a project had been mangled by others, beyond repair, typically Hollywood producers or studios (see also Alan Smithee).", "The first such work to which he signed the name was \"The Price of Doom\", an episode of ''Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea'' (though it was misspelled as Cord Wainer Bird in the credits).", "An episode of ''Burke's Law'' (\"Who Killed Alex Debbs?\")", "credited to Ellison contains a ''character'' given this name, played by Sammy Davis Jr.The \"Cordwainer Bird\" moniker is a tribute to fellow SF writer Paul M. A. Linebarger, better known by his pen name, Cordwainer Smith.", "The origin of the word \"cordwainer\" is ''shoemaker'' (from working with shell cordovan leather for shoes).", "The term used by Linebarger was meant to imply the industriousness of the pulp author.", "Ellison said, in interviews and in his writing, that his version of the pseudonym was meant to mean \"a shoemaker for birds\".", "Since he used the pseudonym mainly for works he wanted to distance himself from, it may be understood to mean that \"this work is for the birds\" or that it is of as much use as shoes to a bird.", "Stephen King once said he thought that it meant that Ellison was giving people who mangled his work a literary version of \"the bird\" (given credence by Ellison himself in his own essay titled \"Somehow, I Don't Think We're in Kansas, Toto\", describing his experience with the ''Starlost'' television series).The Bird moniker became a character in one of Ellison's own stories.", "In his 1978 book ''Strange Wine'', Ellison explains the origins of the Bird and goes on to state that Philip José Farmer wrote Cordwainer into the Wold Newton family that the latter writer had developed.", "The thought of such a whimsical object lesson being related to such lights as Doc Savage, The Shadow, Tarzan, and all the other pulp heroes prompted Ellison to play with the concept, resulting in \"The New York Review of Bird\", in which an annoyed Bird uncovers the darker secrets of the New York literary establishment before beginning a pulpish slaughter of the same.Other pseudonyms Ellison used during his career include Jay Charby, Sley Harson, Ellis Hart, John Magnus, Paul Merchant, Pat Roeder, Ivar Jorgenson, Derry Tiger, Harlan Ellis and Jay Solo." ], [ "Controversies and disputes", "===Temperament===Ellison had a reputation for being abrasive and argumentative.", "He generally agreed with this assessment, and a dust jacket from one of his books described him as \"possibly the most contentious person on Earth.\"", "Ellison filed numerous grievances and attempted lawsuits; during a contract dispute over Ace Books binding cigarette ads into one of his paperbacks, he sent them dozens of bricks postage due, followed by a dead gopher.", "In an October 2017 piece in ''Wired'', Ellison was dubbed \"Sci-Fi's Most Controversial Figure.", "\"At Stephen King's request, Ellison provided a description of himself and his writing in ''Danse Macabre'': \"My work is foursquare for chaos.", "I spend my life personally, and my work professionally, keeping the soup boiling.", "Gadfly is what they call you when you are no longer dangerous; I much prefer troublemaker, malcontent, desperado.", "I see myself as a combination of Zorro and Jiminy Cricket.", "My stories go out from here and raise hell.", "From time to time some denigrater or critic with umbrage will say of my work, 'He only wrote that to shock.'", "I smile and nod.", "Precisely.", "\"===''Star Trek''===Ellison repeatedly criticized how ''Star Trek'' creator and producer Gene Roddenberry (and others) rewrote his original script for the 1967 episode \"The City on the Edge of Forever\".", "Despite his objections, Ellison kept his own name on the shooting script instead of using \"Cordwainer Bird\" to indicate displeasure (see above).Ellison's original script was first published in the 1976 anthology ''Six Science Fiction Plays'', edited by Roger Elwood.", "The aired version was adapted for the ''Star Trek'' Fotonovel series in 1977.In 1995, Borderlands Press published ''The City on the Edge of Forever'', with nearly 300 pages, comprising an essay by Ellison, four versions of the teleplay, and eight \"Afterwords\" contributed by other parties.", "He greatly expanded the introduction for the paperback edition, in which he explained what he called a \"fatally inept\" treatment.Both versions of the script won awards: Ellison's original script won the 1968 Writers Guild Award for best episodic drama in television, while the shooting script won the 1968 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.On March 13, 2009, Ellison sued CBS Paramount Television, seeking payment of 25% of net receipts from merchandising, publishing, and other income from the episode since 1967; the suit also names the Writers Guild of America for allegedly failing to act on Ellison's behalf.", "On October 23, 2009, ''Variety'' magazine reported that a settlement had been reached.===Vietnam War opposition and Aggiecon I===Ellison was among those who in 1968 signed an anti-Vietnam War advertisement in ''Galaxy Science Fiction''.", "In 1969, Ellison was Guest of Honor at Texas A&M University's first science fiction convention, Aggiecon, where he reportedly referred to the university's Corps of Cadets as \"America's next generation of Nazis\", inspired in part by the Vietnam War.", "Although the university was no longer solely a military school (from 1965), the student body was predominantly made up of cadet members.", "Between Ellison's anti-military remarks and a food fight that broke out in the ballroom of the hotel where the gathering was held (although, according to Ellison in 2000, the food fight actually started in a Denny's because the staff disappeared and they could not get their check), the school's administration almost refused to approve the science fiction convention the next year and no guest of honor was invited for the next two Aggiecons.", "Ellison was subsequently invited back as Guest of Honor for Aggiecon V (1974).===''The Last Dangerous Visions''===''The Last Dangerous Visions'' (TLDV), the third volume of Ellison's anthology series, was originally announced for publication in 1973, but had not been published.", "Nearly 150 writers, many now dead, submitted works for the volume.", "In 1993, Ellison threatened to sue the New England Science Fiction Association (NESFA) for publishing \"Himself in Anachron\", a short story written by Cordwainer Smith and originally sold to Ellison for the anthology by his widow.", "The NESFA later reached an amicable settlement after it was revealed that the story contract had expired, allowing them to legally acquire it for publication.British science fiction author Christopher Priest criticized Ellison's editorial practices in an article entitled \"The Book on the Edge of Forever\", later expanded into a book.", "Priest documented a half-dozen unfulfilled promises by Ellison to publish ''TLDV'' within a year of the statement.", "Priest claims that he submitted a story at Ellison's request, which Ellison retained for several months until Priest withdrew the story and demanded that Ellison return the manuscript.", "Ellison was incensed by \"The Book on the Edge of Forever\" and, personally or by proxy, threatened Priest on numerous occasions after its publication.In November 2020, the executor of the Harlan Ellison estate, J. Michael Straczynski, announced on Patreon that he was proceeding with the final preparations for the publication of TLDV with the proceeds to go to the Harlan and Susan Ellison Trust.", "The book was expected to be published in April 2021, as significant publisher interest was expressed.Christopher Priest was unimpressed, saying that Straczynski was \"in the same sort of unenviable position as Trump's caddie\", but as an experienced professional would possibly work something out.", "He added \"I kind of lost interest in all that years ago.", "Ellison clearly did too, along with everyone else.", "(Although I gather he went on with his magical thinking if anyone asked when he was going to deliver).", "Many of the stories were withdrawn, because Ellison acted like a dick.", "Of the ones that remain, most of them are by writers who are now deceased, so the rights have expired and the estates would have to be traced.", "A lot of the writers have disowned their stories as juvenilia, or outdated, or simply because Ellison was acting like a dick.", "\"Despite early hopes of a 2021 release for TLDV, 2021 came and went with no book.", "An October 2021 'progress report' from Straczynski revealed that the book was still in preparation.", "On May 2, 2022, Straczynski announced that the book would be published in 2023.On July 10, 2022, Straczynski announced on Twitter that ''The Last Dangerous Visions'' will be published on September 1, 2024, by Blackstone Publishers.===''I, Robot''===Shortly after the release of ''Star Wars'' (1977), Ben Roberts contacted Ellison to develop a script based on Isaac Asimov's ''I, Robot'' short story collection for Warner Brothers; Ellison and Asimov had been long-time friends, so Ellison may be presumed to have attached particular significance to the project.", "In a meeting with the Head of Production at Warners, Robert Shapiro, Ellison concluded that Shapiro was commenting on the script without having read it and accused him of having the \"intellectual and cranial capacity of an artichoke\".", "Shortly afterwards, Ellison was dropped from the project.", "Without Ellison, the film came to a dead end, because subsequent scripts were unsatisfactory to potential directors.", "After a change in studio heads, Warner allowed Ellison's script to be serialized in ''Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine'' and published in book form.", "The 2004 film ''I, Robot'', starring Will Smith, has no connection to Ellison's script.===Allegations of assault on Charles Platt===In 1985, Ellison allegedly publicly assaulted author and critic Charles Platt at the Nebula Awards banquet.", "Platt did not pursue legal action against Ellison and the two men later signed a \"non-aggression pact\", promising never to discuss the incident again nor to have any contact with one another.", "Platt claims that Ellison often publicly boasted about the incident.===Support of Ed Kramer===Ellison voiced strong support for Ed Kramer, founder of Dragon Con, after Kramer was accused of sexual abuse of children in 2000.Ellison and others disputed the evidence against Kramer, and also alleged Kramer was being held in jail in violation of his right to a speedy trial.When author Nancy A. Collins spoke up against Kramer, Ellison led a long-standing feud against her before Kramer entered an Alford Plea in 2013.===2006 Hugo Awards ceremony===Ellison was presented with a special committee award at the 2006 Hugo Awards ceremony.", "When Ellison got to the podium, presenter Connie Willis asked him \"Are you going to be good?\"", "When she asked the question a second time, Ellison put the microphone in his mouth, to the crowd's laughter.", "He then placed his hand on her breast during an embrace.", "Ellison subsequently complained that Willis refused to acknowledge his apology.===Lawsuit against Fantagraphics===On September 20, 2006, Ellison sued comic book and magazine publisher Fantagraphics, stating they had defamed him in their book ''Comics As Art (We Told You So)''.", "The book recounts the history of Fantagraphics and discussed a lawsuit that resulted from a 1980 Ellison interview with Fantagraphics' industry news magazine, ''The Comics Journal''.", "In this interview Ellison referred to comic book writer Michael Fleisher, calling him \"bugfuck\" and \"derange-o\".", "Fleisher lost his libel suit against Ellison and Fantagraphics on December 9, 1986.Ellison, after reading unpublished drafts of the book on Fantagraphics's website, believed that he had been defamed by several anecdotes related to this incident.", "He sued in the Superior Court for the State of California, in Santa Monica.", "Fantagraphics attempted to have the lawsuit dismissed.", "In their motion to dismiss, Fantagraphics argued that the statements were both their personal opinions and generally believed to be true anecdotes.", "On February 12, 2007, the presiding judge ruled against Fantagraphics' anti-SLAPP motion for dismissal.", "On June 29, 2007, Ellison claimed that the litigation had been resolved pending Fantagraphics' removal of all references to the case from their website.", "No money or apologies changed hands in the settlement as posted on August 17, 2007.===Copyright suits===In a 1980 lawsuit against ABC and Paramount Pictures, Ellison and Ben Bova claimed that the TV series ''Future Cop'' was based on their short story \"Brillo\", winning a $337,000 judgement.Ellison alleged that James Cameron's film ''The Terminator'' drew from material from an episode of the original ''Outer Limits'' which Ellison had scripted, \"Soldier\" (1964).", "Hemdale, the production company and the distributor Orion Pictures, settled out of court for an undisclosed sum and added a credit to the film which acknowledged Ellison's work.", "Cameron objected to this acknowledgement and has since labeled Ellison's claim a \"nuisance suit\".", "Some accounts of the settlement state that another ''Outer Limits'' episode written by Ellison, \"Demon with a Glass Hand\" (1964), was also claimed to have been plagiarized by the film, but Ellison stated that \"''Terminator'' was not stolen from 'Demon with a Glass Hand,' it was a ripoff of my OTHER Outer Limits script, 'Soldier.In 1983, Marvel Comics released ''The Incredible Hulk'' #286, entitled \"Hero\", written by Bill Mantlo.", "Three issues later, Marvel put up a letter claiming that Mantlo adapted \"Soldier\" for use as a Hulk story, but they forgot to credit Ellison and it was pointed out by readers.", "In actuality, then-Editor-in-Chief Jim Shooter signed off on the story, not having seen the ''Outer Limits'' episode it was based on and not realizing Mantlo copied it wholesale.", "The day the issue went to stands, he was contacted by an angry Ellison, who calmed down after Shooter admitted the error.", "Although he could have claimed hundreds of thousands of dollars in damages, Ellison only requested the same payment Mantlo got for the story, writer's credit and a lifetime subscription to everything Marvel published.On April 24, 2000, Ellison sued Stephen Robertson for posting four stories to the newsgroup \"alt.binaries.e-book\" without authorization.", "The other defendants were AOL and RemarQ, an internet service provider who owned servers hosting the newsgroup.", "Ellison alleged they had failed to halt copyright infringement in accordance with the \"Notice and Takedown Procedure\" outlined in the 1998 Digital Millennium Copyright Act.", "Robertson and RemarQ first settled with Ellison, and then AOL likewise settled with Ellison in June 2004, under conditions that were not made public.", "Since those settlements Ellison initiated legal action or takedown notices against more than 240 people who have allegedly distributed his writings on the Internet, saying, \"If you put your hand in my pocket, you'll drag back six inches of bloody stump\"." ], [ "Works" ], [ "Awards", "Ellison won eight Hugo Awards, a shared award for the screenplay of ''A Boy and his Dog'' that he counted as \"half a Hugo\", and two special awards from annual World SF Conventions; four Nebula Awards of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA); five Bram Stoker Awards of the Horror Writers Association (HWA); two Edgar Awards of the Mystery Writers of America; two World Fantasy Awards from annual conventions; and two Georges Méliès fantasy film awards.", "In 1987, Ellison was awarded the Inkpot Award.In his 1981 book about the horror genre, ''Danse Macabre'', Stephen King reviewed Ellison's collection ''Strange Wine'' and considered it one of the best horror books published between 1950 and 1980.Ellison won the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 1993.HWA gave him its Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996 and the World Horror Convention named him Grand Master in 2000.He was awarded the Gallun Award for Lifetime Achievement in Science Fiction from I-CON in 1997.SFWA named him its 23rd Grand Master of fantasy and science fiction in 2006 and the Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted him in 2011.That year he also received the fourth J. Lloyd Eaton Lifetime Achievement Award in Science Fiction, presented by the UCR Libraries at the 2011 Eaton SF Conference, \"Global Science Fiction\"., Ellison is the only three-time winner of the Nebula Award for Best Short Story.", "He won his other Nebula in the novella category.He was awarded the Silver Pen for Journalism by International PEN, the international writers' union, in 1982.In 1990, Ellison was honored by International PEN for continuing commitment to artistic freedom and the battle against censorship.", "In 1998, he was awarded the \"Defender of Liberty\" award by the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund.In March 1998, the National Women's Committee of Brandeis University honored him with their 1998 Words, Wit, Wisdom award.Ellison was named 2002's winner of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal's \"Distinguished Skeptic Award\", in recognition of his contributions to science and critical thinking.", "Ellison was presented with the award at the Skeptics Convention in Burbank, California, on June 22, 2002.In December 2009, Ellison was nominated for a Grammy award in the category Best Spoken Word Album For Children for his reading of ''Through the Looking-Glass And What Alice Found There'' for Blackstone Audio, Inc.;Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films (USA)* Golden Scroll (Best Writing – Career 1976);American Mystery Award* \"Soft Monkey\" (best short story, 1988);Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine Reader's Poll* ''I, Robot'' screenplay (Special award, 1988);Audie Awards* ''The Titanic Disaster Hearings: The Official Transcript of the 1912 Senatorial Investigation'' (Best Multi-Voiced Presentation, 1999)* ''City of Darkness'' (Best Solo Narration, 1999)*''The Dybbuk'' (Audiobook Adapted from Another Medium, 2000);Best American Short Stories* \"The Man who Rowed Christopher Columbus Ashore\" (included in the 1993 anthology);The Bradbury Award*Given by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 2000 to Harlan Ellison and Yuri Rasovsky for the radio series 2000X.", ";Bram Stoker Award* ''The Essential Ellison'' (best collection, 1987)* ''Harlan Ellison's Watching'' (best non-fiction, 1989 – tie)* ''Mefisto in Onyx'' (best novella, 1993 – tie)* \"Chatting With Anubis\" (best short story, 1995)* Lifetime Achievement Award, 1995* ''I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream'' (best other media – audio, 1999);British Fantasy Award* \"Jeffty Is Five\" (best short story, 1979);British Science Fiction Award* ''Deathbird Stories'' (best collection, 1978);Deathrealm Award* ''Chatting with Anubis'' (best short fiction, 1996);Edgar Allan Poe Award* \"The Whimper of Whipped Dogs\" (best short story, 1974)* \"Soft Monkey\" (best short story, 1988);Georges Melies Fantasy Film Award* ''Demon with a Glass Hand / The Outer Limits'' (Achievement in Science Fiction Television, 1972)* ''The City on the Edge of Forever / Star Trek'' (Achievement in Science Fiction Television, 1973);Hugo Award* \"\"Repent, Harlequin!\"", "Said the Ticktockman\" (best short fiction, 1966)* \"I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream\" (best short story, 1968)* ''The City on the Edge of Forever'' (best dramatic presentation, 1968)* ''Dangerous Visions'' (Worldcon special award, 1968)* \"The Beast that Shouted Love at the Heart of the World\" (best short story, 1969)* ''Again, Dangerous Visions'' (Worldcon special award for excellence in anthologizing, 1972)* \"The Deathbird\" (best novelette, 1974)* \"Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans: Latitude 38° 54' N, Longitude 77° 00' 13\" W\" (best novelette, 1975)* ''A Boy and His Dog'' (film – best dramatic presentation, 1976.The Hugo was originally given to L.Q.", "Jones, the film's producer and screenwriter.", "After the ceremony, Ellison complained that as author of the original story upon which Jones's screenplay was based, he deserved to share in the award.", "No extra Hugo statuette was available, so to mollify Ellison, he received a Hugo base, which he called his \"half Hugo\".", ")* \"Jeffty Is Five\" (best short story, 1978)* \"Paladin of the Lost Hour\" (best novelette, 1986);International Horror Guild Award* 1994 Living Legend Award;Jupiter Award (Instructors of Science Fiction in Higher Education)* \"The Deathbird\" (best short story, 1973)* \"Jeffty Is Five\" (best short story, 1977);Locus Poll Award* ''The Region Between'' (best short fiction, 1971)* ''Basilisk'' (best short fiction, 1973)* ''Again, Dangerous Visions'' (best anthology, 1973)* ''The Deathbird'' (best short fiction, 1974)* ''Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans: Latitude 38° 54' N, Longitude 77° 00' 13\" W'' (best novelette, 1975)* \"Croatoan\" (best short story, 1976)* \"Jeffty Is Five\" (best short story, 1978) (best short story of all time, 1999 online poll)* \"Count the Clock that Tells the Time\" (best short story, 1979)* \"Djinn, No Chaser\" (best novelette, 1983)* ''Sleepless Nights in the Procrustean Bed'' (introduction) (best related non-fiction, 1985)* ''Medea: Harlan's World'' (best anthology, 1986)* ''Paladin of the Lost Hour'' (best novelette, 1986)* \"With Virgil Oddum at the East Pole\" (best short story, 1986)* ''Angry Candy'' (best collection, 1989)* ''The Function of Dream Sleep'' (best novelette, 1989)* \"Eidolons\" (best short story, 1989)* ''Mefisto in Onyx'' (best novella, 1994)* ''Slippage'' (best collection, 1998);Nebula Award* \"\"Repent, Harlequin!\"", "Said the Ticktockman\" (best short story, 1966)* ''A Boy and His Dog'' (best novella, 1970)* \"Jeffty Is Five\" (best short story, 1978)* Grand Master Award (at Tempe, Arizona, May 6, 2006)* \"How Interesting: A Tiny Man\" (best short story, tied with Kij Johnson/\"Ponies\" 2011);Prometheus Award* \"\"Repent, Harlequin!\"", "Said the Ticktockman\" (2015 Hall of Fame Inductee);Writers Guild of America* ''Demon with a Glass Hand / The Outer Limits'' (Best Original Teleplay, 1965)* ''The City on the Edge of Forever / Star Trek'' (Best Original Teleplay, 1967)* ''Phoenix Without Ashes / The Starlost'' (Best Written Dramatic Episode, 1974)* ''Paladin of the Lost Hour / The Twilight Zone'' (Best Anthology Episode/Single Program, 1987);Writers Guild of Canada* ''The Human Operators / The Outer Limits'' (2000);World Fantasy Award* ''Angry Candy'' (Best Collection, 1989)* Lifetime Achievement Award, 1993;J. Lloyd Eaton Lifetime Achievement Award in Science Fiction* 2011 recipient (Eaton Collection of Science Fiction and Fantasy, University of California–Riverside Libraries)" ], [ "Parodies and pastiches of Ellison", "In the 1970s artist and cartoonist Gordon Carleton wrote and drew a scripted slideshow called \"City on the Edge of Whatever\", which was a spoof of \"The City on the Edge of Forever\".", "Occasionally performed at ''Star Trek'' conventions, it features an irate writer named \"Arlan Hellison\" who screams at his producers, \"Art defilers!", "Script assassins!", "\"''Justice League of America'' #89 (\"The Most Dangerous Dreams Of All\") 1971, written by Mike Friedrich, is centered around a character named Harlequin Ellis.", "The character is smitten with Black Canary, and injects himself into Justice League adventures, taking on the role of different heroes in his attempts to woo her.", "Ellison himself had written several comic book scripts.Ben Bova's novel ''The Starcrossed'' (1975), a ''roman à clef'' about Bova and Ellison's experience on ''The Starlost'' TV series, features a character \"Ron Gabriel\" who is a pastiche of Ellison.", "Bova's novel is dedicated to Ellison's pseudonym \"Cordwainer Bird\", who was credited as series creator on ''The Starlost'' per Ellison's demand.", "In the novel, \"Ron Gabriel\" requires the fictional series producers to credit him under the pseudonym \"Victor Lawrence Talbot Frankenstein\".In ''Murder at the ABA'' (1976) by Isaac Asimov, the protagonist, Darius Just, was based on Ellison, as stated by Asimov in footnotes to the book itself, and in his autobiographical volume ''In Joy Still Felt''.Robert Silverberg named a character in his first novel, ''Revolt on Alpha C'' (1955), for Ellison, who was Silverberg's neighbor in New York City at the time he was writing the book.", "This was confirmed in a special edition on the occasion of Silverberg's 35th year in the business.Sharyn McCrumb's mystery novel ''Bimbos of the Death Sun'' (1988) featured a cantankerous antagonist-turned-murder victim based on Ellison.", "Fans of Ellison sent him copies of the book, and upon meeting Ellison later that year at the Edgar Awards, Ellison told McCrumb he had read the book and thought it was good.Ellison is a recurring minor character in the animated television series ''Scooby-Doo!", "Mystery Incorporated'' (2010–2013), voicing a fictionalized version of himself modeled on his appearance in the 1970s.Ellison appeared as himself in an episode of ''The Simpsons'' (\"Married to the Blob\", 2014) in which he meets Bart and Milhouse, and parodies his contention that the film ''The Terminator'' used ideas from his stories." ], [ "References", "=== Informational notes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "Further reading", "* A small press biography of Ellison.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* (ISFDB)* * * * * Ellison Webderland Official website* * * * * Video of Harlan Ellison at Cleveland Public Library, September 21, 2007: The author's last public appearance in his hometown, included extended remarks by Les Roberts, Tony Isabella, Mark Dawidziak, and Ellison himself.", "For additional details on the 2007 event, see the Ohio Center for the Book article." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi''' (; 1609 – 1640) was an Ottoman scientist, inventor, chemist, astronomer, physician, Andalusi musician, and poet from Constantinople, reported in the writings of traveler Evliya Çelebi to have achieved sustained unpowered flight." ], [ "Etymology of name", "The title ''\"Hezârfen\"'', given by Evliyâ Çelebi to Ahmed Çelebi, is from Persian هزار ''hezār'' meaning -a thousand- + فنّ ''fann'' meaning -science together making it together Ahmed having talents in \"a thousand of sciences (polymath)." ], [ "Non-powered flight", "Flight path, as described by Evliya ÇelebiThe 17th century writings of Evliyâ Çelebi relate this story of Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi, circa 1630–1632:While modern historians disagree with Evliya Çelebi's narration of Hezarfen flying the entire Bosporus, they state that the flight most likely was real, but heavily exaggerated, as Çelebi often exaggerates in his writings." ], [ "Legacy", "*One of 4 airports in Istanbul is named the \"Hezarfen Airfield\".", "*A 1996 feature-length film, \"Istanbul Beneath My Wings\" (''İstanbul Kanatlarımın Altında'') concerns the lives of Hezârfen Ahmet Çelebi, his brother and rocket aviator Lagari Hasan Çelebi, and Ottoman society in the early 17th century, as witnessed and narrated by Evliyâ Çelebi.", "*The Turkish children’s TV show “Little Hezarfen” (''Küçük Hezarfen'') is about Hezârfen Ahmet Çelebi’s childhood, though the events that occur within the show are likely fictitious and/or exaggerated.", "A main theme within the show, however, is Hezarfen’s desire to build wings that allow him to fly." ], [ "See also", "*Lagâri Hasan Çelebi*Abbas ibn Firnas" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt''' (June 2, 1885 – December 30, 1964) was a German neurologist and neuropathologist.", "Although he is typically credited as the physician to first describe the Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, this has been disputed.", "He was born in Harburg an der Elbe and died in Munich." ], [ "Biography", "Creutzfeldt was born into a medical family in Harburg, which was incorporated into Hamburg in 1937.In 1903, at the age of 18, he was drafted into the German army and spent his service stationed in Kiel.", "Afterwards, he attended the School of Medicine of the University of Jena and the University of Rostock, receiving his doctorate at the latter in 1909.Part of his practical training was undertaken at ''St.", "Georg'' – Hospital in Hamburg.", "After qualification he sought adventure as a ship's surgeon, voyaging the Pacific Ocean, taking the opportunity to study local crafts, linguistics, and tropical plants.After returning to Germany in 1912, Creutzfeldt worked at the Neurological Institute in Frankfurt am Main, at the psychiatric-neurological clinics in Breslau, Kiel and Berlin, and at the ''Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie'' in Munich.", "During the First World War, Creutzfeldt was deployed as a reserve medical officer and survived the sinking of the auxiliary cruiser SMS Greif, on which he was embarked.", "After being captured on February 29, 1916, he was repatriated as a doctor in May of that year and served in the Imperial German Navy until the end of the war in 1918.Creutzfeldt was habilitated at Kiel in 1920, and in 1925 became ''Extraordinarius'' of psychiatry and neurology.", "In 1938 he was appointed professor and director of the university psychiatric and neurological division in Kiel.", "He helped to recognize a neurodegenerative disease, with Alfons Maria Jakob, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in which the brain tissue develops holes and takes on a sponge-like texture.", "It is now known it is due to a type of infectious protein called a prion.", "Prions are misfolded proteins which replicate by converting their properly folded counterparts.In Nazi Germany, Creutzfeldt became a Patron Member of Heinrich Himmler's SS from 1932 to 1933." ], [ "Later life", "Creutzfeldt was 54 years old when the Second World War broke out.", "He was unmoved by the Nazi regime and was able to save some people from death in concentration camps and also managed to save almost all of his patients from being murdered under the Nazi ''Aktion T4'' involuntary euthanasia program, while most mental patients identified by T4 personnel were gassed or poisoned at separate euthanasia clinics such as Hadamar Euthanasia Centre.", "During the war, bombing raids destroyed his home and clinic.After the war he was director of the University of Kiel for six months, before being dismissed by the British occupation forces.", "His efforts to rebuild the university caused a series of conflicts with the British because he wanted to allow more former army officers to study there.", "Creutzfeldt resigned from his work at Kiel in 1953 in order to pursue life as professor emeritus in Munich." ], [ "Personal life", "He was married to Clara Sombart, a daughter of economist Werner Sombart.", "They had five children, among them neurologist Otto Detlev Creutzfeldt and Werner Creutzfeldt (1924–2006), a renowned German internist.", "He died in December 1964 in Munich." ], [ "See also", "* Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, a fatal degenerative brain disorder caused by prions involving the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia and the spinal cord.", "* Adrenoleukodystrophy, a rare demyelination disorder also known as Siemerling-Creutzfeldt disease that causes damage to the myelin sheaths of neurons in the brain, resulting in seizures and hyperactivity." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Holmium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Holmium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Ho''' and atomic number 67.It is a rare-earth element and the eleventh member of the lanthanide series.", "It is a relatively soft, silvery, fairly corrosion-resistant and malleable metal.", "Like many other lanthanides, holmium is too reactive to be found in native form, as pure holmium slowly forms a yellowish oxide coating when exposed to air.", "When isolated, holmium is relatively stable in dry air at room temperature.", "However, it reacts with water and corrodes readily, and also burns in air when heated.In nature, holmium occurs together with the other rare-earth metals (like thulium).", "It is a relatively rare lanthanide, making up 1.4 parts per million of the Earth's crust, an abundance similar to tungsten.", "Holmium was discovered through isolation by Swedish chemist Per Theodor Cleve.", "It was also independently discovered by Jacques-Louis Soret and Marc Delafontaine, who together observed it spectroscopically in 1878.Its oxide was first isolated from rare-earth ores by Cleve in 1878.The element's name comes from ''Holmia'', the Latin name for the city of Stockholm.Like many other lanthanides, holmium is found in the minerals monazite and gadolinite and is usually commercially extracted from monazite using ion-exchange techniques.", "Its compounds in nature and in nearly all of its laboratory chemistry are trivalently oxidized, containing Ho(III) ions.", "Trivalent holmium ions have fluorescent properties similar to many other rare-earth ions (while yielding their own set of unique emission light lines), and thus are used in the same way as some other rare earths in certain laser and glass-colorant applications.Holmium has the highest magnetic permeability and magnetic saturation of any element and is thus used for the pole pieces of the strongest static magnets.", "Because holmium strongly absorbs neutrons, it is also used as a burnable poison in nuclear reactors." ], [ "Properties", "Holmium is the eleventh member of the lanthanide series.", "In the periodic table, it appears in period 6, between the lanthanides dysprosium to its left and erbium to its right, and above the actinide einsteinium.===Physical properties===With a boiling point of , holmium is the sixth most volatile lanthanide after ytterbium, europium, samarium, thulium and dysprosium.", "At standard temperature and pressure, holmium, like many of the second half of the lanthanides, normally assumes a hexagonally close-packed (hcp) structure.", "Its 67 electrons are arranged in the configuration Xe 4f11 6s2, so that it has thirteen valence electrons filling the 4f and 6s subshells.Holmium, like all of the lanthanides, at paramagnetic in standard temperature and pressure.", "However, holmium is ferromagnetic at temperatures below .", "It has the highest magnetic moment () of any naturally occurring element and possesses other unusual magnetic properties.", "When combined with yttrium, it forms highly magnetic compounds.===Chemical properties===Holmium metal tarnishes slowly in air, forming a yellowish oxide layer that has an appearance similar to that of iron rust.", "It burns readily to form holmium(III) oxide::4 Ho + 3 O2 → 2 Ho2O3It is a relatively soft and malleable element that is fairly corrosion-resistant and chemically stable in dry air at standard temperature and pressure.", "In moist air and at higher temperatures, however, it quickly oxidizes, forming a yellowish oxide.", "In pure form, holmium possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster.Holmium is quite electropositive: on the Pauling electronegativity scale, it has an electronegativity of 1.23.It is generally trivalent.", "It reacts slowly with cold water and quickly with hot water to form holmium(III) hydroxide::2 Ho (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Ho(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)Holmium metal reacts with all the stable halogens::2 Ho (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 HoF3 (s) pink:2 Ho (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 HoCl3 (s) yellow:2 Ho (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 HoBr3 (s) yellow:2 Ho (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 HoI3 (s) yellowHolmium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Ho(III) ions, which exist as a Ho(OH2)93+ complexes::2 Ho (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Ho3+ (aq) + 3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)====Oxidation states====As with many lanthanides, holmium is usually found in the +3 oxidation state, forming compounds such as holmium(III) fluoride (HoF3) and holmium(III) chloride (HoCl3).", "Holmium in solution is in the form of Ho3+ surrounded by nine molecules of water.", "Holmium dissolves in acids.", "However, holmium is also found to exist in the +2, +1 and 0 oxidation states.===Isotopes===The isotopes of holmium range from 140Ho to 175Ho.", "The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 165Ho, is positron emission, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay.", "The primary decay products before 165Ho are terbium and dysprosium isotopes, and the primary products after are erbium isotopes.Natural holmium consists of one primordial isotope, holmium-165; it is the only isotope of holmium that is thought to be stable, although it is predicted to undergo alpha decay to terbium-161 with a very long half-life.", "Of the 35 synthetic radioactive isotopes that are known, the most stable one is holmium-163 (163Ho), with a half-life of 4570 years.", "All other radioisotopes have ground-state half-lives not greater than 1.117 days, with the longest, holmium-166 (166Ho) having a half-life of 26.83 hours, and most have half-lives under 3 hours.166m1Ho has a half-life of around 1200 years.", "The high excitation energy, resulting in a particularly rich spectrum of decay gamma rays produced when the metastable state de-excites, makes this isotope useful as a means for calibrating gamma ray spectrometers." ], [ "Compounds", "=== Oxides and chalcogenides ===Ho2O3, left: natural light, right: under a cold-cathode fluorescent lampHolmium(III) oxide is the only oxide of holmium.", "It changes its color depending on the lighting conditions.", "In daylight, it has a yellowish color.", "Under trichromatic light, it appears orange red, almost indistinguishable from the appearance of erbium oxide under the same lighting conditions.", "The color change is related to the sharp emission lines of trivalent holmium ions acting as red phosphors.", "Holmium(III) oxide appears pink under a cold-cathode fluorescent lamp.Other chalcogenides are known for holmium.", "Holmium(III) sulfide has orange-yellow crystals in the monoclinic crystal system, with the space group ''P''21/''m'' (No.", "11).", "Under high pressure, holmium(III) sulfide can form in the cubic and orthorhombic crystal systems.", "It can be obtained by the reaction of holmium(III) oxide and hydrogen sulfide at .", "Holmium(III) selenide is also known.", "It is antiferromagnetic below 6 K.=== Halides ===All four trihalides of holmium are known.", "Holmium(III) fluoride is a yellowish powder that can be produced by reacting holmium(III) oxide and ammonium fluoride, then crystallising it from the ammonium salt formed in solution.", "Holmium(III) chloride can be prepared in a similar way, with ammonium chloride instead of ammonium fluoride.", "It has the YCl3 layer structure in the solid state.", "These compounds, as well as holmium(III) bromide and holmium(III) iodide, can be obtained by the direct reaction of the elements::2 Ho + 3 X2 → 2 HoX3In addition, holmium(III) iodide can be obtained by the direct reaction of holmium and mercury(II) iodide, then removing the mercury by distillation.===Organoholmium compounds===Organoholmium compounds are very similar to those of the other lanthanides, as they all share an inability to undergo π backbonding.", "They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric." ], [ "History", "Holmium (, Latin name for Stockholm) was discovered by the Swiss chemists Jacques-Louis Soret and Marc Delafontaine in 1878 who noticed the aberrant spectrographic emission spectrum of the then-unknown element (they called it \"Element X\").The Swedish chemist Per Teodor Cleve also independently discovered the element while he was working on erbia earth (erbium oxide).", "He was the first to isolate the new element.", "Using the method developed by the Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, Cleve first removed all of the known contaminants from erbia.", "The result of that effort was two new materials, one brown and one green.", "He named the brown substance ''holmia'' (after the Latin name for Cleve's home town, Stockholm) and the green one ''thulia''.", "''Holmia'' was later found to be the holmium oxide, and ''thulia'' was thulium oxide.In the English physicist Henry Moseley's classic paper on atomic numbers, holmium was assigned the value 66.The holmium preparation he had been given to investigate had been impure, dominated by neighboring (at the time undiscovered) dysprosium.", "He would have seen x-ray emission lines for both elements, but assumed that the dominant ones belonged to holmium, instead of the dysprosium impurity." ], [ "Occurrence and production", "A specimen of gadolinite - holmium is the black part of it.", "Like all the other rare-earth elements, holmium is not naturally found as a free element.", "It occurs combined with other elements in gadolinite, monazite and other rare-earth minerals.", "No holmium-dominant mineral has yet been found.", "The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia with reserves of holmium estimated as 400,000 tonnes.", "The annual production of holmium metal is of about 10 tonnes per year.Holmium makes up 1.4 parts per million of the Earth's crust by mass.", "This makes it the 56th most abundant element in the Earth's crust.", "Holmium makes up 1 part per million of the soils, 400 parts per quadrillion of seawater, and almost none of Earth's atmosphere, which is very rare for a lanthanide.", "It makes up 500 parts per trillion of the universe by mass.Holmium is commercially extracted by ion exchange from monazite sand (0.05% holmium), but is still difficult to separate from other rare earths.", "The element has been isolated through the reduction of its anhydrous chloride or fluoride with metallic calcium.", "Its estimated abundance in the Earth's crust is 1.3 mg/kg.", "Holmium obeys the Oddo–Harkins rule: as an odd-numbered element, it is less abundant than both dysprosium and erbium.", "However, it is the most abundant of the odd-numbered heavy lanthanides.", "Of the lanthanides, only promethium, thulium, lutetium and terbium are less abundant on Earth.", "The principal current source are some of the ion-adsorption clays of southern China.", "Some of these have a rare-earth composition similar to that found in xenotime or gadolinite.", "Yttrium makes up about two-thirds of the total by mass; holmium is around 1.5%.", "Holmium is relatively inexpensive for a rare-earth metal with the price about 1000 USD/kg." ], [ "Applications", "A solution of 4% holmium oxide in 10% perchloric acid, permanently fused into a quartz cuvette as an optical calibration standardGlass containing holmium oxide and holmium oxide solutions (usually in perchloric acid) have sharp optical absorption peaks in the spectral range 200 to 900 nm.", "They are therefore used as a calibration standard for optical spectrophotometers.", "The radioactive but long-lived 166m1Ho is used in calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers.Holmium is used to create the strongest artificially generated magnetic fields, when placed within high-strength magnets as a magnetic pole piece (also called a magnetic flux concentrator).", "Holmium is also used in the manufacture of some permanent magnets.Holmium-doped yttrium iron garnet (YIG) and yttrium lithium fluoride have applications in solid-state lasers, and Ho-YIG has applications in optical isolators and in microwave equipment (e.g., YIG spheres).", "Holmium lasers emit at 2.1 micrometres.", "They are used in medical, dental, and fiber-optical applications.", "It is also being considered for usage in the enucleation of the prostate.Since holmium can absorb nuclear fission-bred neutrons, it is used as a burnable poison to regulate nuclear reactors.", "It is used as a colorant for cubic zirconia, providing pink coloring, and for glass, providing yellow-orange coloring.", "In March 2017, IBM announced that they had developed a technique to store one bit of data on a single holmium atom set on a bed of magnesium oxide.", "With sufficient quantum and classical control techniques, holmium may be a good candidate to make quantum computers." ], [ "Biological role and precautions", "Holmium plays no biological role in humans, but its salts are able to stimulate metabolism.", "Humans typically consume about a milligram of holmium a year.", "Plants do not readily take up holmium from the soil.", "Some vegetables have had their holmium content measured, and it amounted to 100 parts per trillion.", "Holmium and its soluble salts are slightly toxic if ingested, but insoluble holmium salts are nontoxic.", "Metallic holmium in dust form presents a fire and explosion hazard.", "Large amounts of holmium salts can cause severe damage if inhaled, consumed orally, or injected.", "The biological effects of holmium over a long period of time are not known.", "Holmium has a low level of acute toxicity." ], [ "See also", "*:Category:Holmium compounds* Period 6 element" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "** *********" ], [ "Further reading", "* R. J. Callow, ''The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium, and Uranium'', Pergamon Press, 1967." ], [ "External links", "* Holmium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hafnium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hafnium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Hf''' and atomic number 72.A lustrous, silvery gray, tetravalent transition metal, hafnium chemically resembles zirconium and is found in many zirconium minerals.", "Its existence was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, though it was not identified until 1922, by Dirk Coster and George de Hevesy.", "making it one of the last two stable elements to be discovered.", "(The element rhenium was found in 1908 by Masataka Ogawa, though its atomic number was misidentified at the time, and it was not generally recognised by the scientific community until its rediscovery by Walter Noddack, Ida Noddack, and Otto Berg in 1925.This makes it somewhat difficult to say if hafnium or rhenium was discovered last.)", "Hafnium is named after , the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered.Hafnium is used in filaments and electrodes.", "Some semiconductor fabrication processes use its oxide for integrated circuits at 45 nanometers and smaller feature lengths.", "Some superalloys used for special applications contain hafnium in combination with niobium, titanium, or tungsten.Hafnium's large neutron capture cross section makes it a good material for neutron absorption in control rods in nuclear power plants, but at the same time requires that it be removed from the neutron-transparent corrosion-resistant zirconium alloys used in nuclear reactors." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical characteristics===Pieces of hafniumHafnium is a shiny, silvery, ductile metal that is corrosion-resistant and chemically similar to zirconium in that they have the same number of valence electrons and are in the same group.", "Also, their relativistic effects are similar: The expected expansion of atomic radii from period 5 to 6 is almost exactly canceled out by the lanthanide contraction.", "Hafnium changes from its alpha form, a hexagonal close-packed lattice, to its beta form, a body-centered cubic lattice, at 2388 K. The physical properties of hafnium metal samples are markedly affected by zirconium impurities, especially the nuclear properties, as these two elements are among the most difficult to separate because of their chemical similarity.A notable physical difference between these metals is their density, with zirconium having about one-half the density of hafnium.", "The most notable nuclear properties of hafnium are its high thermal neutron capture cross section and that the nuclei of several different hafnium isotopes readily absorb two or more neutrons apiece.", "In contrast with this, zirconium is practically transparent to thermal neutrons, and it is commonly used for the metal components of nuclear reactors—especially the cladding of their nuclear fuel rods.===Chemical characteristics===Hafnium dioxide (HfO2)Hafnium reacts in air to form a protective film that inhibits further corrosion.", "Despite this, the metal is attacked by hydrofluoric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, and can be oxidized with halogens or burnt in air.", "Like its sister metal zirconium, finely divided hafnium can ignite spontaneously in air.", "The metal is resistant to concentrated alkalis.As a consequence of lanthanide contraction, the chemistry of hafnium and zirconium is so similar that the two cannot be separated based on differing chemical reactions.", "The melting and boiling points of the compounds and the solubility in solvents are the major differences in the chemistry of these twin elements.===Isotopes===At least 40 isotopes of hafnium have been observed, ranging in mass number from 153 to 192.The five stable isotopes have mass numbers ranging from 176 to 180 inclusive.", "The radioactive isotopes' half-lives range from 400 ms for 153Hf to years for the most stable one, the primordial 174Hf.The extinct radionuclide 182Hf has a half-life of , and is an important tracker isotope for the formation of planetary cores.", "The nuclear isomer 178m2Hf was at the center of a controversy for several years regarding its potential use as a weapon.===Occurrence===Zircon crystal (2×2 cm) from Tocantins, BrazilHafnium is estimated to make up about 5.8 ppm of the Earth's upper crust by mass.", "It does not exist as a free element on Earth, but is found combined in solid solution with zirconium in natural zirconium compounds such as zircon, ZrSiO4, which usually has about 1–4% of the Zr replaced by Hf.", "Rarely, the Hf/Zr ratio increases during crystallization to give the isostructural mineral hafnon , with atomic Hf > Zr.", "An obsolete name for a variety of zircon containing unusually high Hf content is ''alvite''.A major source of zircon (and hence hafnium) ores is heavy mineral sands ore deposits, pegmatites, particularly in Brazil and Malawi, and carbonatite intrusions, particularly the Crown Polymetallic Deposit at Mount Weld, Western Australia.", "A potential source of hafnium is trachyte tuffs containing rare zircon-hafnium silicates eudialyte or armstrongite, at Dubbo in New South Wales, Australia." ], [ "Production", "electron beam remelting furnace, a 1 cm cube, and an oxidized hafnium electron beam-remelted ingot (left to right)The heavy mineral sands ore deposits of the titanium ores ilmenite and rutile yield most of the mined zirconium, and therefore also most of the hafnium.Zirconium is a good nuclear fuel-rod cladding metal, with the desirable properties of a very low neutron capture cross section and good chemical stability at high temperatures.", "However, because of hafnium's neutron-absorbing properties, hafnium impurities in zirconium would cause it to be far less useful for nuclear reactor applications.", "Thus, a nearly complete separation of zirconium and hafnium is necessary for their use in nuclear power.", "The production of hafnium-free zirconium is the main source of hafnium.thin-film optical effectsThe chemical properties of hafnium and zirconium are nearly identical, which makes the two difficult to separate.", "The methods first used—fractional crystallization of ammonium fluoride salts or the fractional distillation of the chloride—have not proven suitable for an industrial-scale production.", "After zirconium was chosen as a material for nuclear reactor programs in the 1940s, a separation method had to be developed.", "Liquid–liquid extraction processes with a wide variety of solvents were developed and are still used for producing hafnium.", "About half of all hafnium metal manufactured is produced as a by-product of zirconium refinement.", "The end product of the separation is hafnium(IV) chloride.", "The purified hafnium(IV) chloride is converted to the metal by reduction with magnesium or sodium, as in the Kroll process.", "::HfCl4 + 2Mg ->1100^oC Hf + 2MgCl2Further purification is effected by a chemical transport reaction developed by Arkel and de Boer: In a closed vessel, hafnium reacts with iodine at temperatures of , forming hafnium(IV) iodide; at a tungsten filament of the reverse reaction happens preferentially, and the chemically bound iodine and hafnium dissociate into the native elements.", "The hafnium forms a solid coating at the tungsten filament, and the iodine can react with additional hafnium, resulting in a steady iodine turnover and ensuring the chemical equilibrium remains in favor of hafnium production.", "::Hf + 2I2 ->500^oC HfI4::HfI4 ->1700^oC Hf + 2I2" ], [ "Chemical compounds", "Due to the lanthanide contraction, the ionic radius of hafnium(IV) (0.78 ångström) is almost the same as that of zirconium(IV) (0.79 angstroms).", "Consequently, compounds of hafnium(IV) and zirconium(IV) have very similar chemical and physical properties.", "Hafnium and zirconium tend to occur together in nature and the similarity of their ionic radii makes their chemical separation rather difficult.", "Hafnium tends to form inorganic compounds in the oxidation state of +4.Halogens react with it to form hafnium tetrahalides.", "At higher temperatures, hafnium reacts with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, boron, sulfur, and silicon.", "Some hafnium compounds in lower oxidation states are known.Hafnium(IV) chloride and hafnium(IV) iodide have some applications in the production and purification of hafnium metal.", "They are volatile solids with polymeric structures.", "These tetrachlorides are precursors to various organohafnium compounds such as hafnocene dichloride and tetrabenzylhafnium.The white hafnium oxide (HfO2), with a melting point of 2,812 °C and a boiling point of roughly 5,100 °C, is very similar to zirconia, but slightly more basic.", "Hafnium carbide is the most Refractory binary compound known, with a melting point over 3,890 °C, and hafnium nitride is the most refractory of all known metal nitrides, with a melting point of 3,310 °C.", "This has led to proposals that hafnium or its carbides might be useful as construction materials that are subjected to very high temperatures.", "The mixed carbide tantalum hafnium carbide () possesses the highest melting point of any currently known compound, .", "Recent supercomputer simulations suggest a hafnium alloy with a melting point of 4,400 K." ], [ "History", "Photographic recording of the characteristic X-ray emission lines of some elementsIn his report on ''The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements'', in 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev had implicitly predicted the existence of a heavier analog of titanium and zirconium.", "At the time of his formulation in 1871, Mendeleev believed that the elements were ordered by their atomic masses and placed lanthanum (element 57) in the spot below zirconium.", "The exact placement of the elements and the location of missing elements was done by determining the specific weight of the elements and comparing the chemical and physical properties.The X-ray spectroscopy done by Henry Moseley in 1914 showed a direct dependency between spectral line and effective nuclear charge.", "This led to the nuclear charge, or atomic number of an element, being used to ascertain its place within the periodic table.", "With this method, Moseley determined the number of lanthanides and showed the gaps in the atomic number sequence at numbers 43, 61, 72, and 75.The discovery of the gaps led to an extensive search for the missing elements.", "In 1914, several people claimed the discovery after Henry Moseley predicted the gap in the periodic table for the then-undiscovered element 72.Georges Urbain asserted that he found element 72 in the rare earth elements in 1907 and published his results on ''celtium'' in 1911.Neither the spectra nor the chemical behavior he claimed matched with the element found later, and therefore his claim was turned down after a long-standing controversy.", "The controversy was partly because the chemists favored the chemical techniques which led to the discovery of ''celtium'', while the physicists relied on the use of the new X-ray spectroscopy method that proved that the substances discovered by Urbain did not contain element 72.In 1921, Charles R. Bury suggested that element 72 should resemble zirconium and therefore was not part of the rare earth elements group.", "By early 1923, Niels Bohr and others agreed with Bury.", "These suggestions were based on Bohr's theories of the atom which were identical to chemist Charles Bury, the X-ray spectroscopy of Moseley, and the chemical arguments of Friedrich Paneth.Encouraged by these suggestions and by the reappearance in 1922 of Urbain's claims that element 72 was a rare earth element discovered in 1911, Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy were motivated to search for the new element in zirconium ores.", "Hafnium was discovered by the two in 1923 in Copenhagen, Denmark, validating the original 1869 prediction of Mendeleev.", "It was ultimately found in zircon in Norway through X-ray spectroscopy analysis.", "The place where the discovery took place led to the element being named for the Latin name for \"Copenhagen\", ''Hafnia'', the home town of Niels Bohr.", "Today, the Faculty of Science of the University of Copenhagen uses in its seal a stylized image of the hafnium atom.Hafnium was separated from zirconium through repeated recrystallization of the double ammonium or potassium fluorides by Valdemar Thal Jantzen and von Hevesey.", "Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer were the first to prepare metallic hafnium by passing hafnium tetraiodide vapor over a heated tungsten filament in 1924.This process for differential purification of zirconium and hafnium is still in use today.In 1923, six predicted elements were still missing from the periodic table: 43 (technetium), 61 (promethium), 85 (astatine), and 87 (francium) are radioactive elements and are only present in trace amounts in the environment, thus making elements 75 (rhenium) and 72 (hafnium) the last two unknown non-radioactive elements." ], [ "Applications", "Most of the hafnium produced is used in the manufacture of control rods for nuclear reactors.Several details contribute to the fact that there are only a few technical uses for hafnium: First, the close similarity between hafnium and zirconium makes it possible to use the more abundant zirconium for most applications; second, hafnium was first available as pure metal after the use in the nuclear industry for hafnium-free zirconium in the late 1950s.", "Furthermore, the low abundance and difficult separation techniques necessary make it a scarce commodity.", "When the demand for hafnium-free zirconium dropped following the Fukushima disaster, the price of hafnium increased sharply from around $500–600/kg in 2014 to around $1000/kg in 2015.===Nuclear reactors===The nuclei of several hafnium isotopes can each absorb multiple neutrons.", "This makes hafnium a good material for nuclear reactors' control rods.", "Its neutron capture cross section (Capture Resonance Integral Io ≈ 2000 barns) is about 600 times that of zirconium (other elements that are good neutron-absorbers for control rods are cadmium and boron).", "Excellent mechanical properties and exceptional corrosion-resistance properties allow its use in the harsh environment of pressurized water reactors.", "The German research reactor FRM II uses hafnium as a neutron absorber.", "It is also common in military reactors, particularly in US naval submarine reactors, to slow reactor rates that are too high.", "It is seldom found in civilian reactors, the first core of the Shippingport Atomic Power Station (a conversion of a naval reactor) being a notable exception.===Alloys===Hafnium-containing rocket nozzle of the Apollo Lunar Module in the lower right cornerHafnium is used in alloys with iron, titanium, niobium, tantalum, and other metals.", "An alloy used for liquid-rocket thruster nozzles, for example the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules, is C103 which consists of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium.Small additions of hafnium increase the adherence of protective oxide scales on nickel-based alloys.", "It thereby improves the corrosion resistance, especially under cyclic temperature conditions that tend to break oxide scales, by inducing thermal stresses between the bulk material and the oxide layer.===Microprocessors===Hafnium-based compounds are employed in gates of transistors as insulators in the 45 nm (and below) generation of integrated circuits from Intel, IBM and others.", "Hafnium oxide-based compounds are practical high-k dielectrics, allowing reduction of the gate leakage current which improves performance at such scales.===Isotope geochemistry===Isotopes of hafnium and lutetium (along with ytterbium) are also used in isotope geochemistry and geochronological applications, in lutetium-hafnium dating.", "It is often used as a tracer of isotopic evolution of Earth's mantle through time.", "This is because 176Lu decays to 176Hf with a half-life of approximately 37 billion years.In most geologic materials, zircon is the dominant host of hafnium (>10,000 ppm) and is often the focus of hafnium studies in geology.", "Hafnium is readily substituted into the zircon crystal lattice, and is therefore very resistant to hafnium mobility and contamination.", "Zircon also has an extremely low Lu/Hf ratio, making any correction for initial lutetium minimal.", "Although the Lu/Hf system can be used to calculate a \"model age\", i.e.", "the time at which it was derived from a given isotopic reservoir such as the depleted mantle, these \"ages\" do not carry the same geologic significance as do other geochronological techniques as the results often yield isotopic mixtures and thus provide an average age of the material from which it was derived.Garnet is another mineral that contains appreciable amounts of hafnium to act as a geochronometer.", "The high and variable Lu/Hf ratios found in garnet make it useful for dating metamorphic events.===Other uses===Due to its heat resistance and its affinity to oxygen and nitrogen, hafnium is a good scavenger for oxygen and nitrogen in gas-filled and incandescent lamps.", "Hafnium is also used as the electrode in plasma cutting because of its ability to shed electrons into the air.The high energy content of 178m2Hf was the concern of a DARPA-funded program in the US.", "This program eventually concluded that using the above-mentioned 178m2Hf nuclear isomer of hafnium to construct high-yield weapons with X-ray triggering mechanisms—an application of induced gamma emission—was infeasible because of its expense.", "See ''hafnium controversy''.Hafnium metallocene compounds can be prepared from hafnium tetrachloride and various cyclopentadiene-type ligand species.", "Perhaps the simplest hafnium metallocene is hafnocene dichloride.", "Hafnium metallocenes are part of a large collection of Group 4 transition metal metallocene catalysts that are used worldwide in the production of polyolefin resins like polyethylene and polypropylene.A pyridyl-amidohafnium catalyst can be used for the controlled iso-selective polymerization of propylene which can then be combined with polyethylene to make a much tougher recycled plastic.Hafnium diselenide is studied in spintronics thanks to its charge density wave and superconductivity." ], [ "Precautions", "Care needs to be taken when machining hafnium because it is pyrophoric—fine particles can spontaneously combust when exposed to air.", "Compounds that contain this metal are rarely encountered by most people.", "The pure metal is not considered toxic, but hafnium compounds should be handled as if they were toxic because the ionic forms of metals are normally at greatest risk for toxicity, and limited animal testing has been done for hafnium compounds.People can be exposed to hafnium in the workplace by breathing, swallowing, skin, and eye contact.", "The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for exposure to hafnium and hafnium compounds in the workplace as TWA 0.5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday.", "The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set the same recommended exposure limit (REL).", "At levels of 50 mg/m3, hafnium is immediately dangerous to life and health." ], [ "References" ], [ "Literature", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Hafnium at Los Alamos National Laboratory's periodic table of the elements* Hafnium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* Hafnium Technical & Safety Data* NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Hafnium, elemental* Don Clark: Intel Shifts from Silicon to Lift Chip Performance – WSJ, 2007* Hafnium-based Intel 45nm Process Technology* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards* https://colnect.com/en/coins/list/composition/168-Hafnium" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hamburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hamburg''' (, ; ), officially the '''Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg''' (; ), is the second-largest city in Germany, after Berlin, and 8th-largest in the European Union, with a population of over 1.9 million.", "The Hamburg Metropolitan Region has a population of over 5.1 million.At the southern tip of the Jutland Peninsula, Hamburg stands on the branching River Elbe at the head of a estuary to the North Sea, on the mouth of the Alster and Bille.", "Hamburg is one of Germany's three city-states alongside Berlin and Bremen, and is surrounded by Schleswig-Holstein to the north and Lower Saxony to the south.", "The Port of Hamburg is Germany's largest and Europe's third-largest, after Rotterdam and Antwerp.", "The local dialect is a variant of Low Saxon.The official name reflects Hamburg's history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League and a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Before the 1871 unification of Germany, it was a fully sovereign city state, and before 1919 formed a civic republic headed constitutionally by a class of hereditary Grand Burghers or .", "Beset by disasters such as the Great Fire of Hamburg, North Sea flood of 1962 and military conflicts including World War II bombing raids, the city has managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe.Major regional broadcaster NDR, the printing and publishing firm and the newspapers and are based in the city.", "Hamburg is the seat of Germany's oldest stock exchange and the world's oldest merchant bank, Berenberg Bank.", "Media, commercial, logistical, and industrial firms with significant locations in the city include multinationals Airbus, , , , Lufthansa and Unilever.", "Hamburg is also a major European science, research, and education hub, with several universities and institutions, including the Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron Laboratory DESY.", "The city enjoys a very high quality of living, being ranked 19th in the 2019 Mercer Quality of Living Survey.Hamburg hosts specialists in world economics and international law, including consular and diplomatic missions as the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the EU-LAC Foundation, and the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, multipartite international political conferences and summits such as Europe and China and the G20.Former German chancellors Helmut Schmidt and Angela Merkel were both born in Hamburg.", "The former Mayor of Hamburg, Olaf Scholz, has been the current German chancellor since December 2021.Hamburg is a major international and domestic tourist destination.", "The and were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 2015.Hamburg's rivers and canals are crossed by around 2,500 bridges, making it the city with the highest number of bridges in Europe.", "Aside from its rich architectural heritage, the city is also home to notable cultural venues such as the and concert halls.", "It gave birth to movements like and paved the way for bands including the Beatles.", "Hamburg is also known for several theatres and a variety of musical shows.", "St. Pauli's is among the best-known European entertainment districts." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century AD) reported the first name for the vicinity as Treva.===Etymology===The name Hamburg comes from the first permanent building on the site, a castle which the Emperor Charlemagne ordered constructed in AD 808.It rose on rocky terrain in a marsh between the River Alster and the River Elbe as a defence against Slavic incursion, and acquired the name ''Hammaburg'', ''burg'' meaning castle or fort.", "The origin of the ''Hamma'' term remains uncertain, but its location is estimated to be at the site of today's Domplatz.===Medieval Hamburg===Hamburg in 1150In 834, Hamburg was designated as the seat of a bishopric.", "The first bishop, Ansgar, became known as the Apostle of the North.", "Two years later, Hamburg was united with Bremen as the Bishopric of Hamburg-Bremen.Hamburg was destroyed and occupied several times.", "In 845, 600 Viking ships sailed up the River Elbe and destroyed Hamburg, at that time a town of around 500 inhabitants.", "In 1030, King Mieszko II Lambert of Poland burned down the city.", "Valdemar II of Denmark raided and occupied Hamburg in 1201 and in 1214.The Black Death killed at least 60% of the population in 1350.Hamburg experienced several great fires in the medieval period.In 1189, by imperial charter, Frederick I \"Barbarossa\" granted Hamburg the status of a Free Imperial City and tax-free access (or free-trade zone) up the Lower Elbe into the North Sea.", "In 1265, an allegedly forged letter was presented to or by the Rath of Hamburg.", "This charter, along with Hamburg's proximity to the main trade routes of the North Sea and Baltic Sea, quickly made it a major port in Northern Europe.", "Its trade alliance with Lübeck in 1241 marks the origin and core of the powerful Hanseatic League of trading cities.", "On 8 November 1266, a contract between Henry III and Hamburg's traders allowed them to establish a ''hanse'' in London.", "This was the first time in history that the word ''hanse'' was used for the trading guild of the Hanseatic League.In 1270, the solicitor of the senate of Hamburg, ''Jordan von Boitzenburg'', wrote the first description of civil, criminal and procedural law for a city in Germany in the German language, the ''Ordeelbook'' (''Ordeel'': sentence).", "On 10 August 1410, civil unrest forced a compromise (German: ''Rezeß'', literally meaning: withdrawal).", "This is considered the first constitution of Hamburg.In 1356, the ''Matthiae-Mahl'' feast dinner for Hanseatic League cities was celebrated for the first time on 25 February, the first day of spring in medieval times.", "It continues today as the world's oldest ceremonial meal.===Early modern period===Hamburg, In 1529, the city embraced Lutheranism, and it received Reformed refugees from the Netherlands and France.When Jan van Valckenborgh introduced a second layer to the fortifications to protect against the Thirty Years' War in the seventeenth century, he extended Hamburg and created a \"New Town\" (''Neustadt'') whose street names still date from the grid system of roads he introduced.Upon the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Free Imperial City of Hamburg was not incorporated into a larger administrative area while retaining special privileges (mediatised), but became a sovereign state with the official title of the ''Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg''.", "Hamburg was briefly annexed by Napoleon I to the First French Empire (1804–1814/1815).", "Russian forces under General Bennigsen finally freed the city in 1814.Hamburg re-assumed its pre-1811 status as a city-state in 1814.The Vienna Congress of 1815 confirmed Hamburg's independence and it became one of 39 sovereign states of the German Confederation (1815–1866).In 1842, about a quarter of the inner city was destroyed in the \"Great Fire\".", "The fire started on the night of 4 May and was not extinguished until 8 May.", "It destroyed three churches, the town hall, and many other buildings, killing 51 people and leaving an estimated 20,000 homeless.", "Reconstruction took more than 40 years.Hamburg in 1811After periodic political unrest, particularly in 1848, Hamburg adopted in 1860 a semidemocratic constitution that provided for the election of the Senate, the governing body of the city-state, by adult taxpaying males.", "Other innovations included the separation of powers, the separation of Church and State, freedom of the press, of assembly and association.", "Hamburg became a member of the North German Confederation (1866–1871) and of the German Empire (1871–1918), and maintained its self-ruling status during the Weimar Republic (1919–1933).", "Hamburg acceded to the German Customs Union or Zollverein in 1888, the last (along with Bremen) of the German states to join.", "The city experienced its fastest growth during the second half of the 19th century when its population more than quadrupled to 800,000 as the growth of the city's Atlantic trade helped make it Europe's second-largest port.", "The Hamburg-America Line, with Albert Ballin as its director, became the world's largest transatlantic shipping company around the start of the 20th century.", "Shipping companies sailing to South America, Africa, India and East Asia were based in the city.", "Hamburg was the departure port for many Germans and Eastern Europeans to emigrate to the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Trading communities from all over the world established themselves there.A major outbreak of cholera in 1892 was badly handled by the city government, which retained an unusual degree of independence for a German city.", "About 8,600 died in the largest German epidemic of the late 19th century, and the last major cholera epidemic in a major city of the Western world.===Second World War===Hamburg Eilbek after the 1943 bombingHamburg was a ''Gau'' within the administrative division of Nazi Germany from 1934 until 1945.During the Second World War, the Allied bombing of Hamburg devastated much of the city and the harbour.", "On 23 July 1943, the Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Force firebombing created a firestorm which spread from the ''Hauptbahnhof'' (main railway station) and quickly moved south-east, completely destroying entire boroughs such as Hammerbrook, Billbrook and Hamm South.", "Thousands of people perished in these densely populated working class boroughs.", "The raids, codenamed Operation Gomorrah by the RAF, killed at least 42,600 civilians; the precise number is not known.", "About one million civilians were evacuated in the aftermath of the raids.", "While some of the boroughs destroyed were rebuilt as residential districts after the war, others such as Hammerbrook were entirely developed into office, retail and limited residential or industrial districts.The Hamburg Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery is in the greater Ohlsdorf Cemetery in the north of Hamburg.At least 42,900 people are thought to have perished in the Neuengamme concentration camp (about outside the city in the marshlands), mostly from epidemics and in the destruction of Kriegsmarine vessels housing evacuees at the end of the war.Systematic deportations of Jewish Germans and Gentile Germans of Jewish descent started on 18 October 1941.These were all directed to ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe or to concentration camps.", "Most deported persons perished in the Holocaust.", "By the end of 1942, the ''Jüdischer Religionsverband in Hamburg'' was dissolved as an independent legal entity and its remaining assets and staff were assumed by the Reich Association of Jews in Germany (District Northwest).", "On 10 June 1943, the Reich Security Main Office dissolved the association by a decree.", "The few remaining employees not somewhat protected by a mixed marriage were deported from Hamburg on 23 June to Theresienstadt, where most of them perished.===Post-war history===Container Terminal at the Port of HamburgThe city was surrendered to British Forces on 3 May 1945, in the Battle of Hamburg, three days after Adolf Hitler's death.", "After the Second World War, Hamburg formed part of the British Zone of Occupation; it became a state of West Germany in 1949.On 16 February 1962, a North Sea flood caused the Elbe to rise to an all-time high, inundating one-fifth of Hamburg and killing more than 300 people.The inner German border – only east of Hamburg – separated the city from most of its hinterland and reduced Hamburg's global trade.", "Since German reunification in 1990, and the accession of several Central European and Baltic countries into the European Union in 2004, the Port of Hamburg has restarted ambitions for regaining its position as the region's largest deep-sea port for container shipping and its major commercial and trading centre." ], [ "Geography", "Hamburg is at a sheltered natural harbour on the southern fanning-out of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the northeast.", "It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster and Bille.", "The city centre is around the Binnenalster (\"Inner Alster\") and Außenalster (\"Outer Alster\"), both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes.", "The islands of Neuwerk, Scharhörn, and Nigehörn, away in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of the city of Hamburg.The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the ''Altes Land'' (old land) region, the largest contiguous fruit-producing region in Central Europe.", "Neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburg's highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at AMSL.", "Hamburg borders the states of Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony.===Climate===Hamburg has an oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb''), influenced by its proximity to the coast and maritime influences that originate over the Atlantic Ocean.", "The location in the north of Germany provides extremes greater than typical marine climates, but definitely in the category due to the prevailing westerlies.", "Nearby wetlands enjoy a maritime temperate climate.", "The amount of snowfall has varied greatly in recent decades.", "In the late 1970s and early 1980s, heavy snowfall sometimes occurred, the winters of recent years have been less cold, with snowfall just a few days per year.The warmest months are June, July, and August, with high temperatures of .", "The coldest are December, January, and February, with low temperatures of ." ], [ "Demographics", "Hamburg population pyramid in 2022 ''' Largest groups of foreign residents''' Nationality Population (31 December 2022) 44,280 33,570 24,635 23,310 17,725 11,465 10,510 9,725 9,375 8,830 7,770 7,570 7,550 7,405 6,685 6,420 6,235 6,095 6,040 5,400On 31 December 2016, there were 1,860,759 people registered as living in Hamburg in an area of .", "The population density was .", "The metropolitan area of the Hamburg region (Hamburg Metropolitan Region) is home to 5,107,429 living on .There were 915,319 women and 945,440 men in Hamburg.", "For every 1,000 females, there were 1,033 males.", "In 2015, there were 19,768 births in Hamburg (of which 38.3% were to unmarried women); 6422 marriages and 3190 divorces, and 17,565 deaths.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 16.1% under the age of 18, and 18.3% were 65 years of age or older.", "356 people in Hamburg were over the age of 100.According to the Statistical Office for Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein, the number of people with a migrant background is at 34% (631,246).", "Immigrants come from 200 countries.", "5,891 people have acquired German cititzenship in 2016.In 2016, there were 1,021,666 households, of which 17.8% had children under the age of 18; 54.4% of all households were made up of singles.", "25.6% of all households were single parent households.", "The average household size was 1.8.===Portuguese community===Hamburg has the largest Portuguese community in Germany with about 30,000 people with Portuguese diaspora.", "Many Portuguese sailors and merchants came to Hamburg since the 15th century due to its port.", "Since 1970s, there is a district in Hamburg called (Portuguese quarter) where many Portuguese people settled there and has many Portuguese restaurants, cafes and shops today which attracts many tourists.", "There are many statues, squares and streets in Hamburg that are named after Portuguese historical figures including the Vasco da Gama statue on the Kornhaus bridge, which was suggested by Portuguese community to make the Portuguese community in Hamburg visible.===Afghan community===Hamburg has a large Afghan community with about 50,000 people of Afghan diaspora, which makes Hamburg not only the largest Afghan community in Germany, but also in Europe.", "They first came to Hamburg in the 1970s before expanding during the Afghan conflict in the 1980s and 1990s where many Afghan migrants chose to live in Hamburg.", "After 2015 the Afghan population almost doubled due to a new influx from the migrant crisis.", "There is an area in Hamburg behind the central station where many Afghan restaurants and shops are located.", "Many carpet businesses in Speicherstadt are operated by Afghan traders, with Hamburg still a global leader in the trade of oriental rugs.===Foreign citizens in Hamburg===Hamburg residents with a foreign citizenship as of 31 December 2016 is as follows:CitizenshipNumber%Total288,338100%Europe193,81267.2%European Union109,49638%Asian59,29220.6%African18,9966.6%American11,3153.9%Australian and Oceanian1,2340.4%===Language===As elsewhere in Germany, Standard German is spoken in Hamburg, but as typical for northern Germany, the original language of Hamburg is Low German, usually referred to as ''Hamborger Platt'' (German ''Hamburger Platt'') or ''Hamborgsch''.", "Since large-scale standardisation of the German language beginning in earnest in the 18th century, various Low German-coloured dialects have developed (contact-varieties of German on Low Saxon substrates).", "Originally, there was a range of such Missingsch varieties, the best-known being the low-prestige ones of the working classes and the somewhat more bourgeois ''Hanseatendeutsch'' (Hanseatic German), although the term is used in appreciation.", "All of these are now moribund due to the influences of Standard German used by education and media.", "However, the former importance of Low German is indicated by several songs, such as the sea shanty Hamborger Veermaster, written in the 19th century when Low German was used more frequently.", "Many toponyms and street names reflect Low Saxon vocabulary, partially even in Low Saxon spelling, which is not standardised, and to some part in forms adapted to Standard German.===Religion===65.2% of the population is not religious or adherent other religions than the Evangelical Church or Catholicism.In 2018, 24.9% of the population belonged to the North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church, the largest religious body, and 9.9% to the Roman Catholic Church.", "Hamburg is seat of one of the three bishops of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany and seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Hamburg.According to the publication (\"''Muslim life in Germany''\"), an estimated 141,900 Muslim migrants (from nearly 50 countries of origin) lived in Hamburg in 2008.About three years later (May 2011) calculations based on census data for 21 countries of origin resulted in a figure of about 143,200 Muslim migrants in Hamburg, making up 8.4% percent of the population.", ", there were more than 50 mosques in the city, including the Ahmadiyya run Fazle Omar Mosque, which is the oldest in the city, and which hosts the Islamic Centre Hamburg.A Jewish community also exists.", "As of 2022, around 2,500 Jews live in Hamburg." ], [ "Government", "Hamburg City Hall (front view)The city of Hamburg is one of 16 German states, therefore the Mayor of Hamburg's office corresponds more to the role of a minister-president than to the one of a city mayor.", "As a German state government, it is responsible for public education, correctional institutions and public safety; as a municipality, it is additionally responsible for libraries, recreational facilities, sanitation, water supply and welfare services.Since 1897, the seat of the government has been Hamburg City Hall (Hamburg Rathaus), with the office of the mayor, the meeting room for the Senate and the floor for the Hamburg Parliament.", "From 2001 until 2010, the mayor of Hamburg was Ole von Beust, who governed in Germany's first statewide \"black-green\" coalition, consisting of the conservative CDU Hamburg and the alternative GAL, which are Hamburg's regional wing of the Alliance 90/The Greens party.", "Von Beust was briefly succeeded by Christoph Ahlhaus in 2010, but the coalition broke apart on 28 November 2010.On 7 March 2011 Olaf Scholz (SPD) became mayor.", "After the 2015 election the SPD and the Alliance 90/The Greens formed a coalition.===Boroughs===The 7 boroughs and 104 quarters of HamburgHamburg is made up of seven boroughs (German: ''Bezirke'') and subdivided into 104 quarters (German: ''Stadtteile'').", "There are 181 localities (German: ''Ortsteile'').", "The urban organisation is regulated by the Constitution of Hamburg and several laws.", "Most of the quarters were former independent cities, towns or villages annexed into Hamburg proper.", "The last large annexation was done through the Greater Hamburg Act of 1937, when the cities Altona, Harburg, and Wandsbek were merged into the state of Hamburg.", "The ''Act of the Constitution and Administration of Hanseatic city of Hamburg'' established Hamburg as a state and a municipality.", "Some of the boroughs and quarters have been rearranged several times.Each borough is governed by a Borough Council (German: ''Bezirksversammlung'') and administered by a Municipal Administrator (German: ''Bezirksamtsleiter'').", "The boroughs are not independent municipalities: their power is limited and subordinate to the Senate of Hamburg.", "The borough administrator is elected by the Borough Council and thereafter requires confirmation and appointment by Hamburg's Senate.", "The quarters have no governing bodies of their own.The part of the North Sea in this aerial picture is called the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park and belongs administratively to the borough of Hamburg-Mitte.", "Some 50 people live here on the island Neuwerk (visible just above the centre).Since the latest territorial reform of March 2008, the boroughs are Hamburg-Mitte, Altona, Eimsbüttel, Hamburg-Nord, Wandsbek, Bergedorf, and Harburg.", "''Hamburg-Mitte'' (\"Hamburg Centre\") covers mostly the urban centre of the city and consists of the quarters Billbrook, Billstedt, Borgfelde, Finkenwerder, HafenCity, Hamm, Hammerbrook, Horn, Kleiner Grasbrook, Neuwerk, Rothenburgsort, St. Georg, St. Pauli, Steinwerder, Veddel, Waltershof, and Wilhelmsburg.", "The quarters Hamburg-Altstadt (\"old town\") and Neustadt (\"new town\") are the historical origin of Hamburg.", "''Altona'' is the westernmost urban borough, on the right bank of the Elbe river.", "From 1640 to 1864, Altona was under the administration of the Danish monarchy.", "Altona was an independent city until 1937.Politically, the following quarters are part of Altona: Altona-Altstadt, Altona-Nord, Bahrenfeld, Ottensen, Othmarschen, Groß Flottbek, Osdorf, Lurup, Nienstedten, Blankenese, Iserbrook, Sülldorf, Rissen, and Sternschanze.", "''Bergedorf'' consists of the quarters Allermöhe, Altengamme, Bergedorf—the centre of the former independent town, Billwerder, Curslack, Kirchwerder, Lohbrügge, Moorfleet, Neuengamme, Neuallermöhe, Ochsenwerder, Reitbrook, Spadenland, and Tatenberg.", "''Eimsbüttel'' is split into nine-quarters: Eidelstedt, Eimsbüttel, Harvestehude, Hoheluft-West, Lokstedt, Niendorf, Rotherbaum, Schnelsen, and Stellingen.", "Located within this borough is former Jewish neighbourhood Grindel.", "''Hamburg-Nord'' contains the quarters Alsterdorf, Barmbek-Nord, Barmbek-Süd, Dulsberg, Eppendorf, Fuhlsbüttel, Groß Borstel, Hoheluft-Ost, Hohenfelde, Langenhorn, Ohlsdorf with Ohlsdorf cemetery, Uhlenhorst, and Winterhude.", "''Harburg'' is situated on the southern shores of the river Elbe and covers parts of the port of Hamburg, residential and rural areas, and some research institutes.", "The quarters are Altenwerder, Cranz, Eißendorf, Francop, Gut Moor, Harburg, Hausbruch, Heimfeld, Langenbek, Marmstorf, Moorburg, Neuenfelde, Neugraben-Fischbek, Neuland, Rönneburg, Sinstorf, and Wilstorf.", "''Wandsbek'' is divided into the quarters Bergstedt, Bramfeld, Duvenstedt, Eilbek, Farmsen-Berne, Hummelsbüttel, Jenfeld, Lemsahl-Mellingstedt, Marienthal, Poppenbüttel, Rahlstedt, Sasel, Steilshoop, Tonndorf, Volksdorf, Wandsbek, Wellingsbüttel, and Wohldorf-Ohlstedt." ], [ "Cityscape", "===Architecture===AltonaThe Marco-Polo-Centre (left) and Unilever HQ GermanyHamburg has architecturally significant buildings in a wide range of styles and just one skyscraper under construction (see List of tallest buildings in Hamburg).", "Churches are important landmarks, such as St Nicholas', which for a short time in the 19th century was the world's tallest building.", "The skyline features the tall spires of the most important churches (''Hauptkirchen'') St Michael's (nicknamed \"Michel\"), St Peter's, St James's (''St.", "Jacobi''), and St. Catherine's covered with copper plates, and the Heinrich-Hertz-Turm, the radio and television tower (no longer publicly accessible).The Chilehaus with a typical brick expressionist façadeThe many streams, rivers, and canals are crossed by some 2,500 bridges, more than London, Amsterdam, and Venice put together.", "Hamburg has more bridges inside its city limits than any other city in the world.", "The Köhlbrandbrücke, Freihafen Elbbrücken, Lombardsbrücke, and Kennedybrücke dividing Binnenalster from Aussenalster are important roadways.The town hall is a richly decorated Neo-Renaissance building finished in 1897.The tower is high.", "Its façade, long, depicts the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, since Hamburg was, as a Free Imperial City, only under the sovereignty of the emperor.", "The Chilehaus, a brick expressionist office building built in 1922 and designed by architect Fritz Höger, is shaped like an ocean liner.Europe's largest urban development since 2008, the HafenCity, will house about 15,000 inhabitants and 45,000 workers.", "The plan includes designs by Rem Koolhaas and Renzo Piano.", "The Elbphilharmonie ''(Elbe Philharmonic Hall)'', opened in January 2017, houses concerts in a sail-shaped building on top of an old warehouse, designed by architects ''Herzog & de Meuron''.The many parks are distributed over the whole city, which makes Hamburg a very verdant city.", "The biggest parks are the ''Stadtpark'', the Ohlsdorf Cemetery, and Planten un Blomen.", "The ''Stadtpark'', Hamburg's \"Central Park\", has a great lawn and a huge water tower, which houses one of Europe's biggest planetaria.", "The park and its buildings were designed by Fritz Schumacher in the 1910s.===Parks and gardens===A water-light concert at ''Planten un Blomen'' parkThe lavish and spacious ''Planten un Blomen'' park (Low German dialect for \"plants and flowers\") located in the centre of Hamburg is the green heart of the city.", "Within the park are various thematic gardens, the biggest Japanese garden in Germany, and the ''Alter Botanischer Garten Hamburg'', which is a historic botanical garden that now consists primarily of greenhouses.The ''Botanischer Garten Hamburg'' is a modern botanical garden maintained by the University of Hamburg.", "Besides these, there are many more parks of various sizes.", "In 2014 Hamburg celebrated a birthday of park culture, where many parks were reconstructed and cleaned up.", "Moreover, every year there are water-light-concerts in the ''Planten un Blomen'' park, from May to early October." ], [ "Culture", "Abel Seyler, one of the great theatre principals of 18th century Europe, established Hamburg as a major centre of theatrical innovation in the 1760s.From the 1760s the theatre director Abel Seyler—the leader of the Hamburg National Theatre and subsequently the Seyler Theatre Company—established Hamburg as one of the leading European centres of theatrical innovation, promoting experimental productions and pioneering a new more realist style of acting, introducing Shakespeare to a German language audience, and promoting the concept of a national theatre in the tradition of Ludvig Holberg, the Sturm und Drang playwrights, and serious German opera.Today Hamburg has more than 40 theatres, 60 museums, and 100 music venues and clubs.", "With 6.6 music venues per 100,000 inhabitants, Hamburg has the second-highest density of music venues of Germany's largest cities, after Munich and ahead of Cologne and Berlin.", "In 2005, more than 18 million people visited concerts, exhibitions, theatres, cinemas, museums, and cultural events, and 8,552 taxable companies (average size 3.16 employees) were engaged in the culture sector, which includes music, performing arts, and literature.", "The creative industries represent almost one fifth of all companies in Hamburg.Hamburg has entered the European Green Capital Award scheme, and was awarded the title of European Green Capital for 2011.===Theatres===The ''Deutsches Schauspielhaus'' in the St. Georg quarterTheatres in the city include the state-owned ''Deutsches Schauspielhaus'', the Thalia Theatre, Ohnsorg Theatre, \"Schmidts Tivoli\", and the ''Kampnagel''.The English Theatre of Hamburg, near the U3 station Mundsburg, was founded in 1976 and is the oldest professional English-language theatre in Germany, with exclusively English-speaking actors in its company.===Museums===Hamburg has several large museums and galleries showing classical and contemporary art, for example the Kunsthalle Hamburg with its contemporary art gallery (''Galerie der Gegenwart''), the ''Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe'' (Museum of Art and Design), and the Deichtorhallen (with the House of Photography and Hall of Contemporary Art).", "The Internationales Maritimes Museum Hamburg opened in the HafenCity quarter in 2008.There are various specialised museums in Hamburg, such as the ''Archäologisches Museum Hamburg'' (Hamburg Archaeological Museum) in the Harburg borough, the Hamburg Museum of Work (''Museum der Arbeit''), and several museums of local history, such as the (''Freilichtmuseum am Kiekeberg'') at Kiekeberg in the Harburg Hills, just outside of Hamburg, in Rosengarten.", "Two museum ships near St. Pauli Piers (''Landungsbrücken'') bear witness to the freight ship (''Cap San Diego'') and cargo sailing ship era (''Rickmer Rickmers'').", "In 2017 the Hamburg-built iron-hulled sailing ship ''Peking'' returned to the city and was installed in the German Port Museum in 2020.The world's largest model railway museum, Miniatur Wunderland, with total railway length, is also situated near St. Pauli Piers in a former warehouse.BallinStadt, a memorial park and former emigration station, is dedicated to the millions of Europeans who emigrated to North and South America between 1850 and 1939.Visitors descending from those overseas emigrants may search for their ancestors at computer terminals.===Music===The Elbphilharmonie concert hallHamburg State Opera is a leading opera company.", "Its orchestra is the Philharmoniker Hamburg.", "The city's other major orchestra is the NDR Elbphilharmonie Orchestra.", "The main concert venue is the new concert hall Elbphilharmonie.", "Before it was the Laeiszhalle, ''Musikhalle Hamburg''.", "The Laeiszhalle also houses a third orchestra, the Hamburger Symphoniker.", "György Ligeti and Alfred Schnittke taught at the Hochschule für Musik und Theater Hamburg.Hamburg is the birthplace of Johannes Brahms, who spent his formative early years in the city, and the birthplace and home of waltz composer Oscar Fetrás, who wrote the \"Mondnacht auf der Alster\" waltz.Since the German premiere of ''Cats'' in 1986, there have always been musicals running, including ''The Phantom of the Opera'', ''The Lion King'', ''Dirty Dancing'', and ''Dance of the Vampires (musical)''.", "This density, the highest in Germany, is partly due to the major musical production company ''Stage Entertainment'' being based in the city.In addition to musicals, opera houses, concert halls, and theatres, the cityscape is characterised by a large music scene.", "This includes, among other things, over 100 music venues, several annual festivals and over 50 event organisers based in Hamburg.", "Larger venues include the Barclaycard Arena, the Bahrenfeld harness racing track, and Hamburg City Park.Hamburg was an important centre of rock music in the early 1960s.", "The Beatles lived and played in Hamburg from August 1960 to December 1962.They proved popular and gained local acclaim.", "Prior to the group's initial recording and widespread fame, Hamburg provided residency and performing venues for the band during the time they performed there.", "One of the venues they performed at was the Star Club on St. Pauli.Pop musicians from Hamburg include Udo Lindenberg, Deichkind, and Jan Delay.", "The singer Annett Louisan lives in the city.An important meeting place for Hamburg musicians from the 1970s to the mid-80s was the jazz pub Onkel Pö, which was originally founded in the Pöseldorf neighbourhood and later moved to Eppendorf.", "Many musicians who were counted as part of the \"\" met here.", "In addition to Udo Lindenberg, these included Otto Waalkes, Hans Scheibner and groups such as Torfrock and Frumpy.", "One of the members of the band Frumpy was the Hamburg-born singer and composer Inga Rumpf.Hamburg is the origin of the \"Hamburger Schule\", a term used for alternative music bands like Tocotronic, Blumfeld, Tomte or Kante.", "The meeting point of the Hamburg School was long considered to be the in Altona's old town, near the Fischmarkt.", "Alongside clubs such as the Pal, the Moondoo or the Waagenbau, today the Pudel is a central location of the Hamburg electro scene.", "Artists of this scene include the DJ duo Moonbootica, Mladen Solomun, and Helena Hauff.Hamburg is also home to many music labels, music distributors and publishers.", "These include Warner Music, Kontor Records, PIAS, Edel SE & Co. KGaA, Believe Digital, and Indigo.", "The high proportion of independent labels in the city, which include Audiolith, Dial Records, Grand Hotel van Cleef, among others, is striking.", "Before its closure, the label L'Âge d'or also belonged to these.In addition, Hamburg has a considerable alternative and punk scene, which gathers around the Rote Flora, a squatted former theatre located in the Sternschanze.The city was a major centre for heavy metal music in the 1980s.", "Helloween, Gamma Ray, Running Wild, and Grave Digger started in Hamburg.", "The industrial rock band KMFDM was also formed in Hamburg, initially as a performance art project.", "The influences of these and other bands from the area helped establish the subgenre of power metal.In the late 1990s, Hamburg was considered one of the strongholds of the German hip-hop scene.", "Bands like Beginner shaped the city's hip-hop style and made it a serious location for the hip-hop scene through songs like \"Hamburg City Blues\".", "In addition to Beginner, German hip-hop acts from Hamburg include Fünf Sterne Deluxe, Samy Deluxe, Fettes Brot, and 187 Strassenbande.Hamburg has a vibrant psychedelic trance community, with record labels such as Spirit Zone.===Festivals and regular events===Annual ''Hafengeburtstag'' (Port Anniversary)Hamburg is noted for several festivals and regular events.", "Some of them are street festivals, such as the LGBT pride ''Hamburg Pride'' festival or the Alster fair (German: ''Alstervergnügen''), held at the ''Binnenalster''.", "The ''Hamburger DOM'' is northern Germany's biggest funfair, held three times a year.", "''Hafengeburtstag'' is a funfair to honour the birthday of the port of Hamburg with a party and a ship parade.", "The annual biker's service in Saint Michael's Church attracts tens of thousands of bikers.", "Christmas markets in December are held at the Hamburg Rathaus square, among other places.", "The ''long night of museums'' (German: ''Lange Nacht der Museen'') offers one entrance fee for about 40 museums until midnight.", "The sixth ''Festival of Cultures'' was held in September 2008, celebrating multi-cultural life.", "The Filmfest Hamburg — a film festival originating from the 1950s ''Film Days'' (German: ''Film Tage'') — presents a wide range of films.", "The ''Hamburg Messe and Congress'' offers a venue for trade shows, such ''hanseboot'', an international boat show, or ''Du und deine Welt'', a large consumer products show.", "Regular sports events—some open to pro and amateur participants—are the cycling competition EuroEyes Cyclassics, the Hamburg Marathon, the biggest marathon in Germany after Berlin, the tennis tournament Hamburg Masters, and equestrian events like the Deutsches Derby.Hamburg is also known for its music and festival culture.", "For example, the Reeperbahn alone has between 25 and 30 million visitors every year.", "In addition, there are over a million visitors to the annual festivals and major music events.", "Hamburg's festivals include the Elbjazz Festival , which takes place 2 days a year (usually on the Whitsun weekend) in Hamburg's harbour and HafenCity.", "''Shellac performing live in Hamburg @Kampnagel, Nov. 1, 2014''For contemporary and experimental music, the \" blurred edges \" festival usually follows in May at various venues within Hamburg.", "In mid-August, the MS Dockville music and arts festival has run annually since 2007 in the Wilhelmsburg district.", "This is followed at the end of September by the , which has been running since 2006.As Europe's largest club festival, it offers several hundred program points around the Reeperbahn in Hamburg over four days and is one of the most important meeting places for the music industry worldwide.", "In November, the ÜBERJAZZ Festival, which aims to expand the stylistic boundaries of the concept of jazz, starts every year at Kampnagel.===Cuisine===Fried plaice, Finkenwerder styleOriginal Hamburg dishes are ''Birnen, Bohnen und Speck'' (green beans cooked with pears and bacon).", "''Aalsuppe'' (Hamburgisch ''Oolsupp'') is often mistaken to be German for \"eel soup\" (''Aal''/''Ool'' translated 'eel'), but the name probably comes from the Low Saxon ''allns'' , meaning \"all\", \"everything and the kitchen sink\", not necessarily eel.", "Today eel is often included to meet the expectations of unsuspecting diners.", "There is ''Bratkartoffeln'' (pan-fried potato slices), ''Finkenwerder Scholle'' (Low Saxon ''Finkwarder Scholl'', pan-fried plaice), ''Pannfisch'' (pan-fried fish with mustard sauce), ''Rote Grütze'' (Low Saxon ''Rode Grütt'', related to Danish ''rødgrød'', a type of summer pudding made mostly from berries and usually served with cream, like Danish ''rødgrød med fløde''), and ''Labskaus'' (a mixture of corned beef, mashed potatoes, and beetroot, a cousin of the Norwegian ''lapskaus'' and Liverpool's lobscouse, all offshoots off an old-time one-pot meal that used to be the main component of the common sailor's humdrum diet on the high seas).", "''Alsterwasser'' (in reference to the city's river, the Alster) is the local name for a type of shandy, a concoction of equal parts of beer and carbonated lemonade (''Zitronenlimonade''), the lemonade being added to the beer.A regional dessert pastry called \"Franzbrötchen\" is similar in preparation to a croissant, but includes a cinnamon and sugar filling, often with raisins or brown sugar streusel.", "Ordinary bread rolls tend to be oval-shaped and of the French bread variety.", "The local name is ''Schrippe'' (scored lengthways) for the oval kind and, for the round kind, ''Rundstück'' (\"round piece\" rather than mainstream German ''Brötchen'', diminutive form of ''Brot'' \"bread\"), a relative of Denmark's ''rundstykke''.", "The cuisines of Hamburg and Denmark, especially of Copenhagen, have a lot in common.", "This also includes a predilection for open-faced sandwiches of all sorts, especially topped with cold-smoked or pickled fish.The American hamburger may have developed from Hamburg's ''Frikadeller'': a pan-fried patty (usually larger and thicker than its American counterpart) made from a mixture of ground beef, soaked stale bread, egg, chopped onion, salt, and pepper, usually served with potatoes and vegetables like any other piece of meat, not usually on a bun.", "The Oxford Dictionary defined a ''Hamburger steak'' in 1802: a sometimes-smoked and -salted piece of meat, that, according to some sources, came from Hamburg to America.", "The name and food, \"hamburger\", has entered all English-speaking countries, and derivative words in non-English speaking countries.There are restaurants which offer most of these dishes, especially in the HafenCity.===Main sights===File:Hamburg Elbphilharmonie 2016.jpg|''Elbphilharmonie'' (\"Elphi\")File:Hamburger Hafen-St. Michaelis.jpg|Port of HamburgFile:Freedom-of-the-Seas--in-Hamburg.jpg|St.", "Pauli Piers and cruise shipFile:Speicherstadt abends.jpg|''Speicherstadt'' (Warehouse district)File:Rathaus Hamburg bei Nacht.jpg|Hamburg City HallFile:St. Michaelis.jpg|St.", "Michael's Church (\"Michel\")File:Reeperbahn.jpg|''Reeperbahn'', nightlife district of St. PauliFile:Miniatur wunderland.jpg|''Miniatur Wunderland'' (Miniature Wonderland)File:Grosse Freiheit Hamburg.jpg|''Große Freiheit'' (\"Great Freedom\")File:St. Nikolai Memorial Church.jpg|Nikolai MemorialFile:Sandtorpark 2013-05-24 12-03-35 Germany Hamburg-HafenCity 2h.jpg|HafenCityFile:Dockland by Night.jpg|Dockland at nightFile:Alstereisvergnügen 11-02-2012 09.jpg|View over frozen Alster towards Radisson Hotel and Hertz-TurmFile:Hamburg Wallanlagen Brunnen.jpg|''Planten un Blomen''File:DE Hamburg Centerview.JPG|Jungfernstieg BoulevardFile:Hamburg-Blankenese(01).JPG|Hills and mansions in BlankeneseFile:Laeisz-Halle (Hamburg-Neustadt).1.29179.ajb.jpg|''Laeiszhalle'' concert venueFile:2013-06-08 Highflyer HP L4729.JPG|Hamburg Hauptbahnhof, the busiest railway station in GermanyFile:Hamburg OLG 1.jpg|Hanseatisches Oberlandesgericht (\"HansOLG\"), upper courtFile:Neue Skyline Hamburg.JPG|Highrises in St. Pauli (''Hafenkrone'')File:Köhlbrandbrücke 2010.jpg|Köhlbrand BridgeFile:Heinrich-Hertz-Turm - PHB.jpg|TV TowerFile:HafenCity Traditionsschiffhafen Sandtorkai Hamburg 3943 v3.jpg|Traditional sailing ships at Sandtorkai in HafenCityFile:HP_L4224.JPG|View over Hamburg and the Alster''Rote Flora'' in the Sternschanze neighbourhood, Hamburg===Alternative culture===Hamburg has long been a centre of alternative music and counter-culture movements.", "The boroughs of St. Pauli, Sternschanze, and Altona are known for being home to many radical left-wing and anarchist groups, culminating every year during the traditional May Day demonstrations.During the 2017 G20 summit, which took place in Hamburg from 7–8 July that year, protestors clashed violently with the police in the Sternschanze area and particularly around the Rote Flora.", "On 7 July, several cars were set on fire and street barricades were erected to prevent the police from entering the area.", "In response to that, the police made heavy use of water cannons and tear gas in order to scatter the protestors.", "However, this was met with strong resistance by protestors, resulting in a total of 160 injured police and 75 arrested participants in the protests.After the summit, however, the Rote Flora issued a statement, in which it condemns the arbitrary acts of violence that were committed by some of the protestors whilst generally defending the right to use violence as a means of self-defence against police oppression.", "In particular, the spokesperson of the Rote Flora said that the autonomous cultural centre had a traditionally good relationship with its neighbours and local residents, since they were united in their fight against gentrification in that neighbourhood.=== British, American and English-speaking culture ===The English Theatre of Hamburg at Lerchenfeld 14There are several English-speaking communities, such as the Caledonian Society of Hamburg, The British Club Hamburg, British and Commonwealth Luncheon Club, Anglo-German Club e.V., Professional Women's Forum, The British Decorative and Fine Arts Society, The English Speaking Union of the Commonwealth, The Scottish Country Dancers of Hamburg, The Hamburg Players e.V.", "English Language Theatre Group, The Hamburg Exiles Rugby Club, several cricket clubs, and The Morris Minor Register of Hamburg.", "Furthermore, the Anglo-Hanseatic Lodge No.", "850 within the Grand Lodge of British Freemasons of Germany under the United Grand Lodges of Germany works in Hamburg, and has a diverse expat membership.", "There is also a 400-year-old Anglican church community worshipping at ''''.American and international English-speaking organisations include The American Club of Hamburg e.V., the American Women's Club of Hamburg, the English Speaking Union, the German-American Women's Club, and The International Women's Club of Hamburg e.V.", "''The American Chamber of Commerce'' handles matters related to business affairs.", "The International School of Hamburg serves school children.William Wordsworth, Dorothy Wordsworth, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge spent the last two weeks of September 1798 at Hamburg.Dorothy wrote a detailed journal of their stay, labelled \"The Hamburg Journal (1798) by noted Wordsworth scholar Edward de Selincourt\".A Hamburg saying, referring to its anglophile nature, is: \"Wenn es in London anfängt zu regnen, spannen die Hamburger den Schirm auf\".", "... \"When it starts raining in London, people in Hamburg open their umbrellas\".=== Memorials ===A memorial for English engineer William Lindley, who, beginning in 1842, reorganised the drinking water and sewerage system and thus helped to fight against cholera, is near Baumwall railway station in Vorsetzen street.In 2009, more than 2,500 \"stumbling blocks\" (''Stolpersteine'') were laid, engraved with the names of deported and murdered citizens.", "Inserted into the pavement in front of their former houses, the blocks draw attention to the victims of Nazi persecution." ], [ "Economy", "The gross domestic product (GDP) of Hamburg was 119.0 billion € in 2018, accounting for 3.6% of German economic output.", "GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was €59,600 or 197% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "The GDP per employee was 132% of the EU average.", "The city has a relatively high employment rate, at 88 percent of the working-age population, employed in over 160,000 businesses.", "The median gross salary in 2021 was €47,544, which is 9.29% higher than the median gross salary in Germany overall.The unemployment rate stood at 6.1% in October 2018 and was higher than the German average.Year20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019Unemployment rate in %8.98.39.09.99.711.311.09.18.18.68.27.87.57.47.67.47.16.86.36.1The Hamburg Stock Exchange===Banking===Hamburg has for centuries been a commercial centre of Northern Europe, and is the most important banking city of Northern Germany.", "The city is the seat of Germany's oldest bank, the Berenberg Bank, M.M.Warburg & CO, and Hamburg Commercial Bank.", "The Hamburg Stock Exchange is the oldest of its kind in Germany.===Port===Queen Mary 2 at the Port of HamburgThe most significant economic unit is the Port of Hamburg, which ranks third to Rotterdam and Antwerpen in Europe and 17th-largest worldwide, with transshipments of of cargo and 138.2 million tons of goods in 2016.International trade is also the reason for the large number of consulates in the city.", "Although situated up the Elbe, it is considered a sea port due to its ability to handle large ocean-going vessels.===Industrial production===Heavy industry of Hamburg includes the making of steel, aluminium, copper and various large shipyards such as Blohm + Voss.Hamburg, along with Seattle and Toulouse, is an important location of the civil aerospace industry.", "Airbus, which operates the Hamburg-Finkenwerder assembly plant in Finkenwerder, employs over 13,000 people.===HafenCity===Western HafenCity area and SpeicherstadtThe HafenCity is Europe's largest urban development project and is located in the Hamburg-Mitte district.", "It consists of the area of the Great Grasbrook, the northern part of the former Elbe island Grasbrook, and the warehouse district on the former Elbe island Kehrwieder and Wandrahm.", "It is bordered to the north, separated by the customs channel to Hamburg's city centre, west and south by the Elbe, and to the east, bounded by the upper harbour, Rothenburgsort.", "The district is full of rivers and streams and is surrounded by channels, and has a total area of about 2.2 square-kilometres.HafenCity has 155 hectares in the area formerly belonging to the free port north of the Great Grasbrook.", "Residential units for up to 12,000 people are planned to be built on the site by around the mid-2020s, and jobs for up to 40,000 people, mainly in the office sector, should be created.", "It is the largest ongoing urban development project in Hamburg.Construction work started in 2003, and in 2009 the first part of the urban development project was finished with the completion of the Dalmannkai / Sandtorkai neighbourhood – which is the first stage of the HafenCity project.", "According to the person responsible for the development and commercialisation of HafenCity, ''HafenCity Hamburg GmbH'', half of the master plan underlying structural construction is already completed, whereas the other half is either under construction or is in the construction preparation stages.===Tourism===City logo of HamburgNeuer Wall, one of Europe's most luxurious shopping streetsIn 2017, more than 6,783,000 visitors with 13,822,000 overnight stays visited the city.", "The tourism sector employs more than 175,000 people full-time and brings in revenue of almost €9 billion, making the tourism industry a major economic force in the Hamburg Metropolitan Region.", "Hamburg has one of the fastest-growing tourism industries in Germany.", "From 2001 to 2007, the overnight stays in the city increased by 55.2% (Berlin +52.7%, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern +33%).The area of Reeperbahn, in the quarter St. Pauli, is Europe's largest red light district and home of strip clubs, brothels, bars, and nightclubs.", "The singer and actor Hans Albers is strongly associated with St. Pauli, and wrote the neighbourhood's unofficial anthem, \"Auf der Reeperbahn Nachts um Halb Eins\" (\"On the Reeperbahn at Half Past Midnight\"), in the 1940s.", "The Beatles had stints on the Reeperbahn early in their careers.", "Others prefer the laid-back neighbourhood ''Schanze'', with its street cafés, or a barbecue on one of the beaches along the river Elbe.", "Hamburg's zoo, the Tierpark Hagenbeck, was founded in 1907 by Carl Hagenbeck as the first zoo with moated, barless enclosures.In 2016, the average visitor spent two nights in Hamburg.", "The majority of visitors come from Germany.", "Most foreigners are European, especially from Denmark (395,681 overnight stays), the United Kingdom (301,000 overnight stays), Switzerland (340,156 overnight stays), Austria (about 252,397 overnight stays), and the Netherlands (about 182,610 overnight stays).", "The largest group from outside Europe comes from the United States (206,614 overnight stays).The ''Queen Mary 2'' has docked regularly since 2004, and there were six departures planned from 2010 onwards.===Creative industries=== headquartersMedia businesses employ over 70,000 people.", "The Norddeutscher Rundfunk, which includes the television station NDR Fernsehen, is based in Hamburg, including the news program ''Tagesschau'', as are the commercial television station ''Hamburg 1'', the Christian television station ''Bibel TV'', and the civil media outlet ''Tide TV''.", "There are regional radio stations such as Radio Hamburg.", "Some of Germany's largest publishing companies, Axel Springer AG, Gruner + Jahr, and Bauer Media Group, are located in the city.", "Many national newspapers and magazines, such as and , are produced in Hamburg, as well as some special-interest newspapers such as ''Financial Times Deutschland''.", "''Hamburger Abendblatt'' and ''Hamburger Morgenpost'' are daily regional newspapers with a large circulation.", "There are music publishers, such as Warner Bros. Records Germany, and ICT firms such as Adobe Systems and Google Germany.A total of about 2,000 companies are located in Hamburg that are active in the music industry.", "With over 17,000 employees and a gross value added of around 640 million euros, this industry is one of the strongest in the city.", "The and the Clubkombinat represent the companies in the industry.", "The interests of Hamburg musicians* are represented, for example, by RockCity Hamburg e.V..Hamburg was one of the locations for the James Bond series film ''Tomorrow Never Dies''.", "The ''Reeperbahn'' has been the location for many scenes, including the 1994 Beatles film ''Backbeat''.", "The film ''A Most Wanted Man'' was set in and filmed in Hamburg.", "Hamburg was also shown in ''An American Tail'', where Fievel Mousekewitz and his family immigrate to America in the hopes to escape cats." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Health systems===Hamburg has 54 hospitals.", "The University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, with about 1,736 beds, houses a large medical school.", "There are also smaller private hospitals.", "On 1 January 2011 there were about 12,507 hospital beds.", "The city had 5,663 physicians in private practice and 456 pharmacies in 2010.===Transport===The Port of Hamburg on the river ElbeBaumwall station of the Hamburg U-BahnNeue and Freihafen-ElbbrückeHamburg is a major transportation hub, connected to four Autobahnen (motorways) and the most important railway junction on the route to Scandinavia.Bridges and tunnels connect the northern and southern parts of the city, such as the old Elbe Tunnel (''Alter Elbtunnel'') or St. Pauli Elbtunnel (official name), which opened in 1911, today a major tourist sight, and the Elbe Tunnel (''Elbtunnel''), the crossing of a motorway.Hamburg Airport is the oldest airport in Germany still in operation.", "There is also the smaller Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport, used only as a company airport for Airbus.", "Some airlines market Lübeck Airport in Lübeck as serving Hamburg.Hamburg's licence plate prefix was \"HH\" (Hansestadt Hamburg; English: Hanseatic City of Hamburg) between 1906 and 1945 and from 1956 onwards, rather than the single letter normally used for large cities since the federal registration reform in 1956, such as B for Berlin or M for Munich.", "\"H\" was Hamburg's prefix in the years between 1945 and 1947 (used by Hanover since 1956).=== Public transport ===A map of the transit rail lines in Hamburg Public transport by rail, bus, and ship is organised by the ''Hamburger Verkehrsverbund'' (\"Hamburg transit authority\") (HVV).", "Tickets sold by one company are valid on all other HVV companies' services.", "The HVV was the first organisation of this kind worldwide.33 mass transit rail lines across the city are the backbone of public transport.", "The S-Bahn (commuter train system) comprises six lines and the U-Bahn four lines – ''U-Bahn'' is short for ''Untergrundbahn'' (underground railway).", "Approximately of of the U-Bahn is underground; most is on embankments or viaduct or at ground level.", "Older residents still speak of the system as ''Hochbahn'' (elevated railway), also because the operating company of the subway is the ''Hamburger Hochbahn''.", "The AKN railway connects satellite towns in Schleswig-Holstein to the city.", "On some routes regional trains of Germany's major railway company Deutsche Bahn AG and the regional ''metronom'' trains may be used with an HVV ticket.", "Regional trains stop at various stations within city limits such as the four larger stations, Hauptbahnhof, Dammtor, Altona, and Harburg, as well as Hamburg Hasselbrook and Hamburg Bergedorf.", "The tram system was opened in 1866 and shut down in 1978.Gaps in the rail network are filled by more than 669 bus routes, operated by single-deck two-, three- and four-axle diesel buses.", "Hamburg has no trams or trolleybuses, but has hydrogen-fuelled buses.", "The buses run frequently during working hours, with buses on the MetroBus routes running every ten minutes from 6 am to 9 pm.", "On special weekday night lines the intervals can be 30 minutes or more, while on normal days (Monday-Friday) normal buses stop running at night (some lines run 24 hours a day, every day of the year at least every half hour).There are eight ferry lines along the River Elbe, operated by ''HADAG'', that fall under the aegis of the HVV.", "While mainly used by citizens and dock workers, they can also be used for sightseeing tours.An Airbus A321 on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus Hamburg-Finkenwerder plantThe international airport serving Hamburg, Hamburg Airport Helmut Schmidt (IATA: HAM, ICAO: EDDH), is the fifth biggest and oldest airport in Germany, having been established in 1912 and located about from the city centre.", "About 60 airlines provide service to 125 destination airports, including some long-distance destinations like Newark, New Jersey on United Airlines, Dubai on Emirates, and Tehran on Iran Air.", "Hamburg is a secondary hub for Lufthansa, which is the largest carrier at the airport, and the airline also operates one of its biggest Lufthansa Technik maintenance facilities there.", "The second airport is located in Hamburg-Finkenwerder, officially named Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport (IATA: XFW, ICAO: EDHI).", "It is about from the city centre and is a nonpublic airport for the Airbus plant.", "It is the second biggest Airbus plant, after Toulouse, and the third biggest aviation manufacturing plant after Seattle and Toulouse; the plant houses the final assembly lines for A318, A319, A320, A321, and A380 aircraft.", ";Public transportation statisticsThe average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Hamburg, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 58 min.", "16% of public transit riders, ride for more than two hours every day.", "The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 11 min, while 11% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day.", "The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 8.9 km, while 21% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.===Utilities===Electricity for Hamburg and Northern Germany is largely provided by ''Vattenfall Europe'', formerly the state-owned ''Hamburgische Electricitäts-Werke''.", "Vattenfall Europe used to operate the Brunsbüttel Nuclear Power Plant and Krümmel Nuclear Power Plant, both taken out of service as part of the nuclear power phase-out.", "In addition, E.ON operates the Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant, near Hamburg.There are also the coal-fired Wedel, Tiefstack, and Moorburg CHP Plant, and the fuel-cell power plant in the HafenCity quarter.", "''VERA Klärschlammverbrennung'' uses the biosolids of the Hamburg wastewater treatment plant; the ''Pumpspeicherwerk Geesthacht'' is a pump storage power plant and a solid waste combustion power station is ''Müllverwertung Borsigstraße''.In June 2019, Hamburg introduced a law governing the phasing out of coal based thermal and electric energy production (\"Kohleausstiegsgesetz\").", "This move was the result of negotiations between parliamentary parties and representatives of a campaign called ''Tschuess Kohle (\"Goodbye Coal\").''", "In 2020, the city's Ministry for Environment and Energy announced a partnership with Namibia as a potential supplier of woody biomass from encroacher bush to replace coal." ], [ "Sports", "''Hamburg City Man'' 2007 at the BinnenalsterBarclays ArenaVolksparkstadionHamburger SV is a football team playing in the 2.Bundesliga (as of 2023).", "HSV was six times German champion, three times winner of the German Cup, and triumphed in the European Cup in 1983, as well as having participated in the group stages of the Champions League twice: in 2000–01 and 2006–07.They play at the Volksparkstadion (average attendance in the 12–13 season was 52,916).", "The HSV was the oldest team of the Bundesliga, playing in the league since its beginning in 1963, until a change of results saw them relegated from the Bundesliga in 2018.In addition, FC St. Pauli is a second division football club that came in second place in the 2009–10 season and qualified to play alongside Hamburger SV in the first division for the first time since the 2001–02 season.", "St. Pauli's home games take place at the Millerntor-Stadion.The Hamburg Freezers represented Hamburg until 2016 in the DEL, the premier ice hockey league in Germany.HSV Handball represented Hamburg until 2016 in the German handball league.", "In 2007, HSV Handball won the European Cupwinners Cup.", "The Club won the league in the 2010–11 season and had an average attendance of 10.690 in the O2 World Hamburg the same year.", "The most recent success for the team was the EHF Champions League win in 2013.Since 2014, the club has suffered from economic problems and was almost not allowed the playing licence for the 2014–15 season; but due to economic support from the former club president/sponsor Andreas Rudolf, the club was allowed the licence in the last minute.", "On 20 January 2016, however, their licence was removed due to violations following the continued economic struggles.", "In 2016–17, they were not allowed to play in the first or second league.", "The team lives on through their former second team (now their main team) in the third division (2016–2018) and in second division (since 2018).The ''BCJ Hamburg'' played in the Basketball Bundesliga from 1999 to 2001.Later, the Hamburg Towers became the city's prime team.", "The Towers promoted to Germany's top division in 2019.In 2022, they already reached the playoffs.", "The Towers play their home games at the Edel-optics.de Arena in Wilhelmsburg.Hamburg is the nation's field hockey capital and dominates the men's as well as the women's Bundesliga.", "Hamburg hosts many top teams such as Uhlenhorster Hockey Club, Harvesterhuder Hockey Club, and Club An Der Alster.The Hamburg Warriors are one of Germany's top lacrosse clubs.", "The club has grown immensely in the last several years and includes at least one youth team, three men's, and two women's teams.", "The team participates in the Deutsch Lacrosse Verein.", "The Hamburg Warriors are part of the Harvestehuder Tennis- und Hockey-Club e.V (HTHC).Hamburg Blue Devils was one of the prominent American Football teams playing in German Football League before its exit in 2017.Hamburg Sea Devils is a team of European League of Football (ELF), which is a planned professional league, that is set to become the first fully professional league in Europe since the demise of NFL Europe.", "The Sea Devils will start playing games in June 2021.There are also the Hamburg Dockers, an Australian rules football club.", "The FC St. Pauli team dominates women's rugby in Germany.", "Other first-league teams include VT Aurubis Hamburg (Volleyball) and Hamburger Polo Club.", "Eimsbütteler TV plays in the German Women's 2 Volleyball Bundesliga.", "There are also several minority sports clubs, including four cricket clubs.International German Open.The Centre Court of the Tennis Am Rothenbaum venue, with a capacity of 13,200 ppeople, is the largest in Germany.Hamburg also hosts equestrian events at ''Reitstadion Klein Flottbek'' (Deutsches Derby in jumping and dressage) and ''Horner Rennbahn'' (Deutsches Derby flat racing).", "The city also owns the harness racing track \"Trabrennbahn Bahrenfeld\".", "The Hamburg Marathon is the biggest marathon in Germany after Berlin's.", "In 2008, 23,230 participants were registered.", "World Cup events in cycling, the UCI ProTour competition EuroEyes Cyclassics, and the triathlon ITU World Cup event ''Hamburg City Man'' are also held in here.Volksparkstadion was used as a site for the 2006 World Cup.", "In 2010 UEFA held the final of the UEFA Europa League in the arena.Hamburg made a bid for the 2024 Olympic Games, but 51.7 percent of those city residents participating in a referendum in November 2015 voted against continuing Hamburg's bid to host the games.", "Meanwhile, Hamburg's partner city Kiel voted in favour of hosting the event, with almost 66 percent of all participants supporting the bid.", "Opponents of the bid had argued that hosting the 33rd Olympic Games would cost the city too much in public funds." ], [ "Education", "The main building of the University of HamburgThe University of Music and TheatreThe school system is managed by the Ministry of Schools and Vocational Training (''Behörde für Schule und Berufsbildung'').", "The system had approximately 191,148 students in 221 primary schools and 188 secondary schools in 2016.There are 32 public libraries in Hamburg.Nineteen universities are located in Hamburg, with about 100,589 university students in total, including 9,000 resident students.", "Six universities are public, including the largest, the University of Hamburg (Universität Hamburg) with the University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, the University of Music and Theatre, the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, the HafenCity University Hamburg, and the Hamburg University of Technology.", "Seven universities are private, like the Bucerius Law School, the Kühne Logistics University, and the HSBA Hamburg School of Business Administration.", "The city has also smaller private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions, such as the Helmut Schmidt University (formerly the University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg).Hamburg is home to one of the oldest international schools in Germany, the International School of Hamburg." ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Hamburg is twinned with:* Saint Petersburg, Russia (1957)* Marseille, France (1958)* Shanghai, China (1986)* Dresden, Germany (1987)* León, Nicaragua (1989)* Osaka, Japan (1989)* Prague, Czech Republic (1990)* Chicago, United States (1994)* Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania (2010)" ], [ "Notable people", "Portrait of Barthold Heinrich BrockesPainting of Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, 1833Portrait of Johannes Brahms, 1899* Lucas Holstenius (1596–1661), German Catholic humanist, geographer, historian and librarian* Andreas Schlüter (), German baroque sculptor and architect* Barthold Heinrich Brockes (1680–1747), German poet* Hermann Samuel Reimarus (1694–1768), German philosopher and writer of the Enlightenment* Konrad Ekhof (1720–1778), the foremost German actor of the 18th century* Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790), German educational reformer, teacher and writer* Meta Klopstock (1728–1758), writer* Abel Seyler (1730–1800), one of the foremost theatre principals of 18th century Europe, who made Hamburg a center of theatrical innovation* Johann Joachim Eschenburg (1743–1820), German critic and literary historian* Johann Elert Bode (1747–1826), astronomer.", "He named and determined the orbit of Uranus.", "* Johann Dominicus Fiorillo (1748–1821), German painter and historian of art* Christian, Count of Stolberg-Stolberg (1748–1821), poet, brother of Frederick Leopold* Friedrich Leopold Graf zu Stolberg-Stolberg (1750–1819), German lawyer and translator* Georg Friedrich von Martens (1756–1821), German jurist and diplomat* Ludwig Erdwin Seyler (1758–1836), banker and politician* Johann Franz Encke (1791–1865), astronomer.", "He measured the distance from Earth to the Sun.", "* Ami Boué (1794–1881), geologist of French Huguenot origin* Gustav Friedrich Waagen (1794–1868), German art historian* Johann Christian Poggendorff (1796–1877), physicist.", "He dealt with electricity and magnetism.", "* Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881), German botanist, co-founder of cell theory* Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808–1888), Orthodox rabbi.", "He founded the ''Torah im Derech Eretz.", "''* Felix Mendelssohn (1809–1847), German composer, pianist, organist and conductor* Ludwig Preller (1809–1861), German philologist and antiquarian* Friedrich Gerstäcker (1816–1872), German travel, writer and novelist* Justus Ludwig Adolf Roth (1818–1892), German geologist and mineralogist* Heinrich Barth (1821–1865), German explorer of Africa and a scholar* Jacob Bernays (1824–1881), German philologist and philosophical writer* Julius Oppert (1825–1905), French-German Assyriologist* Thérèse Tietjens (1831–1877), leading opera and oratorio soprano* Johannes Brahms (1833–1897), German composer, pianist and conductor* Michael Bernays (1834–1897), German literary historian, scholar of Goethe and Shakespeare* Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig (1835–1910), German chemist.", "He discovered the pinacol coupling reaction.", "* Wilhelm Kühne (1837–1900), German physiologist.", "He coined the word \"enzyme\" in 1878.", "* Carl Rosa (1842–1889), musical impresario.", "He founded the Carl Rosa Opera Company in London.", "* Carl Hagenbeck (1844–1913), a merchant of wild animals who supplied many European zoos* Hans Hinrich Wendt (1853–1928), German Protestant theologian* Hans von Bartels (1856–1913), German painter* Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), physicist who first proved the existence of electromagnetic waves* Helmut Schmidt (1918–2015), politician and chancellor of West Germany from 1974 to 1982* Angela Merkel (born 1954), retired politician and scientist, chancellor of Germany from 2005 to 2021* Olaf Scholz (born 1958), politician, First Mayor of Hamburg from 2011 to 2018, and the current chancellor of Germany since 2021" ], [ "See also", "* Novo Hamburgo" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Hamburg panorama view" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hedonism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hedonism''' refers to the prioritization of pleasure in one's lifestyle, actions, or thoughts.", "The term can include a number of theories or practices across philosophy, art, and psychology, encompassing both sensory pleasure and more intellectual or personal pursuits, but can also be used in everyday parlance as a pejorative for the egoistic pursuit of short-term gratification at the expense of others.The term originates in ethical philosophy, where '''axiological''' or '''value hedonism''' is the claim that pleasure is the sole form of intrinsic value, while '''normative''' or '''ethical hedonism''' claims that pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain for oneself or others are the ultimate expressions of ethical good.", "Applied to well-being or what is good for someone, it is the thesis that pleasure and suffering are the only components of well-being.", "'''Psychological''' or '''motivational hedonism''' claims that human behavior is psychologically determined by desires to increase pleasure and to decrease pain." ], [ "The nature of pleasure", "''Bacchante'' by Frederick William MacMonnies, 1894.Pleasure plays a central role in all forms of hedonism; it refers to experience that feels good and involves the enjoyment of something.", "Pleasure contrasts with pain or suffering, which are forms of feeling bad.", "Discussions within hedonism usually focus more on pleasure, but as its negative side, pain is equally implied in these discussions.", "Both pleasure and pain come in degrees and have been thought of as a dimension going from positive degrees through a neutral point to negative degrees.", "The term \"happiness\" is often used in this tradition to refer to the balance of pleasure over pain.In everyday language, the term \"pleasure\" is primarily associated with sensory pleasures like the enjoyment of food or sex.", "But in its most general sense, it includes all types of positive or pleasant experiences including the enjoyment of sports, seeing a beautiful sunset or engaging in an intellectually satisfying activity.", "Theories of pleasure try to determine what all these pleasurable experiences have in common, and what is essential to them.", "They are traditionally divided into quality theories and attitude theories.", "Quality theories hold that pleasure is a quality of pleasurable experiences themselves while attitude theories state that pleasure is in some sense external to the experience since it depends on the subject's attitude to the experience.The plausibility of the various versions of hedonism is affected by how the nature of pleasure is conceived.", "An important appeal of most forms of hedonism is that they are able to give a simple and unified account of their respective fields.", "But this is only possible if pleasure itself is a unified phenomenon.", "This has been put into question, mainly due to the wide variety of pleasure experiences which seem to have no one shared feature in common.", "One way open to quality theorists to respond to this objection is by pointing out that the hedonic tone of pleasure-experiences is not a regular quality but a higher-order quality.", "Attitude theories have an easier way to reply to this argument since they may hold that it is the same type of attitude, often identified with desire, that is common to all pleasurable experiences." ], [ "Psychological hedonism", "Psychological hedonism, also known as motivational hedonism, is an empirical theory about what motivates us: it states that all actions by humans aim at increasing pleasure and avoiding pain.", "This is usually understood in combination with egoism, i.e.", "that each person only aims at their happiness.", "For example, Thomas Hobbes theorized that a person's ego was the primary impulse in determining their behavior.", "Human actions rely on beliefs about what causes pleasure.", "False beliefs may mislead and thus each person's actions may fail to result in pleasure, but even failed actions are motivated by considerations of pleasure, according to psychological hedonism.", "The paradox of hedonism concerns the thesis that pleasure-seeking behavior is self-defeating in the sense that it results in less actual pleasure than would result from following other motives.Psychological hedonism gives a straightforward theory explaining the totality of human behavior.", "It has intuitive plausibility because pleasure-seeking behavior is a common phenomenon, and may indeed dominate human conduct at times; however, the generalization of psychological hedonism as an explanation for all behavior is highly controversial.", "Critics point to counterexamples involving actions that seem to have no plausible explanation in terms of pleasure, such as egoistic motives for things other than pleasure (e.g.", "health, self-improvement, post-mortem fame), and altruistic motives (e.g.", "pursuing one's child's happiness, sacrificing one's life for a greater cause).", "Psychological hedonists reinterpret such cases in terms of pleasure-seeking behavior, for example positing that seeing one's children happy or knowing that one's death will have been meaningful brings pleasure to the person sacrificing their immediate pleasure.Critics also contend that, via introspection, one can conclude that the pursuit of pleasure is only one type of motivating force among others and that reinterpreting every case in terms of pleasure/pain contradicts this.", "Critics also contend that psychological hedonism's basic claim of what motivates humans falls within the realm of the science of psychology rather than philosophy, and as such demands experimental evidence to confirm or contradict it." ], [ "Ethical hedonism", "Ethical hedonism or normative hedonism, as defined here, is the thesis that considerations of increasing pleasure and decreasing pain determine what people should do or which action is right.", "However, it is sometimes defined in a wider sense in terms of ''intrinsic value'', in which case it includes axiological hedonism as defined below.", "It is different from psychological hedonism since it prescribes rather than describes human behavior.", "In the narrow sense, ethical hedonism is a form of consequentialism since it determines the rightness of an action based on its consequences, which are measured here in terms of pleasure and pain.", "As such, it is subject to the main arguments in favor and against consequentialism.", "On the positive side, these include the intuition that the consequences of human actions matter and that, through them, humans ought to make the world a better place.", "On the negative side, consequentialism would entail that humans rarely if ever know right from wrong since human knowledge of the future is rather limited and the consequences of even simple actions may be vast.", "As a form of hedonism, it has some initial intuitive appeal since pleasure and pain seem to be relevant to how people should act.", "But it has been argued that it is morally objectionable to see pleasure and pain as the only factors relevant to what humans should do since this position seems to ignore, for example, values of justice, friendship and truth.", "Ethical hedonism is usually concerned with both pleasure and pain.", "But the more restricted version in the form of negative consequentialism or negative utilitarianism focuses only on reducing suffering.", "Ethical hedonism is said to have been started by Aristippus of Cyrene, who held the idea that pleasure is the highest good and later was revived by Jeremy Bentham.Ethical hedonist theories can vary in relation to whose pleasure is held within the circle of concern.", "Individualist forms of hedonism can overlap with Ethical egoism, dictating that each agent has no moral obligation beyond their own pleasure.", "This position is usually not held in very high esteem.", "Altruist theories, commonly known by the term \"classical utilitarianism\", are more respectable in the philosophical community.", "They hold that the agent should maximize the sum-total of everyone's happiness.", "This sum-total includes the agent's pleasure as well, but only as one factor among many.", "A common objection against utilitarianism is that it is too demanding.", "This is most pronounced in cases where the agent has to sacrifice his own happiness in order to promote someone else's happiness.", "For example, various commentators have directed this argument against Peter Singer's position, who suggests along similar lines that the right thing to do for most people living in developed countries would be to donate a significant portion of their income to charities, which appears overly demanding to many.", "Singer justifies his position by pointing out that the suffering that can be avoided in third world countries this way considerably outweighs the pleasure gained from how the money would be spent otherwise.", "Another common objection to utilitarianism is that it disregards the personal nature of moral duties, for example, that it may be more important to promote the happiness of others close to each individual person, such as family and friends, even if the alternative course of actions would result in slightly more happiness for a stranger." ], [ "Axiological hedonism", "Axiological hedonism is the thesis that only pleasure has intrinsic value.", "It has also been referred to as '''evaluative hedonism''' or value hedonism, and it is sometimes included in ''ethical hedonism''.", "A closely related theory often treated together with axiological hedonism is hedonism about well-being, which holds that pleasure and pain are the only constituents of well-being and thereby the only things that are good for someone.", "Central to the understanding of axiological hedonism is the distinction between ''intrinsic'' and ''instrumental'' value.", "An entity has ''intrinsic value'' if it is ''good in itself'' or ''good for its own sake''.", "Instrumental value, on the other hand, is ascribed to things that are valuable only as a ''means'' to something else.", "For example, tools like cars or microwaves are said to be instrumentally valuable in virtue of the function they perform, while the happiness they cause is intrinsically valuable.", "Axiological hedonism is a claim about intrinsic value, not about value at large.Within the scope of axiological hedonism, there are two competing theories about the exact relation between pleasure and value: ''quantitative hedonism'' and ''qualitative hedonism''.", "Quantitative hedonists, following Jeremy Bentham, hold that the specific content or quality of a pleasure-experience is not relevant to its value, which only depends on its quantitative features: intensity and duration.", "For example, on this account, an experience of intense pleasure of indulging in food and sex is worth more than an experience of subtle pleasure of looking at fine art or of engaging in a stimulating intellectual conversation.", "Qualitative hedonists, following John Stuart Mill, object to this version on the grounds that it threatens to turn axiological hedonism into a \"philosophy of swine\".", "Instead, they argue that the quality is another factor relevant to the value of a pleasure-experience, for example, that the ''lower pleasures'' of the body are less valuable than the ''higher pleasures'' of the mind.One appeal of axiological hedonism is that it provides a simple and unified account of what matters.", "It also reflects the introspective insight that pleasure feels valuable as something worth seeking.", "It has been influential throughout the history of western philosophy but has received a lot of criticism in contemporary philosophy.", "Most objections can roughly be divided into 2 types: (1) objections to the claim that pleasure is a sufficient condition of intrinsic value or that all pleasure is intrinsically valuable; (2) objections to the claim that pleasure is a necessary condition of intrinsic value or that there are no intrinsically valuable things other than pleasure.", "Opponents in the first category usually try to point to cases of pleasure that seem to either lack value or have negative value, like sadistic pleasure or pleasure due to a false belief.", "Qualitative hedonists can try to account for these cases by devaluing pleasures associated with the problematic qualities.", "Other ways to respond to this argument include rejecting the claim that these pleasures really have no or negative intrinsic value or rejecting that these cases involve pleasure at all.Various thought experiments have been proposed for the second category, i.e.", "that there are intrinsically valuable things other than pleasure.", "The most well-known one in recent philosophy is Robert Nozick's experience machine.", "Nozick asks whether people would agree to be permanently transported into a simulated reality more pleasurable than actual life.", "He thinks that it is rational to decline this offer since other things besides pleasure matter.", "This has to do with the fact that it matters to be in touch with reality and to actually \"make a difference in the world\" instead of just appearing to do so since life would be meaningless otherwise.", "Axiological hedonists have responded to this thought experiment by pointing out that human intuitions about what people should do are mistaken, for example, that there is a cognitive bias to prefer the status quo and that if people were to find out that people had spent human life already within the experience machine, people would be likely to choose to stay within the machine.", "Another objection within this category is that many things besides pleasure seem valuable to us, like virtue, beauty, knowledge or justice.", "For example, G. E. Moore suggests in a famous thought experiment that a world consisting only of a beautiful landscape is better than an ugly and disgusting world even if there is no conscious being to observe and enjoy or suffer either world.", "One way for the axiological hedonist to respond is to explain the value of these things in terms of instrumental values.", "So, for example, virtue is good because it tends to increase the overall pleasure of the virtuous person or of the people around them.", "This can be paired with holding that there is a psychological bias to mistake stable instrumental values for intrinsic values, thus explaining the opponent's intuition.", "While this strategy may work for some cases, it is controversial whether it can be applied to all counterexamples." ], [ "Aesthetic hedonism", "Aesthetic hedonism is the influential view in the field of aesthetics that beauty or aesthetic value can be defined in terms of pleasure, e.g.", "that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause pleasure or that the experience of beauty is always accompanied by pleasure.", "A prominent articulation of this position comes from Thomas Aquinas, who treats beauty as \"that which pleases in the very apprehension of it\".", "Immanuel Kant explains this pleasure through a harmonious interplay between the faculties of understanding and imagination.", "A further question for aesthetic hedonists is how to explain the relation between beauty and pleasure.", "This problem is akin to the Euthyphro dilemma, i.e.", "the issue whether something is beautiful because it is enjoyed or whether it is enjoyed because it is beautiful.", "Identity theorists solve this problem by denying that there is a difference between beauty and pleasure: they identify beauty, or the appearance of it, with the experience of aesthetic pleasure.Aesthetic hedonists usually restrict and specify the notion of pleasure in various ways in order to avoid obvious counterexamples.", "One important distinction in this context is the difference between ''pure'' and ''mixed pleasure''.", "Pure pleasure excludes any form of pain or unpleasant feeling while the experience of mixed pleasure can include unpleasant elements.", "But beauty can involve mixed pleasure, for example, in the case of a beautifully tragic story, which is why mixed pleasure is usually allowed in aesthetic hedonist conceptions of beauty.Another problem faced by aesthetic hedonist theories is that people are known to have taken pleasure from many things that are not beautiful.", "One way to address this issue is to associate beauty with a special type of pleasure: ''aesthetic'' or ''disinterested pleasure''.", "A pleasure is disinterested if it is indifferent to the existence of the beautiful object or if it did not arise due to an antecedent desire through means-end reasoning.", "For example, the joy of looking at a beautiful landscape would still be valuable if it turned out that this experience was an illusion, which would not be true if this joy was due to seeing the landscape as a valuable real estate opportunity.", "Opponents of hedonism usually concede that many experiences of beauty are pleasurable but deny that this is true for all cases.", "For example, a cold jaded critic may still be a good judge of beauty due to his years of experience but lack the joy that initially accompanied his work.", "One way to avoid this objection is to allow responses to beautiful things to lack pleasure while insisting that all beautiful things merit pleasure, that aesthetic pleasure is the only appropriate response to them." ], [ "History", "===Etymology===The term ''hedonism'' derives from the Greek ''hēdonismos'' (; from ), which is a cognate from Proto-Indo-European ''swéh₂dus'' through Ancient Greek ''hēdús'' () or ''hêdos'' () + suffix ''-ismos'' (-ισμός, 'ism').Opposite to hedonism, there is hedonophobia, which is a strong aversion to experiencing pleasure.", "According to medical author William C. Shiel Jr., ''hedonophobia'' is \"an abnormal, excessive, and persistent fear of pleasure.\"", "The condition of being unable to experience pleasure is ''anhedonia''.=== Early philosophy =======Sumerian civilization====In the original Old Babylonian version of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh,'' Siduri gave the following advice: \"Fill your belly.", "Day and night make merry.", "Let days be full of joy.", "Dance and make music day and night....", "These things alone are the concern of men.\"", "This may represent the first recorded advocacy of a hedonistic philosophy.===Ancient Greek philosophy======= Cyrenaic school ====The Cyrenaics were a hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BC by Socrates' student, Aristippus of Cyrene, although many of the principles of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of the same name, Aristippus the Younger.", "The school was so called after Cyrene, the birthplace of Aristippus and where he began teaching.", "It was one of the earliest Socratic schools.", "The school died out within a century.The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which meant not just the absence of pain, but positively enjoyable momentary sensations.", "Of these, physical ones are stronger than those of anticipation or memory.", "They did, however, recognize the value of social obligation, and that pleasure could be gained from altruism.The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge, reducing logic to a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth.", "They thought that people can know with certainty only immediate sense-experiences (for instance, that one is having a sweet sensation), but can know nothing about the nature of the objects that cause these sensations (for instance, that honey is sweet).", "They also denied that people can have knowledge of what the experiences of other people are like.", "All knowledge is immediate sensation.", "These sensations are motions that are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or pleasant, according as they are violent, tranquil or gentle.", "Further, they are entirely individual and can in no way be described as constituting absolute objective knowledge.", "Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct.", "Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people: pleasure.", "Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous; past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind.", "Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinction and said that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more intense, were preferable.", "Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only good for humans.", "However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than their equivalent of pain.", "The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than be enslaved to them, otherwise pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the different pleasures of life.", "Regard should be paid to law and custom, because even though these things have no intrinsic value on their own, violating them will lead to unpleasant penalties being imposed by others.", "Likewise, friendship and justice are useful because of the pleasure they provide.", "Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social obligation and altruistic behaviour.==== Epicureanism ====Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (), founded around 307 BC.", "Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus and Leucippus.", "His materialism led him to a general stance against superstition or the idea of divine intervention.", "Following Aristippus—about whom very little is known—Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable \"pleasure\" in the form of a state of tranquility and freedom from fear (''ataraxia'') and absence of bodily pain (''aponia'') through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of desires.", "The combination of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form.", "Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its advocacy of a simple life make it different from \"hedonism\" as it is commonly understood.In the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear) was obtained by knowledge, friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life.", "He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires, such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism.", "He argued that when eating, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead to dissatisfaction later, such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies in the future.", "Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner.", "Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethics that has survived but had a unique version of the Golden Rule:It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly (agreeing \"neither to harm nor be harmed\"), and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life.Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the main opponent of Stoicism.", "Epicurus and his followers shunned politics.", "After the death of Epicurus, his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes and Ercolano).", "The poet Lucretius is its most known Roman proponent.", "By the end of the Roman Empire, having undergone Christian attack and repression, Epicureanism had all but died out.Some writings by Epicurus have survived.", "Some scholars consider the epic poem ''On the Nature of Things'' by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism.", "Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts.", "At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean Philodemus.===Indian philosophy===The concept of hedonism is also found in ''nāstika'' ('atheist', as in heterodox) schools of Hinduism, for instance the Charvaka school.", "However, Hedonism is criticized by ''āstika'' ('theist', as in orthodox) schools of thought on the basis that it is inherently egoistic and therefore detrimental to spiritual liberation.=== Christianity ===Ethical hedonism as part of Christian theology has also been a concept in some evangelical circles, particularly in those of the Reformed tradition.", "The term Christian Hedonism was first coined by Reformed-Baptist theologian John Piper in his 1986 book ''Desiring God'':My shortest summary of it is: God is most glorified in us when we are most satisfied in Him.", "Or: The chief end of man is to glorify God by enjoying Him forever.", "Does Christian Hedonism make a god out of pleasure?", "No.", "It says that we all make a god out of what we take most pleasure in.Piper states his term may describe the theology of Jonathan Edwards, who in his 1746 ''Treatise Concerning Religious Affections'' referred to \"a future enjoyment of Him God in heaven.\"", "Already in the 17th century, the atomist Pierre Gassendi had adapted Epicureanism to the Christian doctrine.", "The medieval Church used allegations of hedonism against some dissenters such as the twelfth-century Waldensians.===Islam===German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist Max Weber argued that hedonism plays a role in Islamic ethics and teachings, in which worldly pleasures such as military interests and the \"acquisition of booty\" are emphasised.", "According to Weber, Islam is the polar opposite of ascetic puritanism.===Utilitarianism===Utilitarianism addresses problems with moral motivation neglected by Kantianism by giving a central role to happiness.", "It is an ethical theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes the overall good of the society.", "It is thus one form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its resulting outcome.", "The most influential contributors to this theory are considered to be the 18th and 19th-century British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.", "Conjoining hedonism—as a view as to what is good for people—to utilitarianism has the result that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest total amount of happiness (measured via ''hedonic calculus'').", "Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill's versions of hedonism differ.There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism.==== Bentham ====One school, grouped around Jeremy Bentham, defends a quantitative approach.", "Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood.", "Essentially, he believed the value of pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration—so it was not just the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted that must be taken into account.==== Mill ====Other proponents, like John Stuart Mill, argue a qualitative approach.", "Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure—higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasure.", "Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often refers to ''pigs'') have an easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in their lower pleasures.", "The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen the time for simple pleasure.", "It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such \"simple pleasures\" in the same manner.=== Libertinage ===An extreme form of hedonism that views moral and sexual restraint as either unnecessary or harmful.", "Famous proponents are Marquis de Sade and John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester." ], [ "Contemporary approaches", "Contemporary proponents of hedonism include Swedish philosopher Torbjörn Tännsjö, Fred Feldman, and Spanish ethic philosopher Esperanza Guisán (published a \"Hedonist manifesto\" in 1990).", "Dan Haybron has distinguished between psychological, ethical, welfare and axiological hedonism.=== Michel Onfray ===Michel Onfray, contemporary hedonist philosopherA dedicated contemporary hedonist philosopher and writer on the history of hedonistic thought is the French Michel Onfray, who has written two books directly on the subject, ''L'invention du plaisir: fragments cyréaniques'' and ''La puissance d'exister : Manifeste hédoniste''.", "He defines hedonism \"as an introspective attitude to life based on taking pleasure yourself and pleasuring others, without harming yourself or anyone else.\"", "Onfray's philosophical project is to define an ethical hedonism, a joyous utilitarianism, and a generalized aesthetic of sensual materialism that explores how to use the brain's and the body's capacities to their fullest extent—while restoring philosophy to a useful role in art, politics, and everyday life and decisions.", "\"Onfray's works \"have explored the philosophical resonances and components of (and challenges to) science, painting, gastronomy, sex and sensuality, bioethics, wine, and writing.", "His most ambitious project is his projected six-volume Counter-history of Philosophy,\" of which three have been published.", "For Onfray:In opposition to the ascetic ideal advocated by the dominant school of thought, hedonism suggests identifying the highest good with your own pleasure and that of others; the one must never be indulged at the expense of sacrificing the other.", "Obtaining this balance – my pleasure at the same time as the pleasure of others – presumes that we approach the subject from different angles – political, ethical, aesthetic, erotic, bioethical, pedagogical, historiographical....For this, he has \"written books on each of these facets of the same world view.\"", "His philosophy aims for \"micro-revolutions\", or \"revolutions of the individual and small groups of like-minded people who live by his hedonistic, libertarian values.", "\"=== Abolitionism (David Pearce) ===David Pearce, transhumanist philosopherThe Abolitionist Society is a transhumanist group calling for the abolition of suffering in all sentient life through the use of advanced biotechnology.", "Their core philosophy is negative utilitarianism.David Pearce is a theorist of this perspective who believes and promotes the idea that there exists a strong ethical imperative for humans to work towards the abolition of suffering in all sentient life.", "His book-length internet manifesto ''The Hedonistic Imperative'' outlines how technologies such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, pharmacology, and neurosurgery could potentially converge to eliminate all forms of unpleasant experience among human and non-human animals, replacing suffering with gradients of well-being, a project he refers to as \"paradise engineering.\"", "A transhumanist and a vegan, Pearce believes that humans, or posthuman descendants, have a responsibility not only to avoid cruelty to animals within human society but also to alleviate the suffering of animals in the wild.In a talk given at the Future of Humanity Institute and at the Charity International, 'Happiness Conference', Pearce said:Sadly, what ''won't'' abolish suffering, or at least not on its own, is socio-economic reform, or exponential economic growth, or technological progress in the usual sense, or any of the traditional panaceas for solving the world's ills.", "Improving the external environment is admirable and important; but such improvement can't recalibrate our hedonic treadmill above a genetically constrained ceiling.", "Twin studies confirm there is a partially heritable set-point of well-being – or ill-being – around which we all tend to fluctuate over the course of a lifetime.", "This set-point varies between individuals.", "It's possible to ''lower'' an individual's hedonic set-point by inflicting prolonged uncontrolled stress; but even this re-set is not as easy as it sounds: suicide-rates typically go down in wartime; and six months after a quadriplegia-inducing accident, studies suggest that we are typically neither more nor less unhappy than we were before the catastrophic event.", "Unfortunately, attempts to build an ideal society can't overcome this biological ceiling, whether utopias of the left or right, free-market or socialist, religious or secular, futuristic high-tech or simply cultivating one's garden.", "Even if ''everything'' that traditional futurists have asked for is delivered – eternal youth, unlimited material wealth, morphological freedom, superintelligence, immersive VR, molecular nanotechnology, etc – there is no evidence that our subjective quality of life would on average significantly surpass the quality of life of our hunter-gatherer ancestors – or a New Guinea tribesman today – in the absence of reward pathway enrichment.", "This claim is difficult to prove in the absence of sophisticated neuroscanning; but objective indices of psychological distress e.g.", "suicide rates, bear it out.", "''Un''enhanced humans will still be prey to the spectrum of Darwinian emotions, ranging from terrible suffering to petty disappointments and frustrations – sadness, anxiety, jealousy, existential angst.", "Their biology is part of \"what it means to be human\".", "Subjectively unpleasant states of consciousness exist because they were genetically adaptive.", "Each of our core emotions had a distinct signalling role in our evolutionary past: they tended to promote behaviours that enhanced the inclusive fitness of our genes in the ancestral environment.=== Hedodynamics ===Russian physicist and philosopher Victor Argonov argues that hedonism is not only a philosophical but also a verifiable scientific hypothesis.", "In 2014, he suggested \"postulates of pleasure principle,\" the confirmation of which would lead to a new scientific discipline known as hedodynamics.Hedodynamics would be able to forecast the distant future development of human civilization and even the probable structure and psychology of other rational beings within the universe.", "In order to build such a theory, science must discover the neural correlate of pleasure—neurophysiological parameter unambiguously corresponding to the feeling of pleasure (hedonic tone).According to Argonov, posthumans will be able to reprogram their motivations in an arbitrary manner (to get pleasure from any programmed activity).", "And if pleasure principle postulates are true, then general direction of civilization development is obvious: maximization of integral happiness in posthuman life (product of life span and average happiness).", "Posthumans will avoid constant pleasure stimulation, because it is incompatible with rational behavior required to prolong life.", "However, they can become on average much happier than modern humans.Many other aspects of posthuman society could be predicted by hedodynamics if the neural correlate of pleasure were discovered.", "For example, the optimal number of individuals, their optimal body size (whether it matters for happiness or not) and the degree of aggression." ], [ "Criticism", "Critics of hedonism have objected to its exclusive concentration on pleasure as valuable or that the retentive breadth of dopamine is limited.In particular, G. E. Moore offered a thought experiment in criticism of pleasure as the sole bearer of value: he imagined two worlds—one of exceeding beauty and the other a heap of filth.", "Neither of these worlds will be experienced by anyone.", "The question then is if it is better for the beautiful world to exist than the heap of filth.", "In this, Moore implied that states of affairs have value beyond conscious pleasure, which he said spoke against the validity of hedonism.Perhaps the most famous objection to hedonism is Robert Nozick's famous experience machine.", "Nozick asks to hypothetically imagine a machine that will allow humans to experience whatever people want—if a person wants to experience making friends, the machine will give this to its user.", "Nozick claims that by hedonistic logic, people should remain in this machine for the rest of their lives.", "However, he gives three reasons why this is not a preferable scenario: firstly, because people want to ''do'' certain things, as opposed to merely experience them; secondly, people want to be a certain kind of person, as opposed to an 'indeterminate blob' and thirdly, because such a thing would limit their experiences to only what people can imagine.", "Peter Singer, a hedonistic utilitarian, and Katarzyna de Lazari-Radek have both argued against such an objection by saying that it only provides an answer to certain forms of hedonism, and ignores others." ], [ "See also", "* Affectionism* ''Brave New World''* Eudaimonia* Hedonic treadmill* Hedonism Resorts* Libertine* Paradox of hedonism* Pleasure principle (psychology)* Psychological hedonism" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * Socrates and Hedonism: \"Protagoras\" 351b-358d Donald J.ZEYL* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Feldman, Fred.", "2006.", "''Pleasure and the Good Life: Concerning the Nature, Varieties, and Plausibility of Hedonism.''", "Oxford University Press.", "* —— 1997.", "''Utilitarianism, Hedonism, and Desert: Essays in Moral Philosophy''.", "Cambridge University Press* —— 2010.", "''What Is This Thing Called Happiness?''.", "Oxford University Press** Onfray, Michel.", "2002.", "''L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques''.", "Le Livre de Poche.", "* —— 2006.", "''La puissance d'exister : Manifeste hédoniste''.", "Grasset & Fasquelle* Pearce, David. ''", "The Hedonistic Imperative''.", "* Tännsjö, Torbjörn.", "1998.", "''Hedonistic Utilitarianism''.", "Edinburgh University Press* Wilde, Oscar.", "1891.", "''The Picture of Dorian Gray''.", "(Hedonism is prominent throughout the novel, influencing many of the decisions made by the titular protagonist.)" ], [ "External links", "* * Manifesto of the Hedonist International* * Theories of Well-Being, in William MacAskill & Richard Yetter-Chappell (2021), ''Introduction to Utilitarianism''." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Holocene" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Holocene''' () is the current geological epoch.", "It began approximately 11,700 years ago.", "It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat.", "The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene together form the Quaternary period.", "The Holocene has been identified with the current warm period, known as MIS 1.It is considered by some to be an interglacial period within the Pleistocene Epoch, called the Flandrian interglacial.The Holocene corresponds with the rapid proliferation, growth, and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all of its written history, technological revolutions, development of major civilizations, and overall significant transition towards urban living in the present.", "The human impact on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for the future evolution of living species, including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence, or more recently hydrospheric and atmospheric evidence of the human impact.", "In July 2018, the International Union of Geological Sciences split the Holocene Epoch into three distinct ages based on the climate, Greenlandian (11,700 years ago to 8,200 years ago), Northgrippian (8,200 years ago to 4,200 years ago) and Meghalayan (4,200 years ago to the present), as proposed by International Commission on Stratigraphy.", "The oldest age, the Greenlandian was characterized by a warming following the preceding ice age.", "The Northgrippian Age is known for vast cooling due to a disruption in ocean circulations that was caused by the melting of glaciers.", "The most recent age of the Holocene is the present Meghalayan, which began with extreme drought that lasted around 200 years." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''Holocene'' was formed from two Ancient Greek words.", "''Hólos'' () is the Greek word for \"whole\".", "\"Cene\" comes from the Greek word ''kainós'' (), meaning \"new\".", "The concept is that this epoch is \"entirely new\".", "The suffix '-cene' is used for all the seven epochs of the Cenozoic Era." ], [ "Overview", "The International Commission on Stratigraphy has defined the Holocene as starting approximately 11,700 years before 2000 CE (11,650 cal years BP, or 9,700 BCE).", "The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) regards the term 'recent' as an incorrect way of referring to the Holocene, preferring the term 'modern' instead to describe current processes.", "It also observes that the term 'Flandrian' may be used as a synonym for Holocene, although it is becoming outdated.", "The International Commission on Stratigraphy, however, considers the Holocene to be an epoch following the Pleistocene and specifically following the last glacial period.", "Local names for the last glacial period include the Wisconsinan in North America, the Weichselian in Europe, the Devensian in Britain, the Llanquihue in Chile and the Otiran in New Zealand.The Holocene can be subdivided into five time intervals, or chronozones, based on climatic fluctuations:* Preboreal (10 ka–9 ka BP),* Boreal (9 ka–8 ka BP),* Atlantic (8 ka–5 ka BP),* Subboreal (5 ka–2.5 ka BP) and* Subatlantic (2.5 ka BP–present).", ": ''Note: \"ka BP\" means \"kilo-annum Before Present\", i.e.", "1,000 years before 1950 (non-calibrated C14 dates)''Geologists working in different regions are studying sea levels, peat bogs, and ice-core samples, using a variety of methods, with a view toward further verifying and refining the Blytt–Sernander sequence.", "This is a classification of climatic periods initially defined by plant remains in peat mosses.", "Though the method was once thought to be of little interest, based on 14C dating of peats that was inconsistent with the claimed chronozones, investigators have found a general correspondence across Eurasia and North America.", "The scheme was defined for Northern Europe, but the climate changes were claimed to occur more widely.", "The periods of the scheme include a few of the final pre-Holocene oscillations of the last glacial period and then classify climates of more recent prehistory.Paleontologists have not defined any faunal stages for the Holocene.", "If subdivision is necessary, periods of human technological development, such as the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age, are usually used.", "However, the time periods referenced by these terms vary with the emergence of those technologies in different parts of the world.According to some scholars, a third epoch of the Quaternary, the Anthropocene, has now begun.", "This term is used to denote the present time-interval in which many geologically significant conditions and processes have been profoundly altered by human activities.The 'Anthropocene' (a term coined by Paul J. Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer in 2000) is not a formally defined geological unit.", "The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy of the International Commission on Stratigraphy has a working group to determine whether it should be.In May 2019, members of the working group voted in favour of recognizing the Anthropocene as formal chrono-stratigraphic unit, with stratigraphic signals around the mid-twentieth century CE as its base.", "The exact criteria have still to be determined, after which the recommendation also has to be approved by the working group's parent bodies (ultimately the International Union of Geological Sciences)." ], [ "Geology", "The Holocene is a geologic epoch that follows directly after the Pleistocene'''.'''", "Continental motions due to plate tectonics are less than a kilometre over a span of only 10,000 years.", "However, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about in the early part of the Holocene and another 30 m in the later part of the Holocene.", "In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as due to post-glacial rebound over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today.The sea-level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea.", "For example, marine fossils from the Holocene epoch have been found in locations such as Vermont and Michigan.", "Other than higher-latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain, and cave deposits.", "Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely tectonic uplift of non-glacial origin.Post-glacial rebound in the Scandinavia region resulted in a shrinking Baltic Sea.", "The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe.", "An equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to its present boundaries.==Climate==Vegetation and water bodies in northern and central Africa in the Eemian (bottom) and Holocene (top)The climate throughout the Holocene has shown significant variability despite ice core records from Greenland suggesting a more stable climate following the preceding ice age.", "Marine chemical fluxes during the Holocene were lower than during the Younger Dryas, but were still considerable enough to imply notable changes in the climate.The temporal and spatial extent of climate change during the Holocene is an area of considerable uncertainty, with radiative forcing recently proposed to be the origin of cycles identified in the North Atlantic region.", "Climate cyclicity through the Holocene (Bond events) has been observed in or near marine settings and is strongly controlled by glacial input to the North Atlantic.", "Periodicities of ≈2500, ≈1500, and ≈1000 years are generally observed in the North Atlantic.", "At the same time spectral analyses of the continental record, which is remote from oceanic influence, reveal persistent periodicities of 1,000 and 500 years that may correspond to solar activity variations during the Holocene Epoch.", "A 1,500-year cycle corresponding to the North Atlantic oceanic circulation may have had widespread global distribution in the Late Holocene.", "From 8,500 BP to 6,700 BP, North Atlantic climate oscillations were highly irregular and erratic because of perturbations from substantial ice discharge into the ocean from the collapsing Laurentide Ice Sheet.", "The Greenland ice core records indicate that climate changes became more regional and had a larger effect on the mid-to-low latitudes and mid-to-high latitudes after ~5600 B.P.Human activity through land use changes was an important influence on Holocene climatic changes, and is believed to be why the Holocene is an atypical interglacial that has not experienced significant cooling over its course.", "From the start of the Industrial Revolution onwards, large-scale anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions caused the Earth to warm.", "Likewise, climatic changes have induced substantial changes in human civilisation over the course of the Holocene.During the transition from the last glacial to the Holocene, the Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal in the Southern Hemisphere began before the Younger Dryas, and the maximum warmth flowed south to north from 11,000 to 7,000 years ago.", "It appears that this was influenced by the residual glacial ice remaining in the Northern Hemisphere until the later date.", "The first major phase of Holocene climate was the Preboreal.", "At the start of the Preboreal occurred the Preboreal Oscillation (PBO).", "The Holocene Climatic Optimum (HCO) was a period of warming throughout the globe but was not globally synchronous and uniform.", "Following the HCO, the global climate entered a broad trend of very gradual cooling known as Neoglaciation, which lasted from the end of the HCO to before the Industrial Revolution.", "From the 10th-14th century, the climate was similar to that of modern times during a period known as the Mediaeval Warm Period (MWP), also known as the Mediaeval Climatic Optimum (MCO).", "It was found that the warming that is taking place in current years is both more frequent and more spatially homogeneous than what was experienced during the MWP.", "A warming of +1 degree Celsius occurs 5–40 times more frequently in modern years than during the MWP.", "The major forcing during the MWP was due to greater solar activity, which led to heterogeneity compared to the greenhouse gas forcing of modern years that leads to more homogeneous warming.", "This was followed by the Little Ice Age (LIA) from the 13th or 14th century to the mid-19th century.", "The LIA was the coldest interval of time of the past two millennia.", "Following the Industrial Revolution, warm decadal intervals became more common relative to before as a consequence of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, resulting in progressive global warming.", "In the late 20th century, anthropogenic forcing superseded solar activity as the dominant driver of climate change, though solar activity has continued to play a role.=== Europe ===In Northern Germany, the Middle Holocene saw a drastic increase in the amount of raised bogs, most likely related to sea level rise.", "Although human activity affected geomorphology and landscape evolution in Northern Germany throughout the Holocene, it only became a dominant influence in the last four centuries.", "In the French Alps, geochemistry and lithium isotope signatures in lake sediments have suggested gradual soil formation from the Last Glacial Period to the Holocene climatic optimum, and this soil development was altered by the settlement of human societies.", "Early anthropogenic activities such as deforestation and agriculture reinforced soil erosion, which peaked in the Middle Ages at an unprecedented level, marking human forcing as the most powerful factor affecting surface processes.=== Africa ===North Africa, dominated by the Sahara Desert in the present, was instead a savanna dotted with large lakes during the Early and Middle Holocene, regionally known as the African Humid Period (AHP).", "The northward migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) produced increased monsoon rainfall over North Africa.", "The lush vegetation of the Sahara brought an increase in pastoralism.", "The AHP ended around 5,500 BP, after which the Sahara began to dry and become the desert it is today.A stronger East African Monsoon during the Middle Holocene increased precipitation in East Africa and raised lake levels.", "Around 800 AD, or 1,150 BP, a marine transgression occurred in southeastern Africa; in the Lake Lungué basin, this sea level highstand occurred from 740 to 910 AD, or from 1,210 to 1,040 BP, as evidenced by the lake's connection to the Indian Ocean at this time.", "This transgression was followed by a period of transition that lasted until 590 BP, when the region experienced significant aridification and began to be extensively used by humans for livestock herding.In the Kalahari Desert, Holocene climate was overall very stable and environmental change was of low amplitude.", "Relatively cool conditions have prevailed since 4,000 BP.=== Middle East ===During the Late Holocene, the coastline of the Levant receded westward, prompting a shift in human settlement patterns following this marine regression.=== Central Asia ===In Xinjiang, long-term Holocene warming increased meltwater supply during summers, creating large lakes and oases at low altitudes and inducing enhanced moisture recycling.", "In the Tien Shan, sedimentological evidence from Swan Lake suggests the period between 8,500 and 6,900 BP was relatively warm, with steppe meadow vegetation being predominant.", "An increase in Cyperaceae from 6,900 to 2,600 BP indicates cooling and humidification of the Tian Shan climate that was interrupted by a warm period between 5,500 and 4,500 BP.", "After 2,600 BP, an alpine steppe climate prevailed across the region.", "Sand dune evolution in the Bayanbulak Basin shows that the region was very dry from the Holocene's beginning until around 6,500 BP, when a wet interval began.", "In the Tibetan Plateau, the moisture optimum spanned from around 7,500 to 5,500 BP.=== South Asia ===After 11,800 BP, and especially between 10,800 and 9,200 BP, Ladakh experienced tremendous moisture increase most likely related to the strengthening of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM).", "From 9,200 to 6,900 BP, relative aridity persisted in Ladakh.", "A second major humid phase occurred in Ladakh from 6,900 to 4,800 BP, after which the region was again arid.From 900 to 1,200 AD, during the MWP, the ISM was again strong as evidenced by low δ18O values from the Ganga Plain.The sediments of Lonar Lake in Maharashtra record dry conditions around 11,400 BP that transitioned into a much wetter climate from 11,400 to 11,100 BP due to intensification of the ISM.", "Over the Early Holocene, the region was very wet, but during the Middle Holocene from 6,200 to 3,900 BP, aridification occurred, with the subsequent Late Holocene being relatively arid as a whole.Coastal southwestern India experienced a stronger ISM from 9,690 to 7,560 BP, during the HCO.", "From 3,510 to 2,550 BP, during the Late Holocene, the ISM became weaker, although this weakening was interrupted by an interval of unusually high ISM strength from 3,400 to 3,200 BP.=== East Asia ===Northern China experienced an abrupt aridification event approximately 4,000 BP.", "From around 3,500 to 3,000 BP, northeastern China underwent a prolonged cooling, manifesting itself with the disruption of Bronze Age civilisations in the region.", "Eastern and southern China, the monsoonal regions of China, were wetter than present in the Early and Middle Holocene.", "Lake Huguangyan's TOC, δ13Cwax, δ13Corg, δ15N values suggest the period of peak moisture lasted from 9,200 to 1,800 BP and was attributable to a strong East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM).", "Late Holocene cooling events in the region were dominantly influenced by solar forcing, with many individual cold snaps linked to solar minima such as the Oort, Wolf, Spörer, and Maunder Minima.", "Monsoonal regions of China became more arid in the Late Holocene.=== Southeast Asia ===Before 7,500 BP, the Gulf of Thailand was exposed above sea level and was very arid.", "A marine transgression occurred from 7,500 to 6,200 BP amidst global warming.=== North America ===During the Middle Holocene, western North America was drier than present, with wetter winters and drier summers.", "After the end of the thermal maximum of the HCO around 4,500 BP, the East Greenland Current underwent strengthening.", "A massive megadrought occurred from 2,800 to 1,850 BP in the Great Basin.Eastern North America underwent abrupt warming and humidification around 10,500 BP and then declined from 9,300 to 9,100 BP.", "The region has undergone a long term wettening since 5,500 BP occasionally interrupted by intervals of high aridity.", "A major cool event lasting from 5,500 to 4,700 BP was coeval with a major humidification before being terminated by a major drought and warming at the end of that interval.=== South America ===During the Early Holocene, relative sea level rose in the Bahia region, causing a landward expansion of mangroves.", "During the Late Holocene, the mangroves declined as sea level dropped and freshwater supply increased.", "In the Santa Catarina region, the maximum sea level highstand was around 2.1 metres above present and occurred about 5,800 to 5,000 BP.", "Sea levels at Rocas Atoll were likewise higher than present for much of the Late Holocene.=== Australia ===The Northwest Australian Summer Monsoon was in a strong phase from 8,500 to 6,400 BP, from 5,000 to 4,000 BP (possibly until 3,000 BP), and from 1,300 to 900 BP, with weak phases in between and the current weak phase beginning around 900 BP after the end of the last strong phase.=== New Zealand ===Ice core measurements imply that the sea surface temperature (SST) gradient east of New Zealand, across the subtropical front (STF), was around 2 degrees Celsius during the HCO.", "This temperature gradient is significantly less than modern times, which is around 6 degrees Celsius.", "A study utilizing five SST proxies from 37°S to 60°S latitude confirmed that the strong temperature gradient was confined to the area immediately south of the STF, and is correlated with reduced westerly winds near New Zealand.", "Since 7,100 BP, New Zealand experienced 53 cyclones similar in magnitude to Cyclone Bola.=== Pacific ===Evidence from the Galápagos Islands shows that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was significantly weaker during the Middle Holocene, but that the strength of ENSO became moderate to high over the Late Holocene." ], [ "Ecological developments", "Animal and plant life have not evolved much during the relatively short Holocene, but there have been major shifts in the richness and abundance of plants and animals.", "A number of large animals including mammoths and mastodons, saber-toothed cats like ''Smilodon'' and ''Homotherium'', and giant sloths went extinct in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene.", "These extinctions can be mostly attributed to people.", "In America, it coincided with the arrival of the Clovis people; this culture was known for \"Clovis points\" which were fashioned on spears for hunting animals.", "Shrubs, herbs, and mosses had also changed in relative abundance from the Pleistocene to Holocene, identified by permafrost core samples.Throughout the world, ecosystems in cooler climates that were previously regional have been isolated in higher altitude ecological \"islands\".The ''8.2-ka event'', an abrupt cold spell recorded as a negative excursion in the record lasting 400 years, is the most prominent climatic event occurring in the Holocene Epoch, and may have marked a resurgence of ice cover.", "It has been suggested that this event was caused by the final drainage of Lake Agassiz, which had been confined by the glaciers, disrupting the thermohaline circulation of the Atlantic.", "This disruption was the result of an ice dam over Hudson Bay collapsing sending cold lake Agassiz water into the North Atlantic ocean.", "Furthermore, studies show that the melting of Lake Agassiz led to sea-level rise which flooded the North American coastal landscape.", "The basal peat plant was then used to determine the resulting local sea-level rise of 0.20-0.56m in the Mississippi Delta.", "Subsequent research, however, suggested that the discharge was probably superimposed upon a longer episode of cooler climate lasting up to 600 years and observed that the extent of the area affected was unclear." ], [ "Human developments", "Overview map of the world at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, color-coded by cultural stage:The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in most of Europe.", "In regions such as the Middle East and Anatolia, the term Epipaleolithic is preferred in place of Mesolithic, as they refer to approximately the same time period.", "Cultures in this period include Hamburgian, Federmesser, and the Natufian culture, during which the oldest inhabited places still existing on Earth were first settled, such as Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) in the Middle East.", "There is also evolving archeological evidence of proto-religion at locations such as Göbekli Tepe, as long ago as the 9th millennium BC.The preceding period of the Late Pleistocene had already brought advancements such as the bow and arrow, creating more efficient forms of hunting and replacing spear throwers.", "In the Holocene, however, the domestication of plants and animals allowed humans to develop villages and towns in centralized locations.", "Archaeological data shows that between 10,000 and 7,000 BP rapid domestication of plants and animals took place in tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, Africa, and Central America.", "The development of farming allowed humans to transition away from hunter-gatherer nomadic cultures, which did not establish permanent settlements, to a more sustainable sedentary lifestyle.", "This form of lifestyle change allowed humans to develop towns and villages in centralized locations, which gave rise to the world known today.", "It is believed that the domestication of plants and animals began in the early part of the Holocene in the tropical areas of the planet.", "Because these areas had warm, moist temperatures, the climate was perfect for effective farming.", "Culture development and human population change, specifically in South America, has also been linked to spikes in hydroclimate resulting in climate variability in the mid-Holocene (8.2 - 4.2 k cal BP).", "Climate change on seasonality and available moisture also allowed for favorable agricultural conditions which promoted human development for Maya and Tiwanaku regions.", "In the Korean Peninsula, climatic changes fostered a population boom during the Middle Chulmun period from 5,500 to 5,000 BP, but contributed to a subsequent bust during the Late and Final Chulmun periods, from 5,000 to 4,000 BP and from 4,000 to 3,500 BP respectively." ], [ "Extinction event", "The Holocene extinction, otherwise referred to as the ''sixth mass extinction'' or ''Anthropocene extinction'', is an ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch (with the more recent time sometimes called Anthropocene) as a result of human activity.", "The included extinctions span numerous families of fungi, plants, and animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates.", "With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, or no one has yet discovered their extinction.", "The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background extinction rates." ], [ "Gallery" ], [ "See also", "* 4.2-kiloyear event* 8.2-kiloyear event* 10th millennium BC* Blytt–Sernander system* Holocene calendar* African humid period* Older Peron* Outburst flood* Piora Oscillation* Quaternary extinction event* Ostrich eggshell beads" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Holocene epoch explained by the BBC* ghK Classification* History of Earth's Climate 7 – Cenozoic IV – Holocene" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harbor" ], [ "Introduction", "New York Harbor and the Hudson River in the foreground; the East River in the background.Capri harbor, Italy seen from AnacapriKoyilandy Harbour, Kerala, IndiaA '''harbor''' (American English), '''harbour''' (British English; see spelling differences), or '''haven''' is a sheltered body of water where ships, boats, and barges can be docked.", "The term ''harbor'' is often used interchangeably with ''port'', which is a man-made facility built for loading and unloading vessels and dropping off and picking up passengers.", "Harbors usually include one or more ports.", "Alexandria Port in Egypt is an example of a harbor with two ports.Harbors may be natural or artificial.", "An artificial harbor can have deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jetties or they can be constructed by dredging, which requires maintenance by further periodic dredging.", "An example of an artificial harbor is Long Beach Harbor, California, United States, which was an array of salt marshes and tidal flats too shallow for modern merchant ships before it was first dredged in the early 20th century.", "In contrast, a natural harbor is surrounded on several sides by land.", "Examples of natural harbors include Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia, Halifax Harbour in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada and Trincomalee Harbour in Sri Lanka." ], [ "Artificial harbors {{anchor|Artificial harbor|Artificial harbour|Artificial harbours}}", "Artificial harbors are frequently built for use as ports.", "The oldest artificial harbor known is the Ancient Egyptian site at Wadi al-Jarf, on the Red Sea coast, which is at least 4500 years old (ca.", "2600-2550 BCE, reign of King Khufu).", "The largest artificially created harbor is Jebel Ali in Dubai.", "Other large and busy artificial harbors include:* Port of Houston, Texas, United States* Port of Long Beach, California, United States* Port of Los Angeles in San Pedro, California, United States* Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands* Port of Savannah, Georgia, United StatesThe Ancient Carthaginians constructed fortified, artificial harbors called cothons." ], [ "Natural harbors {{anchor|Natural harbor|Natural harbour|Natural harbours}}", "Tanjung Perak is a famous example of a natural harbor in Indonesia.", "The harbor location in Madura Strait.A natural harbor is a landform where a section of a body of water is protected and deep enough to allow anchorage.", "Many such harbors are rias.", "Natural harbors have long been of great strategic naval and economic importance, and many great cities of the world are located on them.", "Having a protected harbor reduces or eliminates the need for breakwaters as it will result in calmer waves inside the harbor.", "Some examples are:* Bali Strait, Indonesia* Berehaven Harbour, Ireland * Balikpapan Bay in East Kalimantan, Indonesia* Mumbai in Maharashtra, India* Boston Harbor in Massachusetts, United States* Burrard Inlet in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada* Chittagong in Chittagong Division, Bangladesh* Cork Harbour, Ireland* Grand Harbour, Malta* Guantánamo Bay, Cuba* Gulf of Paria, Trinidad and Tobago* Haifa Bay, in Haifa, Israel* Halifax Harbour in Nova Scotia, Canada* Hamilton Harbour in Ontario, Canada* Killybegs in County Donegal, Ireland* Kingston Harbour, Jamaica* Marsamxett Harbour, Malta* Milford Haven in Wales, United Kingdom* New York Harbor in the United States* Pago Pago Harbor in American Samoa* Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, United States* Poole Harbour in England, United Kingdom* Port Hercules, Monaco* Sydney Harbour in New South Wales, Australia, technically a ria* Port Stephens in Australia* Tanjung Perak in Surabaya, Indonesia* Port of Tobruk in Tobruk, Libya* Presque Isle Bay in Pennsylvania, United States* Prince William Sound in Alaska, United States* Puget Sound in Washington state, United States* Rías Altas and Rías Baixas in Galicia, Spain* Roadstead of Brest in Brittany, France* San Francisco Bay in California, United States* Scapa Flow in Scotland, United Kingdom* Sept-Îles in Côte-Nord, Quebec, Canada* Shelburne in Nova Scotia, Canada* Subic Bay in Zambales, Philippines* Tampa Bay in Florida, United States* Trincomalee Harbour, Sri Lanka* Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu, India* Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong* Visakhapatnam Harbour, India* Vizhinjam in Trivandrum, India* Waitemata Harbour in Auckland, New Zealand* Manukau Harbour in Auckland, New Zealand* Port Foster in Deception Island, Antarctica" ], [ "Ice-free harbors {{anchor|Ice-free harbor|Ice-free harbour|Ice-free harbours}}", "For harbors near the North and South poles, being ice-free is an important advantage, especially when it is year-round.", "Examples of these are:*Hammerfest, Norway*Liinakhamari, Russia*Murmansk, Russia*Nakhodka in Nakhodka Bay, Russia *Pechenga, Russia*Prince Rupert, Canada*Valdez, United States*Vardø, Norway*Vostochny Port, RussiaThe world's southernmost harbor, located at Antarctica's Winter Quarters Bay (77° 50′ South), is sometimes ice-free, depending on the summertime pack ice conditions." ], [ "Important harbors {{anchor|Important harbor|Important harbour|Important harbours}}", "The tiny harbor at the village of Clovelly, Devon, EnglandOld Harbor in Lüneburg, GermanyThe harbor of Piraeus in GreecePort Jackson, SydneyThe harbor of Gorey, Jersey falls dry at low tide.Punta del Este's harbor – nicknamed the Monte Carlo of South AmericaThe harbor in Aberystwyth, painted Although the world's busiest port is a contested title, in 2017 the world's busiest harbor by cargo tonnage was the Port of Ningbo-Zhoushan.The following are large natural harbors:Port of Szczecin, PolandValparaíso, Chile" ], [ "See also", "*Boyd's Automatic tide signalling apparatus*Dock*Ice pier*Inland harbor*List of marinas*List of seaports*Mandracchio*Marina*Mulberry harbour*Quay*Roadstead*Seaport*Shipyard*Wharf" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* * * Harbor Maintenance Finance and Funding Congressional Research Service*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "High anxiety" ], [ "Introduction", "'''High anxiety''' is a non-technical term referring to a state of extreme fear or apprehension.", "It may also mean:* ''High Anxiety'', a 1977 film by Mel Brooks* ''High Anxiety'' (Therapy?", "album), 2003* ''High Anxiety'' (Thom Sonny Green album), 2016* ''High Anxiety'', a 2014 album by Pet Lamb (recorded in 1995)* \"High Anxiety\", a song on the ''A Match and Some Gasoline'' album by The Suicide Machines* \"High Anxiety\", a song from Sugar Ray's album ''Floored''* \"High Anxiety\" (Part 2), an episode of ''King of the Hill''* \"High Anxiety\", an episode of ''Kate & Allie''* \"High Anxiety\", ''The Golden Girls'' episode* \"High Anxiety\", a ''Dawson's Creek'' episode* \"High Anxiety\", an episode of ''7th Heaven''* \"High Anxiety\", an episode of ''A Different World''* \"High Anxiety\", an episode of ''Full House''* \"Episode 3: High Anxiety\", an episode from ''Rayman: The Animated Series''* \"High Anxiety\", an episode from ''Rescue Heroes'' (originally named ''Terror In The Tower'', but retitled after the September 11 attack, then got banned from Teletoon shortly after)" ], [ "See also", "* Anxiety (mood)* Anxiety disorder* Panic attack* Fight-or-flight response" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "H" ], [ "Introduction", "'''H''', or '''h''', is the eighth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, including the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide.", "Its name in English is ''aitch'' (pronounced , plural ''aitches''), or regionally ''haitch'' ." ], [ "History", " Egyptian hieroglyphfence Proto-Sinaitic''ḥaṣr'' Phoenician''Heth'' Greek''Heta'' EtruscanH LatinHN24x30pxx30pxx25pxx20pxx20pxx20pxx25pxx20pxThe original Semitic letter Heth most likely represented the voiceless pharyngeal fricative ().", "The form of the letter probably stood for a fence or posts.The Greek Eta 'Η' in archaic Greek alphabets, before coming to represent a long vowel, , still represented a similar sound, the voiceless glottal fricative .", "In this context, the letter eta is also known as Heta to underline this fact.", "Thus, in the Old Italic alphabets, the letter Heta of the Euboean alphabet was adopted with its original sound value .While Etruscan and Latin had as a phoneme, almost all Romance languages lost the sound—Romanian later re-borrowed the phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages, and Spanish developed a secondary from , before losing it again; various Spanish dialects have developed as an allophone of or in most Spanish-speaking countries, and various dialects of Portuguese use it as an allophone of .", "'H' is also used in many spelling systems in digraphs and trigraphs, such as 'ch', which represents in Spanish, Galician, and Old Portuguese; in French and modern Portuguese; in Italian and French." ], [ "Name in English", "For most English speakers, the name for the letter is pronounced as and spelled \"aitch\" or occasionally \"eitch\".", "The pronunciation and the associated spelling \"haitch\" is often considered to be h-adding and is considered non-standard in England.", "It is, however, a feature of Hiberno-English, and occurs sporadically in various other dialects.The perceived name of the letter affects the choice of indefinite article before initialisms beginning with H: for example \"an H-bomb\" or \"a H-bomb\".", "The pronunciation may be a hypercorrection formed by analogy with the names of the other letters of the alphabet, most of which include the sound they represent.The ''haitch'' pronunciation of ''h'' has spread in England, being used by approximately 24% of English people born since 1982, and polls continue to show this pronunciation becoming more common among younger native speakers.", "Despite this increasing number, the pronunciation without the sound is still considered to be standard in England, although the pronunciation with is also attested as a legitimate variant.", "In Northern Ireland, the pronunciation of the letter has been used as a shibboleth, with Catholics typically pronouncing it with the and Protestants pronouncing the letter without it.Authorities disagree about the history of the letter's name.", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' says the original name of the letter was in Latin; this became in Vulgar Latin, passed into English via Old French , and by Middle English was pronounced .", "''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'' derives it from French ''hache'' from Latin ''haca'' or ''hic''.", "Anatoly Liberman suggests a conflation of two obsolete orderings of the alphabet, one with ''H'' immediately followed by ''K'' and the other without any ''K'': reciting the former's ''..., H, K, L,...'' as when reinterpreted for the latter ''..., H, L,...'' would imply a pronunciation for ''H''." ], [ "Use in writing systems", "===English===In English, occurs as a single-letter grapheme (being either silent or representing the voiceless glottal fricative () and in various digraphs, such as , , , or ), (silent, , , , or ), (), (), (), ( or ), ().", "The letter is silent in a syllable rime, as in ''ah'', ''ohm'', ''dahlia'', ''cheetah'', ''pooh-poohed'', as well as in certain other words (mostly of French origin) such as ''hour'', ''honest'', ''herb'' (in American but not British English) and ''vehicle'' (in certain varieties of English).", "Initial is often not pronounced in the weak form of some function words including ''had'', ''has'', ''have'', ''he'', ''her'', ''him'', ''his'', and in some varieties of English (including most regional dialects of England and Wales) it is often omitted in all words (see ''-dropping).", "It was formerly common for ''an'' rather than ''a'' to be used as the indefinite article before a word beginning with in an unstressed syllable, as in \"an historian\", but use of ''a'' is now more usual (see ).", "In English, The pronunciation of as /h/ can be analyzed as a voiceless vowel.", "That is, when the phoneme /h/ precedes a vowel, /h/ may be realized as a voiceless version of the subsequent vowel.", "For example, the word , /hɪt/ is realized as ɪ̥ɪt.", "H is the eighth most frequently used letter in the English language (after S, N, I, O, A, T, and E), with a frequency of about 4.2% in words.", "When ''h'' is placed after certain other consonants, it modifies their pronunciation in various ways, e.g.", "for ''ch'', ''gh'', ''ph'', ''sh'', and ''th''.===Other languages===In the German language, the name of the letter is pronounced .", "Following a vowel, it often silently indicates that the vowel is long: In the word ('heighten'), the second is mute for most speakers outside of Switzerland.", "In 1901, a spelling reform eliminated the silent in nearly all instances of in native German words such as ''thun'' ('to do') or ''Thür'' ('door').", "It has been left unchanged in words derived from Greek, such as ('theater') and ('throne'), which continue to be spelled with even after the last German spelling reform.In Spanish and Portuguese, ( in Spanish, in Portuguese) is a silent letter with no pronunciation, as in ('son') and ('Hungarian').", "The spelling reflects an earlier pronunciation of the sound .", "In words where the is derived from a Latin , it is still sometimes pronounced with the value in some regions of Andalusia, Extremadura, Canarias, Cantabria, and the Americas.", "Some words beginning with or , such as and , were given an initial to avoid confusion between their initial semivowels and the consonants and .", "This is because and used to be considered variants of and respectively.", "also appears in the digraph , which represents in Spanish and northern Portugal, and in varieties that have merged both sounds (the latter originally represented by instead), such as most of the Portuguese language and some Spanish dialects, prominently Chilean Spanish.In French, the name of the letter is written as \"ache\" and pronounced .", "The French orthography classifies words that begin with this letter in two ways, one of which can affect the pronunciation, even though it is a silent letter either way.", "The ''H muet'', or \"mute\" , is considered as though the letter were not there at all, so for example the singular definite article ''le'' or ''la'', which is elided to ''l''' before a vowel, elides before an ''H muet'' followed by a vowel.", "For example, ''le + hébergement'' becomes ''l'hébergement'' ('the accommodation').", "The other kind of is called ''h aspiré'' (\"aspirated ''\", though it is not normally aspirated phonetically), and does not allow elision or liaison.", "For example in ''le homard'' ('the lobster') the article ''le'' remains unelided, and may be separated from the noun with a bit of a glottal stop.", "Most words that begin with an ''H muet'' come from Latin (''honneur'', ''homme'') or from Greek through Latin (''hécatombe''), whereas most words beginning with an ''H aspiré'' come from Germanic (''harpe'', ''hareng'') or non-Indo-European languages (''harem'', ''hamac'', ''haricot''); in some cases, an orthographic was added to disambiguate the and semivowel pronunciations before the introduction of the distinction between the letters and : ''huit'' (from ''uit'', ultimately from Latin ''octo''), ''huître'' (from ''uistre'', ultimately from Greek through Latin ''ostrea'').In Italian, has no phonological value.", "Its most important uses are in the digraphs 'ch' and 'gh' , as well as to differentiate the spellings of certain short words that are homophones, for example some present tense forms of the verb ''avere'' ('to have') (such as ''hanno'', 'they have', vs. ''anno'', 'year'), and in short interjections (''oh'', ''ehi'').Some languages, including Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian use as a '''breathy voiced''' glottal fricative , often as an allophone of otherwise voiceless in a voiced environment.In Hungarian, the letter has no fewer than five pronunciations, with three additional uses as a productive and non-productive element of digraphs.", "The letter ''h'' may represent /h/ as in the name of the Székely town ''Hargita;'' intervocalically it represents /ɦ/ as in ''tehén''; it represents /x/ in the word ''doh''; it represents /ç/ in ''ihlet;'' and it is silent in ''cseh.''", "As part of a digraph, it represents, in archaic spelling, /t͡ʃ/ with the letter ''c'' as in the name ''Széchenyi;'' it represents, again, with the letter ''c,'' /x/ in ''pech'' (which is pronounced pɛxː); in certain environments it breaks palatalization of a consonant, as in the name ''Beöthy'' which is pronounced bøːti (without the intervening ''h,'' the name ''Beöty'' could be pronounced bøːc); and finally, it acts as a silent component of a digraph, as in the name ''Vargha,'' pronounced vɒrgɒ.In Ukrainian and Belarusian, when written in the Latin alphabet, is also commonly used for , which is otherwise written with the Cyrillic letter .In Irish, is not considered an independent letter, except for a very few non-native words, however placed after a consonant is known as a \"séimhiú\" and indicates lenition of that consonant; began to replace the original form of a séimhiú, a dot placed above the consonant, after the introduction of typewriters.In most dialects of Polish, both and the digraph always represent .In Basque, during the 20th century it was not used in the orthography of the Basque dialects in Spain but it marked an aspiration in the North-Eastern dialects.", "During the standardization of Basque in the 1970s, the compromise was reached that ''h'' would be accepted if it were the first consonant in a syllable.", "Hence, ''herri'' (\"people\") and ''etorri'' (\"to come\") were accepted instead of ''erri'' (Biscayan) and ''ethorri'' (Souletin).", "Speakers could pronounce the h or not.", "For the dialects lacking the aspiration, this meant a complication added to the standardized spelling.===Other systems===As a phonetic symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), it is used mainly for the so-called aspirations (fricative or trills), and variations of the plain letter are used to represent two sounds: the lowercase form represents the voiceless glottal fricative, and the small capital form represents the voiceless epiglottal fricative (or trill).", "With a bar, minuscule is used for a voiceless pharyngeal fricative.", "Specific to the IPA, a hooked is used for a voiced glottal fricative, and a superscript is used to represent aspiration." ], [ "Related characters", "===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet===*H with diacritics: Ĥ ĥ Ȟ ȟ Ħ ħ Ḩ ḩ Ⱨ ⱨ ẖ ẖ Ḥ ḥ Ḣ ḣ Ḧ ḧ Ḫ ḫ ꞕ Ꜧ ꜧ*IPA-specific symbols related to H: *Superscript IPA symbols related to H: 𐞖 𐞕*ꟸ: Modifier letter capital H with stroke is used in VoQS to represent faucalized voice.", "*ᴴ : Modifier letter H is used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet*ₕ : Subscript small h was used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902*ʰ : Modifier letter small h is used in Indo-European studies*ʮ and ʯ : Turned H with fishhook and turned H with fishhook and tail are used in Sino-Tibetanist linguistics*Ƕ ƕ : Latin letter hwair, derived from a ligature of the digraph hv, and used to transliterate the Gothic letter 𐍈 (which represented the sound hʷ)*Ⱶ ⱶ : Claudian letters*Ꟶ ꟶ : Reversed half h used in Roman inscriptions from the Roman provinces of Gaul===Ancestors, siblings, and descendants in other alphabets===*𐤇 : Semitic letter Heth, from which the following symbols derive**Η η : Greek letter Eta, from which the following symbols derive***𐌇 : Old Italic H, the ancestor of modern Latin H**** : Runic letter haglaz, which is probably a descendant of Old Italic H***Һ һ : Cyrillic letter Shha, which derives from Latin H***И и : Cyrillic letter И, which derives from the Greek letter Eta*** : Gothic letter haal***Armenian letter ho (Հ)===Derived signs, symbols, and abbreviations===* : Planck constant*ℏ : reduced Planck constant* : Blackboard bold capital H used in quaternion notation" ], [ "Computing codes", "1 and all encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859, and Macintosh families of encodings." ], [ "Other representations" ], [ "See also", "* Handshape** American Sign Language grammar* List of Egyptian hieroglyphs#H" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** Lubliner, Coby.", "2008.", "\"The Story of H.\" (essay on origins and uses of the letter \"h\")" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "HCI" ], [ "Introduction", "'''HCI''' may refer to:" ], [ "Computing", "* Happy Computers, an American computer hardware manufacturer* Home Computer Initiative, a United Kingdom government programme to increase computers usage* Host controller interface (disambiguation), various computer interfaces* Human–computer interaction, the study of how people interact with computers** Human-computer interaction (security), the study of how people interact with computers concerning information security* Hyper-converged infrastructure, an IT infrastructure framework for integrating storage, networking and virtualization computing in a data center." ], [ "Education", "* Harbord Collegiate Institute, a school in Toronto, Canada* Humberside Collegiate Institute, a school in Toronto, Canada* Hwa Chong Institution, a school in Singapore" ], [ "Science", "* Highly charged ion* Hot carriers injection, in solid-state electronic devices* Hydrocarbon indicator, in reflection seismology" ], [ "Organizations", "* Handgun Control, Inc., the former name of the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence* Harrisburg City Islanders, a soccer club from the United States* HCI Books (Health Communications Inc), an American publishing house, see ''What the Bleep Do We Know!?", "''* Human Concern International, a Canadian relief and development organization* Huntsman Cancer Institute, an American cancer research facility and hospital" ], [ "Other uses", "* Heavy-Chemical Industry Drive, a former economic development plan of South Korea" ], [ "See also", "* HCL (disambiguation)* HCIL (disambiguation)* HCl (H-C-lowercase L), chemical formula of Hydrogen chloride" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horseshoe" ], [ "Introduction", "Horseshoes are commonly made of steel, and are nailed to the underside of the hoof.oxshoes at the lower rightA '''horseshoe''' is a product designed to protect a horse hoof from wear.", "Shoes are attached on the palmar surface (ground side) of the hooves, usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall that is anatomically akin to the human toenail, although much larger and thicker.", "However, there are also cases where shoes are glued.Horseshoes are available in a wide variety of materials and styles, developed for different types of horses and for the work they do.", "The most common materials are steel and aluminium, but specialized shoes may include use of rubber, plastic, magnesium, titanium, or copper.", "Steel tends to be preferred in sports in which a strong, long-wearing shoe is needed, such as polo, eventing, show jumping, and western riding events.", "Aluminium shoes are lighter, making them common in horse racing where a lighter shoe is desired, and often facilitate certain types of movement; they are often favored in the discipline of dressage.", "Some horseshoes have \"caulkins\", \"caulks\", or \"calks\": protrusions at the toe or heels of the shoe, or both, to provide additional traction.The fitting of horseshoes is a professional occupation, conducted by a farrier, who specializes in the preparation of feet, assessing potential lameness issues, and fitting appropriate shoes, including remedial features where required.", "In some countries, such as the UK, horseshoeing is legally restricted to people with specific qualifications and experience.", "In others, such as the United States, where professional licensing is not legally required, professional organizations provide certification programs that publicly identify qualified individuals.When kept as a talisman, a horseshoe is said to bring good luck.", "A stylized variation of the horseshoe is used for a popular throwing game, horseshoes." ], [ "History", "A hipposandal, a predecessor to the horseshoeSince the early history of domestication of the horse, working animals were found to be exposed to many conditions that created breakage or excessive hoof wear.", "Ancient people recognized the need for the walls (and sometimes the sole) of domestic horses' hooves to have additional protection over and above any natural hardness.", "An early form of hoof protection was seen in ancient Asia, where horses' hooves were wrapped in rawhide, leather, or other materials for both therapeutic purposes and protection from wear.", "From archaeological finds in Great Britain, the Romans appeared to have attempted to protect their horses' feet with a strap-on, solid-bottomed \"hipposandal\" that has a slight resemblance to the modern hoof boot.English horseshoes from the 11th to the 19th centuriesMaking horseshoes in IndiaA hoof bootAn oversized horseshoe for soft soil to distribute horse's weightHistorians differ on the origin of the horseshoe.", "Because iron was a valuable commodity, and any worn out items were generally reforged and reused, it is difficult to locate clear archaeological evidence.", "Although some credit the Druids, there is no hard evidence to support this claim.", "In 1897 four bronze horseshoes with what are apparently nail holes were found in an Etruscan tomb dated around 400 BC.", "The assertion by some historians that the Romans invented the \"mule shoes\" sometime after 100 BC is supported by a reference by Catullus who died in 54 BC.", "However, these references to use of horseshoes and muleshoes in Rome may have been to the \"hipposandal\"—leather boots, reinforced by an iron plate, rather than to nailed horseshoes.Existing references to the nailed shoe are relatively late, first known to have appeared around AD 900, but there may have been earlier uses given that some have been found in layers of dirt.", "There are no extant references to nailed horseshoes prior to the reign of Byzantine Emperor Leo VI, and by 973 occasional references to them can be found.", "The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to \"crescent figured irons and their nails\" in AD 910.There is very little evidence of any sort that suggests the existence of nailed-on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600, though there is a find dated to the fifth century AD of a horseshoe, complete with nails, found in the tomb of the Frankish King Childeric I at Tournai, Belgium.Around 1000 AD, cast bronze horseshoes with nail holes became common in Europe.", "A design with a scalloped outer rim and six nail holes was common.", "According to Gordon Ward the scalloped edges were created by double punching the nail holes causing the edges to bulge.", "The 13th and 14th centuries brought the widespread manufacturing of iron horseshoes.", "By the time of the Crusades (1096–1270), horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources.", "In that period, due to the value of iron, horseshoes were even accepted in lieu of coin to pay taxes.By the 13th century, shoes were forged in large quantities and could be bought ready made.", "Hot shoeing, the process of shaping a heated horseshoe immediately before placing it on the horse, became common in the 16th century.", "From the need for horseshoes, the craft of blacksmithing became \"one of the great staple crafts of medieval and modern times and contributed to the development of metallurgy.\"", "A treatise titled \"No Foot, No Horse\" was published in England in 1751.In 1835, the first U.S. patent for a horseshoe manufacturing machine capable of making up to 60 horseshoes per hour was issued to Henry Burden.", "In mid-19th-century Canada, marsh horseshoes kept horses from sinking into the soft intertidal mud during dike-building.", "In a common design, a metal horseshoe holds a flat wooden shoe in place.===China===In China, iron horseshoes became common during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), prior to which rattan and leather shoes were used to preserve animal hooves.", "Evidence of the preservation of horse hooves in China dates to the Warring States period (476–221 BC), during which Zhuangzi recommended shaving horse hooves to keep them in good shape.", "The Discourses on Salt and Iron in 81 BC mentions using leather shoes, but it is not clear if they were used for protecting horse hooves or to aid in mounting the horse.", "Remnants of iron horseshoes have been found in what is now northeast China, but the tombs date to the Goguryeo period in 414 AD.", "A mural in the Mogao Caves dated to 584 AD depicts a man caring for a horse's hoof, which some speculate might be depicting horseshoe nailing, but the mural is too eroded to tell clearly.The earliest reference to iron horseshoes in China dates to 938 AD during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.", "A monk named Gao Juhui sent to the Western Regions writes that the people in Ganzhou (now Zhangye) taught him how to make \"horse hoof ''muse''\", which had four holes in it that connected to four holes in the horse's hoof, and were thus put together.", "They also recommended using yak skin shoes for camel hooves.", "Iron horseshoes however did not become common for another three centuries.", "Zhao Rukuo writes in ''Zhu Fan Zhi'', finished in 1225, that the horses of the Arabs and Persians used metal for horse shoes, implying that horses in China did not.", "After the establishment of the Yuan dynasty in 1271 AD, iron horseshoes became more common in northern China.", "When Thomas Blakiston travelled up the Yangtze, he noted that in Sichuan \"cattle wore straw shoes to prevent their slipping on the wet ground\" while in northern China, \"horses and cattle are shod with iron shoes and nails.\"", "The majority of Chinese horseshoe discoveries have been in Jilin, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Sichuan, and Tibet." ], [ "Reasons for use", "===Environmental changes linked to domestication===Many changes brought about by the domestication of the horse have led to a need for shoes for numerous reasons, mostly linked to management that results in horses' hooves hardening less and being more vulnerable to injury.", "In the wild, a horse may travel up to per day to obtain adequate forage.", "While horses in the wild cover large areas of terrain, they usually do so at relatively slow speeds, unless being chased by a predator.", "They also tend to live in arid steppe climates.", "The consequence of slow but nonstop travel in a dry climate is that horses' feet are naturally worn to a small, smooth, even, and hard state.", "The continual stimulation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard.", "However, in domestication, the manner in which horses are used differ from what they would encounter in their natural environment.", "Domesticated horses are brought to colder and wetter areas than their ancestral habitat.", "These softer and heavier soils soften the hooves and make them prone to splitting, making hoof protection necessary.", "Consequently, it was in northern Europe that the nailed horseshoe arose in its modern form .===Physical stresses requiring horseshoes===*Abnormal stress: Horses' hooves can become quite worn out when subjected to the added weight and stress of a rider, pack load, cart, or wagon.", "*Corrective shoeing: The shape, weight, and thickness of a horseshoe can significantly affect the horse's gait.", "Farriers may forge custom shoes to help horses with bone or musculature problems in their legs, or fit commercially available remedial shoes.", "*Traction: Traction devices such as borium for ice, horse shoe studs for muddy or slick conditions, calks, carbide-tipped road nails and rims are useful for performance horses such as eventers, show jumpers, polo ponies, and other horses that perform at high speeds, over changing terrain, or in less-than-ideal footing.", "*Gait manipulation: Some breeds such as the Saddlebred, Tennessee Walking Horse, and other gaited horses are judged on their high-stepping movement.", "Special shoeing can help enhance their natural movement.", "* Racing horses with weakness in their foot or leg require specialized horseshoes." ], [ "Horseshoeing theories and debates", "Domestic horses do not always require shoes.", "When possible, a \"barefoot\" hoof, at least for part of every year, is a healthy option for most horses.", "However, horseshoes have their place and can help prevent excess or abnormal hoof wear and injury to the foot.", "Many horses go without shoes year round, some using temporary protection such as hoof boots for short-term use." ], [ "Process of shoeing", "Shoeing, when performed correctly, causes no pain to the animal.", "Farriers trim the insensitive part of the hoof, which is the same area into which they drive the nails.", "This is analogous to a manicure on a human fingernail, only on a much larger scale.Before beginning to shoe, the farrier removes the old shoe using pincers (shoe pullers) and trims the hoof wall to the desired length with nippers, a sharp pliers-like tool, and the sole and frog of the hoof with a hoof knife.", "Shoes do not allow the hoof to wear down as it naturally would in the wild, and it can then become too long.", "The coffin bone inside the hoof should line up straight with both bones in the pastern.", "If the excess hoof is not trimmed, the bones will become misaligned, which would place stress on the legs of the animal.Shoes are then measured to the foot and bent to the correct shape using a hammer, anvil, forge, and other modifications, such as taps for shoe studs, are added.", "Farriers may either cold shoe, in which they bend the metal shoe without heating it, or hot shoe, in which they place the metal in a forge before bending it.", "Hot shoeing can be more time consuming, and requires the farrier to have access to a forge; however, it usually provides a better fit, as the mark made on the hoof from the hot shoe can show how even it lies.", "It also allows the farrier to make more modifications to the shoe, such as drawing toe- and quarter-clips.", "The farrier must take care not to hold the hot shoe against the hoof too long, as the heat can damage the hoof.Hot shoes are placed in water to cool them.", "The farrier then nails the shoes on by driving the nails into the hoof wall at the white line of the hoof.", "The nails are shaped in such a way that they bend outward as they are driven in, avoiding the sensitive inner part of the foot, so they emerge on the sides of the hoof.", "When the nail has been completely driven, the farrier cuts off the sharp points and uses a clincher (a form of tongs made especially for this purpose) or a clinching block with hammer to bend the rest of the nail so it is almost flush with the hoof wall.", "This prevents the nail from getting caught on anything, and also helps to hold the nail, and therefore the shoe, in place.The farrier then uses a rasp (large file), to smooth the edge where it meets the shoe and eliminate any sharp edges left from cutting off the nails.Hot Horseshoe (stevefe).jpg|A hot horseshoe in a forgeFarrier toolslabled.JPG|Farrier toolsItalian farrier 2006 2.jpg|Nailing on the shoeShoeing in progress.jpg|The nails driven through the hoof, but not yet bent downwards" ], [ "In culture", "===Superstition===A horseshoe on a door is regarded as a protective talisman in some cultures.Horseshoes have long been considered lucky.", "They were originally made of iron, a material that was believed to ward off evil spirits, and traditionally were held in place with seven nails, seven being the luckiest number.", "The superstition acquired a further Christian twist due to a legend surrounding the tenth-century saint Dunstan, who worked as a blacksmith before becoming Archbishop of Canterbury.", "The legend recounts that, one day, the Devil walked into Dunstan's shop and asked him to shoe his horse.", "Dunstan pretended not to recognize him, and agreed to the request; but rather than nailing the shoe to the horse's hoof, he nailed it to the Devil's own foot, causing him great pain.", "Dunstan eventually agreed to remove the shoe, but only after extracting a promise that the Devil would never enter a household with a horseshoe nailed to the door.Opinion is divided as to which way up the horseshoe ought to be nailed.", "Some say the ends should point up, so that the horseshoe catches the luck, and that the ends pointing down allow the good luck to be lost; others say they should point down, so that the luck is poured upon those entering the home.Superstitious sailors believe that nailing a horseshoe to the mast will help their vessel avoid storms.===Heraldry===In heraldry, horseshoes most often occur as canting charges, such as in the arms of families with names like Farrier, Marshall, and Smith.", "A horseshoe (together with two hammers) also appears in the arms of Hammersmith and Fulham, a borough in London.Flag of RutlandThe flag of Rutland, England's smallest historic county, consists of a golden horseshoe laid over a field scattered with acorns.", "This refers to an ancient tradition in which every noble visiting Oakham, Rutland's county town, presents a horseshoe to the Lord of the Manor, which is then nailed to the wall of Oakham Castle.", "Over the centuries, the Castle has amassed a vast collection of horseshoes, the oldest of which date from the 15th century.===Monuments and structures===A massive golden horseshoe structure is erected over the shopping mall of the Tuuri village in Alavus, a town of Finland.", "It is one of the most famous monuments in the locality; however, it stands at number three in Reuters' list of world's ugliest buildings and monuments.===Sport===The sport of horseshoes involves a horseshoe being thrown as close as possible to a rod in order to score points.", "As far as it is known, the sport is as old as horseshoes themselves.", "While traditional horseshoes can still be used, most organized versions of the game use specialized sport horseshoes, which do not fit on horses' hooves." ], [ "See also", "*Farrier*Horse care*Horse hoof*Laminitis*Natural hoof care" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Historical development of the horseshoe 1891 ''Scientific American'' article from Project Gutenberg* The True Legend of St. Dunstan and the Devil by Edward G. Flight, illustrated by George Cruikshank, published in 1871, and available from Project Gutenberg* Mair and Dicken collections of historical horseshoes in the Museum of English Rural Life" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hemoglobin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hemoglobin''' ('''haemoglobin''', '''Hb''' or '''Hgb''') is a protein containing iron that facilitates the transport of oxygen in red blood cells.", "Almost all vertebrates contain hemoglobin, with the exception of the fish family Channichthyidae.", "Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organs (lungs or gills) to the other tissues of the body, where it releases the oxygen to enable aerobic respiration which powers the animal's metabolism.", "A healthy human has 12to 20grams of hemoglobin in every 100mL of blood.", "Hemoglobin is a metalloprotein, a chromoprotein, and globulin.In mammals, hemoglobin makes up about 96% of a red blood cell's dry weight (excluding water), and around 35% of the total weight (including water).", "Hemoglobin has an oxygen-binding capacity of 1.34mL of O2 per gram, which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventy-fold compared to dissolved oxygen in blood plasma alone.", "The mammalian hemoglobin molecule can bind and transport up to four oxygen molecules.Hemoglobin also transports other gases.", "It carries off some of the body's respiratory carbon dioxide (about 20–25% of the total) as carbaminohemoglobin, in which CO2 binds to the heme protein.", "The molecule also carries the important regulatory molecule nitric oxide bound to a thiol group in the globin protein, releasing it at the same time as oxygen.Hemoglobin is also found in other cells, including in the A9 dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra, macrophages, alveolar cells, lungs, retinal pigment epithelium, hepatocytes, mesangial cells of the kidney, endometrial cells, cervical cells, and vaginal epithelial cells.", "In these tissues, hemoglobin absorbs unneeded oxygen as an antioxidant, and regulates iron metabolism.", "Excessive glucose in the blood can attach to hemoglobin and raise the level of hemoglobin A1c.Hemoglobin and hemoglobin-like molecules are also found in many invertebrates, fungi, and plants.", "In these organisms, hemoglobins may carry oxygen, or they may transport and regulate other small molecules and ions such as carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfide.", "A variant called leghemoglobin serves to scavenge oxygen away from anaerobic systems such as the nitrogen-fixing nodules of leguminous plants, preventing oxygen poisoning.The medical condition hemoglobinemia, a form of anemia, is caused by intravascular hemolysis, in which hemoglobin leaks from red blood cells into the blood plasma." ], [ "Research history", "Max Perutz won the Nobel Prize for chemistry for his work determining the molecular structure of hemoglobin and myoglobinIn 1825, Johann Friedrich Engelhart discovered that the ratio of iron to protein is identical in the hemoglobins of several species.", "From the known atomic mass of iron, he calculated the molecular mass of hemoglobin to ''n'' × 16000 (''n'' = number of iron atoms per hemoglobin molecule, now known to be 4), the first determination of a protein's molecular mass.", "This \"hasty conclusion\" drew ridicule from colleagues who could not believe that any molecule could be so large.", "However, Gilbert Smithson Adair confirmed Engelhart's results in 1925 by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin solutions.Although blood had been known to carry oxygen since at least 1794, the oxygen-carrying property of hemoglobin was described by Hünefeld in 1840.In 1851, German physiologist Otto Funke published a series of articles in which he described growing hemoglobin crystals by successively diluting red blood cells with a solvent such as pure water, alcohol or ether, followed by slow evaporation of the solvent from the resulting protein solution.", "Hemoglobin's reversible oxygenation was described a few years later by Felix Hoppe-Seyler.With the development of X-ray crystallography, it became possible to sequence protein structures.", "In 1959, Max Perutz determined the molecular structure of hemoglobin.", "For this work he shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with John Kendrew, who sequenced the globular protein myoglobin.The role of hemoglobin in the blood was elucidated by French physiologist Claude Bernard.The name ''hemoglobin'' is derived from the words ''heme'' and ''globin'', reflecting the fact that each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein with an embedded heme group.", "Each heme group contains one iron atom, that can bind one oxygen molecule through ion-induced dipole forces.", "The most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits." ], [ "Genetics", "Hemoglobin consists of protein subunits (globin molecules), which are polypeptides, long folded chains of specific amino acids which determine the protein's chemical properties and function.", "The amino acid sequence of any polypeptide is translated from a segment of DNA, the corresponding gene.", "The amino acid sequence that determines the protein's chemical properties and function.There is more than one hemoglobin gene.", "In humans, hemoglobin A (the main form of hemoglobin in adults) is coded by genes ''HBA1'', ''HBA2'', and ''HBB''.", "Alpha 1 and alpha 2 subunits are respectively coded by genes ''HBA1'' and ''HBA2'' close together on chromosome 16, while the beta subunit is coded by gene ''HBB'' on chromosome 11.The amino acid sequences of the globin subunits usually differ between species, with the difference growing with evolutionary distance.", "For example, the most common hemoglobin sequences in humans, bonobos and chimpanzees are completely identical, with exactly the same alpha and beta globin protein chains.", "Human and gorilla hemoglobin differ in one amino acid in both alpha and beta chains, and these differences grow larger between less closely related species.Mutations in the genes for hemoglobin can result in variants of hemoglobin within a single species, although one sequence is usually \"most common\" in each species.", "Many of these mutations cause no disease, but some cause a group of hereditary diseases called ''hemoglobinopathies''.", "The best known hemoglobinopathy is sickle-cell disease, which was the first human disease whose mechanism was understood at the molecular level.", "A mostly separate set of diseases called thalassemias involves underproduction of normal and sometimes abnormal hemoglobins, through problems and mutations in globin gene regulation.", "All these diseases produce anemia.Protein alignment of human hemoglobin proteins, alpha, beta, and delta subunits respectively.", "The alignments were created using 300x300pxVariations in hemoglobin sequences, as with other proteins, may be adaptive.", "For example, hemoglobin has been found to adapt in different ways to the thin air at high altitudes, where lower partial pressure of oxygen diminishes its binding to hemoglobin compared to the higher pressures at sea level.", "Recent studies of deer mice found mutations in four genes that can account for differences between high- and low-elevation populations.", "It was found that the genes of the two breeds are \"virtually identical—except for those that govern the oxygen-carrying capacity of their hemoglobin.", ".", ".", ".", "The genetic difference enables highland mice to make more efficient use of their oxygen.\"", "Mammoth hemoglobin featured mutations that allowed for oxygen delivery at lower temperatures, thus enabling mammoths to migrate to higher latitudes during the Pleistocene.", "This was also found in hummingbirds that inhabit the Andes.", "Hummingbirds already expend a lot of energy and thus have high oxygen demands and yet Andean hummingbirds have been found to thrive in high altitudes.", "Non-synonymous mutations in the hemoglobin gene of multiple species living at high elevations (''Oreotrochilus, A. castelnaudii, C. violifer, P. gigas,'' and ''A.", "viridicuada'') have caused the protein to have less of an affinity for inositol hexaphosphate (IHP), a molecule found in birds that has a similar role as 2,3-BPG in humans; this results in the ability to bind oxygen in lower partial pressures.Birds' unique circulatory lungs also promote efficient use of oxygen at low partial pressures of O2.These two adaptations reinforce each other and account for birds' remarkable high-altitude performance.Hemoglobin adaptation extends to humans, as well.", "There is a higher offspring survival rate among Tibetan women with high oxygen saturation genotypes residing at 4,000 m. Natural selection seems to be the main force working on this gene because the mortality rate of offspring is significantly lower for women with higher hemoglobin-oxygen affinity when compared to the mortality rate of offspring from women with low hemoglobin-oxygen affinity.", "While the exact genotype and mechanism by which this occurs is not yet clear, selection is acting on these women's ability to bind oxygen in low partial pressures, which overall allows them to better sustain crucial metabolic processes." ], [ "Synthesis", "Hemoglobin (Hb) is synthesized in a complex series of steps.", "The heme part is synthesized in a series of steps in the mitochondria and the cytosol of immature red blood cells, while the globin protein parts are synthesized by ribosomes in the cytosol.", "Production of Hb continues in the cell throughout its early development from the proerythroblast to the reticulocyte in the bone marrow.", "At this point, the nucleus is lost in mammalian red blood cells, but not in birds and many other species.", "Even after the loss of the nucleus in mammals, residual ribosomal RNA allows further synthesis of Hb until the reticulocyte loses its RNA soon after entering the vasculature (this hemoglobin-synthetic RNA in fact gives the reticulocyte its reticulated appearance and name)." ], [ "Structure of heme", "Heme b groupHemoglobin has a quaternary structure characteristic of many multi-subunit globular proteins.", "Most of the amino acids in hemoglobin form alpha helices, and these helices are connected by short non-helical segments.", "Hydrogen bonds stabilize the helical sections inside this protein, causing attractions within the molecule, which then causes each polypeptide chain to fold into a specific shape.", "Hemoglobin's quaternary structure comes from its four subunits in roughly a tetrahedral arrangement.In most vertebrates, the hemoglobin molecule is an assembly of four globular protein subunits.", "Each subunit is composed of a protein chain tightly associated with a non-protein prosthetic heme group.", "Each protein chain arranges into a set of alpha-helix structural segments connected together in a globin fold arrangement.", "Such a name is given because this arrangement is the same folding motif used in other heme/globin proteins such as myoglobin.", "This folding pattern contains a pocket that strongly binds the heme group.A heme group consists of an iron (Fe) ion held in a heterocyclic ring, known as a porphyrin.", "This porphyrin ring consists of four pyrrole molecules cyclically linked together (by methine bridges) with the iron ion bound in the center.", "The iron ion, which is the site of oxygen binding, coordinates with the four nitrogen atoms in the center of the ring, which all lie in one plane.", "The heme is bound strongly (covalently) to the globular protein via the N atoms of the imidazole ring of F8 histidine residue (also known as the proximal histidine) below the porphyrin ring.", "A sixth position can reversibly bind oxygen by a coordinate covalent bond, completing the octahedral group of six ligands.", "This reversible bonding with oxygen is why hemoglobin is so useful for transporting oxygen around the body.", "Oxygen binds in an \"end-on bent\" geometry where one oxygen atom binds to Fe and the other protrudes at an angle.", "When oxygen is not bound, a very weakly bonded water molecule fills the site, forming a distorted octahedron.Even though carbon dioxide is carried by hemoglobin, it does not compete with oxygen for the iron-binding positions but is bound to the amine groups of the protein chains attached to the heme groups.The iron ion may be either in the ferrous Fe2+ or in the ferric Fe3+ state, but ferrihemoglobin (methemoglobin) (Fe3+) cannot bind oxygen.", "In binding, oxygen temporarily and reversibly oxidizes (Fe2+) to (Fe3+) while oxygen temporarily turns into the superoxide ion, thus iron must exist in the +2 oxidation state to bind oxygen.", "If superoxide ion associated to Fe3+ is protonated, the hemoglobin iron will remain oxidized and incapable of binding oxygen.", "In such cases, the enzyme methemoglobin reductase will be able to eventually reactivate methemoglobin by reducing the iron center.In adult humans, the most common hemoglobin type is a tetramer (which contains four subunit proteins) called ''hemoglobin A'', consisting of two α and two β subunits non-covalently bound, each made of 141 and 146 amino acid residues, respectively.", "This is denoted as α2β2.The subunits are structurally similar and about the same size.", "Each subunit has a molecular weight of about 16,000 daltons, for a total molecular weight of the tetramer of about 64,000 daltons (64,458 g/mol).", "Thus, 1 g/dL = 0.1551 mmol/L.", "Hemoglobin A is the most intensively studied of the hemoglobin molecules.In human infants, the fetal hemoglobin molecule is made up of 2 α chains and 2 γ chains.", "The γ chains are gradually replaced by β chains as the infant grows.The four polypeptide chains are bound to each other by salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and the hydrophobic effect.===Oxygen saturation===In general, hemoglobin can be saturated with oxygen molecules (oxyhemoglobin), or desaturated with oxygen molecules (deoxyhemoglobin).====Oxyhemoglobin====''Oxyhemoglobin'' is formed during physiological respiration when oxygen binds to the heme component of the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells.", "This process occurs in the pulmonary capillaries adjacent to the alveoli of the lungs.", "The oxygen then travels through the blood stream to be dropped off at cells where it is utilized as a terminal electron acceptor in the production of ATP by the process of oxidative phosphorylation.", "It does not, however, help to counteract a decrease in blood pH.", "Ventilation, or breathing, may reverse this condition by removal of carbon dioxide, thus causing a shift up in pH.Hemoglobin exists in two forms, a ''taut (tense) form'' (T) and a ''relaxed form'' (R).", "Various factors such as low pH, high CO2 and high 2,3 BPG at the level of the tissues favor the taut form, which has low oxygen affinity and releases oxygen in the tissues.", "Conversely, a high pH, low CO2, or low 2,3 BPG favors the relaxed form, which can better bind oxygen.", "The partial pressure of the system also affects O2 affinity where, at high partial pressures of oxygen (such as those present in the alveoli), the relaxed (high affinity, R) state is favoured.", "Inversely, at low partial pressures (such as those present in respiring tissues), the (low affinity, T) tense state is favoured.", "Additionally, the binding of oxygen to the iron(II) heme pulls the iron into the plane of the porphyrin ring, causing a slight conformational shift.", "The shift encourages oxygen to bind to the three remaining heme units within hemoglobin (thus, oxygen binding is cooperative).Classically, the iron in oxyhemoglobin is seen as existing in the iron(II) oxidation state.", "However, the complex of oxygen with heme iron is diamagnetic, whereas both oxygen and high-spin iron(II) are paramagnetic.", "Experimental evidence strongly suggests heme iron is in the iron(III) oxidation state in oxyhemoglobin, with the oxygen existing as superoxide anion (O2•−) or in a covalent charge-transfer complex.====Deoxygenated hemoglobin====Deoxygenated hemoglobin (deoxyhemoglobin) is the form of hemoglobin without the bound oxygen.", "The absorption spectra of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin differ.", "The oxyhemoglobin has significantly lower absorption of the 660 nm wavelength than deoxyhemoglobin, while at 940 nm its absorption is slightly higher.", "This difference is used for the measurement of the amount of oxygen in a patient's blood by an instrument called a pulse oximeter.", "This difference also accounts for the presentation of cyanosis, the blue to purplish color that tissues develop during hypoxia.Deoxygenated hemoglobin is paramagnetic; it is weakly attracted to magnetic fields.", "In contrast, oxygenated hemoglobin exhibits diamagnetism, a weak repulsion from a magnetic field." ], [ "Evolution of vertebrate hemoglobin", "Scientists agree that the event that separated myoglobin from hemoglobin occurred after lampreys diverged from jawed vertebrates.", "This separation of myoglobin and hemoglobin allowed for the different functions of the two molecules to arise and develop: myoglobin has more to do with oxygen storage while hemoglobin is tasked with oxygen transport.", "The α- and β-like globin genes encode the individual subunits of the protein.", "The predecessors of these genes arose through another duplication event also after the gnathosome common ancestor derived from jawless fish, approximately 450–500 million years ago.", "Ancestral reconstruction studies suggest that the preduplication ancestor of the α and β genes was a dimer made up of identical globin subunits, which then evolved to assemble into a tetrameric architecture after the duplication.", "The development of α and β genes created the potential for hemoglobin to be composed of multiple distinct subunits, a physical composition central to hemoglobin's ability to transport oxygen.", "Having multiple subunits contributes to hemoglobin's ability to bind oxygen cooperatively as well as be regulated allosterically.", "Subsequently, the α gene also underwent a duplication event to form the ''HBA1'' and ''HBA2'' genes.", "These further duplications and divergences have created a diverse range of α- and β-like globin genes that are regulated so that certain forms occur at different stages of development.Most ice fish of the family Channichthyidae have lost their hemoglobin genes as an adaptation to cold water." ], [ "Cooperativity", "A schematic visual model of oxygen-binding process, showing all four monomers and hemes, and protein chains only as diagrammatic coils, to facilitate visualization into the molecule.", "Oxygen is not shown in this model, but, for each of the iron atoms, it binds to the iron (red sphere) in the flat heme.", "For example, in the upper-left of the four hemes shown, oxygen binds at the left of the iron atom shown in the upper-left of diagram.", "This causes the iron atom to move backward into the heme that holds it (the iron moves upward as it binds oxygen, in this illustration), tugging the histidine residue (modeled as a red pentagon on the right of the iron) closer, as it does.", "This, in turn, pulls on the protein chain holding the histidine.When oxygen binds to the iron complex, it causes the iron atom to move back toward the center of the plane of the porphyrin ring (see moving diagram).", "At the same time, the imidazole side-chain of the histidine residue interacting at the other pole of the iron is pulled toward the porphyrin ring.", "This interaction forces the plane of the ring sideways toward the outside of the tetramer, and also induces a strain in the protein helix containing the histidine as it moves nearer to the iron atom.", "This strain is transmitted to the remaining three monomers in the tetramer, where it induces a similar conformational change in the other heme sites such that binding of oxygen to these sites becomes easier.As oxygen binds to one monomer of hemoglobin, the tetramer's conformation shifts from the T (tense) state to the R (relaxed) state.", "This shift promotes the binding of oxygen to the remaining three monomers' heme groups, thus saturating the hemoglobin molecule with oxygen.In the tetrameric form of normal adult hemoglobin, the binding of oxygen is, thus, a cooperative process.", "The binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is increased by the oxygen saturation of the molecule, with the first molecules of oxygen bound influencing the shape of the binding sites for the next ones, in a way favorable for binding.", "This positive cooperative binding is achieved through steric conformational changes of the hemoglobin protein complex as discussed above; i.e., when one subunit protein in hemoglobin becomes oxygenated, a conformational or structural change in the whole complex is initiated, causing the other subunits to gain an increased affinity for oxygen.", "As a consequence, the oxygen binding curve of hemoglobin is sigmoidal, or ''S''-shaped, as opposed to the normal hyperbolic curve associated with noncooperative binding.The dynamic mechanism of the cooperativity in hemoglobin and its relation with low-frequency resonance has been discussed." ], [ "Binding of ligands other than oxygen", "Besides the oxygen ligand, which binds to hemoglobin in a cooperative manner, hemoglobin ligands also include competitive inhibitors such as carbon monoxide (CO) and allosteric ligands such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitric oxide (NO).", "The carbon dioxide is bound to amino groups of the globin proteins to form carbaminohemoglobin; this mechanism is thought to account for about 10% of carbon dioxide transport in mammals.", "Nitric oxide can also be transported by hemoglobin; it is bound to specific thiol groups in the globin protein to form an S-nitrosothiol, which dissociates into free nitric oxide and thiol again, as the hemoglobin releases oxygen from its heme site.", "This nitric oxide transport to peripheral tissues is hypothesized to assist oxygen transport in tissues, by releasing vasodilatory nitric oxide to tissues in which oxygen levels are low.===Competitive===The binding of oxygen is affected by molecules such as carbon monoxide (for example, from tobacco smoking, exhaust gas, and incomplete combustion in furnaces).", "CO competes with oxygen at the heme binding site.", "Hemoglobin's binding affinity for CO is 250 times greater than its affinity for oxygen, meaning that small amounts of CO dramatically reduce hemoglobin's ability to deliver oxygen to the target tissue.", "Since carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas, and poses a potentially fatal threat, carbon monoxide detectors have become commercially available to warn of dangerous levels in residences.", "When hemoglobin combines with CO, it forms a very bright red compound called carboxyhemoglobin, which may cause the skin of CO poisoning victims to appear pink in death, instead of white or blue.", "When inspired air contains CO levels as low as 0.02%, headache and nausea occur; if the CO concentration is increased to 0.1%, unconsciousness will follow.", "In heavy smokers, up to 20% of the oxygen-active sites can be blocked by CO.In similar fashion, hemoglobin also has competitive binding affinity for cyanide (CN−), sulfur monoxide (SO), and sulfide (S2−), including hydrogen sulfide (H2S).", "All of these bind to iron in heme without changing its oxidation state, but they nevertheless inhibit oxygen-binding, causing grave toxicity.The iron atom in the heme group must initially be in the ferrous (Fe2+) oxidation state to support oxygen and other gases' binding and transport (it temporarily switches to ferric during the time oxygen is bound, as explained above).", "Initial oxidation to the ferric (Fe3+) state without oxygen converts hemoglobin into \"hem'''i'''globin\" or methemoglobin, which cannot bind oxygen.", "Hemoglobin in normal red blood cells is protected by a reduction system to keep this from happening.", "Nitric oxide is capable of converting a small fraction of hemoglobin to methemoglobin in red blood cells.", "The latter reaction is a remnant activity of the more ancient nitric oxide dioxygenase function of globins.===Allosteric===Carbon ''di''oxide occupies a different binding site on the hemoglobin.", "At tissues, where carbon dioxide concentration is higher, carbon dioxide binds to allosteric site of hemoglobin, facilitating unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin and ultimately its removal from the body after the oxygen has been released to tissues undergoing metabolism.", "This increased affinity for carbon dioxide by the venous blood is known as the Bohr effect.", "Through the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, carbon dioxide reacts with water to give carbonic acid, which decomposes into bicarbonate and protons::CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → HCO3− + H+The sigmoidal shape of hemoglobin's oxygen-dissociation curve results from cooperative binding of oxygen to hemoglobin.Hence, blood with high carbon dioxide levels is also lower in pH (more acidic).", "Hemoglobin can bind protons and carbon dioxide, which causes a conformational change in the protein and facilitates the release of oxygen.", "Protons bind at various places on the protein, while carbon dioxide binds at the α-amino group.", "Carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin and forms carbaminohemoglobin.", "This decrease in hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen by the binding of carbon dioxide and acid is known as the Bohr effect.", "The Bohr effect favors the T state rather than the R state.", "(shifts the O2-saturation curve to the ''right'').", "Conversely, when the carbon dioxide levels in the blood decrease (i.e., in the lung capillaries), carbon dioxide and protons are released from hemoglobin, increasing the oxygen affinity of the protein.", "A reduction in the total binding capacity of hemoglobin to oxygen (i.e.", "shifting the curve down, not just to the right) due to reduced pH is called the root effect.", "This is seen in bony fish.It is necessary for hemoglobin to release the oxygen that it binds; if not, there is no point in binding it.", "The sigmoidal curve of hemoglobin makes it efficient in binding (taking up O2 in lungs), and efficient in unloading (unloading O2 in tissues).In people acclimated to high altitudes, the concentration of 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG) in the blood is increased, which allows these individuals to deliver a larger amount of oxygen to tissues under conditions of lower oxygen tension.", "This phenomenon, where molecule Y affects the binding of molecule X to a transport molecule Z, is called a ''heterotropic'' allosteric effect.", "Hemoglobin in organisms at high altitudes has also adapted such that it has less of an affinity for 2,3-BPG and so the protein will be shifted more towards its R state.", "In its R state, hemoglobin will bind oxygen more readily, thus allowing organisms to perform the necessary metabolic processes when oxygen is present at low partial pressures.Animals other than humans use different molecules to bind to hemoglobin and change its O2 affinity under unfavorable conditions.", "Fish use both ATP and GTP.", "These bind to a phosphate \"pocket\" on the fish hemoglobin molecule, which stabilizes the tense state and therefore decreases oxygen affinity.", "GTP reduces hemoglobin oxygen affinity much more than ATP, which is thought to be due to an extra hydrogen bond formed that further stabilizes the tense state.", "Under hypoxic conditions, the concentration of both ATP and GTP is reduced in fish red blood cells to increase oxygen affinity.A variant hemoglobin, called fetal hemoglobin (HbF, α2γ2), is found in the developing fetus, and binds oxygen with greater affinity than adult hemoglobin.", "This means that the oxygen binding curve for fetal hemoglobin is left-shifted (i.e., a higher percentage of hemoglobin has oxygen bound to it at lower oxygen tension), in comparison to that of adult hemoglobin.", "As a result, fetal blood in the placenta is able to take oxygen from maternal blood.Hemoglobin also carries nitric oxide (NO) in the globin part of the molecule.", "This improves oxygen delivery in the periphery and contributes to the control of respiration.", "NO binds reversibly to a specific cysteine residue in globin; the binding depends on the state (R or T) of the hemoglobin.", "The resulting S-nitrosylated hemoglobin influences various NO-related activities such as the control of vascular resistance, blood pressure and respiration.", "NO is not released in the cytoplasm of red blood cells but transported out of them by an anion exchanger called AE1." ], [ "Types of hemoglobin in humans", "Hemoglobin variants are a part of the normal embryonic and fetal development.", "They may also be pathologic mutant forms of hemoglobin in a population, caused by variations in genetics.", "Some well-known hemoglobin variants, such as sickle-cell anemia, are responsible for diseases and are considered hemoglobinopathies.", "Other variants cause no detectable pathology, and are thus considered non-pathological variants.In embryos:* Gower 1 (ζ2ε2).", "* Gower 2 (α2ε2) ().", "* Hemoglobin Portland I (ζ2γ2).", "* Hemoglobin Portland II (ζ2β2).In fetuses:* Hemoglobin F (α2γ2) ().In neonates (newborns inmmediately after birth):* Hemoglobin A (adult hemoglobin) (α2β2) () – The most common with a normal amount over 95%* Hemoglobin A2 (α2δ2) – δ chain synthesis begins late in the third trimester and, in adults, it has a normal range of 1.5–3.5%* Hemoglobin F (fetal hemoglobin) (α2γ2) – In adults Hemoglobin F is restricted to a limited population of red cells called F-cells.", "However, the level of Hb F can be elevated in persons with sickle-cell disease and beta-thalassemia.Gene expression of hemoglobin before and after birth.", "Also identifies the types of cells and organs in which the gene expression (data on ''Wood W.G.", "'', (1976).", "'''Br.", "Med.", "Bull.", "32, 282.", "''')Abnormal forms that occur in diseases:* Hemoglobin D-Punjab – (α2βD2) – A variant form of hemoglobin.", "* Hemoglobin H (β4) – A variant form of hemoglobin, formed by a tetramer of β chains, which may be present in variants of α thalassemia.", "* Hemoglobin Barts (γ4) – A variant form of hemoglobin, formed by a tetramer of γ chains, which may be present in variants of α thalassemia.", "* Hemoglobin S (α2βS2) – A variant form of hemoglobin found in people with sickle cell disease.", "There is a variation in the β-chain gene, causing a change in the properties of hemoglobin, which results in sickling of red blood cells.", "* Hemoglobin C (α2βC2) – Another variant due to a variation in the β-chain gene.", "This variant causes a mild chronic hemolytic anemia.", "* Hemoglobin E (α2βE2) – Another variant due to a variation in the β-chain gene.", "This variant causes a mild chronic hemolytic anemia.", "* Hemoglobin AS – A heterozygous form causing sickle cell trait with one adult gene and one sickle cell disease gene* Hemoglobin SC disease – A compound heterozygous form with one sickle gene and another encoding Hemoglobin C.* Hemoglobin Hopkins-2 – A variant form of hemoglobin that is sometimes viewed in combination with Hemoglobin S to produce sickle cell disease." ], [ "Degradation in vertebrate animals", "When red blood cells reach the end of their life due to aging or defects, they are removed from the circulation by the phagocytic activity of macrophages in the spleen or the liver or hemolyze within the circulation.", "Free hemoglobin is then cleared from the circulation via the hemoglobin transporter CD163, which is exclusively expressed on monocytes or macrophages.", "Within these cells the hemoglobin molecule is broken up, and the iron gets recycled.", "This process also produces one molecule of carbon monoxide for every molecule of heme degraded.", "Heme degradation is the only natural source of carbon monoxide in the human body, and is responsible for the normal blood levels of carbon monoxide in people breathing normal air.The other major final product of heme degradation is bilirubin.", "Increased levels of this chemical are detected in the blood if red blood cells are being destroyed more rapidly than usual.", "Improperly degraded hemoglobin protein or hemoglobin that has been released from the blood cells too rapidly can clog small blood vessels, especially the delicate blood filtering vessels of the kidneys, causing kidney damage.", "Iron is removed from heme and salvaged for later use, it is stored as hemosiderin or ferritin in tissues and transported in plasma by beta globulins as transferrins.", "When the porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments are normally secreted as a yellow pigment called bilirubin, which is secreted into the intestines as bile.", "Intestines metabolise bilirubin into urobilinogen.", "Urobilinogen leaves the body in faeces, in a pigment called stercobilin.", "Globulin is metabolised into amino acids that are then released into circulation." ], [ "Diseases related to hemoglobin", "Hemoglobin deficiency can be caused either by a decreased amount of hemoglobin molecules, as in anemia, or by decreased ability of each molecule to bind oxygen at the same partial pressure of oxygen.", "Hemoglobinopathies (genetic defects resulting in abnormal structure of the hemoglobin molecule) may cause both.", "In any case, hemoglobin deficiency decreases blood oxygen-carrying capacity.", "Hemoglobin deficiency is, in general, strictly distinguished from hypoxemia, defined as decreased partial pressure of oxygen in blood, although both are causes of hypoxia (insufficient oxygen supply to tissues).Other common causes of low hemoglobin include loss of blood, nutritional deficiency, bone marrow problems, chemotherapy, kidney failure, or abnormal hemoglobin (such as that of sickle-cell disease).The ability of each hemoglobin molecule to carry oxygen is normally modified by altered blood pH or CO2, causing an altered oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve.", "However, it can also be pathologically altered in, e.g., carbon monoxide poisoning.Decrease of hemoglobin, with or without an absolute decrease of red blood cells, leads to symptoms of anemia.", "Anemia has many different causes, although iron deficiency and its resultant iron deficiency anemia are the most common causes in the Western world.", "As absence of iron decreases heme synthesis, red blood cells in iron deficiency anemia are ''hypochromic'' (lacking the red hemoglobin pigment) and ''microcytic'' (smaller than normal).", "Other anemias are rarer.", "In hemolysis (accelerated breakdown of red blood cells), associated jaundice is caused by the hemoglobin metabolite bilirubin, and the circulating hemoglobin can cause kidney failure.Some mutations in the globin chain are associated with the hemoglobinopathies, such as sickle-cell disease and thalassemia.", "Other mutations, as discussed at the beginning of the article, are benign and are referred to merely as hemoglobin variants.There is a group of genetic disorders, known as the ''porphyrias'' that are characterized by errors in metabolic pathways of heme synthesis.", "King George III of the United Kingdom was probably the most famous porphyria sufferer.To a small extent, hemoglobin A slowly combines with glucose at the terminal valine (an alpha aminoacid) of each β chain.", "The resulting molecule is often referred to as Hb A1c, a glycated hemoglobin.", "The binding of glucose to amino acids in the hemoglobin takes place spontaneously (without the help of an enzyme) in many proteins, and is not known to serve a useful purpose.", "However, as the concentration of glucose in the blood increases, the percentage of Hb A that turns into Hb A1c increases.", "In diabetics whose glucose usually runs high, the percent Hb A1c also runs high.", "Because of the slow rate of Hb A combination with glucose, the Hb A1c percentage reflects a weighted average of blood glucose levels over the lifetime of red cells, which is approximately 120 days.", "The levels of glycated hemoglobin are therefore measured in order to monitor the long-term control of the chronic disease of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).", "Poor control of T2DM results in high levels of glycated hemoglobin in the red blood cells.", "The normal reference range is approximately 4.0–5.9%.", "Though difficult to obtain, values less than 7% are recommended for people with T2DM.", "Levels greater than 9% are associated with poor control of the glycated hemoglobin, and levels greater than 12% are associated with very poor control.", "Diabetics who keep their glycated hemoglobin levels close to 7% have a much better chance of avoiding the complications that may accompany diabetes (than those whose levels are 8% or higher).", "In addition, increased glycated of hemoglobin increases its affinity for oxygen, therefore preventing its release at the tissue and inducing a level of hypoxia in extreme cases.Elevated levels of hemoglobin are associated with increased numbers or sizes of red blood cells, called polycythemia.", "This elevation may be caused by congenital heart disease, cor pulmonale, pulmonary fibrosis, too much erythropoietin, or polycythemia vera.", "High hemoglobin levels may also be caused by exposure to high altitudes, smoking, dehydration (artificially by concentrating Hb), advanced lung disease and certain tumors.A recent study done in Pondicherry, India, shows its importance in coronary artery disease." ], [ "Diagnostic uses", "A hemoglobin concentration measurement being administered before a blood donation at the American Red Cross Boston Blood Donation Center.Hemoglobin concentration measurement is among the most commonly performed blood tests, usually as part of a complete blood count.", "For example, it is typically tested before or after blood donation.", "Results are reported in g/L, g/dL or mol/L.", "1 g/dL equals about 0.6206 mmol/L, although the latter units are not used as often due to uncertainty regarding the polymeric state of the molecule.", "This conversion factor, using the single globin unit molecular weight of 16,000 Da, is more common for hemoglobin concentration in blood.", "For MCHC (mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration) the conversion factor 0.155, which uses the tetramer weight of 64,500 Da, is more common.", "Normal levels are:* Men: 13.8 to 18.0 g/dL (138 to 180 g/L, or 8.56 to 11.17 mmol/L)* Women: 12.1 to 15.1 g/dL (121 to 151 g/L, or 7.51 to 9.37 mmol/L)* Children: 11 to 16 g/dL (110 to 160 g/L, or 6.83 to 9.93 mmol/L)* Pregnant women: 11 to 14 g/dL (110 to 140 g/L, or 6.83 to 8.69 mmol/L) (9.5 to 15 usual value during pregnancy)Normal values of hemoglobin in the 1st and 3rd trimesters of pregnant women must be at least 11 g/dL and at least 10.5 g/dL during the 2nd trimester.Dehydration or hyperhydration can greatly influence measured hemoglobin levels.", "Albumin can indicate hydration status.If the concentration is below normal, this is called anemia.", "Anemias are classified by the size of red blood cells, the cells that contain hemoglobin in vertebrates.", "The anemia is called \"microcytic\" if red cells are small, \"macrocytic\" if they are large, and \"normocytic\" otherwise.Hematocrit, the proportion of blood volume occupied by red blood cells, is typically about three times the hemoglobin concentration measured in g/dL.", "For example, if the hemoglobin is measured at 17 g/dL, that compares with a hematocrit of 51%.Laboratory hemoglobin test methods require a blood sample (arterial, venous, or capillary) and analysis on hematology analyzer and CO-oximeter.", "Additionally, a new noninvasive hemoglobin (SpHb) test method called Pulse CO-Oximetry is also available with comparable accuracy to invasive methods.Concentrations of oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin can be measured continuously, regionally and noninvasively using NIRS.", "NIRS can be used both on the head and on muscles.", "This technique is often used for research in e.g.", "elite sports training, ergonomics, rehabilitation, patient monitoring, neonatal research, functional brain monitoring, brain–computer interface, urology (bladder contraction), neurology (Neurovascular coupling) and more.Hemoglobin mass can be measured in humans using the non-radioactive, carbon monoxide (CO) rebreathing technique that has been used for more than 100 years.", "With this technique, a small volume of pure CO gas is inhaled and rebreathed for a few minutes.", "During rebreathing, CO binds to hemoglobin present in red blood cells.", "Based on the increase in blood CO after the rebreathing period, the hemoglobin mass can be determined through the dilution principle.", "Although CO gas in large volumes is toxic to humans, the volume of CO used to assess blood volumes corresponds to what would be inhaled when smoking a cigarette.", "While researchers typically use custom-made rebreathing circuits, the Detalo Performance from Detalo Health has automated the procedure and made the measurement available to a larger group of users.Long-term control of blood sugar concentration can be measured by the concentration of Hb A1c.", "Measuring it directly would require many samples because blood sugar levels vary widely through the day.", "Hb A1c is the product of the irreversible reaction of hemoglobin A with glucose.", "A higher glucose concentration results in more Hb A1c.", "Because the reaction is slow, the Hb A1c proportion represents glucose level in blood averaged over the half-life of red blood cells, is typically ~120 days.", "An Hb A1c proportion of 6.0% or less show good long-term glucose control, while values above 7.0% are elevated.", "This test is especially useful for diabetics.The functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine uses the signal from deoxyhemoglobin, which is sensitive to magnetic fields since it is paramagnetic.", "Combined measurement with NIRS shows good correlation with both the oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin signal compared to the BOLD signal." ], [ "Athletic tracking and self tracking uses", "Hemoglobin can be tracked noninvasively, to build an individual data set tracking the hemoconcentration and hemodilution effects of daily activities for better understanding of sports performance and training.", "Athletes are often concerned about endurance and intensity of exercise.", "The sensor uses light-emitting diodes that emit red and infrared light through the tissue to a light detector, which then sends a signal to a processor to calculate the absorption of light by the hemoglobin protein.This sensor is similar to a pulse oximeter, which consists of a small sensing device that clips to the finger." ], [ "Analogues in non-vertebrate organisms", "A variety of oxygen-transport and -binding proteins exist in organisms throughout the animal and plant kingdoms.", "Organisms including bacteria, protozoans, and fungi all have hemoglobin-like proteins whose known and predicted roles include the reversible binding of gaseous ligands.", "Since many of these proteins contain globins and the heme moiety (iron in a flat porphyrin support), they are often called hemoglobins, even if their overall tertiary structure is very different from that of vertebrate hemoglobin.", "In particular, the distinction of \"myoglobin\" and hemoglobin in lower animals is often impossible, because some of these organisms do not contain muscles.", "Or, they may have a recognizable separate circulatory system but not one that deals with oxygen transport (for example, many insects and other arthropods).", "In all these groups, heme/globin-containing molecules (even monomeric globin ones) that deal with gas-binding are referred to as oxyhemoglobins.", "In addition to dealing with transport and sensing of oxygen, they may also deal with NO, CO2, sulfide compounds, and even O2 scavenging in environments that must be anaerobic.", "They may even deal with detoxification of chlorinated materials in a way analogous to heme-containing P450 enzymes and peroxidases.The giant tube worm ''Riftia pachyptila'' showing red hemoglobin-containing plumesThe structure of hemoglobins varies across species.", "Hemoglobin occurs in all kingdoms of organisms, but not in all organisms.", "Primitive species such as bacteria, protozoa, algae, and plants often have single-globin hemoglobins.", "Many nematode worms, molluscs, and crustaceans contain very large multisubunit molecules, much larger than those in vertebrates.", "In particular, chimeric hemoglobins found in fungi and giant annelids may contain both globin and other types of proteins.One of the most striking occurrences and uses of hemoglobin in organisms is in the giant tube worm (''Riftia pachyptila'', also called Vestimentifera), which can reach 2.4 meters length and populates ocean volcanic vents.", "Instead of a digestive tract, these worms contain a population of bacteria constituting half the organism's weight.", "The bacteria oxidize H2S from the vent with O2 from the water to produce energy to make food from H2O and CO2.The worms' upper end is a deep-red fan-like structure (\"plume\"), which extends into the water and absorbs H2S and O2 for the bacteria, and CO2 for use as synthetic raw material similar to photosynthetic plants.", "The structures are bright red due to their content of several extraordinarily complex hemoglobins that have up to 144 globin chains, each including associated heme structures.", "These hemoglobins are remarkable for being able to carry oxygen in the presence of sulfide, and even to carry sulfide, without being completely \"poisoned\" or inhibited by it as hemoglobins in most other species are." ], [ "Other oxygen-binding proteins", ";Myoglobin: Found in the muscle tissue of many vertebrates, including humans, it gives muscle tissue a distinct red or dark gray color.", "It is very similar to hemoglobin in structure and sequence, but is not a tetramer; instead, it is a monomer that lacks cooperative binding.", "It is used to store oxygen rather than transport it.", ";Hemocyanin: The second most common oxygen-transporting protein found in nature, it is found in the blood of many arthropods and molluscs.", "Uses copper prosthetic groups instead of iron heme groups and is blue in color when oxygenated.", ";Hemerythrin: Some marine invertebrates and a few species of annelid use this iron-containing non-heme protein to carry oxygen in their blood.", "Appears pink/violet when oxygenated, clear when not.", ";Chlorocruorin: Found in many annelids, it is very similar to erythrocruorin, but the heme group is significantly different in structure.", "Appears green when deoxygenated and red when oxygenated.", ";Vanabins: Also known as ''vanadium chromagens'', they are found in the blood of sea squirts.", "They were once hypothesized to use the metal vanadium as an oxygen binding prosthetic group.", "However, although they do contain vanadium by preference, they apparently bind little oxygen, and thus have some other function, which has not been elucidated (sea squirts also contain some hemoglobin).", "They may act as toxins.", ";Erythrocruorin: Found in many annelids, including earthworms, it is a giant free-floating blood protein containing many dozens—possibly hundreds—of iron- and heme-bearing protein subunits bound together into a single protein complex with a molecular mass greater than 3.5 million daltons.", ";Leghemoglobin: In leguminous plants, such as alfalfa or soybeans, the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots are protected from oxygen by this iron heme containing oxygen-binding protein.", "The specific enzyme protected is nitrogenase, which is unable to reduce nitrogen gas in the presence of free oxygen.", ";Coboglobin: A synthetic cobalt-based porphyrin.", "Coboprotein would appear colorless when oxygenated, but yellow when in veins." ], [ "Presence in nonerythroid cells", "Some nonerythroid cells (i.e., cells other than the red blood cell line) contain hemoglobin.", "In the brain, these include the A9 dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, astrocytes in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, and in all mature oligodendrocytes.", "It has been suggested that brain hemoglobin in these cells may enable the \"storage of oxygen to provide a homeostatic mechanism in anoxic conditions, which is especially important for A9 DA neurons that have an elevated metabolism with a high requirement for energy production\".", "It has been noted further that \"A9 dopaminergic neurons may be at particular risk of anoxic degeneration since in addition to their high mitochondrial activity they are under intense oxidative stress caused by the production of hydrogen peroxide via autoxidation and/or monoamine oxidase (MAO)-mediated deamination of dopamine and the subsequent reaction of accessible ferrous iron to generate highly toxic hydroxyl radicals\".", "This may explain the risk of degeneration of these cells in Parkinson's disease.", "The hemoglobin-derived iron in these cells is not the cause of the post-mortem darkness of these cells (origin of the Latin name, substantia ''nigra''), but rather is due to neuromelanin.Outside the brain, hemoglobin has non-oxygen-carrying functions as an antioxidant and a regulator of iron metabolism in macrophages, alveolar cells, and mesangial cells in the kidney." ], [ "In history, art and music", "''Heart of Steel (Hemoglobin)'' (2005) by Julian Voss-Andreae.", "The images show the 5-foot (1.50 m) tall sculpture right after installation, after 10 days, and after several months of exposure to the elements.Historically, an association between the color of blood and rust occurs in the association of the planet Mars, with the Roman god of war, since the planet is an orange-red, which reminded the ancients of blood.", "Although the color of the planet is due to iron compounds in combination with oxygen in the Martian soil, it is a common misconception that the iron in hemoglobin and its oxides gives blood its red color.", "The color is actually due to the porphyrin moiety of hemoglobin to which the iron is bound, not the iron itself, although the ligation and redox state of the iron can influence the pi to pi* or n to pi* electronic transitions of the porphyrin and hence its optical characteristics.Artist Julian Voss-Andreae created a sculpture called ''Heart of Steel (Hemoglobin)'' in 2005, based on the protein's backbone.", "The sculpture was made from glass and weathering steel.", "The intentional rusting of the initially shiny work of art mirrors hemoglobin's fundamental chemical reaction of oxygen binding to iron.Montreal artist Nicolas Baier created ''Lustre (Hémoglobine)'', a sculpture in stainless steel that shows the structure of the hemoglobin molecule.", "It is displayed in the atrium of McGill University Health Centre's research centre in Montreal.", "The sculpture measures about 10 metres × 10 metres × 10 metres." ], [ "See also", "* Carbaminohemoglobin (Hb associated with )* Carboxyhemoglobin (Hb associated with CO)* Chlorophyll (Mg heme)* Complete blood count* Delta globin* Hemoglobinometer* Hemoprotein* Methemoglobin (ferric Hb, or ferrihemoglobin)* Oxyhemoglobin (with diatomic oxygen, colored blood-red)* Vaska's complex – iridium organometallic complex notable for its ability to bind to O2 reversibly* Tegillarca granosa" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Sources===" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Hazelwood, Loren (2001) ''Can't Live Without It: The story of hemoglobin in sickness and in health'', Nova Science Publishers * *" ], [ "External links", "* * National Anemia Action Council at anemia.org* New hemoglobin type causes mock diagnosis with pulse oxymeters at www.life-of-science.net * Animation of hemoglobin: from deoxy to oxy form at vimeo.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of England" ], [ "Introduction", "England became inhabited more than 800,000 years ago, as the discovery of stone tools and footprints at Happisburgh in Norfolk have indicated.", "The earliest evidence for early modern humans in Northwestern Europe, a jawbone discovered in Devon at Kents Cavern in 1927, was re-dated in 2011 to between 41,000 and 44,000 years old.", "Continuous human habitation in England dates to around 13,000 years ago (see Creswellian), at the end of the Last Glacial Period.", "The region has numerous remains from the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age, such as Stonehenge and Avebury.", "In the Iron Age, all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth was inhabited by the Celtic people known as the Britons, including some Belgic tribes (e.g.", "the Atrebates, the Catuvellauni, the Trinovantes, etc.)", "in the south east.", "In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began; the Romans maintained control of their province of Britannia until the early 5th century.The end of Roman rule in Britain facilitated the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, which historians often regard as the origin of England and of the English people.", "The Anglo-Saxons, a collection of various Germanic peoples, established several kingdoms that became the primary powers in present-day England and parts of southern Scotland.", "They introduced the Old English language, which largely displaced the previous Brittonic language.", "The Anglo-Saxons warred with British successor states in western Britain and the ''Hen Ogledd'' (Old North; the Brittonic-speaking parts of northern Britain), as well as with each other.", "Raids by Vikings became frequent after about AD 800, and the Norsemen settled in large parts of what is now England.", "During this period, several rulers attempted to unite the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, an effort that led to the emergence of the Kingdom of England by the 10th century.In 1066, a Norman expedition invaded and conquered England.", "The Norman dynasty, established by William the Conqueror, ruled England for over half a century before the period of succession crisis known as the Anarchy (1135–1154).", "Following the Anarchy, England came under the rule of the House of Plantagenet, a dynasty which later inherited claims to the Kingdom of France.", "During this period, ''Magna Carta'' was signed and Parliament became established.", "Anti-Semitism rose to great heights, and in 1290, England became the first country to permanently expel the Jews.", "A succession crisis in France led to the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), a series of conflicts involving the peoples of both nations.", "Following the Hundred Years' Wars, England became embroiled in its own succession wars.", "The Wars of the Roses pitted two branches of the House of Plantagenet against one another, the House of York and the House of Lancaster.", "The Lancastrian Henry Tudor ended the War of the Roses and established the Tudor dynasty in 1485.Under the Tudors and the later Stuart dynasty, England became a colonial power.", "During the rule of the Stuarts, the English Civil War took place between the Parliamentarians and the Royalists, which resulted in the execution of King Charles I (1649) and the establishment of a series of republican governments—first, a Parliamentary republic known as the Commonwealth of England (1649–1653), then a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell known as the Protectorate (1653–1659).", "The Stuarts returned to the restored throne in 1660, though continued questions over religion and power resulted in the deposition of another Stuart king, James II, in the Glorious Revolution (1688).", "England, which had subsumed Wales in the 16th century under Henry VIII, united with Scotland in 1707 to form a new sovereign state called Great Britain.", "Following the Industrial Revolution, which started in England, Great Britain ruled a colonial Empire, the largest in recorded history.", "Following a process of decolonisation in the 20th century, mainly caused by the weakening of Great Britain's power in the two World Wars; almost all of the empire's overseas territories became independent countries." ], [ "Prehistory", "===Stone Age===Stonehenge, erected in several stages from c.3000–2500 BCThe time from Britain's first inhabitation until the Last Glacial Maximum is known as the Old Stone Age, or Palaeolithic era.", "Archaeological evidence indicates that what was to become England was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles because of its more hospitable climate between and during the various glacial periods of the distant past.", "This earliest evidence, from Happisburgh in Norfolk, includes the oldest hominid artefacts found in Britain, and points to dates of more than 800,000 RCYBP.", "These earliest inhabitants were hunter-gatherers.", "Low sea-levels meant that Britain was attached to the continent for much of this earliest period of history, and varying temperatures over tens of thousands of years meant that it was not always inhabited.Silbury Hill, c. 2400 BCEngland has been continuously inhabited since the last Ice Age ended around 9000 BC, the beginning of the Middle Stone Age, or Mesolithic era.", "Rising sea-levels cut off Britain from the continent for the last time around 6500 BC.", "The population by then, as in the rest of the world, was exclusively anatomically modern humans, and the evidence suggests that their societies were increasingly complex and they were manipulating their environment and prey in new ways, possibly selective burning of then omnipresent woodland to create clearings for herds to gather and then hunt them.", "Hunting was mainly done with simple projectile weapons such as javelin and possibly sling.", "Bow and arrow was known in Western Europe since at least 9000 BC.", "The climate continued to warm and the population probably rose.The New Stone Age, or Neolithic era, began with the introduction of farming, ultimately from the Middle East, around 4000 BC.", "It is not known whether this was caused by a substantial folk movement or native adoption of foreign practices or both.", "People began to lead a more settled lifestyle.", "Monumental collective tombs were built for the dead in the form of chambered cairns and long barrows.", "Towards the end of the period, other kinds of monumental stone alignments begin to appear, such as Stonehenge; their cosmic alignments show a preoccupation with the sky and planets.", "Flint technology produced a number of highly artistic pieces as well as purely pragmatic.", "More extensive woodland clearance was done for fields and pastures.", "The Sweet Track in the Somerset Levels is one of the oldest timber trackways known in Northern Europe and among the oldest roads in the world, dated by dendrochronology to the winter of 3807–3806 BC; it too is thought to have been a primarily religious structure.", "Archaeological evidence from North Yorkshire indicates that salt was being manufactured there in the Neolithic.===Later Prehistory=======Bronze Age====Artefacts from Bush Barrow at Stonehenge.", "Wessex culture, Early Bronze Age, The Bronze Age began around 2500 BC with the appearance of bronze objects.", "This coincides with the appearance of the characteristic Bell Beaker culture, following migration of new people from the continent.", "According to Olalde et al.", "(2018), after 2500 BC Britain's Neolithic population was largely replaced by this new Bell Beaker population, that was genetically related to the Corded Ware culture of central and eastern Europe and the Yamnaya culture of the eastern European Pontic-Caspian Steppe.", "While the migration of these Beaker peoples must have been accompanied by a language shift, the Celtic languages were probably introduced by later Celtic migrations.The Bronze Age saw a shift of emphasis from the communal to the individual, and the rise of increasingly powerful elites whose power came from their prowess as hunters and warriors and their controlling the flow of precious resources to manipulate tin and copper into high-status bronze objects such as swords and axes.", "Settlement became increasingly permanent and intensive.", "Towards the end of the Bronze Age, many examples of very fine metalwork began to be deposited in rivers, presumably for ritual reasons and perhaps reflecting a progressive change in emphasis from the sky to the earth, as a rising population put increasing pressure on the land.", "England largely became bound up with the Atlantic trade system, which created a cultural continuum over a large part of Western Europe.", "It is possible that the Celtic languages developed or spread to England as part of this system; by the end of the Iron Age there is much evidence that they were spoken across all England and western parts of Britain.====Iron Age====Maiden Castle (450 BC), as they look todayThe 255x255pxThe Iron Age is conventionally said to begin around 800 BC.", "At this time, the Britons or Celtic Britons were settled in England.", "The Celtic people of early England were the majority of the population, beside other smaller ethnic groups in Great Britain.", "They existed like this from the British Iron Age into the Middle Ages, when it was overtaken by Germanic Anglo-Saxons.", "After some time, the Celtic Britons diverged into the multiple distinct ethnic groups such as Welsh, Cornish and Breton, but they were still tied by language, religion and culture.", "They spoke the Brittonic language, a Celtic language which is the ancestor of the modern Brittonic languages.", "The Atlantic system had by this time effectively collapsed, although England maintained contacts across the channel with France, as the Hallstatt culture became widespread across the country.", "Its continuity suggests it was not accompanied by substantial movement of population; crucially, only a single Hallstatt burial is known from Britain, and even here the evidence is inconclusive.", "On the whole, burials largely disappear across England, and the dead were disposed of in a way which is archaeologically invisible: excarnation is a widely cited possibility.", "Hillforts were known since the Late Bronze Age, but a huge number were constructed during 600–400 BC, particularly in the South, while after about 400 BC new forts were rarely built and many ceased to be regularly inhabited, while a few forts become more and more intensively occupied, suggesting a degree of regional centralisation.Gold torc from Snettisham, 70 BC|220x220pxAround this time the earliest mentions of Britain appear in the annals of history.", "The first historical mention of the region is from the Massaliote Periplus, a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the 6th century BC, and Pytheas of Massilia wrote of his voyage of discovery to the island around 325 BC.", "Both of these texts are now lost; although quoted by later writers, not enough survives to inform the archaeological interpretation to any significant degree.Contact with the continent was less than in the Bronze Age but still significant.", "Goods continued to move to England, with a possible hiatus around 350 to 150 BC.", "There were a few armed invasions of hordes of migrating Celts.", "There are two known invasions.", "Around 300 BC, a group from the Gaulish Parisii tribe apparently took over East Yorkshire, establishing the highly distinctive Arras culture.", "And from around 150–100 BC, groups of Belgae began to control significant parts of the South.Bronze coins of Cunobelin, called \"King of the Britons\" by Suetonius.", "1–42 AD.|220x220pxThese invasions constituted movements of a few people who established themselves as a warrior elite atop existing native systems, rather than replacing them.", "The Belgic invasion was much larger than the Parisian settlement, but the continuity of pottery style shows that the native population remained in place.", "Yet, it was accompanied by significant socio-economic change.", "Proto-urban, or even urban settlements, known as oppida, begin to eclipse the old hillforts, and an elite whose position is based on battle prowess and the ability to manipulate resources re-appears much more distinctly.In 55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar, as part of his campaigns in Gaul, invaded Britain and claimed to have scored a number of victories, but he never penetrated further than Hertfordshire and could not establish a province.", "However, his invasions mark a turning-point in British history.", "Control of trade, the flow of resources and prestige goods, became ever more important to the elites of Southern Britain; Rome steadily became the biggest player in all their dealings, as the provider of great wealth and patronage.", "In retrospect, a full-scale invasion and annexation was inevitable." ], [ "Roman Britain", "Londinium (Roman London), Bath, England.Remains of Hadrian's WallAfter Caesar's expeditions, the Romans began a serious and sustained attempt to conquer Britain in AD 43, at the behest of Emperor Claudius.", "They landed in Kent with four legions and defeated two armies led by the kings of the Catuvellauni tribe, Caratacus and Togodumnus, in battles at the Medway and the Thames.", "Togodumnus was killed, and Caratacus fled to Wales.", "The Roman force, led by Aulus Plautius, waited for Claudius to come and lead the final march on the Catuvellauni capital at Camulodunum (modern Colchester), before he returned to Rome for his triumph.", "The Catuvellauni held sway over most of the southeastern corner of England; eleven local rulers surrendered, a number of client kingdoms were established, and the rest became a Roman province with Camulodunum as its capital.", "Over the next four years, the territory was consolidated and the future emperor Vespasian led a campaign into the Southwest where he subjugated two more tribes.", "By AD 54 the border had been pushed back to the Severn and the Trent, and campaigns were underway to subjugate Northern England and Wales.But in AD 60, under the leadership of the warrior-queen Boudicca, the tribes rebelled against the Romans.", "At first, the rebels had great success.", "They burned Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium (modern-day Colchester, London and St. Albans respectively) to the ground.", "There is some archaeological evidence that the same happened at Winchester.", "The Second Legion Augusta, stationed at Exeter, refused to move for fear of revolt among the locals.", "Londinium governor Suetonius Paulinus evacuated the city before the rebels sacked and burned it; the fire was so hot that a ten-inch layer of melted red clay remains 15 feet below London's streets.", "In the end, the rebels were said to have killed 70,000 Romans and Roman sympathisers.", "Paulinus gathered what was left of the Roman army.", "In the decisive battle, 10,000 Romans faced nearly 100,000 warriors somewhere along the line of Watling Street, at the end of which Boudicca was utterly defeated.", "It was said that 80,000 rebels were killed, but only 400 Romans.Over the next 20 years, the borders expanded slightly, but the governor Agricola incorporated into the province the last pockets of independence in Wales and Northern England.", "He also led a campaign into Scotland which was recalled by Emperor Domitian.", "The border gradually formed along the Stanegate road in Northern England, solidified by Hadrian's Wall built in AD 138, despite temporary forays into Scotland.The Romans and their culture stayed in charge for 350 years.", "Traces of their presence are ubiquitous throughout England." ], [ "Anglo-Saxon period", "===Anglo-Saxon migrations===Anglo-Saxon helmet from the Sutton Hoo ship burial, 625 AD (replica)In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain from the middle of the fourth century, present day England was progressively settled by Germanic groups.", "Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, these included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians.", "The Battle of Deorham was critical in establishing Anglo-Saxon rule in 577.Saxon mercenaries existed in Britain since before the late Roman period, but the main influx of population probably happened after the fifth century.", "The precise nature of these invasions is not fully known; there are doubts about the legitimacy of historical accounts due to a lack of archaeological finds.", "Gildas' ''De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae'', composed in the 6th century, states that when the Roman army departed the Isle of Britannia in the 4th century AD, the indigenous Britons were invaded by Picts, their neighbours to the north (now Scotland) and the Scots (now Ireland).", "Britons invited the Saxons to the island to repel them but after they vanquished the Scots and Picts, the Saxons turned against the Britons.Britain, c. AD 600The epic poem ''239x239pxSeven kingdoms are traditionally identified as being established by these migrants.", "Three were clustered in the South east: Sussex, Kent and Essex.", "The Midlands were dominated by the kingdoms of Mercia and East Anglia.", "To the north was Northumbria which unified two earlier kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira.", "Other smaller kingdoms seem to have existed as well, such as Lindsey in what is now Lincolnshire, and the Hwicce in the southwest.", "Eventually, the kingdoms were dominated by Northumbria and Mercia in the 7th century, Mercia in the 8th century and then Wessex in the 9th century.", "Northumbria eventually extended its control north into Scotland and west into Wales.", "It also subdued Mercia whose first powerful King, Penda, was killed by Oswy in 655.Northumbria's power began to wane after 685 with the defeat and death of its king Aegfrith at the hands of the Picts.", "Mercian power reached its peak under the rule of Offa, who from 785 had influence over most of Anglo-Saxon England.", "Since Offa's death in 796, the supremacy of Wessex was established under Egbert who extended control west into Cornwall before defeating the Mercians at the Battle of Ellendun in 825.Four years later, he received submission and tribute from the Northumbrian king, Eanred.Since so few contemporary sources exist, the events of the fifth and sixth centuries are difficult to ascertain.", "As such, the nature of the Anglo-Saxon settlements is debated by historians, archaeologists and linguists.", "The traditional view, that the Anglo-Saxons drove the Romano-British inhabitants out of what is now England, was subject to reappraisal in the later twentieth century.", "One suggestion is that the invaders were smaller in number, drawn from an elite class of male warriors that gradually acculturated the natives.An emerging view is that the scale of the Anglo-Saxon settlement varied across England, and that as such it cannot be described by any one process in particular.", "Mass migration and population shift seem to be most applicable in the core areas of settlement such as East Anglia and Lincolnshire, while in more peripheral areas to the northwest, much of the native population likely remained in place as the incomers took over as elites.", "In a study of place names in northeastern England and southern Scotland, Bethany Fox concluded that Anglian migrants settled in large numbers in river valleys, such as those of the Tyne and the Tweed, with the Britons in the less fertile hill country becoming acculturated over a longer period.", "Fox interprets the process by which English came to dominate this region as \"a synthesis of mass-migration and elite-takeover models.", "\"===Genetic markers of Anglo-Saxon migrations===Shoulder clasp from Sutton Hoo, 625 ADGenetic testing has been used to find evidence of large scale immigration of Germanic peoples into England.", "Weale ''et al.''", "(2002) found that English Y DNA data showed signs of a mass Anglo-Saxon immigration from the European continent, affecting 50%–100% of the male gene pool in central England.", "This was based on the similarity of the DNA collected from small English towns to that found in Friesland.", "A 2003 study with samples coming from larger towns, found a large variance in amounts of continental \"Germanic\" ancestry in different parts of England.", "In the study, such markers typically ranged from 20% and 45% in southern England, with East Anglia, the east Midlands, and Yorkshire having over 50%.", "North German and Danish genetic frequencies were indistinguishable, thus precluding any ability to distinguish between the genetic influence of the Anglo-Saxon source populations and the later, and better documented, influx of Danish Vikings.", "The mean value of continental Germanic genetic input in this study was calculated at 54 per cent.In response to arguments, such as those of Stephen Oppenheimer and Bryan Sykes, that the similarity between English and continental Germanic DNA could have originated from earlier prehistoric migrations, researchers have begun to use data collected from ancient burials to ascertain the level of Anglo-Saxon contribution to the modern English gene pool.Two studies published in 2016, based on data collected from skeletons found in Iron Age, Roman and Anglo-Saxon era graves in Cambridgeshire and Yorkshire, concluded that the ancestry of the modern English population contains large contributions from both Anglo-Saxon migrants and Romano-British natives.===Heptarchy and Christianisation===The 202x202pxFolio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels, c. 720 ADChristianisation of Anglo-Saxon England began around 600 AD, influenced by Celtic Christianity from the northwest and the Roman Catholic Church from the southeast.", "Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, took office in 597.In 601, he baptised the first Christian Anglo-Saxon king, Æthelberht of Kent.", "The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king, Penda of Mercia, died in 655.The last pagan Jutish king, Arwald of the Isle of Wight was killed in 686.The Anglo-Saxon mission on the continent took off in the 8th century, leading to the Christianisation of practically all of the Frankish Empire by 800.Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms.", "Bede records Æthelberht of Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdom of Northumbria, which was formed from the amalgamation of Bernicia and Deira.", "Edwin of Northumbria probably held dominance over much of Britain, though Bede's Northumbrian bias should be kept in mind.", "Due to succession crises, Northumbrian hegemony was not constant, and Mercia remained a very powerful kingdom, especially under Penda.", "Two defeats ended Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of the Trent in 679 against Mercia, and Nechtanesmere in 685 against the Picts.The so-called \"Mercian Supremacy\" dominated the 8th century, though it was not constant.", "Aethelbald and Offa, the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; indeed, Offa was considered the overlord of south Britain by Charlemagne.", "His power is illustrated by the fact that he summoned the resources to build Offa's Dyke.", "However, a rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century the \"Mercian Supremacy\" was over.This period has been described as the Heptarchy, though this term has now fallen out of academic use.", "The term arose because the seven kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain.", "Other small kingdoms were also politically important across this period: Hwicce, Magonsaete, Lindsey and Middle Anglia.===Viking challenge and the rise of Wessex===England in 878The first recorded landing of Vikings took place in 787 in Dorsetshire, on the south-west coast.", "The first major attack in Britain was in 793 at Lindisfarne monastery as given by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''.", "However, by then the Vikings were almost certainly well-established in Orkney and Shetland, and many other non-recorded raids probably occurred before this.", "Records do show the first Viking attack on Iona taking place in 794.The arrival of the Vikings (in particular the Danish Great Heathen Army) upset the political and social geography of Britain and Ireland.", "In 867 Northumbria fell to the Danes; East Anglia fell in 869.Though Wessex managed to contain the Vikings by defeating them at Ashdown in 871, a second invading army landed, leaving the Saxons on a defensive footing.", "At much the same time, Æthelred, king of Wessex died and was succeeded by his younger brother Alfred.", "Alfred was immediately confronted with the task of defending Wessex against the Danes.", "He spent the first five years of his reign paying the invaders off.", "In 878, Alfred's forces were overwhelmed at Chippenham in a surprise attack.The 234x234pxIt was only now, with the independence of Wessex hanging by a thread, that Alfred emerged as a great king.", "In May 878 he led a force that defeated the Danes at Edington.", "The victory was so complete that the Danish leader, Guthrum, was forced to accept Christian baptism and withdraw from Mercia.", "Alfred then set about strengthening the defences of Wessex, building a new navy—60 vessels strong.", "Alfred's success bought Wessex and Mercia years of peace and sparked economic recovery in previously ravaged areas.Alfred's success was sustained by his son Edward, whose decisive victories over the Danes in East Anglia in 910 and 911 were followed by a crushing victory at Tempsford in 917.These military gains allowed Edward to fully incorporate Mercia into his kingdom and add East Anglia to his conquests.", "Edward then set about reinforcing his northern borders against the Danish kingdom of Northumbria.", "Edward's rapid conquest of the English kingdoms meant Wessex received homage from those that remained, including Gwynedd in Wales and Scotland.", "His dominance was reinforced by his son Æthelstan, who extended the borders of Wessex northward, in 927 conquering the Kingdom of York and leading a land and naval invasion of Scotland.", "These conquests led to his adopting the title 'King of the English' for the first time.The dominance and independence of England was maintained by the kings that followed.", "It was not until 978 and the accession of Æthelred the Unready that the Danish threat resurfaced.", "Two powerful Danish kings (Harold Bluetooth and later his son Sweyn) both launched devastating invasions of England.", "Anglo-Saxon forces were resoundingly defeated at Maldon in 991.More Danish attacks followed, and their victories were frequent.", "Æthelred's control over his nobles began to falter, and he grew increasingly desperate.", "His solution was to pay off the Danes: for almost 20 years he paid increasingly large sums to the Danish nobles to keep them from English coasts.", "These payments, known as Danegelds, crippled the English economy.Æthelred then made an alliance with Normandy in 1001 through marriage to the Duke's daughter Emma, in the hope of strengthening England.", "Then he made a great error: in 1002 he ordered the massacre of all the Danes in England.", "In response, Sweyn began a decade of devastating attacks on England.", "Northern England, with its sizable Danish population, sided with Sweyn.", "By 1013, London, Oxford, and Winchester had fallen to the Danes.", "Æthelred fled to Normandy and Sweyn seized the throne.", "Sweyn suddenly died in 1014, and Æthelred returned to England, confronted by Sweyn's successor, Cnut.", "However, in 1016, Æthelred also suddenly died.", "Cnut swiftly defeated the remaining Saxons, killing Æthelred's son Edmund in the process.", "Cnut seized the throne, crowning himself King of England.===English unification===Frontispiece of 280x280pxAlfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by his son Edward the Elder.", "Edward, and his brother-in-law Æthelred of (what was left of) Mercia, began a programme of expansion, building forts and towns on an Alfredian model.", "On Æthelred's death, his wife (Edward's sister) Æthelflæd ruled as \"Lady of the Mercians\" and continued expansion.", "It seems Edward had his son Æthelstan brought up in the Mercian court.", "On Edward's death, Æthelstan succeeded to the Mercian kingdom, and, after some uncertainty, Wessex.Æthelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt and was the first king to achieve direct rulership of what we would now consider England.", "The titles attributed to him in charters and on coins suggest a still more widespread dominance.", "His expansion aroused ill-feeling among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a combined Scottish-Viking army at the Battle of Brunanburh.", "However, the unification of England was not a certainty.", "Under Æthelstan's successors Edmund and Eadred the English kings repeatedly lost and regained control of Northumbria.", "Nevertheless, Edgar, who ruled the same expanse as Æthelstan, consolidated the kingdom, which remained united thereafter.===England under the Danes and the Norman conquest===There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at the end of the 10th century.", "Æthelred ruled a long reign but ultimately lost his kingdom to Sweyn of Denmark, though he recovered it following the latter's death.", "However, Æthelred's son Edmund II Ironside died shortly afterwards, allowing Cnut, Sweyn's son, to become king of England.", "Under his rule the kingdom became the centre of government for the North Sea empire which included Denmark and Norway.Cnut was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor.", "Edward's failure to produce an heir caused a furious conflict over the succession on his death in 1066.His struggles for power against Godwin, Earl of Wessex, the claims of Cnut's Scandinavian successors, and the ambitions of the Normans whom Edward introduced to English politics to bolster his own position caused each to vie for control of Edward's reign.Anglo-Saxon king with his Witan.", "Biblical scene in the Old English Hexateuch (11th century)Harold Godwinson became king, probably appointed by Edward on his deathbed and endorsed by the Witan.", "But William of Normandy, Harald Hardråde (aided by Harold Godwin's estranged brother Tostig) and Sweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to the throne.", "By far the strongest hereditary claim was that of Edgar the Ætheling, but due to his youth and apparent lack of powerful supporters, he did not play a major part in the struggles of 1066, although he was made king for a short time by the Witan after the death of Harold Godwinson.In September 1066, Harald III of Norway and Earl Tostig landed in Northern England with a force of around 15,000 men and 300 longships.", "Harold Godwinson defeated the invaders and killed Harald III of Norway and Tostig at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.On 28 September 1066, William of Normandy invaded England in a campaign called the Norman Conquest.", "After marching from Yorkshire, Harold's exhausted army was defeated and Harold was killed at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October.", "Further opposition to William in support of Edgar the Ætheling soon collapsed, and William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066.For five years, he faced a series of rebellions in various parts of England and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he subdued them and established an enduring regime." ], [ "Norman England", "Depiction of the Battle of Hastings (1066) on the Bayeux TapestryThe Norman Conquest led to a profound change in the history of the English state.", "William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey of the entire population and their lands and property for tax purposes, which reveals that within 20 years of the conquest the English ruling class had been almost entirely dispossessed and replaced by Norman landholders, who monopolised all senior positions in the government and the Church.", "William and his nobles spoke and conducted court in Norman French, in both Normandy and England.", "The use of the Anglo-Norman language by the aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern English.Upon being crowned, on Christmas Day 1066, William immediately began consolidating his power.", "By 1067, he faced revolts on all sides and spent four years crushing them.", "He then imposed his superiority over Scotland and Wales, forcing them to recognise him as overlord.", "Economic growth and state finances were aided by the beginning of Jewish settlement in London.The English Middle Ages were characterised by civil war, international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue among the aristocratic and monarchic elite.", "England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton.", "Its international economy was based on wool trade, in which wool from the sheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities of Flanders, where it was worked into cloth.", "Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with the Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France.", "An English textile industry was established in the 15th century, providing the basis for rapid English capital accumulation.White Tower of the Tower of London, built in 1078Henry I, the fourth son of William I the Conqueror, succeeded his elder brother William II as King of England in 1100.Henry was also known as \"Henry Beauclerc\" because he received a formal education, unlike his older brother and heir apparent William who got practical training to be king.", "Henry worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman societies.", "The loss of his son, William Adelin, in the wreck of the ''White Ship'' in November 1120, undermined his reforms.", "This problem regarding succession cast a long shadow over English history.Henry I had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to accept Matilda (also known as Empress Maud, Henry I's daughter) as his heir.", "England was far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler.There is some evidence that Henry was unsure of his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir.", "Probably Henry hoped Matilda would have a son and step aside as Queen Mother.", "Upon Henry's death, the Norman and English barons ignored Matilda's claim to the throne, and thus through a series of decisions, Stephen, Henry's favourite nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Normandy as their new king.Durham Cathedral.", "The Norman cathedral was built 1093–1133On 22 December 1135, Stephen was anointed king with implicit support by the church and nation.", "Matilda and her own son waited in France until she sparked the civil war from 1139 to 1153 known as the Anarchy.", "In the autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester.", "Her husband, Geoffroy V of Anjou, conquered Normandy but did not cross the channel to help his wife.", "During this breakdown of central authority, nobles built adulterine castles (i.e.", "castles erected without government permission), which were hated by the peasants, who were forced to build and maintain them.Stephen was captured, and his government fell.", "Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from London.", "The war continued until 1148, when Matilda returned to France.", "Stephen reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his hold on the throne was uneasy.", "As soon as he regained power, he began to demolish the adulterine castles, but kept a few castles standing, which put him at odds with his heir.", "His contested reign, civil war, and lawlessness saw a major swing in power towards feudal barons.", "In trying to appease Scottish and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land." ], [ "England under the Plantagenets", "===The first Angevins===Tomb of Richard I of England and Isabella of AngoulêmeEmpress Matilda and Geoffrey's son, Henry, resumed the invasion; he was already Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he landed in England.", "When Stephen's son and heir apparent Eustace died in 1153, Stephen made an agreement with Henry of Anjou (who became Henry II) to succeed Stephen and guarantee peace between them.", "The union was retrospectively named the Angevin Empire.", "Henry II destroyed the remaining adulterine castles and expanded his power through various means and to different levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and Auvergne.The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power from the barony to the monarchical state in England; it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative power from the Church, again to the monarchical state.", "This period also presaged a properly constituted legislation and a radical shift away from feudalism.", "In his reign, new Anglo-Angevin and Anglo-Aquitanian aristocracies developed, though not to the same degree as the Anglo-Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with their French peers.Henry's successor, Richard I \"the Lion Heart\" (also known as \"the absent king\"), was preoccupied with foreign wars, taking part in the Third Crusade, being captured while returning and pledging fealty to the Holy Roman Empire as part of his ransom, and defending his French territories against Philip II of France.", "His successor, his younger brother John, lost much of those territories including Normandy following the disastrous Battle of Bouvines in 1214, despite having in 1212 made the Kingdom of England a tribute-paying vassal of the Holy See, which it remained until the 14th century when the Kingdom rejected the overlordship of the Holy See and re-established its sovereignty.", "The first anti-Semitic pogroms occurred in the wake of Richard's crusades, in 1189-90, in York and elsewhere.", "In York, 150 Jews died.From 1212 onwards, John had a constant policy of maintaining close relations with the Pope, which partially explains how he persuaded the Pope to reject the legitimacy of ''Magna Carta''.===Magna Carta===exemplifications of the 1215 text, ''Cotton MS. Augustus II.", "106'', property of the British LibraryDover Castle, 12th–13th centuryOver the course of his reign, a combination of higher taxes, unsuccessful wars and conflict with the Pope made King John unpopular with his barons.", "In 1215, some of the most important barons rebelled against him.", "He met their leaders along with their French and Scot allies at Runnymede, near London on 15 June 1215 to seal the Great Charter (''Magna Carta'' in Latin), which imposed legal limits on the king's personal powers.", "But as soon as hostilities ceased, John received approval from the Pope to break his word because he had made it under duress.", "This provoked the First Barons' War and a French invasion by Prince Louis of France invited by a majority of the English barons to replace John as king in London in May 1216.John travelled around the country to oppose the rebel forces, directing, among other operations, a two-month siege of the rebel-held Rochester Castle.===Henry III===John's son, Henry III, was only 9 years old when he became king (1216–1272).", "He spent much of his reign fighting the barons over ''Magna Carta'' and the royal rights, and was eventually forced to call the first \"parliament\" in 1264.He was also unsuccessful on the continent, where he endeavoured to re-establish English control over Normandy, Anjou, and Aquitaine.His reign was punctuated by many rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanagement in government and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers (thus restricting the influence of the English nobility).", "One of these rebellions—led by a disaffected courtier, Simon de Montfort—was notable for its assembly of one of the earliest precursors to Parliament.", "In addition to fighting the Second Barons' War, Henry III made war against Louis IX and was defeated during the Saintonge War, yet Louis did not capitalise on his victory, respecting his opponent's rights.Henry III's policies towards Jews began with relative tolerance, but became gradually more restrictive.", "In 1253 the Statute of Jewry, reinforced physical segregation and demanded a previously notional requirement to wear square white badges.", "Henry III also backed an accusation of child murder in Lincoln, ordering a Jew Copin to be executed and 91 Jews to be arrested for trial; 18 were killed.", "Popular superstitious fears were fuelled, and Catholic theological hostility combined with Baronial abuse of loan arrangements, resulting in Simon de Montfort's supporters targeting of Jewish communities in their revolt.", "This hostility, violence and controversy was the background to the increasingly oppressive measures that followed under Edward I.===14th century===The Mob Quad of Merton College, University of Oxford, 13th–14th centuryThe reign of Edward I (reigned 1272–1307) was rather more successful.", "Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his government, and he summoned the first officially sanctioned Parliaments of England (such as his Model Parliament).", "He conquered Wales and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of the Kingdom of Scotland, though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign.Edward I is also known for his policies first persecuting Jews, particularly the 1275 Statute of the Jewry.", "This banned Jews from their previous role in making loans, and demanded that they work as merchants, farmers, craftsmen or soldiers.", "This was unrealistic, and failed.", "Edward's solution was to expel Jews from England.", "This was the first statewide, permanent expulsion in Europe.His son, Edward II, proved a disaster.", "A weak man who preferred to engage in activities like thatching and ditch-digging rather than jousting, hunting, or the usual entertainments of kings, he spent most of his reign trying in vain to control the nobility, who in return showed continual hostility to him.", "Meanwhile, the Scottish leader Robert Bruce began retaking all the territory conquered by Edward I.", "In 1314, the English army was disastrously defeated by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn.", "Edward also showered favours on his companion Piers Gaveston, a knight of humble birth.", "While it has been widely believed that Edward was a homosexual because of his closeness to Gaveston, there is no concrete evidence of this.", "The king's enemies, including his cousin Thomas of Lancaster, captured and murdered Gaveston in 1312.Edward's downfall came in 1326 when his wife, Queen Isabella, travelled to her native France and, with her lover Roger Mortimer, invaded England.", "Despite their tiny force, they quickly rallied support for their cause.", "The king fled London, and his companion since Piers Gaveston's death, Hugh Despenser, was publicly tried and executed.", "Edward was captured, charged with breaking his coronation oath, deposed and imprisoned in Gloucestershire until he was murdered some time in the autumn of 1327, presumably by agents of Isabella and Mortimer.The Great Famine of 1315–1317 may have resulted in half a million deaths in England due to hunger and disease, more than 10 per cent of the population.Geoffrey Chaucer, –1400, author of The Canterbury TalesCanterbury Cathedral nave, 1377Edward III, son of Edward II, was crowned at age 14 after his father was deposed by his mother and her consort Roger Mortimer.", "At age 17, he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the ''de facto'' ruler of the country, and began his personal reign.", "Edward III reigned 1327–1377, restored royal authority and went on to transform England into the most efficient military power in Europe.", "His reign saw vital developments in legislature and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament—as well as the ravages of the Black Death.", "After defeating, but not subjugating, the Kingdom of Scotland, he declared himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1338, but his claim was denied due to the Salic law.", "This started what would become known as the Hundred Years' War.", "Following some initial setbacks, the war went exceptionally well for England; victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny.", "Edward's later years were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health.For many years, trouble had been brewing with Castile—a Spanish kingdom whose navy had taken to raiding English merchant ships in the Channel.", "Edward won a major naval victory against a Castilian fleet off Winchelsea in 1350.Although the Castilian crossbowmen killed many of the enemy, the English gradually got the better of the encounter.", "In spite of Edward's success, however, Winchelsea was only a flash in a conflict that raged between the English and the Spanish for over 200 years, coming to a head with the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.In 1373, England signed an alliance with the Kingdom of Portugal, which is claimed to be the oldest alliance in the world still in force.Edward III died of a stroke on 21 June 1377, and was succeeded by his ten-year-old grandson, Richard II.", "He married Anne of Bohemia, daughter of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor in 1382, and ruled until he was deposed by his first cousin Henry IV in 1399.In 1381, a Peasants' Revolt led by Wat Tyler spread across large parts of England.", "It was suppressed by Richard II, with the death of 1500 rebels.===Black Death===The Black Death, an epidemic of bubonic plague that spread all over Europe, arrived in England in 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population.", "Military conflicts during this period were usually with domestic neighbours such as the Welsh, Irish, and Scots, and included the Hundred Years' War against the French and their Scottish allies.", "Notable English victories in the Hundred Years' War included Crécy and Agincourt.", "The final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, Owain Glyndŵr, in 1412 by Prince Henry (who later became Henry V) represents the last major armed attempt by the Welsh to throw off English rule.Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, including many people of royal lineage.", "Because land was equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to claim the crown.", "When Edward III died in 1377, he was succeeded by his grandson, Richard II.", "Richard's autocratic and arrogant methods only served to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in 1399 by Henry IV increased the turmoil.Henry spent much of his reign defending himself against plots, rebellions and assassination attempts.Rebellions continued throughout the first ten years of Henry's reign, including the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr, who declared himself Prince of Wales in 1400, and the rebellion of Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland.", "The king's success in putting down these rebellions was due partly to the military ability of his eldest son, Henry of Monmouth, who later became king (though the son managed to seize much effective power from his father in 1410).===15th century – Henry V and the Wars of the Roses===Henry V succeeded to the throne in 1413.He renewed hostilities with France and began a set of military campaigns which are considered a new phase of the Hundred Years' War, referred to as the Lancastrian War.", "He won several notable victories over the French, including the Battle of Agincourt.", "In the Treaty of Troyes, Henry V was given the power to succeed the current ruler of France, Charles VI of France.", "The Treaty also provided that he would marry Charles VI's daughter, Catherine of Valois.", "They married in 1421.Henry died of dysentery in 1422, leaving a number of unfulfilled plans, including his plan to take over as King of France and to lead a crusade to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims.Henry V's son, Henry VI, became king in 1422 as an infant.", "His reign was marked by constant turmoil due to his political weaknesses.", "While he was growing up, England was ruled by the Regency government.The Regency Council tried to install Henry VI as the King of France, as provided by the Treaty of Troyes signed by his father, and led English forces to take over areas of France.", "It appeared they might succeed due to the poor political position of the son of Charles VI, who had claimed to be the rightful king as Charles VII of France.", "However, in 1429, Joan of Arc began a military effort to prevent the English from gaining control of France.", "The French forces regained control of French territory.In 1437, Henry VI came of age and began to actively rule as king.", "To forge peace, he married French noblewoman Margaret of Anjou in 1445, as provided in the Treaty of Tours.", "Hostilities with France resumed in 1449.When England lost the Hundred Years' War in August 1453, Henry fell into mental breakdown until Christmas 1454.Henry could not control the feuding nobles, and a series of civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses began, lasting from 1455 to 1485.Although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the power of the Crown.", "The royal court and Parliament moved to Coventry, in the Lancastrian heartlands, which thus became the capital of England until 1461.Henry's cousin Edward, Duke of York, deposed Henry in 1461 to become Edward IV following a Lancastrian defeat at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross.", "Edward was later briefly expelled from the throne in 1470–1471 when Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, brought Henry back to power.", "Six months later, Edward defeated and killed Warwick in battle and reclaimed the throne.", "Henry was imprisoned in the Tower of London and died there.Edward died in 1483, only 40 years old, his reign having gone a little way to restoring the power of the Crown.", "His eldest son and heir Edward V, aged 12, could not succeed him because the king's brother, Richard III, Duke of Gloucester, declared Edward IV's marriage bigamous, making all his children illegitimate.", "Richard III was then declared king, and Edward V and his 10-year-old brother Richard were imprisoned in the Tower of London.", "The two were never seen again.", "It was widely believed that Richard III had them murdered and he was reviled as a treacherous fiend, which limited his ability to govern during his brief reign.", "In summer 1485, Henry Tudor, the last Lancastrian male, returned from exile in France and landed in Wales.", "Henry then defeated and killed Richard III at Bosworth Field on 22 August, and was crowned Henry VII." ], [ "Tudor England", "===Henry VII===With Henry VII's accession to the throne in 1485, the Wars of the Roses came to an end, and Tudors would continue to rule England for 118 years.", "Traditionally, the Battle of Bosworth Field is considered to mark the end of the Middle Ages in England, although Henry did not introduce any new concept of monarchy, and for most of his reign his hold on power was tenuous.", "He claimed the throne by conquest and God's judgement in battle.", "Parliament quickly recognised him as king, but the Yorkists were far from defeated.", "Nonetheless, he married Edward IV's eldest daughter Elizabeth in January 1486, thereby uniting the houses of York and Lancaster.Most of the European rulers did not believe Henry would survive long, and were thus willing to shelter claimants against him.", "The first plot against him was the Stafford and Lovell rebellion of 1486, which presented no serious threat.", "But Richard III's nephew John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, hatched another attempt the following year.", "Using a peasant boy named Lambert Simnel, who posed as Edward, Earl of Warwick (the real Warwick was locked up in the Tower of London), he led an army of 2,000 German mercenaries paid for by Margaret of Burgundy into England.", "They were defeated and de la Pole was killed at the difficult Battle of Stoke, where the loyalty of some of the royal troops to Henry was questionable.", "The king, realizing that Simnel was a dupe, employed him in the royal kitchen.A more serious threat was Perkin Warbeck, a Flemish youth who posed as Edward IV's son Richard.", "Again with support from Margaret of Burgundy, he invaded England four times from 1495 to 1497 before he was captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London.", "Both Warbeck and the Earl of Warwick were dangerous even in captivity, and Henry executed them in 1499 before Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain would allow their daughter Catherine to come to England and marry his son Arthur.In 1497, Henry defeated Cornish rebels marching on London.", "The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, despite worries about succession after the death of his wife Elizabeth of York in 1503.Henry VII's foreign policy was peaceful.", "He had made an alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, but in 1493, when they went to war with France, England was dragged into the conflict.", "Impoverished and his hold on power insecure, Henry had no desire for war.", "He quickly reached an understanding with the French and renounced all claims to their territory except the port of Calais, realizing also that he could not stop them from incorporating the Duchy of Brittany.", "In return, the French agreed to recognize him as king and stop sheltering pretenders.", "Shortly afterwards, they became preoccupied with adventures in Italy.", "Henry also reached an understanding with Scotland, agreeing to marry his daughter Margaret to that country's king James IV.Upon becoming king, Henry inherited a government severely weakened and degraded by the Wars of the Roses.", "The treasury was empty, having been drained by Edward IV's Woodville in-laws after his death.", "Through a tight fiscal policy and sometimes ruthless tax collection and confiscations, Henry refilled the treasury by the time of his death.", "He also effectively rebuilt the machinery of government.In 1501, the king's son Arthur, having married Catherine of Aragon, died of illness at age 15, leaving his younger brother Henry, Duke of York as heir.", "When the king himself died in 1509, the position of the Tudors was secure at last, and his son succeeded him unopposed.===Henry VIII===Henry VIIIHenry VIII began his reign with much optimism.", "The handsome, athletic young king stood in sharp contrast to his wary, miserly father.", "Henry's lavish court quickly drained the treasury of the fortune he inherited.", "He married the widowed Catherine of Aragon, and they had several children, but none survived infancy except a daughter, Mary.In 1512, the young king started a war in France.", "Although England was an ally of Spain, one of France's principal enemies, the war was mostly about Henry's desire for personal glory, despite his sister Mary being married to the French king Louis XII.", "The war accomplished little.", "The English army suffered badly from disease, and Henry was not even present at the one notable victory, the Battle of the Spurs.", "Meanwhile, James IV of Scotland (despite being Henry's other brother-in-law), activated his alliance with the French and declared war on England.", "While Henry was dallying in France, Catherine, who was serving as regent in his absence, and his advisers were left to deal with this threat.", "At the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513, the Scots were completely defeated.", "James and most of the Scottish nobles were killed.", "When Henry returned from France, he was given credit for the victory.Eventually, Catherine was no longer able to have any more children.", "The king became increasingly nervous about the possibility of his daughter Mary inheriting the throne, as England's one experience with a female sovereign, Matilda in the 12th century, had been a catastrophe.", "He eventually decided that it was necessary to divorce Catherine and find a new queen.", "To persuade the Church to allow this, Henry cited the passage in the Book of Leviticus: \"If a man taketh his brother's wife, he hath committed adultery; they shall be childless\".", "However, Catherine insisted that she and Arthur never consummated their brief marriage and that the prohibition did not apply here.", "The timing of Henry's case was very unfortunate; it was 1527 and the Pope had been imprisoned by emperor Charles V, Catherine's nephew and the most powerful man in Europe, for siding with his archenemy Francis I of France.", "Because he could not divorce in these circumstances, Henry seceded from the Church, in what became known as the English Reformation.The newly established Church of England amounted to little more than the existing Catholic Church, but led by the king rather than the Pope.", "It took a number of years for the separation from Rome to be completed, and many were executed for resisting the king's religious policies.In 1530, Catherine was banished from court and spent the rest of her life (until her death in 1536) alone in an isolated manor home, barred from contact with Mary.", "Secret correspondence continued thanks to her ladies-in-waiting.", "Their marriage was declared invalid, making Mary an illegitimate child.", "Henry married Anne Boleyn secretly in January 1533, just as his divorce from Catherine was finalised.", "They had a second, public wedding.", "Anne soon became pregnant and may have already been when they wed.", "But on 7 September 1533, she gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth.", "The king was devastated at his failure to obtain a son after all the effort it had taken to remarry.", "Gradually, he came to develop a disliking of his new queen for her strange behaviour.", "In 1536, when Anne was pregnant again, Henry was badly injured in a jousting accident.", "Shaken by this, the queen gave birth prematurely to a stillborn boy.", "By now, the king was convinced that his marriage was hexed, and having already found a new queen, Jane Seymour, he put Anne in the Tower of London on charges of witchcraft.", "Afterwards, she was beheaded along with five men (her brother included) accused of adultery with her.", "The marriage was then declared invalid, so that Elizabeth, just like her half sister, became a bastard.Henry immediately married Jane Seymour, who became pregnant almost as quickly.", "On 12 October 1537, she gave birth to a healthy boy, Edward, which was greeted with huge celebrations.", "However, the queen died of puerperal sepsis ten days later.", "Henry genuinely mourned her death, and at his own passing nine years later, he was buried next to her.The king married a fourth time in 1540, to the German Anne of Cleves for a political alliance with her Protestant brother, the Duke of Cleves.", "He also hoped to obtain another son in case something should happen to Edward.", "Anne proved a dull, unattractive woman and Henry did not consummate the marriage.", "He quickly divorced her, and she remained in England as a kind of adopted sister to him.", "He married again, to a 19-year-old named Catherine Howard.", "But when it became known that she was neither a virgin at the wedding, nor a faithful wife afterwards, she ended up on the scaffold and the marriage declared invalid.", "His sixth and last marriage was to Catherine Parr, who was more his nursemaid than anything else, as his health was failing since his jousting accident in 1536.In 1542, the king started a new campaign in France, but unlike in 1512, he only managed with great difficulty.", "He only conquered the city of Boulogne, which France retook in 1549.Scotland also declared war and at Solway Moss was again totally defeated.Henry's paranoia and suspicion worsened in his last years.", "The number of executions during his 38-year reign numbered tens of thousands.", "His domestic policies had strengthened royal authority to the detriment of the aristocracy, and led to a safer realm, but his foreign policy adventures did not increase England's prestige abroad and wrecked royal finances and the national economy, and embittered the Irish.", "He died in January 1547 at age 55 and was succeeded by his son, Edward VI.===Edward VI and Mary I===Portrait of Edward VI, Although he showed piety and intelligence, Edward VI was only nine years old when he became king in 1547.His uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset tampered with Henry VIII's will and obtained letters patent giving him much of the power of a monarch by March 1547.He took the title of Protector.", "While some see him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culminated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm were up in protest.", "Kett's Rebellion in Norfolk and the Prayer Book Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall simultaneously created a crisis while invasion from Scotland and France were feared.", "Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for being autocratic, was removed from power by John Dudley, who is known as Lord President Northumberland.", "Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but he was more conciliatory and the Council accepted him.", "During Edward's reign England changed from being a Catholic nation to a Protestant one, in schism from Rome.Edward showed great promise but fell violently ill of tuberculosis in 1553 and died that August, two months before his 16th birthday.Northumberland made plans to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power behind the throne.", "His plot failed in a matter of days, Jane Grey was beheaded, and Mary I (1516–1558) took the throne amidst popular demonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch.", "Mary had never been expected to hold the throne, at least not since Edward was born.", "She was a devoted Catholic who believed that she could reverse the Reformation.Returning England to Catholicism led to the burnings of 274 Protestants, which are recorded especially in John Foxe's ''Book of Martyrs''.", "Mary then married her cousin Philip, son of Emperor Charles V, and King of Spain when Charles abdicated in 1556.The union was difficult because Mary was already in her late 30s and Philip was a Catholic and a foreigner, and so not very welcome in England.", "This wedding also provoked hostility from France, already at war with Spain and now fearing being encircled by the Habsburgs.", "Calais, the last English outpost on the Continent, was then taken by France.", "King Philip (1527–1598) had very little power, although he did protect Elizabeth.", "He was not popular in England, and spent little time there.", "Mary eventually became pregnant, or at least believed herself to be.", "In reality, she may have had uterine cancer.", "Her death in November 1558 was greeted with huge celebrations in the streets of London.===Elizabeth I===Elizabeth IAfter Mary I died in 1558, Elizabeth I came to the throne.", "Her reign restored a sort of order to the realm after the turbulent reigns of Edward VI and Mary I.", "The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to rest by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which re-established the Church of England.", "Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of the Puritans and Catholics; historian Robert Bucholz paraphrasing historian Conrad Russell, suggested that the genius of the Church of England was that it \"thinks Protestant but looks Catholic.\"", "She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed.Despite the need for an heir, Elizabeth declined to marry, despite offers from a number of suitors across Europe, including the Swedish king Erik XIV.", "This created endless worries over her succession, especially in the 1560s when she nearly died of smallpox.", "It has been often rumoured that she had a number of lovers (including Francis Drake), but there is no hard evidence.Elizabeth maintained relative government stability.", "Apart from the Revolt of the Northern Earls in 1569, she was effective in reducing the power of the old nobility and expanding the power of her government.", "Elizabeth's government did much to consolidate the work begun under Thomas Cromwell in the reign of Henry VIII, that is, expanding the role of the government and effecting common law and administration throughout England.", "During the reign of Elizabeth and shortly afterwards, the population grew significantly: from three million in 1564 to nearly five million in 1616.The queen ran afoul of her cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, who was a devoted Catholic and so was forced to abdicate her throne (Scotland had recently become Protestant).", "She fled to England, where Elizabeth immediately had her arrested.", "Mary spent the next 19 years in confinement, but proved too dangerous to keep alive, as the Catholic powers in Europe considered her the legitimate ruler of England.", "She was eventually tried for treason, sentenced to death, and beheaded in February 1587.====Elizabethan era====The Procession Picture, , showing Elizabeth I borne along by her courtiersThe Elizabethan era was the epoch in English history of Queen Elizabeth I's reign (1558–1603).", "Historians often depict it as the golden age in English history.", "The symbol of Britannia was first used in 1572 and often thereafter to mark the Elizabethan age as a renaissance that inspired national pride through classical ideals, international expansion, and naval triumph over the hated Spanish foe.", "In terms of the entire century, the historian John Guy (1988) argues that \"England was economically healthier, more expansive, and more optimistic under the Tudors\" than at any time in a thousand years.This \"golden age\" represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music and literature.", "The era is most famous for theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of England's past style of theatre.", "It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home, the Protestant Reformation became more acceptable to the people, most certainly after the Spanish Armada was repulsed.", "It was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland.The Elizabethan Age is viewed so highly largely because of the periods before and after.", "It was a brief period of largely internal peace after the horrible violence and disorder of the Wars of the Roses, and battles between Catholics and Protestants during the English Reformation; and it preceded the violent turmoil of the English Civil War and battles between parliament and the monarchy during the 17th century.", "The Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism.England was also well off compared to the other nations of Europe.", "The Italian Renaissance had ended due to foreign domination of the peninsula.", "France was embroiled in religious battles until the Edict of Nantes in 1598.Also, the English had been expelled from their last outposts on the continent.", "Due to these reasons, the centuries long conflict with France was largely suspended for most of Elizabeth's reign.", "England during this period had a centralised, organised and effective government, largely due to the reforms of Henry VII and Henry VIII.", "Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade.Sir Francis Drake's voyage 1585–86In 1585 worsening relations between Philip II of Spain and Elizabeth erupted into war.", "Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch and permitted Francis Drake to maraud in response to a Spanish embargo.", "Drake surprised Vigo, Spain, in October, then proceeded to the Caribbean and sacked Santo Domingo (the capital of Spain's American empire and the present-day capital of the Dominican Republic) and Cartagena (a large and wealthy port on the north coast of Colombia that was the centre of the silver trade).", "Philip II tried to invade England with the Spanish Armada in 1588 but was famously defeated.The Armada was not just a naval campaign.", "The build-up of land forces to resist a Spanish invasion has been described as an administrative feat of massive scope.", "A survey taken in November and December 1587 showed 130,000 men in the militia, of whom 44,000 were members of the trained bands, being drilled and led by experienced captains and sergeants.", "By May 1588 the London bands were drilling weekly.", "To give warning of the enemy's approach, beacons were built, manned twenty-four hours a day by four men.", "Once the beacons were lit, 72,000 men could be mobilised on the south coast, with another 46,000 protecting London.", "For the many Englishmen caught up in the Armada the experience must have been very profound and frightening.", "Some shared the intimacy of beacon watching, hoping for the best, but ready to light their warning fires in case of the worst.", "Deloney, a London silkweaver, played on their fears in his (1588).", "The political philosopher Thomas Hobbes recalled that his mother was so frightened that she prematurely gave birth to twins, of whom he was one.", "All were terrified about what might happen if the Spanish invaded.", "Stories of the Sack of Antwerp in 1576, in which the Spanish led by Sancho d'Avila raped, tortured and murdered as many as 17,000 civilians, were grist for playwrights and pamphleteers such as George Gascoigne and Shakespeare.", "The former remembered seeing civilians at Antwerp drowned, burned, or with guts hanging out as if they had been used for an anatomy lesson.", "Few Englishmen, women and children doubted they faced similar fates had the Armada landed.", "The Spanish Armada and English ships in August 1588, (unknown, 16th-century, English School)====Foreign affairs====In foreign policy, Elizabeth played against each other the major powers France and Spain, as well as the papacy and Scotland.", "These were all Catholic and each wanted to end Protestantism in England.", "Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs and only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland.", "She risked war with Spain by supporting the \"Sea Dogs\", such as Walter Raleigh, John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, who preyed on Spanish merchant ships carrying gold and silver from the New World.", "Drake himself became a hero—being the first Englishman to circumnavigate the world between 1577 and 1580, having plundered Spanish settlements and treasure ships.", "The major war came with Spain, 1585–1603.When Spain tried to invade and conquer England it was a fiasco, and the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth's name with what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories in English history.", "Her enemies failed to combine and Elizabeth's foreign policy successfully navigated all the dangers.===End of Tudor era===In all, the Tudor period is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions which would have to be answered in the next century and during the English Civil War.", "These were questions of the relative power of the monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should control the other.", "Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell affected a \"Tudor Revolution\" in government, and it is certain that Parliament became more important during his chancellorship.", "Other historians argue that the \"Tudor Revolution\" extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign, when the work was all consolidated.", "Although the Privy Council declined after Elizabeth's death, it was very effective while she was alive.Elizabeth died in 1603 at the age of 69." ], [ "17th century", "===Union of the Crowns===King James I of EnglandWhen Elizabeth died, her closest male Protestant relative was the King of Scots, James VI, of the House of Stuart, who became King James I of England in a Union of the Crowns, called James I and VI.", "He was the first monarch to rule the entire island of Britain, but the countries remained separate politically.", "Upon taking power, James made peace with Spain, and for the first half of the 17th century, England remained largely inactive in European politics.", "Several assassination attempts were made on James, notably the Main Plot and Bye Plots of 1603, and most famously, on 5 November 1605, the Gunpowder Plot, by a group of Catholic conspirators, led by Robert Catesby, which caused more antipathy in England towards Catholicism.===Colonies===In 1607 England built an establishment at Jamestown.", "This was the beginning of colonialism by England in North America.", "Many English settled then in North America for religious or economic reasons.", "Approximately 70% of English immigrants to North America who came between 1630 and 1660 were indentured servants.", "By 1700, Chesapeake planters transported about 100,000 indentured servants, who accounted for more than 75% of all European immigrants to Virginia and Maryland.===English Civil War===First English Civil War at the Battle of Marston Moor, 1644Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green) during the English Civil War (1642–1645)King Charles I, who was beheaded in 1649The First English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely due to ongoing conflicts between James' son, Charles I, and Parliament.", "The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces.", "Charles surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark.", "He was eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647.He escaped, and the Second English Civil War began, but the New Model Army quickly secured the country.", "The capture and trial of Charles led to the execution of Charles I in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London, making England a republic.", "This shocked the rest of Europe.", "The king argued to the end that only God could judge him.The New Model Army, commanded by Oliver Cromwell, then scored decisive victories against Royalist armies in Ireland and Scotland.", "Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector in 1653, making him 'king in all but name' to his critics.", "After he died in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeded him in the office but he was forced to abdicate within a year.", "For a while it seemed as if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army split into factions.", "Troops stationed in Scotland under the command of George Monck eventually marched on London to restore order.According to Derek Hirst, outside of politics and religion, the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication.", "The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling.", "In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing.", "All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established coffee houses.===Restoration of the monarchy===King Charles II The Great Fire London, 1666.The monarchy was restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London.", "However, the power of the crown was less than before the Civil War.", "By the 18th century, England rivaled the Netherlands as one of the freest countries in Europe.In 1665, London was swept by the plague, and in 1666 by the Great Fire for 5 days which destroyed about 15,000 buildings.===Glorious Revolution===In 1680, the Exclusion Crisis consisted of attempts to prevent accession of James, heir to Charles II, because he was Catholic.", "After Charles II died in 1685 and his younger brother, James II and VII was crowned, various factions pressed for his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband Prince William III of Orange to replace him in what became known as the Glorious Revolution.In November 1688, William invaded England and succeeded in being crowned.", "James tried to retake the throne in the Williamite War, but was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights, was passed.", "The Bill, which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right, established restrictions on the royal prerogative.", "For example, the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments.", "William was opposed to such constraints, but chose to avoid conflict with Parliament and agreed to the statute.In parts of Scotland and Ireland, Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and staged a series of bloody uprisings.", "As a result, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with.", "The most infamous example of this policy was the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692.Jacobite rebellions continued into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, James III and VIII, mounted a final campaign in 1745.The Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the \"Bonnie Prince Charlie\" of legend, were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746." ], [ "Formation of Great Britain and the United Kingdom", "The Acts of Union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were a pair of Parliamentary Acts passed by both parliaments in 1707, which dissolved them in order to form a Kingdom of Great Britain governed by a unified Parliament of Great Britain according to the Treaty of Union.", "The Acts joined the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland (previously separate independent states, with separate legislatures but with the same monarch, starting with James I of England (also James VI of Scotland)) into a single kingdom.The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I.", "Although described as a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate Crowns resting on the same head.", "There had been three attempts in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that the idea had the will of both political establishments behind them, albeit for rather different reasons.The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707.On this date, the Scots Parliament and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the Palace of Westminster in London, the home of the English Parliament.", "Hence, the Acts are referred to as the '''Union of the Parliaments'''.", "On the Union, historian Simon Schama said \"What began as a hostile merger, would end in a full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world ... it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history.", "\"In 1714 ended the reign of Queen Anne, the last monarch of the House of Stuart.", "She was succeeded by her second cousin, George I, of the House of Hanover, who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth, daughter of James VI & I.", "A series of Jacobite rebellions broke out in an attempt to restore the Stuart monarchy, but failed.", "Several planned French invasions were attempted, also with the intention of placing the Stuarts on the throne.The first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain in the first half of the 19th century.", "Children younger than nine were not allowed to work and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours.The Act of Union of 1800 formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process and from 1 January 1801 created a new state called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which united Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to form a single political entity.", "The English parliament at Westminster became the parliament of the Union." ], [ "Modern England, 18th–19th centuries", "Following the formation of Great Britain, the history of England is no longer the history of a sovereign nation, but rather the history of one of the countries of the United Kingdom.===Industrial Revolution===In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, technological advances and mechanisation resulted in the Industrial Revolution which transformed a largely agrarian society and caused considerable social upheaval.", "Economies of scale and increased output per worker allowed steam-based factories to undercut production of traditional cottage industries.", "Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production.", "The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infrastructure saw dramatic increases in mortality, crime, and social deprivation.", "(Many Sunday schools for pre-working-age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for each other's funeral arrangements.)", "The process of industrialisation threatened many livelihoods, which prompted some to sabotage factories.", "These saboteurs were known as \"Luddites\".===Local governance===The Billingsgate Fish Market in London in the early 19th centuryChester, The Local Government Act 1888 was the first systematic attempt to impose a standardised system of local government in England.", "The system was based on the existing counties (today known as the historic counties, since the major boundary changes of 1974).", "Later, the Local Government Act 1894 created a second tier of local government.", "All administrative counties and county boroughs were divided into either rural or urban districts, allowing more localised administration.During the 1800s, the need for local administration greatly increased, prompting piecemeal adjustments.", "The sanitary districts and parish councils had legal status, but were not part of the mechanism of government.", "They were run by volunteers; often no-one could be held responsible for the failure to undertake the required duties.", "Furthermore, the increased \"county business\" could not be handled by the quarter sessions, nor was this appropriate.", "Finally, there was a desire to see local administration performed by elected officials, as in the reformed municipal boroughs.", "By 1888, these shortcomings were clear, and the Local Government Act was the first systematic attempt to create a standardised system of local government in England.The system was based on the existing counties (now known as the historic counties, since the major boundary changes of 1974).", "The counties themselves had had some boundary changes in the preceding 50 years, mainly to remove enclaves and exclaves.", "The act called for the creation of statutory counties, based on the ancient/historic counties, but completely corrected for enclaves and exclaves, and adjusted so that each settlement was completely within one county.", "These statutory counties were to be used for non-administrative functions: ''\"sheriff, lieutenant, custos rotulorum, justices, militia, coroner, or other\"''.", "With the advent of elected councils, the offices of lord lieutenant and sheriff became largely ceremonial.The statutory counties formed the basis for the so-called 'administrative counties'.", "However, it was felt that large cities and primarily rural areas in the same county could not be well administered by the same body.", "Thus, 59 \"counties in themselves\", or 'county boroughs', were created to administer the urban centres of England.", "These were part of the statutory counties, but not part of the administrative counties.In 1894, the Local Government Act created a second tier of local government.", "Henceforth, all administrative counties and county boroughs would be divided into either rural or urban districts, allowing more localised administration.", "The municipal boroughs reformed after 1835 were brought into this system as special cases of urban districts.", "The urban and rural districts were based on, and incorporated the sanitary districts which created in 1875 (with adjustments, so that districts did not overlap two counties).The Act also provided for the establishment of civil parishes.", "The 1894 Act formed an official system of civil parishes, separated from the ecclesiastical parishes, to carry on some of these responsibilities (others being transferred to the district/county councils).", "However, the civil parishes were not a complete third tier of local government.", "Instead, they were 'community councils' for smaller, rural settlements, which did not have a local government district to themselves.", "Where urban parish councils had previously existed, they were absorbed into the new urban districts." ], [ "20th and 21st centuries", "A prolonged agricultural depression in Britain at the end of the 19th century, together with the introduction in the 20th century of increasingly heavy levels of taxation on inherited wealth, put an end to agricultural land as the primary source of wealth for the upper classes.", "Many estates were sold or broken up, and this trend was accelerated by the introduction of protection for agricultural tenancies, encouraging outright sales, from the mid-20th century.===General history and political issues===Victory in Europe Day celebrations in London, 8 May 1945Following years of political and military agitation for 'Home Rule' for Ireland, the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 established the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland) as a separate state, leaving Northern Ireland as part of the United Kingdom.", "The country's official name thus became \"The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\".England, as part of the UK, joined the European Economic Community in 1973, which became the European Union in 1993.The UK left the EU in 2020.There is a movement in England to create a devolved English Parliament.", "This would give England a local Parliament like those already functioning for Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales.", "This issue is referred to as the West Lothian question.===Political history and local government===A Local Government Commission was wound up in 1966, and replaced with a Royal Commission (known as the Redcliffe-Maud commission).", "In 1969 it recommended a system of single-tier unitary authorities for the whole of England, apart from three metropolitan areas of Merseyside, Selnec (Greater Manchester) and West Midlands (Birmingham and the Black Country), which were to have both a metropolitan council and district councils.", "This report was accepted by the Labour Party government of the time despite considerable opposition, but the Conservative Party won the June 1970 general election, and on a manifesto that committed them to a two-tier structure.The reforms arising from the Local Government Act of 1972 resulted in the most uniform and simplified system of local government which has been used in England.", "They effectively wiped away everything that had gone before, and built an administrative system from scratch.", "All previous administrative districts—statutory counties, administrative counties, county boroughs, municipal boroughs, counties corporate, civil parishes—were abolished.The aim of the act was to establish a uniform two tier system across the country.", "Onto the blank canvas, new counties were created to cover the entire country; many of these were obviously based on the historic counties, but there were some major changes, especially in the north.This uniform two-tier system lasted only 12 years.", "In 1986, the metropolitan county councils and Greater London were abolished.", "This restored autonomy (in effect the old county borough status) to the metropolitan and London boroughs.", "The Local Government Act (1992) established a commission (Local Government Commission for England) to examine the issues, and make recommendations on where unitary authorities should be established.", "It was considered too expensive to make the system entirely unitary, and also there would doubtlessly be cases where the two-tier system functioned well.", "The commission recommended that many counties be moved to completely unitary systems; that some cities become unitary authorities, but that the remainder of their parent counties remain two-tier; and that in some counties the ''status quo'' should remain.The rate-capping rebellion was a campaign within English local councils in 1985 which aimed to force the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher to withdraw powers to restrict the spending of councils.", "The campaign's tactic was that councils whose budgets were restricted would refuse to set any budget at all for the financial year 1985–86, requiring the Government to intervene directly in providing local services, or to concede.", "However, all 15 councils which initially refused to set a rate eventually did so, and the campaign failed to change Government policy.", "Powers to restrict council budgets have remained in place ever since.In 1997, the Lieutenancies Act was passed.", "This firmly separated all local authority areas (whether unitary or two-tier), from the geographical concept of a county as high level spatial unit.", "The lieutenancies it established became known as ceremonial counties, since they were no longer administrative divisions.", "The counties represent a compromise between the historic counties and the counties established in 1974.While the 1997 Labour government devolved power to Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, it refused to create a devolved Assembly or parliament for England, planning instead to introduce eight regional assemblies around England to devolve power to the regions.", "In the event, only a London Assembly (and directly elected Mayor) was established.", "Rejection in a referendum of a proposed North-East Assembly in 2004 effectively scrapped those plans.", "A pre-condition of having a regional assembly was for the whole area to move to unitary authority status.", "Since the 2005 general election the government has floated the idea of voluntary mergers of local councils, avoiding a costly reorganisation but achieving desired reform.", "For instance, the guiding principles of the government's \"New Localism\" demand levels of efficiency not present in the current over-duplicated two-tier structure.===Recent changes===In 2009, new changes to local government were made whereby a number of new unitary authorities were created in areas which previously had a 'two-tier' system of counties and districts.", "In five shire counties the functions of the county and district councils were combined into a single authority; and in two counties the powers of the county council were absorbed into a significantly reduced number of districts.The abolition of regional development agencies and the creation of local enterprise partnerships were announced as part of the June 2010 United Kingdom budget.", "On 29 June 2010 a letter was sent from the Department of Communities and Local Government and the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills to local authority and business leaders, inviting proposals to replace regional development agencies in their areas by 6 September 2010.On 7 September 2010, details were released of 56 proposals for local enterprise partnerships that had been received.", "On 6 October 2010, during the Conservative Party Conference, it was revealed that 22 had been given the provisional 'green light' to proceed and others may later be accepted with amendments.", "Twenty-four bids were announced as successful on 28 October 2010." ], [ "See also", "* Parliament of England* Parliament of the United Kingdom* Monarchs of England**English monarchs family tree* Prime Minister of the United Kingdom* List of rulers of the United Kingdom and predecessor states===Related historical overviews===* Bretwalda* Commonwealth of Nations* Danelaw* History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom* History of the British constitution* History of the British Isles* History of the United Kingdom* History of Scotland* History of Ireland* History of Wales* Kingdom of Great Britain* Politics of the United Kingdom* Administrative geography of the United Kingdom* List of articles about local government in the United Kingdom* Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics===Historical lists and timelines===* List of British monarchs, British monarchs' family tree* Timeline of English history* Timeline of British diplomatic history* Historical and alternative regions of England===Overviews of significant historical eras===* House of Plantagenet* House of Lancaster * House of York ''Note: Be sure to check the box in the upper right corner of this entry, providing a list of all notable eras within the history of England.", "''===Related English history topics=======Societal overviews====* English people* Population of England – historical estimates* Culture of England* Politics of England* Social history of England====Local government====* History of local government in England* 2009 structural changes to local government in England* Regions of England* Subdivisions of England* Unitary authorities of England====Historical subtopics====* History of education in England* History of the Jews in England* Military history of England* English nationalism* Anglo-Saxon England" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004) online; short scholarly biographies of all the major people* Bédarida, François.", "''A social history of England 1851–1990''.", "Routledge, 2013.", "*Davies, Norman, ''The Isles, A History'' Oxford University Press, 1999, .", "* Black, Jeremy.", "''A new history of England'' (The History Press, 2013).", "* Broadberry, Stephen et al.", "''British Economic Growth, 1270–1870'' (2015)** Review by Jeffrey G. Williamson online* Clapp, Brian William.", "''An environmental history of Britain since the industrial revolution'' (Routledge, 2014)* Clayton, David Roberts, and Douglas R. Bisson.", "''A History of England'' (2 vol.", "2nd ed.", "Pearson Higher Ed, 2013).", "* Ensor, R. C. K. ''England, 1870–1914'' (1936), comprehensive survey.", "online* * Schama, Simon, ''A History of Britain: At the Edge of the World, 3500 BC – 1603 AD'' BBC/Miramax, 2000 ; TV series ''A History of Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603–1776'' BBC/Miramax, 2001 ; ''A History of Britain – The Complete Collection'' on DVD BBC 2002 * Tombs, Robert, ''The English and their History'' (2014) 1040 pp online review*Trevelyan, G.M.", "''Shortened History of England'' (Penguin Books 1942) very well written; reflects perspective of 1930s; 595pp* Woodward, E. L. ''The Age of Reform: 1815–1870'' (1954) comprehensive survey online===Historiography===* Cannon, John.", "''The Oxford Companion to British History'' (2nd ed.", "2002) 1142pp* Elton, G.R.", "''Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969'' (1970) excerpt, highly useful bibliography of 1000+ scholarly books, articles and book reviews published before 1970.", "* Furber, Elizabeth Chapin, ed.", "''Changing Views on British History'' (1966) * Loades, David, ed.", "''Reader's Guide to British History'' (2 vol 2003), 1610pp* Schlatter, Richard, ed.", "''Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966'' (1984)===Primary sources===* ''English historical documents'' London: Methuen; 12 vol to 1957; reprinted 2011; the most comprehensive collection on political, constitutional, economic and social topics** Douglas, David Charles.", "ed.", "''English historical documents, 1042–1189'' (Vol.", "2.Psychology Press, 1995, Reprint)** Myers, Alec Reginald, ed.", "''English historical documents.", "4.Late medieval.", "1327–1485'' (Vol.", "4.Psychology Press, 1995, Reprint)** Rothwell, Harry, ed.", "''English Historical Documents: 1189–1327'' (Taylor & Francis, 1995, Reprint)** Whitelock, Dorothy.", "''English Historical Documents, 500–1042'' (Vol.", "1.Psychology Press, 1996, Reprint)** Williams, Charles H. ''English Historical Documents: Volume 5 1485–1558'' (Routledge, 1995, Reprint)** Archer, Ian W., and F. Douglas Price, eds.", "''English Historical Documents: 1558–1603'' (Routledge, 2011, reprint)** Coward, Barry, and David Charles Douglas, eds.", "''English historical documents.", "5:Early modern:(B).", "1603–1660'' (Routledge, 2010 reprint)** Browning, Andrew.", "ed.", "''English Historical Documents, 1660–1714'' (Vol.", "6.Psychology Press, 1995, reprint)** Horn, David Bayne, and Mary Ransome, eds.", "''English historical documents, 1714–1783'' (Vol.", "7.Routledge, 1996, reprint)**Aspinall, Arthur.", "ed.", "''English historical documents, 1783–1832'' (Vol.", "8.Psychology Press, 1995, reprint)** Handcock, William D., and George Malcolm Young.", "eds.", "''English Historical Documents, 1833–1874'' (Vol.", "9.Psychology Press, 1995, reprint)** Douglas, D. C. ed.", "''English historical documents, 1874–1914'' (Methuen 1995)* Beard, Charles, ed.", "''An introduction to the English historians'' (1906) excerpts* Cheyney, Edward P. ''Readings in English History Drawn from the Original Sources Intended to Illustrate a Short History of England'' (1935), 850 pp.", "(strongest on political & constitutional topics)* Harmer, Florence Elizabeth.", "ed.", "''Select English historical documents of the ninth and tenth centuries'' (Cambridge University Press, 2011)* Henderson, Ernest Flagg, ed.", "''Select historical documents of the Middle Ages'' (1907) online* Leach, Arthur F. ed.", "''Educational Charters and Documents 598 to 1909'' (1911) 640pp; online over 400 pp.", "on Middle Ages* Stephenson, Carl and Frederick G. Marcham, eds.", "''Sources of English Constitutional History'' (2nd ed.", "1990)* Stubbs, William, ed.", "''Select charters and other illustrations of English constitutional history from the earliest times to the reign of Edward the First'' (Clarendon Press, 1870) online* Weiner, Joel H. ed.", "''Great Britain Foreign Policy & Span of Empire, 1689–1971'' (4 Vol, 1983), 3425 pp.", "* Wiener, Joel H. ed.", "''Great Britain: the lion at home; a documentary history of domestic policy, 1689–1973'' (4 vol 1974), 1396 pp.===External sources===* \"Finding primary resources for modern British history\"* Connected Histories* Letters of the Kings of England, now first collected from the originals in royal archives, and from other authentic sources, private as well as public by J O Halliwell-Phillipps, London, H. Colburn, 1846.vol.", "1 — Google Books" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hippocrates" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hippocrates of Kos''' (; ; ), also known as '''Hippocrates II''', was a Greek physician of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine.", "He is traditionally referred to as the \"Father of Medicine\" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field, such as the use of prognosis and clinical observation, the systematic categorization of diseases, or the formulation of humoral theory.", "The Hippocratic school of medicine revolutionized ancient Greek medicine, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally been associated (theurgy and philosophy), thus establishing medicine as a profession.However, the achievements of the writers of the Hippocratic Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself were often conflated; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did.", "Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician and credited with coining the Hippocratic Oath, which is still relevant and in use today.", "He is also credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Corpus and other works." ], [ "Biography", "Illustration of the story of Hippocrates refusing the presents of the Achaemenid Emperor Artaxerxes, who was asking for his services.", "Painted by Girodet, 1792.Historians agree that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of Kos; other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue.Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek physician, was Hippocrates' first biographer and is the source of most personal information about him.", "Later biographies are in the ''Suda'' of the 10th century AD, and in the works of John Tzetzes, which date from the 12th century AD.", "Hippocrates is mentioned in passing in the writings of two contemporaries: in Plato's dialogues ''Protagoras'' and ''Phaedrus'', and in Aristotle's ''Politics'', all of which date from the 4th century BC.Soranus wrote that Hippocrates' father was Heraclides, a physician, and his mother was Praxitela, daughter of Tizane.", "The two sons of Hippocrates, Thessalus and Draco, and his son-in-law, Polybus, were his students.", "According to Galen, a later physician, Polybus, was Hippocrates' true successor, while Thessalus and Draco each had a son named Hippocrates (Hippocrates III and IV).Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather (Hippocrates I), and studied other subjects with Democritus and Gorgias.", "Hippocrates was probably trained at the asklepieion of Kos, and took lessons from the Thracian physician Herodicus of Selymbria.", "Plato mentions Hippocrates in two of his dialogues: in ''Protagoras'', Plato describes Hippocrates as \"Hippocrates of Kos, the Asclepiad\"; while in ''Phaedrus'', Plato suggests that \"Hippocrates the Asclepiad\" thought that a complete knowledge of the nature of the body was necessary for medicine.", "Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara.", "Several different accounts of his death exist.", "He died, probably in Larissa, at the age of 83, 85 or 90, though some say he lived to be well over 100." ], [ "Hippocratic theory", "Hippocrates is credited as the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods.", "He was acknowledged by the disciples of Pythagoras for allying philosophy and medicine.", "He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods but rather the product of environmental factors, diet, and living habits.", "There is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus.", "However, Hippocrates did hold many convictions that were based on incorrect anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism.Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split into the Knidian and Koan on how to deal with disease.", "The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis.", "Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of humans.", "The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms.", "The Hippocratic school or Koan school achieved greater success by applying general diagnoses and passive treatments.", "Its focus was on patient care and prognosis, not diagnosis.", "It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice.Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from modern medicine, in which the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school.", "This shift in medical thought since Hippocrates' day has generated serious criticism of their denunciations; for example, the French doctor M. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a \"meditation upon death\".Analogies have been drawn between Thucydides' historical method and the Hippocratic method, in particular the notion of \"human nature\" as a way of explaining foreseeable repetitions for future usefulness, for other times or for other cases.===Crisis===Asklepieion on KosAn important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a ''crisis'', a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin to triumph and the patient would succumb to death, or the opposite would occur and natural processes would make the patient recover.", "After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis.", "According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur on ''critical days'', which were supposed to be a fixed time after the contraction of a disease.", "If a crisis occurred on a day far from a ''critical day'', a relapse might be expected.", "Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that it predated him.Illustration of a Hippocratic bench, date unknownHippocratic medicine was humble and passive.", "The therapeutic approach was based on \"the healing power of nature\" (\"''vis medicatrix naturae''\" in Latin).", "According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the power to re-balance the four humours and heal itself (''physis'').", "Hippocratic therapy focused on simply easing this natural process.", "To this end, Hippocrates believed \"rest and immobilization were of capital importance\".", "In general, the Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient; treatment was gentle, and emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile.", "For example, only clean water or wine were ever used on wounds, though \"dry\" treatment was preferable.", "Soothing balms were sometimes employed.Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis.", "Some of the generalized treatments he prescribed are fasting and the consumption of a mix of honey and vinegar.", "Hippocrates once said that \"to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness\".", "However, potent drugs were used on certain occasions.", "This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones, which required traction to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area.", "The Hippocratic bench and other devices were used to this end.In Hippocrates' time it was thought that fever was a disease in and of itself.", "Hippocrates treated patients with fever by starving them out, believing that 'starving' the fever was a way to neutralize the disease.", "He may therefore have been the originator of the idea \"Feed a cold, starve a fever\".One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis on prognosis.", "At Hippocrates' time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an illness and predict its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories.===Professionalism===A number of ancient Greek surgical tools.", "On the left is a trephine; on the right, a set of scalpels.", "Hippocratic medicine made good use of these tools.Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism, discipline, and rigorous practice.", "The Hippocratic work ''On the Physician'' recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious.", "The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for, \"lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting\" in the ancient operating room.", "He even kept his fingernails to a precise length.The Hippocratic School gave importance to the clinical doctrines of observation and documentation.", "These doctrines dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.", "Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions.", "He is said to have measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to discover whether the patient was lying.", "Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment.", "\"To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation.\"" ], [ "Direct contributions to medicine", "Clubbing of fingers in a patient with Eisenmenger's syndrome; first described by Hippocrates, clubbing is also known as \"Hippocratic fingers\".A woodcut of the reduction of a dislocated shoulder with a Hippocratic deviceHippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions.", "He is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease.", "For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as \"Hippocratic fingers\".", "Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe Hippocratic face in ''Prognosis''.", "Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii.", "of ''Henry V''.Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, \"exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence.\"", "Another of Hippocrates' major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e.", "suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity.", "His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of pulmonary medicine and surgery.", "Hippocrates was the first documented chest surgeon and his findings and techniques, while crude, such as the use of lead pipes to drain chest wall abscess, are still valid.The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the human rectum and the treatment thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine.", "Hemorrhoids, for instance, though believed to be caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways.", "Cautery and excision are described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred methods: ligating the hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron.", "Other treatments such as applying various salves are suggested as well.", "Today, \"treatment for hemorrhoids still includes burning, strangling, and excising.\"", "Also, some of the fundamental concepts of proctoscopy outlined in the Corpus are still in use.", "For example, the uses of the rectal speculum, a common medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus.", "This constitutes the earliest recorded reference to endoscopy.", "Hippocrates often used lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise to treat diseases such as diabetes, what is today called lifestyle medicine.Two popular but likely misquoted attributions to Hippocrates are \"Let food be your medicine, and medicine be your food\" and \"Walking is man's best medicine\".", "Both appear to be misquotations, and their exact origins remain unknown.In 2017, researchers claimed that, while conducting restorations on the Saint Catherine's Monastery in South Sinai, they found a manuscript which contains a medical recipe of Hippocrates.", "The manuscript also contains three recipes with pictures of herbs that were created by an anonymous scribe." ], [ "Hippocratic Corpus", "Byzantine manuscript of the Oath in the form of a crossThe Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: ''Corpus Hippocraticum'') is a collection of around seventy early medical works collected in Alexandrian Greece.", "It is written in Ionic Greek.", "The question of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of any of the treatises in the corpus has not been conclusively answered, but modern debate revolves around only a few of the treatises seen as potentially authored by him.", "Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, the Hippocratic Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen).", "The corpus came to be known by his name because of his fame, possibly all medical works were classified under 'Hippocrates' by a librarian in Alexandria.", "The volumes were probably produced by his students and followers.The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order.", "These works were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes written from opposing viewpoints; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus.", "Among the treatises of the Corpus are ''The Hippocratic Oath''; ''The Book of Prognostics''; ''On Regimen in Acute Diseases''; ''Aphorisms''; ''On Airs, Waters and Places''; ''Instruments of Reduction''; ''On The Sacred Disease''; etc.===Hippocratic Oath===The Hippocratic Oath, a seminal document on the ethics of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death.", "This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus.", "Recently, the authenticity of the document's author has come under scrutiny.", "While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for other, similar oaths and laws that define good medical practice and morals.", "Such derivatives are regularly taken by modern medical graduates about to enter medical practice." ], [ "Legacy", "Mural painting showing Galen and Hippocrates.", "12th century; Anagni, Italy Although Hippocrates neither founded the school of medicine named after him, nor wrote most of the treatises attributed to him, he is traditionally regarded as the \"Father of Medicine\".", "His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the advancement stalled.", "So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time.", "The centuries after Hippocrates' death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement.", "For instance, \"after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out,\" according to Fielding Garrison.After Hippocrates, another significant physician was Galen, a Greek who lived from AD 129 to AD 200.Galen perpetuated the tradition of Hippocratic medicine, making some advancements, but also some regressions.", "In the Middle Ages, the Islamic world adopted Hippocratic methods and developed new medical technologies.", "After the European Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were revived in western Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century.", "Notable among those who employed Hippocrates' rigorous clinical techniques were Thomas Sydenham, William Heberden, Jean-Martin Charcot and William Osler.", "Henri Huchard, a French physician, said that these revivals make up \"the whole history of internal medicine.", "\"===Image===Engraving: bust of Hippocrates by Paulus Pontius after Peter Paul Rubens, 1638According to Aristotle's testimony, Hippocrates was known as \"The Great Hippocrates\".", "Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a \"kind, dignified, old country doctor\" and later as \"stern and forbidding\".", "He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical.", "Francis Adams describes him as \"strictly the physician of experience and common sense.", "\"His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face.", "Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of Jove and Asklepius.", "Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that have been found could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities.", "Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals.", "Fielding Garrison, an authority on medical history, stated, \"He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit.\"", "\"His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician,\" according to ''A Short History of Medicine'', inspiring the medical profession since his death.===Legends===''The Travels of Sir John Mandeville'' reports (incorrectly) that Hippocrates was the ruler of the islands of \"Kos and Lango\" sic, and recounts a legend about Hippocrates' daughter.", "She was transformed into a hundred-foot long dragon by the goddess Diana, and is the \"lady of the manor\" of an old castle.", "She emerges three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands.", "Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter.", "This is a version of the legend of Melusine." ], [ "Namesakes", "Mayne Medical School in BrisbaneSome clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe them.", "Hippocratic face is the change produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like.", "Clubbing, a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers.", "Hippocratic succussion is the internal splashing noise of hydropneumothorax or pyopneumothorax.", "Hippocratic bench (a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) and Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage are two devices named after Hippocrates.", "Hippocratic Corpus and Hippocratic Oath are also his namesakes.", "Risus sardonicus, a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile.", "The most severe form of hair loss and baldness is called the Hippocratic form.In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named Hippocrates.", "The Hippocratic Museum, a museum on the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him.", "The Hippocrates Project is a program of the New York University Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology.", "Project Hippocrates (an acronym of \"'''HI'''gh '''P'''erf'''O'''rmance '''C'''omputing for '''R'''obot-'''A'''ssis'''TE'''d '''S'''urgery\") is an effort of the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Center, \"to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots.\"", "Both the Canadian Hippocratic Registry and American Hippocratic Registry are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times." ], [ "Genealogy", "Hippocrates' legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to Heracles.", "According to Tzetzes's ''Chiliades'', the ahnentafel of Hippocrates II is:A mosaic of Hippocrates on the floor of the Asclepieion of Kos, with Asklepius in the middle, 2nd–3rd century1.", "'''Hippocrates II.", "'''2.Heraclides4.Hippocrates I.8.Gnosidicus16.32.Sostratus III.64.Theodorus II.128.Sostratus, II.256.Thedorus512.Cleomyttades1024.Crisamis2048.Dardanus4096.Sostratus8192.Hippolochus16384.Podalirius32768.Asklepius" ], [ "See also", "* Hippocrates Prize for Poetry and Medicine" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * * .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* * * * * * .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * * .", "* .", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "* * Craik, Elizabeth M.", "(ed., trans., comm.", "), ''The Hippocratic Treatise'' On glands (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009) (Studies in ancient medicine, 36).", "* * * Enache, Cătălin (2019), ''Ontology and Meteorology in Hippocrates''' On Regimen, ''Mnemosyne'' 72 (2), 173–196.", "* * * * .", "* .", "* * * .", "* * * * Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History: Book XXIX.", "'', translated by John Bostock.", "See original text in Perseus program.", "* * * online free to borrow" ], [ "External links", "* * Works by Hippocrates at the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum* The Harvard Classics Volume 38 with \"The Oath of Hippocrates\", project gutenberg* Hippocrates collection, full works in English, at One More Library* * Hippocrates entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* First printed editions of the Hippocratic Collection at the Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire de Médecine of Paris (BIUM) studies and digitized texts by the BIUM (Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Paris) see its digital library Medic@.", "* List of works by Hippocrates, with digitized editions, manuscripts and translations." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hermann Göring" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hermann Wilhelm Göring''' (or '''Goering'''; ; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader, and convicted war criminal.", "He was one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi Party, which ruled Germany from 1933 to 1945.A veteran World War I fighter pilot ace, Göring was a recipient of the (\"The Blue Max\").", "He was the last commander of ''Jagdgeschwader'' 1 (JG I), the fighter wing once led by Manfred von Richthofen.", "An early member of the Nazi Party, Göring was among those wounded in Adolf Hitler's failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923.While receiving treatment for his injuries, he developed an addiction to morphine which persisted until the last year of his life.", "After Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Göring was named as minister without portfolio in the new government.", "One of his first acts as a cabinet minister was to oversee the creation of the Gestapo, which he ceded to Heinrich Himmler in 1934.Following the establishment of the Nazi state, Göring amassed power and political capital to become the second most powerful man in Germany.", "He was appointed commander-in-chief of the ''Luftwaffe'' (air force), a position he held until the final days of the regime.", "Upon being named Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan in 1936, Göring was entrusted with the task of mobilizing all sectors of the economy for war, an assignment which brought numerous government agencies under his control.", "In September 1939, Hitler gave a speech to the designating him as his successor.", "After the Fall of France in 1940, he was bestowed the specially created rank of , which gave him seniority over all officers in Germany's armed forces.By 1941, Göring was at the peak of his power and influence.", "As the Second World War progressed, Göring's standing with Hitler and the German public declined after the Luftwaffe proved incapable of preventing the Allied bombing of Germany's cities and resupplying surrounded Axis forces in Stalingrad.", "Around that time, Göring increasingly withdrew from military and political affairs to devote his attention to collecting property and artwork, much of which was stolen from Jewish victims of the Holocaust.", "Informed on 22 April 1945 that Hitler intended to commit suicide, Göring sent a telegram to Hitler requesting his permission to assume leadership of the Reich.", "Considering his request an act of treason, Hitler removed Göring from all his positions, expelled him from the party, and ordered his arrest.", "After the war, Göring was convicted of conspiracy, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg trials in 1946.He was sentenced to death by hanging but committed suicide by ingesting cyanide the night before his scheduled execution." ], [ "Early life and education", "Göring in 1907, at age 14Göring was born on 12 January 1893 at the Marienbad Sanatorium in Rosenheim, Bavaria.", "His father, Heinrich Ernst Göring (31 October 1839 – 7 December 1913), a former cavalry officer, had been the first governor-general of German South West Africa (modern-day Namibia).", "Heinrich had three children from a previous marriage.", "Göring was the fourth of five children by Heinrich's second wife, Franziska Tiefenbrunn (1859–15 July 1943), a Bavarian peasant.", "Göring's elder siblings were Karl, Olga, and Paula; his younger brother was Albert.", "At the time that Göring was born, his father was serving as consul general in Haiti, and his mother had returned home briefly to give birth.", "She left the six-week-old baby with a friend in Bavaria and did not see the child again for three years, when she and Heinrich returned to Germany.Göring's godfather was , a wealthy Jewish physician and businessman his father had met in Africa.", "Epenstein provided the Göring family, who were surviving on Heinrich's pension, first with a family home in Berlin-Friedenau, and then a small castle called Veldenstein, near Nuremberg.", "Göring's mother became Epenstein's mistress around this time and remained so for some fifteen years.", "Epenstein acquired the minor title of Ritter (knight) von Epenstein through service and donations to the Crown.Interested in a career as a soldier from a very early age, Göring enjoyed playing with toy soldiers and dressing up in a Boer uniform his father had given him.", "He was sent to boarding school at age eleven, where the food was poor, and discipline was harsh.", "He sold a violin to pay for his train ticket home, and then took to his bed, feigning illness, until he was told he would not have to return.", "He continued to enjoy war games, pretending to lay siege to the castle Veldenstein and studying Teutonic legends and sagas.", "He became a mountain climber, scaling peaks in Germany, at the Mont Blanc massif, and in the Austrian Alps.", "At age 16, he was sent to a military academy at Berlin Lichterfelde, from which he graduated with distinction.Göring joined the Prince Wilhelm Regiment (112th Infantry, Garrison: Mülhausen) of the Prussian Army in 1912.The next year his mother had a falling-out with Epenstein.", "The family was forced to leave Veldenstein and moved to Munich; Göring's father died shortly afterwards.", "It was in Bavaria where Göring developed his \"romantic sense of Germanness\" that further evolved under National Socialism.", "When World War I began in August 1914, Göring was stationed at Mülhausen with his regiment." ], [ "World War I", "Film clip of Göring in a Fokker D.VII during World War I (1918)During the first year of World War I, Göring served with his infantry regiment in the area of Mülhausen, a garrison town less than 2 km from the French frontier.", "He was hospitalized with rheumatism, a result of the damp of trench warfare.", "While he was recovering, his friend Bruno Loerzer convinced him to transfer to what would become, by October 1916, the () of the German army, but his request was turned down.", "Later that year, Göring flew as Loerzer's observer in 25 (FFA 25); Göring had informally transferred himself.", "He was discovered and sentenced to three weeks' confinement to barracks, but the sentence was never carried out.", "By the time it was supposed to be imposed, Göring's association with Loerzer had been made official.", "They were assigned as a team to FFA 25 in the Crown Prince's Fifth Army.", "They flew reconnaissance and bombing missions, for which the Crown Prince invested both Göring and Loerzer with the Iron Cross, first class.Göring as a fighter pilot in 1918After completing the pilot's training course, Göring was assigned to ''Jagdstaffel'' 5.Seriously wounded in the hip in aerial combat, he took nearly a year to recover.", "He then was transferred to ''Jagdstaffel'' 26, commanded by Loerzer, in February 1917.He steadily scored air victories until May, when he was assigned to command ''Jagdstaffel'' 27.Serving with ''Jastas'' 5, 26 and 27, he continued to win victories.", "In addition to his Iron Crosses (1st and 2nd Class), he received the Zähringer Lion with swords, the Friedrich Order, the House Order of Hohenzollern with swords third class, and finally, in May 1918, the coveted .", "According to Hermann Dahlmann, who knew both men, Göring had Loerzer lobby for the award.", "He finished the war with 22 victories.", "A thorough post-war examination of Allied loss records showed that only two of his awarded victories were doubtful.", "Three were possible and 17 were certain, or highly likely.On 7 July 1918, following the death of Wilhelm Reinhard, successor to Manfred von Richthofen, Göring was made commander of the \"Flying Circus\", ''Jagdgeschwader'' 1.His arrogance made him unpopular with the men of his squadron.In the last days of the war, Göring was repeatedly ordered to withdraw his squadron, first to Tellancourt airdrome, then to Darmstadt.", "At one point, he was ordered to surrender the aircraft to the Allies; he refused.", "Many of his pilots intentionally crash-landed their planes to keep them from falling into enemy hands.Like many other German veterans, Göring was a proponent of the stab-in-the-back myth, the belief which held that the German Army had not really lost the war, but instead was betrayed by the civilian leadership: Marxists, Jews, and especially the republicans, who had overthrown the German monarchy.", "Atop the frustration of military defeat, Göring also experienced the personal disappointment of being snubbed by his fiancée's upper-class family, who broke off the engagement when he returned penniless from the front." ], [ "After World War I", "Göring remained in aviation after the war.", "He tried barnstorming and briefly worked at Fokker.", "After spending most of 1919 living in Denmark, he moved to Sweden and joined , a Swedish airline.", "Göring was often hired for private flights.", "During the winter of 1920–1921, he was hired by Count Eric von Rosen to fly him to his castle from Stockholm.", "Invited to spend the night, Göring may at this time have first seen the swastika emblem, which Rosen had set in the chimney piece as a family badge.This was also the first time that Göring saw his future wife; the count introduced his sister-in-law, Baroness Carin von Kantzow ( Freiin von Fock).", "Estranged from her husband of 10 years, she had an eight-year-old son.", "Göring was immediately infatuated and asked her to meet him in Stockholm.", "They arranged a visit at the home of her parents and spent much time together through 1921, when Göring left to study political science at the University of Munich.", "Carin obtained a divorce, followed Göring to Munich, and married him on 3 February 1922.Their first home together was a hunting lodge at Hochkreuth in the Bavarian Alps, near Bayrischzell, some from Munich.", "After Göring met Adolf Hitler and joined the Nazi Party in 1922, they moved to , a suburb of Munich." ], [ "Early Nazi career", "Göring (left) stands in front of Hitler at a Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg (1929).Göring joined the Nazi Party in 1922 after hearing a speech by Hitler.", "He was given command of the (SA) as the in 1923.He was later appointed an (Lieutenant general) and held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945.At this time, Carin—who liked Hitler—often played hostess to meetings of leading Nazis, including her husband, Hitler, Rudolf Hess, Alfred Rosenberg, and Ernst Röhm.", "Hitler later recalled his early association with Göring:Hitler and the Nazi Party held mass meetings and rallies in Munich and elsewhere during the early 1920s, attempting to gain supporters in a bid for political power.", "Inspired by Benito Mussolini's March on Rome, the Nazis attempted to seize power on 8–9 November 1923 in a failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch.", "Göring, who was with Hitler leading the march to the War Ministry, was shot in the groin.", "Fourteen Nazis and four policemen were killed; many top Nazis, including Hitler, were arrested.", "With Carin's help, Göring was smuggled to Innsbruck, where he received surgery and was given morphine for the pain.", "He remained in hospital until 24 December.", "This was the beginning of his morphine addiction, which lasted until his imprisonment at Nuremberg.", "Meanwhile, the authorities in Munich declared Göring a wanted man.", "The Görings—acutely short of funds and reliant on the good will of Nazi sympathizers abroad—moved from Austria to Venice.", "In May 1924 they visited Rome, via Florence and Siena.", "Sometime in 1924, Göring met Mussolini through his contacts with members of Italy's Fascist Party; Mussolini had also expressed an interest in meeting Hitler, who was by then in prison.", "Hitler penned while incarcerated, before being released in December 1924.Meanwhile, personal problems continued to multiply for Göring.", "By 1925, Carin's mother was ill.", "The Görings—with difficulty—raised the money in the spring of 1925 for a journey to Sweden via Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Danzig (now Gdańsk).", "Göring had become a violent morphine addict; Carin's family were shocked by his deterioration.", "Carin, who was ill with epilepsy and a weak heart, had to allow the doctors to take charge of Göring; her son was taken by his father.", "Göring was certified a dangerous drug addict and was placed in Långbro Asylum on 1 September 1925.He was violent to the point where he had to be confined in a straitjacket, but his psychiatrist felt he was sane; the condition was caused solely by the morphine.", "Weaned off the drug, he left the facility briefly, but had to return for further treatment.", "He returned to Germany when an amnesty was declared in 1927 and resumed working in the aircraft industry.", "Carin Göring, ill with epilepsy and tuberculosis, died of heart failure on 17 October 1931.Camp service of the NSDAP delegation, in the first row SS Chief Heinrich Himmler, SA Chief Ernst Röhm and Göring, 1931Meanwhile, the Nazi Party was in a period of rebuilding and waiting.", "The economy had recovered, which meant fewer opportunities for the Nazis to agitate.", "The SA was reorganised, but with Franz Pfeffer von Salomon as its head rather than Göring, and the (SS) was founded in 1925, initially as a bodyguard for Hitler.", "Membership in the party increased from 27,000 in 1925 to 108,000 in 1928 and 178,000 in 1929.In the May 1928 elections the Nazi Party only obtained 12 seats out of an available 491 in the .", "Göring was elected as a representative from Bavaria.", "Having secured a seat in the , Göring gained a more prominent place in the Nazi movement, since Hitler saw him as a public relations officer for Nazism in this capacity.", "Göring continued to be elected to the Reichstag in all subsequent elections during the Weimar and Nazi regimes.", "Electoral success also afforded Göring with access to powerful sympathizers to the Nazi cause, such as Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia and the conservative-minded businessmen, Fritz Thyssen and Hjalmar Schacht.", "The Great Depression led to a disastrous downturn in the German economy, and in the 1930 election, the Nazi Party won 6,409,600 votes and 107 seats.", "In May 1931, Hitler sent Göring on a mission to the Vatican, where he met the future Pope Pius XII.In the July 1932 election, the Nazis won 230 seats to become far and away the largest party in the .", "By longstanding tradition, the Nazis were thus entitled to select the President of the , and elected Göring to the post.", "He would retain this position until 23 April 1945." ], [ "Reichstag fire", "The Reichstag fire occurred on the night of 27 February 1933.Göring was one of the first to arrive on the scene.", "Marinus van der Lubbe, a Communist radical, was arrested and claimed sole responsibility for the fire.", "Göring immediately called for a crackdown on Communists.The Nazis took advantage of the fire to advance their own political aims.", "The Reichstag Fire Decree, passed the next day on Hitler's urging, suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial.", "Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed, and some 4,000 Party members were arrested.", "Göring demanded that the prisoners should be shot, but Rudolf Diels, head of the Prussian political police, ignored the order.", "Some researchers, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the Nazi Party itself was responsible for starting the fire.At the Nuremberg trials, General Franz Halder testified that Göring admitted responsibility for starting the fire.", "He said that, at a luncheon held on Hitler's birthday in 1942, Göring said, \"The only one who really knows about the Reichstag is I, because I set it on fire!\"", "In his own Nuremberg testimony, Göring denied this story." ], [ "Second marriage", "During the early 1930s, Göring was often in the company of Emmy Sonnemann, an actress from Hamburg.", "They were married on 10 April 1935, in Berlin.", "The wedding was celebrated on a huge scale.", "A large reception was held the night before at the Berlin Opera House.", "Fighter aircraft flew overhead on the night of the reception and the day of the ceremony, at which Hitler was best man.", "Göring's daughter, Edda, was born on 2 June 1938." ], [ "Nazi potentate", "Hitler, Martin Bormann, Göring and Baldur von Schirach in Obersalzberg, 1936When Hitler was named chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, Göring was appointed as ''Reichsminister'' without portfolio and ''Reichskommissar'' of Aviation.", "This was followed on 11 April 1933 by his appointment as Minister-President of Prussia, Prussian interior minister and chief of the Prussian police.", "On 25 April 1933, Hitler also delegated his powers as ''Reichsstatthalter'' (Reich Governor) of Prussia to Göring.", "On 18 May 1933, Göring secured passage of an enabling act through the Landtag of Prussia that conferred all legislative powers on the cabinet.", "Utilizing this authority, on 8 July 1933 Göring enacted a law abolishing the Prussian State Council, the second chamber of the Prussian legislature that represented the interests of the Prussian provinces.", "In its place, he created a revised non-legislative Prussian State Council to serve merely as a body of advisors to him.", "Göring would serve as President of the Council.", "It would consist, ''ex officio'', of the Prussian cabinet ministers and state secretaries, as well as hand-picked Nazi Party officials and other industry and society leaders selected solely by Göring.", "In October 1933, Göring was made a member of Hans Frank's Academy for German Law at its inaugural meeting.", "In July 1934, he was appointed ''Reichforstmeister'', with the rank of a ''Reichsminister'', as the head of the newly created Reich Forestry Office.Wilhelm Frick, the Reich interior minister, and the head of the SS, Heinrich Himmler, hoped to create a unified police force for all of Germany, but Göring on 26 April 1933 established a special Prussian police force, with Rudolf Diels at its head.", "The force was called the (), or Gestapo.", "Göring, thinking that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA, handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934.By this time, the SA numbered over two million men.Green Week in Berlin, 1937Hitler was deeply concerned that Ernst Röhm, the chief of the SA, was planning a coup.", "Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich plotted with Göring to use the Gestapo and SS to crush the SA.", "Members of the SA got wind of the proposed action and thousands of them took to the streets in violent demonstrations on the night of 29 June 1934.Enraged, Hitler ordered the arrest of the SA leadership.", "Röhm was shot dead in his cell when he refused to commit suicide; Göring personally went over the lists of prisoners—numbering in the thousands—and determined who else should be shot.", "At least 85 people were killed in the period of 30 June to 2 July, which is now known as the Night of the Long Knives.", "Hitler admitted in the Reichstag on 13 July that the killings had been entirely illegal but claimed a plot had been under way to overthrow the Reich.", "A retroactive law was passed making the action legal.", "Any criticism was met with arrests.One of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which had been in place since the end of World War I, stated that Germany was not allowed to maintain an air force.", "After the 1928 signing of the Kellogg–Briand Pact, police aircraft were permitted.", "Göring was appointed Air Traffic Minister in May 1933.Germany began to accumulate aircraft in violation of the Treaty, and in 1935 the existence of the Luftwaffe was formally acknowledged, with Göring as Reich Aviation Minister.During a cabinet meeting in September 1936, Göring and Hitler announced that the German rearmament programme must be sped up.", "On 18 October, Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan to undertake this task.", "Göring created a new organisation to administer the Plan and drew the ministries of labour and agriculture under its umbrella.", "He bypassed the Economics Ministry in his policy-making decisions, to the chagrin of Hjalmar Schacht, the minister in charge.", "Huge expenditures were made on rearmament, in spite of growing deficits.", "Schacht resigned on 26 November 1937, and Göring took over the Economics Ministry on an interim basis until January 1938.He then managed to install Walther Funk in the position, who also took control of the Reichsbank when Schacht was forced out of that post as well in January 1939.In this way, both of these institutions effectively were brought under Göring's control under the auspices of the Four Year Plan.", "In July 1937, the Reichswerke Hermann Göring was established under state ownership – though led by Göring – with the aim of boosting steel production beyond the level which private enterprise could economically provide.Lord Halifax at Schorfheide, 20 November 1937Hitler with Göring on balcony of the Chancellery, Berlin, 16 March 1938In 1938, Göring was involved in the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, which led to the resignations of the War Minister, Werner von Blomberg, and the army commander, General Werner von Fritsch.", "Göring had acted as witness at Blomberg's wedding to Margarethe Gruhn, a 26-year-old typist, on 12 January 1938.Information received from the police showed that the young bride was a prostitute.", "Göring felt obligated to tell Hitler, but also saw this event as an opportunity to dispose of Blomberg.", "Blomberg was forced to resign.", "Göring did not want Fritsch to be appointed to that position and thus be his superior.", "Several days later, Heydrich revealed a file on Fritsch that contained allegations of homosexual activity and blackmail.", "The charges were later proven to be false, but Fritsch had lost Hitler's trust and was forced to resign.", "Hitler used the dismissals as an opportunity to reshuffle the leadership of the military.", "Göring asked for the post of War Minister but was turned down; he was appointed to the rank of .", "Hitler took over as supreme commander of the armed forces and created subordinate posts to head the three main branches of service.As minister in charge of the Four-Year Plan, Göring became concerned with the lack of natural resources in Germany and began pushing for Austria to be incorporated into the Reich.", "The province of Styria had rich iron ore deposits, and the country as a whole was home to many skilled labourers who would also be useful.", "Hitler had always been in favour of a takeover of Austria, his native country.", "He met the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg on 12 February 1938, threatening invasion if peaceful unification was not forthcoming.", "The Nazi Party was made legal in Austria to gain a power base, and a referendum on reunification was scheduled for March.", "When Hitler did not approve of the wording of the plebiscite, Göring telephoned Schuschnigg and Austrian head of state Wilhelm Miklas to demand Schuschnigg's resignation, threatening invasion by German troops and civil unrest by the Austrian Nazi Party members.", "Schuschnigg resigned on 11 March and the plebiscite was cancelled.", "By 5:30 the next morning, German troops that had been massing on the border marched into Austria, meeting no resistance.Although Joachim von Ribbentrop had been named Foreign Minister in February 1938, Göring continued to involve himself in foreign affairs.", "That July, he contacted the British government with the idea that he should make an official visit to discuss Germany's intentions for Czechoslovakia.", "Neville Chamberlain was in favour of a meeting, and there was talk of a pact being signed between Britain and Germany.", "In February 1938, Göring visited Warsaw to quell rumours about the upcoming invasion of Poland.", "He had conversations with the Hungarian government that summer as well, discussing their potential role in an invasion of Czechoslovakia.", "At the Nuremberg Rally that September, Göring and other speakers denounced the Czechs as an inferior race that must be conquered.", "Chamberlain and Hitler had a series of meetings that led to the signing of the Munich Agreement (29 September 1938), which turned over control of the Sudetenland to Germany.", "In March 1939, Göring threatened Czechoslovak president Emil Hácha with the bombing of Prague.", "Hácha then agreed to sign a communique accepting the German occupation of the remainder of Bohemia and Moravia.Although many in the party disliked him, before the war Göring enjoyed widespread personal popularity among the German public because of his perceived sociability, colour and humour.", "As the Nazi leader most responsible for economic matters, he presented himself as a champion of national interests over allegedly corrupt big business and the old German elite.", "The Nazi press was on Göring's side.", "Other leaders, such as Hess and Ribbentrop, were envious of his popularity.", "In Britain and the United States, some viewed Göring as more acceptable than the other Nazis and as a possible mediator between the western democracies and Hitler." ], [ "World War II", "Göring as === Success on all fronts ===Göring and other senior officers were concerned that Germany was not yet ready for war, but Hitler insisted on pushing ahead as soon as possible.", "On 30 August 1939, immediately prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, Hitler appointed Göring as the chairman of a new six-person Council of Ministers for the Defense of the Reich which was set up to operate as a war cabinet.", "The invasion of Poland, the opening action of World War II, began at dawn on 1 September 1939.Later in the day, speaking to the , Hitler designated Göring as his successor as Führer of all Germany, \"If anything should befall me\", with Hess as the second alternate.", "Big German victories followed one after the other in quick succession.", "With the help of the Luftwaffe, the Polish Air Force was defeated within a week.", "The seized vital airfields in Norway (Operation Weserübung) and captured Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium on 10 May 1940, the first day of the Battle of France.", "Göring's Luftwaffe played critical roles in the Battles of the Netherlands, of Belgium and of France in May 1940.After the Fall of France, Hitler awarded Göring the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for his successful leadership.", "During the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony, Hitler promoted Göring to the rank of (), a specially created rank which made him senior to all field marshals in the military.", "As a result of this promotion, he was the highest-ranking soldier in Germany until the end of the war.", "Göring had already received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939 as Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe.The UK had declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, the third day of the invasion of Poland.", "In July 1940, Hitler began preparations for an invasion of Britain.", "As part of the plan, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had to be neutralized.", "Bombing raids commenced on British air installations and on cities and centres of industry.", "Göring had by then already announced in a radio speech, \"If as much as a single enemy aircraft flies over German soil, my name is Meier!", "\", something that would return to haunt him, when the RAF began bombing German cities on 11 May 1940.Though he was confident the Luftwaffe could defeat the RAF within days, Göring, like Admiral Erich Raeder, commander-in-chief of the ''Kriegsmarine'' (navy), was pessimistic about the chance of success of the planned invasion (codenamed Operation Sea Lion).", "Göring hoped that a victory in the air would be enough to force peace without an invasion.", "The campaign failed, and Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September 1940.After their defeat in the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe attempted to defeat Britain via strategic bombing.", "On 12 October 1940 Hitler cancelled Sea Lion due to the onset of winter.", "By the end of the year, it was clear that British morale was not being shaken by the Blitz, though the bombings continued through May 1941.=== Defeat on all fronts ===Göring with General der Flieger and Luftwaffe Chief of Staff Hans Jeschonnek, General der Flieger Otto Hoffmann von Waldau and General der Flieger Gustav Kastner-Kirdorf issuing an order for German troops on the Eastern Front, 1941In spite of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, signed in 1939, Nazi Germany began Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union—on 22 June 1941.Initially, the Luftwaffe was at an advantage, destroying thousands of Soviet aircraft in the first month of fighting.", "Hitler and his top staff were sure that the campaign would be over by Christmas, and no provisions were made for reserves of men or equipment.", "But, by July, the Germans had only 1,000 planes remaining in operation, and their troop losses were over 213,000 men.", "The choice was made to concentrate the attack on only one part of the vast front; efforts would be directed at capturing Moscow.", "After the long, but successful, Battle of Smolensk, Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to halt its advance to Moscow and temporarily diverted its Panzer groups north and south to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev.", "The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilize fresh reserves; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed in October 1941 with the Battle of Moscow.", "Poor weather conditions, fuel shortages, a delay in building aircraft bases in Eastern Europe, and overstretched supply lines were also factors.", "Hitler did not give permission for even a partial retreat until mid-January 1942; by this time the losses were comparable to those of the French invasion of Russia in 1812.Hitler, Dr Robert Ley, automotive engineer Ferdinand Porsche and Göring at the ''Wolf's Lair'' in 1942In late October or early November 1941, Hitler and Göring decided on the mass deportation of Soviet prisoners of war—and a larger number of Soviet civilians—to Germany for forced labor, but epidemics soon caused the halting of prisoner-of-war transports.", "Those who were deported to Germany faced conditions not necessarily any better than existed in the occupied Soviet Union.", "By the end of the war, at least 1.3 million Soviet prisoners of war had been deported to Germany or its annexed territories.", "Of these, 400,000 did not survive and most of these deaths occurred in the winter of 1941/1942.After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Göring, along with Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and Admiral Erich Raeder, urged Hitler to immediately declare war on the United States.Finnish Field Marshal Mannerheim in 1942Hitler decided that the summer 1942 campaign would be concentrated in the south; efforts would be made to capture the oilfields in the Caucasus.", "The Battle of Stalingrad, a major turning point of the war, began on 23 August 1942 with a bombing campaign by the Luftwaffe.", "The German Sixth Army entered the city, but because of its location on the front line, it was still possible for the Soviets to encircle and trap it there without reinforcements or supplies.", "When the Sixth Army was surrounded by the end of November in Operation Uranus, Göring promised that the Luftwaffe would be able to deliver a minimum of 300 tons of supplies to the trapped men every day.", "On the basis of these assurances, Hitler demanded that there be no retreat; they were to fight to the last man.", "Though some airlifts were able to get through, supplies delivered never exceeded 120 tons per day.", "The remnants of the Sixth Army—some 91,000 men out of an army of 285,000—surrendered in early February 1943; only 5,000 of these captives survived the Soviet prisoner of war camps to see Germany again.=== War over Germany ===Göring with Hitler and Albert Speer, 10 August 1943Meanwhile, the strength of the US and British bomber fleets had increased.", "Based in Britain, they began operations against German targets.", "The first thousand-bomber raid was staged on Cologne on 30 May 1942.Air raids continued on targets farther from England after auxiliary fuel tanks were installed on US fighter aircraft.", "Göring refused to believe reports that American fighters had been shot down as far east as Aachen in winter 1942–1943.His reputation began to decline.The American P-51 Mustang, with a combat radius of over when using underwing drop tanks, began to escort the bombers in large formations to and from the target area in early 1944.From that point onwards, the Luftwaffe began to suffer casualties in aircrews it could not sufficiently replace.", "By targeting oil refineries and rail communications, Allied bombers crippled the German war effort by late 1944.German civilians blamed Göring for his failure to protect the homeland.", "Hitler began excluding him from conferences but retained him in his positions at the head of the Luftwaffe and as plenipotentiary of the Four-Year Plan.", "As he lost Hitler's trust, Göring began to spend more time at his various residences.", "On D-Day (6 June 1944), the Luftwaffe only had some 300 fighters and a small number of bombers in the area of the landings; the Allies had a total strength of 11,000 aircraft.=== End of the war ===Göring in captivity 9 May 1945As the Soviets approached Berlin, Hitler's efforts to organise the defence of the city became ever more meaningless and futile.", "His last birthday, celebrated at the in Berlin on 20 April 1945, was the occasion for leave-taking by many top Nazis, Göring included.", "By this time, Göring's hunting lodge Carinhall had been evacuated, the building destroyed, and its art treasures moved to Berchtesgaden and elsewhere.", "Göring arrived at his estate at Obersalzberg on 22 April, the same day that Hitler, in a lengthy diatribe against his generals, first publicly admitted that the war was lost and that he intended to remain in Berlin to the end and then commit suicide.", "He also stated that Göring was in a better position to negotiate a peace settlement.OKW operations chief Alfred Jodl was present for Hitler's rant, and notified Göring's chief of staff, Karl Koller, at a meeting a few hours later.", "Sensing its implications, Koller immediately flew to Berchtesgaden to notify Göring of this development.", "A week after the start of the Soviet invasion, Hitler had issued a decree naming Göring his successor in the event of his death, thus codifying the declaration he had made soon after the beginning of the war.", "The decree also gave Göring full authority to act as Hitler's deputy if Hitler ever lost his freedom of action.Göring feared being branded a traitor if he tried to take power, but also feared being accused of dereliction of duty if he did nothing.", "After some hesitation, Göring reviewed his copy of the 1941 decree naming him Hitler's successor.", "After conferring with Koller and Hans Lammers (the state secretary of the Reich Chancellery), Göring concluded that by remaining in Berlin to face certain death, Hitler had incapacitated himself from governing.", "All agreed that under the terms of the decree, it was incumbent upon Göring to take power in Hitler's stead.", "He was also motivated by fears that his rival, Martin Bormann, would seize power upon Hitler's death and would have him killed as a traitor.", "With this in mind, Göring sent a carefully worded telegram asking Hitler for permission to take over as the leader of Germany, stressing that he would be acting as Hitler's deputy.", "He added that, if Hitler did not reply by 22:00 that night (23 April), he would assume that Hitler had indeed lost his freedom of action and would assume leadership of the Reich.Göring after his capture (May 1945)The telegram was intercepted by Bormann, who convinced Hitler that Göring was a traitor.", "Bormann argued that Göring's telegram was not a request for permission to act as Hitler's deputy, but a demand to resign or be overthrown.", "Bormann also intercepted another telegram in which Göring directed Ribbentrop to report to him if there was no further communication from Hitler or Göring before midnight.", "Hitler sent a reply to Göringprepared with Bormann's helprescinding the 1941 decree and threatening him with execution for high treason unless he immediately resigned from all of his offices.", "Göring duly resigned.", "Afterwards, Hitler (or Bormann, depending on the source) ordered the SS to place Göring, his staff, and Lammers under house arrest at Obersalzberg.", "Bormann made an announcement over the radio that Göring had resigned for health reasons.By 26 April, the complex at Obersalzberg was under attack by the Allies, so Göring was moved to his castle at Mauterndorf.", "In his last will and testament, Hitler expelled Göring from the party, formally rescinded the decree making him his successor, and upbraided Göring for \"illegally attempting to seize control of the state\".", "He then appointed Karl Dönitz, the Navy's commander-in-chief, as president of the Reich and supreme commander of the armed forces.", "Hitler and his wife, Eva Braun, committed suicide on 30 April 1945, a few hours after a hastily arranged wedding.", "Göring was freed on 5 May by a passing Luftwaffe unit, and he made his way to the U.S. lines in hopes of surrendering to them rather than to the Soviets.", "He was taken into custody near Radstadt on 6 May by elements of the 36th Infantry Division of the US Army.", "This move likely saved Göring's life; Bormann had ordered him executed if Berlin had fallen.", "On 10 May, US Air Forces commander Carl Spaatz conducted an interrogation of Göring along with lieutenant general Hoyt Vandenberg and American historian Bruce Campbell Hopper at the Ritter School in Augsburg, Germany." ], [ "Trial and death", "Göring (first row, far left) at the Nuremberg trialGöring was flown to Camp Ashcan, a temporary prisoner-of-war camp housed in the Palace Hotel at Mondorf-les-Bains, Luxembourg.", "Here he was weaned off dihydrocodeine (a mild morphine derivative)—he had been taking the equivalent of three or four grains (260 to 320 mg) of morphine a day—and was put on a strict diet; he lost .", "His IQ was tested while in custody and found to be 138.Top Nazi officials were transferred in September to Nuremberg, which was to be the location of a series of military tribunals beginning in November.Göring was the second highest-ranking official tried at Nuremberg, behind Reich President (former Admiral) Karl Dönitz.", "The prosecution levelled an indictment of four charges, including a charge of conspiracy; waging a war of aggression; war crimes, including the plundering and removal to Germany of works of art and other property; and crimes against humanity, including the disappearance of political and other opponents under the () decree; the torture and ill treatment of prisoners of war; and the murder and enslavement of civilians, including what was at the time estimated to be 5,700,000 Jews.", "Not permitted to present a lengthy statement, Göring declared himself to be \"in the sense of the indictment not guilty\".The trial lasted 218 days.", "The prosecution presented its case from November through March, and Göring's defencethe first to be presentedlasted from 8 to 22 March.", "The sentences were read on 30 September 1946.Göring, forced to remain silent while seated in the dock, communicated his opinions about the proceedings using gestures, shaking his head, or laughing.", "He constantly took notes and whispered with the other defendants, and tried to control the erratic behaviour of Hess, who was seated beside him.", "During breaks in the proceedings, Göring tried to dominate the other defendants, and he was eventually placed in solitary confinement when he attempted to influence their testimony.", "Göring told American psychiatrist Leon Goldensohn that the court was \"stupid\" to try \"little fellows\" like Funk and Kaltenbrunner instead of letting Göring take all the blame on himself.", "He also claimed that he had never heard of most of the other defendants before the trial.Göring at the Nuremberg trialsOn several occasions over the course of the trial, the prosecution showed films of the concentration camps and other atrocities.", "Everyone present, including Göring, found the contents of the films shocking; he said that the films must have been faked.", "Witnesses, including Paul Körner and Erhard Milch, tried to portray Göring as a peaceful moderate.", "Milch stated that it had been impossible to oppose Hitler or disobey his orders; to do so would likely have meant death for oneself and one's family.", "When testifying on his own behalf, Göring emphasised his loyalty to Hitler, and claimed to know nothing about what had happened in the concentration camps, which were under Himmler's control.", "He provided evasive, convoluted answers to direct questions and had plausible excuses for all of his actions during the war.", "He used the witness stand as a venue to expound at great length on his own role in the Reich, attempting to present himself as a peacemaker and diplomat before the outbreak of the war.", "During cross-examination, chief prosecutor Robert H. Jackson read the minutes of a meeting that had been held shortly after Kristallnacht, a major pogrom in November 1938.At the meeting, Göring had plotted to confiscate Jewish property in the wake of the pogrom.", "Later, David Maxwell-Fyfe presented evidence that Göring must have known about the killing of 50 airmen who had been recaptured after escaping from Stalag Luft III in time to have saved them.", "He also presented evidence that Göring knew about the extermination of the Hungarian Jews.Göring was found guilty on all four counts and was sentenced to death by hanging.", "The judgment stated:Göring's corpseGöring made an appeal asking to be shot as a soldier instead of hanged as a common criminal, but the court refused.", "He committed suicide with a potassium cyanide capsule the night before he was to be hanged.Speculation as to how Göring obtained the poison holds that US Army lieutenant Jack G. Wheelis, who was stationed at the trials, retrieved the capsules from their hiding place among Göring's confiscated personal effects and passed them to Göring, who had earlier presented Wheelis with his gold watch, pen, and cigarette case.", "In 2005, former US Army private Herbert Lee Stivers, who served in the 1st Infantry Division's 26th Infantry Regimentthe honour guard for the Nuremberg Trialsclaimed he gave Göring \"medicine\" hidden inside a fountain pen that a German woman had asked him to smuggle into the prison.", "Stivers later said that he did not know what was in the pill until after Göring's suicide.Göring's body, as with those of the men who were executed, was displayed at the execution ground for witnesses.", "The bodies were cremated at Ostfriedhof, Munich, and the ashes were scattered in the Isar River." ], [ "Personal properties", "Göring's baton and Smith & Wesson Model 10 revolver.", "To the left is the silver-bound guest book from Carinhall (West Point Museum).Göring's name is closely associated with the Nazi plunder of Jewish property.", "His name appears 135 times on the OSS Art Looting Investigation Unit (ALIU) Red Flag Names List compiled by US Army intelligence in 1945-6 and declassified in 1997.The confiscation of Jewish property gave Göring the opportunity to amass a personal fortune.", "Some properties he seized himself or acquired for a nominal price.", "In other cases, he collected bribes for allowing others to steal Jewish property.", "He took kickbacks from industrialists for favourable decisions as Four-Year Plan director, and money for supplying arms to the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War via Pyrkal in Greece (although Germany was supporting Franco and the Nationalists).Göring was appointed Reich Master of the Hunt in 1933 and Master of the German Forests in 1934.He instituted reforms to the forestry laws and acted to protect endangered species.", "Around this time, he became interested in Schorfheide Forest, where he set aside as a state park, which is still extant.", "There he built an elaborate hunting lodge, Carinhall, in memory of his first wife, Carin.", "By 1934, her body had been transported to the site and placed in a vault on the estate.", "Through most of the 1930s, Göring kept pet lion cubs, borrowed from the Berlin Zoo, both at Carinhall and at his house at Obersalzberg.", "The main lodge at Carinhall had a large art gallery where Göring displayed works that had been plundered from private collections and museums around Europe from 1939 onward.", "Göring worked closely with the (), an organisation tasked with the looting of artwork and cultural material from Jewish collections, libraries, and museums throughout Europe.", "Headed by Alfred Rosenberg, the task force set up a collection centre and headquarters in Paris.", "Some 26,000 railroad cars full of art treasures, furniture, and other looted items were sent to Germany from France alone.", "Göring repeatedly visited the Paris headquarters to review the incoming stolen goods and to select items to be sent on a special train to Carinhall and his other homes.", "The estimated value of his collection, which numbered some 1,500 pieces, was $200 million.Standard, on display at the in Les Invalides, ParisGöring was known for his extravagant tastes and garish clothing.", "He had various special uniforms made for the many posts he held; his uniform included a jewel-encrusted baton.", "Hans-Ulrich Rudel, the top pilot of the war, recalled twice meeting Göring dressed in outlandish costumes: first, a medieval hunting costume, practicing archery with his doctor; and second, dressed in a red toga fastened with a golden clasp, smoking an unusually large pipe.", "Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano once noted Göring wearing a fur coat that looked like what \"a high-grade prostitute wears to the opera\".", "He threw lavish housewarming parties each time a round of construction was completed at Carinhall, and changed costumes several times throughout the evenings.Göring was noted for his patronage of music, especially opera.", "He entertained frequently and sumptuously and hosted elaborate birthday parties for himself.", "Armaments minister Albert Speer recalled that guests brought expensive gifts such as gold bars, Dutch cigars, and valuable artwork.", "For his birthday in 1944, Speer gave Göring an oversized marble bust of Hitler.", "As a member of the Prussian Council of State, Speer was required to donate a considerable portion of his salary towards the council's birthday gift to Göring without even being asked.", "Erhard Milch told Speer that similar donations were required out of the Air Ministry's general fund.", "For his birthday in 1940, Ciano decorated Göring with the coveted Collar of Annunziata.", "The award reduced him to tears.The design of the standard, on a light blue field, featured a gold German eagle grasping a wreath surmounted by two batons overlaid with a swastika.", "The reverse side of the flag had the () surrounded by a wreath between four Luftwaffe eagles.", "The flag was carried by a personal standard-bearer at all public occasions.Though he liked to be called \"\" (), the once dashing and muscular fighter pilot had become corpulent.", "He was one of the few Nazi leaders who did not take offence at hearing jokes about himself, \"no matter how rude\", taking them as a sign of his popularity amongst the masses.", "One such German joke poked fun at Göring in stating that he would wear an admiral's uniform with rubber medals to take a bath, and his obesity, joking that \"he sits down on his stomach\".", "Another joke claimed that he had sent a wire to Hitler after his visit to the Vatican: \"Mission accomplished.", "Pope unfrocked.", "Tiara and pontifical vestments are a perfect fit.\"" ], [ "Role in the Holocaust", "Göring's July 1941 letter to Reinhard HeydrichJoseph Goebbels and Himmler were far more antisemitic than Göring, who mainly adopted that attitude because party politics required him to do so.", "His deputy, Erhard Milch, had a Jewish parent.", "However, Göring supported the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and later initiated economic measures unfavourable to Jews.", "He required the registration of all Jewish property as part of the Four-Year Plan, and at a meeting held after was livid that the financial burden for the Jewish losses would have to be made good by German-owned insurance companies.", "He proposed that the Jews be fined one billion marks.At the same meeting, options for the disposition of the Jews and their property were discussed.", "Jews would be segregated into ghettos or encouraged to emigrate, and their property would be seized in a programme of Aryanization.", "Compensation for seized property would be low, if any was given at all.", "Detailed minutes of this meeting and other documents were read out at the Nuremberg trial, proving his knowledge of and complicity with the persecution of the Jews.On 24 January 1939, Göring established in Berlin the head office of the Central Office for Jewish Emigration, modelled on the similar organization established in Vienna in August 1938.Under the direction of Heydrich, it was tasked with using any means necessary to prompt Jews to leave the Reich, and creating a Jewish organization that would co-ordinate emigration from the Jewish side.In July 1941, Göring issued a memo to Heydrich ordering him to organise the practical details of the Final Solution to the \"Jewish Question\".", "By the time that this letter was written, many Jews and others had already been killed in Poland, Russia, and elsewhere.", "At the Wannsee Conference, held six months later, Heydrich formally announced that genocide of the Jews was now official Reich policy.", "Göring did not attend the conference, but he was present at other meetings where the number of people killed was discussed.Göring directed anti-partisan operations by Luftwaffe security battalions in the Białowieża Forest between 1942 and 1944 that resulted in the murder of thousands of Jews and Polish civilians.At the Nuremberg trial Göring told first lieutenant and U.S. Army psychologist Gustave Gilbert that he would never have supported the anti-Jewish measures if he had known what was going to happen.", "\"I only thought we would eliminate Jews from positions in big business and government\", he claimed." ], [ "Decorations and awards", "Göring wearing his medal (1932)=== German ===* Iron Cross** 2nd Class on 15 September 1914** 1st Class on 22 March 1915* Pour le Mérite (2 June 1918)* Blood Order (Commemorative Medal of 9 November 1923)* Clasp to the Iron Cross** 2nd Class on 30 September 1939** 1st Class on 30 September 1939* Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939* Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for \"the victories of the Luftwaffe in 1940 during the French campaign\" (the only award of this decoration during World War II – 19 August 1940)* Order from the Grand Duke of Baden Orden vom Zähringer Löwen (de) Knights Cross 2nd Class with Swords* Golden Party Badge* Knights Cross with Swords of the House Order of Hohenzollern* Knights Cross of the Military Karl-Friedrich Merit Order* Danzig Cross, 1st and 2nd class=== Foreign ===* Knight of the Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius (Kingdom of Bulgaria)* Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog, with Breast Star in Diamonds (Kingdom of Denmark) (25 July 1938)* Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (6 March 1935)* Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (21 April 1941)* Grand Cross with Swords of the Order of the Cross of Liberty (Finland) (25 March 1942)* Grand Cross of the Order of St Stephen (Kingdom of Hungary)* Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation (Kingdom of Italy) (12 January 1940)* Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword, with Collar (Kingdom of Sweden) (1939)* Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun, with Paulownia Flowers (Empire of Japan) (4 October 1943)" ], [ "See also", "* Aerial victory standards of World War I* Air warfare of World War II* Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring* Glossary of Nazi Germany* Glossary of German military terms* Göring's Green Folder* List of Nazi Party leaders and officials" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol.", "9 Transcript of Goering's testimony at the trial* \"Lost Prison Interview with Hermann Goring: The Reichsmarschall's Revelations\" published by ''World War II Magazine''* Göring at Långbro asylum* The Goering Collection: online database (in German as Die Kunstsammlung Hermann Göring) of 4263 artworks in Hermann Göring's collection*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marrubium vulgare" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Marrubium vulgare''''' ('''white horehound''' or '''common horehound''') is a flowering plant in the mint family (Lamiaceae), native to Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern and central Asia.", "It is also widely naturalized in many places, including most of North and South America.It is a grey-leaved herbaceous perennial plant, and grows to tall.", "The leaves are long with a densely crinkled surface, and are covered in downy hairs.", "The flowers are white, borne in clusters on the upper part of the main stem." ], [ "Etymology", "The Oxford English Dictionary derives the word ''horehound'' from Old English ''hoar'' (furry, as in \"hoarfrost\") and ''hune'' (a word of unknown origin designating a class of herbs or plants).", "The second element was altered by folk etymology.", "The word \"White\" is generally used in botanical contexts, to distinguish it from Black Horehound, ''Ballota nigra'', a similar-looking herb." ], [ "Uses", "===Folk medicine===Aldine edition of 1528White horehound has been mentioned in conjunction with use as a folk medicine dating at least back to the 1st century BC, where it appeared as a remedy for respiratory ailments in the treatise ''De Medicina'' by Roman encyclopaedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus.", "The Roman agricultural writer Columella lists it as a remedy for expelling worms in farm animals in his important first-century work ''On Agriculture''.", "Since then, white horehound has appeared for similar purposes in numerous herbals over the centuries, such as ''The Herball, or, Generall historie of plantes'' by John Gerard, and ''Every Man His Own Doctor: or, The Poor Planter’s Physician''.''M.", "vulgare'' has been described in monographs of the German Commission E as a treatment for colds, as a digestive, and as a choleretic.", "It is one of the ingredients of the Ricola throat lozenge.", "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration does not endorse the plant for use as a drug, but includes it as a safe food additive.===Culinary===Fuzziwig´s Candy FactoryHorehound candy drops are bittersweet hard candies like cough drops made with sugar and an extract of ''M.", "vulgare''.", "They are dark-colored, dissolve in the mouth, and have a flavor that has been compared to menthol and root beer.", "Like other products derived from ''M.", "vulgare'', they are sometimes used as an unproven folk treatment for coughs and other ailments.''M.", "vulgare'' is used to make beverages such as horehound beer (similar to root beer), horehound herbal tea (similar to the Maghrebi mint tea), and the rock and rye cocktail." ], [ "As an invasive weed", "Horehound was introduced to southern Australia in the 19th century as a medicinal herb.", "It became a weed of native grasslands and pastures where it was introduced with settlers' livestock and was first declared under noxious weeds legislation.", "It now appears to have reached its full potential distribution.In New Zealand, efforts are being made to control its spread with biocontrol measures using the horehound clearwing moth (''Chamaesphecia mysiniformis'') and the horehound plume moth (''Wheeleria spilodactylus''), which could eat their way through many plants.Horehound is usually found in disturbed and overgrazed areas.", "It is highly unpalatable to livestock, so livestock eat other plants around it, a process that favors the persistence and spread of the weed.", "It may persist in native vegetation that has been grazed." ], [ "As biocontrol", "''Marrubium vulgare'' is also used as a natural grasshopper repellent in agriculture." ], [ "In astrology", "According to 14th century English poet John Gower, in Book 7 of ''his Confessio Amantis'', this plant was the herb of the fourth star of , Capella.", "Gower uses the older name, Alhaiot (VII:1338)." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Marrubium vulgare.JPG|Wild horehoundFile:Marrubium vulgare0.jpg|FlowersFile:Marrubium vulgare.jpg|Foliage of young plantsFile:Horehound bug.jpg|Horehound bug (''Agonoscelis rutila''), an insect that feeds on the plantFile:Marrubium vulgare in Mexico II.jpg|Leaves (detail)" ], [ "See also", "* Black Horehound* List of candies" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Everist, D.L.", "(1981) ''Poisonous Plants of Australia''.", "3rd ed.", "(Angus & Robertson: Sydney).", "*Parsons, W. & Cuthbertson, E. (2001) ''Noxious Weeds of Australia''.", "2nd ed.", "(CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood)." ], [ "External links", "* India Biodiversity Portal* ''Marrubium vulgare'', Trefle" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hyperthyroidism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hyperthyroidism''' is the condition that occurs due to excessive production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.", "'''Thyrotoxicosis''' is the condition that occurs due to excessive thyroid hormone of any cause and therefore includes hyperthyroidism.", "Some, however, use the terms interchangeably.", "Signs and symptoms vary between people and may include irritability, muscle weakness, sleeping problems, a fast heartbeat, heat intolerance, diarrhea, enlargement of the thyroid, hand tremor, and weight loss.", "Symptoms are typically less severe in the elderly and during pregnancy.", "An uncommon but life-threatening complication is thyroid storm in which an event such as an infection results in worsening symptoms such as confusion and a high temperature; this often results in death.", "The opposite is hypothyroidism, when the thyroid gland does not make enough thyroid hormone.Graves' disease is the cause of about 50% to 80% of the cases of hyperthyroidism in the United States.", "Other causes include multinodular goiter, toxic adenoma, inflammation of the thyroid, eating too much iodine, and too much synthetic thyroid hormone.", "A less common cause is a pituitary adenoma.", "The diagnosis may be suspected based on signs and symptoms and then confirmed with blood tests.", "Typically blood tests show a low thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and raised T3 or T4.Radioiodine uptake by the thyroid, thyroid scan, and measurement of antithyroid autoantibodies (thyroidal thyrotropin receptor antibodies are positive in Graves disease) may help determine the cause.Treatment depends partly on the cause and severity of disease.", "There are three main treatment options: radioiodine therapy, medications, and thyroid surgery.", "Radioiodine therapy involves taking iodine-131 by mouth which is then concentrated in and destroys the thyroid over weeks to months.", "The resulting hypothyroidism is treated with synthetic thyroid hormone.", "Medications such as beta blockers may control the symptoms, and anti-thyroid medications such as methimazole may temporarily help people while other treatments are having an effect.", "Surgery to remove the thyroid is another option.", "This may be used in those with very large thyroids or when cancer is a concern.", "In the United States hyperthyroidism affects about 1.2% of the population.", "Worldwide, hyperthyroidism affects 2.5% of adults.", "It occurs between two and ten times more often in women.", "Onset is commonly between 20 and 50 years of age.", "Overall the disease is more common in those over the age of 60 years." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Illustration depicting enlarged thyroid that may be associated with hyperthyroidismHyperthyroidism may be asymptomatic or present with significant symptoms.", "Some of the symptoms of hyperthyroidism include nervousness, irritability, increased perspiration, heart racing, hand tremors, anxiety, trouble sleeping, thinning of the skin, fine brittle hair, and muscular weakness—especially in the upper arms and thighs.", "More frequent bowel movements may occur, and diarrhea is common.", "Weight loss, sometimes significant, may occur despite a good appetite (though 10% of people with a hyperactive thyroid experience weight gain), vomiting may occur, and, for women, menstrual flow may lighten and menstrual periods may occur less often, or with longer cycles than usual.Thyroid hormone is critical to normal function of cells.", "In excess, it both overstimulates metabolism and disrupts the normal functioning of sympathetic nervous system, causing \"speeding up\" of various body systems and symptoms resembling an overdose of epinephrine (adrenaline).", "These include fast heartbeat and symptoms of palpitations, nervous system tremor such as of the hands and anxiety symptoms, digestive system hypermotility, unintended weight loss, and, in lipid panel blood tests, a lower and sometimes unusually low serum cholesterol.Major clinical signs of hyperthyroidism include weight loss (often accompanied by an increased appetite), anxiety, heat intolerance, hair loss (especially of the outer third of the eyebrows), muscle aches, weakness, fatigue, hyperactivity, irritability, high blood sugar, excessive urination, excessive thirst, delirium, tremor, pretibial myxedema (in Graves' disease), emotional lability, and sweating.", "Panic attacks, inability to concentrate, and memory problems may also occur.", "Psychosis and paranoia, common during thyroid storm, are rare with milder hyperthyroidism.", "Many persons will experience complete remission of symptoms 1 to 2 months after a euthyroid state is obtained, with a marked reduction in anxiety, sense of exhaustion, irritability, and depression.", "Some individuals may have an increased rate of anxiety or persistence of affective and cognitive symptoms for several months to up to 10 years after a euthyroid state is established.", "In addition, those with hyperthyroidism may present with a variety of physical symptoms such as palpitations and abnormal heart rhythms (the notable ones being atrial fibrillation), shortness of breath (dyspnea), loss of libido, amenorrhea, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, gynecomastia and feminization.", "Long term untreated hyperthyroidism can lead to osteoporosis.", "These classical symptoms may not be present often in the elderly.Bone loss, which is associated with overt but not subclinical hyperthyroidism, may occur in 10 to 20% of patients.", "This may be due to an increase in bone remodelling and a decrease in bone density, and increases fracture risk.", "It is more common in postmenopausal women; less so in younger women, and men.", "Bone disease related to hyperthyroidism was first described by Frederick von Recklinghausen, in 1891; he described the bones of a woman who died of hyperthyroidism as appearing \"worm-eaten\".Neurological manifestations can include tremors, chorea, myopathy, and in some susceptible individuals (in particular of Asian descent) periodic paralysis.", "An association between thyroid disease and myasthenia gravis has been recognized.", "Thyroid disease, in this condition, is autoimmune in nature and approximately 5% of people with myasthenia gravis also have hyperthyroidism.", "Myasthenia gravis rarely improves after thyroid treatment and the relationship between the two entities is becoming better understood over the past 15 years.In Graves' disease, ophthalmopathy may cause the eyes to look enlarged because the eye muscles swell and push the eye forward.", "Sometimes, one or both eyes may bulge.", "Some have swelling of the front of the neck from an enlarged thyroid gland (a goiter).Minor ocular (eye) signs, which may be present in any type of hyperthyroidism, are eyelid retraction (\"stare\"), extraocular muscle weakness, and lid-lag.", "In hyperthyroid ''stare'' (Dalrymple sign) the eyelids are retracted upward more than normal (the normal position is at the superior corneoscleral limbus, where the \"white\" of the eye begins at the upper border of the iris).", "Extraocular muscle weakness may present with double vision.", "In lid-lag (von Graefe's sign), when the person tracks an object downward with their eyes, the eyelid fails to follow the downward moving iris, and the same type of upper globe exposure which is seen with lid retraction occurs, temporarily.", "These signs disappear with treatment of the hyperthyroidism.Neither of these ocular signs should be confused with exophthalmos (protrusion of the eyeball), which occurs specifically and uniquely in hyperthyroidism caused by Graves' disease (note that not all exophthalmos is caused by Graves' disease, but when present with hyperthyroidism is diagnostic of Graves' disease).", "This forward protrusion of the eyes is due to immune-mediated inflammation in the retro-orbital (eye socket) fat.", "Exophthalmos, when present, may exacerbate hyperthyroid lid-lag and stare.===Thyroid storm===Thyroid storm is a severe form of thyrotoxicosis characterized by rapid and often irregular heart beat, high temperature, vomiting, diarrhea, and mental agitation.", "Symptoms may not be typical in the young, old, or pregnant.", "It usually occurs due to untreated hyperthyroidism and can be provoked by infections.", "It is a medical emergency and requires hospital care to control the symptoms rapidly.", "The mortality rate in thyroid storm is 3.6-17%, usually due to multi-organ system failure.===Hypothyroidism===Hyperthyroidism due to certain types of thyroiditis can eventually lead to hypothyroidism (a ''lack'' of thyroid hormone), as the thyroid gland is damaged.", "Also, radioiodine treatment of Graves' disease often eventually leads to hypothyroidism.", "Such hypothyroidism may be diagnosed with thyroid hormone testing and treated by oral thyroid hormone supplementation." ], [ "Causes", "Most common causes of hyperthyroidism by age.There are several causes of hyperthyroidism.", "Most often, the entire gland is overproducing thyroid hormone.", "Less commonly, a single nodule is responsible for the excess hormone secretion, called a \"hot\" nodule.", "Thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid) can also cause hyperthyroidism.", "Functional thyroid tissue producing an excess of thyroid hormone occurs in a number of clinical conditions.The major causes in humans are:* Graves' disease.", "An autoimmune disease (usually, the most common cause with 50–80% worldwide, although this varies substantially with location- i.e., 47% in Switzerland (Horst et al., 1987) to 90% in the USA (Hamburger et al.", "1981)).", "Thought to be due to varying levels of iodine in the diet.", "It is eight times more common in females than males and often occurs in young females, around 20 to 40 years of age.", "* Toxic thyroid adenoma (the most common cause in Switzerland, 53%, thought to be atypical due to a low level of dietary iodine in this country)* Toxic multinodular goiterHigh blood levels of thyroid hormones (most accurately termed hyperthyroxinemia) can occur for a number of other reasons:* Inflammation of the thyroid is called thyroiditis.", "There are several different kinds of thyroiditis including Hashimoto's thyroiditis (Hypothyroidism immune-mediated), and subacute thyroiditis (de Quervain's).", "These may be ''initially'' associated with secretion of excess thyroid hormone but usually progress to gland dysfunction and, thus, to hormone deficiency and hypothyroidism.", "* Oral consumption of excess thyroid hormone tablets is possible (surreptitious use of thyroid hormone), as is the rare event of eating ground beef or pork contaminated with thyroid tissue, and thus thyroid hormones (termed ''hamburger thyrotoxicosis'' or ''alimentary thyrotoxicosis'').", "Pharmacy compounding errors may also be a cause.", "* Amiodarone, an antiarrhythmic drug, is structurally similar to thyroxine and may cause either under-or overactivity of the thyroid.", "* Postpartum thyroiditis (PPT) occurs in about 7% of women during the year after they give birth.", "PPT typically has several phases, the first of which is hyperthyroidism.", "This form of hyperthyroidism usually corrects itself within weeks or months without the need for treatment.", "* A struma ovarii is a rare form of monodermal teratoma that contains mostly thyroid tissue, which leads to hyperthyroidism.", "* Excess iodine consumption notably from algae such as kelp.Thyrotoxicosis can also occur after taking too much thyroid hormone in the form of supplements, such as levothyroxine (a phenomenon known as exogenous thyrotoxicosis, alimentary thyrotoxicosis, or occult factitial thyrotoxicosis).Hypersecretion of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which in turn is almost always caused by a pituitary adenoma, accounts for much less than 1 percent of hyperthyroidism cases." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Measuring the level of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), produced by the pituitary gland (which in turn is also regulated by the hypothalamus's TSH Releasing Hormone) in the blood is typically the initial test for suspected hyperthyroidism.", "A low TSH level typically indicates that the pituitary gland is being inhibited or \"instructed\" by the brain to cut back on stimulating the thyroid gland, having sensed increased levels of T4 and/or T3 in the blood.", "In rare circumstances, a low TSH indicates primary failure of the pituitary, or temporary inhibition of the pituitary due to another illness (euthyroid sick syndrome) and so checking the T4 and T3 is still clinically useful.Measuring specific antibodies, such as anti-TSH-receptor antibodies in Graves' disease, or anti-thyroid peroxidase in Hashimoto's thyroiditis—a common cause of hypothyroidism—may also contribute to the diagnosis.", "The diagnosis of hyperthyroidism is confirmed by blood tests that show a decreased thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level and elevated T4 and T3 levels.", "TSH is a hormone made by the pituitary gland in the brain that tells the thyroid gland how much hormone to make.", "When there is too much thyroid hormone, the TSH will be low.", "A radioactive iodine uptake test and thyroid scan together characterizes or enables radiologists and doctors to determine the cause of hyperthyroidism.", "The uptake test uses radioactive iodine injected or taken orally on an empty stomach to measure the amount of iodine absorbed by the thyroid gland.", "Persons with hyperthyroidism absorb much more iodine than healthy persons which includes radioactive iodine which is easy to measure.", "A thyroid scan producing images is typically conducted in connection with the uptake test to allow visual examination of the over-functioning gland.Thyroid scintigraphy is a useful test to characterize (distinguish between causes of) hyperthyroidism, and this entity from thyroiditis.", "This test procedure typically involves two tests performed in connection with each other: an iodine uptake test and a scan (imaging) with a gamma camera.", "The uptake test involves administering a dose of radioactive iodine (radioiodine), traditionally iodine-131 (131I), and more recently iodine-123 (123I).", "Iodine-123 may be the preferred radionuclide in some clinics due to its more favorable radiation dosimetry (i.e.", "less radiation dose to the person per unit administered radioactivity) and a gamma photon energy more amenable to imaging with the gamma camera.", "For the imaging scan, I-123 is considered an almost ideal isotope of iodine for imaging thyroid tissue and thyroid cancer metastasis.", "Thyroid scintigraphy should not be performed in those who are pregnant, a thyroid ultrasound with color flow doppler may be obtained as an alternative in these circumstances.Typical administration involves a pill or liquid containing sodium iodide (NaI) taken orally, which contains a small amount of iodine-131, amounting to perhaps less than a grain of salt.", "A 2-hour fast of no food prior to and for 1 hour after ingesting the pill is required.", "This low dose of radioiodine is typically tolerated by individuals otherwise allergic to iodine (such as those unable to tolerate contrast mediums containing larger doses of iodine such as used in CT scan, intravenous pyelogram (IVP), and similar imaging diagnostic procedures).", "Excess radioiodine that does not get absorbed into the thyroid gland is eliminated by the body in urine.", "Some people with hyperthyroidism may experience a slight allergic reaction to the diagnostic radioiodine and may be given an antihistamine.The person returns 24 hours later to have the level of radioiodine \"uptake\" (absorbed by the thyroid gland) measured by a device with a metal bar placed against the neck, which measures the radioactivity emitting from the thyroid.", "This test takes about 4 minutes while the uptake % (''i.e.,'' percentage) is accumulated (calculated) by the machine software.", "A scan is also performed, wherein images (typically a center, left and right angle) are taken of the contrasted thyroid gland with a gamma camera; a radiologist will read and prepare a report indicating the uptake % and comments after examining the images.", "People with hyperthyroid will typically \"take up\" higher than normal levels of radioiodine.", "Normal ranges for RAI uptake are from 10 to 30%.In addition to testing the TSH levels, many doctors test for T3, Free T3, T4, and/or Free T4 for more detailed results.", "Free T4 is unbound to any protein in the blood.", "Adult limits for these hormones are: TSH (units): 0.45 – 4.50 uIU/mL; T4 Free/Direct (nanograms): 0.82 – 1.77 ng/dl; and T3 (nanograms): 71 – 180 ng/dl.", "Persons with hyperthyroidism can easily exhibit levels many times these upper limits for T4 and/or T3.See a complete table of normal range limits for thyroid function at the thyroid gland article.In hyperthyroidism CK-MB (Creatine kinase) is usually elevated.File:Hyperthyroidism (1).jpgFile:Hyperthyroidism (2).jpgFile:Hyperthyroidism (3).jpg===Subclinical===In overt primary hyperthyroidism, TSH levels are low and T4 and T3 levels are high.", "Subclinical hyperthyroidism is a milder form of hyperthyroidism characterized by low or undetectable serum TSH level, but with a normal serum free thyroxine level.", "Although the evidence for doing so is not definitive, treatment of elderly persons having subclinical hyperthyroidism could reduce the number of cases of atrial fibrillation.", "There is also an increased risk of bone fractures (by 42%) in people with subclinical hyperthyroidism; there is insufficient evidence to say whether treatment with antithyroid medications would reduce that risk.A 2022 meta-analysis found subclinical hyperthyroidism to be associated with cardiovascular death.===Screening===In those without symptoms who are not pregnant there is little evidence for or against screening." ], [ "Treatment", "===Antithyroid drugs===Thyrostatics (antithyroid drugs) are drugs that inhibit the production of thyroid hormones, such as carbimazole (used in the UK) and methimazole (used in the US, Germany and Russia), and propylthiouracil.", "Thyrostatics are believed to work by inhibiting the iodination of thyroglobulin by thyroperoxidase and, thus, the formation of tetraiodothyronine (T4).", "Propylthiouracil also works outside the thyroid gland, preventing the conversion of (mostly inactive) T4 to the active form T3.Because thyroid tissue usually contains a substantial reserve of thyroid hormone, thyrostatics can take weeks to become effective and the dose often needs to be carefully titrated over a period of months, with regular doctor visits and blood tests to monitor results.===Beta-blockers===Many of the common symptoms of hyperthyroidism such as palpitations, trembling, and anxiety are mediated by increases in beta-adrenergic receptors on cell surfaces.", "Beta blockers, typically used to treat high blood pressure, are a class of drugs that offset this effect, reducing rapid pulse associated with the sensation of palpitations, and decreasing tremor and anxiety.", "Thus, a person with hyperthyroidism can often obtain immediate temporary relief until the hyperthyroidism can be characterized with the Radioiodine test noted above and more permanent treatment take place.", "Note that these drugs do not treat hyperthyroidism or any of its long-term effects if left untreated, but, rather, they treat or reduce only symptoms of the condition.Some minimal effect on thyroid hormone production however also comes with propranolol—which has two roles in the treatment of hyperthyroidism, determined by the different isomers of propranolol.", "L-propranolol causes beta-blockade, thus treating the symptoms associated with hyperthyroidism such as tremor, palpitations, anxiety, and heat intolerance.", "D-propranolol inhibits thyroxine deiodinase, thereby blocking the conversion of T4 to T3, providing some though minimal therapeutic effect.", "Other beta-blockers are used to treat only the symptoms associated with hyperthyroidism.", "Propranolol in the UK, and metoprolol in the US, are most frequently used to augment treatment for people with hyperthyroid .===Diet===People with autoimmune hyperthyroidism (such as in Grave's disease) should not eat foods high in iodine, such as edible seaweed and seafood.From a public health perspective, the general introduction of iodized salt in the United States in 1924 resulted in lower disease, goiters, as well as improving the lives of children whose mothers would not have eaten enough iodine during pregnancy which would have lowered the IQs of their children.===Surgery===Surgery (thyroidectomy to remove the whole thyroid or a part of it) is not extensively used because most common forms of hyperthyroidism are quite effectively treated by the radioactive iodine method, and because there is a risk of also removing the parathyroid glands, and of cutting the recurrent laryngeal nerve, making swallowing difficult, and even simply generalized staphylococcal infection as with any major surgery.", "Some people with Graves' may opt for surgical intervention.", "This includes those that cannot tolerate medicines for one reason or another, people that are allergic to iodine, or people that refuse radioiodine.A 2019 systematic review concluded that the available evidence shows no difference between visually identifying the nerve or utilizing intraoperative neuroimaging during surgery, when trying to prevent injury to recurrent laryngeal nerve during thyroid surgery.If people have toxic nodules treatments typically include either removal or injection of the nodule with alcohol.===Radioiodine===In iodine-131 (radioiodine) radioisotope therapy, which was first pioneered by Dr. Saul Hertz, radioactive iodine-131 is given orally (either by pill or liquid) on a one-time basis, to severely restrict, or altogether destroy the function of a hyperactive thyroid gland.", "This isotope of radioactive iodine used for ablative treatment is more potent than diagnostic radioiodine (usually iodine-123 or a very low amount of iodine-131), which has a biological half-life from 8–13 hours.", "Iodine-131, which also emits beta particles that are far more damaging to tissues at short range, has a half-life of approximately 8 days.", "People not responding sufficiently to the first dose are sometimes given an additional radioiodine treatment, at a larger dose.", "Iodine-131 in this treatment is picked up by the active cells in the thyroid and destroys them, rendering the thyroid gland mostly or completely inactive.Since iodine is picked up more readily (though not exclusively) by thyroid cells, and (more important) is picked up even more readily by over-active thyroid cells, the destruction is local, and there are no widespread side effects with this therapy.", "Radioiodine ablation has been used for over 50 years, and the only major reasons for not using it are pregnancy and breastfeeding (breast tissue also picks up and concentrates iodine).", "Once the thyroid function is reduced, replacement hormone therapy (levothyroxine) taken orally each day replaces the thyroid hormone that is normally produced by the body.There is extensive experience, over many years, of the use of radioiodine in the treatment of thyroid overactivity and this experience does not indicate any increased risk of thyroid cancer following treatment.", "However, a study from 2007 has reported an increased number of cancer cases after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism.The principal advantage of radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism is that it tends to have a much higher success rate than medications.", "Depending on the dose of radioiodine chosen, and the disease under treatment (Graves' vs. toxic goiter, vs. hot nodule etc.", "), the success rate in achieving definitive resolution of the hyperthyroidism may vary from 75 to 100%.", "A major expected side-effect of radioiodine in people with Graves' disease is the development of lifelong hypothyroidism, requiring daily treatment with thyroid hormone.", "On occasion, some people may require more than one radioactive treatment, depending on the type of disease present, the size of the thyroid, and the initial dose administered.People with Graves' disease manifesting moderate or severe Graves' ophthalmopathy are cautioned against radioactive iodine-131 treatment, since it has been shown to exacerbate existing thyroid eye disease.", "People with mild or no ophthalmic symptoms can mitigate their risk with a concurrent six-week course of prednisone.", "The mechanisms proposed for this side effect involve a TSH receptor common to both thyrocytes and retro-orbital tissue.As radioactive iodine treatment results in the destruction of thyroid tissue, there is often a transient period of several days to weeks when the symptoms of hyperthyroidism may actually worsen following radioactive iodine therapy.", "In general, this happens as a result of thyroid hormones being released into the blood following the radioactive iodine-mediated destruction of thyroid cells that contain thyroid hormone.", "In some people, treatment with medications such as beta blockers (propranolol, atenolol, etc.)", "may be useful during this period of time.", "Most people do not experience any difficulty after the radioactive iodine treatment, usually given as a small pill.", "On occasion, neck tenderness or a sore throat may become apparent after a few days, if moderate inflammation in the thyroid develops and produces discomfort in the neck or throat area.", "This is usually transient, and not associated with a fever, etc.It is recommended that breastfeeding be stopped at least six weeks before radioactive iodine treatment and that it not be resumed, although it can be done in future pregnancies.", "It also shouldn't be done during pregnancy, and pregnancy should be put off until at least 6–12 months after treatment.A common outcome following radioiodine is a swing from hyperthyroidism to the easily treatable hypothyroidism, which occurs in 78% of those treated for Graves' thyrotoxicosis and in 40% of those with toxic multinodular goiter or solitary toxic adenoma.", "Use of higher doses of radioiodine reduces the number of cases of treatment failure, with penalty for higher response to treatment consisting mostly of higher rates of eventual hypothyroidism which requires hormone treatment for life.There is increased sensitivity to radioiodine therapy in thyroids appearing on ultrasound scans as more uniform (hypoechogenic), due to densely packed large cells, with 81% later becoming hypothyroid, compared to just 37% in those with more normal scan appearances (normoechogenic).===Thyroid storm===Thyroid storm presents with extreme symptoms of hyperthyroidism.", "It is treated aggressively with resuscitation measures along with a combination of the above modalities including: an intravenous beta blockers such as propranolol, followed by a thioamide such as methimazole, an iodinated radiocontrast agent or an iodine solution if the radiocontrast agent is not available, and an intravenous steroid such as hydrocortisone.", "Propylthiouracil is the preferred thioamide in thyroid storm as it can prevent the conversion of T4 to the more active T3 in the peripheral tissues in addition to inhibiting thyroid hormone production.=== Alternative medicine ===In countries such as China, herbs used alone or with antithyroid medications are used to treat hyperthyroidism.", "Very low quality evidence suggests that traditional Chinese herbal medications may be beneficial when taken along with routine hyperthyroid medications, however, there is no reliable evidence to determine the effectiveness of Chinese herbal medications for treating hyperthyroidism." ], [ "Epidemiology", "In the United States hyperthyroidism affects about 1.2% of the population.", "About half of these cases have obvious symptoms while the other half do not.", "It occurs between two and ten times more often in women.", "The disease is more common in those over the age of 60 years.Subclinical hyperthyroidism modestly increases the risk of cognitive impairment and dementia." ], [ "History", "Caleb Hillier Parry first made the association between the goiter and protrusion of the eyes in 1786, however, did not publish his findings until 1825.In 1835, Irish doctor Robert James Graves discovered a link between the protrusion of the eyes and goiter, giving his name to the autoimmune disease now known as Graves' Disease." ], [ "Pregnancy", "Recognizing and evaluating hyperthyroidism in pregnancy is a diagnostic challenge.", "Thyroid hormones are commonly elevated during the first trimester of pregnancy as the pregnancy hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulates thyroid hormone production, in a condition known as gestational transient thyrotoxicosis.", "Gestational transient thyrotoxicosis generally abates in the second trimester as hCG levels decline and thyroid function normalizes.", "Hyperthyroidism can increase the risk of complications for mother and child.", "Such risks include pregnancy-related hypertension, pregnancy loss, low-birth weight, pre-eclampsia, preterm delivery, still birth and behavioral disorders later in the child's life.", "Nonetheless, high maternal FT4 levels during pregnancy have been associated with impaired brain developmental outcomes of the offspring and this was independent of hCG levels.Propylthiouracil is the preferred antithyroid medication in the 1st trimester of pregnancy as it is less teratogenic than methimazole." ], [ "Other animals", "===Cats===Hyperthyroidism is one of the most common endocrine conditions affecting older domesticated housecats.", "In the United States, up to 10% of cats over ten years old have hyperthyroidism.", "The disease has become significantly more common since the first reports of feline hyperthyroidism in the 1970s.", "The most common cause of hyperthyroidism in cats is the presence of benign tumors called adenomas.", "98% of cases are caused by the presence of an adenoma, but the reason these cats develop such tumors continues to be studied.The most common presenting symptoms are: rapid weight loss, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), vomiting, diarrhea, increased consumption of fluids (polydipsia), increased appetite (polyphagia), and increased urine production (polyuria).", "Other symptoms include hyperactivity, possible aggression, an unkempt appearance, and large, thick claws.", "Heart murmurs and a gallop rhythm can develop due to secondary hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.", "About 70% of affected cats also have enlarged thyroid glands (goiter).", "10% of cats exhibit \"apathetic hyperthyroidism\", which is characterized by anorexia and lethargy.The same three treatments used with humans are also options in treating feline hyperthyroidism (surgery, radioiodine treatment, and anti-thyroid drugs).", "There is also a special low iodine diet available that will control the symptoms providing no other food is fed; Hill's y/d formula, when given exclusively, decreases T4 production by limiting the amount of iodine needed for thyroid hormone production.", "It is the only available commercial diet that focuses on managing feline hyperthyroidism.", "Medical and dietary management using methimazole and Hill's y/d cat food will give hyperthyroid cats an average of 2 years before dying due to secondary conditions such as heart and kidney failure.", "Drugs used to help manage the symptoms of hyperthyroidism are methimazole and carbimazole.", "Drug therapy is the least expensive option, even though the drug must be administered daily for the remainder of the cat's life.", "Carbimazole is only available as a once daily tablet.", "Methimazole is available as an oral solution, a tablet, and compounded as a topical gel that is applied using a finger cot to the hairless skin inside a cat's ear.", "Many cat owners find this gel a good option for cats that don't like being given pills.Radioiodine treatment, however, is not available in all areas, as this treatment requires nuclear radiological expertise and facilities that not only board the cat, but are specially equipped to manage the cat's urine, sweat, saliva, and stool, which are radioactive for several days after the treatment, usually for a total of 3 weeks (the cat spends the first week in total isolation and the next two weeks in close confinement).", "In the United States, the guidelines for radiation levels vary from state to state; some states such as Massachusetts allow hospitalization for as little as two days before the animal is sent home with care instructions.===Dogs===Hyperthyroidism is much less common in dogs compared to cats.", "Hyperthyroidism may be caused by a thyroid tumor.", "This may be a thyroid carcinoma.", "About 90% of carcinomas are very aggressive; they invade the surrounding tissues and metastasize (spread) to other tissues, particularly the lungs.", "This has a poor prognosis.", "Surgery to remove the tumor is often very difficult due to metastasis into arteries, the esophagus, or the windpipe.", "It may be possible to reduce the size of the tumor, thus relieving symptoms and allowing time for other treatments to work.", "About 10% of thyroid tumors are benign; these often cause few symptoms.In dogs treated for hypothyroidism (lack of thyroid hormone), iatrogenic hyperthyroidism may occur as a result of an overdose of the thyroid hormone replacement medication, levothyroxine; in this case, treatment involves reducing the dose of levothyroxine.", "Dogs which display coprophagy, the consumption of feces, and also live in a household with a dog receiving levothyroxine treatment, may develop hyperthyroidism if they frequently eat the feces from the dog receiving levothyroxine treatment.Hyperthyroidism may occur if a dog eats an excessive amount of thyroid gland tissue.", "This has occurred in dogs fed commercial dog food." ], [ "See also", "* High-output cardiac failure* Jod-Basedow phenomenon* Hashitoxicosis" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Merck Manual article about hyperthyroidism* Hyperthyroidism at MedlinePlus" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transclusion" ], [ "Introduction", "In this example, the data of file ''B'' is transcluded into the document ''A''.In computer science, '''transclusion''' is the inclusion of part or all of an electronic document into one or more other documents by reference via hypertext.", "Transclusion is usually performed when the referencing document is displayed, and is normally automatic and transparent to the end user.", "The result of transclusion is a single integrated document made of parts assembled dynamically from separate sources, possibly stored on different computers in disparate places.Transclusion facilitates modular design (using the \"single source of truth\" model, whether in data, code, or content): a resource is stored once and distributed for reuse in multiple documents.", "Updates or corrections to a resource are then reflected in any referencing documents.", "In systems where transclusion is not available, and in some situations where it is available but not desirable, substitution is often the complementary option, whereby a static copy of the \"single source of truth\" is integrated into the relevant document.", "Examples of both are provided by the ways in which they are both used in creating the content of Wikipedia, for example (see ''Wikipedia:Transclusion'' and ''Wikipedia:Substitution'' for more information).", "Substituted static copies introduce a different set of considerations for version control than transclusion does, but they are sometimes necessary.", "Ted Nelson coined the term for his 1980 nonlinear book ''Literary Machines'', but the idea of ''master copy and occurrences'' was applied 17 years before, in Sketchpad." ], [ "Technical considerations", "===Context neutrality===Transclusion works better when transcluded sections of text are self-contained, so that the meaning and validity of the text is independent of context.", "For example, formulations like \"as explained in the previous section\" are problematic, because the transcluded section may appear in a different context, causing confusion.", "What constitutes \"context-neutral\" text varies, but often includes things like company information or boilerplate.", "To help overcome context sensitivity issues such as those aforementioned, systems capable of transclusion are often also capable of suppressing particular elements within the transcluded content.", "For example, Wikipedia can use tags such as \"noinclude\", \"onlyinclude\", and \"includeonly\" for this purpose.", "Typical examples of elements that often require such exceptions are document titles, footnotes, and cross-references; in this way, they can be automatically suppressed upon transclusion, without manual reworking for each instance.===Parameterization===Under some circumstances, and in some technical contexts, transcluded sections of text may not require strict adherence to the \"context neutrality\" principle, because the transcluded sections are capable of ''parameterization''.", "Parameterization implies the ability to modify certain portions or subsections of a transcluded text depending on exogenous variables that can be changed independently.", "This is customarily done by supplying a transcluded text with one or more ''substitution placeholders''.", "These placeholders are then replaced with the corresponding variable values prior to rendering the final transcluded output in context." ], [ "Origins", "The concept of reusing file content began with computer programming languages: COBOL in 1960, followed by BCPL, PL/I, C, and by the 1990s, even FORTRAN.", "An include directive allows common source code to be reused while avoiding the pitfalls of copy-and-paste-programming and hard coding of constants.", "As with many innovations, a problem developed.", "Multiple include directives may provide the same content as another include directive, inadvertently causing repetitions of the same source code into the final result, resulting in an error.", "Include guards help solve this by, after a single inclusion of content, thereafter omitting the duplicate content.The idea of a single, reusable, source for information lead to concepts like: Don't repeat yourself and the abstraction principle.", "A further use was found to make programs more portable.", "Portable source code uses an include directive to specify a standard library, which contains system specific source code that varies with each computer environment." ], [ "History and implementation by Project Xanadu", "Ted Nelson, who originated the words \"hypertext\" and \"hypermedia\", also coined the term \"transclusion\", in his 1980 book ''Literary Machines''.", "Part of his proposal was the idea that micropayments could be automatically exacted from the reader for all the text, no matter how many snippets of content are taken from various places.However, according to Nelson, the concept of transclusion had already formed part of his 1965 description of hypertext.", "Nelson defines transclusion as, \"...the same content knowably in more than one place,\" setting it apart from more special cases, such as the inclusion of content from a different location (which he calls ''transdelivery'') or an explicit quotation that remains connected to its origins, (which he calls ''transquotation'').Some hypertext systems, including Ted Nelson's own Xanadu Project, support transclusion.Nelson has delivered a demonstration of Web transclusion, the Little Transquoter (programmed to Nelson's specification by Andrew Pam in 2004–2005).", "It creates a new format built on portion addresses from Web pages; when dereferenced, each portion on the resulting page remains click-connected to its original context." ], [ "Implementation on the Web", "HTTP, as a transmission protocol, has rudimentary support for transclusion via byte serving: specifying a byte range in an HTTP request message.Transclusion can occur either before (server-side) or after (client-side) transmission.", "For example:* An HTML document may be pre-composed by the server before delivery to the client using Server-Side Includes or another server-side application.", "* XML Entities or HTML Objects may be parsed by the client, which then requests the corresponding resources separately from the main document.", "* A web browser may cache elements using its own algorithms, which can operate without explicit directives in the document's markup.", "* AngularJS employs transclusion for nested directive operation.Publishers of web content may object to the transclusion of material from their own web sites into other web sites, or they may require an agreement to do so.", "Critics of the practice may refer to various forms of inline linking as bandwidth theft or leeching.Other publishers may seek specifically to have their materials transcluded into other web sites, as in the form of web advertising, or as widgets like a hit counter or web bug.Mashups make use of transclusion to assemble resources or data into a new application, as by placing geo-tagged photos on an interactive map, or by displaying business metrics in an interactive dashboard.===Client-side HTML===HTML defines elements for client-side transclusion of images, scripts, stylesheets, other documents, and other types of media.", "HTML has relied heavily on client-side transclusion from the earliest days of the Web (so web pages could be displayed more quickly before multimedia elements finished loading), rather than embedding the raw data for such objects inline into a web page's markup.Through techniques such as Ajax, scripts associated with an HTML document can instruct a web browser to modify the document in-place, as opposed to the earlier technique of having to pull an entirely new version of the page from the web server.", "Such scripts may transclude elements or documents from a server after the web browser has rendered the page, in response to user input or changing conditions, for example.Future versions of HTML may support deeper transclusion of portions of documents using XML technologies such as entities, XPointer document referencing, and XSLT manipulations.Proxy servers may employ transclusion to reduce redundant transmissions of commonly requested resources.A popular Front End Framework known as AngularJS developed and maintained by Google has a directive callend ng-transclude that marks the insertion point for the transcluded DOM of the nearest parent directive that uses transclusion.===Server-side transclusion===Transclusion can be accomplished on the server side, as through Server Side Includes and markup entity references resolved by the server software.", "It is a feature of substitution templates.===Transclusion of source code===Transclusion of source code into software design or reference materials lets source code be presented within the document, but not interpreted as part of the document, preserving the semantic consistency of the inserted code in relation to its source codebase.===Transclusion in content management===In content management for single-source publishing, top-class content management systems increasingly provide for transclusion and substitution.", "Component content management systems, especially, aim to take the modular design principle to its optimal degree.", "MediaWiki provides transclusion and substitution and is a good off-the-shelf option for many smaller organizations (such as smaller nonprofits and SMEs) that may not have the budget for other commercial options; for details, see ''Component content management system''." ], [ "See also", "* * * and ''content reuse''* * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Ted Nelson: '' Transclusion: Fixing Electronic Literature''—on Google Tech Talks, 29 January 2007." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Source tracking" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Source tracking''' pertains to the ability of some hypertext systems to rigorously track the exact source of every document or partial document included in the system; that is, they remember who entered the information, when it was entered, when it was updated and by whom, and so on.", "This allows determining the exact history of every document (and even small parts of documents).Present HTML and HTTP do not have this feature, but certain systems on the World Wide Web (such as WikiWiki and Everything Engine) may have limited versions of the capability.One application of digital watermarking is source tracking." ], [ "See also", "*Version control" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "H. P. Lovecraft" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Howard Phillips Lovecraft''' (, ; August 20, 1890 – March 15, 1937) was an American writer of weird, science, fantasy, and horror fiction.", "He is best known for his creation of the Cthulhu Mythos.Born in Providence, Rhode Island, Lovecraft spent most of his life in New England.", "After his father's institutionalization in 1893, he lived affluently until his family's wealth dissipated after the death of his grandfather.", "Lovecraft then lived with his mother, in reduced financial security, until her institutionalization in 1919.He began to write essays for the United Amateur Press Association, and in 1913 wrote a critical letter to a pulp magazine that ultimately led to his involvement in pulp fiction.", "He became active in the speculative fiction community and was published in several pulp magazines.", "Lovecraft moved to New York City, marrying Sonia Greene in 1924, and later became the center of a wider group of authors known as the \"Lovecraft Circle\".", "They introduced him to ''Weird Tales'', which became his most prominent publisher.", "Lovecraft's time in New York took a toll on his mental state and financial conditions.", "He returned to Providence in 1926 and produced some of his most popular works, including \"The Call of Cthulhu\", ''At the Mountains of Madness'', ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'', and ''The Shadow Out of Time''.", "He remained active as a writer for 11 years until his death from intestinal cancer at the age of 46.Lovecraft's literary corpus is based around the idea of cosmicism, which was simultaneously his personal philosophy and the main theme of his fiction.", "Cosmicism posits that humanity is an insignificant part of the cosmos and could be swept away at any moment.", "He incorporated fantasy and science fiction elements into his stories, representing the perceived fragility of anthropocentrism.", "This was tied to his ambivalent views on knowledge.", "His works were largely set in a fictionalized version of New England.", "Civilizational decline also plays a major role in his works, as he believed that the West was in decline during his lifetime.", "Lovecraft's early political views were conservative and traditionalist; additionally, he held a number of racist views for much of his adult life.", "Following the Great Depression, Lovecraft's political views became more socialist while still remaining elitist and aristocratic.Throughout his adult life, Lovecraft was never able to support himself from his earnings as an author and editor.", "He was virtually unknown during his lifetime and was almost exclusively published in pulp magazines before his death.", "A scholarly revival of Lovecraft's work began in the 1970s, and he is now regarded as one of the most significant 20th-century authors of supernatural horror fiction.", "Many direct adaptations and spiritual successors followed.", "Works inspired by Lovecraft, adaptations or original works, began to form the basis of the Cthulhu Mythos, which utilizes Lovecraft's characters, setting, and themes." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and family tragedies===Lovecraft was born in his family home on August 20, 1890, in Providence, Rhode Island.", "He was the only child of Winfield Scott Lovecraft and Sarah Susan (“Susie”; née Phillips) Lovecraft who were both of English descent.", "Susie's family was of substantial means at the time of their marriage, as her father, Whipple Van Buren Phillips, was involved in business ventures.", "In April 1893, after a psychotic episode in a Chicago hotel, Winfield was committed to Butler Hospital in Providence.", "His medical records state that he was \"doing and saying strange things at times\" for a year before his commitment.", "The person who reported these symptoms is unknown.", "Winfield spent five years in Butler before dying in 1898.His death certificate listed the cause of death as general paresis, a term synonymous with late-stage syphilis.", "Throughout his life, Lovecraft maintained that his father fell into a paralytic state, due to insomnia and overwork, and remained that way until his death.", "It is not known whether Lovecraft was simply kept ignorant of his father's illness or whether his later statements were intentionally misleading.alt=A family portrait of Sarah, Howard, and Winfield Lovecraft in 1892After his father's institutionalization, Lovecraft resided in the family home with his mother, his maternal aunts Lillian and Annie, and his maternal grandparents Whipple and Robie.", "According to family friends, Susie doted on the young Lovecraft excessively, pampering him and never letting him out of her sight.", "Lovecraft later recollected that his mother was \"permanently stricken with grief\" after his father's illness.", "Whipple became a father figure to Lovecraft in this time, Lovecraft later noted that his grandfather became the \"centre of my entire universe\".", "Whipple, who often traveled to manage his business, maintained correspondence by letter with the young Lovecraft who, by the age of three, was already proficient at reading and writing.Whipple encouraged the young Lovecraft to have an appreciation of literature, especially classical literature and English poetry.", "In his old age, he helped raise the young H. P. Lovecraft and educated him not only in the classics, but also in original weird tales of \"winged horrors\" and \"deep, low, moaning sounds\" which he created for his grandchild's entertainment.", "The original sources of Phillips' weird tales are unidentified.", "Lovecraft himself guessed that they originated from Gothic novelists like Ann Radcliffe, Matthew Lewis, and Charles Maturin.", "It was during this period that Lovecraft was introduced to some of his earliest literary influences, such as ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'' illustrated by Gustave Doré, ''One Thousand and One Nights'', Thomas Bulfinch's ''Age of Fable'', and Ovid's ''Metamorphoses''.While there is no indication that Lovecraft was particularly close to his grandmother, Robie, her death in 1896 had a profound effect on him.", "According to him, it sent his family into \"a gloom from which it never fully recovered\".", "His mother and aunts wore black mourning dresses that \"terrified\" him.", "This was also the time when Lovecraft, approximately five-and-a-half years old, started having nightmares that later informed his fictional writings.", "Specifically, he began to have recurring nightmares of beings he referred to as \"night-gaunts\".", "He credited their appearance to the influence of Doré's illustrations, which would \"whirl me through space at a sickening rate of speed, the while fretting & impelling me with their detestable tridents\".", "Thirty years later, night-gaunts appeared in Lovecraft's fiction.Lovecraft's earliest known literary works were written at the age of seven, and were poems restyling the ''Odyssey'' and other Greco-Roman mythological stories.", "Lovecraft later wrote that during his childhood he was fixated on the Greco-Roman pantheon, and briefly accepted them as genuine expressions of divinity, foregoing his Christian upbringing.", "He recalled, at five years old, being told Santa Claus did not exist and retorted by asking why \"God is not equally a myth?\"", "At the age of eight, he took a keen interest in the sciences, particularly astronomy and chemistry.", "He also examined the anatomical books that were held in the family library, which taught him the specifics of human reproduction that were not yet explained to him.", "As a result, he found that it \"virtually killed my interest in the subject\".In 1902, according to Lovecraft's later correspondence, astronomy became a guiding influence on his worldview.", "He began publishing the periodical ''Rhode Island Journal of Astronomy'', using the hectograph printing method.", "Lovecraft went in and out of elementary school repeatedly, oftentimes with home tutors making up for the lost years, missing time due to health concerns that have not been determined.", "In their written recollections, his peers described him as withdrawn but welcoming to those who shared his then-current fascination with astronomy, inviting them to look through his prized telescope.===Education and financial decline===By 1900, Whipple's various business concerns were suffering a downturn, which resulted in the slow erosion of his family's wealth.", "He was forced to let his family's hired servants go, leaving Lovecraft, Whipple, and Susie, being the only unmarried sister, alone in the family home.", "In the spring of 1904, Whipple's largest business venture suffered a catastrophic failure.", "Within months, he died at age 70 due to a stroke.", "After Whipple's death, Susie was unable to financially support the upkeep of the expansive family home on what remained of the Phillips' estate.", "Later that year, she was forced to move to a small duplex with her son.alt=Whipple Van Buren Phillips facing rightLovecraft called this time one of the darkest of his life, remarking in a 1934 letter that he saw no point in living anymore; he considered the possibility of committing suicide.", "His scientific curiosity and desire to know more about the world prevented him from doing so.", "In fall 1904, he entered high school.", "Much like his earlier school years, Lovecraft was periodically removed from school for long periods for what he termed \"near breakdowns\".", "He did say, though, that while having some conflicts with teachers, he enjoyed high school, becoming close with a small circle of friends.", "Lovecraft also performed well academically, excelling in particular at chemistry and physics.", "Aside from a pause in 1904, he also resumed publishing the ''Rhode Island Journal of Astronomy'' as well as starting the ''Scientific Gazette'', which dealt mostly with chemistry.", "It was also during this period that Lovecraft produced the first of the fictional works that he was later known for, namely \"The Beast in the Cave\" and \"The Alchemist\".It was in 1908, prior to what would have been his high school graduation, that Lovecraft suffered another unidentified health crisis, though this instance was more severe than his prior illnesses.", "The exact circumstances and causes remain unknown.", "The only direct records are Lovecraft's own correspondence wherein he retrospectively described it variously as a \"nervous collapse\" and \"a sort of breakdown\", in one letter blaming it on the stress of high school despite his enjoying it.", "In another letter concerning the events of 1908, he notes, \"I was and am prey to intense headaches, insomnia, and general nervous weakness which prevents my continuous application to any thing\".Although Lovecraft maintained that he was going to attend Brown University after high school, he never graduated and never attended school again.", "Whether Lovecraft suffered from a physical ailment, a mental one, or some combination thereof has never been determined.", "An account from a high school classmate described Lovecraft as exhibiting \"terrible tics\" and that at times \"he'd be sitting in his seat and he'd suddenly up and jump\".", "Harry K. Brobst, a psychology professor, examined the account and claimed that chorea minor was the probable cause of Lovecraft's childhood symptoms, while noting that instances of chorea minor after adolescence are very rare.", "In his letters, Lovecraft acknowledged that he suffered from bouts of chorea as a child.", "Brobst further ventured that Lovecraft's 1908 breakdown was attributed to a \"hysteroid seizure\", a term that has become synonymous with atypical depression.", "In another letter concerning the events of 1908, Lovecraft stated that he \"could hardly bear to see or speak to anyone, & liked to shut out the world by pulling down dark shades & using artificial light\".=== Earliest recognition ===Few of Lovecraft and Susie's activities between late 1908 and 1913 were recorded.", "Lovecraft described the steady continuation of their financial decline highlighted by his uncle's failed business that cost Susie a large portion of their already dwindling wealth.", "One of Susie's friends, Clara Hess, recalled a visit during which Susie spoke continuously about Lovecraft being \"so hideous that he hid from everyone and did not like to walk upon the streets where people could gaze on him.\"", "Despite Hess' protests to the contrary, Susie maintained this stance.", "For his part, Lovecraft said he found his mother to be \"a positive marvel of consideration\".", "A next-door neighbor later pointed out that what others in the neighborhood often assumed were loud, nocturnal quarrels between mother and son, were actually recitations of William Shakespeare, an activity that seemed to delight them both.During this period, Lovecraft revived his earlier scientific periodicals.", "He endeavored to commit himself to the study of organic chemistry, Susie buying the expensive glass chemistry assemblage he wanted.", "Lovecraft found his studies were stymied by the mathematics involved, which he found boring and caused headaches that incapacitated him for the remainder of the day.", "Lovecraft's first non-self-published poem appeared in a local newspaper in 1912.Called ''Providence in 2000 A.D.'', it envisioned a future where Americans of English descent were displaced by Irish, Italian, Portuguese, and Jewish immigrants.", "In this period he also wrote racist poetry, including \"New-England Fallen\" and \"On the Creation of Niggers\", but there is no indication that either were published during his lifetime.In 1911, Lovecraft's letters to editors began appearing in pulp and weird-fiction magazines, most notably ''Argosy''.", "A 1913 letter critical of Fred Jackson, one of ''Argosy'''s more prominent writers, started Lovecraft down a path that defined the remainder of his career as a writer.", "In the following letters, Lovecraft described Jackson's stories as being \"trivial, effeminate, and, in places, coarse\".", "Continuing, Lovecraft argued that Jackson's characters exhibit the \"delicate passions and emotions proper to negroes and anthropoid apes.\"", "This sparked a nearly year-long feud in the magazine's letters section between the two writers and their respective supporters.", "Lovecraft's most prominent opponent was John Russell, who often replied in verse, and to whom Lovecraft felt compelled to reply because he respected Russell's writing skills.", "The most immediate effect of this feud was the recognition garnered from Edward F. Daas, then head editor of the United Amateur Press Association (UAPA).", "Daas invited Russell and Lovecraft to join the organization and both accepted, Lovecraft in April 1914.===Rejuvenation and tragedy===Lovecraft immersed himself in the world of amateur journalism for most of the following decade.", "During this period, he advocated for amateurism's superiority to commercialism.", "Lovecraft defined commercialism as writing for what he considered low-brow publications for pay.", "This was contrasted with his view of \"professional publication\", which was what he called writing for what he considered respectable journals and publishers.", "He thought of amateur journalism as serving as practice for a professional career.Lovecraft was appointed chairman of the Department of Public Criticism of the UAPA in late 1914.He used this position to advocate for what he saw as the superiority of archaic English language usage.", "Emblematic of the Anglophilic opinions he maintained throughout his life, he openly criticized other UAPA contributors for their \"Americanisms\" and \"slang\".", "Often, these criticisms were embedded in xenophobic and racist statements that the \"national language\" was being negatively changed by immigrants.", "In mid-1915, Lovecraft was elected vice-president of the UAPA.", "Two years later, he was elected president and appointed other board members who mostly shared his belief in the supremacy of British English over modern American English.", "Another significant event of this time was the beginning of World War I. Lovecraft published multiple criticisms of the American government and public's reluctance to join the war to protect England, which he viewed as America's ancestral homeland.In 1916, Lovecraft published his first short story, \"The Alchemist\", in the main UAPA journal, which was a departure from his usual verse.", "Due to the encouragement of W. Paul Cook, another UAPA member and future lifelong friend, Lovecraft began writing and publishing more prose fiction.", "Soon afterwards, he wrote \"The Tomb\" and \"Dagon\".", "\"The Tomb\", by Lovecraft's own admission, was greatly influenced by the style and structure of Edgar Allan Poe's works.", "Meanwhile, \"Dagon\" is considered Lovecraft's first work that displays the concepts and themes that his writings later became known for.", "Lovecraft published another short story, \"Beyond the Wall of Sleep\" in 1919, which was his first science fiction story.alt=Lovecraft in 1915, facing forward and looking rightLovecraft's term as president of the UAPA ended in 1918, and he returned to his former post as chairman of the Department of Public Criticism.", "In 1917, as Lovecraft related to Kleiner, Lovecraft made an aborted attempt to enlist in the United States Army.", "Though he passed the physical exam, he told Kleiner that his mother threatened to do anything, legal or otherwise, to prove that he was unfit for service.", "After his failed attempt to serve in World War I, he attempted to enroll in the Rhode Island Army National Guard, but his mother used her family connections to prevent it.During the winter of 1918–1919, Susie, exhibiting the symptoms of a nervous breakdown, went to live with her elder sister, Lillian.", "The nature of Susie's illness is unclear, as her medical papers were later destroyed in a fire at Butler Hospital.", "Winfield Townley Scott, who was able to read the papers before the fire, described Susie as having suffered a psychological collapse.", "Neighbour and friend Clara Hess, interviewed in 1948, recalled instances of Susie describing \"weird and fantastic creatures that rushed out from behind buildings and from corners at dark.\"", "In the same account, Hess described a time when they crossed paths in downtown Providence and Susie was unaware of where she was.", "In March 1919, she was committed to Butler Hospital, like her husband before her.", "Lovecraft's immediate reaction to Susie's commitment was visceral, writing to Kleiner that \"existence seems of little value\", and that he wished \"it might terminate\".", "During Susie's time at Butler, Lovecraft periodically visited her and walked the large grounds with her.Late 1919 saw Lovecraft become more outgoing.", "After a period of isolation, he began joining friends in trips to writer gatherings; the first being a talk in Boston presented by Lord Dunsany, whom Lovecraft had recently discovered and idolized.", "In early 1920, at an amateur writer convention, he met Frank Belknap Long, who ended up being Lovecraft's most influential and closest confidant for the remainder of his life.", "The influence of Dunsany is apparent in his 1919 output, which is part of what was later called Lovecraft's Dream Cycle, including \"The White Ship\" and \"The Doom That Came to Sarnath\".", "In early 1920, he wrote \"The Cats of Ulthar\" and \"Celephaïs\", which were also strongly influenced by Dunsany.It was later in 1920 that Lovecraft began publishing the earliest Cthulhu Mythos stories.", "The Cthulhu Mythos, a term coined by later authors, encompasses Lovecraft's stories that share a commonality in the revelation of cosmic insignificance, initially realistic settings, and recurring entities and texts.", "The prose poem \"Nyarlathotep\" and the short story \"The Crawling Chaos\", in collaboration with Winifred Virginia Jackson, were written in late 1920.Following in early 1921 came \"The Nameless City\", the first story that falls definitively within the Cthulhu Mythos.", "In it is one of Lovecraft's most enduring phrases, a couplet recited by Abdul Alhazred; \"That is not dead which can eternal lie; And with strange aeons even death may die.\"", "In the same year, he also wrote \"The Outsider\", which has become one of Lovecraft's most heavily analyzed, and differently interpreted, stories.", "It has been variously interpreted as being autobiographical, an allegory of the psyche, a parody of the afterlife, a commentary on humanity's place in the universe, and a critique of progress.On May 24, 1921, Susie died in Butler Hospital, due to complications from an operation on her gallbladder five days earlier.", "Lovecraft's initial reaction, expressed in a letter written nine days after Susie's death, was a deep state of sadness that crippled him physically and emotionally.", "He again expressed a desire that his life might end.", "Lovecraft's later response was relief, as he became able to live independently from his mother.", "His physical health also began to improve, although he was unaware of the exact cause.", "Despite Lovecraft's reaction, he continued to attend amateur journalist conventions.", "Lovecraft met his future wife, Sonia Greene, at one such convention in July.===Marriage and New York===alt=Sonia Green with her arm around Lovecraft in 1921Lovecraft's aunts disapproved of his relationship with Sonia.", "Lovecraft and Greene married on March 3, 1924, and relocated to her Brooklyn apartment at 259 Parkside Avenue; she thought he needed to leave Providence to flourish and was willing to support him financially.", "Greene, who was married before, later said Lovecraft performed satisfactorily as a lover, but she had to take the initiative in all aspects of the relationship.", "She attributed Lovecraft's passive nature to a stultifying upbringing by his mother.", "Lovecraft's weight increased to on his wife's home cooking.He was enthralled by New York City, and, in what was informally dubbed the Kalem Club, he acquired a group of encouraging intellectual and literary friends who urged him to submit stories to ''Weird Tales''.", "Its editor, Edwin Baird, accepted many of Lovecraft's stories for the ailing publication, including \"Under the Pyramids\", which was ghostwritten for Harry Houdini.", "Established informally some years before Lovecraft arrived in New York, the core Kalem Club members were boys' adventure novelist Henry Everett McNeil, the lawyer and anarchist writer James Ferdinand Morton Jr., and the poet Reinhardt Kleiner.On January 1, 1925, Sonia moved from Parkside to Cleveland in response to a job opportunity, and Lovecraft left for a small first-floor apartment on 169 Clinton Street \"at the edge of Red Hook\"—a location which came to discomfort him greatly.", "Later that year, the Kalem Club's four regular attendees were joined by Lovecraft along with his protégé Frank Belknap Long, bookseller George Willard Kirk, and Samuel Loveman.", "Loveman was Jewish, but he and Lovecraft became close friends in spite of the latter's antisemitic attitudes.", "By the 1930s, writer and publisher Herman Charles Koenig was one of the last to become involved with the Kalem Club.Not long after the marriage, Greene lost her business and her assets disappeared in a bank failure.", "Lovecraft made efforts to support his wife through regular jobs, but his lack of previous work experience meant he lacked proven marketable skills.", "The publisher of ''Weird Tales'' was attempting to make the loss-making magazine profitable and offered the job of editor to Lovecraft, who declined, citing his reluctance to relocate to Chicago on aesthetic grounds.", "Baird was succeeded by Farnsworth Wright, whose writing Lovecraft criticized.", "Lovecraft's submissions were often rejected by Wright.", "This may have been partially due to censorship guidelines imposed in the aftermath of a ''Weird Tales'' story that hinted at necrophilia, although after Lovecraft's death, Wright accepted many of the stories he had originally rejected.Sonia also became ill and immediately after recovering, relocated to Cincinnati, and then to Cleveland; her employment required constant travel.", "Added to his feelings of failure in a city with a large immigrant population, Lovecraft's single-room apartment was burgled, leaving him with only the clothes he was wearing.", "In August 1925, he wrote \"The Horror at Red Hook\" and \"He\".", "In the latter, the narrator says \"My coming to New York had been a mistake; for whereas I had looked for poignant wonder and inspiration ...", "I had found instead only a sense of horror and oppression which threatened to master, paralyze, and annihilate me.\"", "This was an expression of his despair at being in New York.", "It was at around this time he wrote the outline for \"The Call of Cthulhu\", with its theme of the insignificance of all humanity.", "During this time, Lovecraft wrote \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\" on the eponymous subject.", "It later became one of the most influential essays on supernatural horror.", "With a weekly allowance Greene sent, Lovecraft moved to a working-class area of Brooklyn Heights, where he resided in a tiny apartment.", "He lost approximately of body weight by 1926, when he left for Providence.===Return to Providence and death===alt=The Samuel B. Mumford House, slightly obscured by treesBack in Providence, Lovecraft lived with his aunts in a \"spacious brown Victorian wooden house\" at 10 Barnes Street until 1933.He then moved to 66 Prospect Street, which became his final home.", "The period beginning after his return to Providence contains some of his most prominent works, including ''The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath'', ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'', \"The Call of Cthulhu\", and ''The Shadow over Innsmouth''.", "The former two stories are partially autobiographical, as scholars have argued that ''The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath'' is about Lovecraft's return to Providence and ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' is, in part, about the city itself.", "The former story also represents a partial repudiation of Dunsany's influence, as Lovecraft decided that his style did not come to him naturally.", "At this time, he frequently revised work for other authors and did a large amount of ghostwriting, including ''The Mound'', \"Winged Death\", and \"The Diary of Alonzo Typer\".", "Client Harry Houdini was laudatory, and attempted to help Lovecraft by introducing him to the head of a newspaper syndicate.", "Plans for a further project, a book titled ''The Cancer of Superstition'', were ended by Houdini's death in 1926.After returning, he also began to engage in antiquarian travels across the eastern seaboard during the summer months.", "During the spring–summer of 1930, Lovecraft visited, among other locations, New York City, Brattleboro, Vermont, Wilbraham, Massachusetts, Charleston, South Carolina, and Quebec City.Later, in August, Robert E. Howard wrote a letter to ''Weird Tales'' praising a then-recent reprint of Lovecraft's \"The Rats in the Walls\" and discussing some of the Gaelic references used within.", "Its editor, Farnsworth Wright, forwarded the letter to Lovecraft, who responded positively to Howard, and soon the two writers were engaged in a vigorous correspondence that lasted for the rest of Howard's life.", "Howard quickly became a member of the Lovecraft Circle, a group of writers and friends all linked through Lovecraft's voluminous correspondence, as he introduced his many like-minded friends to one another and encouraged them to share their stories, utilize each other's fictional creations, and help each other succeed in the field of pulp fiction.Meanwhile, Lovecraft was increasingly producing work that brought him no remuneration.", "Affecting a calm indifference to the reception of his works, Lovecraft was in reality extremely sensitive to criticism and easily precipitated into withdrawal.", "He was known to give up trying to sell a story after it was rejected once.", "Sometimes, as with ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'', he wrote a story that might have been commercially viable but did not try to sell it.", "Lovecraft even ignored interested publishers.", "He failed to reply when one inquired about any novel Lovecraft might have ready: although he had completed such a work, ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'', it was never typed up.", "A few years after Lovecraft moved to Providence, he and his wife Sonia Greene, having lived separately for so long, agreed to an amicable divorce.", "Greene moved to California in 1933 and remarried in 1936, unaware that Lovecraft, despite his assurances to the contrary, never officially signed the final decree.As a result of the Great Depression, he shifted towards socialism, decrying both his prior political beliefs and the rising tide of fascism.", "He thought that socialism was a workable middle ground between what he saw as the destructive impulses of both the capitalists and the Marxists of his day.", "This was based in a general opposition to cultural upheaval, as well as support for an ordered society.", "Electorally, he supported Franklin D. Roosevelt, but he thought that the New Deal was not sufficiently leftist.", "Lovecraft's support for it was based in his view that no other set of reforms were possible at that time.alt=Lovecraft's personal grave, facing forwardIn late 1936, he witnessed the publication of ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'' as a paperback book.", "400 copies were printed, and the work was advertised in ''Weird Tales'' and several fan magazines.", "However, Lovecraft was displeased, as this book was riddled with errors that required extensive editing.", "It sold slowly and only approximately 200 copies were bound.", "The remaining 200 copies were destroyed after the publisher went out of business seven years later.", "By this point, Lovecraft's literary career was reaching its end.", "Shortly after having written his last original short story, \"The Haunter of the Dark\", he stated that the hostile reception of ''At the Mountains of Madness'' had done \"more than anything to end my effective fictional career\".", "His declining psychological and physical states made it impossible for him to continue writing fiction.On June 11, Robert E. Howard was informed that his chronically ill mother would not awaken from her coma.", "He walked out to his car and committed suicide with a pistol that he had stored there.", "His mother died shortly thereafter.", "This deeply affected Lovecraft, who consoled Howard's father through correspondence.", "Almost immediately after hearing about Howard's death, Lovecraft wrote a brief memoir titled \"In Memoriam: Robert Ervin Howard\", which he distributed to his correspondents.", "Meanwhile, Lovecraft's physical health was deteriorating.", "He was suffering from an affliction that he referred to as \"grippe\".Due to his fear of doctors, Lovecraft was not examined until a month before his death.", "After seeing a doctor, he was diagnosed with terminal cancer of the small intestine.", "He was hospitalized in the Jane Brown Memorial Hospital and lived in constant pain until his death on March 15, 1937, in Providence.", "In accordance with his lifelong scientific curiosity, he kept a diary of his illness until he was physically incapable of holding a pen.", "After a small funeral, Lovecraft was buried in Swan Point Cemetery and was listed alongside his parents on the Phillips family monument.", "In 1977, fans erected a headstone in the same cemetery on which they inscribed his name, the dates of his birth and death, and the phrase \"I AM PROVIDENCE\"—a line from one of his personal letters." ], [ "Personal views", "===Politics===H.", "P. Lovecraft as an eighteenth-century gentleman by alt=An illustration by Virgil Finlay of Lovecraft as an eighteenth-century gentlemanLovecraft began his life as a Tory, which was likely the result of his conservative upbringing.", "His family supported the Republican Party for the entirety of his life.", "While it is unclear how consistently he voted, he voted for Herbert Hoover in the 1928 U.S. presidential election.", "Rhode Island as a whole remained politically conservative and Republican into the 1930s.", "Lovecraft himself was an Anglophile who supported the British monarchy.", "He opposed democracy and thought that the United States should be governed by an aristocracy.", "This viewpoint emerged during his youth and lasted until the end of the 1920s.", "During World War I, his Anglophilia caused him to strongly support the entente against the Central Powers.", "Many of his earlier poems were devoted to then-current political subjects, and he published several political essays in his amateur journal, ''The Conservative''.", "He was a teetotaler who supported the implementation of Prohibition, which was one of the few reforms that he supported during the early part of his life.", "While remaining a teetotaler, he later became convinced that Prohibition was ineffectual in the 1930s.", "His personal justification for his early political viewpoints was primarily based on tradition and aesthetics.As a result of the Great Depression, Lovecraft reexamined his political views.", "Initially, he thought that affluent people would take on the characteristics of his ideal aristocracy and solve America's problems.", "When this did not occur, he became a socialist.", "This shift was caused by his observation that the Depression was harming American society.", "It was also influenced by the increase in socialism's political capital during the 1930s.", "One of the main points of Lovecraft's socialism was its opposition to Soviet Marxism, as he thought that a Marxist revolution would bring about the destruction of American civilization.", "Lovecraft thought that an intellectual aristocracy needed to be formed to preserve America.", "His ideal political system is outlined in his 1933 essay \"Some Repetitions on the Times\".", "Lovecraft used this essay to echo the political proposals that were made over the course of the last few decades.", "In this essay, he advocates governmental control of resource distribution, fewer working hours and a higher wage, and unemployment insurance and old age pensions.", "He also outlines the need for an oligarchy of intellectuals.", "In his view, power needed to be restricted to those who are sufficiently intelligent and educated.", "He frequently used the term \"fascism\" to describe this form of government, but, according to S. T. Joshi, it bore little resemblance to that ideology.Lovecraft had varied views on the political figures of his day.", "He was an ardent supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "He saw that Roosevelt was trying to steer a middle course between the conservatives and the revolutionaries, which he approved of.", "While he thought that Roosevelt should have enacted more progressive policies, he came to the conclusion that the New Deal was the only realistic option for reform.", "He thought that voting for his opponents on the political left was a wasted effort.", "Internationally, like many Americans, he initially expressed support for Adolf Hitler.", "More specifically, he thought that Hitler would preserve German culture.", "However, he thought that Hitler's racial policies should be based on culture rather than descent.", "There is evidence that, at the end of his life, Lovecraft began to oppose Hitler.", "Harry K. Brobst, Lovecraft's downstairs neighbor, went to Germany and witnessed Jews being beaten.", "Lovecraft and his aunt were angered by this, and his discussions of Hitler drop off after this point.===Atheism===Lovecraft was an atheist.", "His viewpoints on religion are outlined in his 1922 essay \"A Confession of Unfaith\".", "In this essay, he describes his shift away from the Protestantism of his parents to the atheism of his adulthood.", "Lovecraft was raised by a conservative Protestant family.", "He was introduced to the Bible and Santa Claus when he was two.", "He passively accepted both of them.", "Over the course of the next few years, he was introduced to ''Grimms' Fairy Tales'' and ''One Thousand and One Nights'', favoring the latter.", "In response, Lovecraft took on the identity of \"Abdul Alhazred\", a name he later used for the author of the ''Necronomicon''.", "Lovecraft experienced a brief period as a Greco-Roman pagan shortly thereafter.", "According to this account, his first moment of skepticism occurred before his fifth birthday, when he questioned if God is a myth after learning that Santa Claus is not real.", "In 1896, he was introduced to Greco-Roman myths and became \"a genuine pagan\".This came to an end in 1902, when Lovecraft was introduced to space.", "He later described this event as the most poignant in his life.", "In response to this discovery, Lovecraft took to studying astronomy and described his observations in the local newspaper.", "Before his thirteenth birthday, he became convinced of humanity's impermanence.", "By the time he was seventeen, he had read detailed writings that agreed with his worldview.", "Lovecraft ceased writing positively about progress, instead developing his later cosmic philosophy.", "Despite his interests in science, he had an aversion to realistic literature, so he became interested in fantastical fiction.", "Lovecraft became pessimistic when he entered amateur journalism in 1914.World War I seemed to confirm his viewpoints.", "He began to despise philosophical idealism.", "Lovecraft took to discussing and debating his pessimism with his peers, which allowed him to solidify his philosophy.", "His readings of Friedrich Nietzsche and H. L. Mencken, among other pessimistic writers, furthered this development.", "At the end of his essay, Lovecraft states that all he desired was oblivion.", "He was willing to cast aside any illusion that he may still have held.===Race===Race is the most controversial aspect of Lovecraft's legacy, expressed in many disparaging remarks against non-Anglo-Saxon races and cultures in his works.", "Scholars have argued that these racial attitudes were common in the American society of his day, particularly in New England.", "As he grew older, his original racial worldview became classist and elitist, which regarded non-white members of the upper class as honorary members of the superior race.", "Lovecraft was a white supremacist.", "Despite this, he did not hold all white people in uniform high regard, but rather esteemed English people and those of English descent.", "In his early published essays, private letters, and personal utterances, he argued for a strong color line to preserve race and culture.", "His arguments were supported using disparagements of various races in his journalism and letters, and allegorically in some of his fictional works that depict miscegenation between humans and non-human creatures.", "This is evident in his portrayal of the Deep Ones in ''The Shadow over Innsmouth''.", "Their interbreeding with humanity is framed as being a type of miscegenation that corrupts both the town of Innsmouth and the protagonist.Initially, Lovecraft showed sympathy to minorities who adopted Western culture, even to the extent of marrying a Jewish woman he viewed as being \"well assimilated\".", "By the 1930s, Lovecraft's views on ethnicity and race had moderated.", "He supported ethnicities' preserving their native cultures; for example, he thought that \"a real friend of civilisation wishes merely to make the Germans more German, the French more French, the Spaniards more Spanish, & so on\".", "This represented a shift from his previous support for cultural assimilation.", "His shift was partially the result of his exposure to different cultures through his travels and circle.", "The former resulted in him writing positively about Québécois and First Nations cultural traditions in his travelogue of Quebec.", "However, this did not represent a complete elimination of his racial prejudices." ], [ "Influences", "His interest in weird fiction began in his childhood when his grandfather, who preferred Gothic stories, told him stories of his own design.", "Lovecraft's childhood home on Angell Street had a large library that contained classical literature, scientific works, and early weird fiction.", "At the age of five, Lovecraft enjoyed reading ''One Thousand and One Nights'', and was reading Nathaniel Hawthorne a year later.", "He was also influenced by the travel literature of John Mandeville and Marco Polo.", "This led to his discovery of gaps in then-contemporary science, which prevented Lovecraft from committing suicide in response to the death of his grandfather and his family's declining financial situation during his adolescence.", "These travelogues may have also influenced how Lovecraft's later works describe their characters and locations.", "For example, there is a resemblance between the powers of the Tibetan enchanters in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' and the powers unleashed on Sentinel Hill in \"The Dunwich Horror\".One of Lovecraft's most significant literary influences was Edgar Allan Poe, whom he described as his \"God of Fiction\".", "Poe's fiction was introduced to Lovecraft when the latter was eight years old.", "His earlier works were significantly influenced by Poe's prose and writing style.", "He also made extensive use of Poe's unity of effect in his fiction.", "Furthermore, ''At the Mountains of Madness'' directly quotes Poe and was influenced by ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket''.", "One of the main themes of the two stories is to discuss the unreliable nature of language as a method of expressing meaning.", "In 1919, Lovecraft's discovery of the stories of Lord Dunsany moved his writing in a new direction, resulting in a series of fantasies.", "Throughout his life, Lovecraft referred to Dunsany as the author who had the greatest impact on his literary career.", "The initial result of this influence was the Dream Cycle, a series of fantasies that originally take place in prehistory, but later shift to a dreamworld setting.", "By 1930, Lovecraft decided that he would no longer write Dunsanian fantasies, arguing that the style did not come naturally to him.", "Additionally, he also read and cited Arthur Machen and Algernon Blackwood as influences in the 1920s.Aside from horror authors, Lovecraft was significantly influenced by the Decadents, the Puritans, and the Aesthetic movement.", "In \"H. P. Lovecraft: New England Decadent\", Barton Levi St. Armand, a professor emeritus of English and American studies at Brown University, has argued that these three influences combined to define Lovecraft as a writer.", "He traces this influence to both Lovecraft's stories and letters, noting that he actively cultivated the image of a New England gentleman in his letters.", "Meanwhile, his influence from the Decadents and the Aesthetic Movement stems from his readings of Edgar Allan Poe.", "Lovecraft's aesthetic worldview and fixation on decline stems from these readings.", "The idea of cosmic decline is described as having been Lovecraft's response to both the Aesthetic Movement and the 19th century Decadents.", "St. Armand describes it as being a combination of non-theological Puritan thought and the Decadent worldview.", "This is used as a division in his stories, particularly in \"The Horror at Red Hook\", \"Pickman's Model\", and \"The Music of Erich Zann\".", "The division between Puritanism and Decadence, St. Armand argues, represents a polarization between an artificial paradise and oneiriscopic visions of different worlds.A non-literary inspiration came from then-contemporary scientific advances in biology, astronomy, geology, and physics.", "Lovecraft's study of science contributed to his view of the human race as insignificant, powerless, and doomed in a materialistic and mechanistic universe.", "Lovecraft was a keen amateur astronomer from his youth, often visiting the Ladd Observatory in Providence, and penning numerous astronomical articles for his personal journal and local newspapers.", "Lovecraft's materialist views led him to espouse his philosophical views through his fiction; these philosophical views came to be called cosmicism.", "Cosmicism took on a more pessimistic tone with his creation of what is now known as the Cthulhu Mythos, a fictional universe that contains alien deities and horrors.", "The term \"Cthulhu Mythos\" was likely coined by later writers after Lovecraft's death.", "In his letters, Lovecraft jokingly called his fictional mythology \"Yog-Sothothery\".Dreams had a major role in Lovecraft's literary career.", "In 1991, as a result of his rising place in American literature, it was popularly thought that Lovecraft extensively transcribed his dreams when writing fiction.", "However, the majority of his stories are not transcribed dreams.", "Instead, many of them are directly influenced by dreams and dreamlike phenomena.", "In his letters, Lovecraft frequently compared his characters to dreamers.", "They are described as being as helpless as a real dreamer who is experiencing a nightmare.", "His stories also have dreamlike qualities.", "The Randolph Carter stories deconstruct the division between dreams and reality.", "The dreamlands in ''The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath'' are a shared dreamworld that can be accessed by a sensitive dreamer.", "Meanwhile, in \"The Silver Key\", Lovecraft mentions the concept of \"inward dreams\", which implies the existence of outward dreams.", "Burleson compares this deconstruction to Carl Jung's argument that dreams are the source of archetypal myths.", "Lovecraft's way of writing fiction required both a level of realism and dreamlike elements.", "Citing Jung, Burleson argues that a writer may create realism by being inspired by dreams." ], [ "Themes", "===Cosmicism===The central theme of Lovecraft's corpus is cosmicism.", "Cosmicism is a literary philosophy that argues that humanity is an insignificant force in the universe.", "Despite appearing pessimistic, Lovecraft thought of himself as being a cosmic indifferentist, which is expressed in his fiction.", "In it, human beings are often subject to powerful beings and other cosmic forces, but these forces are not so much malevolent as they are indifferent toward humanity.", "He believed in a meaningless, mechanical, and uncaring universe that human beings could never fully understand.", "There is no allowance for beliefs that could not be supported scientifically.", "Lovecraft first articulated this philosophy in 1921, but he did not fully incorporate it into his fiction until five years later.", "\"Dagon\", \"Beyond the Wall of Sleep\", and \"The Temple\" contain early depictions of this concept, but the majority of his early tales do not analyze the concept.", "\"Nyarlathotep\" interprets the collapse of human civilization as being a corollary to the collapse of the universe.", "\"The Call of Cthulhu\" represents an intensification of this theme.", "In it, Lovecraft introduces the idea of alien influences on humanity, which came to dominate all subsequent works.", "In these works, Lovecraft expresses cosmicism through the usage of confirmation rather than revelation.", "Lovecraftian protagonists do not learn that they are insignificant.", "Instead, they already know it and have it confirmed to them through an event.===Knowledge===Lovecraft's fiction reflects his own ambivalent views regarding the nature of knowledge.", "This expresses itself in the concept of forbidden knowledge.", "In Lovecraft's stories, happiness is only achievable through blissful ignorance.", "Trying to know things that are not meant to be known leads to harm and psychological danger.", "This concept intersects with several other ideas.", "This includes the idea that the visible reality is an illusion masking the horrific true reality.", "Similarly, there are also intersections with the concepts of ancient civilizations that exert a malign influence on humanity and the general philosophy of cosmicism.", "According to Lovecraft, self-knowledge can bring ruin to those who seek it.", "Those seekers would become aware of their own insignificance in the wider cosmos and would be unable to bear the weight of this knowledge.", "Lovecraftian horror is not achieved through external phenomena.", "Instead, it is reached through the internalized psychological impact that knowledge has on its protagonists.", "\"The Call of Cthulhu\", ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'', and ''The Shadow Out of Time'' feature protagonists who experience both external and internal horror through the acquisition of self-knowledge.", "''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' also reflects this.", "One of its central themes is the danger of knowing too much about one's family history.", "Charles Dexter Ward, the protagonist, engages in historical and genealogical research that ultimately leads to both madness and his own self-destruction.===Decline of civilization===For much of his life, Lovecraft was fixated on the concepts of decline and decadence.", "More specifically, he thought that the West was in a state of terminal decline.", "Starting in the 1920s, Lovecraft became familiar with the work of the German conservative-revolutionary theorist Oswald Spengler, whose pessimistic thesis of the decadence of the modern West formed a crucial element in Lovecraft's overall anti-modern worldview.", "Spenglerian imagery of cyclical decay is a central theme in ''At the Mountains of Madness''.", "S. T. Joshi, in ''H.", "P. Lovecraft: The Decline of the West'', places Spengler at the center of his discussion of Lovecraft's political and philosophical ideas.", "According to him, the idea of decline is the single idea that permeates and connects his personal philosophy.", "The main Spenglerian influence on Lovecraft was his view that politics, economics, science, and art are all interdependent aspects of civilization.", "This realization led him to shed his personal ignorance of then-current political and economic developments after 1927.Lovecraft had developed his idea of Western decline independently, but Spengler gave it a clear framework.===Science===Lovecraft shifted supernatural horror away from its previous focus on human issues to a focus on cosmic ones.", "In this way, he merged the elements of supernatural fiction that he deemed to be scientifically viable with science fiction.", "This merge required an understanding of both supernatural horror and then-contemporary science.", "Lovecraft used this combined knowledge to create stories that extensively reference trends in scientific development.", "Beginning with \"The Shunned House\", Lovecraft increasingly incorporated elements of both Einsteinian science and his own personal materialism into his stories.", "This intensified with the writing of \"The Call of Cthulhu\", where he depicted alien influences on humanity.", "This trend continued throughout the remainder of his literary career.", "\"The Colour Out of Space\" represents what scholars have called the peak of this trend.", "It portrays an alien lifeform whose otherness prevents it from being defined by then-contemporary science.Another part of this effort was the repeated usage of mathematics in an effort to make his creatures and settings appear more alien.", "Tom Hull, a mathematician, regards this as enhancing his ability to invoke a sense of otherness and fear.", "He attributes this use of mathematics to Lovecraft's childhood interest in astronomy and his adulthood awareness of non-Euclidean geometry.", "Another reason for his use of mathematics was his reaction to the scientific developments of his day.", "These developments convinced him that humanity's primary means of understanding the world was no longer trustable.", "Lovecraft's usage of mathematics in his fiction serves to convert otherwise supernatural elements into things that have in-universe scientific explanations.", "\"The Dreams in the Witch House\" and ''The Shadow Out of Time'' both have elements of this.", "The former uses a witch and her familiar, while the latter uses the idea of mind transference.", "These elements are explained using scientific theories that were prevalent during Lovecraft's lifetime.===Lovecraft Country===Setting plays a major role in Lovecraft's fiction.", "A fictionalized version of New England serves as the central hub for his mythos, called \"Lovecraft Country\" by later commentators.", "It represents the history, culture, and folklore of the region, as interpreted by Lovecraft.", "These attributes are exaggerated and altered to provide a suitable setting for his stories.", "The names of the locations in the region were directly influenced by the names of real locations in the region, which was done to increase their realism.", "Lovecraft's stories use their connections with New England to imbue themselves with the ability to instill fear.", "Lovecraft was primarily inspired by the cities and towns in Massachusetts.", "However, the specific location of Lovecraft Country is variable, as it moved according to Lovecraft's literary needs.", "Starting with areas that he thought were evocative, Lovecraft redefined and exaggerated them under fictional names.", "For example, Lovecraft based Arkham on the town of Oakham and expanded it to include a nearby landmark.", "Its location was moved, as Lovecraft decided that it would have been destroyed by the recently-built Quabbin Reservoir.", "This is alluded to in \"The Colour Out of Space\", as the \"blasted heath\" is submerged by the creation of a fictionalized version of the reservoir.", "Similarly, Lovecraft's other towns were based on other locations in Massachusetts.", "Innsmouth was based on Newburyport, and Dunwich was based on Greenwich.", "The vague locations of these towns also played into Lovecraft's desire to create a mood in his stories.", "In his view, a mood can only be evoked through reading." ], [ "Critical reception", "===Literary===Early efforts to revise an established literary view of Lovecraft as an author of \"pulp\" were resisted by some eminent critics; in 1945, Edmund Wilson sneered: \"the only real horror in most of these fictions is the horror of bad taste and bad art.\"", "However, Wilson praised Lovecraft's ability to write about his chosen field; he described him as having written about it \"with much intelligence\".", "According to L. Sprague de Camp, Wilson later improved his opinion of Lovecraft, citing a report of David Chavchavadze that Wilson included a Lovecraftian reference in ''Little Blue Light: A Play in Three Acts''.", "After Chavchavadze met with him to discuss this, Wilson revealed that he was reading a copy of Lovecraft's correspondence.", "Two years before Wilson's critique, Lovecraft's works were reviewed by Winfield Townley Scott, the literary editor of ''The Providence Journal''.", "He argued that Lovecraft was one of the most significant Rhode Island authors and that it was regrettable that he received little attention from mainstream critics at the time.", "''Mystery and Adventure'' columnist Will Cuppy of the ''New York Herald Tribune'' recommended to readers a volume of Lovecraft's stories in 1944, asserting that \"the literature of horror and macabre fantasy belongs with mystery in its broader sense.", "\"By 1957, Floyd C. Gale of ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' said that Lovecraft was comparable to Robert E. Howard, stating that \"they appear more prolific than ever,\" noting L. Sprague de Camp, Björn Nyberg, and August Derleth's usage of their creations.", "He said that \"Lovecraft at his best could build a mood of horror unsurpassed; at his worst, he was laughable.\"", "In 1962, Colin Wilson, in his survey of anti-realist trends in fiction ''The Strength to Dream'', cited Lovecraft as one of the pioneers of the \"assault on rationality\" and included him with M. R. James, H. G. Wells, Aldous Huxley, J. R. R. Tolkien, and others as one of the builders of mythicised realities contending against what he considered the failing project of literary realism.", "Subsequently, Lovecraft began to acquire the status of a cult writer in the counterculture of the 1960s, and reprints of his work proliferated.Michael Dirda, a reviewer for ''The Times Literary Supplement'', has described Lovecraft as being a \"visionary\" who is \"rightly regarded as second only to Edgar Allan Poe in the annals of American supernatural literature.\"", "According to him, Lovecraft's works prove that mankind cannot bear the weight of reality, as the true nature of reality cannot be understood by either science or history.", "In addition, Dirda praises Lovecraft's ability to create an uncanny atmosphere.", "This atmosphere is created through the feeling of wrongness that pervades the objects, places, and people in Lovecraft's works.", "He also comments favorably on Lovecraft's correspondence, and compares him to Horace Walpole.", "Particular attention is given to his correspondence with August Derleth and Robert E. Howard.", "The Derleth letters are called \"delightful\", while the Howard letters are described as being an ideological debate.", "Overall, Dirda believes that Lovecraft's letters are equal to, or better than, his fictional output.", "''Los Angeles Review of Books'' reviewer Nick Mamatas has stated that Lovecraft was a particularly difficult author, rather than a bad one.", "He described Lovecraft as being \"perfectly capable\" in the fields of story logic, pacing, innovation, and generating quotable phrases.", "However, Lovecraft's difficulty made him ill-suited to the pulps; he was unable to compete with the popular recurring protagonists and damsel in distress stories.", "Furthermore, he compared a paragraph from ''The Shadow Out of Time'' to a paragraph from the introduction to ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.", "In Mamatas' view, Lovecraft's quality is obscured by his difficulty, and his skill is what has allowed his following to outlive the followings of other then-prominent authors, such as Seabury Quinn and Kenneth Patchen.In 2005, the Library of America published a volume of Lovecraft's works.", "This volume was reviewed by many publications, including ''The New York Times Book Review'' and ''The Wall Street Journal'', and sold 25,000 copies within a month of release.", "The overall critical reception of the volume was mixed.", "Several scholars, including S. T. Joshi and Alison Sperling, have said that this confirms H. P. Lovecraft's place in the western canon.", "The editors of ''The Age of Lovecraft'', Carl H. Sederholm and Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock, attributed the rise of mainstream popular and academic interest in Lovecraft to this volume, along with the Penguin Classics volumes and the Modern Library edition of ''At the Mountains of Madness''.", "These volumes led to a proliferation of other volumes containing Lovecraft's works.", "According to the two authors, these volumes are part of a trend in Lovecraft's popular and academic reception: increased attention by one audience causes the other to also become more interested.", "Lovecraft's success is, in part, the result of his success.Lovecraft's style has often been subject to criticism, but scholars such as S. T. Joshi have argued that Lovecraft consciously utilized a variety of literary devices to form a unique style of his own—these include prose-poetic rhythm, stream of consciousness, alliteration, and conscious archaism.", "According to Joyce Carol Oates, Lovecraft and Edgar Allan Poe have exerted a significant influence on later writers in the horror genre.", "Horror author Stephen King called Lovecraft \"the twentieth century's greatest practitioner of the classic horror tale.\"", "King stated in his semi-autobiographical non-fiction book ''Danse Macabre'' that Lovecraft was responsible for his own fascination with horror and the macabre and was the largest influence on his writing.===Philosophical===Lovecraft's writings have influenced the speculative realist philosophical movement during the early twentieth-first century.", "The four founders of the movement, Ray Brassier, Iain Hamilton Grant, Graham Harman, and Quentin Meillassoux, have cited Lovecraft as an inspiration for their worldviews.", "Graham Harman wrote a monograph, ''Weird Realism: Lovecraft and Philosophy'', about Lovecraft and philosophy.", "In it, he argues that Lovecraft was a \"productionist\" author.", "He describes Lovecraft as having been an author who was uniquely obsessed with gaps in human knowledge.", "He goes further and asserts Lovecraft's personal philosophy as being in opposition to both idealism and David Hume.", "In his view, Lovecraft resembles Georges Braque, Pablo Picasso, and Edmund Husserl in his division of objects into different parts that do not exhaust the potential meanings of the whole.", "The anti-idealism of Lovecraft is represented through his commentary on the inability of language to describe his horrors.", "Harman also credits Lovecraft with inspiring parts of his own articulation of object-oriented ontology.", "According to Lovecraft scholar Alison Sperling, this philosophical interpretation of Lovecraft's fiction has caused other philosophers in Harmon's tradition to write about Lovecraft.", "These philosophers seek to remove human perception and human life from the foundations of ethics.", "These scholars have used Lovecraft's works as the central example of their worldview.", "They base this usage in Lovecraft's arguments against anthropocentrism and the ability of the human mind to truly understand the universe.", "They have also played a role in Lovecraft's improving literary reputation by focusing on his interpretation of ontology, which gives him a central position in Anthropocene studies." ], [ "Legacy", "Providence.", "Portrait by silhouettist E. J. Perry.|alt=Lovecraft memorial plaque with silhouette by Perry, slightly facing leftLovecraft was relatively unknown during his lifetime.", "While his stories appeared in prominent pulp magazines such as ''Weird Tales'', not many people knew his name.", "He did, however, correspond regularly with other contemporary writers such as Clark Ashton Smith and August Derleth, who became his friends, even though he never met them in person.", "This group became known as the \"Lovecraft Circle\", since their writings freely borrowed Lovecraft's motifs, with his encouragement.", "He borrowed from them as well.", "For example, he made use of Clark Ashton Smith's Tsathoggua in ''The Mound''.After Lovecraft's death, the Lovecraft Circle carried on.", "August Derleth founded Arkham House with Donald Wandrei to preserve Lovecraft's works and keep them in print.", "He added to and expanded on Lovecraft's vision, not without controversy.", "While Lovecraft considered his pantheon of alien gods a mere plot device, Derleth created an entire cosmology, complete with a war between the good Elder Gods and the evil Outer Gods, such as Cthulhu and his ilk.", "The forces of good were supposed to have won, locking Cthulhu and others beneath the earth, the ocean, and elsewhere.", "Derleth's Cthulhu Mythos stories went on to associate different gods with the traditional four elements of fire, air, earth, and water, which did not line up with Lovecraft's original vision of his mythos.", "However, Derleth's ownership of Arkham House gave him a position of authority in Lovecraftiana that did not dissipate until his death, and through the efforts of Lovecraft scholars in the 1970s.Lovecraft's works have influenced many writers and other creators.", "Stephen King has cited Lovecraft as a major influence on his works.", "As a child in the 1960s, he came across a volume of Lovecraft's works which inspired him to write his fiction.", "He goes on to argue that all works in the horror genre that were written after Lovecraft were influenced by him.", "In the field of comics, Alan Moore has described Lovecraft as having been a formative influence on his graphic novels.", "Film director John Carpenter's films include direct references and quotations of Lovecraft's fiction, in addition to their use of a Lovecraftian aesthetic and themes.", "Guillermo del Toro has been similarly influenced by Lovecraft's corpus.The first World Fantasy Awards were held in Providence in 1975.The theme was \"The Lovecraft Circle\".", "Until 2015, winners were presented with an elongated bust of Lovecraft that was designed by the cartoonist Gahan Wilson, nicknamed the \"Howard\".", "In November 2015 it was announced that the World Fantasy Award trophy would no longer be modeled on H. P. Lovecraft in response to the author's views on race.", "After the World Fantasy Award dropped their connection to Lovecraft, ''The Atlantic'' commented that \"In the end, Lovecraft still wins—people who've never read a page of his work will still know who Cthulhu is for years to come, and his legacy lives on in the work of Stephen King, Guillermo del Toro, and Neil Gaiman.", "\"In 2016, Lovecraft was inducted into the Museum of Pop Culture's Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame.", "Three years later, Lovecraft and the other Cthulhu Mythos authors were posthumously awarded the 1945 Retro-Hugo Award for Best Series for their contributions to it.===Lovecraft studies===alt=Joshi in 2002, facing right and looking forwardStarting in the early 1970s, a body of scholarly work began to emerge around Lovecraft's life and works.", "Referred to as Lovecraft studies, its proponents sought to establish Lovecraft as a significant author in the American literary canon.", "This can be traced to Derleth's preservation and dissemination of Lovecraft's fiction, non-fiction, and letters through Arkham House.", "Joshi credits the development of the field to this process.", "However, it was marred by low quality editions and misinterpretations of Lovecraft's worldview.", "After Derleth's death in 1971, the scholarship entered a new phase.", "There was a push to create a book-length biography of Lovecraft.", "L. Sprague de Camp, a science fiction scholar, wrote the first major one in 1975.This biography was criticized by early Lovecraft scholars for its lack of scholarly merit and its lack of sympathy for its subject.", "Despite this, it played a significant role in Lovecraft's literary rise.", "It exposed Lovecraft to the mainstream of American literary criticism.", "During the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was a division in the field between the \"Derlethian traditionalists\" who wished to interpret Lovecraft through the lens of fantasy literature and the newer scholars who wished to place greater attention on the entirety of his corpus.The 1980s and 1990s saw a further proliferation of the field.", "The 1990 H. P. Lovecraft Centennial Conference and the republishing of older essays in ''An Epicure in the Terrible'' represented the publishing of many basic studies that were used as a base for then-future studies.", "The 1990 centennial also saw the installation of the \"H. P. Lovecraft Memorial Plaque\" in a garden adjoining John Hay Library, that features a portrait by silhouettist E. J. Perry.", "Following this, in 1996, S. T. Joshi wrote his own biography of Lovecraft.", "This biography was met with positive reviews and became the main biography in the field.", "It has since been superseded by his expanded edition of the book, ''I am Providence'' in 2010.Lovecraft's improving literary reputation has caused his works to receive increased attention by both classics publishers and scholarly fans.", "His works have been published by several different series of literary classics.", "Penguin Classics published three volumes of Lovecraft's works between 1999 and 2004.These volumes were edited by S. T. Joshi.", "Barnes & Noble published their own volume of Lovecraft's complete fiction in 2008.The Library of America published a volume of Lovecraft's works in 2005.The publishing of these volumes represented a reversal of the traditional judgment that Lovecraft was not part of the Western canon.", "Meanwhile, the biannual NecronomiCon Providence convention was first held in 2013.Its purpose is to serve as a fan and scholarly convention that discusses both Lovecraft and the wider field of weird fiction.", "It is organized by the Lovecraft Arts and Sciences organization and is held on the weekend of Lovecraft's birth.", "That July, the Providence City Council designated the \"H. P. Lovecraft Memorial Square\" and installed a commemorative sign at the intersection of Angell and Prospect streets, near the author's former residences.===Music===Lovecraft's fictional mythos has influenced a number of musicians, particularly in rock and heavy metal music.", "This began in the 1960s with the formation of the psychedelic rock band H. P. Lovecraft, who released the albums ''H.", "P. Lovecraft'' and ''H.", "P. Lovecraft II'' in 1967 and 1968 respectively.", "They broke up afterwards, but later songs were released.", "This included \"The White Ship\" and \"At the Mountains of Madness\", both titled after Lovecraft stories.", "Extreme metal has also been influenced by Lovecraft.", "This has expressed itself in both the names of bands and the contents of their albums.", "This began in 1970 with the release of Black Sabbath's eponymous first album, which contained a song titled \"Behind the Wall of Sleep\", deriving its name from the 1919 story \"Beyond the Wall of Sleep.\"", "Heavy metal band Metallica was also inspired by Lovecraft.", "They recorded a song inspired by \"The Call of Cthulhu\" titled \"The Call of Ktulu\", and a song based on ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'' titled \"The Thing That Should Not Be\".", "The latter contains direct quotations of Lovecraft's works.", "Joseph Norman, a speculative scholar, has argued that there are similarities between the music described in Lovecraft's fiction and the aesthetics and atmosphere of black metal.", "He argues that this is evident through the \"animalistic\" qualities of black metal vocals.", "The usage of occult elements is also cited as a thematic commonality.", "In terms of atmosphere, he asserts that both Lovecraft's works and extreme metal place heavy focus on creating a strong negative mood.===Games===Lovecraft has also influenced gaming, despite having personally disliked games during his lifetime.", "Chaosium's tabletop role-playing game ''Call of Cthulhu'', released in 1981 and currently in its seventh major edition, was one of the first games to draw heavily from Lovecraft.", "It includes a Lovecraft-inspired insanity mechanic, which allowed for player characters to go insane from contact with cosmic horrors.", "This mechanic went on to make appearances in subsequent tabletop and video games.", "1987 saw the release of another Lovecraftian board game, ''Arkham Horror'', which was published by Fantasy Flight Games.", "Though few subsequent Lovecraftian board games were released annually from 1987 to 2014, the years after 2014 saw a rapid increase in the number of Lovecraftian board games.", "According to Christina Silva, this revival may have been influenced by the entry of Lovecraft's work into the public domain and a revival of interest in board games.", "Few video games are direct adaptations of Lovecraft's works, but many video games have been inspired or heavily influenced by Lovecraft.", "''Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth'', a Lovecraftian first-person video game, was released in 2005.It is a loose adaptation of ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'', ''The Shadow Out of Time'', and \"The Thing on the Doorstep\" that uses noir themes.", "These adaptations focus more on Lovecraft's monsters and gamification than they do on his themes, which represents a break from Lovecraft's core theme of human insignificance.===Religion and occultism===Several contemporary religions have been influenced by Lovecraft's works.", "Kenneth Grant, the founder of the Typhonian Order, incorporated the Cthulhu Mythos into his ritual and occult system.", "Grant combined his interest in Lovecraft's fiction with his adherence to Aleister Crowley's Thelema.", "The Typhonian Order considers Lovecraftian entities to be symbols through which people may interact with something inhuman.", "Grant also argued that Crowley himself was influenced by Lovecraft's writings, particularly in the naming of characters in ''The Book of the Law''.", "Similarly, ''The Satanic Rituals'', co-written by Anton LaVey and Michael A. Aquino, includes the \"Ceremony of the Nine Angles\", which is a ritual that was influenced by the descriptions in \"The Dreams in the Witch House\".", "It contains invocations of several of Lovecraft's fictional gods.There have been several books that have claimed to be an authentic edition of Lovecraft's ''Necronomicon''.", "The ''Simon Necronomicon'' is one such example.", "It was written by an unknown figure who identified themselves as \"Simon\".", "Peter Levenda, an occult author who has written about the ''Necronomicon'', claims that he and \"Simon\" came across a hidden Greek translation of the grimoire while looking through a collection of antiquities at a New York bookstore during the 1960s or 1970s.", "This book was claimed to have borne the seal of the ''Necronomicon''.", "Levenda went on to claim that Lovecraft had access to this purported scroll.", "A textual analysis has determined that the contents of this book were derived from multiple documents that discuss Mesopotamian myth and magic.", "The finding of a magical text by monks is also a common theme in the history of grimoires.", "It has been suggested that Levenda is the true author of the ''Simon Necronomicon''." ], [ "Correspondence", "Although Lovecraft is known mostly for his works of weird fiction, the bulk of his writing consists of voluminous letters about a variety of topics, from weird fiction and art criticism to politics and history.", "Lovecraft biographers L. Sprague de Camp and S. T. Joshi have estimated that Lovecraft wrote 100,000 letters in his lifetime, a fifth of which are believed to survive.", "These letters were directed at fellow writers and members of the amateur press.", "His involvement in the latter was what caused him to begin writing them.", "He included comedic elements in these letters.", "This included posing as an eighteenth-century gentleman and signing them with pseudonyms, most commonly \"Grandpa Theobald\" and \"E'ch-Pi-El.\"", "According to Joshi, the most important sets of letters were those written to Frank Belknap Long, Clark Ashton Smith, and James F. Morton.", "He attributes this importance to the contents of these letters.", "With Long, Lovecraft argued in support and in opposition to many of Long's viewpoints.", "The letters to Smith are characterized by their focus on weird fiction.", "Lovecraft and Morton debated many scholarly subjects in their letters, resulting in what Joshi has called the \"single greatest correspondence Lovecraft ever wrote.\"" ], [ "Copyright and other legal issues", "alt=Derleth facing left in 1962Despite several claims to the contrary, there is currently no evidence that any company or individual owns the copyright to any of Lovecraft's works, and it is generally accepted that it has passed into the public domain.", "Lovecraft specified that R. H. Barlow would serve as the executor of his literary estate, but these instructions were not incorporated into his will.", "Nevertheless, his surviving aunt carried out his expressed wishes, and Barlow was given control of Lovecraft's literary estate upon his death.", "Barlow deposited the bulk of the papers, including the voluminous correspondence, in the John Hay Library, and attempted to organize and maintain Lovecraft's other writings.", "Lovecraft protégé August Derleth, an older and more established writer than Barlow, vied for control of the literary estate.", "He and Donald Wandrei, a fellow protégé and co-owner of Arkham House, falsely claimed that Derleth was the true literary executor.", "Barlow capitulated, and later committed suicide in 1951.This gave Derleth and Wandrei complete control over Lovecraft's corpus.On October 9, 1947, Derleth purchased all rights to the stories that were published in ''Weird Tales''.", "However, since April 1926 at the latest, Lovecraft reserved all second printing rights to stories published in ''Weird Tales''.", "Therefore, ''Weird Tales'' only owned the rights to at most six of Lovecraft's tales.", "If Derleth legally obtained the copyrights to these tales, there is no evidence that they were renewed before the rights expired.", "Following Derleth's death in 1971, Donald Wandrei sued his estate to challenge Derleth's will, which stated that he only held the copyrights and royalties to Lovecraft's works that were published under both his and Derleth's names.", "Arkham House's lawyer, Forrest D. Hartmann, argued that the rights to Lovecraft's works were never renewed.", "Wandrei won the case, but Arkham House's actions regarding copyright have damaged their ability to claim ownership of them.In ''H.", "P. Lovecraft: A Life'', S. T. Joshi concludes that Derleth's claims are \"almost certainly fictitious\" and argues that most of Lovecraft's works that were published in the amateur press are likely in the public domain.", "The copyright for Lovecraft's works would have been inherited by the only surviving heir named in his 1912 will, his aunt Annie Gamwell.", "When she died in 1941, the copyrights passed to her remaining descendants, Ethel Phillips Morrish and Edna Lewis.", "They signed a document, sometimes referred to as the Morrish-Lewis gift, permitting Arkham House to republish Lovecraft's works while retaining their ownership of the copyrights.", "Searches of the Library of Congress have failed to find any evidence that these copyrights were renewed after the 28-year period, making it likely that these works are in the public domain.", "However, the Lovecraft literary estate, reconstituted in 1998 under Robert C. Harrall, has claimed that they own the rights.", "They have been based in Providence since 2009 and have been granting the rights to Lovecraft's works to several publishers.", "Their claims have been criticized by scholars, such as Chris J. Karr, who has argued that the rights had not been renewed.", "Joshi has withdrawn his support for his conclusion, and now supports the estate's copyright claims." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "See also", "* H. P. Lovecraft scholars* Lovecraft, a crater on Mercury named for the author" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The H. P. Lovecraft Archive* The H. P. Lovecraft Historical Society* H. P. Lovecraft Collection in the Special Collections at the John Hay Library (Brown University)* ''Lovecraft Annual'', a scholarly journal* The Lovecraft Arts & Sciences Council, a non-profit educational organization* * H. P. Lovecraft at the ''Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''* * ===Online editions===* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Huns" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Huns''' were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD.", "According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part of Scythia at the time; the Huns' arrival in Europe is associated with the migration westward of an Iranian people, the Alans.", "By 370 AD, the Huns had arrived on the Volga, and by 430, they had established a vast, if short-lived, dominion in Europe, conquering the Goths and many other Germanic peoples living outside of Roman borders and causing many others to flee into Roman territory.The Huns, especially under their King Attila, made frequent and devastating raids into the Eastern Roman Empire.", "In 451, they invaded the Western Roman province of Gaul, where they fought a combined army of Romans and Visigoths at the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, and in 452, they invaded Italy.", "After the death of Attila in 453, the Huns ceased to be a major threat to Rome and lost much of their empire following the Battle of Nedao (c. 454).", "Descendants of the Huns, or successors with similar names, are recorded by neighboring populations to the south, east, and west as having occupied parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia from about the 4th to 6th centuries.", "Variants of the Hun name are recorded in the Caucasus until the early 8th century.In the 18th century, French scholar Joseph de Guignes became the first to propose a link between the Huns and the Xiongnu people, who lived in northern China from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD.", "Since Guignes' time, considerable scholarly effort has been devoted to investigating such a connection.", "The issue remains controversial, but recent archaeogenetic studies show some Hun-era individuals to have DNA similar to populations in ancient Mongolia.", "Their relationships with other entities, such as the Iranian Huns and the Huna people of South Asia, have also been disputed.Very little is known about Hunnic culture, and very few archaeological remains have been conclusively associated with the Huns.", "They are believed to have used bronze cauldrons and to have performed artificial cranial deformation.", "No description exists of the Hunnic religion of the time of Attila, but practices such as divination are attested, and the existence of shamans is likely.", "It is also known that the Huns had a language of their own; however, only three words and personal names attest to it.Economically, the Huns are known to have practiced a form of nomadic pastoralism.", "As their contact with the Roman world grew, their economy became increasingly tied with Rome through tribute, raiding, and trade.", "They do not seem to have had a unified government when they entered Europe but rather to have developed a unified tribal leadership in the course of their wars with the Romans.", "The Huns ruled over a variety of peoples who spoke numerous languages, and some maintained their own rulers.", "Their main military technique was mounted archery.The Huns may have stimulated the Great Migration, a contributing factor in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.", "The memory of the Huns also lived on in various Christian saints' lives, where the Huns play the roles of antagonists, as well as in Germanic heroic legend, where the Huns are variously antagonists or allies to the Germanic main figures.", "In Hungary, a legend developed based on medieval chronicles that the Hungarians, and the Székely ethnic group in particular, are descended from the Huns.", "However, mainstream scholarship dismisses a close connection between the Hungarians and Huns.", "Modern culture generally associates the Huns with extreme cruelty and barbarism." ], [ "Origin", "The origins of the Huns and their links to other steppe people remain uncertain: scholars generally agree that they originated in Central Asia but disagree on the specifics of their origins.", "Classical sources assert that they appeared in Europe suddenly around 370.===Roman-era sources===Most typically, Roman writers' attempts to elucidate the origins of the Huns simply equated them with earlier steppe peoples.", "Roman writers repeated a tale that the Huns had entered the domain of the Goths while they were pursuing a wild stag, or else one of their cows that had gotten loose, across the Kerch Strait into Crimea.", "Discovering the land good, they then attacked the Goths.", "Jordanes' ''Getica'' relates that the Goths held the Huns to be offspring of \"unclean spirits\" and Gothic witches (''Getica'' 24:121).=== Relation to the Xiongnu and other peoples called Huns ===Domain and influence of Xiongnu under Modu Chanyu around 205 BC: the area hypothesised to have formed the cradle of Hun culture.Since Joseph de Guignes in the , modern historians have associated the Huns who appeared on the borders of Europe in the with the Xiongnu who had invaded numerous Central Plain polities from the Mongolian Plateau between the and the .", "After the devastating defeat by the Han dynasty, the northern branch of the Xiongnu retreated north-westward; their descendants may have migrated through the Eurasian Steppe and consequently they may have some degree of cultural and genetic continuity with the Huns.", "Scholars also discussed the relationship between the Xiongnu, the Huns, and a number of people in central Asia who were also known as or came to be identified with the name \"Hun\" or \"Iranian Huns\".", "The most prominent of these were Chionites, the Kidarites, and the Hephthalites.Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen was the first to challenge the traditional approach, based primarily on the study of written sources, and to emphasize the importance of archaeological research.", "Since Maenchen-Helfen's work, the identification of the Xiongnu as the Huns' ancestors has become controversial.", "Additionally, several scholars have questioned the identification of the \"Iranian Huns\" with the European Huns.", "Walter Pohl cautions thatnone of the great confederations of steppe warriors was ethnically homogenous, and the same name was used by different groups for reasons of prestige, or by outsiders to describe their lifestyle or geographic origin.", "...", "It is therefore futile to speculate about identity or blood relationships between H(s)iung-nu, Hephthalites, and Attila's Huns, for instance.", "All we can safely say is that the name ''Huns'', in late antiquity, described prestigious ruling groups of steppe warriors.Arrival of the Huns in Pannonia (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)Today, there is \"no general consensus\" and \"scholarship is divided\" on the issue of a Hun-Xiongnu connection.", "Recent supporters of a connection between the Huns and Xiongnu include Hyun Jin Kim and Etienne de la Vaissière.", "De la Vaissière argues that ancient Chinese and Indian sources used ''Xiongnu'' and ''Hun'' to translate each other, and that the various \"Iranian Huns\" were similarly identified with the Xiongnu.", "Kim believes that the term Hun was \"not primarily an ethnic group, but a political category\" and argues for a fundamental political and cultural continuity between the Xiongnu and the European Huns, as well as between the Xiongnu and the \"Iranian Huns\".=== Etymology ===The name ''Hun'' is attested in classical European sources as Greek ''Οὖννοι'' (''Ounnoi'') and Latin ''Hunni'' or ''Chuni''.", "John Malalas records their name as ''Οὖννα'' (''Ounna'').", "Another possible Greek variant may be ''Χοὖνοι'' (''Khounoi''), although this group's identification with the Huns is disputed.", "Classical sources also frequently use the names of older and unrelated steppe nomads instead of the name ''Hun'', calling them Massagetae, Scythians, and Cimmerians, among other names.The etymology of ''Hun'' is unclear.", "Various proposed etymologies generally assume at least that the names of the various Eurasian groups known as Huns are related.", "There have been a number of proposed Turkic etymologies, deriving the name variously from Turkic ''ön'', ''öna'' (to grow), ''qun'' (glutton), ''kün'', ''gün'', a plural suffix \"supposedly meaning 'people'\", ''qun'' (force), and ''hün'' (ferocious).", "Maenchen-Helfen dismisses all of these Turkic etymologies as \"mere guesses\" and proposes an Iranian etymology, from a word akin to Avestan ''hūnarā'' (skill), ''hūnaravant-'' (skillful).", "He suggests that it may originally have designated a rank rather than an ethnicity.", "Robert Werner has advanced an etymology from Tocharian ''ku'' (dog), suggesting—as the Chinese called the Xiongnu dogs—that the dog was the totem animal of the Hunnic tribe.", "He also compares the name ''Massagetae'', noting that the element ''saka'' in that name means dog.", "Others such as Harold Bailey, S. Parlato, and Jamsheed Choksy have argued that the name derives from an Iranian word akin to Avestan ''Ẋyaona'', and was a generalized term meaning \"hostiles, opponents\".", "Christopher Atwood dismisses this possibility on phonological and chronological grounds.", "While not arriving at an etymology ''per se'', Atwood derives the name from the Ongi River in Mongolia, which was pronounced the same as, or similarly to, the name Xiongnu, and suggests that it was originally a dynastic name rather than an ethnic name.=== Physical appearance ===A reconstruction of Attila by George S. Stuart, Museum of Ventura County.Most of the ancient descriptions of the Huns stress their strange appearance from a Roman perspective.", "These descriptions typically caricature the Huns as monsters.", "Jordanes stresses that the Huns were short of stature, had tanned skin and round and shapeless heads.", "Various writers mention that the Huns had small eyes and flat noses.", "The Roman writer Priscus gives the following eyewitness description of Attila: \"Short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and tanned skin, showing evidence of his origin.", "\"Many scholars take these to be unflattering depictions of East Asian (obsolete \"Mongoloid\") racial characteristics.", "Maenchen-Helfen argues that, while many Huns had East Asian racial characteristics, they were unlikely to have looked as Asiatic as the Yakut or Tungus.", "He notes that archaeological finds of presumed Huns suggest that they were a racially mixed group containing only some individuals with East Asian features.", "Kim similarly cautions against seeing the Huns as a homogenous racial group, while still arguing that they were \"partially or predominantly of Mongoloid extraction (at least initially).\"", "Some archaeologists have argued that archaeological finds have failed to prove that the Huns had any \"Mongoloid\" features at all, and some scholars have argued that the Huns were predominantly \"Caucasian\" in appearance.", "Other archaeologists have argued that \"Mongoloid\" features are found primarily among members of the Hunnic aristocracy, which, however, also included Germanic leaders who were integrated into the Hun polity.", "Kim argues that the composition of the Huns became progressively more \"Caucasian\" during their time in Europe; he notes that by the Battle of Chalons (451), \"the vast majority\" of Attila's entourage and troops appears to have been of European origin, while Attila himself seems to have had East Asian features.===Genetics===Genetic data is difficult to apply to steppe nomad societies, because they frequently migrated, intermixed, and were assimilated into each other.", "Nevertheless, genetics can supply information on migrations from East Asia to Europe and vice versa.In a genetic study of individuals from the around the Tian Shan mountains of central Asia dating from the late second century CE, found that these individuals represented a population of mixed East Asian and West Eurasian origin.", "They argued that this population descended from Xiongnu who expanded westward and mixed with Iranian Sakas.", "This population in the Tian Shan mountains may be connected to the European Huns by individual burials that contains objects stylistically related to those used by the European Huns, although this could be a sign of the exchange of goods and the connections between elites rather than a sign of migration.As of 2023, there is little genetic data from the Carpathian basin in the Hunnic period (5th century), and the population living there during the Hunnic period shows a variety of genetic signatures.", "showed that the genomes of 9 Hun-era individuals who lived in the basin varied from European to Northeast Asian connections, with those individuals showing associations with Northeast Asia being most similar to groups found in Mongolia such as the Xiongnu and the Xianbei.", "An analysis of Hun-era genomes by likewise found a wide range of genetic variability, with two individuals showing a connection to ancient Northeast Asians and others showing European ancestry." ], [ "History", "=== Before Attila ===leftThe history of the Huns in the fourth century is not very clear, and the Huns left no sources themselves.", "The Romans became aware of the Huns when the latter's invasion of the Pontic steppes forced thousands of Goths to move to the Lower Danube to seek refuge in the Roman Empire in 376.The Huns conquered the Alans, most of the Greuthungi or Eastern Goths, and then most of the Thervingi or Western Goths, with many fleeing into the Roman Empire.", "In 395 the Huns began their first large-scale attack on the Eastern Roman Empire.", "Huns attacked in Thrace, overran Armenia, and pillaged Cappadocia.", "They entered parts of Syria, threatened Antioch, and passed through the province of Euphratesia.", "At the same time, the Huns invaded the Sasanian Empire.", "This invasion was initially successful, coming close to the capital of the empire at Ctesiphon; however, they were defeated badly during the Persian counterattack.The depicted battle is the legendary Battle of Zeiselmauer when the Huns conquered Pannonia from the Romans (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)During their brief diversion from the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns may have threatened tribes further west.", "Uldin, the first Hun identified by name in contemporary sources, headed a group of Huns and Alans fighting against Radagaisus in defense of Italy.", "Uldin was also known for defeating Gothic rebels who troubled the East Romans around the Danube and for beheading the Goth Gainas around 400–401.The East Romans began to feel the pressure from Uldin's Huns again in 408.Uldin crossed the Danube and pillaged Thrace.", "The East Romans tried to buy off Uldin, but his sum was too high so they instead bought off Uldin's subordinates.", "This resulted in many desertions from Uldin's group of Huns.", "Uldin himself escaped back across the Danube, after which he is not mentioned again in history.Hunnish mercenaries are mentioned on several occasions being employed by the East and West Romans, as well as the Goths, during the late 4th and 5th century.", "In 433 some parts of Pannonia were ceded to them by Flavius Aetius, the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire.=== Under Attila ===A nineteenth century depiction of Attila.", "Certosa di Pavia – Medallion at the base of the facade.", "The Latin inscription tells that this is Attila, the scourge of God.From 434 the brothers Attila and Bleda ruled the Huns together.", "Attila and Bleda were as ambitious as their uncle Rugila.", "In 435 they forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the Treaty of Margus, giving the Huns trade rights and an annual tribute from the Romans.", "When the Romans breached the treaty in 440, Attila and Bleda attacked Castra Constantias, a Roman fortress and marketplace on the banks of the Danube.", "War broke out between the Huns and Romans, and the Huns overcame a weak Roman army to raze the cities of Margus, Singidunum and Viminacium.", "Although a truce was concluded in 441, two years later Constantinople again failed to deliver the tribute and war resumed.", "In the following campaign, Hun armies approached Constantinople and sacked several cities before defeating the Romans at the Battle of Chersonesus.", "The Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II gave in to Hun demands and in autumn 443 signed the Peace of Anatolius with the two Hun kings.", "Bleda died in 445, and Attila became the sole ruler of the Huns.In 447, Attila invaded the Balkans and Thrace.", "The war came to an end in 449 with an agreement in which the East Romans agreed to pay Attila an annual tribute of 2100 pounds of gold.", "Throughout their raids on the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns had maintained good relations with the Western Empire.", "However, Honoria, sister of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, sent Attila a ring and requested his help to escape her betrothal to a senator.", "Attila claimed her as his bride and half the Western Roman Empire as dowry.", "Additionally, a dispute arose about the rightful heir to a king of the Salian Franks.", "In 451, Attila's forces entered Gaul.", "Once in Gaul, the Huns first attacked Metz, then their armies continued westward, passing both Paris and Troyes to lay siege to Orléans.", "Flavius Aetius was given the duty of relieving Orléans by Emperor Valentinian III.", "A combined army of Roman and Visigoths then fought the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.Raphael's ''The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila'' depicts Pope Leo I, escorted by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, meeting with the Hun emperor outside RomeThe following year, Attila renewed his claims to Honoria and territory in the Western Roman Empire.", "Leading his army across the Alps and into Northern Italy, he sacked and razed a number of cities.", "Hoping to avoid the sack of Rome, Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as Pope Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua, and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the emperor.", "The new Eastern Roman Emperor Marcian then halted tribute payments, resulting in Attila planning to attack Constantinople.", "However, in 453 Attila died of a hemorrhage on his wedding night.=== After Attila ===After Attila's death in 453, the Hunnic Empire faced an internal power struggle between its vassalized Germanic peoples and the Hunnic ruling body.", "Led by Ellak, Attila's favored son and ruler of the Akatziri, the Huns engaged the Gepid king Ardaric at the Battle of Nedao, who led a Germanic coalition to overthrow Hunnic imperial authority.", "The Amali Goths would revolt the same year under Valamir, allegedly defeating the Huns in a separate engagement.", "However, this did not result in the complete collapse of Hunnic power in the Carpathian region, but did result in the loss of many of their Germanic vassals.", "At the same time, the Huns were also dealing with the arrival of more Oghur Turkic-speaking peoples from the East, including the Oghurs, Saragurs, Onogurs, and the Sabirs.", "In 463, the Saragurs defeated the Akatziri, or Akatir Huns, and asserted dominance in the Pontic region.The western Huns under Dengizich experienced difficulties in 461 when they were defeated by Valamir in a war against the Sadages, a people allied with the Huns.", "His campaigning was also met with dissatisfaction from Ernak, ruler of the Akatziri Huns, who wanted to focus on the incoming Oghur speaking peoples.", "Dengizich attacked the Romans in 467, without the assistance of Ernak.", "He was surrounded by the Romans and besieged, and came to an agreement that he would surrender if his people were given land for their herds and his starving forces given food.", "During the negotiations, a Hun in service of the Romans named Chelchel persuaded the enemy Goths to attack their Hun overlords.", "The Romans, under their General Aspar and with the help of his bucellarii, then attacked the quarreling Goths and Huns, defeating them.", "In 469, Dengizich was defeated and killed in Thrace.After Dengizich's death, the Huns seem to have been absorbed by other ethnic groups such as the Bulgars.", "Kim, however, argues that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming the Kutrigur and Utigur Hunno-Bulgars.", "This conclusion is still subject to some controversy.", "Some scholars also argue that another group identified in ancient sources as Huns, the North Caucasian Huns, were genuine Huns.", "The rulers of various post-Hunnic steppe peoples are known to have claimed descent from Attila in order to legitimize their right to the power, and various steppe peoples were also called \"Huns\" by Western and Byzantine sources from the fourth century onward." ], [ "Lifestyle and economy", "=== Pastoral nomadism ===The Huns have traditionally been described as pastoral nomads, living off of herding and moving from pasture to pasture to graze their animals.", "Hyun Jin Kim, however, holds the term \"nomad\" to be misleading:The term 'nomad', if it denotes a wandering group of people with no clear sense of territory, cannot be applied wholesale to the Huns.", "All the so-called 'nomads' of Eurasian steppe history were peoples whose territory/territories were usually clearly defined, who as pastoralists moved about in search of pasture, but within a fixed territorial space.Maenchen-Helfen notes that pastoral nomads (or \"seminomads\") typically alternate between summer pastures and winter quarters: while the pastures may vary, the winter quarters always remained the same.", "This is, in fact, what Jordanes writes of the Hunnic Altziagiri tribe: they pastured near Cherson on the Crimea and then wintered further north, with Maenchen-Helfen holding the Syvash as a likely location.", "Ancient sources mention that the Huns' herds consisted of various animals, including cattle, horses, and goats; sheep, though unmentioned in ancient sources, \"are more essential to the steppe nomad even than horses\" and must have been a large part of their herds.", "Sheep bones are frequently found in Hun period graves.", "Additionally, Maenchen-Helfen argues that the Huns may have kept small herds of Bactrian camels in the part of their territory in modern Romania and Ukraine, something attested for the Sarmatians.Ammianus Marcellinus says that the majority of the Huns' diet came from the meat of these animals, with Maenchen-Helfen arguing, on the basis of what is known of other steppe nomads, that they likely mostly ate mutton, along with sheep's cheese and milk.", "They also \"certainly\" ate horse meat, drank mare's milk, and likely made cheese and kumis.", "In times of starvation, they may have boiled their horses' blood for food.Ancient sources uniformly deny that the Huns practiced any sort of agriculture.", "Thompson, taking these accounts at their word, argues that \"without the assistance of the settled agricultural population at the edge of the steppe they could not have survived\".", "He argues that the Huns were forced to supplement their diet by hunting and gathering.", "Maenchen-Helfen, however, notes that archaeological finds indicate that various steppe nomad populations did grow grain; in particular, he identifies a find at Kunya Uaz in Khwarezm on the Ob River of agriculture among a people who practiced artificial cranial deformation as evidence of Hunnic agriculture.", "Kim similarly argues that all steppe empires have possessed both pastoralist and sedentary populations, classifying the Huns as \"agro-pastoralist\".=== Horses and transportation ===''Huns by Rochegrosse 1910 (detail)''As a nomadic people, the Huns spent a great deal of time riding horses: Ammianus claimed that the Huns \"are almost glued to their horses\", Zosimus claimed that they \"live and sleep on their horses\", and Sidonius claimed that \"scarce had an infant learnt to stand without his mother's aid when a horse takes him on his back\".", "They appear to have spent so much time riding that they walked clumsily, something observed in other nomadic groups.", "Roman sources characterize the Hunnic horses as ugly.", "It is not possible to determine the exact breed of horse the Huns used, despite a relatively good description by the Roman writer Vegetius.", "Sinor believes that it was likely a breed of Mongolian pony.", "However, horse remains are absent from all identified Hun burials.", "Based on anthropological descriptions and archaeological finds of other nomadic horses, Maenchen-Helfen believes that they rode mostly geldings.Besides horses, ancient sources mention that the Huns used wagons for transportation, which Maenchen-Helfen believes were primarily used to transport their tents, booty, and the old people, women, and children.=== Economic relations with the Romans ===The Huns received a large amount of gold from the Romans, either in exchange for fighting for them as mercenaries or as tribute.", "Raiding and looting also furnished the Huns with gold and other valuables.", "Denis Sinor has argued that at the time of Attila, the Hunnic economy became almost entirely dependent on plunder and tribute from the Roman provinces.1910 Rochegrosse depiction of Roman villa in Gaul sacked by the hordes of Attila the HunCivilians and soldiers captured by the Huns might also be ransomed back, or else sold to Roman slave dealers as slaves.", "The Huns themselves, Maenchen-Helfen argued, had little use for slaves due to their nomadic pastoralist lifestyle.", "More recent scholarship, however, has demonstrated that pastoral nomadists are actually more likely to use slave labor than sedentary societies: the slaves would have been used to manage the Huns' herds of cattle, sheep, and goats.", "Priscus attests that slaves were used as domestic servants, but also that educated slaves were used by the Huns in positions of administration or even architects.", "Some slaves were even used as warriors.The Huns also traded with the Romans.", "E. A. Thompson argued that this trade was very large scale, with the Huns trading horses, furs, meat, and slaves for Roman weapons, linen, and grain, and various other luxury goods.", "While Maenchen-Helfen concedes that the Huns traded their horses for what he considered to have been \"a very considerable source of income in gold\", he is otherwise skeptical of Thompson's argument.", "He notes that the Romans strictly regulated trade with the barbarians and that, according to Priscus, trade only occurred at a fair once a year.", "While he notes that smuggling also likely occurred, he argues that \"the volume of both legal and illegal trade was apparently modest\".", "He does note that wine and silk appear to have been imported into the Hunnic Empire in large quantities, however.", "Roman gold coins appear to have been in circulation as currency within the whole of the Hunnic Empire.===Connections to the Silk Road===Christopher Atwood has suggested that the purpose of the original Hunnic incursion into Europe may have been to establish an outlet to the Black Sea for the Sogdian merchants under their rule, who were involved in the trade along the Silk Road to China.", "Atwood notes that Jordanes describes how the Crimean city of Cherson, \"where the avaricious traders bring in the goods of Asia\", was under the control of the Akatziri Huns in the sixth century." ], [ "Empire and rule", "=== Government ===Hunnic governmental structure has long been debated.", "Peter Heather argues that the Huns were a disorganized confederation in which leaders acted completely independently and that eventually established a ranking hierarchy, much like Germanic societies.", "Denis Sinor similarly notes that, with the exception of the historically uncertain Balamber, no Hun leaders are named in the sources until Uldin, indicating their relative unimportance.", "Thompson argues that permanent kingship only developed with the Huns' invasion of Europe and the near-constant warfare that followed.", "Regarding the organization of Hunnic rule under Attila, Peter Golden comments \"it can hardly be called a state, much less an empire\".", "Golden speaks instead of a \"Hunnic confederacy\".", "Kim, however, argues that the Huns were far more organized and centralized, with some basis in organization of the Xiongnu state.", "Walter Pohl notes the correspondences of Hunnic government to those of other steppe empires, but nevertheless argues that the Huns do not appear to have been a unified group when they arrived in Europe.Ammianus wrote that the Huns of his day had no kings, but rather that each group of Huns instead had a group of leading men (''primates'') for times of war .", "E.A.", "Thompson supposes that, even in war, the leading men had little actual power.", "He further argues that they most likely did not acquire their position purely hereditarily.", "Heather, however, argues that Ammianus merely meant that the Huns didn't have a single ruler; he notes that Olympiodorus mentions the Huns having several kings, with one being the \"first of the kings\".", "Ammianus also mentions that the Huns made their decisions in a general council (''omnes in commune'') while seated on horseback.", "He makes no mention of the Huns being organized into tribes, but Priscus and other writers do, naming some of them.The first Hunnic ruler known by name is Uldin.", "Thompson takes Uldin's sudden disappearance after he was unsuccessful at war as a sign that the Hunnic kingship was \"democratic\" at this time rather than a permanent institution.", "Kim, however, argues that Uldin is actually a title and that he was likely merely a subking.", "Priscus calls Attila \"king\" or \"emperor\" (''βασιλέυς''), but it is unknown what native title he was translating.", "With the exception of the sole rule of Attila, the Huns often had two rulers; Attila himself later appointed his son Ellac as co-king.", "Heather argues that by the time of the report of Olympiodorus, the Huns at some point developed a system of ranked kings, including a senior king by the time of Charaton.Priscus also speaks of \"picked men\" or ''logades'' (''λογάδες'') forming part of Attila's government, naming five of them.", "Some of the \"picked men\" seem to have been chosen because of birth, others for reasons of merit.", "Thompson argued that these \"picked men\" \"were the hinge upon which the entire administration of the Hun empire turned\": he argues for their existence in the government of Uldin, and that each had command over detachments of the Hunnic army and ruled over specific portions of the Hunnic empire, where they were responsible also for collecting tribute and provisions.", "Maenchen-Helfen, however, argues that the word ''logades'' denotes simply prominent individuals and not a fixed rank with fixed duties.", "Kim affirms the importance of the ''logades'' for Hunnic administration, but notes that there were differences of rank between them, and suggests that it was more likely lower ranking officials who gathered taxes and tribute.", "He suggests that various Roman defectors to the Huns may have worked in a sort of imperial bureaucracy.", "Unlike the Iranian Huns, who quickly began to mint their own coinage, the European Huns did not strike their own coins.===Extent of Hunnic territory===The extent of Hunnish control in Barbarian Europe is poorly understood, as it is not much covered in Roman sources.", "It is generally assumed that they established an empire that stretched as far West as the Rhine and perhaps as far north as the Baltic, though it is difficult to establish its boundaries with certainty.", "Some scholars, such as Otto Maenchen-Helfen and Peter Golden, believe that the extant of Attila's empire has been exaggerated and he probably only controlled Pannonia and some adjacent areas.In the 390s, the majority of the Huns were probably based around the Volga and Don on the Pontic Steppe.", "But by the 420s, the Huns were based on Great Hungarian Plain, the only large grassland near the Roman empire capable of supporting large numbers of horses.", "However, Aleksander Paroń believes that they likely continued to control the Pontic Steppe north of the Black Sea.", "They had conquered the Hungarian Plain in stages.", "The precise date that they conquered the north bank of the Danube is unclear.", "Maenchen-Helfen argued that they may have already taken control of it in the 370s.", "The dates when they gained control of the Roman territory south of the Middle Danube, Pannonia Valeria and the other provinces of Pannonia, is likewise disputed, but probably in 406/407 and 431/433 respectively.", "Otherwise, the Huns made no attempt to conquer or settle on Roman territory.", "Following Attila's death, the Huns were driven out of Pannonia and some appear to have returned to the Pontic Steppe, while one group settled in Dobruja.One of the only written sources for the size of Attila's domain is given by the Roman historian Priscus.", "Priscus refers to Attila ruling as far as the islands in the \"ocean\" (), but it is unclear if this meant the Baltic Sea or the world-encircling Ocean that the Greeks and Romans believed in.", "In either case, the description of Attila ruling as far as the islands in the \"ocean\" may be hyperbole.", "Archaeology is often used to argue for an area having been under Hunnic control; however, nomadic peoples often control territories beyond their immediate settlement.", "A large number of major finds from Silesia and Lesser Poland, north of the Carpathian Mountains, have been attributed to the time of Attila and associated with the nomadic milieu of the Huns.", "While scholars have speculated about direct Hunnic control and settlement here, it is entirely unclear what kind of relationship the population of these regions had to the Huns.===Subject peoples===The Huns ruled over numerous other groups, including Goths, Gepids, Sarmatians, Heruli, Alans, Rugii, Suevi, and Sciri, alongside other groups where they occasionally asserted control.", "Peter Heather suggests that some of these groups were resettled along the Danube by the Huns.", "Subject peoples of the Huns were led by their own kings.", "Those recognized as ethnic Huns appear to have had more rights and status, as evidenced by the account of Priscus.=== Warfare ===One of the principal sources of information on Hunnic warfare is Ammianus Marcellinus, who includes an extended description of the Huns' methods of war:They also sometimes fight when provoked, and then they enter the battle drawn up in wedge-shaped masses, while their medley of voices makes a savage noise.", "And as they are lightly equipped for swift motion, and unexpected in action, they purposely divide suddenly into scattered bands and attack, rushing about in disorder here and there, dealing terrific slaughter; and because of their extraordinary rapidity of movement they are never seen to attack a rampart or pillage an enemy's camp.", "And on this account you would not hesitate to call them the most terrible of all warriors, because they fight from a distance with missiles having sharp bone, instead of their usual points, joined to the shafts with wonderful skill; then they gallop over the intervening spaces and fight hand to hand with swords, regardless of their own lives; and while the enemy are guarding against wounds from the sabre-thrusts, they throw strips of cloth plaited into nooses over their opponents and so entangle them that they fetter their limbs and take from them the power of riding or walking.Based on Ammianus' description, Maenchen-Helfen argues that the Huns' tactics did not differ markedly from those used by other nomadic horse archers.", "He argues that the \"wedge-shaped masses\" (''cunei'') mentioned by Ammianus were likely divisions organized by tribal clans and families, whose leaders may have been called a ''cur''.", "This title would then have been inherited as it was passed down the clan.", "Like Ammianus, the sixth-century writer Zosimus also emphasizes the Huns' almost exclusive use of horse archers and their extreme swiftness and mobility.", "These qualities differed from other nomadic warriors in Europe at this time: the Sarmatians, for instance, relied on heavily armored cataphracts armed with lances.", "The Huns' use of terrible war cries are also found in other sources.", "However, a number of Ammianus's claims have been challenged by modern scholars.", "In particular, while Ammianus claims that the Huns knew no metalworking, Maenchen-Helfen argues that a people so primitive could never have been successful in war against the Romans.Hunnic armies relied on their high mobility and \"a shrewd sense of when to attack and when to withdraw\".", "An important strategy used by the Huns was a feigned retreat—pretending to flee and then turning and attacking the disordered enemy.", "This is mentioned by the writers Zosimus and Agathias.", "They were, however, not always effective in pitched battle, suffering defeat at Toulouse in 439, barely winning at the Battle of the Utus in 447, likely losing or stalemating at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451, and losing at the Battle of Nedao (454?).", "Christopher Kelly argues that Attila sought to avoid \"as far as possible, ... large-scale engagement with the Roman army\".", "War and the threat of war were frequently-used tools to extort Rome; the Huns often relied on local traitors to avoid losses.", "Accounts of battles note that the Huns fortified their camps by using portable fences or creating a circle of wagons.The Huns' nomadic lifestyle encouraged features such as excellent horsemanship, while the Huns trained for war by frequent hunting.", "Several scholars have suggested that the Huns had trouble maintaining their horse cavalry and nomadic lifestyle after settling on the Hungarian Plain, and that this in turn led to a marked decrease in their effectiveness as fighters.The Huns are almost always noted as fighting alongside non-Hunnic, Germanic or Iranian subject peoples or, in earlier times, allies.", "As Heather notes, \"the Huns' military machine increased, and increased very quickly, by incorporating ever larger numbers of the Germani of central and eastern Europe\".", "At the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, Attila is noted by Jordanes to have placed his subject peoples in the wings of the army, while the Huns held the center.Peter Heather notes that the Huns were able to successfully besiege walled cities and fortresses in their campaign of 441: they were thus capable of building siege engines.", "Heather makes note of multiple possible routes for acquisition of this knowledge, suggesting that it could have been brought back from service under Aetius, acquired from captured Roman engineers, or developed through the need to pressure the wealthy silk road city states, and carried over into Europe." ], [ "Society and culture", "=== Artificial cranial deformation ===Skull of a Hun-period individual found in Hungary showing artificial cranial deformation.", "Over 200 artificially deformed skulls have been found in the Carpathian Basin from the Hun and Avar periods.Artificial cranial deformation, the process of artificially lengthening the skulls of babies by binding them, first appears in Europe on the Pontic Steppe in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, before spreading to the Carpathian basin, becoming common there in the 5th century.", "During the Hun period, between 50% to 80% of all burials in the Carpathian basin contain individuals with artificial cranial deformation.", "This chronology and its spread in Europe has been linked to nomadic invasions from Asia and in particularly the spread of the Huns, with the argument that it was practiced by their nobility and then taking up by Germanic groups influenced by them, in particular the Gepids.", "Some scholars argue that the practice was not originally introduced to Europe by the Huns, however, but rather with the Alans, with whom the Huns were closely associated, and Sarmatians.In Kim's view, the goal of this process was \"to create a clear physical distinction between the nobility and the general populace\".", "Susanne Hakenbeck, however, notes that graves with individuals who had undergone artificial cranial deformation are not usually distinct from other individuals; she suggests instead that the process was used to show kinship and distinguish families, something attested for the practice in Mesoamerica.=== Languages ===A variety of languages were spoken within the Hun Empire.", "Priscus noted that the Hunnic language differed from other languages spoken at Attila's court.", "He recounts how Attila's jester Zerco made Attila's guests laugh also by the \"promiscuous jumble of words, Latin mixed with Hunnish and Gothic.\"", "Priscus said that Attila's \"Scythian\" subjects spoke \"besides their own barbarian tongues, either Hunnish, or Gothic, or, as many have dealings with the Western Romans, Latin; but not one of them easily speaks Greek, except captives from the Thracian or Illyrian frontier regions\".", "Some scholars have argued that Gothic was used as the ''lingua franca'' of the Hunnic Empire.", "Hyun Jin Kim argues that the Huns may have used as many as four languages at various levels of government, without any one being dominant: Hunnic, Gothic, Latin, and Sarmatian.As to the Hunnic language itself, there is no consensus on its relationship to other languages.", "Only three words are recorded in ancient sources as being \"Hunnic,\" all of which appear to be from an Indo-European language.", "All other information on Hunnic is contained in personal names and tribal ethnonyms.", "On the basis of these names, scholars have proposed that Hunnic may have been a Turkic language, a language between Mongolic and Turkic, an Eastern Iranian language, or a Yeniseian language.", "However, given the small corpus, many hold the language to be unclassifiable.=== Marriage and the role of women ===The elites of the Huns practiced polygamy, while the commoners were probably monogamous.", "Ammianus Marcellinus claimed that the Hunnish women lived in seclusion; however, the first-hand account of Priscus shows them freely moving and mixing with men.", "Priscus describes Hunnic women swarming around Attila as he entered a village, as well as the wife of Attila's minister Onegesius offering the king food and drink with her servants.", "Priscus was able to enter the tent of Attila's chief wife, Hereca, without difficulty.Priscus also attests that the widow of Attila's brother Bleda was in command of a village that the Roman ambassadors rode through: her territory may have included a larger area.", "Thompson notes that other steppe peoples, such as the Utigurs and the Sabirs, are known to have had female tribal leaders, and argues that the Huns probably held widows in high respect.", "Due to the pastoral nature of the Huns' economy, the women likely had a large degree of authority over the domestic household.=== Religion ===Almost nothing is known about the religion of the Huns.", "Roman writer Ammianus Marcellinus claimed that the Huns had no religion, while the fifth-century Christian writer Salvian classified them as Pagans.", "Jordanes' ''Getica'' also records that the Huns worshipped \"the sword of Mars\", an ancient sword that signified Attila's right to rule the whole world.", "Maenchen-Helfen notes a widespread worship of a war god in the form of a sword among steppe peoples, including among the Xiongnu.", "Denis Sinor, however, holds the worship of a sword among the Huns to be apocryphal.", "Additionally, Maenchen-Helfen argues that, while the Huns themselves do not appear to have regarded Attila as divine, some of his subject people clearly did.", "A belief in prophecy and divination is also attested among the Huns.", "Maenchen-Helfen argues that the performers of these acts of soothsaying and divination were likely shamans.", "Sinor also finds it likely that the Huns had shamans, although they are completely unattested.", "Maenchen-Helfen further deduces a belief in water-spirits from a custom mentioned in Ammianus.", "He furthermore suggests that the Huns may have made small metal, wooden, or stone idols, which are attested among other steppe tribes, and which a Byzantine source attests for the Huns in Crimea in the sixth century.", "Moreover, he connects archaeological finds of Hunnish bronze cauldrons found buried near or in running water to possible rituals performed by the Huns in the Spring.John Man argues that the Huns of Attila's time likely worshipped the sky and the steppe deity Tengri, who is also attested as having been worshipped by the Xiongnu.", "Maenchen-Helfen also suggests the possibility that the Huns of this period may have worshipped Tengri, but notes that the god is not attested in European records until the ninth century.", "Worship of Tengri under the name \"T'angri Khan\" is attested among the Caucasian Huns in the Armenian chronicle attributed to Movses Dasxuranci during the later seventh-century.", "Movses also records that the Caucasian Huns worshipped trees and burnt horses as sacrifices to Tengri, and that they \"made sacrifices to fire and water and to certain gods of the roads, and to the moon and to all creatures considered in their eyes to be in some way remarkable.", "\"There is some evidence for human sacrifice among the European Huns.", "Maenchen-Helfen argues that humans appear to have been sacrificed at Attila's funerary rite, recorded in Jordanes under the name ''strava''.", "Priscus claims that the Huns sacrificed their prisoners \"to victory\" after they entered Scythia, but this is not otherwise attested as a Hunnic custom and may be fiction.In addition to these Pagan beliefs, there are numerous attestations of Huns converting to Christianity and receiving Christian missionaries.", "The missionary activities among the Huns of the Caucasus seem to have been particularly successful, resulting in the conversion of the Hunnish prince Alp Ilteber.", "Attila appears to have tolerated both Nicene and Arian Christianity among his subjects.", "However, a pastoral letter by Pope Leo the Great to the church of Aquileia indicates that Christian slaves taken from there by the Huns in 452 were forced to participate in Hunnic religious activities.===Burials and burial customs===Nomad-style burial of a warrior from Ługi, Migration period in Silesia.", "The grave shows many similarities to burials along the Black Sea among the an Alano-Sarmatian milieu.An account of the funeral of Attila is provided by Jordanes, who may derive it from Priscus: Jordanes reports that the Huns cut their hair and disfigured their faces with swords as part of the rite, a widely attested custom among steppe peoples.", "After this, Attila's custom was placed in a silk tent, and horsemen rode around it singing funeral dirges called a ''strava''.", "The coffin was then covered in precious metals and buried secretly together with weapons, and the slaves who dug the grave were killed to keep the location secret.", "Maenchen-Helfen suggests that the dirges and the horsemanship were likely separate events, with the latter possibly representing funereal horse races as found among other steppe peoples, while the killing of the slaves may have been a sacrifice.Although a great amount of archaeological material has been unearthed since 1945, as of 2005 there were only 200 that have plausibly identified as Hunnic, including both in the Carpathian Basin and the Pontic Steppe.", "Hun-period burials identified with the nomadic milieu on the Eurasian steppe and in the Carpathian Basin typically feature rich deposits of grave goods, which modern archaeologists call (offerings to the dead).", "However, the richest nomad-related burials have all been found in other locations than the Carpathian Basin, although this was Attila's center of power and one would expect to find elite burials clustered there.", "Most burials from the Carpathian Basin match the material culture of the previously indigenous Germanic peoples; the dearth of Hun related burials may indicate that most Hunnish funerals may have disposed of the body in such a way that no remains were left, or that they adopted Germanic material culture.Frequently, nomad-related graves from the Hun period contain evidence of objects being burned, probably as part of the burial ceremonies.", "The common nomadic practice of burying parts of animals, such as their shoulder blades or limbs, with the deceased is only attested rarely in the Carpathian Basin.", "Likewise, while Central Asian and East European nomad burials frequently feature kurgans, these are entirely absent in the Carpathian basin." ], [ "Material culture", "Detail of Hunnish gold and garnet bracelet, 5th century, Walters Art MuseumThere are two sources for the material culture of the Huns: ancient descriptions and archaeology.", "Roman descriptions of the Huns are often highly biased, stressing the Huns' supposed primitiveness.", "Unfortunately, the nomadic nature of Hun society means that they have left very little in the archaeological record.", "It can be difficult to distinguish Hunnic archaeological finds from those of the Sarmatians, as both peoples lived in close proximity and seem to have had very similar material cultures.", "Kim thus cautions that it is difficult to assign any artifact to the Huns ethnically.===Cauldrons===A Hunnish cauldronArchaeological finds have produced a large number of cauldrons that have since the work of Paul Reinecke in 1896 been identified as having been produced by the Huns.", "Although typically described as \"bronze cauldrons\", the cauldrons are often made of copper, which is generally of poor quality.", "Maenchen-Helfen lists 19 known finds of Hunnish cauldrons from all over Central and Eastern Europe and Western Siberia.", "He argues from the state of the bronze castings that the Huns were not very good metalsmiths, and that it is likely that the cauldrons were cast in the same locations where they were found.", "They come in various shapes, and are sometimes found together with vessels of various other origins.", "Maenchen-Helfen argues that the cauldrons were cooking vessels for boiling meat, but that the fact that many are found deposited near water and were generally not buried with individuals may indicate a sacral usage as well.", "The cauldrons appear to derive from those used by the Xiongnu.===Clothing===Good descriptions of Hun period clothing, known from contemporary Central Asian burials to have probably been the khalat, are lacking in Greco-Roman sources.", "The East Roman historian Priscus reports seeing a Greek merchant who he took for a Hun due to his wearing \"Scythian\" clothing; this appears to show that the Huns wore a distinct outfit that was part of ethnic identification.", "Ammianus reports that the Huns wore clothes made of linen or the furs of mice and leggings of goatskin, which they did not wash.", "While the use of furs and linen may be accurate, the description of the Huns in dirty animal skins and wearing the skins of mice is clearly derived from negative stereotypes and topoi about primitive barbarians.", "Priscus also mentions the use of various expensive and rare animal furs, and mentions the handmaidens of Attila's queen Kreka weaving decorative linen.Using finds from modern Kazakhstan, archaeologist Joachim Werner has described Hunnic clothing as probably consisting of knee-length, sleeved smocks (the khalat), which were sometimes made of silk, as well as trousers and leather boots.", "Saint Jerome and Ammianus both describe the Huns as wearing a round cap that was probably made of felt.", "Because nomadic clothing had no need for brooches, the absence of this otherwise common item in some Barbarian burials may indicate Hunnic cultural influence.", "According to Maenchen-Helfen, the Huns' shoes were likely made of sheep's leather.", "The Bántapuszta figurine is wearing high, bulky boots that are connected to the warrior's chainmail by straps, of a type also described by Priscus.===Artistic decoration===A Hunnish oval openwork fibula set with a carnelian and decorated with a geometric pattern of gold wire, 4th century, Walters Art MuseumJewelry and weapons attributed to the Huns are often decorated in a polychrome, cloisonné style.Archaeologist Joachim Werner argued that the Huns developed a unique \"Danubian\" style of art that combined Asiatic goldsmithing techniques with the enormous amount of gold given as tribute to the Huns by the Romans; this style then influenced European art.", "In the 1970s, A. K. Ambroz argued that the polychrome style originated with the Huns; however, more recent archaeological discoveries show that it predates their arrival in Europe.", "Warwick Ball, moreover, argues that the decorated artifacts of the Hunnish period were probably made by local craftsmen for the Huns rather than by the Huns themselves.A now headless copper-plated Hun-period figurine discovered at Bántapuszta near Veszprém, Hungary, shows a man in armor whose pants and collars have been decorated by ringlets.", "Archaeological finds indicate that the Huns wore gold plaques as ornaments on their clothing, as well as imported glass beads.", "The golden plaques were probably used to decorate the hems of both male and female festive clothing; this fashion seems to have been adopted both by the Huns and East Germanic elites.", "Both men and women have been found wearing shoe buckles made of gold and jewels in Eastern Europe, but of iron or bronze in Central Asia; the golden shoe buckles are also found in non-Hunnic graves in Europe.Both ancient sources and archaeological finds from graves confirm that the Hunnic women wore elaborately decorated golden or gold-plated diadems.", "These diadems, as well as elements of bonnets, were probably symbols of rulership.", "Women are also found buried with small mirrors of an originally Chinese type, which often appear to have been intentionally broken when placed into a grave.", "Hunnic women seem to have worn necklaces and bracelets of mostly imported beads of various materials as well.", "Men are often found buried with single or paired earrings and, unusually for a nomadic people, bronze or golden neck rings.===Tents and dwellings===Ammianus reports that the Huns had no buildings, but in passing mentions that the Huns possessed tents and also lived in wagons.", "No tents or wagons have been found in Hunnic archaeological contexts as they were evidently not buried with the deceased.", "Maenchen-Helfen believes that the Huns likely had \"tents of felt and sheepskin\": Priscus once mentions Attila's tent, and Jordanes reports that Attila lay in state in a silk tent.", "However, by the middle of the fifth century, Priscus mentions that the Huns owned permanent wooden houses, which Maenchen-Helfen believes were built by their Gothic subjects.===Bows and arrows===A ceremonial \"Hun-style\" reflex bow reconstructed from sheet gold found in a nomad burial at Jakuszowice, modern Poland.Ancient Roman sources stress the importance of the bow to the Huns, and it was the Huns' main weapon.", "The Huns used a composite or reflex bow of what is often called the \"Hun-type\", a style that had spread to all steppe nomads on the Eurasian steppe by the beginning of the Hun period.", "They measured between 120 and 150 centimeters.", "Examples are vary rare in the archaeological record, with finds in Europe clustering on the Pontic steppe and Middle Danube region.", "The rarity of surviving examples means that making precise statements about the advantages of this weapon is challenging.", "The bows were difficult to construct and probably objects of great value: They were made out of a flexible wood, strips of either antler or bone, and animal sinew.", "The bone used to strengthen the bow made it more durable but probably less powerful.", "The graves of figures identified as \"princes\" among the Huns have been found buried with golden, ceremonial bows in a wide area from the Rhine to the Dnieper.", "Bows were buried with the object placed across the chest of the deceased.The bows shot larger arrows than the earlier \"Scythian type\" bows, with the appearance of iron, three-lobed arrowheads in the archaeological record taken as a sign of their spread.", "Ammianus, while recognizing the importance of Hunnic bows, does not appear well informed about them and claims, among other things, that the Huns only used bone-pointed arrows.===Riding gear===Riding equipment and harnesses are frequent finds from Hun-period burials.", "The Huns did not have spurs, and so used whips to drive their horses; the handles of such whips have been found in nomad graves.", "The Huns have customarily been considered the inventors of a wooden framed saddle.", "Maenchen-Helfen, for instance, argued that the surviving ornamentation from nomad graves dating to the Hun period showed that the saddles must have had a wooden frame.", "However, Oleksandr Symonenko argues more recent work has shown that the Huns still used an earlier style of saddle made of padding.The Huns are also commonly credited with having introduced the stirrup to Europe.", "These appear to have been used by other Xiongnu successor groups in Asia from the 5th century CE onward.", "However, no stirrups have been found in Hunnic burials, nor is there any textual evidence of their use.", "Maenchen-Helfen also argues against the Huns having used stirrups, on the grounds that there is no evidence for their use after the end of the Hun empire even though they could easily have been copied by subject peoples.", "Without stirrups, the Huns would not have had the stability to fight in close combat on horseback and thus appear to have preferred fighting using bows and arrows.", "The lack of stirrups would have required special techniques for firing arrows from horseback.===Armor===Defensive equipment and chainmail are rare finds in Hunnic period graves.", "Ammianus makes no mention of any use of armor among the Huns.", "However, it is believed that the Huns made use of lamellar armor, a style of armor popular among steppe nomads during this time.", "Metal armor was probably a rarity.", "The Huns may have used a type of helmet known as the Spangenhelm, but Hunnic nobles may have worn helmets of various types.===Swords and other weapons===A spatha buried in a Hun-period grave with a nomadic background from Jakuszowice in modern Poland.Ammianus reports that the Huns used iron swords, and ceremonial swords, daggers, and decorated scabbards are frequent finds in Hun-period burials.", "Additionally, pearls are often found with swords; these decorative elements may have had a religious meaning.", "Beginning with Joachim Werner, archaeologists have argued that the Huns may have originated the fashion of decorating swords with cloisonné; however, Philip von Rummel argues these swords show strong Mediterranean influence, are rare in the Carpathian Basin from the Hun period, and may have been produced by Byzantine workshops.Thompson is skeptical that the Huns could cast iron themselves, but Maenchen-Helfen argues that \"the idea that the Hun horsemen fought their way to the walls of Constantinople and to the Marne with bartered and captured swords is absurd.\"", "One characteristic sword used by the Huns and their subject peoples was the narrow-bladed long seax.", "Since the work of J. Werner in the 1950s, many scholars have believed that the Huns introduced this type of sword to Europe.", "In the earliest versions, these swords seem to have been shorter, stabbing weapons.The Huns, along with the Alans and the Eastern Germanic peoples, also used a type of sword known as an East Germanic or Asian , a long, double-edged iron sword with an iron cross-guard.", "These swords would have been used to cut down enemies who had already been driven to flight by the Huns' volleys of arrows.", "Roman sources also mention lassos as weapons used at close range to immobilize opponents.Some Huns or their subject peoples may also have carried heavy lances, as is attested for some Hunnic mercenaries in Roman sources." ], [ "Legacy", "=== In Christian hagiography ===Martyrdom of Saint Ursula, by Hans Memling.", "The turbaned and armored figures represent Huns.After the fall of the Hunnic Empire, various legends arose concerning the Huns.", "Among these are a number of Christian hagiographic legends in which the Huns play a role.", "In an anonymous medieval biography of Pope Leo I, Attila's march into Italy in 452 is stopped because, when he meets Leo outside Rome, the apostles Peter and Paul appear to him holding swords over his head and threatening to kill him unless he follows the pope's command to turn back.", "In other versions, Attila takes the pope hostage and is forced by the saints to release him.", "In the legend of Saint Ursula, Ursula and her 11,000 holy virgins arrive at Cologne on their way back from a pilgrimage just as the Huns, under an unnamed prince, are besieging the city.", "Ursula and her virgins are killed by the Huns with arrows after they refuse the Huns' sexual advances.", "Afterwards, the souls of the slaughtered virgins form a heavenly army that drives away the Huns and saves Cologne.", "Other cities with legends regarding the Huns and a saint include Orléans, Troyes, Dieuze, Metz, Modena, and Reims.", "In legends surrounding Saint Servatius of Tongeren dating to at least the eighth century, Servatius is said to have converted Attila and the Huns to Christianity, before they later became apostates and returned to their paganism.=== In Germanic legend ===The Huns (outside) set fire to their own hall to kill the Burgundians.", "Illustration from the Hundeshagen Codex of the ''Nibelungenlied''.The Huns also play an important role in Germanic heroic legends, which frequently convey versions of events from the migration period and were originally transmitted orally.", "The Huns and Attila form central figures in the two most-widespread Germanic legendary cycles, that of the Nibelungs and of Dietrich von Bern (the historical Theoderic the Great).", "The Nibelung legend, particularly as recorded in the Old Norse ''Poetic Edda'' and ''Völsunga saga'', as well as in the German ''Nibelungenlied'', connects the Huns and Attila (and in the Norse tradition, Attila's death) to the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom on the Rhine in 437.In the legends about Dietrich von Bern, Attila and the Huns provide Dietrich with a refuge and support after he has been driven from his kingdom at Verona.", "Memories of the conflicts between the Goths and Huns in Eastern Europe appear to be maintained in the Old English poem ''Widsith'' as well as in the Old Norse poem \"The Battle of the Goths and Huns\", which is transmitted in the thirteenth-century Icelandic ''Hervarar Saga''.", "Generally, the continental Germanic traditions paint a more positive picture of Attila and the Huns than the Scandinavian sources, where the Huns appear in a distinctly negative light.In medieval German legend, the Huns were identified with the Hungarians, with their capital of ''Etzelburg'' (Attila-city) being identified with Esztergom or Buda.", "The Old Norse ''Thidrekssaga'', however, which is based on North German sources, locates ''Hunaland'' in northern Germany, with a capital at Soest in Westphalia.", "In other Old Norse sources, the term Hun is sometimes applied indiscriminately to various people, particularly from south of Scandinavia.", "From the thirteenth-century onward, the Middle High German word for Hun, ''hiune'', became a synonym for giant, and continued to be used in this meaning in the forms ''Hüne'' and ''Heune'' into the modern era.", "In this way, various prehistoric megalithic structures, particularly in Northern Germany, came to be identified as ''Hünengräber'' (Hun graves) or ''Hünenbetten'' (Hun beds).=== Links to the Hungarians ==='Feast of Attila'.", "Hungarian romantic painting by Mór Than (1870).Beginning in the High Middle Ages, Hungarian sources have claimed descent from or a close relationship between the Hungarians (Magyars) and the Huns.", "The claim appears to have first arisen in non-Hungarian sources and only gradually been taken up by the Hungarians themselves because of its negative connotations.", "The Anonymous ''Gesta Hungarorum'' (after 1200) is the first Hungarian source to mention that the line of Árpádian kings were descendants of Attila, but he makes no claim that the Hungarian and Hun peoples are related.", "The first Hungarian author to claim that Hun and Hungarian ''peoples'' were related was Simon of Kéza in his ''Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum'' (1282–1285).", "Simon claimed that the Huns and Hungarians were descended from two brothers, named Hunor and Magor.", "These claims gave the Hungarians an ancient pedegree and served to legitimize their conquest of Pannonia.Modern scholars largely dismiss these claims.", "Regarding the claimed Hunnish origins found in these chronicles, Jenő Szűcs writes:The Hunnish origin of the Magyars is, of course, a fiction, just like the Trojan origin of the French or any of the other ''origo gentis'' theories fabricated at much the same time.", "The Magyars in fact originated from the Ugrian branch of the Finno-Ugrian peoples; in the course of their wanderings in the steppes of Eastern Europe they assimilated a variety of (especially Iranian and different Turkic) cultural and ethnic elements, but they had neither genetic nor historical links to the Huns.Generally, the proof of the relationship between the Hungarian and the Finno-Ugric languages in the nineteenth century is taken to have scientifically disproven the Hunnic origins of the Hungarians.", "While the Magyars may not be descendants of the Huns, they were historically closely associated with Turkic peoples.", "Hyun Jin Kim supposes that the Hungarians might be linked to the Huns via the Bulgars and Avars, both of whom he holds to have had Hunnish elements.Gyula and Béla I, Illustration for ''Il costume antico e moderno'' by Giulio Ferrario (1831).Another claim, also derived from Simon of Kéza, is that the Hungarian-speaking Székely people of Transylvania are descended from Huns, who fled to Transylvania after Attila's death, and remained there until the Hungarian conquest of Pannonia.", "While the origins of the Székely are unclear, modern historians and archaeologists do not consider the Székelys to be of Hunnic origin due to a lack of evidence.", "László Makkai notes as well that some archaeologists and historians believe Székelys were a Hungarian tribe or an Onogur-Bulgar tribe drawn into the Carpathian Basin at the end of the 7th century by the Avars (who were identified with the Huns by contemporary Europeans).", "Unlike in the legend, the Székely were resettled in Transylvania from Western Hungary in the eleventh century.", "Their language similarly shows no evidence of a change from any non-Hungarian language to Hungarian, as one would expect if they were Huns.While the notion that the Hungarians are descended from the Huns has been rejected by mainstream scholarship, the idea has continued to exert a relevant influence on Hungarian nationalism and national identity.", "A majority of the Hungarian aristocracy continued to ascribe to the Hunnic view into the early twentieth century.", "The Fascist Arrow Cross Party similarly referred to Hungary as ''Hunnia'' in its propaganda.", "The supposed Hunnic origins of the Hungarians also played a large role in the modern radical right-wing party Jobbik's ideology of Pan-Turanism.", "Legends concerning the Hunnic origins of the Székely minority in Romania, meanwhile, continue to play a large role in that group's ethnic identity.", "Members of the Hungarian right wing, with the support of the government of prime minister Victor Orbán and academic institutions such as the Institute of Hungarian Research (, MKI), continue to promote Hungarian descent from the Huns.=== Modern associations with savagery ===Modern culture generally associates the Huns with extreme cruelty and barbarism.", "During the First World War, Allied propaganda often called the Germans \"Huns\" in order to paint the Germans as savage barbarians; this usage continued to a limited extent during the Second World War as well." ], [ "See also", "* Amal dynasty* Huna people* List of Huns* List of rulers of the Huns* Nomadic empire" ], [ "Endnotes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Dorn'eich, Chris M. 2008.Chinese sources on the History of the Niusi-Wusi-Asi(oi)-Rishi(ka)-Arsi-Arshi-Ruzhi and their Kueishuang-Kushan Dynasty.", "''Shiji 110/Hanshu 94A: The Xiongnu: Synopsis of Chinese original Text and several Western Translations with Extant Annotations''.", "A blog on Central Asian history.", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Home Improvement (TV series)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Home Improvement''''' is an American television sitcom starring Tim Allen that aired on ABC from September 17, 1991, to May 25, 1999, with a total of 204 half-hour episodes spanning eight seasons.", "The series was created by Matt Williams, Carmen Finestra, and David McFadzean.", "Despite not being a favorite with critics, it was one of the most watched sitcoms in the United States during the 1990s, winning many awards.", "The series launched stand-up comedian Allen's acting career." ], [ "Show background", "Based on the stand-up comedy of Tim Allen, ''Home Improvement'' made its debut on ABC on September 17, 1991, and was one of the highest-rated sitcoms for almost the entire decade.", "It went to No.", "2 in the ratings during the 1993–1994 season, the same year Allen had the No.", "1 book (''Don't Stand Too Close to a Naked Man'') and film (''The Santa Clause'').Beginning in season 2, ''Home Improvement'' began each episode with a cold open, which features the show's logo during the teaser.", "From season 4 until the end of the series in 1999, an anthropomorphic version of the logo was used in different types of animation." ], [ "Episodes" ], [ "Plot details and storylines", "=== Taylor family ===The series centers on the Taylor family, which consists of Tim (Tim Allen), his wife Jill (Patricia Richardson) and their three sons: Brad (Zachery Ty Bryan), Randy (Jonathan Taylor Thomas), and Mark (Taran Noah Smith).", "The Taylors live in suburban Detroit, and they have a neighbor named Wilson (Earl Hindman) who is often the go-to guy for solving the Taylors' problems.Tim loves power tools, cars, and sports.", "An avid fan of the Detroit professional sports teams, Tim wears Lions, Pistons, Red Wings, and Tigers clothing in numerous instances, and many plots revolve around the teams.", "He is a former salesman for the fictional Binford Tool company, and he is very much a cocky, overambitious, accident-prone know-it-all.", "Witty but flippant, Tim jokes around a lot, even at inappropriate times, much to the dismay of his wife.", "However, Tim can sometimes be serious when necessary.", "Jill, Tim's wife, is loving and sophisticated, but she is not exempt from dumb moves herself.", "In later seasons, she returns to college to study psychology.", "Family life is boisterous for the Taylors, with the two oldest children, Brad and Randy, tormenting the much younger Mark, all while continually testing and pestering each other.", "Such play happened especially throughout the first three seasons, and it was revisited only occasionally until Jonathan Taylor Thomas left at the beginning of the eighth season.", "During the show's final season, Brad and Mark became much closer due to Randy's absence.Brad, popular and athletic, was often the moving factor, who engaged before thinking, a tendency which regularly landed him in trouble.", "Randy, a year younger, was the comedian of the pack, known for his quick thinking, wisecracks, and smart mouth.", "He had more common sense than Brad but was not immune to trouble.", "Mark was somewhat of a mama's boy, though later in the series (in the seventh season) he grew into a teenage outcast who dressed in black clothing.", "Meanwhile, Brad became interested in cars like his father and took up soccer.", "Randy joined the school drama club and later the school newspaper; in the eighth season, he left for Costa Rica.In early seasons, Wilson was always seen standing on the other side of Tim's backyard fence as the two engaged in conversation, usually with Wilson offering sage advice as Tim grappled with his problems.", "In later seasons, a running joke developed in which more and more creative means were used to prevent Wilson's face below the eyes from ever being seen by the audience.", "Also, in later seasons, Wilson's full name was revealed to be Wilson W. Wilson Jr.=== ''Tool Time'' ===Each episode includes Tim's own Binford-sponsored home improvement show, called ''Tool Time'', a show-within-a-show.", "In hosting this show, Tim is joined by his friend and mild-mannered co-host Al Borland (Richard Karn), and a \"Tool Time girl\"—first Lisa (Pamela Anderson) and later Heidi (Debbe Dunning)—whose main duty is to introduce the pair at the beginning of the show with the line \"Does everybody know what time it is?\"", "In reply, the audience yells, \"TOOL TIME!\"", "The Tool Time girl also assists Tim and Al during the show by bringing them tools.Although revealed to be an excellent salesman and TV personality, Tim is spectacularly accident-prone as a handyman, often causing massive disasters on and off the set, to the consternation of his co-workers and family.", "Many ''Tool Time'' viewers assume that the accidents on the show are done on purpose, to demonstrate the consequences of using tools improperly.", "Many of Tim's accidents are caused by his devices being used in an unorthodox or overpowered manner, designed to illustrate his mantra \"More power!\"", "This popular catchphrase was not uttered after ''Home Improvement''s seventh season until Tim's last line in the series finale—the last two words ever spoken on the show.", "''Tool Time'' was conceived as a parody of the PBS home-improvement show ''This Old House''.", "Tim and Al are caricatures of the two principal cast members of ''This Old House'', host Bob Vila and master carpenter Norm Abram.", "Al has a beard and always wears plaid shirts when taping an episode, reflecting Norm Abram's appearance on ''This Old House''.", "Bob Vila appeared as a guest star on several episodes of ''Home Improvement'', while Tim Allen and Pamela Anderson both appeared on Bob Vila's show ''Home Again''.The ''Tool Time'' theme music, an early 1960s-style saxophone-dominated instrumental rock tune, was sometimes used as the closing theme music for ''Home Improvement'', especially when behind the credits were running the blooper scenes that took place during the taping of a ''Tool Time'' segment." ], [ "Characters", "=== Main === Characters Actor/Actress Episodes Seasons Timothy \"Tim\" Taylor Tim Allen (204 episodes, 1991–1999) starring seasons 1–8 Jillian \"Jill\" Taylor Patricia Richardson (204 episodes, 1991–1999) starring seasons 1–8 Wilson W. Wilson Jr. Earl Hindman (202 episodes, 1991–1999) starring seasons 1–8 Marcus Jason \"Mark\" Taylor Taran Noah Smith (201 episodes, 1991–1999) starring seasons 1–8 Randall William \"Randy\" Taylor Jonathan Taylor Thomas (177 episodes, 1991–1998) starring seasons 1–8 (until episode 178, guest star thereafter) Bradley Michael \"Brad\" Taylor Zachery Ty Bryan (202 episodes, 1991–1999) starring seasons 1–8 Albert \"Al\" Borland Richard Karn (201 episodes, 1991–1999) recurring season 1; starring seasons 2–8 Heidi Keppert Debbe Dunning (148 episodes, 1993–1999) recurring seasons 3–6; starring seasons 7–8=== Recurring === Characters Actor/Actress Episodes Seasons Martin \"Marty\" Taylor William O'Leary (30 episodes, 1994–1999) 4–8 Harry Turner Blake Clark (24 episodes, 1994–1999) 4–8 Lisa Pamela Anderson (23 episodes, 1991–1993, 1997) 1–2 and 6 Benny Baroni Jimmy Labriola (16 episodes, 1994–1999) 3–8 Ilene Markham Sherry Hursey (16 episodes, 1993–1997) 3–6 Pete Bilker Mickey Jones (13 episodes, 1991–1999) 1–8 Dwayne Hoover Gary McGurk (11 episodes, 1991–1999) 1–8 Rock Flanagan Casey Sander (10 episodes, 1991–1999) 1–8 Trudy McHale Megan Cavanagh (5 episodes, 1998–1999) 7–8" ], [ "Production", "=== Casting changes ======= Pamela Anderson ====In the first two years of the show, Pamela Anderson played the part of Tim's Tool Girl, Lisa, on ''Tool Time'', but left the show to focus on her role on the syndicated series ''Baywatch''.", "Her last episode as a series regular was \"The Great Race\", which aired on May 19, 1993.Tim's new assistant, electrician Heidi Keppert, played by Debbe Dunning, replaced Anderson as the Tool Time Girl for the following third season, starting with \"Maybe Baby\", which aired on September 15, 1993.Dunning had previously appeared (not as Heidi) in the episode \"Overactive Glance\" from season 2 where she played an obsessive ''Tool Time'' fan named Kiki.", "Anderson did reprise the role of Lisa on the sixth-season finale episode \"The Kiss and the Kiss-Off\", which aired on May 20, 1997.==== Departure of Jonathan Taylor Thomas ====In the show's eighth and final season, the middle child Randy left for an environmental study program in Costa Rica in the episode \"Adios\", which aired on September 29, 1998.This was done because Jonathan Taylor Thomas reportedly wanted to take time off to focus on his academics.", "His last appearance on ''Home Improvement'' was the eighth season Christmas episode \"Home for the Holidays\", which aired on December 8, 1998.He did not return to the show for the series finale (as he was busy with his education and filming the movie ''Speedway Junky'', released in 2001), only appearing in archived footage.=== End of series ===The series ended after eight seasons in 1999.Richardson was offered $25 million to do a ninth season; Allen was offered $50 million.", "The two declined the offer and the series came to an end as a result." ], [ "Michigan college and university apparel", "Throughout the show, Tim Taylor would often wear sweatshirts or T-shirts from various Michigan-based colleges and universities.", "These were usually sent by the schools to the show for him to wear during an episode.", "Because Allen considered Michigan his home state, the rule was that only Michigan schools would get the free advertising.", "There were two notable exceptions to the general rule that Tim only supported Michigan educational institutions on the show.", "First, during the episode \"Workshop 'Til You Drop\" Tim wears a Wofford College (South Carolina) sweatshirt.", "Second, during the episode \"The Wood, the Bad and the Hungry\" Tim wears an Owens Community College (Ohio) sweatshirt.", "College or university City (of main campus) Episode SeasonAlbion College Albion My Dinner with Wilson 4 Alpena Community College Alpena Engine and a Haircut, Two Fights 5 Aquinas College Grand Rapids Crazy For You 3 Baker College Flint Township No Place Like Home 6 Bay College Escanaba Her Cheatin' Mind 5 Calvin College Grand Rapids Eve of Construction 3 Central Michigan University Mount Pleasant Blow-Up 3 Cleary University Howell You're Driving Me Crazy, You're Driving Me Nuts 2 Cornerstone University Grand Rapids Talk to Me 4 Davenport University Grand Rapids Room Without a View 5Eastern Michigan UniversityYpsilanti To Build or Not to Build 2 Let Them Eat Cake 5 Believe It Or Not 7 Ferris State University Big Rapids Be True to Your Tool 3 Grand Valley State University Allendale What You See is What You Get 3 Henry Ford Community College Dearborn A House Divided 4 Hillsdale College Hillsdale The Naked Truth 4Hope CollegeHolland Talk to Me 4 Shopping Around 5 Kalamazoo College Kalamazoo When Harry Kept Delores 5Kellogg Community CollegeBattle Creek Future Shock 6 Jill and Her Sisters 6 Lake Michigan College Benton Township Eye on Tim 5 Lake Superior State University Sault Sainte Marie Brother, Can You Spare A Hot Rod 4 Lawrence Tech Southfield High School Confidential 5 Madonna University Livonia Oh, Brother 5 Marygrove College Detroit The Route of All Evil 4Michigan State UniversityEast Lansing Frozen Moments 3 It Was the Best of Tims, It Was the Worst of Tims 3 Michigan Tech Houghton A Hardware Habit to Break 8 Mott Community College Flint Wilson's World 6 Northwood University Midland A Sew, Sew Evening 3 Northern Michigan University Marquette Swing Time 3 Northwestern Michigan College Traverse City Chicago Hope 5 Oakland University Auburn Hills Slip Slidin' Away 3 Owens Community College Toledo, Ohio The Wood, the Bad and the Hungry 6Saginaw Valley State University University Center The Eyes Don't Have It 4University of MichiganAnn Arbor Borland Ambition 4 Super Bowl Fever 4 A Marked Man 4 Advise and Repent 5 The Vasectomy One 5 Family Un-Ties 6 An Older Woman 7 Room at the Top 7 Walsh College Troy Dollars and Sense 3Wayne StateDetroit Olde Shoppe Teacher 4 Burnin' Love 6Western Michigan UniversityKalamazoo May the Best Man Win 2 It Was the Best of Tims, It Was the Worst of Tims 3 That's My Momma 5 Future Shock 6 A Night to Dismember 7 Taylor Got Game 8Wofford College Spartanburg, South Carolina Workshop 'Til You Drop 6" ], [ "Syndication", "In the United States, ''Home Improvement'' began airing in broadcast syndication in September 1995, distributed via Buena Vista Television (now Disney–ABC Domestic Television) and continued to be syndicated until 2007, in a manner similar to ''Seinfeld'' and ''The Simpsons'' after they began airing in broadcast syndication.", "Episodes of ''Home Improvement'' were not aired in order of their production code number or original airdate.", "On cable, the series started airing in 2002 on superstations TBS and WGN America.", "It later ran on Nick at Nite, and its sister network TV Land, and eventually the Hallmark Channel in 2013.The show's creators brought a lawsuit against Disney around in 2013 alleging that the latter sold the syndication rights for the show at \"well below market value\" including offering the syndication rights in New York for \"no monetary compensation\".", "The lawsuit was settled in 2019.Terms of the settlement were not disclosed." ], [ "Home media", "Buena Vista Home Entertainment has released all eight seasons on DVD in Regions 1, 2, and 4.Season 8 has the \"Backstage Pass\" (which immediately followed \"The Long and Winding Road, Part III\")On May 10, 2011, Walt Disney Studios released a complete series box set entitled ''Home Improvement: 20th Anniversary Complete Collection'' on DVD in Region 1.The 25-disc collection features all 204 episodes of the series as well as all special features contained on the previously released season sets; it is encased in special collectible packaging, a ''Home Improvement'' toolbox with a Binford \"All-In-One Tool\" tape measure.The series will be available to streaming on Netflix on February 1, 2025.DVD Name Ep# Release dates Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 The Complete First Season 24 November 23, 2004 July 14, 2005 June 28, 2005 The Complete Second Season 25 June 7, 2005 October 13, 2005 July 20, 2005 The Complete Third Season 25 November 22, 2005 January 12, 2006 January 16, 2006 The Complete Fourth Season 26 June 6, 2006 December 6, 2007 December 5, 2007 The Complete Fifth Season 26 November 14, 2006 March 6, 2008 April 2, 2008 The Complete Sixth Season 25 May 15, 2007 November 13, 2008 December 3, 2008 The Complete Seventh Season 25 August 7, 2007 April 2, 2009 March 18, 2009 The Complete Eighth Season 28 June 10, 2008 August 13, 2009 December 2, 2009 20th Anniversary Complete Collection 204 May 10, 2011 N/A N/A" ], [ "Reception", "===Nielsen ratings===During its eight-season run, the show always finished in the top 10 in the Nielsen ratings during a season, despite never making the #1 slot (its highest finish was a second-place spot in the show's third season; behind ''60 Minutes'').", "The series finale became the fifth highest-rated series finale television program of the 1990s and the ninth overall series finale ever presented on a single network in television history, watched by 35.5 percent of the households sampled in America, and 21.6 percent of television viewers.===Awards, nominations, and other reception===Though never a hit with critics, ''Home Improvement'' received numerous awards and nominations in its eight-season run.", "Notable awards and nominations include: Golden Globe Awards, Primetime Emmy Awards, Kids' Choice Awards, Young Artist Awards, YoungStar Awards, and ASCAP Award.On Metacritic, the first season holds a score of 64 out of 100, based on 18 critics and the second season holds a score of 75 out of 100, based on 5 critics, both indicating \"generally favorable reviews.”" ], [ "Post-series events", "Tim Allen, Richard Karn, Casey Sander, and Debbe Dunning had a reunion in a television special named ''Tim Allen Presents: A User's Guide to Home Improvement'' in 2003 (a terminally ill Earl Hindman did voice-overs, befitting his never-seen persona of Wilson; Hindman died shortly after the special aired).", "Allen presented his own favorite clips from the show, insider's tips, personal reflections and a question and answer session with the live audience.On August 3, 2011, in Pacific Palisades, California, the surviving main cast members reunited for ''Entertainment Weekly'' magazine, including Jonathan Taylor Thomas, whom the cast had not seen since 1998.Karn guest starred in two episodes of Tim Allen's 2010s ABC/Fox sitcom ''Last Man Standing'' in 2013.Thomas has also appeared on ''Last Man Standing'', and has directed episodes of the series.In 2015, Patricia Richardson guest starred on ''Last Man Standing'' in the episode \"Helen Potts\", playing the episode's titular character.", "Thomas made a cameo in the episode, playing Richardson's son.On May 5, 2015, ''Hollywood Life'' reported that Allen and Karn had admitted talking about getting back together as a cast for a ''Home Improvement'' reboot or reunion show.", "Karn was quoted as saying, \"There is always a chance, absolutely.", "Would I be on board?", "Yeah, I think so!", "I would love to see what the story lines could be, it could be very funny!", "\"On February 18, 2020, ''CinemaBlend'' reported that Allen wants to bring back ''Home Improvement'' for a revival:I like the idea of doing it as a one-off, like a one-hour movie versus a full-fledged revival series.", "I like the idea of finding out where the boys are now, and where... ''Tool Time'' would be in today's world.", "I just think it's a marvelous idea, and all the actors think it's a great idea.In January 2021, Allen reprised his role of Tim Taylor in an episode of ''Last Man Standing'' titled \"Dual Time\".Premiering in February 2021, Tim Allen and Richard Karn, teamed up with YouTuber DIYer April Wilkerson, on History Channel unscripted competition show ''Assembly Required''; where home handymen/makers/DIYers/inventors, compete to build souped up home tools a la ''Tool Time'' from ''Home Improvement'', with supplied parts and pieces, and some of their own junk at home.Premiering in June 2022, Allen and Karn again teamed up with Wilkerson on another History Channel documentary series ''More Power''; where the hosts cover the history of tools, again a la ''Tool Time'' from ''Home Improvement''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official homepage* * * The ''Home Improvement'' Archive* UltimateDisney.com – Seasons 1–8 DVD Reviews* Home Improvement Seasons 1–8 on DVD" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Roman Britain" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Roman Britain''' was the territory that became the Roman province of ''Britannia'' after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain.", "The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars.", "According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies.", "The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown.", "He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul.", "Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC.", "In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (''musculi'') according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea.", "Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates.", "The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain.", "By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way.", "Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northwards.The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia.", "In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.", "Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side.", "The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed.", "In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of 2 million, these are very high figures.Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled.", "Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior.", "During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the .", "A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century.", "For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders.", "The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture.", "The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain.", "After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing.", "Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor.", "Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire." ], [ "History", "=== Early contact ===Britain was known to the Classical world.", "The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC.", "The Greeks referred to the '''', or \"tin islands\", and placed them near the west coast of Europe.", "The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th.", "It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance.", "The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry.", "Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace.", "A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms.", "Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence.", "Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade.", "Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could.", "Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain.", "Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own '''' refers to two British kings he received as refugees.", "When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius.", "This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul.", "When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.=== Roman invasion ===The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius, but it is unclear how many legions were sent.", "The '''', commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part.", "The '''', the '''' (later styled '''') and the '''' (later styled '''') are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion.", "This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary.", "The '''' may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world.", "They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.Conquests under Aulus Plautius, focused on the commercially valuable southeast of BritainThe Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames.", "One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere.", "Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester).", "Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.=== Establishment of Roman rule ===After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales.", "The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni.", "The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula.", "Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him.", "The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans.", "He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life.", "The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum.", "Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all.", "Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica.", "She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus.", "The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched.", "He was wrong.", "When his will was enforced, Rome responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full.", "Boudica protested.", "In consequence, Rome punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape.", "In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it.", "Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended.", "Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans).", "Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities.", "But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street.", "Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness.", "During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.Templeborough Roman fort in South Yorkshire.", "The reconstruction was created for Rotherham Museums and Galleries.There was further turmoil in 69, the \"Year of the Four Emperors\".", "As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance.", "The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so.", "Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country.", "After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.", "Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain.", "Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78.With the '''' legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland.", "This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island.", "This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province.", "As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.=== Occupation of and retreat from southern Scotland ===There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall.", "Even the name of his replacement is unknown.", "Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned.", "By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate.", "Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation.", "Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110.These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at ''Trimontium'' (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.", "There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene.", "Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat.", "The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy.", "In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.Hadrian's Wall viewed looking east from Housesteads Roman Fort (Vercovicium)''Prima Europe tabula''.", "A 1486 woodcut copy of Ptolemy's 2nd-century map of Roman BritainA new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign (117): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco.", "When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier.", "Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the '''' legion with him from ''''.", "This replaced the famous '''', whose disappearance has been much discussed.", "Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted.", "With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus.", "Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned.", "The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made.", "The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces.", "Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved.", "Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings.", "In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus.", "Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops.", "Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive.", "The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia.", "Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops.", "Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.=== 3rd century ===The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war.", "Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus.", "The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant.", "His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east.", "Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum.", "Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive.", "Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide.", "Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment.", "Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain.", "In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals.", "Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence.", "Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae.", "The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians \"rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction\".", "In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such.", "Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old.", "Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately.", "The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.Northern campaigns, 208–211An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola.", "Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield.", "The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians.", "By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall.", "He assumed the title '''' but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire.", "Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war.", "Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into '''' and ''''.", "This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century.", "Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace.", "Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest.", "A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders.", "Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect.", "In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus.", "Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor.", "To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus.", "Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising.", "Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296.Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure.", "He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings.", "An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition.", "In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea.", "After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus.", "Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.=== Diocletian's reforms ===Valentia between the wallsValentia notedAs part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a ''vicarius'' under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).The ''vicarius'' was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese.", "Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the ''Dux Britanniarum'' by 314.The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century).", "The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier.", "He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.The tasks of the ''vicarius'' were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces.", "In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (''praeses'') of equestrian rank.", "The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank.", "Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy.", "Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic \"Vespasiana\"?", "), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records.", "On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles.", "The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop \"Eborius\" of Eboracum and two bishops \"from Londinium\" (one '''' and the other '''').", "The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed ''Colonia'', Selden ''Col.''", "or ''Colon.", "Camalodun.", "'', and Spelman ''Colonia Cameloduni'' (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered '''' and Henry '''' (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of ''Civ.", "Col.", "Londin.''", "for an original ''Civ.", "Col. Leg.", "II'' (Caerleon).", "On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and \"Duvian\".", "He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at \"Urbs Legionum\" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at \"Dorobernia\" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at \"Lundonia\" (London); \"Maximia\" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in \"Albania which is now Scotland\" with its capital at St Andrews.", "Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan ''vicarius''; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles; and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York).", "Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.=== 4th century ===4th century Roman towns and villas4th century: Degree of RomanisationEmperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years.", "Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south.", "His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn.", "Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side.", "Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death.", "After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters.", "The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the '''' Flavius Martinus to intervene.", "When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the '''' attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west.", "A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate.", "The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked.", "This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms.", "Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.", "An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts.", "By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned.", "Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north.", "A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel.", "Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384.His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish.", "His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube.Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain.", "Stilicho led a punitive expedition.It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.=== End of Roman rule ===Roman Britain in 410The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century.", "Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation.", "Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of \"dark earth\" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts.", "Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought.", "Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed.", "There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns.", "Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy.", "Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430.Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester.", "Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87.Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades.", "Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent.", "By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned.", "Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble \"grey ware\" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.=== Sub-Roman Britain ===End of Roman rule in Britain, 383–410Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks.", "Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence.", "After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407.He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed.", "A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration.", "Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai.", "A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna.", "With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions.", "Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi.", "(Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier.", "There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.)", "The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600.Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland.", "A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446.Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends." ], [ "Trade", "During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways.", "The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt.", "During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss '''' (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in ''''; wine from Gaul in '''' and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in ''''; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products.", "Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper.", "Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources.", "Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports.", "Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from 165 AD onwards.", "This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century.", "During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire.", "This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul." ], [ "Economy", "Industrial production in Roman BritainDevelopment of Dolaucothi Gold Mines in WalesMineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators.", "The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods.", "They are described by Pliny the Elder in his ''Natural History'' in great detail.", "Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock.", "If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution.", "The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles.", "The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from 75 through to the 1st century.", "When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins.", "The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee.", "Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry.", "It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits.", "The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive.", "Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas.", "In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools.", "Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent.", "This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere.", "At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands.", "Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions.", "Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders.", "By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.== Government ==Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control.", "In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship.", "These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability.", "In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the '''' and acting as a judge in important legal cases.", "When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the '''', and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them.", "Financial administration was dealt with by a ''procurator'' with junior posts for each tax-raising power.", "Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts.", "Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces.", "Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners.", "A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections.", "The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as '''' (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into '''' such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and ''municipalities'' such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs.", "The various '''' sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult." ], [ "Demographics", "Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century.", "At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.", "The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century.", "The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people.", "Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.", "There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa.", "In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.=== Town and country ===Britannia as shown on the '''' (modern copy from 1897)During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive.", "The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private use.", "Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied.", "According to S.T.", "Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories.", "'''', \"public towns\" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings.", "The much more numerous category of '''', \"small towns\" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; '''' are marked '''C'''" ], [ "Religion", "=== Pagan ===Artist's reconstruction of Pagans Hill Roman Temple, SomersetThe druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey).", "Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely.", "Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial.", "Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites.", "The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica.", "By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation.", "The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery.", "Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).=== Christianity ===Chi-Rho fresco from Lullingstone Roman Villa, Kent, which contains the only known Christian paintings from the Roman era in Britain.It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain.", "A 2nd-century \"word square\" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester.", "It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora.", "There has been discussion by academics whether the \"word square\" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain.", "The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, 200 AD, in which he described \"all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ\".", "Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries.", "Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough.", "The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum.", "A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham.", "A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery.", "The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively.", "A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln.", "No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek.", "The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the '''' of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional.", "Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta.", "Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313.Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established.", "One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived 354 to 420/440.A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times.", "According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain.", "This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals." ], [ "Environmental changes", "The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (''Urtica pilulifera''), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail ''Helix pomatia''.", "There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type.", "The European rabbit (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066.Box (''Buxus sempervirens'') is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas.Roman roads around 150 AD" ], [ "Legacy", "During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today.", "The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems.", "Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants.", "The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew.", "It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh.", "Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages).", "The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe from the 5th century onwards." ], [ "See also", "* Wales in the Roman era* History of the British Isles* Prehistoric Britain" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * in .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * in .", "* in .", "* in .", "* in .", "* in .", "* in .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "=== General survey ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== Iron Age background ===* .", "* .=== Historical sources and inscriptions ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== Trade ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== Economy ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== Provincial government ===* .=== Provincial development ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== The Roman military in Britain ===* .", "* alt= * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== Urban life ===* .", "* .", "* .=== Rural life ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== Religion ===* .", "* .=== Art ===* ." ], [ "External links", "* * Timeline of Roman Britain at BBC* The Romans in Britain – Information on the Romans in Britain, including everyday life* Roman Britain – everything to do with Roman Britain, especially geographic, military, and administrative* The Roman Army and Navy in Britain, by Peter Green* Roman Britain, by Guy de la Bédoyère* Roman Britain at LacusCurtius* by Kevin Flude* Roman Britain – History* Roman Colchester* Roman Wales RCAHMW* The Rural Settlement of Roman Britain – database of excavated evidence for rural settlements" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of Roman place names in Britain" ], [ "Introduction", "Roman Britain.", "Map from 1911 Encyclopædia BritannicaA partial '''list of Roman place names in Great Britain'''.This list includes only names documented from Roman times.", "For a more complete list including later Latin names, see List of Latin place names in Britain.The early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and misspellings of the Latin names.", "Moreover, one of the principal authorities, Ptolemy, wrote in Greek so names that he records need to be transliterated back into Latin to reveal the original form.Note that in general only one source is shown below for each name, although many of the names are recorded in more than one of the sources." ], [ "Lists", "===Geographic regions===Roman nameModern regionAppearanceBritanniaGreat BritainTHiberniaIrelandTCaledoniaScotlandT=== Settlement names ===Roman name Modern nameAppearancesAballavaBurgh by Sands, CumbriaND, TAd AnsamUnknown (Higham, Suffolk?", ")AIAd PontemEast Stoke, NottinghamshireAIAd Pontes or Pontibus Staines-upon-Thames, MiddlesexAIAesicaGreat Chesters, NorthumberlandND, TAlaunodunumMaidenhead, BerkshireotherAlione or AlavanaWatercrook or Low Borrowbridge, Cumbria?ND, AIAlaunaMaryport, CumbriaNDAlauneAlcester, WarwickshireRC, TAmboglanna or BannaBirdoswald, CumbriaNDAnderitumPevensey, East SussexND, TAquae ArnemetiaeBuxton, DerbyshireRCAquae SulisBath, SomersetAI, PArbeiaSouth Shields, Tyne & WearND, TArdotaliaGamesley, Glossop, DerbyshireRCArgistillumUnknown (Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire?", ")RCAriconiumWeston under Penyard, HerefordshireAIBannavem TaburniaeunknownSPBannaventaNorton, near Daventry, NorthamptonshireAIBelgic oppidum Braintree, Essex otherBlatobulgiumBirrens, DumfrieshireAIBlestiumMonmouthAIBomiumCowbridge, South Glamorgan?AIBovioTilston, CheshireAIBranodunumBrancaster, NorfolkND, TBravoniumLeintwardine, HerefordshireAIBremeniumHigh Rochester, NorthumberlandAIBremetennacum VeteranorumRibchester, LancashireAI, ND, RC, TBrigeAshley or Stockbrigde, Hampshire?AIBrocavumBrougham, CumbriaAIBrocolitia or ProcolitiaCarrawburgh, NorthumberlandND, TBrovonacae or BravoniacumKirkby Thore, CumbriaAI, TBurriumUsk, MonmouthshireAICaesaromagusChelmsford, EssexAI, RCCalcariaTadcaster, North YorkshireAICalleva AtrebatumSilchester, HampshireAI, P, RCCambodunounknown (Huddersfield?", ")AICamboglannaCastlesteads, NorthumberlandRC, TCamboricoLackford or Hockwold, NorfolkAICamulodunumColchester, Essex AI, P, RCCanoniumKelvedon, EssexAICaromagoCramond, EdinburghRCCastra ExploratorumNetherby, CumbriaAICataractoniumCatterick, North YorkshireAI, P, RCCausennisUnknown (Sapperton, Lincolnshire?", ")AICilurnumWalwick Chesters, NorthumberlandND, TClausentumBitterne, HampshireAICocciumWigan, LancashireAIColoniaColchester, EssexAI, RCConbretoviumCoddenham, SuffolkAIConcangisChester-le-Street, County DurhamND, RC, TCongavata or CoggabataDrumburgh, CumbriaND, TCondercumBenwell, Newcastle upon TyneND, TCondateNorthwich, CheshireAIConoviumCaerhun, ClwydAI, RCCorinium DobunnorumCirencester, GloucestershireAI, P, RCCoria or CorstopitumCorbridge, NorthumberlandAI, P, RCCrocolanaBrough, NottinghamshireAICunetioneMildenhall, WiltshireAICuriaTraprain Law, East LothianPDanumDoncaster, South YorkshireAI, ND, TDelgovicia or DevoviciaMalton, North YorkshireAI, RCDeva VictrixChesterAI, P, RCDerventionePapcastle, CumbriaND, TDerventio BrigantumStamford Bridge or Malton, YorkshireAIDerventio CoritanorumLittle Chester, DerbyRC, TDictimnear SunderlandND, TDubrisDover, KentAI, ND, RC, TDurnovariaDorchester, DorsetAI, RCDurobrovisRochester, KentAI, RCDurobrivaeWater Newton, CambridgeshireAI, RCDurocobrivisDunstable, BedfordshireAIDurocornoviumSwindon, WiltshireAIDurolevumUnknown (Ospringe or Sittingbourne?", ")AIDuroliponsCambridgeAI, RCDurolitumLittle London, EssexAIDurovernum CantiacorumCanterburyAI, RCDurovigutum Godmanchester RCEboracumYorkAI, P, RCEvidenscaEast LothianRCGabrosentumUnknown (Moresby, Cumbria or Gateshead?", ")ND, TGalacumBurrow-in-Lonsdale?AIGalavaAmbleside, CumbriaAIGarrianonumBurgh Castle, Norfolk or Caister-on-Sea, NorfolkND, TGlannoventa or CantiventiRavenglass, CumbriaAI, ND, RC, TGlevum ColoniaGloucesterAI, RCGobanniumAbergavenny, MonmouthshireAI, RCHortoniumHalifax, West YorkshireotherIsca DumnoniorumExeter, DevonAI, P, RCIsca AugustaCaerleon, GwentAIIsannavantiaNorton, NorthamptonshireAIIsurium or IsubrigantumAldborough, North YorkshireAI, PLactodorumTowcester, NorthamptonshireAI, RCLagentium or LegeolioCastleford, West YorkshireAI, RCLavatrisBowes Castle, County DurhamAI, ND, RC, TLeodis or LoidisLeeds otherLeucarumLoughor, SwanseaAILetocetum or EtocetoWall, StaffordshireAILindinisIlchester, SomersetP, RCLindum ColoniaLincolnAI, PLondiniumLondonAI, PLongoviciumLanchester, County DurhamND, RC, TLuentinumPumsaint/DolaucothiPLuguvaliumCarlisle, CumbriaAI, RCLutudarumWirksworth or Carsington, DerbyshireRCMagiovintoFenny Stratford, BuckinghamshireAIMagisnear Workington, CumbriaND, TMagnisKenchester, HerefordshireAI, ND, RC, TMaglonaWigton, CumbriaND, TMagnus PortusBosham, SussexPManduesedumMancetter, WarwickshireAIMamucium or MantioManchesterAI, RCMaromagoMidlothianRCMargidunumBingham, NottinghamshireAIMediolanumWhitchurch, ShropshireAI, P, RCMorbiumPiercebridge, County DurhamND, TMoridunumAxminster, DevonAIMoridunumCarmarthenPNavio or AnoviusBrough-on-Noe, Hope Valley, DerbyshireRCNidumNeath, West GlamorganAINoviomagus ReginorumChichester, SussexAI, P, RCNoviomagus Cantiacorum West Wickham, formerly supposed to be Crayford, both in the historic county of Kent AIOlenacumunknown (Elslack, North Yorkshire?", ")ND, TOlicanaIlkley, West YorkshirePOnnum or HunnumHalton, NorthumberlandND, TOthonaBradwell-on-Sea, EssexND, TPennocruciumWater Eaton, StaffordshireAIPetrianaStanwix in Carlisle, CumbriaND, TPetuariaBrough, YorkshireP, RCPons AeliusNewcastle upon TyneND, TPortus AbonaeSea Mills, BristolAIPortus AdurniPortchester, HampshireND, RC, TPortus FelixFiley, North YorkshireotherPortus LemanisLympne, KentAI, ND, TPraesidiumunknown (Newton Kyme, North Yorkshire?", ")ND, TPraetoriumunknown (Bridlington?", ")AIRatae CorieltauvorumLeicesterAI, PRegulbiumReculver, KentND, TRutuniumHarcourt Park, ShropshireAIRutupiaeRichborough, KentAI, ND, P, TSalinaeMiddlewich, CheshireRCSegedunumWallsend, Tyne and WearND, TSegelocum or AgelocumLittleborough, NottinghamshireAISegontiumCaernarfonAI, RCSitomagus, Sitomagum, Sitomago, or SenomagusUnknown, possibly Ixworth, SuffolkAISorbiodonumSalisbury, WiltshireAI, RCSpinaeSpeen, BerkshireAISulloniacaeunknown (Brockley Hill?", ")AITrajectusKeynsham, SomersetAITrimontiumNewstead, Scottish BordersPTripontiumChurchover, WarwickshireAIUxaconaRedhill, ShropshireAIUxelodunum or AxelodunumBowness-on-Solway, CumbriaND, RC, TVagniacaeSpringhead, KentAIVaraeSt Asaph, Denbighshire?AIVectisIsle of WightPVenonaeHigh Cross, LeicestershireAIVenta BelgarumWinchester, HampshireAI, P, RCVenta Icenorum or Icinos Caistor St Edmund, NorfolkAI, P, RCVenta SilurumCaerwent, MonmouthshireAI, RCVercovicium or BorcoviciumHousesteads, NorthumberlandND, TVerlucioneSandy Lane, WiltshireAIVerterae or VerterisBrough, CumbriaAI, ND, TVertisUnknown (Worcester?", ")RCVerulamiumSt Albans, HertfordshireAI, P, RC, TVerometum or VernometumWilloughby on the Wolds, NottinghamshireAIVindobalaRudchester, NorthumberlandND, TVindocladiaShapwick, DorsetAI, RCVindolandaChesterholme, NorthumberlandRC, TVindomisNeatham, HampshireAI, RCVindomoraEbchester, County DurhamAIVinoviaBinchester, County Durham AI, P, RCViroconium CornoviorumWroxeter, ShropshireAI, RCVirosidumBainbridge, North YorkshireND, TVoredaPenrith, CumbriaAI, RC" ], [ "See also", "* List of Latin place names in Britain* List of Latin place names in Continental Europe and Ireland* Latin names of cities* Latin names of regions* Latin names of European countries* History of Britain* History of Ireland* Roman sites in the United Kingdom*United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names" ], [ "Primary sources", "#AI: The Antonine Itinerary#P: Ptolemy's ''Geography''#RC: The Ravenna Cosmography#T: Tacitus's ''On the Life and Character of Julius Agricola''.#SP: Confession of St. Patrick#ND: ''Notitia Dignitatum''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dr. J. G. Th.", "Grässe, ''Orbis Latinus: Lexikon lateinischer geographischer Namen des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit'', online at the Bavarian State Library*Grässe, ''Orbis Latinus'', online at Columbia University* Interpreter List of Roman Place names in Great Britain and Ireland" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hemiparesis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hemiparesis''', or unilateral paresis, is weakness of one entire side of the body (''hemi-'' means \"half\").", "'''Hemiplegia''' is, in its most severe form, complete paralysis of half of the body.", "Hemiparesis and hemiplegia can be caused by different medical conditions, including congenital causes, trauma, tumors, or stroke." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Depending on the type of hemiparesis diagnosed, different bodily functions can be affected.", "Some effects are expected (e.g., partial paralysis of a limb on the affected side).", "Other impairments, though, can at first seem completely non-related to the limb weakness but are, in fact, a direct result of the damage to the affected side of the brain.===Loss of motor skills===People with hemiparesis often have difficulties maintaining their balance due to limb paralysis leading to an inability to properly shift body weight.", "This makes performing everyday activities such as dressing, eating, grabbing objects, or using the bathroom more difficult.", "Hemiparesis with origin in the lower section of the brain creates a condition known as ataxia, a loss of both gross and fine motor skills, often manifesting as staggering and stumbling.", "Pure Motor Hemiparesis, a form of hemiparesis characterized by sided weakness in the leg, arm, and face, is the most commonly diagnosed form of hemiparesis.===Pusher syndrome===Pusher syndrome is a clinical disorder following left or right brain damage in which patients actively push their weight away from the nonhemiparetic side to the hemiparetic side.", "In contrast to most stroke patients, who typically prefer more weight-bearing on their nonhemiparetic side, this abnormal condition can vary in severity and leads to a loss of postural balance.", "The lesion involved in this syndrome is thought to be in the posterior thalamus on either side, or multiple areas of the right cerebral hemisphere.With a diagnosis of pusher behaviour, three important variables should be seen, the most obvious of which is spontaneous body posture of a longitudinal tilt of the torso toward the paretic side of the body occurring on a regular basis and not only on occasion.", "The use of the nonparetic extremities to create the pathological lateral tilt of the body axis is another sign to be noted when diagnosing for pusher behaviour.", "This includes abduction and extension of the extremities of the non-affected side, to help in the push toward the affected (paretic) side.", "The third variable that is seen is that attempts of the therapist to correct the pusher posture by aiming to realign them to upright posture are resisted by the patient.In patients with acute stroke and hemiparesis, the disorder is present in 10.4% of patients.", "Rehabilitation may take longer in patients that display pusher behaviour.", "The Copenhagen Stroke Study found that patients that presented with ipsilateral pushing used 3.6 weeks more to reach the same functional outcome level on the Barthel Index, than did patients without ipsilateral pushing.Pushing behavior has shown that perception of body posture in relation to gravity is altered.", "Patients experience their body as oriented \"upright\" when the body is actually tilted to the side of the brain lesion.", "In addition, patients seem to show no disturbed processing of visual and vestibular inputs when determining subjective visual vertical.", "In sitting, the push presents as a strong lateral lean toward the affected side and in standing, creates a highly unstable situation as the patient is unable to support their body weight on the weakened lower extremity.", "The increased risk of falls must be addressed with therapy to correct their altered perception of vertical.Pusher syndrome is sometimes confused with and used interchangeably as the term hemispatial neglect, and some previous theories suggest that neglect leads to pusher syndrome.", "However, another study had observed that pusher syndrome is also present in patients with left hemisphere lesions, leading to aphasia, providing a stark contrast to what was previously believed regarding hemispatial neglect, which mostly occurs with a right hemisphere lesion.Although both neglect and aphasia are highly correlated with pusher syndrome possibly due to the close proximity of relevant brain structures associated with these two respective syndromes, they are not the underlying causes of pusher syndrome.Physical therapists focus on motor learning strategies when treating these patients.", "Verbal cues, consistent feedback, practicing correct orientation and weight shifting are all effective strategies used to reduce the effects of this disorder.", "Having a patient sit with their stronger side next to a wall and instructing them to lean towards the wall is an example of a possible treatment for pusher behaviour.A new (2003) physical therapy approach for patients with pusher syndrome suggests that the visual control of vertical upright orientation, which is undisturbed in these patients, is the central element of intervention in treatment.", "In sequential order, treatment is designed for patients to realize their altered perception of vertical, use visual aids for feedback about body orientation, learn the movements necessary to reach proper vertical position, and maintain vertical body position while performing other activities.===Classification of pusher syndrome===Individuals who present with pusher syndrome or lateropulsion, as defined by Davies, vary in their degree and severity of this condition and therefore appropriate measures need to be implemented in order to evaluate the level of \"pushing\".", "There has been a shift towards early diagnosis and evaluation of functional status for individuals who have had a stroke and presenting with pusher syndrome in order to decrease the time spent as an in-patient at hospitals and promote the return to function as early as possible.", "Moreover, in order to assist therapists in the classification of pusher syndrome, specific scales have been developed with validity that coincides with the criteria set out by Davies' definition of \"pusher syndrome\".", "In a study by Babyar ''et al.", "'', an examination of such scales helped determine the relevance, practical aspects and clinimetric properties of three specific scales existing today for lateropulsion.", "The three scales examined were the Clinical Scale of Contraversive Pushing, Modified Scale of Contraversive Pushing, and the Burke Lateropulsion Scale.", "The results of the study show that reliability for each scale is good; moreover, the Scale of Contraversive Pushing was determined to have acceptable clinimetric properties, and the other two scales addressed more functional positions that will help therapists with clinical decisions and research." ], [ "Causes", "The most common cause of hemiparesis and hemiplegia is stroke.", "Strokes can cause a variety of movement disorders, depending on the location and severity of the lesion.", "Hemiplegia is common when the stroke affects the corticospinal tract.", "Other causes of hemiplegia include spinal cord injury, specifically Brown-Séquard syndrome, traumatic brain injury, or disease affecting the brain.", "A permanent brain injury that occurs during the intrauterine life, during delivery or early in life can lead to hemiplegic cerebral palsy.", "As a lesion that results in hemiplegia occurs in the brain or spinal cord, hemiplegic muscles display features of the upper motor neuron syndrome.", "Features other than weakness include decreased movement control, clonus (a series of involuntary rapid muscle contractions), spasticity, exaggerated deep tendon reflexes and decreased endurance.The incidence of hemiplegia is much higher in premature babies than term babies.", "There is also a high incidence of hemiplegia during pregnancy and experts believe that this may be related to either a traumatic delivery, use of forceps or some event which causes brain injury.", "There is tentative evidence of an association with undiagnosed celiac disease and improvement after withdrawal of gluten from the diet.Other causes of hemiplegia in adults include trauma, bleeding, brain infections and cancers.", "Individuals who have uncontrolled diabetes, hypertension or those who smoke have a higher chance of developing a stroke.", "Weakness on one side of the face may occur and may be due to a viral infection, stroke or a cancer.===Common===* '''Vascular''': cerebral hemorrhage, stroke, cerebral palsy* '''Infective''': encephalitis, meningitis, brain abscess, cerebral palsy, spinal epidural abscess* '''Neoplastic''': glioma, meningioma, brain tumors, spinal cord tumors* '''Demyelination''': multiple sclerosis, disseminated sclerosis, ADEM, neuromyelitis optica* '''Traumatic''': cerebral lacerations, subdural hematoma, epidural hematoma, cerebral palsy, vertebral compression fracture* '''Iatrogenic''': local anaesthetic injections given intra-arterially rapidly, instead of given in a nerve branch.", "* '''Ictal''': seizure, Todd's paralysis* '''Congenital''': cerebral palsy, Neonatal-Onset Multisystem Inflammatory Disease (NOMID)* '''Degenerative''': ALS, corticobasal degeneration* '''Parasomnia''': sleep paralysis" ], [ "Mechanism", "Movement of the body is primarily controlled by the pyramidal (or corticospinal) tract, a pathway of neurons that begins in the motor areas of the brain, projects down through the internal capsule, continues through the brainstem, decussates (or cross midline) at the '''lower''' medulla, then travels down the spinal cord into the motor neurons that control each muscle.", "In addition to this main pathway, there are smaller contributing pathways (including the anterior corticospinal tract), some portions of which do not cross the midline.Because of this anatomy, injuries to the pyramidal tract above the medulla generally cause '''contralateral hemiparesis''' (weakness on the opposite side as the injury).", "Injuries at the lower medulla, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves result in '''ipsilateral hemiparesis'''.In a few cases, lesions above the medulla have resulted in ipsilateral hemiparesis:* In several reported cases, patients with hemiparesis from an old ''contralateral'' brain injury subsequently experienced worsening of their hemiparesis when hit with a second stroke in the ''ipsilateral'' brain.", "The authors hypothesize that brain reorganization after the initial injury led to more reliance on uncrossed motor pathways, and when these compensatory pathways were damaged by a second stroke, motor function worsened further.", "* A case report describes a patient with a congenitally uncrossed pyramidal tract, who developed right-sided hemiparesis after a hemorrhage in the right brain." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Hemiplegia is identified by clinical examination by a health professional, such as a physiotherapist or doctor.", "Radiological studies like a CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging of the brain should be used to confirm injury in the brain and spinal cord, but alone cannot be used to identify movement disorders.", "Individuals who develop seizures may undergo tests to determine where the focus of excess electrical activity is.Hemiplegia patients usually show a characteristic gait.", "The leg on the affected side is extended and internally rotated and is swung in a wide, lateral arc rather than lifted in order to move it forward.", "The upper limb on the same side is also adducted at the shoulder, flexed at the elbow, and pronated at the wrist with the thumb tucked into the palm and the fingers curled around it.===Assessment tools===There are a variety of standardized assessment scales available to physiotherapists and other health care professionals for use in the ongoing evaluation of the status of a patient's hemiplegia.", "The use of standardized assessment scales may help physiotherapists and other health care professionals during the course of their treatment plant to:* Prioritize treatment interventions based on specific identifiable motor and sensory deficits* Create appropriate short- and long-term goals for treatment based on the outcome of the scales, their professional expertise and the desires of the patient* Evaluate the potential burden of care and monitor any changes based on either improving or declining scoresSome of the most commonly used scales in the assessment of hemiplegia are:* The Fugl-Meyer Assessment of sensorimotor function (FMA)The FMA is often used as a measure of functional or physical impairment following a cerebrovascular accident (CVA).'''", "'''It measures sensory and motor impairment of the upper and lower extremities, balance in several positions, range of motion, and pain.", "This test is a reliable and valid measure in measuring post-stroke impairments related to stroke recovery.", "A lower score in each component of the test indicates higher impairment and a lower functional level for that area.", "The maximum score for each component is 66 for the upper extremities, 34 for the lower extremities, and 14 for balance'''. '''", "Administration of the FMA should be done after reviewing a training manual.", "* The Chedoke-McMaster Stroke Assessment (CMSA)This test is a reliable measure of two separate components evaluating both motor impairment and disability.", "The disability component assesses any changes in physical function including gross motor function and walking ability.", "The disability inventory can have a maximum score of 100 with 70 from the gross motor index and 30 from the walking index.", "Each task in this inventory has a maximum score of seven except for the 2 minute walk test which is out of two.", "The impairment component of the test evaluates the upper and lower extremities, postural control and pain.", "The impairment inventory focuses on the seven stages of recovery from stroke from flaccid paralysis to normal motor functioning.", "A training workshop is recommended if the measure is being utilized for the purpose of data collection.", "* The Stroke Rehabilitation Assessment of Movement (STREAM)The STREAM consists of 30 test items involving upper-limb movements, lower-limb movements, and basic mobility items.", "It is a clinical measure of voluntary movements and general mobility (rolling, bridging, sit-to-stand, standing, stepping, walking and stairs) following a stroke.", "The voluntary movement part of the assessment is measured using a 3-point ordinal scale (unable to perform, partial performance, and complete performance) and the mobility part of the assessment uses a 4-point ordinal scale (unable, partial, complete with aid, complete no aid).", "The maximum score one can receive on the STREAM is a 70 (20 for each limb score and 30 for mobility score).", "The higher the score, the better movement and mobility is available for the individual being scored." ], [ "Treatment", "Treatment for hemiparesis is the same treatment given to those recovering from strokes or brain injuries.", "Health care professionals such as physical therapists and occupational therapists play a large role in assisting these patients in their recovery.", "Treatment is focused on improving sensation and motor abilities, allowing the patient to better manage their activities of daily living.", "Some strategies used for treatment include promoting the use of the hemiparetic limb during functional tasks, maintaining range of motion, and using neuromuscular electrical stimulation to decrease spasticity and increase awareness of the limb.At the more advanced level, using constraint-induced movement therapy will encourage overall function and use of the affected limb.", "Mirror Therapy (MT) has also been used early in stroke rehabilitation and involves using the unaffected limb to stimulate motor function of the hemiparetic limb.", "Results from a study on patients with severe hemiparesis concluded that MT was successful in improving motor and sensory function of the distal hemiparetic upper limb.", "Active participation is critical to the motor learning and recovery process, therefore it's important to keep these individuals motivated so they can make continual improvements.Also speech pathologists may work to increase function for people with hemiparesis.Treatment should be based on assessment by the relevant health professionals, including physiotherapists, doctors and occupational therapists.", "Muscles with severe motor impairment including weakness need these therapists to assist them with specific exercise, and are likely to require help to do this.===Medication===Drugs can be used to treat issues related to the Upper Motor Neuron Syndrome.", "Drugs like Librium or Valium could be used as a relaxant.", "Drugs are also given to individuals who have recurrent seizures, which may be a separate but related problem after brain injury.Intra-muscular injection of Botulinum toxin A is used to treat spasticity that is associated with hemiparesis both in cerebral palsy children and stroke in adults.", "It can be injected into a muscle or more commonly muscle groups of the upper or lower extremities.", "Botulinum toxin A induces temporary muscle paralysis or relaxation.", "The main goal of Botulinum toxin A is to maintain the range of motion of affected joints and to prevent the occurrence of fixed joint contractures or stiffness.", "A randomized trial pointed out that individualized homeopathic medication in addition to the standard physiotherapy might have some effect in post-stroke hemiparesis.===Surgery===Surgery may be used if the individual develops a secondary issue of contracture, from a severe imbalance of muscle activity.", "In such cases the surgeon may cut the ligaments and relieve joint contractures.", "Individuals who are unable to swallow may have a tube inserted into the stomach.", "This allows food to be given directly into the stomach.", "The food is in liquid form and instilled at low rates.", "Some individuals with hemiplegia will benefit from some type of prosthetic device.", "There are many types of braces and splints available to stabilize a joint, assist with walking and keep the upper body erect.===Rehabilitation===Rehabilitation is the main treatment of individuals with hemiplegia.", "In all cases, the major aim of rehabilitation is to regain maximum function and quality of life.", "Both physical and occupational therapy can significantly improve the quality of life.===Physical therapy===Physical therapy (PT) can help improve muscle strength & coordination, mobility (such as standing and walking), and other physical function using different sensorimotor techniques.", "Physiotherapists can also help reduce shoulder pain by maintaining shoulder range of motion, as well as using Functional electrical stimulation.", "Supportive devices, such as braces or slings, can be used to help prevent or treat shoulder subluxation in the hopes to minimize disability and pain.", "Although many individuals with stroke experience both shoulder pain and shoulder subluxation, the two are mutually exclusive.", "A treatment method that can be implemented with the goal of helping to regain motor function in the affected limb is constraint-induced movement therapy.", "This consists of constraining the unaffected limb, forcing the affected limb to accomplish tasks of daily living.===Occupational therapy===Occupational therapists may specifically help with hemiplegia with tasks such as improving hand function, strengthening hand, shoulder and torso, and participating in activities of daily living (ADLs), such as eating and dressing.", "Therapists may also recommend a hand splint for active use or for stretching at night.", "Some therapists actually make the splint; others may measure your child's hand and order a splint.", "OTs educate patients and family on compensatory techniques to continue participating in daily living, fostering independence for the individual - which may include, environmental modification, use of adaptive equipment, sensory integration, etc.===Orthotic Intervention===Orthotic devices are one type of intervention for relieving symptoms of hemiparesis.", "Commonly called braces, orthotics range from 'off the shelf' to custom fabricated solutions, but their main goal is alike, to supplement diminished or missing muscle function and joint laxity.", "A wide range of orthotic treatment can be designed by a Certified Orthotist (C.O.)", "or Certified Prosthetist Orthotist (C.P.O).", "Orthotics may be made of metal, plastic, or composite material (such as fiberglass, dyneema (UHMWPE,) carbon fiber; etc.)", "and design may be changed to address many different conditions." ], [ "Prognosis", "Hemiplegia is not a progressive disorder, except in progressive conditions like a growing brain tumour.", "Once the injury has occurred, the symptoms should not worsen.", "However, because of lack of mobility, other complications can occur.", "Complications may include muscle and joint stiffness, loss of aerobic fitness, muscle spasms, bed sores, pressure ulcers and blood clots.Sudden recovery from hemiplegia is very rare.", "Many of the individuals will have limited recovery, but the majority will improve from intensive, specialised rehabilitation.", "Potential to progress may differ in cerebral palsy, compared to adult acquired brain injury.", "It is vital to integrate the hemiplegic child into society and encourage them in their daily living activities.", "With time, some individuals may make remarkable progress." ], [ "Popular culture", "* In Barbara Kingsolver's novel, ''The Poisonwood Bible'', the character Adah is incorrectly diagnosed, in childhood, as having hemiplegia.", "* Rock band HAERTS released an EP called ''Hemiplegia'' via Columbia Records in 2013.", "* In the 1994 Jodie Foster film ''Nell'', the title character portrayed by Foster has developed her own language (idioglossia), developed in part due to the distinct speech patterns of her mother, caused by her hemiplegia due to a stroke.", "* In the anime series ''Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans'', the protagonist Mikazuki Augus is paralyzed in the entire right half of his body after a fierce battle with the Mobile Armor Hashmal.", "In order to defeat the Mobile Armor, he was forced to deactivate the safety limiter on his Gundam's neural interface and overloading the connection between him and the Mobile Suit for the necessary power." ], [ "See also", "* Alternating hemiplegia* Brunnstrom Approach* Hemiplegic migraine* Laryngeal paralysis* Paraplegia* Paresis" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henri Bergson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henri-Louis Bergson''' (; 18 October 1859 – 4 January 1941) was a French philosopher, who was influential in the traditions of analytic philosophy and continental philosophy, especially during the first half of the 20th century until the Second World War, but also after 1966 when Gilles Deleuze published ''Le Bergsonisme''.", "Bergson is known for his arguments that processes of immediate experience and intuition are more significant than abstract rationalism and science for understanding reality.Bergson was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize in Literature \"in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas and the brilliant skill with which they have been presented\".", "In 1930, France awarded him its highest honour, the Grand-Croix de la Legion d'honneur.", "Bergson's great popularity created a controversy in France, where his views were seen as opposing the secular and scientific attitude adopted by the Republic's officials." ], [ "Biography", "=== Overview ===Bergson lived the quiet life of a French professor, marked by the publication of his four principal works:# in 1889, ''Time and Free Will'' (''Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience'')# in 1896, ''Matter and Memory'' (''Matière et mémoire'')# in 1907, ''Creative Evolution'' (''L'Évolution créatrice'')# in 1932, ''The Two Sources of Morality and Religion'' (''Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion'')In 1900, the Collège de France selected Bergson to a Chair of Greek and Roman Philosophy, which he held until 1904.He then replaced Gabriel Tarde in the Chair of Modern Philosophy, which he held until 1920.The public attended his open courses in large numbers.===Early years ===Bergson was born in the Rue Lamartine in Paris, not far from the Palais Garnier (the old Paris opera house) in 1859.His father, the composer and pianist Michał Bergson, was of Polish-Jewish background (originally bearing the name ''Bereksohn'').", "His great-grandmother, Temerl Bergson, was a well-known patroness and benefactor of Polish Jewry, especially those associated with the Hasidic movement.", "His mother, Katherine Levison, daughter of a Yorkshire doctor, was from an English-Jewish and Irish-Jewish background.", "The Bereksohns were a famous Jewish entrepreneurial family of Polish descent.", "Henri Bergson's great-great-grandfather, , was a prominent banker and a protégé of Stanisław II Augustus,King of Poland from 1764 to 1795.Henri Bergson's family lived in London for a few years after his birth, and he obtained an early familiarity with the English language from his mother.", "Before he was nine, his parents settled in France, and Henri became a naturalized French citizen.Henri Bergson married Louise Neuberger, a cousin of Marcel Proust, in 1891.", "(The novelist served as best man at Bergson's wedding.)", "Henri and Louise Bergson had a daughter, Jeanne, born deaf in 1896.Bergson's sister, Mina Bergson (also known as Moina Mathers), married the English occult author Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, a founder of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the couple later relocated to Paris as well.===Education and career===''Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience'' (Dissertation, 1889)''Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit'' (Dissertation, 1889)Bergson attended the Lycée Fontanes (known as the Lycée Condorcet 1870–1874 and 1883–present) in Paris from 1868 to 1878.He had previously received a Jewish religious education.", "Between 14 and 16, however, he lost his faith.", "According to Hude (1990), this moral crisis is tied to his discovery of the theory of evolution, according to which humanity shares a common ancestry with modern primates, a process sometimes construed as not needing a creative deity.While at the lycée, Bergson won a prize for his scientific work and another, in 1877 when he was eighteen, for the solution of a mathematical problem.", "His solution was published the following year in ''Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques.''", "It was his first published work.", "After some hesitation as to whether his career should lie in the sphere of the sciences or that of the humanities, he decided in favour of the latter, to the dismay of his teachers.", "When he was nineteen, he entered the École Normale Supérieure.", "During this period, he read Herbert Spencer.", "He obtained there the degree of ''licence ès lettres'', and this was followed by that of ''agrégation de philosophie'' in 1881 from the University of Paris.The same year he received a teaching appointment at the lycée in Angers, the ancient capital of Anjou.", "Two years later he settled at the in Clermont-Ferrand, capital of the Puy-de-Dôme département.The year after his arrival at Clermont-Ferrand, Bergson displayed his ability in the humanities by the publication of an edition of extracts from Lucretius, with a critical study of De Rerum Natura, issued as Extraits de Lucrèce, and of the materialist cosmology of the poet (1884), repeated editions of which attest to its value in promoting Classics among French youth.", "While teaching and lecturing in this part of his country (the Auvergne region), Bergson found time for private study and original work.", "He crafted his dissertation ''Time and Free Will'', which was submitted, along with a short Latin thesis on Aristotle (''Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit'', \"On the Concept of Place in Aristotle\") for his doctoral degree, which was awarded by the University of Paris in 1889.The work was published in the same year by Félix Alcan.", "He also gave courses in Clermont-Ferrand on the Pre-Socratics, in particular on Heraclitus.Bergson dedicated ''Time and Free Will'' to (1832–1918), then public education minister, a disciple of Félix Ravaisson (1813–1900) and the author of a philosophical work ''On the Founding of Induction'' (''Du fondement de l'induction'', 1871).", "Lachelier endeavoured \"to substitute everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for fatalism\".", "(Bergson owed much to both of these teachers of the École Normale Supérieure.", "Compare his memorial address on Ravaisson, who died in 1900.)", "According to Louis de Broglie, ''Time and Free Will'' \"antedates by forty years the ideas of Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg on the physical interpretation of wave mechanics.", "\"Bergson settled again in Paris in 1888, and after teaching for some months at the municipal college, known as the ''College Rollin'', he received an appointment at the Lycée Henri-Quatre, where he remained for eight years.", "There, he read Darwin, and gave a course on his theories.", "Although Bergson had previously endorsed Lamarckism and its theory of the heritability of acquired characteristics, he came to prefer Darwin's hypothesis of gradual variations, which were more compatible with his continual vision of life.In 1896, he published his second major work, entitled ''Matter and Memory''.", "This rather difficult work investigates the function of the brain and undertakes an analysis of perception and memory, leading up to a careful consideration of the problems of the relationship of body and mind.", "Bergson had spent years of research in preparation for each of his three large works.", "This is especially obvious in ''Matter and Memory'', where he showed a thorough acquaintance with the extensive pathological investigations which had been carried out during the period.In 1898, Bergson became ''maître de conférences'' at his alma mater, École Normale Supérieure, and later in the same year received a promotion to a Professorship.", "The year 1900 saw him installed as Professor at the Collège de France, where he accepted the Chair of Greek and Roman Philosophy in succession to .At the first International Congress of Philosophy, held in Paris during the first five days of August 1900, Bergson read a short, but important, paper, \"Psychological Origins of the Belief in the Law of Causality\" (''Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité'').", "In 1900, Felix Alcan published a work which had previously appeared in the ''Revue de Paris'', entitled ''Laughter'' (''Le rire''), one of the most important of Bergson's minor productions.", "This essay on the meaning of comedy stemmed from a lecture which he had given in his early days in the Auvergne.", "The study of it is essential to an understanding of Bergson's views of life, and its passages dealing with the place of the artistic in life are valuable.", "The main thesis of the work is that laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings.", "People laugh at those who fail to adapt to the demands of society if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism.", "Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in there being \"something mechanical encrusted on the living\".In 1901, the Académie des sciences morales et politiques elected Bergson as a member, and he became a member of the institute.", "In 1903 he contributed to the ''Revue de métaphysique et de morale'' a very important essay entitled ''Introduction to Metaphysics'' (''Introduction à la metaphysique''), which is useful as a preface to the study of his three large books.", "He detailed in this essay his philosophical program, realized in the ''Creative Evolution''.On the death of Gabriel Tarde, the sociologist and philosopher, in 1904, Bergson succeeded him in the Chair of Modern Philosophy.", "From 4 to 8 September of that year, he visited Geneva, attending the Second International Congress of Philosophy, when he lectured on ''The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion'' (Le cerveau et la pensée : une illusion philosophique).", "An illness prevented his visiting Germany to attend the Third Congress held at Heidelberg.", "In these years, Bergson strongly influenced a young Jacques Maritain, perhaps even saving Maritain and his wife Raïssa from suicide.His third major work, ''Creative Evolution'', the most widely known and most discussed of his books, appeared in 1907.Pierre Imbart de la Tour remarked that ''Creative Evolution'' was a milestone of a new direction in thought.", "By 1918, Alcan, the publisher, had issued twenty-one editions, making an average of two editions ''per annum'' for ten years.", "Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity increased enormously, not only in academic circles but among the general reading public.At that time, Bergson had already made an extensive study of biology including the theory of fecundation (as shown in the first chapter of the ''Creative Evolution''), which had only recently emerged, ca.", "1885 – no small feat for a philosopher specializing in the history of philosophy, in particular Greek and Roman philosophy.", "He also most certainly had read, apart from Darwin, Haeckel, from whom he retained his idea of a unity of life and of the ecological solidarity between all living beings, as well as Hugo de Vries, from whom he quoted his mutation theory of evolution (which he opposed, preferring Darwin's gradualism).", "He also quoted Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, the successor of Claude Bernard at the Chair of Experimental Medicine in the Collège de France, etc.Bergson served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal, a grant given between 1919 and 1954 to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.===Relationship with James and pragmatism===Bergson travelled to London in 1908 and met there with William James, the Harvard philosopher who was Bergson's senior by seventeen years, and who was instrumental in calling the attention of the Anglo-American public to the work of the French professor.", "The two became great friends.", "James's impression of Bergson is given in his Letters under the date of 4 October 1908:So modest and unpretending a man but such a genius intellectually!", "I have the strongest suspicions that the tendency which he has brought to a focus, will end by prevailing, and that the present epoch will be a sort of turning point in the history of philosophy.As early as 1880, James had contributed an article in French to the periodical ''La Critique philosophique'', of Renouvier and Pillon, entitled ''Le Sentiment de l'Effort''.", "Four years later, a couple of articles by him appeared in the journal ''Mind'': \"What is an Emotion?\"", "and \"On some Omissions of Introspective Psychology\".", "Bergson quoted the first two of these articles in his 1889 work, ''Time and Free Will''.", "In the following years, 1890–91 appeared the two volumes of James's monumental work, ''The Principles of Psychology'', in which he refers to a pathological phenomenon observed by Bergson.", "Some writers, taking merely these dates into consideration and overlooking the fact that James's investigations had been proceeding since 1870 (registered from time to time by various articles which culminated in \"The Principles\"), have mistakenly dated Bergson's ideas as earlier than James's.William James hailed Bergson as an ally.", "In 1903, he wrote:I have been re-reading Bergson's books, and nothing that I have read for years has so excited and stimulated my thoughts.", "I am sure that his philosophy has a great future; it breaks through old frameworks and brings things to a solution from which new crystallizations can be reached.The most noteworthy tributes James paid to Bergson come in the Hibbert Lectures (A Pluralistic Universe), which James gave at Manchester College, Oxford, shortly after meeting Bergson in London.", "He remarks on the encouragement he gained from Bergson's thought, and refers to his confidence in being \"able to lean on Bergson's authority\".", "(See further James's reservations about Bergson, below.", ")The influence of Bergson had led James \"to renounce the intellectualist method and the current notion that logic is an adequate measure of what can or cannot be\".", "It had induced him, he continued, \"to give up logic, squarely and irrevocably\" as a method, for he found that \"reality, life, experience, concreteness, immediacy, use what word you will, exceeds our logic, overflows, and surrounds it\".These remarks, which appeared in James's book ''A Pluralistic Universe'' in 1909, impelled many English and American readers to investigate Bergson's philosophy for themselves, but no English translations of Bergson's major work had yet appeared.", "James, however, encouraged and assisted Arthur Mitchell in preparing an English translation of ''Creative Evolution''.", "In August 1910, James died.", "It was his intention, had he lived to see the translation finished, to introduce it to the English reading public by a prefatory note of appreciation.", "In the following year, the translation was completed and still greater interest in Bergson and his work was the result.", "By coincidence, in that same year (1911), Bergson penned a preface of sixteen pages entitled ''Truth and Reality'' for the French translation of James's book, ''Pragmatism''.", "In it, he expressed sympathetic appreciation of James's work, together with certain important reservations.From 5 to 11 April, Bergson attended the Fourth International Congress of Philosophy held at Bologna, in Italy, where he gave an address on \"Philosophical Intuition\".", "In response to invitations he visited England in May of that year, and on several subsequent occasions.", "These visits were well received.", "His speeches offered new perspectives and elucidated many passages in his three major works: ''Time and Free Will'', ''Matter and Memory'', and ''Creative Evolution''.", "Although necessarily brief statements, they developed and enriched the ideas in his books and clarified for English audiences the fundamental principles of his philosophy.===Lectures on change===In May 1911, Bergson gave two lectures entitled ''The Perception of Change'' (''La perception du changement'') at the University of Oxford.", "The Clarendon Press published these in French in the same year.", "His talks were concise and lucid, leading students and the general reader to his other, longer writings.", "Oxford later conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Science.Two days later he delivered the Huxley Lecture at the University of Birmingham, taking for his subject ''Life and Consciousness''.", "This subsequently appeared in ''The Hibbert Journal'' (October 1911), and since revised, is the first essay in the collected volume ''Mind-Energy'' (''L'Énergie spirituelle'').", "In October he again travelled to England, where he had an enthusiastic reception, and delivered at University College London four lectures on ''La Nature de l'Âme'' The Nature of the Soul.In 1913, Bergson visited the United States of America at the invitation of Columbia University, New York, and lectured in several American cities, where very large audiences welcomed him.", "In February, at Columbia University, he lectured both in French and English, taking as his subjects: ''Spirituality and Freedom'' and ''The Method of Philosophy''.", "Being again in England in May of the same year, he accepted the Presidency of the British Society for Psychical Research, and delivered to the Society an address on ''Phantoms of Life and Psychic Research'' (Fantômes des vivants et recherche psychique).Meanwhile, his popularity increased, and translations of his works began to appear in a number of languages: English, German, Italian, Danish, Swedish, Hungarian, Polish, and Russian.", "In 1914 Bergson's fellow countrymen honoured him by his election as a member of the Académie française.", "He was also made President of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques, and in addition, he became Officier de la Légion d'honneur, and Officier de l'Instruction publique.Bergson found disciples of many types.", "In France movements such as neo-Catholicism and Modernism on the one hand and syndicalism on the other endeavoured to absorb and appropriate for their own ends some central ideas of his teaching.", "The continental organ of socialist and syndicalist theory, ''Le Mouvement socialiste'', portrayed the realism of Karl Marx and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as hostile to all forms of intellectualism, and argued, therefore, that supporters of Marxist socialism should welcome a philosophy such as that of Bergson.", "Other writers, in their eagerness, claimed that the thought of the holder of the Chair of Philosophy at the Collège de France, and the aims of the ''Confédération Générale du Travail'' and the Industrial Workers of the World were in essential agreement.While social revolutionaries endeavoured to make the most out of Bergson, many religious leaders, particularly the more liberal-minded theologians of all creeds, e.g., the Modernists and Neo-Catholic Party in his own country, showed a keen interest in his writings, and many of them found encouragement and stimulus in his work.", "The Roman Catholic Church, however, banned Bergson's three books on the charge of pantheism (that is, of conceiving of God as immanent to his Creation and of being himself created in the process of the Creation).", "They were placed on the Index of prohibited books (Decree of 1 June 1914).===Later years===Autochrome by Auguste Léon.In 1914, the Scottish universities arranged for Bergson to give the famous Gifford Lectures, planning one course for the spring and another for the autumn.", "Bergson delivered the first course, consisting of eleven lectures, under the title of ''The Problem of Personality'', at the University of Edinburgh in the spring of that year.", "The course of lectures planned for the autumn months had to be abandoned because of the outbreak of war.Bergson was not, however, silent during the conflict, and he gave some inspiring addresses.", "As early as 4 November 1914, he wrote an article entitled ''Wearing and Nonwearing Forces'' (La force qui s'use et celle qui ne s'use pas), which appeared in a periodical of the ''poilus'', ''Le Bulletin des Armées de la République Française''.", "A presidential address, ''The Meaning of the War'', was delivered in December 1914, to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques.Bergson contributed also to the publication arranged by ''The Daily Telegraph'' in honour of King Albert I of the Belgians, ''King Albert's Book'' (Christmas, 1914).", "In 1915, he was succeeded in the office of President of the ''Académie des sciences morales et politiques'' by Alexandre Ribot, and then delivered a discourse on \"The Evolution of German Imperialism\".", "Meanwhile, he found time to issue at the request of the Minister of Public Instruction a brief summary of French Philosophy.", "Bergson did a large amount of traveling and lecturing in America during the war.", "He participated in the negotiations which led to the entry of the United States in the war.", "He was there when the French Mission under René Viviani paid a visit in April and May 1917, following upon America's entry into the conflict.", "Viviani's book ''La Mission française en Amérique'' (1917), contains a preface by Bergson.Early in 1918, the ''Académie française'' received Bergson officially when he took his seat among \"The Select Forty\" as successor to Emile Ollivier (the author of the historical work ''L'Empire libéral'').", "A session was held in January in his honour at which he delivered an address on Ollivier.", "In the war, Bergson saw the conflict of Mind and Matter, or rather of Life and Mechanism; and thus he shows the central idea of his own philosophy in action.", "To no other philosopher has it fallen, during his lifetime, to have his philosophical principles so vividly and so terribly tested.As many of Bergson's contributions to French periodicals remained relatively inaccessible, he had them published in two volumes.", "The first of these was being planned when war broke out.", "The conclusion of strife was marked by the appearance of a delayed volume in 1919.It bears the title ''Spiritual Energy: Essays and Lectures'' (reprinted as ''Mind-Energy'' – ''L'Énergie spirituelle : essais et conférences'').", "The advocate of Bergson's philosophy in England, Wildon Carr, prepared an English translation under the title ''Mind-Energy''.", "The volume opens with the Huxley Memorial Lecture of 1911, \"Life and Consciousness\", in a revised and developed form under the title \"Consciousness and Life\".", "Signs of Bergson's growing interest in social ethics and in the idea of a future life of personal survival are manifested.", "The lecture before the Society for Psychical Research is included, as is also the one given in France, ''L'Âme et le Corps'', which contains the substance of the four London lectures on the Soul.", "The seventh and last article is a reprint of Bergson's famous lecture to the Congress of Philosophy at Geneva in 1904, ''The Psycho-Physiological Paralogism'' (Le paralogisme psycho-physiologique), which now appears as ''Le cerveau et la pensée : une illusion philosophique''.", "Other articles are on the False Recognition, on Dreams, and Intellectual Effort.", "The volume is a most welcome production and serves to bring together what Bergson wrote on the concept of mental force, and on his view of \"tension\" and \"detension\" as applied to the relation of matter and mind.In June 1920, the University of Cambridge honoured him with the degree of Doctor of Letters.", "In order that he might devote his full-time to the great new work he was preparing on ethics, religion, and sociology, the Collège de France relieved Bergson of the duties attached to the Chair of Modern Philosophy there.", "He retained the chair, but no longer delivered lectures, his place being taken by his disciple, the mathematician and philosopher Édouard Le Roy, who supported a conventionalist stance on the foundations of mathematics, which was adopted by Bergson.", "Le Roy, who also succeeded to Bergson at the ''Académie française'' and was a fervent Catholic, extended to revealed truth his conventionalism, leading him to privilege faith, heart and sentiment to dogmas, speculative theology and abstract reasoning.", "Like Bergson's, his writings were placed on the Index by the Vatican.===Debate with Albert Einstein===In 1922, Bergson's book ''Durée et simultanéité, à propos de la théorie d'Einstein'' (''Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe'') was published.", "Earlier that year, Albert Einstein had come to the French Society of Philosophy and briefly replied to a short speech made by Bergson.", "It has been alleged that Bergson's knowledge of physics was insufficient and that the book did not follow up contemporary developments on physics.", "On the contrary, in \"Einstein and the Crisis of Reason\", a leading French philosopher, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, accused Einstein of failing to grasp Bergson's argument.", "This argument, Merleau-Ponty says, which concerns not the physics of special relativity but its philosophical foundations, addresses paradoxes caused by popular interpretations and misconceptions about the theory, including Einstein's own.", "''Duration and Simultaneity'' was not published in the 1951 ''Edition du Centenaire'' in French, which contained all of his other works, and was only published later in a work gathering different essays, titled ''Mélanges''.", "This work took advantage of Bergson's experience at the League of Nations, where he presided from 1920 to 1925 over the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (the ancestor of UNESCO, and which included Einstein, Marie Curie, etc.", ").===Later years and death===While living with his wife and daughter in a modest house in a quiet street near the Porte d'Auteuil in Paris, Bergson won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927 for having written ''The Creative Evolution''.", "Because of serious rheumatics ailments, he could not travel to Stockholm, and sent instead a text subsequently published in ''La Pensée et le mouvant''.", "He was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1928.After his retirement from the Collège de France, Bergson began to fade into obscurity: he suffered from a degenerative illness (rheumatism, which left him half paralyzed).", "He completed his new work, ''The Two Sources of Morality and Religion'', which extended his philosophical theories to the realms of morality, religion, and art, in 1932.It was respectfully received by the public and the philosophical community, but all by that time realized that Bergson's days as a philosophical luminary were past.", "He was, however, able to reiterate his core beliefs near the end of his life, by renouncing all of the posts and honours previously awarded him, rather than accept exemption from the antisemitic laws imposed by the Vichy government.Bergson inclined to convert to Catholicism, writing in his will on 7 February 1937: \"My thinking has always brought me nearer to Catholicism, in which I saw the perfect complement to Judaism.\"", "Though wishing to convert to Catholicism, as stated in his will, he did not convert in view of the travails inflicted on the Jewish people by the rise of Nazism and anti-Semitism in Europe in the 1930s; he did not want to appear to want to leave the persecuted.", "After the fall of France in 1940, Jews in occupied France were required to register at police stations.", "When completing his police form, Bergson made the following entry: \"Academic.", "Philosopher.", "Nobel Prize winner.", "Jew.\"", "It was the position of the Archbishop of Paris, Emmanuel Célestin Suhard, that the public revelation of Bergson's conversion was too dangerous at the time, when the city was occupied by the Nazis, to both the Church and the Jewish population.On 3 January 1941, Bergson died in occupied Paris from bronchitis.", "A Roman Catholic priest said prayers at his funeral per his request.", "Bergson is buried in the Cimetière de Garches, Hauts-de-Seine." ], [ "Philosophy", "Bergson rejected what he saw as the overly mechanistic predominant view of causality (as expressed in reductionism).", "He argued that free will must be allowed to unfold in an autonomous and unpredictable fashion.", "While Kant saw free will as something beyond time and space and therefore ultimately a matter of faith, Bergson attempted to redefine the modern conceptions of time, space, and causality in his concept of Duration, making room for a tangible marriage of free will with causality.", "Seeing Duration as a mobile and fluid concept, Bergson argued that one cannot understand Duration through \"immobile\" analysis, but only through experiential, first-person intuition.===Creativity===Bergson considers the appearance of novelty as a result of pure undetermined creation, instead of as the predetermined result of mechanistic forces.", "His philosophy emphasizes pure mobility, unforeseeable novelty, creativity and freedom; thus one can characterize his system as a process philosophy.", "It touches upon such topics as time and identity, free will, perception, change, memory, consciousness, language, the foundation of mathematics and the limits of reason.Criticizing Kant's theory of knowledge exposed in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' and his conception of truth – which he compares to Plato's conception of truth as its symmetrical inversion (order of nature/order of thought) – Bergson attempted to redefine the relations between science and metaphysics, intelligence and intuition, and insisted on the necessity of increasing thought's possibility through the use of intuition, which, according to him, alone approached a knowledge of the absolute and of real life, understood as pure duration.", "Because of his (relative) criticism of intelligence, he makes frequent use of images and metaphors in his writings in order to avoid the use of concepts, which (he considers) fail to touch the whole of reality, being only a sort of abstract net thrown on things.", "For instance, he says in ''The Creative Evolution'' (chap.", "III) that thought in itself would never have thought it possible for the human being to swim, as it cannot deduce swimming from walking.", "For swimming to be possible, man must throw himself in water, and only then can thought to consider swimming as possible.", "Intelligence, for Bergson, is a practical faculty rather than a pure speculative faculty, a product of evolution used by man to survive.", "If metaphysics is to avoid \"false problems\", it should not extend the abstract concepts of intelligence to pure speculation, but rather use intuition.", "''The Creative Evolution'' in particular attempted to think through the continuous creation of life, and explicitly pitted itself against Herbert Spencer's evolutionary philosophy.", "Spencer had attempted to transpose Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in philosophy and to construct a cosmology based on this theory (Spencer also coined the expression \"survival of the fittest\").", "Bergson disputed what he saw as Spencer's mechanistic philosophy.Bergson's ''Lebensphilosophie'' (philosophy of life) can be seen as a response to the mechanistic philosophies of his time, but also to the failure of finalism.", "Indeed, he considers that finalism is unable to explain \"duration\" and the \"continuous creation of life\", as it only explains life as the progressive development of an initially determined program – a notion which remains, for example, in the expression of a \"genetic program\"; such a description of finalism was adopted, for instance, by Leibniz.Bergson regarded planning beforehand for the future as impossible since time itself unravels unforeseen possibilities.", "Indeed, one could always explain a historical event retrospectively by its conditions of possibility.", "But, in the introduction to the ''Pensée et le mouvant'', he explains that such an event created retrospectively its causes, taking the example of the creation of a work of art, for example, a symphony: it was impossible to predict what would be the symphony of the future as if the musician knew what symphony would be the best for his time, he would realize it.", "In his words, the effect created its cause.", "Henceforth, he attempted to find a third way between mechanism and finalism, through the notion of an original impulse, the ''élan vital'', in life, which dispersed itself through evolution into contradictory tendencies (he substituted to the finalist notion of a teleological aim a notion of an original impulse).===Duration===The foundation of Henri Bergson's philosophy, his theory of Duration, he discovered when trying to improve the inadequacies of Herbert Spencer's philosophy.", "Bergson introduced Duration as a theory of time and consciousness in his doctoral thesis ''Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness'' as a response to another of his influences: Immanuel Kant.Kant believed that free will could only exist outside of time and space, indeed the only non-determined aspect of private existence in the universe, separate from water cycles, mathematics and mortality.", "However, it could therefore not be ascertained whether or not it exists, and that it is nothing but a pragmatic faith.", "Bergson responded that Kant, along with many other philosophers, had confused time with its spatial representation.", "In reality, Bergson argued, Duration is unextended yet heterogeneous, and so its parts cannot be juxtaposed as a succession of distinct parts, with one causing the other.", "Based on this he concluded that determinism is an impossibility and free will pure mobility, which is what Bergson identified as being the Duration.", "For Bergson, reality is composed of change.===Intuitionism===Duration, as defined by Bergson, then is a unity and a multiplicity, but, being mobile, it cannot be grasped through immobile concepts.", "Bergson hence argues that one can grasp it only through his method of intuition.", "Two images from Henri Bergson's ''An Introduction to Metaphysics'' may help one to grasp Bergson's term intuition, the limits of concepts, and the ability of intuition to grasp the absolute.", "The first image is that of a city.", "Analysis, or the creation of concepts through the divisions of points of view, can only ever offer a model of the city through a construction of photographs taken from every possible point of view, yet it can never produce the dimensional value of walking in the city itself.", "One can only grasp this through intuition; likewise the experience of reading a line of Homer.", "One may translate the line and pile commentary upon commentary, but this commentary too shall never grasp the simple dimensional value of experiencing the poem in its originality itself.", "The method of intuition, then, is that of getting back to the things themselves.===''Élan vital''===''Élan vital'' ranks as Bergson's third essential concept, after Duration and intuition.", "An idea with the goal of explaining evolution, the ''élan vital'' first appeared in 1907's ''Creative Evolution''.", "Bergson portrays ''élan vital'' as a kind of vital impetus which explains evolution in a less mechanical and more lively manner, as well as accounting for the creative impulse of mankind.", "This concept led several authors to characterize Bergson as a supporter of vitalism—although he criticized it explicitly in ''The Creative Evolution'', as he thought, against Driesch and Johannes Reinke (whom he cited) that there is neither \"purely internal finality nor clearly cut individuality in nature\":Hereby lies the stumbling block of vitalist theories ...", "It is thus in vain that one pretends to reduce finality to the individuality of the living being.", "If there is finality in the world of life, it encompasses the whole of life in one indivisible embrace.===Laughter===In ''Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic'', Bergson develops a theory not of laughter itself but of how laughter can be provoked (see his objection to Delage, published in the 23rd edition of the essay).", "He describes the process of laughter (refusing to give a conceptual definition which would not approach its reality), used in particular by comics and clowns, as caricature of the mechanistic nature of humans (habits, automatic acts, etc.", "), one of the two tendencies of life (degradation towards inert matter and mechanism, and continual creation of new forms).", "However, Bergson warns that laughter's criterion of what should be laughed at is not a moral criterion and that it can in fact cause serious damage to a person's self-esteem.", "This essay made his opposition to the Cartesian theory of the animal-machine obvious." ], [ "Reception", "From his first publications, Bergson's philosophy attracted strong criticism from different quarters, although he also became very popular and durably influenced French philosophy.", "The mathematician Édouard Le Roy became Bergson's main disciple.", "Nonetheless, Suzanne Guerlac has argued that his institutional position at the Collège de France, delivering lectures to a general audience, may have retarded the systematic reception of his thought: \"Bergson achieved enormous popular success in this context, often due to the emotional appeal of his ideas.", "But he did not have the equivalent of graduate students who might have become rigorous interpreters of his thought.", "Thus Bergson's philosophy—in principle open and nonsystematic—was easily borrowed piecemeal and altered by enthusiastic admirers\".Alfred North Whitehead acknowledged Bergson's influence on his process philosophy in his 1929 ''Process and Reality.''", "However, Bertrand Russell, Whitehead's collaborator on ''Principia Mathematica'', was not so entranced by Bergson's philosophy.", "Although acknowledging Bergson's literary skills, Russell saw Bergson's arguments at best as persuasive or emotive speculation but not at all as any worthwhile example of sound reasoning or philosophical insight.", "The epistemologist Gaston Bachelard explicitly alluded to him in the last pages of his 1938 book ''The Formation of the Scientific Mind''.", "Others influenced by Bergson include Vladimir Jankélévitch, who wrote a book on him in 1931, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and Gilles Deleuze who wrote ''Le bergsonisme'' in 1966.The Greek philosopher Helle Lambridis developed an interest in Bergson early in her career, and after two publications in 1929 - a book that introduced Bergson's work to the Greek audience and a translation into Greek of Bergson's book ''L'Énergie spirituelle'' (1919) - the second part of her ''Introduction to Philosophy'' I & II (1965) included his philosophical work on the concept of 'time', although this part (II) was not published until 2004.Bergson also influenced the phenomenology of Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Emmanuel Levinas, although Merleau-Ponty had reservations about Bergson's philosophy.", "The Greek author Nikos Kazantzakis studied under Bergson in Paris and his writing and philosophy were profoundly influenced as a result.Many writers of the early 20th century criticized Bergson's intuitionism, indeterminism, psychologism and interpretation of the scientific impulse.", "Those who explicitly criticized Bergson, either in published articles or in letters, included Bertrand Russell George Santayana, G. E. Moore, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Julien Benda, T. S. Eliot, Wyndham Lewis, Wallace Stevens (though Stevens also praised him in his work \"The Necessary Angel\"), Paul Valéry, André Gide, Jean Piaget, Marxist philosophers Theodor W. Adorno, Lucio Colletti, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Georges Politzer, as well as Maurice Blanchot, American philosophers such as Irving Babbitt, Arthur Lovejoy, Josiah Royce, The New Realists (Ralph B. Perry, E. B. Holt, and William Pepperell Montague), The Critical Realists (Durant Drake, Roy W. Sellars, C. A.", "Strong, and A. K. Rogers), Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, Roger Fry (see his letters), Julian Huxley (in ''Evolution: The Modern Synthesis'') and Virginia Woolf (for the latter, see Ann Banfield, ''The Phantom Table'').The Vatican accused Bergson of pantheism, while others have characterized his philosophy as a materialist emergentism – Samuel Alexander and C. Lloyd Morgan explicitly claimed Bergson as their forebear.", "According to Henri Hude (1990, II, p. 142), who supports himself on the whole of Bergson's works as well as his now published courses, accusing him of pantheism is a \"counter-sense\".", "Hude alleges that a mystical experience, roughly outlined at the end of ''Les Deux sources de la morale et de la religion'', is the inner principle of his whole philosophy, although this has been contested by other commentators.Charles Sanders Peirce took strong exception to those who associated him with Bergson.", "In response to a letter comparing their work, Peirce wrote, \"a man who seeks to further science can hardly commit a greater sin than to use the terms of his science without anxious care to use them with strict accuracy; it is not very gratifying to my feelings to be classed along with a Bergson who seems to be doing his utmost to muddle all distinctions.\"", "Peirce also comments on Bergson in respect to a proposed book on his semiotics (which he never wrote) saying: \"I feel confident the book would make a serious impression much deeper and surer than Bergson’s, which I find quite too vague.\"", "Gilles Deleuze, however, saw much in common between Bergson's philosophy and that of Peirce - exploring the many connections between them in ''Cinema 1: The Movement Image'' and ''Cinema 2: The Time-Image''.", "As the Deleuze scholar David Deamer writes: Deleuze sets about \"aligning Bergson’s sensory-motor schema from ''Matter and Memory'' with the semiosis of Charles Sanders Peirce from ''Pragmatism and Pragmaticism'' (1903).", "William James's students resisted the assimilation of his work to that of Bergson.", "See, for example, Horace Kallen's book on the subject ''James and Bergson''.", "As Jean Wahl described the \"ultimate disagreement\" between James and Bergson in his ''System of Metaphysics'': \"for James, the consideration of action is necessary for the definition of truth, according to Bergson, action ... must be kept from our mind if we want to see the truth\".", "Gide even went so far as to say that future historians will overestimate Bergson's influence on art and philosophy just because he was the self-appointed spokesman for \"the spirit of the age\".As early as the 1890s, Santayana attacked certain key concepts in Bergson's philosophy, above all his view of the new and the indeterminate:\"the possibility of a new and unaccountable fact appearing at any time,\" he writes in his book on Hermann Lotze, \"does not practically affect the method of investigation; ... the only thing given up is the hope that these hypotheses may ever be adequate to the reality and cover the process of nature without leaving a remainder.", "This is no great renunciation; for that consummation of science ... is by no one really expected.", "\"According to Santayana and Russell, Bergson projected false claims onto the aspirations of scientific method, claims which Bergson needed to make in order to justify his prior moral commitment to freedom.", "Russell takes particular exception to Bergson's understanding of number in chapter two of ''Time and Free Will''.", "According to Russell, Bergson uses an outmoded spatial metaphor (\"extended images\") to describe the nature of mathematics as well as logic in general.", "\"Bergson only succeeds in making his theory of number plausible by confusing a particular collection with the number of its terms, and this again with number in general\", writes Russell (see ''The Philosophy of Bergson'' and ''A History of Western Philosophy '' ).Suzanne Guerlac has argued that the more recent resurgence of scholarly interest in Bergson is related to the growing influence of his follower Deleuze within continental philosophy: \"If there is a return to Bergson today, then, it is largely due to Gilles Deleuze whose own work has etched the contours of the New Bergson.", "This is not only because Deleuze wrote about Bergson; it is also because Deleuze's own thought is deeply engaged with that of his predecessor, even when Bergson is not explicitly mentioned.\"", "Leonard Lawlor and Valentine Moulard agree with Guerlac that \"the recent revitalization of Bergsonism ... is almost entirely due to Deleuze.\"", "They explain that Bergson's concept of multiplicity \"is at the very heart of Deleuze's thought, and duration is the model for all of Deleuze's 'becomings.'", "The other aspect that attracted Deleuze, which is indeed connected to the first, is Bergson's criticism of the concept of negation in ''Creative Evolution'' ...", "Thus Bergson became a resource in the criticism of the Hegelian dialectic, the negative.\"", "It is this aspect that Mark Sinclair focuses upon in ''Bergson'' (2020).", "He writes that despite the philosopher and his philosophy being very popular during the early years of the twentieth century, his ideas had been critiqued and then rejected first by phenomenology, then by existentialism, and finally by post-structuralism.", "As Sinclair goes on to explain, over series of publications including ''Bergsonism'' (1966) and ''Difference and Repetition'' (1968), Deleuze championed Bergson as a thinker of \"difference that proceeds any sense of negation\".", "In this way, \"Deleuze’s interpretation served to keep the flame of Bergson’s philosophy alive and it has been a key motivation for the renewed scholarly attention to it.", "\"Ilya Prigogine acknowledged Bergson's influence at his Nobel Prize reception lecture: \"Since my adolescence, I have read many philosophical texts, and I still remember the spell ''L’Évolution créatrice'' cast on me.", "More specifically, I felt that some essential message was embedded, still to be made explicit, in Bergson‘s remark: 'The more deeply we study the nature of time, the better we understand that duration means invention, creation of forms, continuous elaboration of the absolutely new.", "'\"Japanese philosopher Yasushi Hirai from Fukuoka University has led a collaborative and interdisciplinary project since 2007, bringing together Eastern and Western philosophers and scientists to discuss and promote Bergson's work.", "This has influenced the development of specific artificial neural networks which incorporate features inspired by Bergson's philosophy of memory.In ''The Matter with Things'', Iain McGilchrist extensively cites Bergson.", "\"‘Bergson arrived’, according to philosopher Peter Gunter, ‘at insights closely resembling those of quantum physics.’ Only Bergson got there first.", "\"===Comparison to Indian philosophies===Several Hindu authors have found parallels to Hindu philosophy in Bergson's thought.", "The integrative evolutionism of Sri Aurobindo, an Indian philosopher from the early 20th century, has many similarities to Bergson's philosophy.", "Whether this represents a direct influence of Bergson is disputed, although Aurobindo was familiar with many Western philosophers.", "K Narayanaswami Aiyer, a member of the Theosophical Society, published a pamphlet titled \"Professor Bergson and the Hindu Vedanta\", where he argued that Bergson's ideas on matter, consciousness, and evolution were in agreement with Vedantic and Puranic explanations.", "Nalini Kanta Brahma, Marie Tudor Garland and Hope Fitz are other authors who have comparatively evaluated Hindu and Bergsonian philosophies, especially in relation to intuition, consciousness and evolution." ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bergson, H.; ''The Philosophy of Poetry: The Genius of Lucretius'' (''La Philosophie de la Poesie: le Génie de Lucrèce'', 1884), Philosophical Library 1959: * Bergson, H.; ''Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness'' (''Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience'', 1889).", "Allen & Unwin 1910, Dover Publications 2001: – Bergson's doctoral dissertation.", "* Bergson, H.; ''Matter and Memory'' (''Matière et mémoire'', 1896).", "Swan Sonnenschein 1911, Zone Books 1990: , Dover Publications 2004: .", "* Bergson, H.; ''Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic'' (''Le rire'', 1900).", "Green Integer 1998: , Dover Publications 2005: .", "* Bergson, H.; ''Creative Evolution'' (''L'Évolution créatrice'', 1907).", "Henry Holt and Company 1911, University Press of America 1983: , Dover Publications 1998: , Kessinger Publishing 2003: , Cosimo 2005: .", "* Bergson, H.; ''Mind-energy'' (''L'Énergie spirituelle, 1919'').", "McMillan 1920.– a collection of essays and lectures.", "On Archive.org.", "* Bergson, H.; ''Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe'' (''Durée et simultanéité'', 1922).", "Clinamen Press Ltd 1999..* Bergson, H.; ''The Two Sources of Morality and Religion'' (''Les Deux Sources de la Morale et de la Religion'', 1932).", "University of Notre Dame Press 1977.. On Archive.org.", "* Bergson, H.; ''The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics'' (''La Pensée et le mouvant'', 1934).", "Citadel Press 1946: – essay collection, sequel to ''Mind-Energy'', including 1903's \"An Introduction to Metaphysics.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Philosophy of biology* Intuition (Bergson)* Duration (philosophy)* List of Jewish Nobel laureates" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ansell-Pearson, Keith. ''", "Philosophy and the Adventure of the Virtual: Bergson and the Time of Life''.", "London: Routledge, 2002.", "*Ansell-Pearson, Keith. ''", "Bergson.", "Thinking Beyond the Human Condition.''", "London: Bloomsbury, 2018.", "* Bachelard, Gaston.", "''The Dialectic of Duration''.", "Trans.", "Mary Mcallester Jones.", "Manchester: Clinamen Press, 2000.", "* Bianco, Giuseppe.", "''Après Bergson.", "Portrait de groupe avec philosophe''.", "Paris, PUF, 2015.", "* Canales, Jimena. ''", "The Physicist and the Philosopher: Einstein, Bergson and the Debate That Changed Our Understanding of Time''.", "Princeton, Princeton Press, 2015.", "* Deleuze, Gilles.", "''Bergsonism''.", "Trans.", "Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam.", "New York: Zone Books, 1988.", "* Deleuze, Gilles.", "''Cinema 1: The Movement-Image''.", "Trans.", "Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.", "* Deleuze, Gilles. ''", "Cinema 2: The Time-Image''.", "Trans.", "Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989.", "* Fradet, Pierre-Alexandre, ''Derrida-Bergson.", "Sur l'immédiateté'', Hermann, Paris, coll.", "\"Hermann Philosophie\", 2014.", "* Grosz, Elizabeth. ''", "The Nick of Time: Politics, Evolution, and the Untimely''.", "Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.", "* Guerlac, Suzanne. ''", "Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson''.", "Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006.", "* Horkheimer, Max.", "\"On Bergson's Metaphysics of Time.\"", "Trans.", "Peter Thomas, revised by Stewart Martin.", "''Radical Philosophy'' 131 (2005) 9–19.", "* James, William. \"", "Bergson and his Critique of Intellectualism.\"", "In ''A Pluralistic Universe''.", "Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996.223–74.", "* Lawlor, Leonard. ''", "The Challenge of Bergsonism: Phenomenology, Ontology, Ethics''.", "London: Continuum Press, 2003.", "*Lovasz, Adam. ''", "Updating Bergson.", "A Philosophy of the Enduring Present''.", "Lanham: Lexington Books, 2021.", "* Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. \"", "Bergson.\"", "In '' In Praise of Philosophy and Other Essays''.", "Trans.", "John O'Neill.", "Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1963.9–32.", "* Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. \"", "Bergson in the Making.\"", "In '' Signs''.", "Trans.", "Richard McCleary.", "Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964.182–91.", "* Mullarkey, John.", "''Bergson and Philosophy.''", "Edinburgh University Press, 1999.", "* Mullarkey, John, ed. ''", "The New Bergson''.", "Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1999.", "* Russell, Bertrand \"The Philosophy of Bergson\".", "''The Monist'' 22 (1912): 321–47.", "* Sinclair, Mark.", "''Bergson'', New York: Routledge, 2020." ], [ "External links", "* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry* Henri Bergson's theory of laughter.", "A brief summary.", "* « 'A History of Problems' : Bergson and the French Epistemological Tradition », by Elie During* Gontarski, Stanley E.: Bergson, Henri, in: 1914-1918-online.", "International Encyclopedia of the First World War.", "* M. C. Sanchez Rey « The Bergsonian Philosophy of the Intelligence » translation* * Henri Bergson, Nobel Luminaries - Jewish Nobel Prize Winners, on the Beit Hatfutsot-The Museum of the Jewish People Website.", "* * List of Works===Works online===* * * * * Works by Henri Bergson in French at \"La Philosophie\"* Complete works in French on the \"Classiques des sciences sociales\" website* ''L'Évolution créatrice'' (in the original French, 1907)** of ''Creative Evolution'' (HTML)** Multiple formats at Internet Archive* (HTML)** Multiple formats at Internet Archive* (HTML)** Multiple formats at Internet Archive" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hans Selye" ], [ "Introduction", "'''János Hugo Bruno''' \"'''Hans'''\" '''Selye''' (; ; January 26, 1907 – October 16, 1982) was a pioneering Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist who conducted important scientific work on the hypothetical non-specific response of an organism to stressors.", "Although he did not recognize all of the many aspects of glucocorticoids, Selye was aware of their role in the stress response." ], [ "Biography", "Selye was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary on January 26, 1907, and grew up in Komárom (the town with Hungarian majority in present day Slovakia was cut by the Treaty of Trianon in 1920).", "Selye's father was a doctor of Hungarian ethnicity and his mother was Austrian.", "He became a Doctor of Medicine and Chemistry in Prague in 1929 and went on to do pioneering work in stress and endocrinology at Johns Hopkins University, McGill University, and the Université de Montréal.", "He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the first time in 1949.Although he received a total of 17 nominations (1949-1953) in his career, he never won the prize.Selye died on October 16, 1982, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.", "He often returned to visit Hungary, giving lectures as well as interviews in Hungarian television programs.", "He conducted a lecture in 1973 at the Hungarian Scientific Academy in Hungarian and observers noted that he had no accent, despite spending many years abroad.", "His book ''The Stress of Life'' appeared in Hungarian as ''Az Életünk és a stressz'' in 1964 and became a bestseller.", "Selye János University, the only Hungarian-language university in Slovakia, was named after him.", "Selye's mother was killed by gunfire during Hungary's anti-Communist revolt of 1956." ], [ "Stress research", "Bust of Hans Selye at Selye János University, Komárno, SlovakiaSelye's interest in stress began when he was in medical school; he had observed that patients with various chronic illnesses like tuberculosis and cancer appeared to display a common set of symptoms that he attributed to what is now commonly called stress.", "After completing his medical degree and a doctorate degree in organic chemistry at the German University of Prague, he received a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship to study (1931) at Johns Hopkins in Baltimoreand later moved to the Department of Biochemistry at McGill University in Montreal in 1932where he studied under the sponsorship of James Bertram Collip (1892-1965).", "While working with laboratory animals, Selye observed a phenomenon that he thought resembled what he had previously seen in chronic patients.", "Rats exposed to cold, drugs, or surgical injury exhibited a common pattern of responses to these stressors.", "(A stressor is a chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus or an event seen as causing stress to an organism.", ")Selye initially ( 1940s) called this the \"general adaptation syndrome\" (at the time it was also called \"Selye's syndrome\"), but he later rebaptized it with the simpler term \"stress response\".", "According to Selye the general adaptation syndrome is triphasic, involving an initial '''alarm phase''' followed by a stage of '''resistance or adaptation''' and, finally, a stage of '''exhaustion''' and death (these phases were established largely on the basis of glandular states).", "Working with doctoral student Thomas McKeown (1912–1988), Selye published a report that used the word \"stress\" to describe these responses to adverse events.His last inspiration for general adaptation syndrome came from an experiment in which he injected mice with extracts of various organs.", "He at first believed that he had discovered a new hormone, but was proved wrong when every irritating substance he injected produced the same symptoms (swelling of the adrenal cortex, atrophy of the thymus, gastric and duodenal ulcers).", "This, paired with his observation that people with different diseases exhibit similar symptoms, led to his description of the effects of \"noxious agents\" as he at first called it.", "He later adopted the term \"stress\", which has been accepted into the lexicon of many languages.Selye argued that stress differs from other physical responses in that it is identical whether the provoking impulse is positive or negative.", "He called negative stress \"distress\" and positive stress \"eustress\".The system whereby the body copes with stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) system, was also first described by Selye.Selye acknowledged the influence of Claude Bernard (1813-1878), who developed the idea of ''milieu intérieur'', and of the \"homeostasis\" of Walter Cannon (1871-1945).", "Selye conceptualized the physiology of stress as having two components: a set of responses which he called the \"general adaptation syndrome\", and the development of a pathological state from ongoing, unrelieved stress.While Selye's work attracted continued support from advocates of psychosomatic medicine, many in experimental physiology concluded that his concepts were too vague and unmeasurable.", "During the 1950s, Selye turned away from the laboratory to promote his concept through popular books and lecture tours.", "He wrote both for non-academic physicians and an international bestseller entitled ''The Stress of Life'' (1956).", "From the late 1960s, academic psychologists started to adopt Selye's concept of stress, and he followed ''The Stress of Life'' with two other books for the general public, ''From Dream to Discovery: On Being a Scientist'' (1964) and ''Stress without Distress'' (1974).", "The idea of \"stress\" resonated with humanistic psychology,and pop psychology generalised the concept.,Selye worked as a professor and director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the Université de Montréal.", "In 1975 he founded the International Institute of Stress,and in 1979, Selye and Arthur Antille started the Hans Selye Foundation.", "Later Selye and eight Nobel laureates founded the Canadian Institute of Stress.In 1968 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada.", "In 1976 Concordia University awarded him the Loyola Medal.", "In 1976, he received the American Academy of Achievement’s Golden Plate Award at a Banquet of the Golden Plate ceremony in San Diego, California." ], [ "Controversy and involvement with the tobacco industry", "Although it was not widely known at the time, Selye began consulting for the tobacco industry starting in 1958; he had previously sought funding from the industry, but had been denied.", "Later, New York attorney Edwin Jacob contacted Selye as he prepared a defense against liability actions brought against tobacco companies.", "The companies wanted Selye's help in arguing that the recognized correlation between smoking and cancer was not proof of causality.", "The firm offered to pay Selye $1000 to make a statement supporting this claim.", "He agreed but refused to testify.", "Tobacco industry lawyers reported that Selye was willing to incorporate industry advice when writing about smoking and stress.", "One lawyer advised him to \"comment on the unlikelihood of there being a mechanism by which smoking could cause cardiovascular disease” and to emphasize the \"stressful\" effect that anti-smoking messages had on the US population.Publicly, Selye never declared his consultancy work for the tobacco industry.", "In a 1967 letter to \"Medical Opinion and Review\", he argued against government over-regulation of science and public health, implying that his views on smoking were objective: \"I purposely avoided any mention of government-supported research because, being too largely dependent upon it, I may not be able to view the subject objectively.", "However, I do not use … cigarettes so let these examples suffice.\"", "In June 1969, Selye (then director of the Institute of Experimental Pathology, University of Montreal) testified before the Canadian House of Commons Health Committee against anti-smoking legislation, opposing advertising restrictions, health warnings, and restrictions on tar and nicotine.", "For his testimony Selye was funded $50,000 per year for a 3-year \"special project\", by William Thomas Hoyt, executive of Council for Tobacco Research, with another $50,000 a year pledged by the Canadian tobacco industry.", "His comments on smoking were used worldwide; Philip Morris used Selye's statements on the benefits of smoking to argue against the use of health warnings on tobacco products in Sweden.", "Similarly, in 1977 the Australian Cigarette Manufacturers quoted Selye extensively in their submission to the Australian Senate Standing Committee on Social Welfare.In 1999, the United States Department of Justice brought an anti-racketeering case against 7 tobacco companies –British American Tobacco, Brown & Williamson, Philip Morris, Liggett, American Tobacco Company, RJ Reynolds, and Lorillard– plus the Council for Tobacco Research, and the Tobacco Institute.", "As a result, the industry's influence on stress research was revealed." ], [ "Former graduate students", "* Roger Guillemin* Paola S. Timiras" ], [ "Publications", "* \"A Syndrome Produced by Diverse Nocuous Agents\" - 1936 article by Hans Selye from The journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences* ''The Stress of Life''.", "New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956, * * ''From Dream to Discovery: On being a scientist''.", "New York: McGraw-Hill 1964, * ''Hormones and Resistance''.", "Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag, 1971, * ''Stress Without Distress''.", "Philadelphia: J.", "B. Lippincott Co., c1974," ], [ "See also", "* Science and technology in Canada* Alvin Toffler" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Mementos and photos* Stress, by Hans Selye, National Film Board" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hacker" ], [ "Introduction", "alt=A group of people working on laptop computers at a common tableA '''hacker''' is a person skilled in information technology who achieves goals by non-standard means.", "Though the term ''hacker'' has become associated in popular culture with a security hackersomeone with knowledge of bugs or exploits to break into computer systems and access data which would otherwise be inaccessible to themhacking can also be utilized by legitimate figures in legal situations.", "For example, law enforcement agencies sometimes use hacking techniques to collect evidence on criminals and other malicious actors.", "This could include using anonymity tools (such as a VPN or the dark web) to mask their identities online and pose as criminals.", "Likewise, covert world agencies can employ hacking techniques in the legal conduct of their work.", "Hacking and cyber-attacks are used extra-legally and illegally by law enforcement and security agencies (conducting warrantless activities), and employed by state actors as a weapon of legal and illegal warfare." ], [ "Definitions", "Reflecting the two types of hackers, there are two definitions of the word \"hacker\":# Originally, hacker simply meant advanced computer technology enthusiast (both hardware and software) and adherent of programming subculture; see hacker culture.# Someone who is able to subvert computer security.", "If doing so for malicious purposes, the person can also be called a cracker.Mainstream usage of \"hacker\" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1990s.", "This includes what hacker jargon calls script kiddies, less skilled criminals who rely on tools written by others with very little knowledge about the way they work.", "This usage has become so predominant that the general public is largely unaware that different meanings exist.", "Though the self-designation of hobbyists as hackers is generally acknowledged and accepted by computer security hackers, people from the programming subculture consider the computer intrusion related usage incorrect, and emphasize the difference between the two by calling security breakers \"crackers\" (analogous to a safecracker).The controversy is usually based on the assertion that the term originally meant someone messing about with something in a positive sense, that is, using playful cleverness to achieve a goal.", "But then, it is supposed, the meaning of the term shifted over the decades and came to refer to computer criminals.As the security-related usage has spread more widely, the original meaning has become less known.", "In popular usage and in the media, \"computer intruders\" or \"computer criminals\" is the exclusive meaning of the word.", "In computer enthusiast and hacker culture, the primary meaning is a complimentary description for a particularly brilliant programmer or technical expert.", "A large segment of the technical community insist the latter is the correct usage, as in the Jargon File definition.Sometimes, \"hacker\" is simply used synonymously with \"geek\": \"A true hacker is not a group person.", "He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship...", "They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment.", "\"Fred Shapiro thinks that \"the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue.\"", "He found that the malicious connotations were already present at MIT in 1963 (quoting ''The Tech'', an MIT student newspaper), and at that time referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network, that is, the phreaker movement that developed into the computer security hacker subculture of today.=== Civic hacker ===Civic hackers use their security and/or programming acumens to create solutions, often public and open-sourced, addressing challenges relevant to neighborhoods, cities, states or countries and the infrastructure within them.", "Municipalities and major government agencies such as NASA have been known to host hackathons or promote a specific date as a \"National Day of Civic Hacking\" to encourage participation from civic hackers.", "Civic hackers, though often operating autonomously and independently, may work alongside or in coordination with certain aspects of government or local infrastructure such as trains and buses.", "For example, in 2008, Philadelphia-based civic hacker William Entriken developed a web application that displayed a comparison of the actual arrival times of local SEPTA trains to their scheduled times after being reportedly frustrated by the discrepancy.=== Security related hacking ===Security hackers are people involved with circumvention of computer security.", "There are several types, including:;White hat:Hackers who work to keep data safe from other hackers by finding system vulnerabilities that can be mitigated.", "White hats are usually employed by the target system's owner and are typically paid (sometimes quite well) for their work.", "Their work is not illegal because it is done with the system owner's consent.", ";Black hat or Cracker:Hackers with malicious intentions.", "They often steal, exploit, and sell data, and are usually motivated by personal gain.", "Their work is usually illegal.", "A cracker is like a black hat hacker, but is specifically someone who is very skilled and tries via hacking to make profits or to benefit, not just to vandalize.", "Crackers find exploits for system vulnerabilities and often use them to their advantage by either selling the fix to the system owner or selling the exploit to other black hat hackers, who in turn use it to steal information or gain royalties.", ";Grey hat:Computer security experts who may sometimes violate laws or typical ethical standards, but do not have the malicious intent typical of a black hat hacker.=== Hacker culture ===Hacker culture is an idea derived from a community of enthusiast computer programmers and systems designers in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's (MIT's) Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) and the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.", "The concept expanded to the hobbyist home computing community, focusing on hardware in the late 1970s (e.g.", "the Homebrew Computer Club) and on software (video games, software cracking, the demoscene) in the 1980s/1990s.", "Later, this would go on to encompass many new definitions such as art, and life hacking." ], [ "Motives", "Four primary motives have been proposed as possibilities for why hackers attempt to break into computers and networks.", "First, there is a criminal financial gain to be had when hacking systems with the specific purpose of stealing credit card numbers or manipulating banking systems.", "Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack.", "Third, corporate espionage allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace.", "Lastly, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through cyberspace." ], [ "Overlaps and differences", "Eric S. Raymond, maintainer of the ''Jargon File'' and proponent of hacker cultureThe main basic difference between programmer subculture and computer security hacker is their mostly separate historical origin and development.", "However, the ''Jargon File'' reports that considerable overlap existed for the early phreaking at the beginning of the 1970s.", "An article from MIT's student paper ''The Tech'' used the term hacker in this context already in 1963 in its pejorative meaning for someone messing with the phone system.", "The overlap quickly started to break when people joined in the activity who did it in a less responsible way.", "This was the case after the publication of an article exposing the activities of Draper and Engressia.According to Raymond, hackers from the programmer subculture usually work openly and use their real name, while computer security hackers prefer secretive groups and identity-concealing aliases.", "Also, their activities in practice are largely distinct.", "The former focus on creating new and improving existing infrastructure (especially the software environment they work with), while the latter primarily and strongly emphasize the general act of circumvention of security measures, with the effective use of the knowledge (which can be to report and help fixing the security bugs, or exploitation reasons) being only rather secondary.", "The most visible difference in these views was in the design of the MIT hackers' Incompatible Timesharing System, which deliberately did not have any security measures.There are some subtle overlaps, however, since basic knowledge about computer security is also common within the programmer subculture of hackers.", "For example, Ken Thompson noted during his 1983 Turing Award lecture that it is possible to add code to the UNIX \"login\" command that would accept either the intended encrypted password or a particular known password, allowing a backdoor into the system with the latter password.", "He named his invention the \"Trojan horse\".", "Furthermore, Thompson argued, the C compiler itself could be modified to automatically generate the rogue code, to make detecting the modification even harder.", "Because the compiler is itself a program generated from a compiler, the Trojan horse could also be automatically installed in a new compiler program, without any detectable modification to the source of the new compiler.", "However, Thompson disassociated himself strictly from the computer security hackers: \"I would like to criticize the press in its handling of the 'hackers,' the 414 gang, the Dalton gang, etc.", "The acts performed by these kids are vandalism at best and probably trespass and theft at worst.", "...", "I have watched kids testifying before Congress.", "It is clear that they are completely unaware of the seriousness of their acts.", "\"The programmer subculture of hackers sees secondary circumvention of security mechanisms as legitimate if it is done to get practical barriers out of the way for doing actual work.", "In special forms, that can even be an expression of playful cleverness.", "However, the systematic and primary engagement in such activities is not one of the actual interests of the programmer subculture of hackers and it does not have significance in its actual activities, either.", "A further difference is that, historically, members of the programmer subculture of hackers were working at academic institutions and used the computing environment there.", "In contrast, the prototypical computer security hacker had access exclusively to a home computer and a modem.", "However, since the mid-1990s, with home computers that could run Unix-like operating systems and with inexpensive internet home access being available for the first time, many people from outside of the academic world started to take part in the programmer subculture of hacking.Since the mid-1980s, there are some overlaps in ideas and members with the computer security hacking community.", "The most prominent case is Robert T. Morris, who was a user of MIT-AI, yet wrote the Morris worm.", "The ''Jargon File'' hence calls him \"a true hacker who blundered\".", "Nevertheless, members of the programmer subculture have a tendency to look down on and disassociate from these overlaps.", "They commonly refer disparagingly to people in the computer security subculture as crackers and refuse to accept any definition of hacker that encompasses such activities.", "The computer security hacking subculture, on the other hand, tends not to distinguish between the two subcultures as harshly, acknowledging that they have much in common including many members, political and social goals, and a love of learning about technology.", "They restrict the use of the term cracker to their categories of script kiddies and black hat hackers instead.The front page of Phrack, a long-running online magazine for hackersAll three subcultures have relations to hardware modifications.", "In the early days of network hacking, phreaks were building blue boxes and various variants.", "The programmer subculture of hackers has stories about several hardware hacks in its folklore, such as a mysterious \"magic\" switch attached to a PDP-10 computer in MIT's AI lab that, when switched off, crashed the computer.", "The early hobbyist hackers built their home computers themselves from construction kits.", "However, all these activities have died out during the 1980s when the phone network switched to digitally controlled switchboards, causing network hacking to shift to dialing remote computers with modems when pre-assembled inexpensive home computers were available and when academic institutions started to give individual mass-produced workstation computers to scientists instead of using a central timesharing system.", "The only kind of widespread hardware modification nowadays is case modding.An encounter of the programmer and the computer security hacker subculture occurred at the end of the 1980s, when a group of computer security hackers, sympathizing with the Chaos Computer Club (which disclaimed any knowledge in these activities), broke into computers of American military organizations and academic institutions.", "They sold data from these machines to the Soviet secret service, one of them in order to fund his drug addiction.", "The case was solved when Clifford Stoll, a scientist working as a system administrator, found ways to log the attacks and to trace them back (with the help of many others).", "''23'', a German film adaption with fictional elements, shows the events from the attackers' perspective.", "Stoll described the case in his book ''The Cuckoo's Egg'' and in the TV documentary ''The KGB, the Computer, and Me'' from the other perspective.", "According to Eric S. Raymond, it \"nicely illustrates the difference between 'hacker' and 'cracker'.", "Stoll's portrait of himself, his lady Martha, and his friends at Berkeley and on the Internet paints a marvelously vivid picture of how hackers and the people around them like to live and how they think.\"" ], [ "Representation in Media", "The mainstream media's current usage of the term may be traced back to the early 1980s.", "When the term, previously used only among computer enthusiasts, was introduced to wider society by the mainstream media in 1983, even those in the computer community referred to computer intrusion as hacking, although not as the exclusive definition of the word.", "In reaction to the increasing media use of the term exclusively with the criminal connotation, the computer community began to differentiate their terminology.", "Alternative terms such as cracker were coined in an effort to maintain the distinction between hackers within the legitimate programmer community and those performing computer break-ins.", "Further terms such as black hat, white hat and gray hat developed when laws against breaking into computers came into effect, to distinguish criminal activities from those activities which were legal.Network news' use of the term consistently pertains primarily to criminal activities, despite attempts by the technical community to preserve and distinguish the original meaning.", "Today, the mainstream media and general public continue to describe computer criminals, with all levels of technical sophistication, as \"hackers\" and do not generally make use of the word in any of its non-criminal connotations.", "Members of the media sometimes seem unaware of the distinction, grouping legitimate \"hackers\" such as Linus Torvalds and Steve Wozniak along with criminal \"crackers\".As a result, the definition is still the subject of heated controversy.", "The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural jargon and used negatively, including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers.", "Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware.", "Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public.", "A minority still use the term in both senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended.However, because the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized, \"hacker\" can therefore be seen as a shibboleth, identifying those who use the technically-oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community.", "On the other hand, due to the variety of industries software designers may find themselves in, many prefer not to be referred to as hackers because the word holds a negative denotation in many of those industries.A possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that \"hacking\" describes a collection of skills and tools which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons.", "The analogy is made to locksmithing, specifically picking locks, which is a skill which can be used for good or evil.", "The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of script kiddies in the popular usage of \"hacker\", despite their lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base." ], [ "See also", "*Script kiddie, an unskilled computer security attacker*Hacktivism, conducting cyber attacks on a business or organisation in order to bring social change" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Baker, Bruce D. \"Sin and the Hacker Ethic: The Tragedy of Techno-Utopian Ideology in Cyberspace Business Cultures.\"", "''Journal of Religion and Business Ethics'' 4.2 (2020): 1+ online .", "* Hasse, Michael.", "Die Hacker: Strukturanalyse einer jugendlichen Subkultur (1994)* Himanen, Pekka.", "''The hacker ethic'' (Random House, 2010).", "* Himanen, Pekka.", "\"19.The hacker ethic as the culture of the information age.\"", "''The Network Society'' (2004): 420+ online.", "* Holt, Thomas J.", "\"Computer hacking and the hacker subculture.\"", "in ''The palgrave handbook of international cybercrime and cyberdeviance'' (2020): 725-742.=== Computer security ===* Dey, Debabrata, Atanu Lahiri, and Guoying Zhang.", "\"Hacker behavior, network effects, and the security software market.\"''", "Journal of Management Information Systems'' 29.2 (2012): 77-108.", "* * * * Logik Bomb: Hacker's Encyclopedia (1997)* Revelation: The Ultimate Beginner's Guide to Hacking & Phreaking (1996)* * * * * === Free software/open source ===* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heart of Darkness" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Heart of Darkness''''' (1899) is a novella by Polish-English novelist Joseph Conrad in which the sailor Charles Marlow tells his listeners the story of his assignment as steamer captain for a Belgian company in the African interior.", "The novel is widely regarded as a critique of European colonial rule in Africa, whilst also examining the themes of power dynamics and morality.", "Although Conrad does not name the river on which most of the narrative takes place, at the time of writing, the Congo Free State — the location of the large and economically important Congo River — was a private colony of Belgium's King Leopold II.", "Marlow is given a text by Kurtz, an ivory trader working on a trading station far up the river, who has \"gone native\" and is the object of Marlow's expedition.Central to Conrad's work is the idea that there is little difference between \"civilised people\" and \"savages.\"", "''Heart of Darkness'' implicitly comments on imperialism and racism.", "The novella's setting provides the frame for Marlow's story of his fascination for the prolific ivory trader Kurtz.", "Conrad draws parallels between London (\"the greatest town on earth\") and Africa as places of darkness.Originally issued as a three-part serial story in ''Blackwood's Magazine'' to celebrate the 1000th edition of the magazine, ''Heart of Darkness'' has been widely republished and translated in many languages.", "It provided the inspiration for Francis Ford Coppola's 1979 film ''Apocalypse Now''.", "In 1998, the Modern Library ranked ''Heart of Darkness'' 67th on their list of the 100 best novels in English of the 20th century." ], [ "Composition and publication", "Joseph Conrad based ''Heart of Darkness'' on his own experiences in the Congo.In 1890, at the age of 32, Conrad was appointed by a Belgian trading company to serve on one of its steamers.", "While sailing up the Congo River from one station to another, the captain became ill and Conrad assumed command.", "He guided the ship up the tributary Lualaba River to the trading company's innermost station, Kindu, in Eastern Congo Free State; Marlow has similar experiences to the author.When Conrad began to write the novella, eight years after returning from Africa, he drew inspiration from his travel journals.", "He described ''Heart of Darkness'' as \"a wild story\" of a journalist who becomes manager of a station in the (African) interior and makes himself worshipped by a tribe of natives.", "The tale was first published as a three-part serial, in February, March, and April 1899, in ''Blackwood's Magazine'' (February 1899 was the magazine's 1000th issue: special edition).", "''Heart of Darkness'' was later included in the book ''Youth: a Narrative, and Two Other Stories'', published on 13 November 1902 by William Blackwood.The volume consisted of ''Youth: a Narrative'', ''Heart of Darkness'' and ''The End of the Tether'' in that order.", "In 1917, for future editions of the book, Conrad wrote an \"Author's Note\" where he, after denying any \"unity of artistic purpose\" underlying the collection, discusses each of the three stories and makes light commentary on Marlow, the narrator of the tales within the first two stories.", "He said Marlow first appeared in ''Youth''.On 31 May 1902, in a letter to William Blackwood, Conrad remarked,I call your own kind self to witness ... the last pages of ''Heart of Darkness'' where the interview of the man and the girl locks in—as it were—the whole 30000 words of narrative description into one suggestive view of a whole phase of life and makes of that story something quite on another plane than an anecdote of a man who went mad in the Centre of Africa.There have been many proposed sources for the character of the antagonist, Kurtz.", "Georges-Antoine Klein, an agent who became ill and died aboard Conrad's steamer, is proposed by literary critics as a basis for Kurtz.", "The principal figures involved in the disastrous \"rear column\" of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition have also been identified as likely sources, including column leader Edmund Musgrave Barttelot, slave trader Tippu Tip and the expedition leader, Welsh explorer Henry Morton Stanley.", "Conrad's biographer Norman Sherry judged that Arthur Hodister (1847–1892), a Belgian solitary but successful trader, who spoke three Congolese languages and was venerated by Congolese to the point of deification, served as the main model, while later scholars have refuted this hypothesis.", "Adam Hochschild, in ''King Leopold's Ghost'', believes that the Belgian soldier Léon Rom influenced the character.", "Peter Firchow mentions the possibility that Kurtz is a composite, modelled on various figures present in the Congo Free State at the time as well as on Conrad's imagining of what they might have had in common.A corrective impulse to impose one's rule characterizes Kurtz's writings which were discovered by Marlow during his journey, where he rants on behalf of the so-called \"International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs\" about his supposedly altruistic and sentimental reasons to civilise the \"savages\"; one document ends with a dark proclamation to \"Exterminate all the brutes!\".", "The \"International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs\" is interpreted as a sarcastic reference to one of the participants at the Berlin Conference, the International Association of the Congo (also called \"International Congo Society\").", "The predecessor to this organisation was the \"International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa\"." ], [ "Summary", "Charles Marlow tells his friends the story of how he became captain of a river steamboat for an ivory trading company.", "As a child, Marlow was fascinated by \"the blank spaces\" on maps, particularly Africa.", "The image of a river on the map particularly fascinated Marlow.In a flashback, Marlow makes his way to Africa, taking passage on a steamer.", "He travels up the river where his company's station is.", "Work on a railway is taking place.", "Marlow explores a narrow ravine, and is horrified to find himself in a place full of critically ill Africans who worked on the railroad and are now dying.", "Marlow must wait for ten days in the company's devastated Outer Station.", "Marlow meets the company's chief accountant, who tells him of a Mr. Kurtz, who is in charge of a very important trading post, and is described as a respected first-class agent.", "The accountant predicts that Kurtz will go far.Belgian river station on the Congo River, 1889Marlow departs with 60 men to travel to the Central Station, where the steamboat that he will command is based.", "At the station, he learns that his steamboat has been wrecked in an accident.", "The general manager informs Marlow that he could not wait for Marlow to arrive, and tells him of a rumour that Kurtz is ill. Marlow fishes his boat out of the river and spends months repairing it.", "Delayed by the lack of tools and replacement parts, Marlow is frustrated by the time it takes to perform the repairs.", "He learns that Kurtz is resented, not admired, by the manager.", "Once underway, the journey to Kurtz's station takes two months.The ''Roi des Belges'' (\"King of the Belgians\"—French), the Belgian riverboat Conrad commanded on the upper Congo, 1889The journey pauses for the night about below the Inner Station.", "In the morning the boat is enveloped by a thick fog.", "The steamboat is later attacked by a barrage of arrows, and the helmsman is killed.", "Marlow sounds the steam whistle repeatedly, frightening the attackers away.After landing at Kurtz's station, a man boards the steamboat: a Russian wanderer who strayed into Kurtz's camp.", "Marlow learns that the natives worship Kurtz and that he has been very ill.", "The Russian tells of how Kurtz opened his mind and admires Kurtz even for his power and his willingness to use it.", "Marlow suspects that Kurtz has gone mad.Marlow observes the station and sees a row of posts topped with the severed heads of natives.", "Around the corner of the house, Kurtz appears with supporters who carry him as a ghost-like figure on a stretcher.", "The area fills with natives ready for battle, but Kurtz shouts something and they retreat.", "His entourage carries Kurtz to the steamer and lays him in a cabin.", "The manager tells Marlow that Kurtz has harmed the company's business in the region because his methods are \"unsound\".", "The Russian reveals that Kurtz believes the company wants to kill him, and Marlow confirms that hangings were discussed.Arthur Hodister (1847–1892), who Conrad's biographer Norman Sherry has argued served as one of the sources of inspiration for KurtzAfter midnight, Kurtz returns to shore.", "Marlow finds Kurtz crawling back to the station house.", "Marlow threatens to harm Kurtz if he raises an alarm, but Kurtz only laments that he did not accomplish more.", "The next day they prepare to journey back down the river.Kurtz's health worsens during the trip.", "The steamboat breaks down, and while stopped for repairs, Kurtz gives Marlow a packet of papers, including his commissioned report and a photograph, telling him to keep them from the manager.", "When Marlow next speaks with him, Kurtz is near death; Marlow hears him weakly whisper, \"The horror!", "The horror!\"", "A short while later, the manager's boy announces to the crew that Kurtz has died (the famous line \"Mistah Kurtz—he dead\" would become the epigraph of T. S. Eliot's poem ''The Hollow Men'').", "The next day Marlow pays little attention to Kurtz's pilgrims as they bury \"something\" in a muddy hole.Returning to Europe, Marlow is embittered and contemptuous of the \"civilised\" world.", "Several callers come to retrieve the papers Kurtz entrusted to him, but Marlow withholds them or offers papers he knows they have no interest in.", "He gives Kurtz's report to a journalist, for publication if he sees fit.", "Marlow is left with some personal letters and a photograph of Kurtz's fiancée.", "When Marlow visits her, she is deep in mourning although it has been more than a year since Kurtz's death.", "She presses Marlow for information, asking him to repeat Kurtz's final words.", "Marlow tells her that Kurtz's final word was her name." ], [ "Critical reception", "The novella was not a big success during Conrad's life.", "When it was published as a single volume in 1902 with two novellas, \"Youth\" and \"The End of the Tether\", it received the least commentary from critics.", "F. R. Leavis referred to ''Heart of Darkness'' as a \"minor work\" and criticised its \"adjectival insistence upon inexpressible and incomprehensible mystery\".", "Conrad did not consider it to be particularly notable; but by the 1960s it was a standard assignment in many college and high school English courses.Literary critic Harold Bloom wrote that ''Heart of Darkness'' had been analysed more than any other work of literature that is studied in universities and colleges, which he attributed to Conrad's \"unique propensity for ambiguity\".", "In ''King Leopold's Ghost'' (1998), Adam Hochschild wrote that literary scholars have made too much of the psychological aspects of ''Heart of Darkness'', while paying scant attention to Conrad's accurate recounting of the horror arising from the methods and effects of colonialism in the Congo Free State.", "\"''Heart of Darkness'' is experience ... pushed a little (and only very little) beyond the actual facts of the case\".", "Other critiques include Hugh Curtler's ''Achebe on Conrad: Racism and Greatness in Heart of Darkness'' (1997).", "The French philosopher Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe called ''Heart of Darkness'' \"one of the greatest texts of Western literature\" and used Conrad's tale for a reflection on \"The Horror of the West\".Chinua Achebe's 1975 lecture on the book sparked decades of debate.", "''Heart of Darkness'' is criticised in postcolonial studies, particularly by Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe.", "In his 1975 public lecture \"An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness''\", Achebe described Conrad's novella as \"an offensive and deplorable book\" that de-humanised Africans.", "Achebe argued that Conrad, \"blinkered ... with xenophobia\", incorrectly depicted Africa as the antithesis of Europe and civilisation, ignoring the artistic accomplishments of the Fang people who lived in the Congo River basin at the time of the book's publication.", "He argued that the book promoted and continues to promote a prejudiced image of Africa that \"depersonalises a portion of the human race\" and concluded that it should not be considered a great work of art.Achebe's critics argue that he fails to distinguish Marlow's view from Conrad's, which results in very clumsy interpretations of the novella.", "In their view, Conrad portrays Africans sympathetically and their plight tragically, and refers sarcastically to, and condemns outright, the supposedly noble aims of European colonists, thereby demonstrating his skepticism about the moral superiority of European men.", "Ending a passage that describes the condition of chained, emaciated slaves, Marlow remarks: \"After all, I also was a part of the great cause of these high and just proceedings.\"", "Some observers assert that Conrad, whose native country had been conquered by imperial powers, empathised by default with other subjugated peoples.", "Jeffrey Meyers notes that Conrad, like his acquaintance Roger Casement, \"was one of the first men to question the Western notion of progress, a dominant idea in Europe from the Renaissance to the Great War, to attack the hypocritical justification of colonialism and to reveal... the savage degradation of the white man in Africa.\"", "Likewise, E.D.", "Morel, who led international opposition to King Leopold II's rule in the Congo, saw Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness'' as a condemnation of colonial brutality and referred to the novella as \"the most powerful thing written on the subject.", "\"anti-slavery pacifist E. D. Morel (1873–1924) considered the novella was \"the most powerful thing written on the subject.", "\"Conrad scholar Peter Firchow writes that \"nowhere in the novel does Conrad or any of his narrators, personified or otherwise, claim superiority on the part of Europeans on the grounds of alleged genetic or biological difference\".", "If Conrad or his novel is racist, it is only in a weak sense, since ''Heart of Darkness'' acknowledges racial distinctions \"but does not suggest an essential superiority\" of any group.", "Achebe's reading of ''Heart of Darkness'' can be (and has been) challenged by a reading of Conrad's other African story, \"An Outpost of Progress\", which has an omniscient narrator, rather than the embodied narrator, Marlow.", "Masood Ashraf Raja has suggested that Conrad's positive representation of Muslims in his Malay novels complicates these charges of racism.In 2003, Motswana scholar Peter Mwikisa concluded the book was \"the great lost opportunity to depict dialogue between Africa and Europe\".", "Zimbabwean scholar Rino Zhuwarara, however, broadly agreed with Achebe, though considered it important to be \"sensitised to how peoples of other nations perceive Africa\".", "The novelist Caryl Phillips stated in 2003 that: \"Achebe is right; to the African reader the price of Conrad's eloquent denunciation of colonisation is the recycling of racist notions of the 'dark' continent and her people.", "Those of us who are not from Africa may be prepared to pay this price, but this price is far too high for Achebe\".In his 1983 criticism, the British academic Cedric Watts criticizes the insinuation in Achebe's critique—the premise that only black people may accurately analyse and assess the novella, as well as mentioning that Achebe's critique falls into self-contradictory arguments regarding Conrad's writing style, both praising and denouncing it at times.", "Stan Galloway writes, in a comparison of ''Heart of Darkness'' with '' Jungle Tales of Tarzan'', \"The inhabitants of both works, whether antagonists or compatriots, were clearly imaginary and meant to represent a particular fictive cipher and not a particular African people\".", "More recent critics like Nidesh Lawtoo have stressed that the \"continuities\" between Conrad and Achebe are profound and that a form of \"postcolonial mimesis\" ties the two authors via productive mirroring inversions." ], [ "Adaptations and influences", "===Radio and stage===Orson Welles adapted and starred in ''Heart of Darkness'' in a CBS Radio broadcast on 6 November 1938 as part of his series, ''The Mercury Theatre on the Air''.", "In 1939, Welles adapted the story for his first film for RKO Pictures, writing a screenplay with John Houseman.", "The story was adapted to focus on the rise of a fascist dictator.", "Welles intended to play Marlow and Kurtz and it was to be entirely filmed as a POV from Marlow's eyes.", "Welles even filmed a short presentation film illustrating his intent.", "It is reportedly lost.", "The film's prologue to be read by Welles said \"You aren't going to see this picture - this picture is going to happen to you.\"", "The project was never realised; one reason given was the loss of European markets after the outbreak of World War II.", "Welles still hoped to produce the film when he presented another radio adaptation of the story as his first program as producer-star of the CBS radio series ''This Is My Best''.", "Welles scholar Bret Wood called the broadcast of 13 March 1945, \"the closest representation of the film Welles might have made, crippled, of course, by the absence of the story's visual elements (which were so meticulously designed) and the half-hour length of the broadcast.", "\"In 1991, Australian author/playwright Larry Buttrose wrote and staged a theatrical adaptation titled ''Kurtz'' with the Crossroads Theatre Company, Sydney.", "The play was announced to be broadcast as a radio play to Australian radio audiences in August 2011 by the Vision Australia Radio Network, and also by the RPH – Radio Print Handicapped Network across Australia.In 2011, composer Tarik O'Regan and librettist Tom Phillips adapted an opera of the same name, which premiered at the Linbury Theatre of the Royal Opera House in London.", "A suite for orchestra and narrator was subsequently extrapolated from it.In 2015, an adaptation of Welles' screenplay by Jamie Lloyd and Laurence Bowen aired on BBC Radio 4.The production starred James McAvoy as Marlow.===Film and television===In 1958, the CBS television anthology ''Playhouse 90'' (S3E7) aired a loose 90-minute television play adaptation.", "This version, written by Stewart Stern, uses the encounter between Marlow (Roddy McDowall) and Kurtz (Boris Karloff) as its final act, and adds a backstory in which Marlow had been Kurtz's adopted son.", "The cast includes Inga Swenson and Eartha Kitt.Perhaps the best known adaptation is Francis Ford Coppola's 1979 film ''Apocalypse Now'', based on the screenplay by John Milius, which moves the story from the Congo to Vietnam and Cambodia during the Vietnam War.", "In ''Apocalypse Now'', Martin Sheen stars as Captain Benjamin L. Willard, a US Army Captain assigned to \"terminate the command\" of Colonel Walter E. Kurtz, played by Marlon Brando.", "A film documenting the production, titled ''Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse'', was released in 1991.It chronicles a series of difficulties and challenges that director Coppola encountered during the making of the film, several of which mirror some of the novella's themes.On 13 March 1993, TNT aired a new version of the story, directed by Nicolas Roeg, starring Tim Roth as Marlow and John Malkovich as Kurtz.James Gray's 2019 science fiction film ''Ad Astra'' is loosely inspired by the events of the novel.", "It features Brad Pitt as an astronaut travelling to the edge of the Solar System to confront and potentially kill his father (Tommy Lee Jones), who has gone rogue.In 2020, ''African Apocalypse'', a documentary film directed and produced by Rob Lemkin and featuring Femi Nylander portrays a journey from Oxford, England to Niger on the trail of a colonial killer called Captain Paul Voulet.", "Voulet's descent into barbarity mirrors that of Kurtz in Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness''.", "Nylander discovers Voulet's massacres happened at exactly the same time that Conrad wrote his book in 1899.It was broadcast by the BBC in May 2021 as an episode of the ''Arena'' documentary series.In the 2022 horror film ''Mr.", "Harrigan's Phone'', a child reads a passage from ''Heart of Darkness'' to Mr. Harrigan.", "He then asks the child if he understood what he read, to which the child responds that he thinks he does.", "The old man does not seem convinced but quickly changes the subject.", "Later in the film, the boy turned young adult recalls the passage he read as he ponders a horrifying truth he just learned.An upcoming British animated film adaption of the novella, directed by Gerald Conn, is in production.", "It was written by Mark Jenkins and Mary Kate O Flanagan and is produced by Gritty Realism and Michael Sheen.", "Kurtz is voiced by Sheen and Harlequin by Andrew Scott.", "The animation uses sand to better convey atmosphere of the book.An upcoming Brazilian animated film adaption of the novella is also in production.", "It is directed by Rogério Nunes and Alois Di Leo and moves the story to a near future Rio de Janeiro.===Video games===The video game ''Far Cry 2'', released on 21 October 2008, is a loose modernised adaptation of ''Heart of Darkness''.", "The player assumes the role of a mercenary operating in Africa whose task it is to kill an arms dealer, the elusive \"Jackal\".", "The last area of the game is called \"The Heart of Darkness\".", "''Spec Ops: The Line'', released on 26 June 2012, is a direct modernised adaptation of ''Heart of Darkness''.", "The player assumes the role of Delta Force operator Captain Martin Walker as he and his team search Dubai for survivors in the aftermath of catastrophic sandstorms that left the city without contact to the outside world.", "The character John Konrad, who replaces the character Kurtz, is a reference to Joseph Conrad.===Literature===T.", "S. Eliot's 1925 poem ''The Hollow Men'' quotes, as its first epigraph, a line from ''Heart of Darkness'': \"Mistah Kurtz – he dead.\"", "Eliot had planned to use a quotation from the climax of the tale as the epigraph for ''The Waste Land'', but Ezra Pound advised against it.", "Eliot said of the quote that \"it is much the most appropriate I can find, and somewhat elucidative.\"", "Biographer Peter Ackroyd suggested that the passage inspired or at least anticipated the central theme of the poem.Chinua Achebe's 1958 novel ''Things Fall Apart'' is Achebe's response to what he saw as Conrad's portrayal of Africa and Africans as symbols-- \"the antithesis of Europe and therefore civilization\".", "Achebe set out to write a novel about Africa and Africans by an African.", "In ''Things Fall Apart'' we see the effects of colonialism and Christian missionary endeavors on an Igbo community in West Africa through the eyes of that community's West African protagonists.Another literary work with an acknowledged debt to ''Heart of Darkness'' is Wilson Harris' 1960 postcolonial novel ''Palace of the Peacock''.J.", "G. Ballard's 1962 climate fiction novel ''The Drowned World'' includes many similarities to Conrad's novella.", "However, Ballard said he had read nothing by Conrad before writing the novel, prompting literary critic Robert S. Lehman to remark that \"the novel's allusion to Conrad works nicely, even if it is not really an allusion to Conrad\".Robert Silverberg's 1970 novel ''Downward to the Earth'' uses themes and characters based on ''Heart of Darkness'' set on the alien world of Belzagor.In Josef Škvorecký's 1984 novel ''The Engineer of Human Souls'', Kurtz is seen as the epitome of exterminatory colonialism and, there and elsewhere, Škvorecký emphasises the importance of Conrad's concern with Russian imperialism in Eastern Europe.Timothy Findley's 1993 novel ''Headhunter'' is an extensive adaptation that reimagines Kurtz and Marlow as psychiatrists in Toronto.", "The novel begins: \"On a winter's day, while a blizzard raged through the streets of Toronto, Lilah Kemp inadvertently set Kurtz free from page 92 of ''Heart of Darkness''.", "\"Ann Patchett's 2011 novel ''State of Wonder'' reimagines the story with the central figures as female scientists in contemporary Brazil." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Farn, Regelind Colonial and Postcolonial Rewritings of \"Heart of Darkness\" – A Century of Dialogue with Joseph Conrad (2004).", "A dissertation.", "* Firchow, P. ''Envisioning Africa: Racism and Imperialism in Conrad's 'Heart of Darkness'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000).", "* Lawtoo, Nidesh, ed.", "''Conrad's'' Heart of Darkness ''and Contemporary Thought: Revisiting the Horror with Lacoue-Labarthe'' (London: Bloomsbury, 2012).", "* Parry, Benita ''Conrad and Imperialism'' (London: Macmillan, 1983).", "* Said, Edward W. ''Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1966) no ISBN.", "* Watts, Cedric ''Conrad's 'Heart of Darkness': A Critical and Contextual Discussion'' (Milan: Mursia International, 1977)." ], [ "External links", "* * * Downloadable audio book of ''Heart of Darkness'' by LoudLit.org* * Orson Welles' Mercury Theatre on the Air audio books, also of ''Heart of Darkness''* Orson Welles Mercury Theatre 1938, also of ''Heart of Darkness''* ''This Is My Best'' — ''Heart of Darkness'' (13 March 1945) at the Paley Center for Media" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hinduism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hinduism''' () is an Indian religion or ''dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide.", "The word ''Hindu'' is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, it has also been described as ''sanātana dharma'' (), a modern usage, based on the belief that its origins lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts.", "Another endonym for Hinduism is ''Vaidika dharma''.Hinduism entails diverse systems of thought, marked by a range of shared concepts that discuss theology, mythology, among other topics, in textual sources.", "The major Hindu denominations are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and the Smarta tradition.", "The six Āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas, are: Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā, and Vedānta.", "Hindu texts have been classified into Śruti (\"heard\") and Smṛti (\"remembered\").", "The major Hindu scriptures are the ''Vedas'', the ''Upanishads'', the ''Purānas'', the ''Mahābhārata'', the ''Rāmāyana'', and the ''Āgamas''.", "Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include karma (action, intent and consequences) and the four Puruṣārthas, proper goals or aims of human life, namely: dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions) and moksha (liberation/freedom from the passions and the cycle of death and rebirth).", "Hindu religious practices include devotion (bhakti), worship (puja), sacrificial rites (yajña), and meditation (dhyāna) and yoga.While the puranic chronology presents a genealogy of thousands of years, starting with the Vedic ''rishis'', scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of Brahmanical orthopraxy with various Indian cultures, having diverse roots and no specific founder.", "This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between –200 BCE and , in the period of the second urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism when the epics and the first Purānas were composed.", "It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India.", "Since the 19th century, modern Hinduism, influenced by western culture, has also a great appeal to the west, most notably in the popularisation of yoga and various sects such as Transcendental Meditation and the Hare Krishna movement.Hinduism is the world's third-largest religion, with approximately 1.2 billion followers, or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus.", "It is the most widely professed faith in India, Nepal, Mauritius, and in Bali, Indonesia.", "Significant numbers of Hindu communities are found in other countries of South Asia, in Southeast Asia, in the Caribbean, Middle East, North America, Europe, Oceania, Africa, and other regions." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''Hindū'' is an exonym, and is derived from the Sanskrit root ''Sindhu'', believed to be the name of the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.The Proto-Iranian sound change ''*s'' > ''h'' occurred between 850 and 600 BCE, according to Asko Parpola.", "According to Gavin Flood, \"The actual term ''Hindu'' first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''Sindhu'')\", more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I (550–486 BCE).", "The term ''Hindu'' in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.", "Thapar states that the word ''Hindu'' is found as ''heptahindu'' in Avesta – equivalent to Rigvedic ''sapta sindhu'', while ''hndstn'' (pronounced ''Hindustan'') is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia.", "In Arabic texts, ''al-Hind'' referred to the land beyond the Indus and therefore, all the people in that land were Hindus.", "This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term ''Hindū''.", "By the 13th century, ''Hindustan'' emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the \"land of Hindus\".Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text ''Record of the Western Regions'' by Xuanzang, and 14th-century Persian text ''Futuhu's-salatin'' by 'Abd al-Malik Isami.", "Some 16–18th century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts mention ''Hindu'' and ''Hindu dharma'' to distinguish from Muslims without positively defining these terms.", "In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus.", "The use of the English term \"Hinduism\" to describe a collection of practices and beliefs is a fairly recent construction.", "The term ''Hinduism'' was first used by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1816–17.By the 1840s, the term \"Hinduism\" was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians.", "Before the British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language, varna, jāti, occupation, and sect." ], [ "Definitions", "\"Hinduism\" is an umbrella-term, referring to a broad range of sometimes opposite and often competitive traditions.", "The term \"Hinduism\" was coined in Western ethnography in the 18th century and refers to the fusion, or synthesis, of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder.", "This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between –200 BCE and , in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the epics and the first Puranas were composed.", "It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India.", "Hinduism's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions; Hindus can be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.", "According to Mahatma Gandhi, \"a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu\".", "According to Wendy Doniger, \"ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste – are subjects of debate, not dogma.", "\"Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.", "The religion \"defies our desire to define and categorize it\".", "Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and \"a way of life\".", "From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion.", "In India, the term ''dharma'' is preferred, which is broader than the Western term \"religion\".The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of \"Hinduism\", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.", "Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.=== Typology ===Om, a stylized letter of Devanagari script, used as a religious symbol in HinduismHinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents.", "Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent.", "The six āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas are: Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā, and Vedānta.Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Shaivism (Shiva), Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as equals).", "Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme.", "Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of ātman (self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living), although variation exists, with some not following these beliefs.June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus.", "The major kinds, according to McDaniel are Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest, non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas, traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads, including Advaita Vedanta, emphasizing knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasizing introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or \"daily morality\", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the \"only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste\"; and bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.", "The three Hindu religions are \"Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism\", \"folk religions and tribal religions\", and \"founded religions\".", "The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical \"karma-marga\", jnana-marga, bhakti-marga, and \"heroism\", which is rooted in militaristic traditions.", "These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, Rama, believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu) and parts of political Hinduism.", "\"Heroism\" is also called virya-marga.", "According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practicing or non-practicing.", "He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the \"founded religions\" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are moksha-focussed and often de-emphasize Brahman (Brahmin) priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.", "He includes among \"founded religions\" Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism that are now distinct religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society, as well as various \"Guru-isms\" and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and ISKCON.Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytizing missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests.", "Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism.", "This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project.", "From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism.", "The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of Indology.", "Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with \"fuzzy edges\" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity.", "Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category.", "Based on this idea Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.=== ===Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Vishnu is said to be worshiped by '''Ikshvaku''' and the descendants of (Ikshvaku Vamsam).To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life.", "Many practitioners refer to the \"orthodox\" form of Hinduism as '''', \"the eternal law\" or the \"eternal way\".", "Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old.", "The Puranic chronology, as narrated in the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and the Puranas, envisions a timeline of events related to Hinduism starting well before 3000 BCE.", "The word ''dharma'' is used here to mean ''religion'' similar to modern Indo-Aryan languages, rather than with its original Sanskrit meaning.", "All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (''artha''), fulfillment of desires (''kama''), and attaining liberation (''moksha''), are viewed here as part of \"dharma\", which encapsulates the \"right way of living\" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfillment.", "The use of the term ''Sanātana Dharma'' for Hinduism is a modern usage, based on the belief that the origins of Hinduism lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts.", "''Sanātana Dharma'' refers to \"timeless, eternal set of truths\" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion.", "It is viewed as those eternal truths and tradition with origins beyond human history, truths divinely revealed (Shruti) in the Vedas – the most ancient of the world's scriptures.", "To many Hindus, Hinduism is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era.", "The Western term \"religion\" to the extent it means \"dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder\" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher.''''", "historically referred to the \"eternal\" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (''ahiṃsā''), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism.", "These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with svadharma, one's \"own duty\", in accordance with one's class or caste (''varṇa'') and stage in life (puruṣārtha).", "In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism.", "Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the \"eternal\" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are \"unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian\".=== ''Vaidika dharma'' ===Some have referred to Hinduism as the ''Vaidika dharma''.", "The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'.", "Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka.", "According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism.", "According to Arvind Sharma, the historical evidence suggests that \"the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term ''vaidika dharma'' or a variant thereof\" by the 4th-century CE.", "According to Brian K. Smith, \"it is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term ''Vaidika Dharma'' cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'.", "\"Whatever the case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedic varṇāśrama – 'caste and life stage' orthodoxy) as being heretics (pāṣaṇḍa/pākhaṇḍa).", "For example, the ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'' considers Buddhists, Jains as well as some Shaiva groups like the Paśupatas and Kāpālins to be pāṣaṇḍas (heretics).According to Alexis Sanderson, the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions.", "However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had \"indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of antinomian Shakta-Shaiva\" from its fold.", "Some in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy considered the ''Agamas'' such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas.", "Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma.", "The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas.", "However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and \"held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, ... and that as such they Vedas are man's sole means of valid knowledge ...\".The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is \"based on the Vedas\", but it is unclear what \"based on the Vedas\" really implies, states Julius Lipner.", "The Vaidika dharma or \"Vedic way of life\", states Lipner, does not mean \"Hinduism is necessarily religious\" or that Hindus have a universally accepted \"conventional or institutional meaning\" for that term.", "To many, it is as much a cultural term.", "Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran.", "Yet, states Lipner, \"this does not mean that their Hindus whole life's orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it\".Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often \"no more than a declaration that someone considers himself or herself a Hindu,\" and \"most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text.\"", "Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.=== Legal definition ===Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave the following definition in ''Gita Rahasya'' (1915): \"Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large\".", "It was quoted by the Indian Supreme Court in 1966, and again in 1995, \"as an 'adequate and satisfactory definition,\" and is, according to Doniger, \"the still operative legal definition of a Hindu.\"" ], [ "Diversity and unity", "=== Diversity ===Ganesha is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon.Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion.", "Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts.", "Hinduism does not have a \"unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed\", but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.", "According to the Supreme Court of India,Part of the problem with a single definition of the term ''Hinduism'' is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.", "It is a synthesis of various traditions, the \"Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions\".Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or have been atheists.=== Sense of unity ===Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.", "Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions.", "These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, though Louis Renou stated that \"even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat\".Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as \"self-contained religious constellations\", there is a degree of interaction and reference between the \"theoreticians and literary representatives\" of each tradition that indicates the presence of \"a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon\".==== Classical Hinduism ====Brahmins played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture.", "In the post-Gupta period Vedanta developed in southern India, where orthodox Brahmanic culture and the Hindu culture were preserved, building on ancient Vedic traditions while \"accommodating the multiple demands of Hinduism.", "\"==== Medieval developments ====The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE.", "Lorenzen traces the emergence of a \"family resemblance\", and what he calls as \"beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism\" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion.", "Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place \"through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other\".", "According to Lorenzen, this \"presence of the Other\" is necessary to recognise the \"loose family resemblance\" among the various traditions and schools.According to the Indologist Alexis Sanderson, before Islam arrived in India, the \"Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism\".", "This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist.", "By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged.", "This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain antinomian tantric movements.", "Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety.", "Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same.", "\"This sense of greater unity\", states Sanderson, \"came to be called Hinduism\".According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries \"certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.\"", "The tendency of \"a blurring of philosophical distinctions\" has also been noted by Mikel Burley.", "Hacker called this \"inclusivism\" and Michaels speaks of \"the identificatory habit\".", "Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of \"mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other\", which started well before 1800.Michaels notes:====Colonial views====The notion and reports on \"Hinduism\" as a \"single world religious tradition\" was also popularised by 19th-century proselytizing missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism.", "These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism.", "Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils, while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the ''Vedas'', ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Manusmriti'' and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature\".", "Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention.", "He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.==== Hindu modernism and neo-Vedanta ====Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and the United States, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.This inclusivism was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta, and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation, meanwhile \"purifying\" Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements.", "Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasizing the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems.", "This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west.", "Major representatives of \"Hindu modernism\" are Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance.", "He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda, who, according to Flood, was \"a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism\".", "Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this \"innate divinity\", and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.", "According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.", "According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism \"is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today\".", "Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, \"presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience\".This \"Global Hinduism\" has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries and, according to Flood, \"becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism\", both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.", "It emphasizes universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and \"the spiritual transformation of humanity\".", "It has developed partly due to \"re-enculturation\", or the pizza effect, in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.", "This globalization of Hindu culture brought \"to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin\".==== Modern India and the world ====Hare Krishna group at the Esplanadi Park in Helsinki, FinlandThe Hindutva movement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times.", "And there are assumptions of political dominance of Hindu nationalism in India, also known as '''Neo-Hindutva'''.", "There have also been increase in pre-dominance of Hindutva in Nepal, similar to that of India.", "The scope of Hinduism is also increasing in the other parts of the world, due to the cultural influences such as Yoga and Hare Krishna movement by many missionaries organisations, especially by Iskcon and this is also due to the migration of Indian Hindus to the other nations of the world.", "Hinduism is growing fast in many western nations and in some African nations." ], [ "Main traditions", "=== Denominations ===Panchayatana (\"five deities\", from the Smarta tradition): Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Parvati (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right).", "All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.", "Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: ''Shaivism'', ''Shaktism'', ''Smartism'', and ''Vaishnavism''.", "These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook.", "The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practicing more than one, and he suggests the term \"Hindu polycentrism\".There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.", "Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism.", "According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%.", "In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.", "The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by \"intimate loving, joyous, playful\" ''Krishna'' and other Vishnu avatars.", "These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.", "Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism.", "The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva.", "Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.", "Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga.", "Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasize yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.", "Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara).", "Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva.", "Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela.", "Shaivism has been more commonly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother, and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal.", "Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga.", "Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle.", "Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices.", "Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.", "'''Modern practices:''' June McDaniel (2010), ''Goddesses in World Culture'', Volume 1 (Editor: Patricia Monaghan), , Chapter 2Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda.", "The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.", "The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes (Saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).", "The term ''Smartism'' is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts.", "This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.=== Ethnicities ===Prambanan Hindu temple complex built in the 9th century, Java, IndonesiaPuja at Pura Besakih, one of the most significant Balinese Hinduism templesHinduism is traditionally a multi- or polyethnic religion.", "On the Indian subcontinent, it is widespread among many Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and other South Asian ethnic groups, for example, the Meitei people (Tibeto-Burman ethnicity in the northeastern Indian state Manipur).In addition, in antiquity and the Middle Ages, Hinduism was the state religion in many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, the ''Greater India''from Afghanistan (Kabul) in the West and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the East (Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, partly Philippines)and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam, except several still Hindu minor Austronesian ethnic groups, such as the Balinese and Tenggerese people in Indonesia, and the Chams in Vietnam.", "Also, a small community of the Afghan Pashtuns who migrated to India after partition remain committed to Hinduism.The Indo-Aryan Kalash people in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which some authors characterise as a form of ancient Hinduism.There are many new ethnic Ghanaian Hindus in Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works of Swami Ghanananda Saraswati and Hindu Monastery of Africa From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), Swami Vivekananda, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples." ], [ "Scriptures", "The ''Rigveda'' is the first among four Vedas and is one of the oldest religious texts.", "This Rigveda manuscript is in Devanagari.The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit.", "These texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti.", "Shruti is ''apauruṣeyā'', \"not made of a man\" but revealed to the ''rishis'' (seers), and regarded as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority.", "They are the two highest sources of dharma, the other two being ''Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara'' (conduct of noble people) and finally ''Ātma tuṣṭi'' (\"what is pleasing to oneself\")Hindu scriptures were composed, memorized and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down.", "Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.", "''Shruti'' (lit.", "that which is heard) primarily refers to the ''Vedas'', which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (''rishis'').", "There are four ''Vedas'' – ''Rigveda'', ''Samaveda'', ''Yajurveda'' and ''Atharvaveda''.", "Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).", "The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the '''' (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the '''' (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions.", "Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.", "Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance.", "There are 108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as Principal Upanishads.The most notable of the Smritis (\"remembered\") are the Hindu epics and the ''Puranas''.", "The epics consist of the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Ramayana''.", "The ''Bhagavad Gita'' is an integral part of the ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism.", "It is sometimes called ''Gitopanishad'', then placed in the Shruti (\"heard\") category, being Upanishadic in content.", "The ''Puranas'', which started to be composed from onward, contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives.", "The ''Yoga Sutras'' is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained a renewed popularity in the 20th century.Since the 19th-century Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, \"purifying\" Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements.", "Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.Tantra are the religious scriptures which give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form.", "In Tantric tradition, Radha, Parvati, Durga and Kali are worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms.", "The ''Agamas'' in Tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti, while ''Nigamas'' refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva.", "In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative." ], [ "Beliefs", "Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and VishnuProminent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics/duties), (the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), moksha (liberation from attachment and saṃsāra), and the various yogas (paths or practices).", "However, not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of Hindu beliefs.", "Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu beliefs, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism, which was characterized by a belief in an Afterlife, with traces of this still being found among various Hindu beliefs, such as Śrāddha.", "Ancestor worship once formed an integral part of Hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various Folk Hindu streams.=== Purusharthas ===Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life.", "Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas – Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.==== Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics) ====Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.", "The concept of dharma includes behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and \"right way of living\".", "Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.", "Dharma is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world.", "It is the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.", "The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as:In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs.", "(Mbh 12.110.11).", "The word ''Sanātana'' means ''eternal'', ''perennial'', or ''forever''; thus, ''Sanātana Dharma'' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.==== Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life) ====Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, assets, or livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligations, economic prosperity, and to have a fulfilling life.", "It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being.", "The artha concept includes all \"means of life\", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.", "The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.A central premise of Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled.", "A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available.", "Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.==== Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure) ====Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, and pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations.In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts.", "The ancient Indian Epic the Mahabharata describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.==== Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering) ====Moksha () or mukti () is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism.", "Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, and for many theistic schools of Hinduism, liberation from samsara (a birth-rebirth cycle).", "A release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of Hinduism.Due to the belief in Hinduism that the Atman is eternal, and the concept of Purusha (the cosmic self or cosmic consciousness), death can be seen as insignificant in comparison to the eternal Atman or Purusha.===== Differing views on the nature of moksha =====The meaning of ''moksha'' differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.Advaita Vedanta holds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence, or self, to be pure consciousness or the witness-consciousness and identifies it as identical to Brahman.The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools believe that in the afterlife moksha state, individual essences are distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha they expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven).More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of \"realizing the whole universe as the Self\".", "''Moksha'' when viewed as a psychological concept, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense.", "This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, the Vedantic school separates this into two views – ''Jivanmukti'' (liberation in this life) and ''Videhamukti'' (liberation after death).=== Karma and saṃsāra ===''Karma'' translates literally as ''action'', ''work'', or ''deed'', and also refers to a Vedic theory of \"moral law of cause and effect\".", "The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.", "Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in the past.", "These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives.", "This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called ''saṃsāra''.", "Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.", "Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.", "The idea of reincarnation, or saṃsāra, is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as the ''Rigveda''.", "The later layers of the ''Rigveda'' do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.", "According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such as ''sraddha'' (offering food to the ancestors).", "The later Vedic texts such as the ''Aranyakas'' and the ''Upanisads'' show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.", "The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, predating the Buddha and the Mahavira.=== Concept of God ===Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs; its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed.", "It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.The ''Nasadiya Sukta'' (''Creation Hymn'') of the ''Rig Veda'' is one of the earliest texts which \"demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation\" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being.", "The ''Rig Veda'' praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner.", "The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and One Ultimate Reality.", "The \"One Truth\" of Vedic literature, in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self.", "This true \"Self\" of every person, is called the ''ātman''.", "The Self is believed to be eternal.", "According to the monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit or the Ultimate Reality.", "The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's Self is identical to supreme Self, that the supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.", "Dualistic schools (Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual Selfs.", "They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect.", "God is called ''Ishvara'', ''Bhagavan'', ''Parameshwara'', ''Deva'' or ''Devi'', and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualized as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances.", "There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers.", "It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents.Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pp.", "229–231 It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves.", "This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from animism, in which all things are themselves divine.", "The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal, man and nature, etc.", "The Vedic view does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.The Hindu scriptures name celestial entities called ''Devas'' (or '''' in feminine form), which may be translated into English as ''gods'' or ''heavenly beings''.", "The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas.", "They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their '''', or chosen ideal.", "The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional and family traditions.", "The multitude of Devas are considered manifestations of Brahman.Hindu god Vishnu (centre) surrounded by his ten major avatars, namely Matsya; Kurma; Varaha; Narasimha; Vamana; Parashurama; Rama; Krishna; Buddha, and KalkiThe word ''avatar'' does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE.", "Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the ''avatars'' of Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other deities.", "Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the ''Garuda Purana'' and the twenty-two avatars in the ''Bhagavata Purana'', though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.", "The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology.", "In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition, avatars of the Devi are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical Brahman and Shakti ''(energy)''.", "While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism.", "The early Nyaya school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist, but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic.", "Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars.", "Samkhya, Mimamsa and Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that \"God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption\".", "Its Vaisheshika school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God.", "The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a \"personal god\" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god.", "; Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, \"spiritual, not religious\".", "Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.Ardhanarishvara, showing both feminine and masculine aspect of god in HinduismGod in Hinduism is often represented, having both the feminine and masculine aspects.", "The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati (Ardhanarishvara), Vishnu accompanied by Lakshmi, Radha with Krishna and Sita with Rama.According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.", "The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.=== Authority ===Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism.", "Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars.", "But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism.", "The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition.", "Authority \"was mediated through ... an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason.\"", "Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning persons of authority.", "The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks ''kena'', 'by what' power something is the case.", "The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticizes the teacher's inferior answers.", "In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma.", "Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata.", "Jayadeva's Gita Govinda presents criticism via Radha." ], [ "Practices", "=== Rituals ===A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life.", "A typical Hindu wedding is solemnized before Vedic fire ritual (shown).Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.", "The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals.", "They are not mandatory in Hinduism.", "The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice.", "Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (''yajna'') and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding.", "Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic mantras.The words of the mantras are \"themselves sacred,\" and \"do not constitute linguistic utterances.\"", "Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become magical sounds, \"means to an end.\"", "In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered \"primordial rhythms of creation\", preceding the forms to which they refer.", "By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, \"by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base.", "As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the ''mantras'' will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings.", "\"=== ''Sādhanā'' ===Sādhanā is derived from the root \"sādh-\", meaning \"to accomplish\", and denotes a means for the realization of spiritual goals.", "Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own particular notions of sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from bondage.", "They differ on what causes bondage, how one can become free of that bondage, and who or what can lead one on that path.=== Life-cycle rites of passage ===Major life stage milestones are celebrated as ''sanskara'' (''saṃskāra'', rites of passage) in Hinduism.", "The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally.", "Gautama Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras, while Gryhasutra and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras.", "The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower), ''Jatakarman'' (rite celebrating the new born baby), ''Namakarana'' (naming the child), ''Nishkramana'' (baby's first outing from home into the world), ''Annaprashana'' (baby's first feeding of solid food), ''Chudakarana'' (baby's first haircut, tonsure), ''Karnavedha'' (ear piercing), ''Vidyarambha'' (baby's start with knowledge), Upanayana (entry into a school rite), ''Keshanta'' and ''Ritusuddhi'' (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), ''Vratas'' (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an adult, burial for a child).", "In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these sanskaras are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as ''Śrāddha'' (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced.=== Bhakti (worship) ===''Bhakti'' refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.", "''Bhakti-marga'' is considered in Hinduism to be one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha.", "The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are ''Jnana-marga'' (path of knowledge), ''Karma-marga'' (path of works), ''Rāja-marga'' (path of contemplation and meditation).Bhakti is practiced in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine, or in a temple before a murti or sacred image of a deity.", "Hindu temples and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism.", "While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.One form of daily worship is aarti, or \"supplication\", a ritual in which a flame is offered and \"accompanied by a song of praise\".", "Notable aartis include Om Jai Jagdish Hare, a Hindi prayer to Vishnu, and Sukhakarta Dukhaharta, a Marathi prayer to Ganesha.", "Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to \"human exemplars\".", "For instance, Aarti is offered to Hanuman, a devotee of God, in many temples, including Balaji temples, where the primary deity is an incarnation of Vishnu.", "In Swaminarayan temples and home shrines, aarti is offered to Swaminarayan, considered by followers to be supreme God.Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarti, kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees.", "While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism.", "A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman.", "Bhakti-marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god.", "While bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes (''saguna Brahman'').", "Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes (''nirguna Brahman''), and god within oneself.=== Festivals ===The festival of lights, Diwali, is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.Hindus in Ghana celebrating Ganesh Chaturthi (2021)Holi being celebrated at the Sri Sri Radha Krishna Temple in Utah, United States (2013)Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: ''Utsava''; literally: \"to lift higher\") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma.", "Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon (''Holi'') or the new moon (''Diwali''), often with seasonal changes.", "Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as ''Holi'' and ''Diwali'' are pan-Hindu.The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the sister-brother bond over the ''Raksha Bandhan'' (or Bhai Dooj) festival.", "The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, Puja rituals and feasts.Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:* Ashadhi Ekadashi* Bonalu* Chhath* Dashain* Diwali or Tihar or Deepawali* Durga Puja* Dussehra* Ganesh Chaturthi* Gowri Habba* Gudi Padwa* Holi* Karva Chauth* Kartika Purnima* Krishna Janmashtami* Maha Shivaratri* Makar Sankranti* Navaratri* Onam* Pongal* Radhashtami* Raksha Bandhan* Rama Navami* Ratha Yatra* Sharad Purnima* Shigmo* Thaipusam* Ugadi* Vasant Panchami* Vishu=== Pilgrimage ===Many adherents undertake pilgrimages, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today.", "Pilgrimage sites are called ''Tirtha'', ''Kshetra'', ''Gopitha'' or ''Mahalaya''.", "The process or journey associated with ''Tirtha'' is called ''Tirtha-yatra''.", "According to the Hindu text ''Skanda Purana'', Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a sadhu, a rishi, a guru; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, Self.", "''Tīrtha-yatra'' is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas.", "Most Puranas include large sections on ''Tirtha Mahatmya'' along with tourist guides, which describe sacred sites and places to visit.", "In these texts, Varanasi (Benares, Kashi), Rameswaram, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Puri, Haridwar, Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Mayapur, Nathdwara, twelve Jyotirlinga and Shakti Pitha have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (''sangam'') or join the sea.", "Kumbh Mela is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival Makar Sankranti.", "This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: Prayagraj at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, Haridwar near source of the Ganges, Ujjain on the Shipra river and Nashik on the bank of the Godavari river.", "This is one of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event.", "At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankara.Kedar Ghat, a bathing place for pilgrims on the Ganges at VaranasiSome pilgrimages are part of a ''Vrata'' (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons.", "It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a rite of passage such as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness.", "It may, states Eck, also be the result of prayers answered.", "An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death.", "This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honor the wishes of the dead.", "The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by traveling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges.", "Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition.", "The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts.", "The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from traveling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible." ], [ "Culture", "The term \"Hindu culture\" refers to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress codes followed by the Hindus which is mainly can be inspired from the culture of India and Southeast Asia.=== Architecture ====== Art ===Varahai, 14th century Nepal.Hindu art encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.=== Calendar ===The Hindu calendar, Panchanga () or Panjika is one of various lunisolar calendars that are traditionally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with further regional variations for social and Hindu religious purposes.", "They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on sidereal year for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start.", "Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the Shalivahana Shaka (Based on the King Shalivahana, also the Indian national calendar) found in the Deccan region of Southern India and the Vikram Samvat (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of India – both of which emphasize the lunar cycle.", "Their new year starts in spring.", "In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasized and this is called the Tamil calendar (though Tamil calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and Malayalam calendar and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.", "A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as Panchangam (पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known as Panjika in Eastern India.The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the Hebrew calendar, the Chinese calendar, and the Babylonian calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar.", "Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the Hindus all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates.", "Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars.", "Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system.", "The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar.", "Similarly, the ancient Jain traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions.", "However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system.", "It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as Ekadashi." ], [ "Person and society", "=== Varnas ===Priests performing ''Kalyanam'' (marriage) of the holy deities at Bhadrachalam Temple, in Telangana.", "It is one of the temples in India, where ''Kalyanam'' is done everyday throughout the year.|leftHindu society has been categorised into four classes, called ''varṇas''.", "They are the ''Brahmins'': Vedic teachers and priests; the ''Kshatriyas'': warriors and kings; the ''Vaishyas'': farmers and merchants; and the ''Shudras'': servants and labourers.The ''Bhagavad Gītā'' links the varṇa to an individual's duty (''svadharma''), inborn nature (''svabhāva''), and natural tendencies (''guṇa'').", "The ''Manusmriti'' categorises the different castes.Some mobility and flexibility within the varṇas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists, although some other scholars disagree.", "Scholars debate whether the so-called ''caste system'' is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.", "And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime.A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called ''Varṇatita'' or \"beyond all varṇas\" in Vedantic works.", "The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food.", "Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varṇas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.=== Yoga ===A statue of Shiva in yogic meditationIn whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal.", "Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and consciousness for health, tranquility, and spiritual insight.", "Texts dedicated to yoga include the ''Yoga Sutras'', the ''Hatha Yoga Pradipika'', the ''Bhagavad Gita'' and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads.", "Yoga is means, and the four major ''marga'' (paths) of Hinduism are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of right action), Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation), and Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom) An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding.", "Practice of one yoga does not exclude others.", "The modern practice of yoga as exercise (traditionally Hatha yoga) has a contested relationship with Hinduism.=== Symbolism ===Some of the most prominent Hindu symbols: Om (left) and the Swastika (right)Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship.", "These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions.", "The syllable ''Om'' (which represents the ''Brahman'' and Atman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the Swastika sign represent auspiciousness, and ''Tilaka'' (literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location of spiritual third eye, marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a ritual or rite of passage.", "Elaborate ''Tilaka'' with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination.", "Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, lingam, idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism.=== Ahiṃsā and food customs ===Hindus advocate the practice of (nonviolence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.", "The term '''' appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata and is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.In accordance with , many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life.", "Estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.", "Those who eat meat seek Jhatka (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike Halal (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal.", "The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish.", "Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions.", "Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef.", "Hinduism specifically considers ''Bos indicus'' to be sacred.", "The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving, selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance.There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times.", "Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.", "Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs.", "Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad and Svātmārāma recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous Self restraints).", "The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.Some Hindus such as those belonging to the Shaktism tradition, and Hindus in regions such as Bali and Nepal practise animal sacrifice.", "The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food.", "In contrast, the Vaishnava Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice.", "The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice." ], [ "Institutions", "=== Temple ===A Hindu temple is a house of god(s).", "It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism.", "A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing Mount Meru – reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe, the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksha and karma.", "The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.", "Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, rite of passage rituals, and community celebrations.Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs.", "Two major styles of Hindu temples include the Gopuram style found in south India, and Nagara style found in north India.", "Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples.", "Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.Many temples feature one or more idols (murtis).", "The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (''darsana'', a sight) in a Hindu temple.", "In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa (Brahman), the universal essence.=== Asrama ===Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu Monastery in the North American continent.Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery).", "The four ashramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vānaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciation).Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life.", "Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life.", "Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.", "Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.", "The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism.", "Combined with four proper goals of human life (Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation.", "While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage.", "Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.=== Monasticism ===A sadhu in Madurai, IndiaSome Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection.", "Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation.", "A Hindu monk is called a ''Sanyāsī'', ''Sādhu'', or ''Swāmi''.", "A female renunciate is called a ''Sanyāsini''.", "Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple ahiṃsā-driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism.", "Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs." ], [ "History", "Tamil depiction of Kali from the 12th centuryHinduism's varied history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation.", "Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder.The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development.", "The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE.", "This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE.", "The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is \"a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions\", and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.", "The Epic and Early Puranic period, from to 500 CE, saw the classical \"Golden Age\" of Hinduism (), which coincides with the Gupta Empire.", "In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta.", "Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement.", "The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.The Hindu Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was built by Narasimhavarman II.|leftHinduism under both Hindu and Islamic rulers from , saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today.", "Historic persecutions of Hindus happened under Muslim rulers and also by Christian Missionaries.", "In Goa, the 1560 inquisition by Portuguese colonists is also considered one of the most brutal persecutions of Hindus.", "The colonial period saw the emergence of various Hindu reform movements partly inspired by western movements, such as Unitarianism and Theosophy.", "In the Kingdom of Nepal, the Unification of Nepal by Shah dynasty was accompanied by the Hinduization of the state and continued till the .", "Indians were hired as plantation labourers in British colonies such as Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago.", "The Partition of India in 1947 was along religious lines, with the Republic of India emerging with a Hindu majority.", "Between 200,000 and one million people, including both Muslims and Hindus, were killed during the Partition of India.", "During the 20th century, due to the Indian diaspora, Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the United States, and the United Kingdom.Although religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial and debated subject in India, Nepal, and in Indonesia, in the 20th–21st century, many missionary organizations such as ISKCON, Sathya Sai Organization, Vedanta Society have been influential in spreading the core culture of Hinduism outside India.", "Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched ''Shuddhi'' movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion.", "All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this \"there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism\" view must be re-examined.", "There have also been an increase of Hindu identity in politics, mostly in India, Nepal and Bangladesh in the form of Hindutva.", "The revivalist movement was mainly started and encouraged by many organisations like RSS, BJP and other organisations of Sangh Parivar in India, while there are also many Hindu nationalist parties and organisations such as Shivsena Nepal and RPP in Nepal, HINDRAF in Malaysia, etc.", "In September 2021, the State of New Jersey aligned with the World Hindu Council to declare October as Hindu Heritage Month." ], [ "Demographics", "laddoos, implements, vajra weapon, vegetable, fruits, mala, mouse, wish fulfilling jewelsHinduism is a major religion in India.", "Hinduism was followed by around 80% of the country's population of 1.21 billion (2011 census) (966 million adherents).", "India contains 94% of the global Hindu population.", "Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (13 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million).", "A significant population of Hindus are also present in Pakistan (4 million).", "The majority of the Indonesian Tenggerese people in Java and the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion of the Chams in Ninh Thuận Province.", "Hinduism is the third fastest-growing religion in the world after Islam and Christianity, with a predicted growth rate of 34% between 2010 and 2050.Percentage of Hindus by countryCountries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:# 81.3%# 80.0%# 48.5%# 28.4%# 27.9%# 22.6%# 22.3%# 18.2%# 13.8%# 12.6%# 9.8%# 7.5%# 6.8%# 6.6%# 6.3%# 6%# 5.5%# 5%# 3.86%# 2.7%# 2.62%# 2.4%# 2.14%Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.+ Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, ) Tradition Followers % of the Hindu population % of the world population Follower dynamics World dynamics Vaishnavism 640,806,845 67.6 9.3 Growing Growing Shaivism 252,200,000 26.6 3.7 Growing GrowingShaktism 30,000,000 3.2 0.4 Stable DecliningNeo-Hinduism 20,300,000 2.1 0.3 Growing GrowingReform Hinduism 5,200,000 0.5 0.1 Growing Growing Cumulative 948,575,000 100 13.8 Growing Growing" ], [ "See also", "; Hinduism* Hindu atheism* Crypto-Hinduism* Gautama Buddha in Hinduism* Anti-Hindu sentiment* Hindu eschatology* Hinduism by country* Indomania* Jagran* Lists of Hindus* Encyclopedia of Hinduism*Vegetarianism; Related systems and religions* Adivasi religion* Ayyavazhi* Bathouism* Donyi-Polo* Dravidian folk religion* Eastern religions* Eastern philosophy* Gurung shamanism* Bon* Hinduism and other religions** Hinduism and Judaism** Hinduism and Sikhism** Buddhism and Hinduism** Hinduism and Theosophy** Hinduism and Zoroastrianism* Indian religions* Kalash religion* Kiratism* Sarna sthal* Manichaeism* Peterburgian Vedism* Proto-Indo-European religion* Proto-Indo-Iranian religion* Hinduism and science* Sanamahism* Sarnaism* Sikhism* Tribal religions in India* Zoroastrianism* Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization* Ancient Iranian religion" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "For references on specific authors or topics, please see the relevant article.=== Printed sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Web sources ===" ], [ "Further reading", "; Encyclopedias* * ** Vol.", "1: ''Regions, Pilgrimage, Deities'' (2009).", "** Vol.", "2: ''Sacred Languages, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts'' (2010).", "** Vol.", "3: ''Society, Religious Professionals, Religious Communities, Philosophies'' (2011).", "** Vol.", "4: ''Historical Perspectives, Poets/Teachers/Saints, Relation to Other Religions and Traditions, Hinduism and Contemporary Issues'' (2012).", "** Vol.", "5: ''Symbolism, Diaspora, Modern Groups and Teachers'' (2013).", "** Vol.", "6: ''Indices'' (2015).", "* * * * * Ongoing monographic series project.", "* * ; Introductory* * * * * * ; History* * * * ; Philosophy and theology* Vol.", "1 | Vol.", "2 | Vol.", "3 | Vol.", "4 | Vol.", "5.", "* ; Texts* *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Help desk" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''help desk''' is a department or person that provides assistance and information, usually for electronic or computer problems.", "In the mid-1990s, research by Iain Middleton of Robert Gordon University studied the value of an organization's help desks.", "It found that value was derived not only from a reactive response to user issues, but also from the help desk's unique position of communicating daily with numerous customers or employees.", "Information gained in areas such as technical problems, user preferences, and satisfaction can be valuable for the planning and development work of other information technology units.A main function of the Help desk is to separate issues from defects.", "Many issues can be solved at the Help Desk level such as password resets and simple misunderstandings.", "Some issues will be the result of actual product defect which should be forwarded to a development team for resolution.Large help desks have a person or team responsible for managing the incoming requests, called \"issues\"; they are commonly called queue managers or queue supervisors.", "The queue manager is responsible for the issue queues, which can be set up in various ways depending on the help desk size or structure.", "Typically, large help desks have several teams that are experienced in working on different issues.", "The queue manager will assign an issue to one of the specialized teams based on the type of issue raised.", "Some help desks may have telephone systems with ACD splits ensuring that calls about specific topics are put through to analysts with the requisite experience or knowledge." ], [ "See also", "*Call center*Customer service*Comparison of issue-tracking systems*Comparison of help desk issue tracking software *Technical support*Help desk software" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Bordeaux" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Bordeaux''' (25 January 1870 – 29 March 1963) was a French writer and lawyer.Bordeaux came from a family of lawyers of Savoy.", "He was born in Thonon-les-Bains, Haute-Savoie.", "His grandfather was a magistrate and his father served on the Chambéry bar.", "During his early life, he relocated between Savoy and Paris and the tensions between provincial and city life influenced his writings.", "In his professional life he observed closely the dissolution of numerous families and analysed the causes and consequences of these.", "From the age of seventeen he spent three years in Paris studying law.", "Then he returned to practice law in Savoy.", "He returned to Paris after the publication of his first book during 1894.When his father died in 1896 he returned to Savoy.The writings of Bordeaux reflect the values of traditional provincial Catholic communities.", "One recurring theme is loyalty.", "Loyalty is pervasive, and it applies to family, country and God.", "This theme is particularly evidenced in the novels \"La Peur de vivre\" and \"Les Roquevillard.", "\"Bordeaux was elected to the Académie française on 22 May 1919.This elite group of writers, popularly known as the \"immortals,\" are responsible for establishing and maintaining the grammar, usage and acceptance of vocabulary into standard French.He was a contributor to ''Le Visage de l'Italie'', a 1929 book about Italy prefaced by Benito Mussolini.Bordeaux died in Paris in 1963." ], [ "Popular culture", "Henry Miller makes fun of Bordeaux in Tropic of Cancer.", "\"I have yet to meet a whore who doesn't know of Henry Bordeaux!", ".", ".", ".", "It seemed to me that I heard her say, 'quand il n'y aura plus de temps.'", "It sounded like that anyway.", "In the state I was in, a phrase like that was worth a hundred francs.", "I wondered if it was her own or if she had pulled it from Henry Bordeaux.\"" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Le Pays natal'' (1900)* ''La Peur de vivre'' (1902)* ''La Petite mademoiselle'' (1905)* ''Les Roquevillard'' (1906)* ''Les Yeux qui s’ouvrent'' (1908)* ''La Croisée des chemins'' (1909)* ''La Robe de laine'' (1910)* ''La Neige sur les pas'' (1911)* ''La Maison'' (1913)* ''Le Chevalier de l'air : Vie héroïque de Guynemer'', Plon (1918)* ''La Résurrection de la chair'' (1920)* ''Yamilé sous les cèdres'' (1923)* ''La Chartreuse du Reposoir'' (1924)* ''Le Cœur et le sang'' (1925)* ''Le Bouquet Rouge '' (1926)* ''La Revenante'' (1932)* ''Le Cœur de la Reine Hortense'' (1933)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Fielding" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Fielding''' (22 April 1707 – 8 October 1754) was an English writer and magistrate known for the use of humour and satire in his works.", "His 1749 comic novel ''The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling'' was a seminal work in the genre.", "Along with Samuel Richardson, Fielding is seen as the founder of the traditional English novel.", "He also played an important role in the history of law enforcement in the United Kingdom, using his authority as a magistrate to found the Bow Street Runners, London's first professional police force." ], [ "Early life", "Henry Fielding was born on 22 April 1707 at Sharpham Park, the seat of his mother's family in Sharpham, Somerset.", "He was the son of Lt.-Gen. Edmund Fielding and Sarah Gould, daughter of Sir Henry Gould.", "A scion of the Earl of Denbigh, his father was nephew of William Fielding, 3rd Earl of Denbigh.", "Educated at Eton College, Fielding began a lifelong friendship with William Pitt the Elder.", "His mother died when he was 11.A suit for custody was brought by his grandmother against his charming but irresponsible father, Lt Gen. Edmund Fielding.", "The settlement placed Henry in his grandmother's care, but he continued to see his father in London.In 1725, Henry tried to abduct his cousin Sarah Andrews (with whom he was infatuated) while she was on her way to church.", "He fled to avoid prosecution.In 1728, Fielding travelled to Leiden to study classics and law at the university.", "However, penury forced him back to London, where he began writing for the theatre.", "Some of his work savagely criticised the government of Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole." ], [ "Dramatist and novelist", "According to George R. Levine, Henry Fielding, in his first writings used two forms of \"rhetorical poses\" that were popular during the eighteenth century.", "Henry Fielding would construct \"the non-ironic pseudonym such as Addison and Steele used in the ''Spectator,'' and the ironic mask or ''Persona'', such as Swift used in A Modest Proposal.\"", "The Theatrical Licensing Act of 1737 is said to be a direct response to his activities in writing for the theatre.", "Although the play that triggered the act was the unproduced, anonymously authored ''The Golden Rump'', Fielding's dramatic satires had set the tone.", "Once it was passed, political satire on stage became all but impossible.", "Fielding retired from the theatre and resumed his legal career to support his wife Charlotte Craddock and two children by becoming a barrister, joining the Middle Temple in 1737 and being called to the bar there in 1740.Fielding's lack of financial acumen meant the family often endured periods of poverty, but were helped by Ralph Allen, a wealthy benefactor, on whom Squire Allworthy in ''Tom Jones'' would be based.", "Allen went on to provide for the education and support of Fielding's children after the writer's death.", "''Henry Fielding'', about 1743, etching from ''Jonathan Wild''Fielding never stopped writing political satire and satires of current arts and letters.", "''The Tragedy of Tragedies'' (for which Hogarth designed the frontispiece) was, for example, quite successful as a printed play.", "Based on his earlier ''Tom Thumb'', this was another of Fielding's irregular plays published under the name of H. Scriblerus Secundus, a pseudonym intended to link himself ideally with the Scriblerus Club of literary satirists founded by Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope and John Gay.", "He also contributed several works to journals.From 1734 to 1739, Fielding wrote anonymously for the leading Tory periodical, ''The Craftsman'', against the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole.", "His patron was the opposition Whig MP George Lyttelton, a boyhood friend from Eton to whom he later dedicated ''Tom Jones''.", "Lyttelton followed his leader Lord Cobham in forming a Whig opposition to Walpole's government called the Cobhamites, which included another of Fielding's Eton friends, William Pitt.", "In ''The Craftsman'', Fielding voiced an opposition attack on bribery and corruption in British politics.", "Despite writing for the opposition to Walpole, which included Tories as well as Whigs, Fielding was \"unshakably a Whig\" and often praised Whig heroes such as the Duke of Marlborough and Gilbert Burnet.Fielding dedicated his play ''Don Quixote in England'' to the opposition Whig leader Lord Chesterfield.", "It appeared on 17 April 1734, the same day writs were issued for the general election.", "He dedicated his 1735 play ''The Universal Gallant'' to Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough, a political follower of Chesterfield.", "The other prominent opposition paper, ''Common Sense'', founded by Chesterfield and Lyttelton, was named after a character in Fielding's ''Pasquin'' (1736).", "Fielding wrote at least two articles for it in 1737 and 1738.Fielding continued to air political views in satirical articles and newspapers in the late 1730s and early 1740s.", "He was the main writer and editor from 1739 to 1740 for the satirical paper ''The Champion'', which was sharply critical of Walpole's government and of pro-government literary and political writers.", "He sought to evade libel charges by making its political attacks so funny or embarrassing to the victim that a publicized court case would seem even worse.", "He later became chief writer for the Whig government of Henry Pelham.Fielding took to novel writing in 1741, angered by Samuel Richardson's success with ''Pamela''.", "His first success was an anonymous parody of that novel, called ''Shamela''.", "This follows the model of Tory satirists of the previous generation, notably Swift and Gay.Fielding followed this with ''Joseph Andrews'' (1742), an original work supposedly dealing with Pamela's brother, Joseph.", "His purpose, however, was more than parody, for as stated in the preface, he intended a \"kind of writing which I do not remember to have seen hitherto attempted in our language.\"", "In what Fielding called a \"comic epic poem in prouse\", he blended two classical traditions: that of the epic, which had been poetic, and that of the drama, but emphasizing the comic rather than the tragic.", "Another distinction of ''Joseph Andrews'' and the novels to come was use of everyday reality of character and action, as opposed to the fables of the past.", "While begun as a parody, it developed into an accomplished novel in its own right and is seen as Fielding's debut as a serious novelist.", "In 1743, he published a novel in the ''Miscellanies'' volume III (which was the first volume of the Miscellanies): ''The Life and Death of Jonathan Wild, the Great'', which is sometimes counted as his first, as he almost certainly began it before he wrote ''Shamela'' and ''Joseph Andrews''.", "It is a satire of Walpole equating him and Jonathan Wild, the gang leader and highwayman.", "He implicitly compares the Whig party in Parliament with a gang of thieves run by Walpole, whose constant desire to be a \"Great Man\" (a common epithet with Walpole) ought to culminate in the antithesis of greatness: hanging.Fielding's anonymous ''The Female Husband'' (1746) fictionalizes a case in which a female transvestite was tried for duping another woman into marriage; this was one of several small pamphlets costing sixpence.", "Though a minor piece in his life's work, it reflects his preoccupation with fraud, shamming and masks.His greatest work is ''The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling'' (1749), a meticulous comic novel with elements of the picaresque and the Bildungsroman, telling a convoluted tale of how a foundling came into a fortune.", "The novel tells of Tom's alienation from his foster father, Squire Allworthy, and his sweetheart, Sophia Western, and his reconciliation with them after lively and dangerous adventures on the road and in London.", "It triumphs as a presentation of English life and character in the mid-18th century.", "Every social type is represented and through them every shade of moral behaviour.", "Fielding's varied style tempers the basic seriousness of the novel and his authorial comment before each chapter adds a dimension to a conventional, straightforward narrative.===Sister===Fielding's younger sister, Sarah, also became a successful writer.", "Her novel ''The Governess, or The Little Female Academy'' (1749) is thought to be the first in English aimed expressly at children." ], [ "Marriages", "Fielding married Charlotte Craddock in 1734 at the Church of St Mary in Charlcombe, Somerset.", "She died in 1744, and he later modelled the heroines of ''Tom Jones'' and of ''Amelia'' on her.", "They had five children; their only daughter Henrietta died at the age of 23, having already been \"in deep decline\" when she married a military engineer, James Gabriel Montresor, some months before.", "Three years after Charlotte's death, Fielding disregarded public opinion by marrying her former maid Mary Daniel, who was pregnant.", "Mary bore five children: three daughters who died young, and two sons, William and Allen." ], [ "Jurist and magistrate", "Henry Fielding Memorial at Widcombe Lodge in BathDespite the scandal, Fielding's consistent anti-Jacobitism and support for the Church of England led to his appointment a year later as Westminster's chief magistrate, while his literary career went from strength to strength.", "Most of his work concerned London's criminal population of thieves, informers, gamblers and prostitutes.", "Though living in a corrupt and callous society, he became noted for impartial judgements, incorruptibility and compassion for those whom social inequities led into crime.", "The income from his office (\"the dirtiest money upon earth\") dwindled as he refused to take money from the very poor.", "Joined by his younger half-brother John, he helped found what some call London's first police force, the Bow Street Runners, in 1749.According to the historian G. M. Trevelyan, the Fieldings were two of the best magistrates in 18th-century London, who did much to enhance judicial reform and improve prison conditions.", "Fielding's influential pamphlets and enquiries included a proposal for abolishing public hangings.", "This did not, however, imply opposition to capital punishment as such – as is evident, for example, in his presiding in 1751 over the trial of the notorious criminal James Field, finding him guilty in a robbery and sentencing him to hang.", "John Fielding, despite being blind by then, succeeded his older brother as chief magistrate, becoming known as the \"Blind Beak of Bow Street\" for his ability to recognise criminals by their voices alone.Henry Fielding's grave in the cemetery of the Church of England St. George's Church, LisbonIn January 1752 Fielding started a fortnightly, ''The Covent-Garden Journal'', published under the pseudonym \"Sir Alexander Drawcansir, Knt., Censor of Great Britain\" until November of that year.", "Here Fielding challenged the \"armies of Grub Street\" and periodical writers of the day in a conflict that became the Paper War of 1752–1753.Fielding then published ''Examples of the Interposition of Providence in the Detection and Punishment of Murder'' (1752), a treatise rejecting deistic and materialistic visions of the world in favour of belief in God's presence and divine judgement, arguing that the murder rate was rising due to neglect of the Christian religion.", "In 1753 he wrote ''Proposals for Making an Effectual Provision for the Poor''.Fielding's humanitarian commitment to justice in the 1750s (for instance in support of Elizabeth Canning) coincided with rapid deterioration in his health.", "Gout, asthma and cirrhosis of the liver left him on crutches, and with other afflictions sent him to Portugal in 1754 to seek a cure, only to die two months later in Lisbon, reportedly in pain and mental distress.", "His tomb there is in the British Cemetery (''Cemitério Inglês''), the graveyard of St. George's Church, Lisbon." ], [ "List of works", "Fielding on a 1957 Soviet stamp===Novels===*''Shamela'' – novella, 1741*''The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and his Friend, Mr. Abraham Adams'' – 1742*''The Life and Death of Jonathan Wild, the Great'' – 1743, ironic treatment of Jonathan Wild, a notorious underworld figure of the time.", "Published as Volume 3 of ''Miscellanies''*''The Female Husband or the Surprising History of Mrs Mary alias Mr George Hamilton, who was convicted of having married a young woman of Wells and lived with her as her husband, taken from her own mouth since her confinement'' – pamphlet, fictionalized report, 1746*''The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling'' – 1749*''A Journey from this World to the Next'' – 1749*''Amelia'' – 1751===Partial list of poems===*''The Masquerade'' – (Fielding's first publication)*''Part of Juvenal's Sixth Satire, Modernized in Burlesque Verse''===Plays===* ''Love in Several Masques'' (1728)* ''Rape upon Rape; or, The Justice Caught in his own Trap'' (1730), also known as ''The Coffee-House Politician,'' played in rep with ''Tom Thumb the Great''* ''Tom Thumb the Great: A Burlesque Tragedy'' (1730)* ''The Temple Beau'' (1730)* ''The Author's Farce; and The Pleasures of the Town'' (1730)* ''The Letter Writers, or A New Way to Keep a Wife at Home: A Farce'' (1731), originally an afterpiece to ''The Tragedy of Tragedies''* ''The Tragedy of Tragedies: or the Life and Death of Tom Thumb the Great'' (1731), a revision of ''Tom Thumb the Great''* ''The Coffee-House Politician,'' ''or The Justice Caught in his own Trap, A Comedy'' (1730-31), a reworking of ''Rape upon Rape. ''", "In 1730, another act was added to the play, titled ''The Battle of the Poets'' (author unknown).", "* ''The Old Debauchees'' (1732), originally titled ''The Despairing Debauchee''.", "Later revived as ''The Becauchees; or, The Jesuit Caught''* ''The Covent-Garden Tragedy'' (1732), originally appeared in rep with ''The Old Debauchees,'' but only played one night.", "Eventually revived in rep with ''Don Quixote in England''* ''The Mock Doctor: or The Dumb Lady Cur'd'' (1732), adapted from Molière's  ''Le Médecin malgré lui,'' played in rep with ''The Old Debauchees,'' as a replacement for ''The Covent-Garden Tragedy''* ''The Welsh Opera'' (1731), originally a companion piece to ''The Tragedy of Tragedies''* ''The Grub Street Opera'' (1731), Fieldings only closet drama, expanded from his play ''The Welsh Opera''* ''The Modern Husband'' (1732)* ''The Lottery'' (1732), played in rep with Joseph Addison's ''Cato. ''", "A ballad opera with music from \"Mr.", "Seedo.", "\"* ''The Intriguing Chambermaid'' (1734), after Jean-François Regnard* ''An Old Man Taught Wisdom, or The Virgin Unmasked, A Farce'' (1734), ballad opera* ''Don Quixote in England'' (1734), ballad opera* ''The Miser'' (1735), incidental music by Thomas Arne, based on the Moliere and Plautus* ''The Universal Gallant, or The Different Husbands'' (1735)* ''Pasquin'' (1736)* ''Eurydice, A Farce'' (1737)* ''Eurydice Hiss'd, or A Word to the Wise'' (1737)* ''The Historical Register for the Year 1736'' – 1737* ''Miss Lucy in Town'', ballad farce librettist (1742), composer Thomas Arne, revived in 1770 as ''The Country Madcap''* ''Tumbledown Dick or Phaeton in the Suds'' (1744), ballad opera* ''The Wedding-Day.", "A Comedy.''", "(1743)* ''The Fathers'' (1778), published posthumously with Oliver Goldsmith's ''The Good-Natur'd Man'' '''Further Adaptations'''* ''The Opera of Operas; Or, Tom Thumb the Great Alter’d from the Life and Death of Tom Thumb the Great and Set to Musick after the Italian Manner.", "As It Is Performing at the New Theatre in the Hay-Market'', (1733) written by Eliza Haywood and William Hatchett, music by Thomas Arne, adapted from the Fielding* ''Tom Thumb the Great: A Burlesque Tragedy from Fielding'' (1805-1810), written by Kane O’Hara Esq., adapted from Fielding* ''Squire Badger: A burletta in two acts'', Thomas Arne composer and librettist (1772), after Henry Fielding's ''Don Quixote in England'' (1729).", "The work was revived under the name ''The Sot'' in 1775.", "* ''The Rival Queens'' (1794)'','' adapted by William Holcroft from Fielding's ''The Covent-Garden Tragedy''* ''Lock Up Your Daughters'' (1959), musical based on ''Rape Upon Rape'', book by Bernard Miles, lyrics by Lionel Bart, music by Laurie Johnson.", "Made into a non-musical film (1969).===Miscellaneous writings===*''Miscellanies'' – collection of works, 1743, contained the poem \"Part of Juvenal's Sixth Satire, Modernized in Burlesque Verse\"*''\" Examples of the interposition of Providence in the Detection and Punishment of Murder containing above thirty cases in which this dreadful crime has been brought to light in the most extraordinary and miraculous manner; collected from various authors, ancient and modern\"'' (1752)*''The Covent-Garden Journal'' – periodical, 1752*''Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon'' – travel narrative, 1755" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Battestin, Martin C. & Battestin, Ruthe R., ''Henry Fielding.", "A Life'' (Routledge, 1989)*Dircks, Richard J., ''Henry Fielding.", "Twayne's English Authors'' (Twayne, 1983)*Hunter, J. Paul, ''Occasional Form: Henry Fielding and the Chains of Circumstance'' (John Hopkins Uni Press, 1985)*Pagliaro, Harold, ''Henry Fielding: A Literary Life'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 1998)*Pringle, Patrick, ''Hue and Cry: The Birth of the British Police'' (Museum Press, 1955)*Rawson, C. J., ''Henry Fielding and the Augustan Ideal Under Stress'' (Routledge, Kegan & Paul, 1972)*Rogers, Pat, ''Henry Fielding.", "A Biography'' (Paul Elek, 1979)*Thomas, Donald, ''Henry Fielding'' (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990)*Simpson, K. G., ''Henry Fielding: Justice Observed'' (Vision Press, 1985)*William, Ioan (ed.", "), ''The Criticism of Henry Fielding'' (Routledge, Kegan & Paul, 1970)" ], [ "External links", "***** Famous Quotes by Henry Fielding *** Henry Fielding at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hate crime" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hate crime''' (also known a '''bias crime''') is crime where a perpetrator targets a victim because of their physical appearance or perceived membership of a certain social group.Examples of such groups can include, and are almost exclusively limited to ethnicity, disability, language, nationality, physical appearance, political views and/or affiliation, age, religion, sex, gender identity, and/or sexual orientation.", "Non-criminal actions that are motivated by these reasons are often called \"bias incidents\".Incidents may involve physical assault, homicide, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse (which includes slurs) or insults, mate crime, or offensive graffiti or letters (hate mail).In the criminal law of the United States, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines a hate crime as a traditional offense like murder, arson, or vandalism with an added element of bias.", "Hate itself is not a hate crime but committing a crime motivated by bias against one or more of the social groups listed above, or by bias against their derivatives constitutes a hate crime.", "A '''hate crime law''' is a law intended to deter bias-motivated violence.", "Hate crime laws are distinct from laws against hate speech: hate crime laws enhance the penalties associated with conduct which is already criminal under other laws, while hate speech laws criminalize a category of speech.", "Hate speech is a factor for sentencing enhancement in the United States, distinct from laws that criminalize speech." ], [ "History", "The term \"hate crime\" came into common usage in the United States during the 1980s, but it is often used retrospectively in order to describe events which occurred prior to that era.", "From the Roman persecution of Christians to the Nazi slaughter of Jews, hate crimes were committed by individuals as well as governments long before the term was commonly used.", "A major part of defining crimes as hate crimes is determining that they have been committed against members of historically oppressed groups.As Europeans began to colonize the world from the 16th century onwards, indigenous peoples in the colonized areas, such as Native Americans, increasingly became the targets of bias-motivated intimidation and violence.", "During the past two centuries, typical examples of hate crimes in the U.S. include lynchings of African Americans, largely in the South, lynchings of Europeans in the East, and lynchings of Mexicans and Chinese in the West; cross burnings in order to intimidate black activists or drive black families out of predominantly white neighborhoods both during and after Reconstruction; assaults on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people; the painting of swastikas on Jewish synagogues; and xenophobic responses to a variety of minority ethnic groups.The verb \"''to lynch''\" is attributed to the actions of Charles Lynch, an 18th-century Virginia Quaker.", "Lynch, other militia officers, and justices of the peace rounded up Tory sympathizers who were given a summary trial at an informal court; sentences which were handed down included whipping, property seizure, coerced pledges of allegiance, and conscription into the military.", "Originally, the term referred to the extrajudicial organized but unauthorized punishment of criminals.", "It later evolved to describe executions which were committed outside \"ordinary justice\".", "It is highly associated with white suppression of African Americans in the South, and periods of weak or nonexistent police authority, as in certain frontier areas of the Old West.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the violence against people of Chinese origin significantly increased on the background of accusation of spreading the virus.", "In May 2020, the Polish-based \"NEVER AGAIN\" Association published its report titled ''The Virus of Hate: The Brown Book of Epidemic'', that documented numerous acts of racism, xenophobia, and discrimination that occurred in the wake of coronavirus pandemic, as well as cases of spreading hate speech and conspiracy theories about the epidemic by the Alt-Right." ], [ "Psychological effects", "Hate crimes can have significant and wide-ranging psychological consequences, not only for their direct victims but for others of the group as well.", "A 1999 U.S. study of lesbian and gay victims of violent hate crimes documented that they experienced higher levels of psychological distress, including symptoms of depression and anxiety, than lesbian and gay victims of comparable crimes which were not motivated by antigay bias.", "A manual issued by the Attorney-General of the Province of Ontario in Canada lists the following consequences:; Impact on the individual victim: psychological and affective disturbances; repercussions on the victim's identity and self-esteem; both reinforced by a specific hate crime's degree of violence, which is usually stronger than that of a common crime.", "; Effect on the targeted group: generalized terror in the group to which the victim belongs, inspiring feelings of vulnerability among its other members, who could be the next hate crime victims.", "; Effect on other vulnerable groups: ominous effects on minority groups or on groups that identify themselves with the targeted group, especially when the referred hate is based on an ideology or a doctrine that preaches simultaneously against several groups.", "; Effect on the community as a whole: divisions and factionalism arising in response to hate crimes are particularly damaging to multicultural societies.Hate crime victims can also develop depression and psychological trauma.", "They suffer from typical systems of trauma: lack of concentration, fear, unintentional rethinking of the incident and feeling vulnerable or unsafe.", "These symptoms may be severe enough to qualify as PTSD.", "In the United States, the Supreme Court has accepted the claim that hate crimes cause 'distinct emotional harm' to victims.", "People who have been victims of hate crimes avoid spaces where they feel unsafe which can make communities less functional when ties with police are strained by persistent group fears and feelings of insecurity.A review of European and American research indicates that terrorist bombings cause Islamophobia and hate crimes to flare up but, in calmer times, they subside again, although to a relatively high level.", "Terrorists' most persuasive message is that of fear; a primary and strong emotion, fear increases risk estimates and has distortive effects on the perception of ordinary Muslims.", "Widespread Islamophobic prejudice seems to contribute to anti-Muslim hate crimes, but indirectly; terrorist attacks and intensified Islamophobic prejudice serve as a window of opportunity for extremist groups and networks." ], [ "Motivation", "Sociologists Jack McDevitt and Jack Levin's 2002 study into the motives for hate crimes found four motives, and reported that \"thrill-seeking\" accounted for 66 percent of all hate crimes overall in the United States:* ''Thrill-seeking'' – perpetrators engage in hate crimes for excitement and drama.", "Often, there is no greater purpose behind the crimes, with victims being vulnerable because they have an ethnic, religious, sexual or gender background that differs from their attackers.", "While the actual animosity present in such a crime can be quite low, thrill-seeking crimes were determined to often be dangerous, with 70 percent of thrill-seeking hate crimes studied involving physical attacks.", "Typically, these attacks are perpetrated by groups of young teenagers or adults seeking excitement.", "* ''Defensive'' – perpetrators engage in hate crimes out of a belief they are protecting their communities.", "Often, these are triggered by a certain background event.", "Perpetrators believe society supports their actions but is too afraid to act and thus they believe they have communal assent in their actions.", "* ''Retaliatory'' – perpetrators engage in hate crimes out of a desire for revenge.", "This can be in response to perceived personal slights, other hate crimes or terrorism.", "The \"avengers\" target members of a group whom they believe committed the original crime, even if the victims had nothing to do with it.", "These kinds of hate crimes are a common occurrence after terrorist attacks.", "* ''Mission offenders'' – perpetrators engage in hate crimes out of ideological reasons.", "They consider themselves to be crusaders, often for a religious or racial cause.", "They may write complex explanations for their views and target symbolically important sites, trying to maximize damage.", "They believe that there is no other way to accomplish their goals, which they consider to be justification for excessive violence against innocents.", "This kind of hate crime often overlaps with terrorism, and is considered by the FBI to be both the rarest and deadliest form of hate crime.In a later article, Levin and fellow sociologist Ashley Reichelmann found that following the September 11 attacks, thrill motivated hate crimes tended to decrease as the overall rate of violent crime decreased while defensive hate crimes increased substantially.", "Specifically, they found that 60% of all hate motivated assaults in 2001 were perpetrated against those the offenders perceived to be Middle Eastern and were motivated mainly by a desire for revenge.", "Levin and McDevitt also argued that while thrill crimes made up the majority of hate crimes in the 1990s, after September 11, 2001, hate crimes in the United States shifted from thrill offenses by young groups to more defensive oriented and more often perpetrated by older individuals respond to a precipitating event." ], [ "Laws", "Hate crime laws generally fall into one of several categories:# laws defining specific bias-motivated acts as distinct crimes;# criminal penalty-enhancement laws;# laws creating a distinct civil cause of action for hate crimes; and# laws requiring administrative agencies to collect hate crime statistics.", "Sometimes (as in Bosnia and Herzegovina), the laws focus on war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity with the prohibition against discriminatory action limited to public officials.===Europe and Asia=======Council of Europe====Since 2006, with the Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime, most signatories to that Convention – mostly members of the Council of Europe – committed to punish as a crime racist and xenophobic hate speech done through the internet.====Andorra====Discriminatory acts constituting harassment or infringement of a person's dignity on the basis of origin, citizenship, race, religion, or gender (Penal Code Article 313).", "Courts have cited bias-based motivation in delivering sentences, but there is no explicit penalty enhancement provision in the Criminal Code.", "The government does not track hate crime statistics, although they are relatively rare.====Armenia====Armenia has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes with ethnic, racial, or religious motives (Criminal Code Article 63).====Austria====Austria has a penalty-enhancement statute for reasons like repeating a crime, being especially cruel, using others' helpless states, playing a leading role in a crime, or committing a crime with racist, xenophobic or especially reprehensible motivation (Penal Code section 33(5)).", "Austria is a party to the Convention on Cybercrime, but not the Additional Protocol.====Azerbaijan====Azerbaijan has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes motivated by racial, national, or religious hatred (Criminal Code Article 61).", "Murder and infliction of serious bodily injury motivated by racial, religious, national, or ethnic intolerance are distinct crimes (Article 111).", "Azerbaijan is a party to the Convention on Cybercrime, but not the Additional Protocol.====Belarus====Belarus has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes motivated by racial, national, and religious hatred and discord.====Belgium====Belgium's Act of 25 February 2003 (\"aimed at combating discrimination and modifying the Act of 15 February 1993 which establishes the Centre for Equal Opportunities and the Fight against Racism\") establishes a penalty-enhancement for crimes involving discrimination on the basis of gender, supposed race, color, descent, national or ethnic origin, sexual orientation, civil status, birth, fortune, age, religious or philosophical beliefs, current or future state of health and handicap or physical features.", "The Act also \"provides for a civil remedy to address discrimination.\"", "The Act, along with the Act of 20 January 2003 (\"on strengthening legislation against racism\"), requires the centre to collect and publish statistical data on racism and discriminatory crimes.", "Belgium is a party to the Convention on Cybercrime, but not the Additional Protocol.====Bosnia and Herzegovina====The Criminal Code of Bosnia and Herzegovina (enacted 2003) \"contains provisions prohibiting discrimination by public officials on grounds, inter alia, of race, skin colour, national or ethnic background, religion and language and prohibiting the restriction by public officials of the language rights of the citizens in their relations with the authorities (Article 145/1 and 145/2).", "\"====Bulgaria====Bulgarian criminal law prohibits certain crimes motivated by racism and xenophobia, but a 1999 report by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance found that it does not appear that those provisions \"have ever resulted in convictions before the courts in Bulgaria.", "\"====Croatia====The Croatian Penal Code explicitly defines hate crime in article 89 as \"any crime committed out of hatred for someone's race, skin color, sex, sexual orientation, language, religion, political or other belief, national or social background, asset, birth, education, social condition, age, health condition or other attribute\".", "On 1 January 2013, a new Penal Code was introduced with the recognition of a hate crime based on \"race, skin color, religion, national or ethnic background, sexual orientation or gender identity\".====Czech Republic====The Czech legislation finds its constitutional basis in the principles of equality and non-discrimination contained in the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms.", "From there, we can trace two basic lines of protection against hate-motivated incidents: one passes through criminal law, the other through civil law.The current Czech criminal legislation has implications both for decisions about guilt (affecting the decision whether to find a defendant guilty or not guilty) and decisions concerning sentencing (affecting the extent of the punishment imposed).", "It has three levels, to wit:* a '''circumstance determining whether an act is a crime''' – hate motivation is included in the basic constituent elements.", "If hate motivation is not proven, a conviction for a hate crime is not possible.", "* a '''circumstance determining the imposition of a higher penalty''' – hate motivation is included in the qualified constituent elements for some types of crimes (murder, bodily harm).", "If hate motivation is not proven, the penalty is imposed according to the scale specified for the basic constituent elements of the crime.", "* '''general aggravating circumstance''' – the court is obligated to take the hate motivation into account as a general aggravating circumstance and determines the amount of penalty to impose.", "Nevertheless, it is not possible to add together a general aggravating circumstance and a circumstance determining the imposition of a higher penalty.", "(see Annex for details)Current criminal legislation does not provide for special penalties for acts that target another by reason of his sexual orientation, age or health status.", "Only the constituent elements of the criminal offence of Incitement to hatred towards a group of persons or to the curtailment of their rights and freedoms and general aggravating circumstances include attacking a so-called different group of people.", "Such a group of people can then, of course, be also defined by sexual orientation, age or health status.", "A certain disparity has thus been created between, on the one hand, those groups of people who are victimized by reason of their skin color, faith, nationality, ethnicity or political persuasion and enjoy increased protection, and, on the other hand, those groups that are victimized by reason of their sexual orientation, age or health status and are not granted increased protection.", "This gap in protection against attacks motivated by the victim's sexual orientation, age or health status cannot be successfully bridged by interpretation.", "Interpretation by analogy is inadmissible in criminal law, sanctionable motivations being exhaustively enumerated.====Denmark====Although Danish law does not include explicit hate crime provisions, \"section 80(1) of the Criminal Code instructs courts to take into account the gravity of the offence and the offender's motive when meting out penalty, and therefore to attach importance to the racist motive of crimes in determining sentence.\"", "In recent years judges have used this provision to increase sentences on the basis of racist motives.Since 1992, the Danish Civil Security Service (PET) has released statistics on crimes with apparent racist motivation.====Estonia====Under section 151 of the Criminal Code of Estonia of 6 June 2001, which entered into force on 1 September 2002, with amendments and supplements and as amended by the Law of 8 December 2011, \"activities which publicly incite to hatred, violence or discrimination on the basis of nationality, race, colour, sex, language, origin, religion, sexual orientation, political opinion, or financial or social status, if this results in danger to the life, health or property of a person, are punishable by a fine of up to 300 fine units or by detention\".====Finland====Finnish Criminal Code 515/2003 (enacted 31 January 2003) makes \"committing a crime against a person, because of his national, racial, ethnical or equivalent group\" an aggravating circumstance in sentencing.", "In addition, ethnic agitation () is criminalized and carries a fine or a prison sentence of not more than two years.", "The prosecution need not prove that an actual danger to an ethnic group is caused but only that malicious message is conveyed.", "A more aggravated hate crime, warmongering (), carries a prison sentence of one to ten years.", "However, in case of warmongering, the prosecution must prove an overt act that evidently increases the risk that Finland is involved in a war or becomes a target for a military operation.", "The act in question may consist of# illegal violence directed against a foreign country or its citizens,# systematic dissemination of false information on Finnish foreign policy or defense# public influence on the public opinion towards a pro-war viewpoint or# public suggestion that a foreign country or Finland should engage in an aggressive act.====France====In 2003, France enacted penalty-enhancement hate crime laws for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's actual or perceived ethnicity, nation, race, religion, or sexual orientation.", "The penalties for murder were raised from 30 years (for non-hate crimes) to life imprisonment (for hate crimes), and the penalties for violent attacks leading to permanent disability were raised from 10 years (for non-hate crimes) to 15 years (for hate crimes).====Georgia====\"There is no general provision in Georgian law for racist motivation to be considered an aggravating circumstance in prosecutions of ordinary offenses.", "Certain crimes involving racist motivation are, however, defined as specific offenses in the Georgian Criminal Code of 1999, including murder motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 109); infliction of serious injuries motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 117); and torture motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 126).", "ECRI reported no knowledge of cases in which this law has been enforced.", "There is no systematic monitoring or data collection on discrimination in Georgia.", "\"====Germany====The German Criminal Code does not have hate crime legislation, instead, it criminalizes hate speech under a number of different laws, including Volksverhetzung.", "In the German legal framework motivation is not taken into account while identifying the element of the offence.", "However, within the sentencing procedure the judge can define certain principles for determining punishment.", "In section 46 of the German Criminal Code it is stated that \"the motives and aims of the perpetrator; the state of mind reflected in the act and the willfulness involved in its commission\" can be taken into consideration when determining the punishment; under this statute, hate and bias have been taken into consideration in sentencing in past cases.Hate crimes are not specifically tracked by German police, but have been studied separately: a recently published EU \"Report on Racism\" finds that racially motivated attacks are frequent in Germany, identifying 18,142 incidences for 2006, of which 17,597 were motivated by right-wing ideologies, both about a 14% year-by-year increase.", "Relative to the size of the population, this represents an eightfold higher rate of hate crimes than reported in the US during the same period.", "Awareness of hate crimes in Germany remains low.====Greece====Article Law 927/1979 \"Section 1,1 penalises incitement to discrimination, hatred or violence towards individuals or groups because oftheir racial, national or religious origin, through public written or oral expressions; Section 1,2 prohibits the establishment of, and membership in, organisations which organise propaganda and activities aimed at racial discrimination; Section 2 punishes public expression of offensive ideas; Section 3 penalises the act of refusing, in the exercise of one's occupation, to sell a commodity or to supply a service on racial grounds.\"", "Public prosecutors may press charges even if the victim does not file a complaint.", "However, as of 2003, no convictions had been attained under the law.====Hungary====Violent action, cruelty, and coercion by threat made on the basis of the victim's actual or perceived national, ethnic, religious status or membership in a particular social group are punishable under article 174/B of the Hungarian Criminal Code.", "This article was added to the Code in 1996.Hungary is a party to the Convention on Cybercrime, but not the Additional Protocol.====Iceland====Section 233a of the Icelandic Penal Code states \"Anyone who in a ridiculing, slanderous, insulting, threatening or any other manner publicly abuses a person or a group of people on the basis of their nationality, skin colour, race, religion or sexual orientation, shall be fined or jailed for up to two years.\"", "Iceland is a party to the Convention on Cybercrime, but not the Additional Protocol.==== India ====India does not have any specific laws governing hate crimes in general other than hate speech which is covered under the Indian Penal Code.====Ireland====The Prohibition of Incitement to Hatred Act 1989 created the offence of inciting hatred against a group of persons on account of their race, colour, nationality, religion, ethnic or national origins, membership of the Traveller community (an indigenous minority group), or sexual orientation.", "Frustration at the low number of prosecutions (18 by 2011) was attributed to a misconception that the law addressed hate crimes more generally as opposed to incitement in particular.In 2019, a UN rappourteur told Irish representatives at the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, meeting at UN Geneva, to introduce new hate crime legislation to combat the low prosecution rate for offences under the 1989 act – particularly for online hate speech – and lack of training for the Garda Síochána on racially-motivated crimes.", "The rapporteur's points came during a rise in anti-immigrant rhetoric and racist attacks in Ireland and were based on reccomendations submitted by the Irish Human Rights and Equality Commission and numerous other civil society organisations.", "Reforms are supported by the Irish Network Against Racism.The Criminal Justice (Incitement to Violence or Hatred and Hate Offences) Bill known as the \"Hate Crime Bill\", prohibiting hate speech or incitement to hate crimes based on protected characteristics, is in its Third Stage at the Seanad, Ireland's upper house, and the ''Irish Times'' reports it is likely to become law in late 2023.It has drawn concern from the Irish Council for Civil Liberties and from across the political spectrum (specifically from Michael McDowell, Rónán Mullen, and People Before Profit), as well as internationally, from business magnate Elon Musk and political activist Donald Trump Jr. Paul Murphy of People Before Profit said the bill created a \"thought crime\" by its criminalisation of possessing material prepared for circulation where circulation would incite hatred.", "Pauline O'Reilly, a Green Party senator said that the existing legislation was \"not effective\" and outdated, adding that the Gardaí saw a rise of 30% in hate crime in Ireland.", "\"Data published by the Gardaí showed a 29% increase in hate crimes and hate-related incidents from 448 in 2021 to 582 in 2022.The Gardaí recognise that \"despite improvements, hate crime and hate related incidents are still under-reported\".====Italy====Italian criminal law, at Section 3 of Law No.", "205/1993, the so-called ''Legge Mancino'' (Mancino law), contains a penalty-enhancement provision for all crimes motivated by racial, ethnic, national, or religious bias.", "Italy is a party to the Convention on Cybercrime, but not the Additional Protocol.====Kazakhstan====In Kazakhstan, there are constitutional provisions prohibiting propaganda promoting racial or ethnic superiority.====Kyrgyzstan====In Kyrgyzstan, \"the Constitution of the State party prohibits any kind of discrimination on grounds of origin, sex, race, nationality, language, faith, political or religious convictions or any other personal or social trait or circumstance, and that the prohibition against racial discrimination is also included in other legislation, such as the Civil, Penal and Labour Codes.", "\"Article 299 of the Criminal Code defines incitement to national, racist, or religious hatred as a specific offense.", "This article has been used in political trials of suspected members of the banned organization Hizb-ut-Tahrir.====Poland====Article 13 of the Constitution of Poland prohibits organizations \"whose programmes or activities sanction racial or national hatred\".====Russia====Article 29 of Constitution of the Russian Federation bans incitement to riot for the sake of stirring societal, racial, ethnic, and religious hatred as well as the promotion of the superiority of the same.", "Article 282 of the Criminal code further includes protections against incitement of hatred (including gender) via various means of communication, instilling criminal penalties including fines and imprisonment.", "Although a former member of the Council of Europe, Russia is not a party to the Convention on Cybercrime.====Slovenia====In 2023, Slovenia introduced a penalty-enhancement provision in its Penal Code.", "If the victim's national, racial, religious or ethnic origin, sex, colour, descent, property, education, social status, political or other opinion, disability, sexual orientation or any other personal circumstance was a factor contributing to the commission of the criminal offence, it shall be taken into account when determining the penalty.====Spain====Article 22(4) of the Spanish Penal Code includes a penalty-enhancement provision for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's ideology, beliefs, religion, ethnicity, race, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, illness or disability.On 14 May 2019, the Spanish Attorney General distributed a circular instructing on the interpretation of hate crime law.", "This new interpretation includes nazis as a collective that can be protected under this law.Although a member of the Council of Europe, Spain is not a party to the Convention on Cybercrime.====Sweden====Article 29 of the Swedish Penal Code includes a penalty-enhancement provision for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's race, color, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, or \"other similar circumstance\" of the victim.====Ukraine====The constitution of Ukraine guarantees protection against hate crime:*Article 10: \"In Ukraine, free development, use and protection of Russian and ''other languages'' of ethnic minorities of Ukraine are guaranteed\".", "*Article 11: \"The State shall promote the development of the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of all indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities of Ukraine\".", "*Article 24: \"There can be no privileges or restrictions on the grounds of race, color of the skin, political, religious or other beliefs, sex, ethnic or social origin, property status, place of residence, language or other grounds\".Under the Criminal Codex, crimes committed because of hatred are hate crimes and carry increased punishment in many articles of the criminal law.", "There are also separate articles on punishment for a hate crime.Article 161: \"Violations of equality of citizens depending on their race, ethnicity, religious beliefs, disability and other grounds: Intentional acts aimed at incitement to ethnic, racial or religious hatred and violence, to demean the ethnic honor and dignity, or to repulse citizens' feelings due to their religious beliefs, as well as direct or indirect restriction of rights or the establishment of direct or indirect privileges of citizens on the grounds of race, color, political, religious or other beliefs, sex, disability, ethnic or social origin, property status, place of residence, language or other grounds\" (maximum criminal sentence of up to 8 years in prison).Article 300: \"Importation, manufacture or distribution of literature and other media promoting a cult of violence and cruelty, racial, ethnic or religious intolerance and discrimination\" (maximum criminal sentence of up to 5 years in prison).====United Kingdom====For England, Wales, and Scotland, the Sentencing Act 2020 makes racial or religious hostility, or hostility related to disability, sexual orientation, or transgender identity an aggravation in sentencing for crimes in general.Separately, the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 defines separate offences, with increased sentences, for racially or religiously aggravated assaults, harassment, and a handful of public order offences.For Northern Ireland, Public Order 1987 (S.I.", "1987/463 (N.I.", "7)) serves the same purposes.", "A \"racial group\" is a group of persons defined by reference to race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origins.", "A \"religious group\" is a group of persons defined by reference to religious belief or lack of religious belief.", "\"Hate crime\" legislation is distinct from \"hate speech\" legislation.", "See Hate speech laws in the United Kingdom.The Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) reported in 2013 that there were an average of 278,000 hate crimes a year with 40 percent being reported according to a victims survey; police records only identified around 43,000 hate crimes a year.", "It was reported that police recorded a 57-percent increase in hate crime complaints in the four days following the UK's European Union membership referendum; however, a press release from the National Police Chief's Council stated that \"this should not be read as a national increase in hate crime of 57 percent\".In 2013, Greater Manchester Police began recording attacks on goths, punks and other alternative culture groups as hate crimes.On 4 December 2013 Essex Police launched the 'Stop the Hate' initiative as part of a concerted effort to find new ways to tackle hate crime in Essex.", "The launch was marked by a conference in Chelmsford, hosted by Chief Constable Stephen Kavanagh, which brought together 220 delegates from a range of partner organizations involved in the field.", "The theme of the conference was 'Report it to Sort it' and the emphasis was on encouraging people to tell police if they have been a victim of hate crime, whether it be based on race, religion, sexual orientation, transgender identity or disability.Crown Prosecution Service guidance issued on 21 August 2017 stated that online hate crimes should be treated as seriously as offences in person.Perhaps the most high-profile hate crime in modern Britain occurred in Eltham, London, on 24 April 1993, when 18-year-old black student Stephen Lawrence was stabbed to death in an attack by a gang of white youths.", "Two white teenagers were later charged with the murder, and at least three other suspects were mentioned in the national media, but the charges against them were dropped within three months after the Crown Prosecution Service concluded that there was insufficient evidence to prosecute.", "However, a change in the law a decade later allowed a suspect to be charged with a crime twice if new evidence emerged after the original charges were dropped or a \"not guilty\" verdict was delivered in court.", "Gary Dobson, who had been charged with the murder in the initial 1993 investigation, was found guilty of Stephen Lawrence's murder in January 2012 and sentenced to life imprisonment, as was David Norris, who had not been charged in 1993.A third suspect, Luke Knight, had been charged in 1993 but was not charged when the case came to court nearly 20 years later.In September 2020 the Law Commission proposed that sex or gender be added to the list of protected characteristics.The United Kingdom is a party to the Convention on Cybercrime, but not the Additional Protocol.A 2021 investigation by ''Newsnight'' and ''The Law Society Gazette'' found that alleged hate crimes in which the victim was a police officer were significantly more likely to result in a successful prosecution.", "The investigation found that in several areas, crimes against police officers and staff constituted up to half of all hate crimes convictions, despite representing a much smaller proportion of reported incidents.=====Scotland=====Under Scottish Common law the courts can take any aggravating factor into account when sentencing someone found guilty of an offence.", "There is legislation dealing with the offences of incitement of racial hatred, racially aggravated harassment, and prejudice relating to religious beliefs, disability, sexual orientation, and transgender identity.", "A Scottish Executive working group examined the issue of hate crime and ways of combating crime motivated by social prejudice, reporting in 2004.Its main recommendations were not implemented, but in their manifestos for the 2007 Scottish Parliament election several political parties included commitments to legislate in this area, including the Scottish National Party, which now forms the Scottish Government.", "The Offences (Aggravation by Prejudice) (Scotland) Bill was introduced on 19 May 2008 by Patrick Harvie MSP, having been prepared with support from the Scottish Government, and was passed unanimously by the parliament on 3 June 2009.====Eurasian countries with no hate crime laws====mob during the 2004 unrest in KosovoAlbania, Cyprus, San Marino and Turkey have no hate crime laws.", "Nonetheless, all of these except Turkey are parties to the Convention on Cybercrime and the Additional Protocol.===North America=======Canada====\"In Canada the legal definition of a hate crime can be found in sections 318 and 319 of the Criminal Code\".In 1996, the federal government amended a section of the Criminal Code that pertains to sentencing.", "Specifically, section 718.2.The section states (with regard to the hate crime):A vast majority (84 percent) of hate crime perpetrators were \"male, with an average age of just under 30.Less than 10 of those accused had criminal records, and less than 5 percent had previous hate crime involvement\".", "\"Only 4 percent of hate crimes were linked to an organized or extremist group\".As of 2004, Jewish people were the largest ethnic group targeted by hate crimes, followed by black people, Muslims, South Asians, and homosexuals (Silver et al., 2004).During the Nazi regime in Germany, antisemitism was a cause of hate-related violence in Canada.", "For example, on 16 August 1933, there was a baseball game in Toronto and one team was made up mostly of Jewish players.", "At the end of the game, a group of Nazi sympathizers unfolded a Swastika flag and shouted \"Heil Hitler.\"", "That event erupted into a brawl that pitted Jews and Italians against Anglo Canadians; the brawl went on for hours.The first time someone was charged for hate speech over the internet occurred on 27 March 1996.", "\"A Winnipeg teenager was arrested by the police for sending an email to a local political activist that contained the message \"Death to homosexuals...it's prescribed in the Bible!", "Better watch out next Gay Pride Week.During the COVID-19 pandemic, Canada saw a sudden rise in hate crimes based on race, religion, and sexual orientation.", "Statistics Canada reported there was a 72% increase in hate crimes between 2019 and 2021.====Mexico====Alejandro Gertz Manero, Attorney General of Mexico, recommended in August 2020 that all murders involving women be investigated as femicides.", "An average of 11 women are killed every day.Murders of LGBTQ individuals are not legally classified as hate crimes in Mexico, although Luis Guzman of the ''Cohesión de Diversidades para la Sustentabilidad'' (Codise) notes that there is a lot of homophobia in Mexico, particularly in the states of Veracruz, Chihuahua, and Michoacán.", "Between 2014 and May 2020, there have been 209 such murders registered.====United States====Shepard (center), Louvon Harris (left), Betty Bryd Boatner (right) with President Barack Obama in 2009 to promote the Hate Crimes Prevention ActHate crime laws have a long history in the United States.", "The first hate crime laws were passed after the American Civil War, beginning with the Civil Rights Act of 1871, in order to combat the growing number of racially motivated crimes which were being committed by the Reconstruction era—Ku Klux Klan.", "The modern era of hate-crime legislation began in 1968 with the passage of federal statute, 18 U.S.C.A.", "§ 249, part of the Civil Rights Act which made it illegal to \"by force or by threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone who is engaged in six specified protected activities, by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin.\"", "However, \"The prosecution of such crimes must be certified by the U.S. attorney general.", "\"The first state hate-crime statute, California's Section 190.2, was passed in 1978 and provided penalty enhancements in cases when murders were motivated by prejudice against four \"protected status\" categories: race, religion, color, and national origin.", "Washington included ancestry in a statute which was passed in 1981.Alaska included creed and sex in 1982, and later disability, sexual orientation, and ethnicity.", "In the 1990s some state laws began to include age, marital status, membership in the armed forces, and membership in civil rights organizations.Until California state legislation included all crimes as possible hate crimes in 1987, criminal acts which could be considered hate crimes in various states included aggravated assault, assault and battery, vandalism, rape, threats and intimidation, arson, trespassing, stalking, and various \"lesser\" acts.Defined in the 1999 National Crime Victim Survey, \"A hate crime is a criminal offence.", "In the United States, federal prosecution is possible for hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's race, religion, or nation origin when engaging in a federally protected activity.\"", "In 2009, capping a broad-based public campaign lasting more than a decade, President Barack Obama signed into law the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr.", "Hate Crimes Prevention Act.", "The Act added actual or perceived gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, and disability to the federal definition of a hate crime, and dropped the prerequisite that the victim be engaging in a federally protected activity.", "Led by Shepard's parents and a coalition of civil rights groups, with ADL (the Anti-Defamation League), in a lead role, the campaign to pass the Matthew Shepard Act lasted 13 years, in large part because of opposition to including the term \"sexual orientation\" as one of the bases for deeming a crime to be a hate crime.ADL also drafted model hate crimes legislation in the 1980s that serves as the template for the legislation that a majority of states have adopted.", "As of the fall of 2020, 46 of the 50 states and Washington, D.C. have statutes criminalizing various types of hate crimes.", "Thirty-one states and the District of Columbia have statutes creating a civil cause of action in addition to the criminal penalty for similar acts.", "Twenty-seven states and the District of Columbia have statutes requiring the state to collect hate crime statistics.", "In May 2020, the killing of African-American jogger Ahmaud Arbery reinvigorated efforts to adopt a hate-crimes law in Georgia, which was one of a handful of states without a such legislation.", "Led in great part by the Hate-Free Georgia Coalition, a group of 35 nonprofit groups organized by the Georgia state ADL, the legislation was adopted in June 2020, after 16 years of debate.According to the FBI Hate Crime Statistics report for 2006, hate crimes increased nearly 8 percent nationwide, with a total of 7,722 incidents and 9,080 offences reported by participating law enforcement agencies.", "Of the 5,449 crimes against persons, 46 percent were classified as intimidation, and 32 percent as simple assaults.", "Acts of vandalism or destruction comprised 81 percent of the 3,593 crimes against property.However, according to the FBI Hate Crime Statistics for 2007, the number of hate crimes decreased to 7,624 incidents reported by participating law enforcement agencies.", "These incidents included nine murders and two rapes (out of the almost 17,000 murders and 90,000 forcible rapes committed in the U.S. in 2007).In June 2009, Attorney General Eric Holder said recent killings showed the need for a tougher U.S. hate-crimes law to stop \"violence masquerading as political activism.", "\"Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Education Fund published a report in 2009 revealing that 33 percent of hate-crime offenders were under the age of 18, while 29 percent were between the ages of 18 and 24.The 2011 hate-crime statistics show 46.9 percent were motivated by race, and 20.8 percent by sexual orientation.In 2015, the Hate Crimes Statistics report identified 5,818 single-bias incidents involving 6,837 offenses, 7,121 victims, and 5,475 known offendersIn 2017, the FBI released new data showing a 17 percent increase in hate crimes between 2016 and 2017.In 2018, the Hate Crime Statistics report showed 59.5 percent were motivated by race bias and 16.9 percent by sexual orientation.", "Incidents and OffensesProsecutions of hate crimes have been difficult in the United States.", "Recently, state governments have attempted to re-investigate and re-try past hate crimes.", "One notable example was Mississippi's decision to retry Byron De La Beckwith in 1990 for the 1963 murder of Medgar Evers, a prominent figure in the NAACP and a leader of the civil rights movement.", "This was the first time in U.S. history that an unresolved civil rights case was re-opened.", "De La Beckwith, a member of the Ku Klux Klan, was tried for the murder on two previous occasions, resulting in hung juries.", "A mixed-race jury found Beckwith guilty of murder, and he was sentenced to life in prison in 1994.According to a November 2016 report issued by the FBI, hate crimes are on the rise in the United States.", "The number of hate crimes increased from 5,850 in 2015, to 6,121 hate crime incidents in 2016, an increase of 4.6 percent.The Khalid Jabara-Heather Heyer National Opposition to Hate, Assault, and Threats to Equality Act (NO HATE), which was first introduced in 2017, was reintroduced in June 2019 to improve hate crime reporting and expand support for victims as a response to anti-LGBTQ, anti-Muslim and antisemitic attacks.", "The bill would fund state hate-crime hotlines, and support expansion of reporting and training programs in law enforcement agencies.According to a 2021 study, in the years between 1992 and 2014, white people were the offenders in 74.5 percent of anti-Asian hate crimes, 99 percent of anti-black hate crimes, and 81.1 percent of anti-Hispanic hate crimes.=====Victims in the United States=====One of the largest waves of hate crimes in the history of the United States took place during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s.", "Violence and threats of violence were common against African Americans, and hundreds of people died due to such acts.", "Members of this ethnic group faced violence from groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, as well as violence from individuals who were committed to maintaining segregation.", "At the time, civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. and their supporters fought hard for the right of African Americans to vote, as well as for equality in their everyday lives.", "African Americans have been the target of hate crimes since the Civil War, and the humiliation of this ethnic group was also desired by many anti-black individuals.", "Other frequently reported bias motivations were bias against a religion, bias against a particular sexual orientation, and bias against a particular ethnicity/national origin.", "At times, these bias motivations overlapped, because violence can be both anti-gay and anti-black, for example.Analysts have compared groups in terms of the per capita rate of hate crimes committed against them to allow for differing populations.", "Overall, the total number of hate crimes committed since the first hate crime bill was passed in 1997 is 86,582.+ Hate crimes in the US (2008–2012) by victim population groupPopulation groupEstimated populationHate crimes against (2008–2012) Violent hate crimes against Total Rate (per 100,000 people) Total Rate (per 100,000 people)Jewish5,248,6744,45784.94117.8LGBT11,343,0007,23166.93,84935.6Muslim1,852,47376141.125813.9Black38,929,31913,41134.44,35611.2Aboriginal2,932,24836412.41615.5Hispanic50,477,5943,0646.11,4822.9Asian and Pacific Islander15,214,2657985.22761.8White223,553,2653,4591.51,6140.7Catholic67,924,0183380.5320.0Atheist and agnostic17,598,496470.350.0Protestant148,197,8582290.2170.0Among the groups which are mentioned in the Hate Crimes Statistics Act, the largest number of hate crimes are committed against African Americans.", "During the Civil Rights Movement, some of the most notorious hate crimes included the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., the 1964 murders of Charles Moore and Henry Dee, the 1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, the 1955 murder of Emmett Till, and the burning of crosses, churches, Jewish synagogues, and other places of worship of minority religions.", "Such acts began to take place more frequently after the racial integration of many schools and public facilities.High-profile murders targeting victims based on their sexual orientation have prompted the passage of hate crimes legislation, notably the cases of Sean W. Kennedy and Matthew Shepard.", "Kennedy's murder was mentioned by Senator Gordon Smith in a speech on the floor of the U.S. Senate while he advocated such legislation.", "The Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr.", "Hate Crimes Prevention Act was signed into law in 2009.It included sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, disably status, and military personnel and their family members.", "This is the first all-inclusive bill ever passed in the United States, taking 45 years to complete.Gender-based crimes may also be considered hate crimes.", "This view would designate rape and domestic violence, as well as non-interpersonal violence against women such as the École Polytechnique massacre in Quebec, as hate crimes.Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the United States experienced a spike in overall hate crimes against Muslim individuals.", "In the year before, only 28 events had been recorded of hate crimes against Muslims; in 2001, this number jumped to 481.While the number decreased in the following years, the number of Muslim hate crimes remains higher than pre-2001.In May 2018, ''ProPublica'' reviewed police reports for 58 cases of purported anti-heterosexual hate crimes.", "''ProPublica'' found that about half of the cases were anti-LGBT hate crimes that had been miscategorized, and that the rest were motivated by hate towards Jews, blacks or women or that there was no element of a hate crime at all.", "''ProPublica'' did not find any cases of hate crimes spurred by anti-heterosexual bias.====== Anti-trans hate crime ======In 2017, shortly after President Donald Trump took office, hate crimes against transgender individuals increased.", "In June 2020, after the death of several African Americans at the hands of police officers – in particular, George Floyd – triggered protests around the world as part of the Black Lives Matter movement, hate crimes against the black trans community began to increase.===South America=======Brazil====In Brazil, hate crime laws focus on racism, racial injury, and other special bias-motivated crimes such as, for example, murder by death squads and genocide on the grounds of nationality, ethnicity, race or religion.", "Murder by death squads and genocide are legally classified as \"hideous crimes\" ( in Portuguese).The crimes of racism and racial injury, although similar, are enforced slightly differently.", "Article 140, 3rd paragraph, of the Penal Code establishes a harsher penalty, from a minimum of one year to a maximum of three years, for injuries motivated by \"elements referring to race, color, ethnicity, religion, origin, or the condition of being an aged or disabled person\".", "On the other side, Law 7716/1989 covers \"crimes resulting from discrimination or prejudice on the grounds of race, color, ethnicity, religion, or national origin\".In addition, the Brazilian Constitution defines as a \"fundamental goal of the Republic\" (Article 3rd, clause IV) \"to promote the well-being of all, with no prejudice as to origin, race, sex, color, age, and any other forms of discrimination\".====Chile====In 2012, the Anti-discrimination law amended the Criminal Code adding a new aggravating circumstance of criminal responsibility, as follows: \"Committing or participating in a crime motivated by ideology, political opinion, religion or beliefs of the victim; nation, race, ethnic or social group; sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, age, affiliation, personal appearance or suffering from illness or disability.", "\"===Middle East===Israel is the only country in the Middle East that has hate crime laws.", "Hate crime, as passed by the Israeli Knesset (Parliament), is defined as crime for reason of race, religion, gender and sexual orientation." ], [ "Support for and opposition to hate crime laws", "===Support===Justifications for harsher punishments for hate crimes focus on the notion that hate crimes cause greater individual and societal harm.", "In a 2014 book, author Marian Duggan asserts that when the core of a person's identity is attacked, the degradation and dehumanization is especially severe, and additional emotional and physiological problems are likely to result.", "Wider society can suffer from the disempowerment of a group of people.", "Furthermore, it is asserted that the chances for retaliatory crimes are greater when a hate crime has been committed.", "The riots in Los Angeles, California, that followed the beating of Rodney King, a black motorist, by a group of white police officers are cited as support for this argument.", "The beating of white truck driver Reginald Denny by black rioters during the same riot is also an example that supports this argument.In ''Wisconsin v. Mitchell,'' the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously found that ''penalty-enhancement'' hate crime statutes do not conflict with free speech rights, because they do not punish an individual for exercising freedom of expression; rather, they allow courts to consider motive when sentencing a criminal for conduct which is not protected by the First Amendment.", "In the case of ''Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire,'' the court defined \"fighting words\" as \"those which by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace.", "\"David Brax argues that critics of hate-crime laws are wrong in claiming that hate crimes punish thoughts or motives; he asserts they do not do this, but instead punish people for choosing these reasons to commit a criminal act.", "Similarly, Andrew Seidel writes, \"Hate crime or bias intimidation crimes are not thoughtcrimes.", "Most crimes require two things: an act and an intent...", "If you simply hate someone based on race, sexuality, or creed, that thought is not punishable.", "Only the thought combined with an illegal action is criminal.", "\"===Opposition===The U.S. Supreme Court unanimously found the St. Paul Bias-Motivated Crime Ordinance amounted to viewpoint-based discrimination in conflict with rights of free speech, because it selectively criminalized bias-motivated speech or symbolic speech for disfavored topics while permitting such speech for other topics.", "Many critics further assert that it conflicts with an even more fundamental right: free thought.", "The claim is that hate-crime legislation effectively makes certain ideas or beliefs, including religious ones, illegal, in other words, thought crimes.", "Heidi Hurd argues that hate crimes criminalize certain dispositions yet do not show why hate is a morally worse disposition for a crime than one motivated by jealousy, greed, sadism or vengeance or why hatred and bias are uniquely responsive to criminal sanction compared to other motivations.", "Hurd argues that whether or not a disposition is worse than another is case sensitive and thus it is difficult to argue that some motivations are categorically worse than others.In their book ''Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics'', James B. Jacobs and Kimberly Potter criticize hate crime legislation for exacerbating conflicts between groups.", "They assert that by defining crimes as being committed by one group against another, rather than as being committed by individuals against their society, the labeling of crimes as \"hate crimes\" causes groups to feel persecuted by one another, and that this impression of persecution can incite a backlash and thus lead to an actual increase in crime.", "Jacobs and Potter also argued that hate crime legislation can end up only covering the victimization of some groups rather than all, which is a form of discrimination itself and that attempts to remedy this by making all identifiable groups covered by hate crime protection thus make hate crimes co-terminus with generic criminal law.", "The authors also suggest that arguments which attempt to portray hate crimes as worse than normal crimes because they spread fear in a community are unsatisfactory, as normal criminal acts can also spread fear yet only hate crimes are singled out.", "Indeed, it has been argued that victims have varied reactions to hate crimes, so it is not necessarily true that hate crimes are regarded as more harmful than other crimes.", "Dan Kahan argues that the \"greater harm\" argument is conceptually flawed, as it is only because people value their group identities that attacks motivated by an animus against those identities are seen as worse, thus making it the victim and society's reaction to the crime rather than the crime itself.Heidi Hurd argues that hate crime represents an effort by the state to encourage a certain moral character in its citizen and thus represents the view that the instillation of virtue and the elimination of vice are legitimate state goals, which she argues is a contradiction of the principles of liberalism.", "Hurd also argues that increasing punishment for an offence because the perpetrator was motivated by hate compared to some other motivation means that the justice systems is treating the same crime differently, even though treating like cases alike is a cornerstone of criminal justice.Some have argued hate crime laws bring the law into disrepute and further divide society, as groups apply to have their critics silenced.", "American forensic psychologist Karen Franklin said that the term ''hate crime'' is somewhat misleading since it assumes there is a hateful motivation which is not present in many occasions; in her view, laws to punish people who commit hate crimes may not be the best remedy for preventing them because the threat of future punishment does not usually deter such criminal acts.", "Some on the political left have been critical of hate crime laws for expanding the criminal justice system and dealing with violence against minority groups through punitive measures.", "Briana Alongi argues that hate crime legislation is inconsistent, redundant and arbitrarily applied, while also being partially motivated by political opportunism and media bias rather than purely by legal principle.==See also==* Anti-racism* Anti-Romani sentiment* Antisemitism* Antisemitism in the United States* Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century* Geography of antisemitism* History of antisemitism* History of antisemitism in the United States* Bashing (pejorative)* Communal violence* David Ray Hate Crimes Prevention Act* Disability hate crime* Discrimination* Discrimination based on skin color* Discrimination in the United States* Documenting Hate* Emmett Till Antilynching Act* Ethnic violence* Ethnocentrism* Fighting Discrimination* Genocide* Hate crime laws in the United States* Hate group* Hate speech* Hate studies* Lynching in the United States* Mass racial violence in the United States* Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr.", "Hate Crimes Prevention Act* Nativism (politics)* Racial hoax* Racism* Racism against African Americans* Racism against Asians* Racism by country* Racism in the United States* Radical right (Europe)* Radical right (United States)* Religious fanaticism* Religious intolerance* Religious terrorism* Religious violence* Right-wing terrorism* Sectarian violence* Supremacism* Terrorism* Terrorism in Europe* Terrorism in the United States* Domestic terrorism in the United States* Thoughtcrime* Violence against LGBT people* White nationalism* White supremacy* Xenophobia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Hate crimes information, by Gregory Herek* Alexander Verkhovsky Criminal Law on Hate Crime, Incitement to Hatred and Hate Speech in OSCE Participating States – The Hague: SOVA Center, 2016 – 136 pages.", "* ''Hate Crime Statistics'', annual FBI/U.S.", "Department of Justice report on the prevalence of hate crimes in the United States.", "Required by the Hate Crime Statistics Act.", "* A Policymaker's Guide to Hate Crimes, a publication by the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, part of the U.S. Department of Justice.", "Many parts of this article have been adapted from this document.", "* Peabody, Michael \" Thought & Crime,\" Liberty Magazine, March/April 2008, review of recently proposed hate crime legislation and criminal intent issues.", "* \"Hate Crime.\"", "Oxford Bibliographies Online: Criminology.", "* OSCE ''Hate Crime Reporting'' website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hans Christian Andersen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hans Christian Andersen''' ( , ; 2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875) was a Danish author.", "Although a prolific writer of plays, travelogues, novels, and poems, he is best remembered for his literary fairy tales.Andersen's fairy tales, consisting of 156 stories across nine volumes, have been translated into more than 125 languages.", "They have become embedded in Western collective consciousness, accessible to children as well as presenting lessons of virtue and resilience in the face of adversity for mature readers.", "His most famous fairy tales include \"The Emperor's New Clothes\", \"The Little Mermaid\", \"The Nightingale\", \"The Steadfast Tin Soldier\", \"The Red Shoes\", \"The Princess and the Pea\", \"The Snow Queen\", \"The Ugly Duckling\", \"The Little Match Girl\", and \"Thumbelina\".", "His stories have inspired ballets, plays, and animated and live-action films." ], [ "Early life", "Andersen's childhood home in OdenseAndersen was born in Odense, Denmark, on 2 April 1805.He had a stepsister named Karen.", "His father, also named Hans, considered himself related to nobility (his paternal grandmother had told his father that their family had belonged to a higher social class, but investigations have disproved these stories).", "Although it has been challenged, speculation suggests that Andersen was an illegitimate son of King Christian VIII.", "Danish historian Jens Jørgensen supported this idea in his book ''H.C.", "Andersen, en sand myte'' a true myth.Andersen was baptised on 15 April 1805 in Saint Hans Church in Odense.", "According to his birth certificate, which was not drafted until November 1823, six godparents were present at the baptism ceremony: Madam Sille Marie Breineberg, Maiden Friederiche Pommer, shoemaker Peder Waltersdorff, journeyman carpenter Anders Jørgensen, hospital porter Nicolas Gomard, and royal hatter Jens Henrichsen Dorch.Andersen's father, who had received an elementary school education, introduced his son to literature, reading him ''Arabian Nights''.", "Andersen's mother, Anne Marie Andersdatter, was an illiterate washerwoman.", "Following her husband's death in 1816, she remarried in 1818.Andersen was sent to a local school for poor children where he received a basic education and had to support himself, working as an apprentice to a weaver and, later, to a tailor.", "At fourteen, he moved to Copenhagen to seek employment as an actor.", "Having a good soprano voice, he was accepted into the Royal Danish Theatre, but his voice soon changed.", "A colleague at the theatre told him that he considered Andersen a poet, and taking the suggestion seriously, Andersen began to focus on writing.Jonas Collin, director of the Royal Danish Theatre, held great affection for Andersen and sent him to a grammar school in Slagelse, persuading King Frederick VI to pay part of his education.", "Andersen had by then published his first story, \"The Ghost at Palnatoke's Grave\" (1822).", "Though not a stellar pupil, he also attended school at Elsinore until 1827.He later said that his years at this school were the darkest and most bitter years of his life.", "At one school, he lived at his schoolmaster's home.", "There he was abused and was told that it was done in order \"to improve his character.\"", "He later said that the faculty had discouraged him from writing, which resulted in a depression." ], [ "Career", "===Early work===A very early fairy tale by Andersen, \"The Tallow Candle\" (), was discovered in a Danish archive in October 2012.The story, written in the 1820s, is about a candle that does not feel appreciated.", "It was written while Andersen was still in school and dedicated to one of his benefactors.", "The story remained in that family's possession until it was found among other family papers in a local archive.In 1829, Andersen enjoyed considerable success with the short story \"A Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Amager\".", "Its protagonist meets characters ranging from Saint Peter to a talking cat.", "Andersen followed this success with a theatrical piece, ''Love on St.Nicholas Church Tower'', and a short volume of poems.", "He made little progress in writing and publishing immediately following these poems, but did receive a small travel grant from the king in 1833.This enabled him to set out on the first of many journeys throughout Europe.", "At Jura, near Le Locle, Switzerland, Andersen wrote the story \"Agnete and the Merman\".", "The same year he spent an evening in the Italian seaside village of Sestri Levante, which inspired the title of \"The Bay of Fables\".", "He arrived in Rome in October 1834.Andersen's travels in Italy were reflected in his first novel, a fictionalized autobiography titled ''The Improvisatore'' (), published in 1835 to instant acclaim.===Literary fairy tales===cut by Andersen'''''Fairy Tales Told for Children.", "First Collection.'''''", "(Danish: ''Eventyr, fortalt for Børn.", "Første Samling.'')", "is a collection of nine fairy tales by Hans Christian Andersen.", "The tales were published in a series of three installments by C. A. Reitzel in Copenhagen between May 1835 and April 1837, and were Andersen's first venture into the fairy tale genre.The first installment of sixty-one unbound pages was published 8 May 1835 and contained \"The Tinderbox\", \"Little Claus and Big Claus\", \"The Princess and the Pea\" and \"Little Ida's Flowers\".", "The first three tales were based on folktales Andersen had heard in his childhood while the last tale was Andersen's creation for Ida Thiele, the daughter of Andersen's early benefactor, the folklorist Just Mathias Thiele.", "Reitzel paid Andersen thirty rigsdalers for the manuscript, and the booklet was priced at twenty-four shillings.The second booklet was published on 16 December 1835 and contained \"Thumbelina\", \"The Naughty Boy\", and \"The Traveling Companion\".", "\"Thumbelina\" was inspired by \"Tom Thumb\" and other stories of miniature people.", "\"The Naughty Boy\" was based on a poem by Anacreon about Cupid, and \"The Traveling Companion\" was a ghost story Andersen had experimented with in the year 1830.Andersen in 1836The third booklet contained \"The Little Mermaid\" and \"The Emperor's New Clothes\", and it was published on 7 April 1837.", "\"The Little Mermaid\" was influenced by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué's \"Undine\" (1811) and legends about mermaids.", "This tale established Andersen's international reputation.", "The only other tale in the third booklet was \"The Emperor's New Clothes\", which was based on a medieval Spanish story with Arab and Jewish origins.", "On the eve of the third installment's publication, Andersen revised the conclusion (in which the Emperor simply walks in procession) to its now-famous finale of a child calling out, \"The Emperor is not wearing any clothes!", "\"Danish reviews of the first two booklets first appeared in 1836 and were not enthusiastic.", "The critics disliked the chatty, informal style and apparent immorality, since children's literature was meant to educate rather than to amuse.", "The critics discouraged Andersen from pursuing this type of style.", "Andersen believed that he was working against the critics' preconceived notions about fairy tales, and he temporarily returned to novel-writing, waiting a full year before publishing his third installment.The nine tales from the three booklets were published in one volume and sold for seventy-two shillings.", "A title page, a table of contents, and a preface by Andersen were published in this volume.In 1868 Horace Scudder, the editor of ''Riverside Magazine For Young People'', offered Andersen $500 for twelve new stories.", "Sixteen of Andersen's stories were published in the magazine, and ten of them appeared there before they were printed in Denmark.===Travelogues===Portrait of Andersen by Franz Hanfstaengl, dated July 1860In 1851, he published ''In Sweden'', a volume of travel sketches.", "The publication received wide acclaim.", "A keen traveler, Andersen published several other long travelogues: ''Shadow Pictures of a Journey to the Harz, Swiss Saxony, etc.", "etc.", "in the Summer of 1831'', ''A Poet's Bazaar'', ''In Spain'', and ''A Visit to Portugal in 1866''.", "(The last one describes his visit with his Portuguese friends Jorge and José O'Neill, who he knew in the mid-1820s while he was living in Copenhagen.)", "In his travelogues, Andersen used contemporary conventions related to travel writing but developed the style to make it his own.", "Each of his travelogues combines documentary and descriptive accounts of his experiences, adding additional philosophical passages on topics such as authorship, immortality, and fiction in literary travel reports.", "Some of the travelogues, such as ''In Sweden'', contain fairy tales.In the 1840s, Andersen's attention returned to the theatre stage, but with little success.", "He had better luck with the publication of the ''Picture-Book without Pictures'' (1840).", "He started a second series of fairy tales in 1838 and a third series in 1845.At this point Andersen was celebrated throughout Europe, although his native Denmark still showed some resistance to his pretensions.Between 1845 and 1864, Andersen lived at Nyhavn 67, Copenhagen, where a memorial plaque is now placed.Patrons of Andersen's writings included the monarchy of Denmark, the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg.", "An unexpected invitation from King Christian IX to the royal palace entrenched Andersen's folklore in Danish royalty as well as making its way to the Romanov dynasty when Christian IX's daughter Maria Feodorovna married Alexander III of Russia." ], [ "Personal life", "===Søren Kierkegaard===In \"Andersen as a Novelist\", Søren Kierkegaard remarks that Andersen is characterized as \"a possibility of a personality, wrapped up in such a web of arbitrary moods and moving through an elegiac duo-decimal scaled of almost echoless, dying tones just as easily roused as subdued, who, in order to become a personality, needs a strong life-development.", "\"Andersen statue at the Rosenborg Castle Gardens, Copenhagen===Meetings with Charles Dickens===In June 1847, Andersen visited England for the first time, enjoying triumphant social success.", "The Countess of Blessington invited him to her parties where many intellectuals would meet, and at one such party he met Charles Dickens for the first time.", "They shook hands and walked to the veranda, which Andersen noted in his diary: \"We were on the veranda, and I was so happy to see and speak to England's now-living writer whom I do love the most.", "\"The two authors respected each other's work and as writers, and had in common their depictions of the underclass who often had difficult lives affected both by the Industrial Revolution and by abject poverty.Ten years later, Andersen visited England again, primarily to meet Dickens.", "He extended the planned brief visit to Dickens' home at Gads Hill Place into a five-week stay, much to the distress of Dickens' family.", "After Andersen was told to leave, Dickens gradually stopped all correspondence between them, to Andersen's great disappointment and confusion; he had enjoyed the visit and never understood why his letters went unanswered.It is suspected that Dickens modeled the physical appearance and mannerisms of Uriah Heep from ''David Copperfield'' after Andersen.===Romantic relationships===In Andersen's early life, his private journal records his refusal to have sexual relations.Andersen experienced homosexual attraction; he wrote to Edvard Collin: \"I languish for you as for a pretty Calabrian wench ... my sentiments for you are those of a woman.", "The femininity of my nature and our friendship must remain a mystery.\"", "Collin wrote in his own memoir, \"I found myself unable to respond to this love, and this caused the author much suffering.\"", "Andersen's infatuation with Karl Alexander, the young hereditary duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, did result in a relationship:The Hereditary Grand Duke walked arm in arm with me across the courtyard of the castle to my room, kissed me lovingly, asked me always to love him though he was just an ordinary person, asked me to stay with him this winter ... Fell asleep with the melancholy, happy feeling that I was the guest of this strange prince at his castle and loved by him ...", "It is like a fairy tale.", "There is a sharp division in opinion over Andersen's physical fulfillment in the sexual sphere.", "Jackie Wullschlager's biography maintains he was possibly lovers with Danish dancer and Andersen's \"The Snowman\" was inspired by their relationship.", "Scharff first met Andersen when the latter was in his fifties.", "Andersen was infatuated and Wullschlager sees his journals as implying that their relationship was sexual.", "Scharff had various dinners alone with Andersen and gifted a silver toothbrush to Andersen on his fifty-seventh birthday.", "Wullschlager asserts that in the winter of 1861–62, the two men entered an affair that brought Andersen \"joy, some kind of sexual fulfillment, and a temporary end to loneliness.\"", "He was not discreet in his conduct with Scharff, and displayed his feelings openly.", "Onlookers regarded the relationship as improper and ridiculous.", "In his diary in March 1862, Andersen referred to this time in his life as his \"erotic period\".", "On 13 November 1863, Andersen wrote, \"Scharff has not visited me in eight days; with him it is over.\"", "Andersen took this calmly and the two thereafter met in overlapping social circles without bitterness, though Andersen attempted to rekindle their relationship a number of times without success.", "According to Wullschlager, \"Andersen's diaries leave no doubt that he was attracted to both sexes; that at times he longed for a physical relationship with a woman and that at other times he was involved in physical liaisons with men.\"", "For example, Wullschlager quotes from Andersen's diaries: \"Scharff bounded up to me; threw himself round my neck and kissed me!", "....", "Nervous in the evening\" Five days later he received \"a visit from Scharff, who was very intimate and nice\".", "In the following weeks, there was \"dinner at Scharff's, who was ardent and loving\" The claim that Andersen entertained \"physical liaisons\" with men has been contested by Klara Bom and Anya Aarenstrup from the H. C. Andersen Centre of University of Southern Denmark.", "They state \"it is correct to point to the very ambivalent (and also very traumatic) elements in Andersen's emotional life concerning the sexual sphere, but it is decidedly just as wrong to describe him as homosexual and maintain that he had physical relationships with men.", "He did not.", "Indeed, that would have been entirely contrary to his moral and religious ideas, aspects that are quite outside the field of vision of Wullschlager and her like.", "\"Wullschlager in fact argued that, ''because'' of moral and religious ideas of his time, Andersen could not be open about his homosexual relationships.Andersen also fell in love with unattainable women, and many interpret references to them in his stories.", "At one point, he wrote in his diary: \"Almighty God, thee only have I; thou steerest my fate, I must give myself up to thee!", "Give me a livelihood!", "Give me a bride!", "My blood wants love, as my heart does!\"", "A girl named Riborg Voigt was the unrequited love of Andersen's youth.", "A small pouch containing a long letter from Voigt was found on Andersen's chest when he died, several decades after he first fell in love with her.", "Other disappointments in love included Sophie Ørsted, the daughter of the physicist Hans Christian Ørsted; and Louise Collin, the youngest daughter of his benefactor Jonas Collin.", "One of his stories, \"The Nightingale\", was written as an expression of his passion for Jenny Lind and was the inspiration for her nickname, the \"Swedish Nightingale\".", "Andersen was shy around women and had extreme difficulty proposing to Lind.", "When Lind was boarding a train to go to an opera concert, Andersen gave Lind a letter of proposal.", "Her feelings towards him were not the same; she saw him as a brother, writing to him in 1844: \"farewell ... God bless and protect my brother is the sincere wish of his affectionate sister, Jenny\".", "It is suggested that Andersen expressed his disappointment by portraying Lind as the eponymous antihero of The Snow Queen." ], [ "Death", "Andersen at Rolighed: Israel Melchior (c. 1867)In early 1872, at age 67, Andersen fell out of his bed and was severely hurt; he never fully recovered from the resultant injuries.", "Soon afterward, he started to show signs of liver cancer.He died on 4 August 1875, in a country house called ''Rolighed'' (literally: calmness) near Copenhagen, the home of his close friends, the banker Moritz G. Melchior and his wife.", "Shortly before his death, Andersen consulted a composer about the music for his funeral, saying: \"Most of the people who will walk after me will be children, so make the beat keep time with little steps.", "\"His body was interred in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro area of Copenhagen, in the Collin family plot.", "In 1914, the headstone was moved to another cemetery (today known as ''\"''Frederiksbergs ældre kirkegaard\"), where younger Collin family members were buried.", "For a period, his, Edvard Collin's, and Henriette Collin's graves were unmarked.", "A second stone has been erected, marking Andersen's grave, now without any mention of the Collin couple, but all three still share the same plot.At the time of his death, Andersen was internationally revered, and the Danish government paid him an annual stipend for being a \"national treasure\"." ], [ "Legacy", "===Archives, collections and museums===* The Hans Christian Andersen Museum or H.C. Andersens Hus, is a set of museums/buildings dedicated to Hans Christian Andersen in Odense, Denmark, some of which, at various times in history, have functioned as the main Odense-based museum for the author.", "* The Hans Christian Andersen Museum in Solvang, California, a city founded by Danes, is devoted to presenting the author's life and works.", "Displays include models of Andersen's childhood home and of \"The Princess and the Pea\".", "The museum also contains hundreds of volumes of Andersen's works, including many illustrated first editions and correspondence with Danish composer Asger Hamerik.", "* The Library of Congress Rare Book and Special Collections Division was bequeathed an extensive collection of Andersen materials by the Danish-American actor Jean Hersholt.===Arts and entertainment=======Film and television====* ''La petite marchande d'allumettes'' (1928; in English: ''The Little Match Girl''), film by Jean Renoir, based on \"The Little Match Girl\".", "* ''The Ugly Duckling'' (1931) and its 1939 remake of the same name, two animated ''Silly Symphonies'' cartoon shorts produced by Walt Disney Productions, based on ''The Ugly Duckling''.", "* Andersen was played by Joachim Gottschalk in the German film ''The Swedish Nightingale'' (1941), which portrays his relationship with the singer Jenny Lind.", "* ''The Red Shoes'' (1948), British drama film written, directed, and produced by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, based on \"The Red Shoes\".", "* ''Hans Christian Andersen'' (1952), an American musical film starring Danny Kaye that, though inspired by Andersen's life and literary legacy, was not meant to be historically nor biographically accurate; it begins by saying, \"This is not the story of his life, but a fairy tale about this great spinner of fairy tales.", "\"* ''The Snow Queen'' (1957), a Soviet animated film based on ''The Snow Queen'', by Lev Atmanov of Soyuzmultfilm, a faithful depiction of the fairy tale that garnered critical acclaim.", "* ''The Emperor's New Clothes'' (''Carevo novo ruho''), a 1961 Croatian film, directed by Ante Babaja.", "* ''The Wild Swans'' (1962), Soviet animated adaptation of ''The Wild Swans'', by Soyuzmultfilm.", "* The Rankin/Bass Productions-produced fantasy film, ''The Daydreamer'' (1966), depicts the young Hans Christian Andersen conceiving the stories he would later write.", "* ''The Little Mermaid'' (1968) 30-minute faithful Soviet animated adaptation of ''The Little Mermaid'' by Soyuzmultfilm.", "* ''The World of Hans Christian Andersen'' (1968), a Japanese anime fantasy film from Toei Doga, based on the works of Hans Christian Andersen.", "* ''Andersen Monogatari'' (1971), a Japanese animated anthology series produced by Mushi Production.", "* The Pine Tree (c1974), 23 minute film in colour, commentary by Liz Lochhead.", "* ''Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid'' (1975) Japanese anime film from Toei, faithfully based on ''The Little Mermaid.", "''* ''The Little Mermaid'' (1976) Czech fantasy film based on ''The Little Mermaid.", "''* ''The Wild Swans'' (1977), Japanese animated adaptation of ''The Wild Swans'' by Toei.", "* ''Thumbelina'' (1978), Japanese anime film from Toei based on ''Thumbelina.", "''* ''The Little Mermaid'' (1989), an animated film based on ''The Little Mermaid'', created and produced at Walt Disney Feature Animation in Burbank, California.", "* ''Thumbelina'' (1994), an animated film based on \"Thumbelina\", created and produced by Sullivan Bluth Studios, Dublin, Ireland* One segment in ''Fantasia 2000'' is based on \"The Steadfast Tin Soldier\", alongside Shostakovich's Piano Concerto No.", "2, Movement 1: \"Allegro\".", "* ''Hans Christian Andersen: My Life as a Fairytale'' (2003), a British made-for-television film directed by Philip Saville, a fictionalized account of Andersen's early successes, with his fairy stories intertwined with events in his own life.", "* ''The Fairytaler'' (2003), Danish-British animated series based on several Andersen fairy tales.", "* ''The Little Matchgirl'' (2006), an animated short film by the Walt Disney Animation Studios directed by Roger Allers and produced by Don Hahn.", "* ''The Snow Queen'' (2012), a Russian 3D animated film based on ''The Snow Queen'', the first film of ''The Snow Queen'' series produced by Wizart Animation.", "* ''Frozen'' (2013), a 3D computer-animated musical film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios that is loosely inspired by ''The Snow Queen''.", "* ''Ginger's Tale'' (2020), a Russian 2D animated film loosely based on ''The Tinderbox'', produced at Vverh Animation Studio in Moscow.", "* ''The Little Mermaid'' (2023), a live-action film based on ''The Little Mermaid'' created and produced by Walt Disney Pictures .====Literature====Andersen's stories laid the groundwork for other children's classics, such as ''The Wind in the Willows'' (1908) by Kenneth Grahame and ''Winnie-the-Pooh'' (1926) by A.", "A. Milne.", "The trope of inanimate objects, such as toys, coming to life (as in \"Little Ida's Flowers\") would later also be used by Lewis Carroll and Beatrix Potter.====Music====* ''Hans Christian Andersen'' (album), a 1994 album by Franciscus Henri.", "* ''The Song is a Fairytale'' (''Sangen er et Eventyr''), a song cycle based on fairy tales by Hans Christian Andersen, composed by Frederik Magle.", "* \"Atonal Fairy Tale\", track with music composed by Gregory Reid Davis Jr. and Smart Dad Living reading the fairy tale \"The Elfin Mound\" by Hans Christian Andersen.====Stage productions====For opera and ballet see List of The Little Mermaid Adaptations* ''Little Hans Andersen'' (1903), a children's pantomime at the Adelphi Theatre.", "* ''The Nightingale'' (1914), an opera by Igor Stravinsky.", "* ''Sam the Lovesick Snowman'' at the Center for Puppetry Arts, a contemporary puppet show by Jon Ludwig inspired by \"The Snow Man\".", "* ''Striking Twelve,'' a modern musical take on \"The Little Match Girl\", created and performed by GrooveLily.", "* ''Once Upon a Mattress'', a musical comedy based on Andersen's work \"The Princess and the Pea\".===Awards===* Hans Christian Andersen Awards, prizes awarded annually by the International Board on Books for Young People to an author and illustrator whose complete works have made lasting contributions to children's literature.", "* Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award, a Danish literary award established in 2010.", "* Andersen's fable \"The Emperor's New Clothes\" was inducted in 2000 into the Prometheus Hall of Fame for Best Classic Fiction.===Events and holidays===Assistens Cemetery in the Nørrebro district, Copenhagen* Andersen's birthday, 2 April, is celebrated as International Children's Book Day.", "* The year 2005, designated \"Andersen Year\" in Denmark, was the bicentenary of Andersen's birth, and his life and work were celebrated around the world.", "* In Denmark, a well-attended show was staged in Copenhagen's Parken Stadium during \"Andersen Year\" to celebrate the writer and his stories.", "* The annual H.C. Andersen Marathon, established in 2000, is held in Odense, Denmark.===Monuments and sculptures===* Seated bronze (1880) by sculptor August Saabye (1823–1916) can be seen in the Rosenborg Castle Gardens, Copenhagen, Denmark.", "* Seated bronze (1896) with a swan beside, a statue by the Danish sculptor Johannes Gelert (1852–1923), at Lincoln Park, Stockton Drive near Webster Avenue, Chicago, United States.", "* Seated bronze (1956), a statue by sculptor Georg J. Lober (1891–1961) and designer Otto Frederick Langman, at Central Park Lake in New York City, opposite East 74th Street (GPS ).", "The seated bronze of Andersen upon a granite bench was erected on the author's 150th birthday.", "It includes a bronze duck representing the book ''The Ugly Duckling''.", "* Seated bronze (1965) was erected in Copenhagen City Hall Square (Rådhuspladsen), facing H. C. Andersens Boulevard, Copenhagen, Denmark, made by Henry Luckow-Nielsen.", "* Bronze bust (2004), a replica of the 1865 bust by Herman Wilhelm Bissen (1798–1868), at Observatory Hill, Millers Point, Sydney, Australia, was officially unveiled by HRH Crown Prince Frederik and HRH Crown Princess Mary of Denmark in March 2005, on Andersen's bicentenary.", "It was to replace the 1955 bust erected in Phillip Park, Sydney; although found missing by 1984.", "* Seated bronze (2005), in the Plaza de la Marina in Málaga, Spain, by José María Córdoba.", "* Standing bronze (2005) was erected in Hviezdoslavovo námestie, Bratislava, Slovakia, and was designed by Tibor Bártfay to mark the bicentennial.===Places named after Andersen===* H. C. Andersens Boulevard, a major road in Copenhagen formerly known as Vestre Boulevard (Western Boulevard), received its current name in 1955 to mark the 150-year anniversary of the writer's birth.", "* Hans Christian Andersen Airport, a small airport servicing the Danish city of Odense.", "* Instituto Hans Christian Andersen, a Chilean high school located in San Fernando, Colchagua Province, Chile.", "* Hans Christian Andersen Park, Solvang, California.", "* CEIP Hans Christian Andersen, a primary Education School in Malaga, Spain.===Theme parks===* In Japan, the city of Funabashi has a children's theme park named after Andersen.", "Funabashi is a sister city to Odense, the city of Andersen's birth.", "* In China, a US$32 million theme park based on Andersen's tales and life opened in Shanghai's Yangpu district in 2017.Construction on the project began in 2005.=== Other honours ===* The flatworm ''Collastoma anderseni'' (family: Umagillidae), an endosymbiont from the intestine of the sipunculan ''Themiste lageniformis'' (), was named after Andersen." ], [ "Works", "Andersen's fairy tales include:* \"The Angel\" (1843)* \"The Bell\" (1845)* \"Blockhead Hans\" (1855)* \"The Elf Mound\" (1845)* \"The Emperor's New Clothes\" (1837)* \"The Fir-Tree\" (1844)* \"The Flying Trunk\" (1839)* \"The Galoshes of Fortune\" (1838)* \"The Garden of Paradise\" (1839)* \"The Goblin and the Grocer\" (1852)* \"Golden Treasure\" (1865)* \"The Happy Family\" (1847)* \"The Ice-Maiden\" (1861)* \"It's Quite True\" (1852)* \"The Jumpers\" (1845)* \"Little Claus and Big Claus\" (1835)* \"Little Ida's Flowers\" (1835)* \"The Little Match Girl\" (1845)* \"The Little Mermaid\" (1837)* \"Little Tuk\" (1847)* \"The Most Incredible Thing\" (1870)* \"The Naughty Boy\" (1835)* \"The Nightingale\" (1843)* \"The Old House\" (1847)* \"Ole Lukoie\" (1841)* \"The Philosopher's Stone\" (1858)* \"The Princess and the Pea\" (1835)* \"The Red Shoes\" (1845)* \"The Rose Elf\" (1839)* \"The Shadow\" (1847)* \"The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep\" (1845)* \"The Snow Queen\" (1844)* \"The Snowman\" (1861)* \"The Steadfast Tin Soldier\" (1838)* \"The Storks\" (1839)* \"The Story of a Mother\" (1847)* \"The Sweethearts; or, The Top and the Ball\" (1843)* \"The Swineherd\" (1841)* \"The Tallow Candle\" (1820s)* \"The Teapot\" (1863)* \"Thumbelina\" (1835)* \"The Tinderbox\" (1835)* \"The Traveling Companion\" (1835)* \"The Ugly Duckling\" (1843)* \"What the Old Man Does is Always Right\" (1861)* \"The Wicked Prince\" (1840)* \"The Wild Swans\" (1838)The Hans Christian Andersen Museum in Odense has a large digital collection of Hans Christian Andersen papercuts, drawings, and portraits." ], [ "See also", "* ''Kjøbenhavnsposten'', a Danish newspaper in which Andersen published one of his first poems.", "* Pleated Christmas hearts, invented by Andersen.", "* Vilhelm Pedersen, the first illustrator of Andersen's fairy tales.", "* List of The Little Mermaid Adaptations* Vasili Eroshenko" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General bibliography", "* * * * * Stig Dalager, ''Journey in Blue'', historical, biographical novel about H.C. Andersen, London: Peter Owen, 2006; Toronto: McArthur & Co., 2006.", "* * * * Roes, André, ''Kierkegaard en Andersen, Uitgeverij Aspekt'', Soesterberg (2017) * Ruth Manning-Sanders, ''Swan of Denmark: The Story of Hans Christian Andersen'', Heinemann, 1949* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * ''The Story of My Life'' (1871) by Hans Christian Andersen in English* The Orders and Medals Society of Denmark has descriptions of Hans Christian Andersen's Medals and Decorations.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hamlet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark''''', often shortened to '''''Hamlet''''' (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601.It is Shakespeare's longest play, with 29,551 words.", "Set in Denmark, the play depicts Prince Hamlet and his attempts to exact revenge against his uncle, Claudius, who has murdered Hamlet's father in order to seize his throne and marry Hamlet's mother.", "''Hamlet'' is considered among the \"most powerful and influential tragedies in the English language\", with a story capable of \"seemingly endless retelling and adaptation by others\".", "It is widely considered one of the greatest plays of all time.", "Three different early versions of the play are extant: the First Quarto (Q1, 1603); the Second Quarto (Q2, 1604); and the First Folio (F1, 1623).", "Each version includes lines and passages missing from the others.", "Many works have been pointed to as possible sources for Shakespeare's play, from ancient Greek tragedies to Elizabethan dramas.", "The editors of the Arden Shakespeare question the idea of \"source hunting\", pointing out that it presupposes that authors always require ideas from other works for their own, and suggests that no author can have an original idea or be an originator.", "When Shakespeare wrote, there were many stories about sons avenging the murder of their fathers, and many about clever avenging sons pretending to be foolish in order to outsmart their foes.", "This would include the story of the ancient Roman, Lucius Junius Brutus, which Shakespeare apparently knew, as well as the story of Amleth, which was preserved in Latin by 13th-century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus in his ''Gesta Danorum'', and printed in Paris in 1514.The Amleth story was subsequently adapted and then published in French in 1570 by the 16th-century scholar François de Belleforest.", "It has a number of plot elements and major characters in common with Shakespeare's ''Hamlet'', and lacks others that are found in Shakespeare.", "Belleforest's story was first published in English in 1608, after ''Hamlet'' had been written, though it's possible that Shakespeare had encountered it in the French-language version." ], [ "Characters", "* Hamletson of the late king and nephew of the present king, Claudius* ClaudiusKing of Denmark, Hamlet's uncle and brother to the former king* GertrudeQueen of Denmark and Hamlet's mother* Poloniuschief counsellor to the king* OpheliaPolonius's daughter* Horatiofriend of Hamlet* LaertesPolonius's son* Voltimand and Corneliuscourtiers* Rosencrantz and Guildensterncourtiers, friends of Hamlet* Osrica courtier* Marcellusan officer* Barnardoan officer* Franciscoa soldier* ReynaldoPolonius's servant* Ghostthe ghost of Hamlet's father* Fortinbrasprince of Norway* Gravediggersa pair of sextons* Player King, Player Queen, Lucianus, etc.players" ], [ "Plot", "===Act I===Prince Hamlet of Denmark is the son of the recently deceased King Hamlet, and nephew of King Claudius, his father's brother and successor.", "Claudius hastily married King Hamlet's widow, Gertrude, Hamlet's mother, and took the throne for himself.", "Denmark has a long-standing feud with neighbouring Norway, in which King Hamlet slew King Fortinbras of Norway in a battle some years ago.", "Although Denmark defeated Norway and the Norwegian throne fell to King Fortinbras's infirm brother, Denmark fears that an invasion led by the dead Norwegian king's son, Prince Fortinbras, is imminent.On a cold night on the ramparts of Elsinore, the Danish royal castle, the sentries Bernardo and Marcellus discuss a ghost resembling the late King Hamlet which they have recently seen, and bring Prince Hamlet's friend Horatio as a witness.", "After the ghost appears again, the three vow to tell Prince Hamlet what they have witnessed.The court gathers the next day, and King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss affairs of state with their elderly adviser Polonius.", "Claudius grants permission for Polonius's son Laertes to return to school in France, and he sends envoys to inform the King of Norway about Fortinbras.", "Claudius also questions Hamlet regarding his continuing to grieve for his father, and forbids him to return to his university in Wittenberg.", "After the court exits, Hamlet despairs of his father's death and his mother's hasty remarriage.", "Learning of the ghost from Horatio, Hamlet resolves to see it himself.Horatio, Hamlet, and the ghost (Artist: Henry Fuseli, 1789)As Polonius's son Laertes prepares to depart for France, Polonius offers him advice that culminates in the maxim \"to thine own self be true.\"", "Polonius's daughter, Ophelia, admits her interest in Hamlet, but Laertes warns her against seeking the prince's attention, and Polonius orders her to reject his advances.", "That night on the rampart, the ghost appears to Hamlet, tells the prince that he was murdered by Claudius, and demands that Hamlet avenge the murder.", "Hamlet agrees, and the ghost vanishes.", "The prince confides to Horatio and the sentries that from now on he plans to \"put an antic disposition on\", or act as though he has gone mad.", "Hamlet forces them to swear to keep his plans for revenge secret; however, he remains uncertain of the ghost's reliability.===Act II===Ophelia rushes to her father, telling him that Hamlet arrived at her door the prior night half-undressed and behaving erratically.", "Polonius blames love for Hamlet's madness and resolves to inform Claudius and Gertrude.", "As he enters to do so, the king and queen are welcoming Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two student acquaintances of Hamlet, to Elsinore.", "The royal couple has requested that the two students investigate the cause of Hamlet's mood and behaviour.", "Additional news requires that Polonius wait to be heard: messengers from Norway inform Claudius that the king of Norway has rebuked Prince Fortinbras for attempting to re-fight his father's battles.", "The forces that Fortinbras had conscripted to march against Denmark will instead be sent against Poland, though they will pass through Danish territory to get there.Polonius tells Claudius and Gertrude his theory regarding Hamlet's behaviour, and then speaks to Hamlet in a hall of the castle to try to learn more.", "Hamlet feigns madness and subtly insults Polonius all the while.", "When Rosencrantz and Guildenstern arrive, Hamlet greets his \"friends\" warmly but quickly discerns that they are there to spy on him for Claudius.", "Hamlet admits that he is upset at his situation but refuses to give the true reason, instead remarking \"What a piece of work is a man\".", "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern tell Hamlet that they have brought along a troupe of actors that they met while travelling to Elsinore.", "Hamlet, after welcoming the actors and dismissing his friends-turned-spies, asks them to deliver a soliloquy about the death of King Priam and Queen Hecuba at the climax of the Trojan War.", "Hamlet then asks the actors to stage ''The Murder of Gonzago'', a play featuring a death in the style of his father's murder.", "Hamlet intends to study Claudius's reaction to the play, and thereby determine the truth of the ghost's story of Claudius's guilt.===Act III===Polonius forces Ophelia to return Hamlet's love letters to the prince while he and Claudius secretly watch in order to evaluate Hamlet's reaction.", "Hamlet is walking alone in the hall as the King and Polonius await Ophelia's entrance.", "Hamlet muses on thoughts of life versus death.", "When Ophelia enters and tries to return Hamlet's things, Hamlet accuses her of immodesty and cries \"get thee to a nunnery\", though it is unclear whether this, too, is a show of madness or genuine distress.", "His reaction convinces Claudius that Hamlet is not mad for love.", "Shortly thereafter, the court assembles to watch the play Hamlet has commissioned.", "After seeing the Player King murdered by his rival pouring poison in his ear, Claudius abruptly rises and runs from the room; for Hamlet, this is proof of his uncle's guilt.Hamlet mistakenly stabs Polonius (Artist: Coke Smyth, 19th century).Gertrude summons Hamlet to her chamber to demand an explanation.", "Meanwhile, Claudius talks to himself about the impossibility of repenting, since he still has possession of his ill-gotten goods: his brother's crown and wife.", "He sinks to his knees.", "Hamlet, on his way to visit his mother, sneaks up behind him but does not kill him, reasoning that killing Claudius while he is praying will send him straight to heaven while his father's ghost is stuck in purgatory.", "In the queen's bedchamber, Hamlet and Gertrude fight bitterly.", "Polonius, spying on the conversation from behind a tapestry, calls for help as Gertrude, believing Hamlet wants to kill her, calls out for help herself.Hamlet, believing it is Claudius, stabs wildly, killing Polonius, but he pulls aside the curtain and sees his mistake.", "In a rage, Hamlet brutally insults his mother for her apparent ignorance of Claudius's villainy, but the ghost enters and reprimands Hamlet for his inaction and harsh words.", "Unable to see or hear the ghost herself, Gertrude takes Hamlet's conversation with it as further evidence of madness.", "After begging the queen to stop sleeping with Claudius, Hamlet leaves, dragging Polonius's corpse away.===Act IV===Hamlet jokes with Claudius about where he has hidden Polonius's body, and the king, fearing for his life, sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to accompany Hamlet to England with a sealed letter to the English king requesting that Hamlet be executed immediately.Unhinged by grief at Polonius's death, Ophelia wanders Elsinore.", "Laertes arrives back from France, enraged by his father's death and his sister's madness.", "Claudius convinces Laertes that Hamlet is solely responsible, but a letter soon arrives indicating that Hamlet has returned to Denmark, foiling Claudius's plan.", "Claudius switches tactics, proposing a fencing match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle their differences.", "Laertes will be given a poison-tipped foil, and, if that fails, Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned wine as a congratulation.", "Gertrude interrupts to report that Ophelia has drowned, though it is unclear whether it was suicide or an accident caused by her madness.===Act V===The gravedigger scene.", "(Artist: Eugène Delacroix, 1839)Horatio has received a letter from Hamlet, explaining that the prince escaped by negotiating with pirates who attempted to attack his England-bound ship, and the friends reunite offstage.", "Two gravediggers discuss Ophelia's apparent suicide while digging her grave.", "Hamlet arrives with Horatio and banters with one of the gravediggers, who unearths the skull of a jester from Hamlet's childhood, Yorick.", "Hamlet picks up the skull, saying \"Alas, poor Yorick\" as he contemplates mortality.", "Ophelia's funeral procession approaches, led by Laertes.", "Hamlet and Horatio initially hide, but when Hamlet realizes that Ophelia is the one being buried, he reveals himself, proclaiming his love for her.", "Laertes and Hamlet fight by Ophelia's graveside, but the brawl is broken up.Back at Elsinore, Hamlet explains to Horatio that he had discovered Claudius's letter with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's belongings and replaced it with a forged copy indicating that his former friends should be killed instead.", "A foppish courtier, Osric, interrupts the conversation to deliver the fencing challenge to Hamlet.", "Hamlet, despite Horatio's pleas, accepts it.", "Hamlet does well at first, leading the match by two hits to none, and Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned glass of wine Claudius had set aside for Hamlet.", "Claudius tries to stop her but is too late: she drinks, and Laertes realizes the plot will be revealed.", "Laertes slashes Hamlet with his poisoned blade.", "In the ensuing scuffle, they switch weapons, and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword.", "Gertrude collapses and, claiming she has been poisoned, dies.", "In his dying moments, Laertes reconciles with Hamlet and reveals Claudius's plan.", "Hamlet rushes at Claudius and kills him.", "As the poison takes effect, Hamlet, hearing that Fortinbras is marching through the area, names the Norwegian prince as his successor.", "Horatio, distraught at the thought of being the last survivor and living whilst Hamlet does not, says he will commit suicide by drinking the dregs of Gertrude's poisoned wine, but Hamlet begs him to live on and tell his story.", "Hamlet dies in Horatio's arms, proclaiming \"the rest is silence\".", "Fortinbras, who was ostensibly marching towards Poland with his army, arrives at the palace, along with an English ambassador bringing news of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's deaths.", "Horatio promises to recount the full story of what happened, and Fortinbras, seeing the entire Danish royal family dead, takes the crown for himself and orders a military funeral to honour Hamlet." ], [ "Sources", "A facsimile of ''Gesta Danorum'' by Saxo Grammaticus, which contains the legend of Amleth''Hamlet''-like legends are so widely found (for example in Italy, Spain, Scandinavia, Byzantium, and Arabia) that the core \"hero-as-fool\" theme is possibly Indo-European in origin.", "Several ancient written precursors to ''Hamlet'' can be identified.", "The first is the anonymous Scandinavian ''Saga of Hrolf Kraki''.", "In this, the murdered king has two sons—Hroar and Helgi—who spend most of the story in disguise, under false names, rather than feigning madness, in a sequence of events that differs from Shakespeare's.", "The second is the Roman legend of Brutus, recorded in two separate Latin works.", "Its hero, Lucius (\"shining, light\"), changes his name and persona to Brutus (\"dull, stupid\"), playing the role of a fool to avoid the fate of his father and brothers, and eventually slaying his family's killer, King Tarquinius.", "A 17th-century Nordic scholar, Torfaeus, compared the Icelandic hero Amlóði (Amlodi) and the hero Prince Ambales (from the ''Ambales Saga'') to Shakespeare's ''Hamlet''.", "Similarities include the prince's feigned madness, his accidental killing of the king's counsellor in his mother's bedroom, and the eventual slaying of his uncle.Many of the earlier legendary elements are interwoven in the 13th-century \"Life of Amleth\" () by Saxo Grammaticus, part of ''Gesta Danorum''.", "Written in Latin, it reflects classical Roman concepts of virtue and heroism, and was widely available in Shakespeare's day.", "Significant parallels include the prince feigning madness, his mother's hasty marriage to the usurper, the prince killing a hidden spy, and the prince substituting the execution of two retainers for his own.", "A reasonably faithful version of Saxo's story was translated into French in 1570 by François de Belleforest, in his ''Histoires tragiques''.", "Belleforest embellished Saxo's text substantially, almost doubling its length, and introduced the hero's melancholy.Title page of ''The Spanish Tragedy'' by Thomas KydAccording to one theory, Shakespeare's main source may be an earlier play—now lost—known today as the ''Ur-Hamlet''.", "Possibly written by Thomas Kyd or by Shakespeare, the ''Ur-Hamlet'' would have existed by 1589, and would have incorporated a ghost.", "Shakespeare's company, the Chamberlain's Men, may have purchased that play and performed a version for some time, which Shakespeare reworked.", "However, no copy of the ''Ur-Hamlet'' has survived, and it is impossible to compare its language and style with the known works of any of its putative authors.", "In 1936 Andrew Cairncross suggested that, until more becomes known, it may be assumed that Shakespeare wrote the ''Ur-Hamlet''.", "Eric Sams lists reasons for supporting Shakespeare’s authorship.", "Harold Jenkins considers that there are no grounds for thinking that the ''Ur-Hamlet'' is an early work by Shakespeare, which he then rewrote.", "Professor Terri Bourus in 2016, one of three general editors of the New Oxford Shakespeare, in her paper \"Enter Shakespeare's Young Hamlet, 1589\" suggests that Shakespeare was \"interested in sixteenth-century French literature, from the very beginning of his career\" and therefore \"did not need Thomas Kyd to pre-digest Belleforest's histoire of Amleth and spoon-feed it to him\".", "She considers that the hypothesized ''Ur-Hamlet'' is Shakespeare's Q1 text, and that this derived directly from Belleforest's French version.The precise combination of Shakespeare's use of the ''Ur-Hamlet'', Belleforest, Saxo, or Kyd's ''The Spanish Tragedy'' as sources for ''Hamlet'' is not known.", "However, elements of Belleforest's version which are not in Saxo's story do appear in Shakespeare's play.Most scholars reject the idea that ''Hamlet'' is in any way connected with Shakespeare's only son, Hamnet Shakespeare, who died in 1596 at age eleven.", "Conventional wisdom holds that ''Hamlet'' is too obviously connected to legend, and the name Hamnet was quite popular at the time.", "However, Stephen Greenblatt has argued that the coincidence of the names and Shakespeare's grief for the loss of his son may lie at the heart of the tragedy.", "He notes that the name of Hamnet Sadler, the Stratford neighbour after whom Hamnet was named, was often written as Hamlet Sadler and that, in the loose orthography of the time, the names were virtually interchangeable.Scholars have often speculated that ''Hamlet''s Polonius might have been inspired by William Cecil (Lord Burghley)—Lord High Treasurer and chief counsellor to Queen Elizabeth I. E. K. Chambers suggested Polonius's advice to Laertes may have echoed Burghley's to his son Robert Cecil.", "John Dover Wilson thought it almost certain that the figure of Polonius caricatured Burghley.", "A. L. Rowse speculated that Polonius's tedious verbosity might have resembled Burghley's.", "Lilian Winstanley thought the name Corambis (in the First Quarto) did suggest Cecil and Burghley.", "Harold Jenkins considers the idea of Polonius as a caricature of Burghley to be conjecture, perhaps based on the similar role they each played at court, and perhaps also based on the similarity between Burghley addressing his ''Ten Precepts'' to his son, and Polonius offering \"precepts\" to his son, Laertes.", "Jenkins suggests that any personal satire may be found in the name \"Polonius\", which might point to a Polish or Polonian connection.", "G. R. Hibbard hypothesised that differences in names (Corambis/Polonius:Montano/Raynoldo) between the First Quarto and other editions might reflect a desire not to offend scholars at Oxford University.", "(Robert Pullen, was the founder of Oxford University, and John Rainolds, was the President of Corpus Christi College.)" ], [ "Date", "John Barrymore as Hamlet (1922)\"Any dating of ''Hamlet'' must be tentative\", states the ''New Cambridge'' editor, Phillip Edwards.", "MacCary suggests 1599 or 1600; James Shapiro offers late 1600 or early 1601; Wells and Taylor suggest that the play was written in 1600 and revised later; the New Cambridge editor settles on mid-1601; the New Swan Shakespeare Advanced Series editor agrees with 1601; Thompson and Taylor, tentatively (\"according to whether one is the more persuaded by Jenkins or by Honigmann\") suggest a ''terminus ad quem'' of either Spring 1601 or sometime in 1600.The earliest date estimate relies on ''Hamlet''s frequent allusions to Shakespeare's ''Julius Caesar'', itself dated to mid-1599.The latest date estimate is based on an entry, of 26 July 1602, in the Register of the Stationers' Company, indicating that ''Hamlet'' was \"latelie Acted by the Lo: Chamberleyne his servantes\".In 1598, Francis Meres published his ''Palladis Tamia'', a survey of English literature from Chaucer to its present day, within which twelve of Shakespeare's plays are named.", "''Hamlet'' is not among them, suggesting that it had not yet been written.", "As ''Hamlet'' was very popular, Bernard Lott, the series editor of ''New Swan'', believes it \"unlikely that he Meres would have overlooked ... so significant a piece\".The phrase \"little eyases\" in the First Folio (F1) may allude to the Children of the Chapel, whose popularity in London forced the Globe company into provincial touring.", "This became known as the War of the Theatres, and supports a 1601 dating.", "Katherine Duncan-Jones accepts a 1600–01 attribution for the date ''Hamlet'' was written, but notes that the Lord Chamberlain's Men, playing ''Hamlet'' in the 3000-capacity Globe, were unlikely to be put to any disadvantage by an audience of \"barely one hundred\" for the Children of the Chapel's equivalent play, ''Antonio's Revenge''; she believes that Shakespeare, confident in the superiority of his own work, was making a playful and charitable allusion to his friend John Marston's very similar piece.A contemporary of Shakespeare's, Gabriel Harvey, wrote a marginal note in his copy of the 1598 edition of Chaucer's works, which some scholars use as dating evidence.", "Harvey's note says that \"the wiser sort\" enjoy ''Hamlet'', and implies that the Earl of Essex—executed in February 1601 for rebellion—was still alive.", "Other scholars consider this inconclusive.", "Edwards, for example, concludes that the \"sense of time is so confused in Harvey's note that it is really of little use in trying to date \".", "This is because the same note also refers to Spenser and Watson as if they were still alive (\"our flourishing metricians\"), but also mentions \"Owen's new epigrams\", published in 1607." ], [ "Texts", "Three early editions of the text, each different, have survived, making attempts to establish a single \"authentic\" text problematic.", "* First Quarto ('''Q1'''): In 1603 the booksellers Nicholas Ling and John Trundell published, and Valentine Simmes printed, the so-called \"bad\" first quarto, under the name ''The Tragicall Historie of Hamlet Prince of Denmarke''.", "Q1 contains just over half of the text of the later second quarto.", "* Second Quarto ('''Q2'''): In 1604 Nicholas Ling published, and James Roberts printed, the second quarto, under the same name as the first.", "Some copies are dated 1605, which may indicate a second impression; consequently, Q2 is often dated \"1604/5\".", "Q2 is the longest early edition, although it omits about 77 lines found in F1 (most likely to avoid offending James I's queen, Anne of Denmark).", "* First Folio ('''F1'''): In 1623 Edward Blount and William and Isaac Jaggard published ''The Tragedie of Hamlet, Prince of Denmarke'' in the First Folio, the first edition of Shakespeare's ''Complete Works''.", "This list does not include three additional early texts, John Smethwick's Q3, Q4, and Q5 (1611–37), which are regarded as reprints of Q2 with some alterations.Title page of the 1605 printing (Q2) of ''Hamlet''The first page of the First Folio printing of ''Hamlet'', 1623Early editors of Shakespeare's works, beginning with Nicholas Rowe (1709) and Lewis Theobald (1733), combined material from the two earliest sources of ''Hamlet'' available at the time, Q2 and F1.Each text contains material that the other lacks, with many minor differences in wording: scarcely 200 lines are identical in the two.", "Editors have combined them in an effort to create one \"inclusive\" text that reflects an imagined \"ideal\" of Shakespeare's original.", "Theobald's version became standard for a long time, and his \"full text\" approach continues to influence editorial practice to the present day.", "Some contemporary scholarship, however, discounts this approach, instead considering \"an authentic ''Hamlet'' an unrealisable ideal.", "... there are ''texts'' of this play but no ''text''\".", "The 2006 publication by Arden Shakespeare of different ''Hamlet'' texts in different volumes is perhaps evidence of this shifting focus and emphasis.", "Other editors have continued to argue the need for well-edited editions taking material from all versions of the play.", "Colin Burrow has argued that \"most of us should read a text that is made up by conflating all three versions ... it's about as likely that Shakespeare wrote: \"To be or not to be, ay, there's the point\" in Q1, as that he wrote the works of Francis Bacon.", "I suspect most people just won't want to read a three-text play ... multi-text editions are a version of the play that is out of touch with the needs of a wider public.", "\"Traditionally, editors of Shakespeare's plays have divided them into five acts.", "None of the early texts of ''Hamlet'', however, were arranged this way, and the play's division into acts and scenes derives from a 1676 quarto.", "Modern editors generally follow this traditional division but consider it unsatisfactory; for example, after Hamlet drags Polonius's body out of Gertrude's bedchamber, there is an act-break after which the action appears to continue uninterrupted.Comparison of the 'To be, or not to be' soliloquy in the first three editions of Hamlet, showing the varying quality of the text in the Bad Quarto, the Good Quarto and the First FolioQ1 was discovered in 1823.Only two copies are extant.", "According to Jenkins, \"The unauthorized nature of this quarto is matched by the corruption of its text.\"", "Yet Q1 has value: it contains stage directions (such as Ophelia entering with a lute and her hair down) that reveal actual stage practices in a way that Q2 and F1 do not; it contains an entire scene (usually labelled 4.6) that does not appear in either Q2 or F1; and it is useful for comparison with the later editions.", "The major deficiency of Q1 is in the language: particularly noticeable in the opening lines of the famous \"To be, or not to be\" soliloquy: \"To be, or not to be, aye there's the point.", "/ To die, to sleep, is that all?", "Aye all: / No, to sleep, to dream, aye marry there it goes.\"", "However, the scene order is more coherent, without the problems of Q2 and F1 of Hamlet seeming to resolve something in one scene and enter the next drowning in indecision.", "New Cambridge editor Kathleen Irace has noted that \"Q1's more linear plot design is certainly easier ... to follow ... but the simplicity of the Q1 plot arrangement eliminates the alternating plot elements that correspond to Hamlet's shifts in mood.", "\"Q1 is considerably shorter than Q2 or F1 and may be a memorial reconstruction of the play as Shakespeare's company performed it, by an actor who played a minor role (most likely Marcellus).", "Scholars disagree whether the reconstruction was pirated or authorised.", "It is suggested by Irace that Q1 is an abridged version intended especially for travelling productions, thus the question of length may be considered as separate from issues of poor textual quality.", "Editing Q1 thus poses problems in whether or not to \"correct\" differences from Q2 and F. Irace, in her introduction to Q1, wrote that \"I have avoided as many other alterations as possible, because the differences...are especially intriguing...I have recorded a selection of Q2/F readings in the collation.\"", "The idea that Q1 is not riddled with error but is instead eminently fit for the stage has led to at least 28 different Q1 productions since 1881.Other productions have used the probably superior Q2 and Folio texts, but used Q1's running order, in particular moving the ''to be or not to be'' soliloquy earlier.", "Developing this, some editors such as Jonathan Bate have argued that Q2 may represent \"a 'reading' text as opposed to a 'performance' one\" of ''Hamlet'', analogous to how modern films released on disc may include deleted scenes: an edition containing all of Shakespeare's material for the play for the pleasure of readers, so not representing the play as it would have been staged." ], [ "Analysis and criticism", "===Critical history===From the early 17th century, the play was famous for its ghost and vivid dramatisation of melancholy and insanity, leading to a procession of mad courtiers and ladies in Jacobean and Caroline drama.", "Though it remained popular with mass audiences, late 17th-century Restoration critics saw ''Hamlet'' as primitive and disapproved of its lack of unity and decorum.", "This view changed drastically in the 18th century, when critics regarded Hamlet as a hero—a pure, brilliant young man thrust into unfortunate circumstances.", "By the mid-18th century, however, the advent of Gothic literature brought psychological and mystical readings, returning madness and the ghost to the forefront.", "Not until the late 18th century did critics and performers begin to view Hamlet as confusing and inconsistent.", "Before then, he was either mad, or not; either a hero, or not; with no in-betweens.", "These developments represented a fundamental change in literary criticism, which came to focus more on character and less on plot.", "In the 18th century, one negative French review of Hamlet would be widely discussed for centuries, in particular in publications throughout the 19th and 20th century.", "In 1768, Voltaire wrote a negative review of ''Hamlet'', stating that \"it is vulgar and barbarous drama, which would not be tolerated by the vilest populace of France or Italy... one would imagine this piece to be a work of a drunken savage\".By the 19th century, Romantic critics valued ''Hamlet'' for its internal, individual conflict reflecting the strong contemporary emphasis on internal struggles and inner character in general.", "Then too, critics started to focus on Hamlet's delay as a character trait, rather than a plot device.", "This focus on character and internal struggle continued into the 20th century, when criticism branched in several directions, discussed in context and interpretation below.===Dramatic structure===Modern editors have divided the play into five acts, and each act into scenes.", "The First Folio marks the first two acts only.", "The quartos do not have such divisions.", "The division into five acts follows Seneca, who in his plays, regularized the way ancient Greek tragedies contain five episodes, which are separated by four choral odes.", "In ''Hamlet'' the development of the plot or the action are determined by the unfolding of Hamlet's character.", "The soliloquies do not interrupt the plot, instead they are highlights of each block of action.", "The plot is the developing revelation of Hamlet's view of what is \"rotten in the state of Denmark.\"", "The action of the play is driven forward in dialogue; but in the soliloquies time and action stop, the meaning of action is questioned, fog of illusion is broached, and truths are exposed.The contrast between appearance and reality is a significant theme.", "Hamlet is presented with an image, and then interprets its deeper or darker meaning.", "Examples begin with Hamlet questioning the reality of the ghost.", "It continues with Hamlet's taking on an \"antic disposition\" in order to appear mad, though he is not.", "The contrast (appearance and reality) is also expressed in several \"spying scenes\": Act two begins with Polonius sending Reynaldo to spy on his son, Laertes.", "Claudius and Polonius spy on Ophelia as she meets with Hamlet.", "In act two, Claudius asks Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy on Hamlet.", "Similarly, the play-within-a-play is used by Hamlet to reveal his step-father's hidden nature.There is no subplot, but the play presents the affairs of the courtier Polonius, his daughter, Ophelia, and his son, Laertes—who variously deal with madness, love and the death of a father in ways that contrast with Hamlet's.", "The graveyard scene eases tension prior to the catastrophe, and, as Hamlet holds the skull, it is shown that Hamlet no longer fears damnation in the afterlife, and accepts that there is a \"divinity that shapes our ends\".Hamlet's enquiring mind has been open to all kinds of ideas, but in act five he has decided on a plan, and in a dialogue with Horatio he seems to answer his two earlier soliloquies on suicide: \"We defy augury.", "There is special providence in the fall of a sparrow.", "If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it be not to come, it will be now; if it be not now, yet it will come.", "The readiness is all.", "Since no man, of aught he leaves, knows aught, what is't to leave betimes.", "\"===Length===The First Quarto (1603) text of ''Hamlet'' contains 15,983 words, the Second Quarto (1604) contains 28,628 words, and the First Folio (1623) contains 27,602 words.", "Counting the number of lines varies between editions, partly because prose sections in the play may be formatted with varied lengths.", "Editions of ''Hamlet'' that are created by conflating the texts of the Second Quarto and the Folio are said to have approximately 3,900 lines; the number of lines varies between those editions based on formatting the prose sections, counting methods, and how the editors have joined the texts together.", "''Hamlet'' is by far the longest play that Shakespeare wrote, and one of the longest plays in the Western canon.", "It might require more than four hours to stage; a typical Elizabethan play would need two to three hours.", "It is speculated that the because of the considerable length of Q2 and F1, there was an expectation that those texts would be abridged for performance, or that Q2 and F1 may have been aimed at a reading audience.That Q1 is so much shorter than Q2 has spurred speculation that Q1 is an early draft, or perhaps an adaptation, a bootleg copy, or a stage adaptation.", "On the title page of Q2, its text is described as \"newly imprinted and enlarged to almost as much again as it was.\"", "That is probably a comparison to Q1.===Language===Hamlet's statement that his dark clothes are the outer sign of his inner grief demonstrates strong rhetorical skill (artist: Eugène Delacroix 1834).Much of ''Hamlet''s language is courtly: elaborate, witty discourse, as recommended by Baldassare Castiglione's 1528 etiquette guide, ''The Courtier''.", "This work specifically advises royal retainers to amuse their masters with inventive language.", "Osric and Polonius, especially, seem to respect this injunction.", "Claudius's speech is rich with rhetorical figures—as is Hamlet's and, at times, Ophelia's—while the language of Horatio, the guards, and the gravediggers is simpler.", "Claudius's high status is reinforced by using the royal first person plural (\"we\" or \"us\"), and anaphora mixed with metaphor to resonate with Greek political speeches.Of all the characters, Hamlet has the greatest rhetorical skill.", "He uses highly developed metaphors, stichomythia, and in nine memorable words deploys both anaphora and asyndeton: \"to die: to sleep— / To sleep, perchance to dream\".", "In contrast, when occasion demands, he is precise and straightforward, as when he explains his inward emotion to his mother: \"But I have that within which passes show, / These but the trappings and the suits of woe\".", "At times, he relies heavily on puns to express his true thoughts while simultaneously concealing them.", "Pauline Kiernan argues that Shakespeare changed English drama forever in ''Hamlet'' because he \"showed how a character's language can often be saying several things at once, and contradictory meanings at that, to reflect fragmented thoughts and disturbed feelings\".", "She gives the example of Hamlet's advice to Ophelia, \"get thee to a nunnery\", which, she claims, is simultaneously a reference to a place of chastity and a slang term for a brothel, reflecting Hamlet's confused feelings about female sexuality.", "However Harold Jenkins does not agree, having studied the few examples that are used to support that idea, and finds that there is no support for the assumption that \"nunnery\" was used that way in slang, or that Hamlet intended such a meaning.", "The context of the scene suggests that a nunnery would not be a brothel, but instead a place of renunciation and a \"sanctuary from marriage and from the world’s contamination\".", "Thompson and Taylor consider the brothel idea incorrect considering that \"Hamlet is trying to deter Ophelia from ''breeding''\".Hamlet’s first words in the play are a pun; when Claudius addresses him as \"my cousin Hamlet, and my son\", Hamlet says as an aside: \"A little more than kin, and less than kind.", "\"An unusual rhetorical device, hendiadys, appears in several places in the play.", "Examples are found in Ophelia's speech at the end of the nunnery scene: \"Th'''expectancy and rose'' of the fair state\" and \"And I, of ladies most ''deject and wretched''\".", "Many scholars have found it odd that Shakespeare would, seemingly arbitrarily, use this rhetorical form throughout the play.", "One explanation may be that ''Hamlet'' was written later in Shakespeare's life, when he was adept at matching rhetorical devices to characters and the plot.", "Linguist George T. Wright suggests that hendiadys had been used deliberately to heighten the play's sense of duality and dislocation.Hamlet's soliloquies have also captured the attention of scholars.", "Hamlet interrupts himself, vocalising either disgust or agreement with himself and embellishing his own words.", "He has difficulty expressing himself directly and instead blunts the thrust of his thought with wordplay.", "It is not until late in the play, after his experience with the pirates, that Hamlet is able to articulate his feelings freely." ], [ "Context and interpretation", "===Religious===John Everett Millais' ''Ophelia'' (1852) depicts Lady Ophelia's mysterious death by drowning.", "In the play, the gravediggers discuss whether Ophelia's death was a suicide and whether she merits a Christian burial.Written at a time of religious upheaval and in the wake of the English Reformation, the play is alternately Catholic (or piously medieval) and Protestant (or consciously modern).", "The ghost describes himself as being in purgatory and as dying without last rites.", "This and Ophelia's burial ceremony, which is characteristically Catholic, make up most of the play's Catholic connections.", "Some scholars have observed that revenge tragedies come from Catholic countries such as Italy and Spain, where the revenge tragedies present contradictions of motives, since according to Catholic doctrine the duty to God and family precedes civil justice.", "Hamlet's conundrum then is whether to avenge his father and kill Claudius or to leave the vengeance to God, as his religion requires.Much of the play's Protestant tones derive from its setting in Denmark—both then and now a predominantly Protestant country, though it is unclear whether the fictional Denmark of the play is intended to portray this implicit fact.", "Dialogue refers explicitly to the German city of Wittenberg where Hamlet, Horatio, and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern attend university, implying where the Protestant reformer Martin Luther nailed the ''Ninety-five Theses'' to the church door in 1517.===Philosophical===Philosophical ideas in ''Hamlet'' are similar to those of the French writer Michel de Montaigne, a contemporary of Shakespeare's (artist: Thomas de Leu, fl.", "1560–1612).Hamlet is often perceived as a philosophical character, expounding ideas that are now described as relativist, existentialist, and sceptical.", "For example, he expresses a subjectivistic idea when he says to Rosencrantz: \"there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so\".", "The idea that nothing is real except in the mind of the individual finds its roots in the Greek Sophists, who argued that since nothing can be perceived except through the senses—and since all individuals sense, and therefore perceive things differently—there is no absolute truth, but rather only relative truth.", "The clearest alleged instance of existentialism is in the \"to be, or not to be\" speech, where Hamlet is thought by some to use \"being\" to allude to life and action, and \"not being\" to death and inaction.", "''Hamlet'' reflects the contemporary scepticism promoted by the French Renaissance humanist Michel de Montaigne.", "Prior to Montaigne's time, humanists such as Pico della Mirandola had argued that man was God's greatest creation, made in God's image and able to choose his own nature, but this view was subsequently challenged in Montaigne's ''Essais'' of 1580.Hamlet's \"What a piece of work is a man\" seems to echo many of Montaigne's ideas, and many scholars have discussed whether Shakespeare drew directly from Montaigne or whether both men were simply reacting similarly to the spirit of the times.===Psychoanalytic===Freud suggested that an unconscious Oedipal conflict caused Hamlet's hesitations (artist: Eugène Delacroix 1844).====Sigmund Freud====Sigmund Freud’s thoughts regarding ''Hamlet'' were first published in his book ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (1899), as a footnote to a discussion of Sophocles’ tragedy, ''Oedipus Rex,'' all of which is part of his consideration of the causes of neurosis.", "Freud does not offer over-all interpretations of the plays, but uses the two tragedies to illustrate and corroborate his psychological theories, which are based on his treatments of his patients and on his studies.", "Productions of ''Hamlet'' have used Freud's ideas to support their own interpretations.", "In ''The Interpretation of Dreams'', Freud says that according to his experience \"parents play a leading part in the infantile psychology of all persons who subsequently become psychoneurotics,\" and that \"falling in love with one parent and hating the other\" is a common impulse in early childhood, and is important source material of \"subsequent neurosis\".", "He says that \"in their amorous or hostile attitude toward their parents\" neurotics reveal something that occurs with less intensity \"in the minds of the majority of children\".", "Freud considered that Sophocles’ tragedy, ''Oedipus Rex'', with its story that involves crimes of parricide and incest, \"has furnished us with legendary matter which corroborates\" these ideas, and that the \"profound and universal validity of the old legends\" is understandable only by recognizing the validity of these theories of \"infantile psychology\".Freud explores the reason \"''Oedipus Rex'' is capable of moving a modern reader or playgoer no less powerfully than it moved the contemporary Greeks\".", "He suggests that \"It may be that we were all destined to direct our first sexual impulses toward our mothers, and our first impulses of hatred and violence toward our fathers.\"", "Freud suggests that we \"recoil from the person for whom this primitive wish of our childhood has been fulfilled with all the force of the repression which these wishes have undergone in our minds since childhood.", "\"These ideas, which became a cornerstone of Freud's psychological theories, he named the \"Oedipus complex\", and, at one point, he considered calling it the \"Hamlet complex\".", "Freud considered that ''Hamlet'' \"is rooted in the same soil as ''Oedipus Rex''.\"", "But the difference in the \"psychic life\" of the two civilizations that produced each play, and the progress made over time of \"repression in the emotional life of humanity\" can be seen in the way the same material is handled by the two playwrights: In ''Oedipus Rex'' incest and murder are brought into the light as might occur in a dream, but in ''Hamlet'' these impulses \"remain repressed\" and we learn of their existence through Hamlet's inhibitions to act out the revenge, while he is shown to be capable of acting decisively and boldly in other contexts.", "Freud asserts, \"The play is based on Hamlet’s hesitation in accomplishing the task of revenge assigned to him; the text does not give the cause or the motive of this.\"", "The conflict is \"deeply hidden\".Hamlet is able to perform any kind of action except taking revenge on the man who murdered his father and has taken his father's place with his mother—Claudius has led Hamlet to realize the repressed desires of his own childhood.", "The loathing which was supposed to drive him to revenge is replaced by \"self-reproach, by conscientious scruples\" which tell him \"he himself is no better than the murderer whom he is required to punish\".", "Freud suggests that Hamlet's sexual aversion expressed in his \"nunnery\" conversation with Ophelia supports the idea that Hamlet is \"an hysterical subject\".Freud suggests that the character Hamlet goes through an experience that has three characteristics, which he numbered: 1) \"the hero is not psychopathic, but becomes so\" during the course of the play.", "2) \"the repressed desire is one of those that are similarly repressed in all of us.\"", "It is a repression that \"belongs to an early stage of our individual development\".", "The audience identifies with the character of Hamlet, because \"we are victims of the same conflict.\"", "3) It is the nature of theatre that \"the struggle of the repressed impulse to become conscious\" occurs in both the hero onstage and the spectator, when they are in the grip of their emotions, \"in the manner seen in psychoanalytic treatment\".Freud points out that ''Hamlet'' is an exception in that psychopathic characters are usually ineffective in stage plays; they \"become as useless for the stage as they are for life itself\", because they do not inspire insight or empathy, unless the audience is familiar with the character's inner conflict.", "Freud says, \"It is thus the task of the dramatist to transport us into the same illness.", "\"John Barrymore's long-running 1922 performance in New York, directed by Thomas Hopkins, \"broke new ground in its Freudian approach to character\", in keeping with the post-World War I rebellion against everything Victorian.", "He had a \"blunter intention\" than presenting the genteel, sweet prince of 19th-century tradition, imbuing his character with virility and lust.Beginning in 1910, with the publication of \"The Œdipus-Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet's Mystery: A Study in Motive\" Ernest Jones—a psychoanalyst and Freud's biographer—developed Freud's ideas into a series of essays that culminated in his book ''Hamlet and Oedipus'' (1949).", "Influenced by Jones's psychoanalytic approach, several productions have portrayed the \"closet scene\", where Hamlet confronts his mother in her private quarters, in a sexual light.", "In this reading, Hamlet is disgusted by his mother's \"incestuous\" relationship with Claudius while simultaneously fearful of killing him, as this would clear Hamlet's path to his mother's bed.", "Ophelia's madness after her father's death may also be read through the Freudian lens: as a reaction to the death of her hoped-for lover, her father.", "Ophelia is overwhelmed by having her unfulfilled love for him so abruptly terminated and drifts into the oblivion of insanity.", "In 1937, Tyrone Guthrie directed Laurence Olivier in a Jones-inspired ''Hamlet'' at The Old Vic.", "Olivier later used some of these same ideas in his 1948 film version of the play.In the ''Bloom's Shakespeare Through the Ages'' volume on Hamlet, editors Bloom and Foster express a conviction that the intentions of Shakespeare in portraying the character of Hamlet in the play exceeded the capacity of the Freudian Oedipus complex to completely encompass the extent of characteristics depicted in Hamlet throughout the tragedy: \"For once, Freud regressed in attempting to fasten the Oedipus Complex upon Hamlet: it will not stick, and merely showed that Freud did better than T.S.", "Eliot, who preferred ''Coriolanus'' to ''Hamlet'', or so he said.", "Who can believe Eliot, when he exposes his own Hamlet Complex by declaring the play to be an aesthetic failure?\"", "The book also notes James Joyce's interpretation, stating that he \"did far better in the Library Scene of ''Ulysses'', where Stephen marvellously credits Shakespeare, in this play, with universal fatherhood while accurately implying that Hamlet is fatherless, thus opening a pragmatic gap between Shakespeare and Hamlet.", "\"Joshua Rothman has written in ''The New Yorker'' that \"we tell the story wrong when we say that Freud used the idea of the Oedipus complex to understand ''Hamlet''\".", "Rothman suggests that \"it was the other way around: ''Hamlet'' helped Freud understand, and perhaps even invent, psychoanalysis\".", "He concludes, \"The Oedipus complex is a misnomer.", "It should be called the 'Hamlet complex'.", "\"====Jacques Lacan====In the 1950s, the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan analyzed ''Hamlet'' to illustrate some of his concepts.", "His structuralist theories about ''Hamlet'' were first presented in a series of seminars given in Paris and later published in \"Desire and the Interpretation of Desire in ''Hamlet''\".", "Lacan postulated that the human psyche is determined by structures of language and that the linguistic structures of ''Hamlet'' shed light on human desire.", "His point of departure is Freud's Oedipal theories, and the central theme of mourning that runs through ''Hamlet''.", "In Lacan's analysis, Hamlet unconsciously assumes the role of ''phallus''—the cause of his inaction—and is increasingly distanced from reality \"by mourning, fantasy, narcissism and psychosis\", which create holes (or lack) in the real, imaginary, and symbolic aspects of his psyche.", "Lacan's theories influenced some subsequent literary criticism of ''Hamlet'' because of his alternative vision of the play and his use of semantics to explore the play's psychological landscape.===Feminist===Ophelia is distracted by grief.", "Feminist critics have explored her descent into madness (artist: Henrietta Rae 1890).In the 20th century, feminist critics opened up new approaches to Gertrude and Ophelia.", "New historicist and cultural materialist critics examined the play in its historical context, attempting to piece together its original cultural environment.", "They focused on the gender system of early modern England, pointing to the common trinity of ''maid, wife, or widow'', with ''whores'' outside of that stereotype.", "In this analysis, the essence of ''Hamlet'' is the central character's changed perception of his mother as a whore because of her failure to remain faithful to Old Hamlet.", "In consequence, Hamlet loses his faith in all women, treating Ophelia as if she too were a whore and dishonest with Hamlet.", "Ophelia, by some critics, can be seen as honest and fair; however, it is virtually impossible to link these two traits, since 'fairness' is an outward trait, while 'honesty' is an inward trait.Nicolai A. Abildgaard, ).Carolyn Heilbrun's 1957 essay \"The Character of Hamlet's Mother\" defends Gertrude, arguing that the text never hints that Gertrude knew of Claudius poisoning King Hamlet.", "This analysis has been praised by many feminist critics, combating what is, by Heilbrun's argument, centuries' worth of misinterpretation.", "By this account, Gertrude's worst crime is of pragmatically marrying her brother-in-law in order to avoid a power vacuum.", "This is borne out by the fact that King Hamlet's ghost tells Hamlet to leave Gertrude out of Hamlet's revenge, to leave her to heaven, an arbitrary mercy to grant to a conspirator to murder.Ophelia has also been defended by feminist critics, most notably Elaine Showalter.", "Ophelia is surrounded by powerful men: her father, brother, and Hamlet.", "All three disappear: Laertes leaves, Hamlet abandons her, and Polonius dies.", "Conventional theories had argued that without these three powerful men making decisions for her, Ophelia is driven into madness.", "Feminist theorists argue that she goes mad with guilt because, when Hamlet kills her father, he has fulfilled her sexual desire to have Hamlet kill her father so they can be together.", "Showalter points out that Ophelia has become the symbol of the distraught and hysterical woman in modern culture." ], [ "Influence", "''Hamlet'' is one of the most quoted works in the English language, and is often included on lists of the world's greatest literature.", "As such, it reverberates through the writing of later centuries.", "Academic Laurie Osborne identifies the direct influence of ''Hamlet'' in numerous modern narratives, and divides them into four main categories: fictional accounts of the play's composition, simplifications of the story for young readers, stories expanding the role of one or more characters, and narratives featuring performances of the play.", "''Actors before Hamlet'' by Władysław Czachórski (1875), National Museum in WarsawEnglish poet John Milton was an early admirer of Shakespeare and took evident inspiration from his work.", "As John Kerrigan discusses, Milton originally considered writing his epic poem ''Paradise Lost'' (1667) as a tragedy.", "While Milton did not ultimately go that route, the poem still shows distinct echoes of Shakespearean revenge tragedy, and of ''Hamlet'' in particular.", "As scholar Christopher N. Warren argues, ''Paradise Lost''s Satan \"undergoes a transformation in the poem from a Hamlet-like avenger into a Claudius-like usurper,\" a plot device that supports Milton's larger Republican internationalist project.", "The poem also reworks theatrical language from ''Hamlet'', especially around the idea of \"putting on\" certain dispositions, as when Hamlet puts on \"an antic disposition,\" similarly to the Son in ''Paradise Lost'' who \"can put on / God's terrors.", "\"Henry Fielding's ''Tom Jones'', published about 1749, describes a visit to ''Hamlet'' by Tom Jones and Mr Partridge, with similarities to the \"play within a play\".", "In contrast, Goethe's Bildungsroman ''Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship'', written between 1776 and 1796, not only has a production of ''Hamlet'' at its core but also creates parallels between the ghost and Wilhelm Meister's dead father.", "In the early 1850s, in ''Pierre'', Herman Melville focuses on a Hamlet-like character's long development as a writer.", "Ten years later, Dickens's ''Great Expectations'' contains many ''Hamlet''-like plot elements: it is driven by revenge-motivated actions, contains ghost-like characters (Abel Magwitch and Miss Havisham), and focuses on the hero's guilt.", "Academic Alexander Welsh notes that ''Great Expectations'' is an \"autobiographical novel\" and \"anticipates psychoanalytic readings of ''Hamlet'' itself\".", "About the same time, George Eliot's ''The Mill on the Floss'' was published, introducing Maggie Tulliver \"who is explicitly compared with Hamlet\" though \"with a reputation for sanity\".L.", "Frank Baum's first published short story was \"They Played a New Hamlet\" (1895).", "When Baum had been touring New York State in the title role, the actor playing the ghost fell through the floorboards, and the rural audience thought it was part of the show and demanded that the actor repeat the fall, because they thought it was funny.", "Baum would later recount the actual story in an article, but the short story is told from the point of view of the actor playing the ghost.In the 1920s, James Joyce managed \"a more upbeat version\" of ''Hamlet''—stripped of obsession and revenge—in ''Ulysses'', though its main parallels are with Homer's ''Odyssey''.", "In the 1990s, two novelists were explicitly influenced by ''Hamlet''.", "In Angela Carter's ''Wise Children'', ''To be or not to be'' is reworked as a song and dance routine, and Iris Murdoch's ''The Black Prince'' has Oedipal themes and murder intertwined with a love affair between a ''Hamlet''-obsessed writer, Bradley Pearson, and the daughter of his rival.", "In the late 20th century, David Foster Wallace's novel ''Infinite Jest'' draws heavily from ''Hamlet'' and takes its title from the play's text; Wallace incorporates references to the gravedigger scene, the marriage of the main character's mother to his uncle, and the re-appearance of the main character's father as a ghost.There is the story of the woman who read ''Hamlet'' for the first time and said, \"I don't see why people admire that play so.", "It is nothing but a bunch of quotations strung together.", "\"— Isaac Asimov, ''Asimov's Guide to Shakespeare'', p. vii, Avenal Books, 1970" ], [ "Performance history", "===Shakespeare's day to the Interregnum===Shakespeare almost certainly wrote the role of Hamlet for Richard Burbage.", "He was the chief tragedian of the Lord Chamberlain's Men, with a capacious memory for lines and a wide emotional range.", "Judging by the number of reprints, ''Hamlet'' appears to have been Shakespeare's fourth most popular play during his lifetime—only ''Henry IV Part 1'', ''Richard III'' and ''Pericles'' eclipsed it.", "Shakespeare provides no clear indication of when his play is set; however, as Elizabethan actors performed at the Globe in contemporary dress on minimal sets, this would not have affected the staging.Firm evidence for specific early performances of the play is scant.", "It is sometimes argued that the crew of the ship ''Red Dragon'', anchored off Sierra Leone, performed ''Hamlet'' in September 1607; however, this claim is based on a 19th century insert of a 'lost' passage into a period document, and is today widely regarded as a hoax, likely to have been perpetrated by John Payne Collier (not to mention the intrinsic unlikelihood of sailors memorising and performing the play).", "More credible is that the play toured in Germany within five years of Shakespeare's death, and that it was performed before James I in 1619 and Charles I in 1637.Oxford editor George Hibbard argues that, since the contemporary literature contains many allusions and references to ''Hamlet'' (only Falstaff is mentioned more, from Shakespeare), the play was surely performed with a frequency that the historical record misses.All theatres were closed down by the Puritan government during the Interregnum.", "Even during this time, however, playlets known as ''drolls'' were often performed illegally, including one called ''The Grave-Makers'' based on act 5, scene 1 of ''Hamlet''.===Restoration and 18th century===Title page and frontispiece for ''Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: A Tragedy.", "As it is now acted at the Theatres-Royal in Drury-Lane and Covent-Garden.", "London, 1776''The play was revived early in the Restoration.", "When the existing stock of pre-civil war plays was divided between the two newly created patent theatre companies, ''Hamlet'' was the only Shakespearean favourite that Sir William Davenant's Duke's Company secured.", "It became the first of Shakespeare's plays to be presented with movable flats painted with generic scenery behind the proscenium arch of Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre.", "This new stage convention highlighted the frequency with which Shakespeare shifts dramatic location, encouraging the recurrent criticism of his failure to maintain unity of place.", "In the title role, Davenant cast Thomas Betterton, who continued to play the Dane until he was 74.David Garrick at Drury Lane produced a version that adapted Shakespeare heavily; he declared: \"I had sworn I would not leave the stage till I had rescued that noble play from all the rubbish of the fifth act.", "I have brought it forth without the grave-digger's trick, Osrick, & the fencing match\".", "The first actor known to have played Hamlet in North America is Lewis Hallam Jr., in the American Company's production in Philadelphia in 1759.David Garrick expresses Hamlet's shock at his first sighting of the ghost (artist: unknown).John Philip Kemble made his Drury Lane debut as Hamlet in 1783.His performance was said to be 20 minutes longer than anyone else's, and his lengthy pauses provoked the suggestion by Richard Brinsley Sheridan that \"music should be played between the words\".", "Sarah Siddons was the first actress known to play Hamlet; many women have since played him as a breeches role, to great acclaim.", "In 1748, Alexander Sumarokov wrote a Russian adaptation that focused on Prince Hamlet as the embodiment of an opposition to Claudius's tyranny—a treatment that would recur in Eastern European versions into the 20th century.", "In the years following America's independence, Thomas Abthorpe Cooper, the young nation's leading tragedian, performed ''Hamlet'' among other plays at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, and at the Park Theatre in New York.", "Although chided for \"acknowledging acquaintances in the audience\" and \"inadequate memorisation of his lines\", he became a national celebrity.===19th century===A poster, , for an American production of ''Hamlet'' (starring Thomas W. Keene), showing several of the key scenesFrom around 1810 to 1840, the best-known Shakespearean performances in the United States were tours by leading London actors—including George Frederick Cooke, Junius Brutus Booth, Edmund Kean, William Charles Macready, and Charles Kemble.", "Of these, Booth remained to make his career in the States, fathering the nation's most notorious actor, John Wilkes Booth (who later assassinated Abraham Lincoln), and its most famous Hamlet, Edwin Booth.", "Edwin Booth's ''Hamlet'' at the Fifth Avenue Theatre in 1875 was described as \"... the dark, sad, dreamy, mysterious hero of a poem.", "... acted in an ideal manner, as far removed as possible from the plane of actual life\".", "Booth played Hamlet for 100 nights in the 1864/5 season at the Winter Garden Theatre, inaugurating the era of long-run Shakespeare in America.In the United Kingdom, the actor-managers of the Victorian era (including Kean, Samuel Phelps, Macready, and Henry Irving) staged Shakespeare in a grand manner, with elaborate scenery and costumes.", "The tendency of actor-managers to emphasise the importance of their own central character did not always meet with the critics' approval.", "George Bernard Shaw's praise for Johnston Forbes-Robertson's performance contains a sideswipe at Irving: \"The story of the play was perfectly intelligible, and quite took the attention of the audience off the principal actor at moments.", "What is the Lyceum coming to?", "\"In London, Edmund Kean was the first Hamlet to abandon the regal finery usually associated with the role in favour of a plain costume, and he is said to have surprised his audience by playing Hamlet as serious and introspective.", "In stark contrast to earlier opulence, William Poel's 1881 production of the Q1 text was an early attempt at reconstructing the Elizabethan theatre's austerity; his only backdrop was a set of red curtains.", "Sarah Bernhardt played the prince in her popular 1899 London production.", "In contrast to the \"effeminate\" view of the central character that usually accompanied a female casting, she described her character as \"manly and resolute, but nonetheless thoughtful ... he thinks before he acts, a trait indicative of great strength and great spiritual power\".In France, Charles Kemble initiated an enthusiasm for Shakespeare; and leading members of the Romantic movement such as Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas saw his 1827 Paris performance of ''Hamlet'', particularly admiring the madness of Harriet Smithson's Ophelia.", "In Germany, ''Hamlet'' had become so assimilated by the mid-19th century that Ferdinand Freiligrath declared that \"Germany is Hamlet\".", "From the 1850s, the Parsi theatre tradition in India transformed ''Hamlet'' into folk performances, with dozens of songs added.===20th century===Apart from some western troupes' 19th-century visits, the first professional performance of Hamlet in Japan was Otojirō Kawakami's 1903 ''Shinpa'' (\"new school theatre\") adaptation.", "Tsubouchi Shōyō translated ''Hamlet'' and produced a performance in 1911 that blended ''Shingeki'' (\"new drama\") and ''Kabuki'' styles.", "This hybrid-genre reached its peak in Tsuneari Fukuda's 1955 ''Hamlet''.", "In 1998, Yukio Ninagawa produced an acclaimed version of ''Hamlet'' in the style of Nō theatre, which he took to London.Konstantin Stanislavski and Edward Gordon Craig—two of the 20th century's most influential theatre practitioners—collaborated on the Moscow Art Theatre's seminal production of 1911–12.While Craig favoured stylised abstraction, Stanislavski, armed with his 'system,' explored psychological motivation.", "Craig conceived of the play as a symbolist monodrama, offering a dream-like vision as seen through Hamlet's eyes alone.", "This was most evident in the staging of the first court scene.", "The most famous aspect of the production is Craig's use of large, abstract screens that altered the size and shape of the acting area for each scene, representing the character's state of mind spatially or visualising a dramaturgical progression.", "The production attracted enthusiastic and unprecedented worldwide attention for the theatre and placed it \"on the cultural map for Western Europe\".The first modern dress stagings of ''Hamlet'' happened in 1925 in London and then New York.", "Barry Jackson's Birmingham Repertory Theatre opened their production, directed by H.K.", "Ayliff at the Kingsway Theatre on August 25, 1925.Ivor Brown reported, \"Many of the first night audience came to scoff and remained to hold its breath, to marvel and enjoy.", ".", ".", ".Shakespeare's victory over time and tailoring was swift and sweeping.\"", "Horace Brisbin Liveright's modern dress production opened at the Booth Theater in New York on November 9, 1925, the same night that the London production moved to Birmingham.", "It was known \"more dryly, and perhaps with a touch of something more sinister, as 'the plain-clothes ''Hamlet'''\" and did not reach the same level of success.", "''Hamlet'' is often played with contemporary political overtones.", "Leopold Jessner's 1926 production at the Berlin Staatstheater portrayed Claudius's court as a parody of the corrupt and fawning court of Kaiser Wilhelm.", "In Poland, the number of productions of ''Hamlet'' has tended to increase at times of political unrest, since its political themes (suspected crimes, coups, surveillance) can be used to comment on a contemporary situation.", "Similarly, Czech directors have used the play at times of occupation: a 1941 Vinohrady Theatre production \"emphasised, with due caution, the helpless situation of an intellectual attempting to endure in a ruthless environment\".", "In China, performances of Hamlet often have political significance: Gu Wuwei's 1916 ''The Usurper of State Power'', an amalgam of ''Hamlet'' and ''Macbeth'', was an attack on Yuan Shikai's attempt to overthrow the republic.", "In 1942, Jiao Juyin directed the play in a Confucian temple in Sichuan Province, to which the government had retreated from the advancing Japanese.", "In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of the protests at Tiananmen Square, Lin Zhaohua staged a 1990 ''Hamlet'' in which the prince was an ordinary individual tortured by a loss of meaning.", "In this production, the actors playing Hamlet, Claudius and Polonius exchanged roles at crucial moments in the performance, including the moment of Claudius's death, at which point the actor mainly associated with Hamlet fell to the ground.Mignon Nevada as Ophelia, 1910Notable stagings in London and New York include Barrymore's 1925 production at the Haymarket; it influenced subsequent performances by John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier.", "Gielgud played the central role many times: his 1936 New York production ran for 132 performances, leading to the accolade that he was \"the finest interpreter of the role since Barrymore\".", "Although \"posterity has treated Maurice Evans less kindly\", throughout the 1930s and 1940s he was regarded by many as the leading interpreter of Shakespeare in the United States and in the 1938/39 season he presented Broadway's first uncut ''Hamlet'', running four and a half hours.", "Evans later performed a highly truncated version of the play that he played for South Pacific war zones during World War II which made the prince a more decisive character.", "The staging, known as the \"G.I.", "Hamlet\", was produced on Broadway for 131 performances in 1945/46.Olivier's 1937 performance at The Old Vic was popular with audiences but not with critics, with James Agate writing in a famous review in ''The Sunday Times,'' \"Mr. Olivier does not speak poetry badly.", "He does not speak it at all.\"", "In 1937 Tyrone Guthrie directed the play at Elsinore, Denmark, with Laurence Olivier as Hamlet and Vivien Leigh as Ophelia.In 1963, Olivier directed Peter O'Toole as Hamlet in the inaugural performance of the newly formed National Theatre; critics found resonance between O'Toole's Hamlet and John Osborne's hero, Jimmy Porter, from ''Look Back in Anger''.Richard Burton received his third Tony Award nomination when he played his second Hamlet, his first under John Gielgud's direction, in 1964 in a production that holds the record for the longest run of the play in Broadway history (137 performances).", "The performance was set on a bare stage, conceived to appear like a dress rehearsal, with Burton in a black v-neck sweater, and Gielgud himself tape-recorded the voice for the ghost (which appeared as a looming shadow).", "It was immortalised both on record and on a film that played in US theatres for a week in 1964 as well as being the subject of books written by cast members William Redfield and Richard L. Sterne.Other New York portrayals of ''Hamlet'' of note include that of Ralph Fiennes's in 1995 (for which he won the Tony Award for Best Actor)—which ran, from first preview to closing night, a total of one hundred performances.", "About the Fiennes ''Hamlet'' Vincent Canby wrote in ''The New York Times'' that it was \"... not one for literary sleuths and Shakespeare scholars.", "It respects the play, but it doesn't provide any new material for arcane debates on what it all means.", "Instead it's an intelligent, beautifully read ...\" Stacy Keach played the role with an all-star cast at Joseph Papp's Delacorte Theater in the early 1970s, with Colleen Dewhurst's Gertrude, James Earl Jones's King, Barnard Hughes's Polonius, Sam Waterston's Laertes and Raul Julia's Osric.", "Sam Waterston later played the role himself at the Delacorte for the New York Shakespeare Festival, and the show transferred to the Vivian Beaumont Theater in 1975 (Stephen Lang played Bernardo and other roles).", "Stephen Lang's ''Hamlet'' for the Roundabout Theatre Company in 1992 received mixed reviews and ran for sixty-one performances.", "David Warner played the role with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1965.William Hurt (at Circle Repertory Company off-Broadway, memorably performing \"To be, or not to be\" while lying on the floor), Jon Voight at Rutgers, and Christopher Walken (fiercely) at Stratford, Connecticut, have all played the role, as has Diane Venora at The Public Theatre.", "The Internet Broadway Database lists sixty-six productions of ''Hamlet''.Ian Charleson performed Hamlet from 9 October to 13 November 1989, in Richard Eyre's production at the Olivier Theatre, replacing Daniel Day-Lewis, who had abandoned the production.", "Seriously ill from AIDS at the time, Charleson died eight weeks after his last performance.", "Fellow actor and friend, Sir Ian McKellen, said that Charleson played Hamlet so well it was as if he had rehearsed the role all his life; McKellen called it \"the perfect Hamlet\".", "The performance garnered other major accolades as well, some critics echoing McKellen in calling it the definitive Hamlet performance.Keanu Reeves performed Hamlet from 12 January to 4 February 1995 at the Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre (Winnipeg, Manitoba).", "The production garnered positive reviews from worldwide media outlets.", "Directed by Lewis Baumander the lavish production featured a cast of some of Canada's most distinguished classical actors of that period.===21st century===''Hamlet'' continues to be staged regularly.", "Actors performing the lead role have included: Simon Russell Beale, Ben Whishaw, David Tennant, Tom Hiddleston, Angela Winkler, Samuel West, Christopher Eccleston, Maxine Peake, Rory Kinnear, Oscar Isaac, Michael Sheen, Christian Camargo, Paapa Essiedu and Michael Urie.In May 2009, ''Hamlet'' opened with Jude Law in the title role at the Donmar Warehouse West End season at Wyndham's Theatre.", "The production officially opened on 3 June and ran through 22 August 2009.A further production with Jude Law ran at Elsinore Castle in Denmark from 25–30 August 2009, and then moved to Broadway, and ran for 12 weeks at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York.In October 2011, a production starring Michael Sheen opened at the Young Vic, in which the play was set inside a psychiatric hospital.In 2013, American actor Paul Giamatti played the title role of ''Hamlet'' in modern dress, at the Yale Repertory Theatre, at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut.The Globe Theatre of London initiated a project in 2014 to perform ''Hamlet'' in every country in the world in the space of two years.", "Titled ''Globe to Globe Hamlet'', it began its tour on 23 April 2014, the 450th anniversary of Shakespeare's birth, and performed in 197 countries.Benedict Cumberbatch played the role for a 12-week run in a production at the Barbican Theatre, opening on 25 August 2015.The play was produced by Sonia Friedman, and directed by Lyndsey Turner, with set design by Es Devlin.", "It was called the \"most in-demand theatre production of all time\" and sold out in seven hours after tickets went on sale 11 August 2014, more than a year before the play opened.A 2017 Almeida Theatre production, directed by Robert Icke and starring Andrew Scott, was transferred that same year to the West End's Harold Pinter Theatre.Tom Hiddleston played the role for a three-week run at Vanbrugh Theatre that opened on 1 September 2017 and was directed by Kenneth Branagh.In 2018, The Globe Theatre's newly instated artistic director Michelle Terry played the role in a production notable for its gender-blind casting.A production by Bristol Old Vic starring Billy Howle in title role, Niamh Cusack as Gertrude, Mirren Mack as Ophelia opened on 13 October 2022.===Film and TV performances===An early film version of ''Hamlet'' is Sarah Bernhardt's five-minute film of the fencing scene, which was produced in 1900.The film was an early attempt at combining sound and film; music and words were recorded on phonograph records, to be played along with the film.", "Silent versions were released in 1907, 1908, 1910, 1913, 1917, and 1920.In the 1921 film ''Hamlet'', Danish actress Asta Nielsen played the role of Hamlet as a woman who spends her life disguised as a man.Laurence Olivier's 1948 moody black-and-white ''Hamlet'' won Best Picture and Best Actor Academy Awards and is , the only Shakespeare film to have done so.", "His interpretation stressed the Oedipal overtones of the play and cast 28-year-old Eileen Herlie as Hamlet's mother opposite himself at 41 as Hamlet.In 1953, actor Jack Manning performed the play in 15-minute segments over two weeks in the short-lived late night DuMont series ''Monodrama Theater''.", "''New York Times'' TV critic Jack Gould praised Manning's performance as Hamlet.The 1964 Soviet film ''Hamlet'' () is based on a translation by Boris Pasternak and directed by Grigori Kozintsev, with a score by Dmitri Shostakovich.", "Innokenty Smoktunovsky was cast in the role of Hamlet.John Gielgud directed Richard Burton in a Broadway production at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre in 1964–65, the longest-running ''Hamlet'' in the U.S. to date.", "A live film of the production was produced using \"Electronovision\", a method of recording a live performance with multiple video cameras and converting the image to film.", "Eileen Herlie repeated her role from Olivier's film version as the Queen, and the voice of Gielgud was heard as the ghost.", "The Gielgud/Burton production was also recorded complete and released on LP by Columbia Masterworks.Sarah Bernhardt as Hamlet, with Yorick's skull (photographer: James Lafayette, )The first ''Hamlet'' in color was a 1969 film directed by Tony Richardson with Nicol Williamson as Hamlet and Marianne Faithfull as Ophelia.In 1990 Franco Zeffirelli, whose Shakespeare films have been described as \"sensual rather than cerebral\", cast Mel Gibson—then famous for the ''Mad Max'' and ''Lethal Weapon'' movies—in the title role of his 1990 version; Glenn Close—then famous as the psychotic \"other woman\" in ''Fatal Attraction''—played Gertrude, and Paul Scofield played Hamlet's father.Kenneth Branagh adapted, directed, and starred in a 1996 film version of ''Hamlet'' that contained material from the First Folio and the Second Quarto.", "Branagh's ''Hamlet'' runs for just over four hours.", "Branagh set the film with late 19th-century costuming and furnishings, a production in many ways reminiscent of a Russian novel of the time, and Blenheim Palace, built in the early 18th century, became Elsinore Castle in the external scenes.", "The film is structured as an epic and makes frequent use of flashbacks to highlight elements not made explicit in the play: Hamlet's sexual relationship with Kate Winslet's Ophelia, for example, or his childhood affection for Yorick (played by Ken Dodd).In 2000, Michael Almereyda's ''Hamlet'' set the story in contemporary Manhattan, with Ethan Hawke playing Hamlet as a film student.", "Claudius (played by Kyle MacLachlan) became the CEO of \"Denmark Corporation\", having taken over the company by killing his brother.The 2014 Bollywood film ''Haider'' is an adaptation set in modern Kashmir.", "''The Northman'', released on 22 April 2022 and directed by the American director Robert Eggers who also co-wrote the script with Icelandic author Sjón, is based in the original Scandinavian legend that inspired Shakespeare to write ''Hamlet''." ], [ "Derivative works", "Scenes from a 1904 benefit performance of W. S. Gilbert's ''Rosencrantz and Guildenstern'', with Gilbert as ClaudiusThis section is limited to derivative works written for the stage.Tom Stoppard's 1966 play ''Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead'' retells many of the events of the story from the point of view of the characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern and gives them a backstory of their own.", "Several times since 1995, the American Shakespeare Center has mounted repertories that included both ''Hamlet'' and ''Rosencrantz and Guildenstern'', with the same actors performing the same roles in each; in their 2001 and 2009 seasons the two plays were \"directed, designed, and rehearsed together to make the most out of the shared scenes and situations\".W.", "S. Gilbert wrote a short comic play titled ''Rosencrantz and Guildenstern'', in which Hamlet's play is presented as a tragedy written by Claudius in his youth of which he is greatly embarrassed.", "Through the chaos triggered by Hamlet's staging of it, Guildenstern helps Rosencrantz vie with Hamlet to make Ophelia his bride.Lee Blessing's ''Fortinbras'' is a comical sequel to ''Hamlet'' in which all the deceased characters come back as ghosts.", "''The New York Times'' reviewed the play, saying it is \"scarcely more than an extended comedy sketch, lacking the portent and linguistic complexity of Tom Stoppard's ''Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead''.", "''Fortinbras'' operates on a far less ambitious plane, but it is a ripping yarn and offers Keith Reddin a role in which he can commit comic mayhem\".Caridad Svich's ''12 Ophelias (a play with broken songs)'' includes elements of the story of ''Hamlet'' but focuses on Ophelia.", "In Svich's play, Ophelia is resurrected and rises from a pool of water, after her death in ''Hamlet''.", "The play is a series of scenes and songs, and was first staged at a public swimming pool in Brooklyn.David Davalos's ''Wittenberg'' is a \"tragical-comical-historical\" prequel to ''Hamlet'' that depicts the Danish prince as a student at Wittenberg University (now known as the University of Halle-Wittenberg), where he is torn between the conflicting teachings of his mentors John Faustus and Martin Luther.", "''The New York Times'' reviewed the play, saying, \"Mr. Davalos has molded a daft campus comedy out of this unlikely convergence\", and ''Nytheatre.com''s review said the playwright \"has imagined a fascinating alternate reality, and quite possibly, given the fictional Hamlet a back story that will inform the role for the future.", "\"''Mad Boy Chronicle'' by Canadian playwright Michael O'Brien is a dark comedy loosely based on ''Hamlet'', set in Viking Denmark in 999 AD." ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes======References===All references to ''Hamlet'', unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Arden Shakespeare Q2.Under their referencing system, 3.1.55 means act 3, scene 1, line 55.References to the First Quarto and First Folio are marked ''Hamlet Q1'' and ''Hamlet F1'', respectively, and are taken from the Arden Shakespeare ''Hamlet: the texts of 1603 and 1623''.", "Their referencing system for Q1 has no act breaks, so 7.115 means scene 7, line 115." ], [ "Sources", "===Editions of ''Hamlet''===* * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Secondary sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Hamlet'' at the British Library* * * ===Texts===* ''Hamlet'' Complete text on one page with definitions of difficult words and explanations of difficult passages.", "* * * * ''Hamlet'' at the Internet Shakespeare EditionsTranscripts and facsimiles of Q1, Q2 and F1.", "* Shakespeare Quartos ArchiveTranscriptions and facsimiles of thirty-two copies of the five pre-1642 quarto editions.", "* ''Hamlet'' at Open Source ShakespeareA complete text of ''Hamlet'' based on Q2.", "* '' Hamlet''Annotated text aligned to Common Core standards.", "* ''Hamlet''Etext in Spanish available in many formats at Gutenberg.org.===Analysis===* Hamlet on the RampartsThe MIT's Shakespeare Electronic Archive.", "* Hamletworks.orgScholarly resource with multiple versions of ''Hamlet'', commentaries, concordances, and more.", "* Depictions and commentary of Hamlet paintings* Clear Shakespeare ''Hamlet''A word-by-word audio guide through the play.===Related works===* ''The Danish History (Books I–IX)'' by Saxo Grammaticus at The Online Medieval & Classical Library (public domain translation into English of the ''Gesta Danorum'')." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "High German languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''High German languages''' (, i.e.", "''High German dialects''), or simply '''High German''' () – not to be confused with Standard High German which is commonly also called \"High German\" – comprise the varieties of German spoken south of the Benrath and Uerdingen isoglosses in central and southern Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Luxembourg, and eastern Belgium, as well as in neighbouring portions of France (Alsace and northern Lorraine), Italy (South Tyrol), the Czech Republic (Bohemia), and Poland (Upper Silesia).", "They are also spoken in diasporas in Romania, Russia, Canada, the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Chile, and Namibia.High German is marked by the High German consonant shift, separating it from Low German (Low Saxon) and Low Franconian (including Dutch) within the continental West Germanic dialect continuum." ], [ "Classification", "German dialect area, defined as all West Germanic varieties using Standard German as their literary language:As a technical term, the \"high\" in High German is a geographical reference to the group of dialects that forms \"High German\" (i.e.", "\"Highland\" German), out of which developed Standard German, Yiddish and Luxembourgish.", "It refers to the Central Uplands (''Mittelgebirge'') and Alpine areas of central and southern Germany; it also includes Luxembourg, Austria, Liechtenstein, and most of Switzerland.", "This is opposed to Low German, which is spoken in the lowlands and along the flat sea coasts of the North German Plain.High German in this broader sense can be subdivided into Upper German (''Oberdeutsch'') and Central or Middle German (''Mitteldeutsch'', this includes Luxembourgish, which itself is now a standard language).High German is distinguished from other West Germanic varieties in that it took part in the High German consonant shift (c. AD 500).", "To see this, compare the following: English Low German Standard High German Consonant shift pan Pann Pfanne to two twee zwei to make maken machen to In the southernmost High Alemannic dialects, there is a further shift: ''Sack'' (like English/Low German \"sack/Sack\") is pronounced ( to )." ], [ "History", "Old High German evolved from about 500 AD.", "Around 1200 the Swabian and East Franconian varieties of Middle High German became dominant as a court and poetry language (''Minnesang'') under the rule of the House of Hohenstaufen.The term \"High German\" as spoken in central and southern Germany (Upper Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria) and Austria was first documented in the 15th century.Gradually driving back Low German variants since the Early modern period, the Early New High German varieties, especially the East Central German of the Luther Bible, formed an important basis for the development of Standard German." ], [ "Family", "Divisions between subfamilies within Germanic are rarely precisely defined, because most form continuous clines, with adjacent dialects being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.", "In particular, there has never been an original \"Proto-High German\".", "For this and other reasons, the idea of representing the relationships between West Germanic language forms in a tree diagram at all is controversial among linguists.", "What follows should be used with care in the light of this caveat.", "* High German** '''Central German''' (German: )*** ''East Central German''**** Thuringian**** Upper Saxon, including Erzgebirgisch**** South Marchian**** Lusatian**** Silesian (now mostly spoken by the German minority in Upper Silesia)**** High Prussian (nearly extinct)*** ''West Central German''**** Central Franconian***** Ripuarian***** Moselle Franconian dialects, including Luxembourgish****** Hunsrik language (from the Hunsrückisch dialect)**** Rhine Franconian***** Palatine, including Lorraine Franconian (France)****** Pennsylvania Dutch (in the United States and Canada)***** Hessian** '''High Franconian''', in the transitional area between Central and Upper German*** ''East Franconian''*** ''South Franconian''** '''Upper German''' (German: )*** ''Alemannic'' in the broad sense or West Upper German (German: ''Westoberdeutsch''), including Swiss German dialects**** Swabian**** Alemannic in the strict sense***** Low Alemannic, including Alsatian and Basel German***** High Alemannic***** Highest Alemannic*** ''Bavarian'' or East Upper German (German: ''Ostoberdeutsch''), including Austrian German dialects**** Northern Bavarian **** Central Bavarian, including Viennese**** Southern Bavarian, including Mócheno in Trentino, Italy***** Gottscheerish**** Cimbrian, nearly extinct **** Hutterite German (in Canada and the United States)*** ''Lombardic'', extinct** '''Yiddish''', evolved from Middle High German" ], [ "See also", "* High Germany" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Friedrich Maurer (1942), ''Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde'', Strasbourg: Hünenburg, designation of High German languages as '''Irminonic'''." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hannes Bok" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hannes Bok''', pseudonym for '''Wayne Francis Woodard''' (, ; July 2, 1914 – April 11, 1964), was an American artist and illustrator, as well as an amateur astrologer and writer of fantasy fiction and poetry.", "He painted nearly 150 covers for various science fiction, fantasy, and detective fiction magazines, as well as contributing hundreds of black and white interior illustrations.", "Bok's work graced the pages of calendars and early fanzines, as well as dust jackets from specialty book publishers like Arkham House, Llewellyn, Shasta Publishers, and Fantasy Press.", "His paintings achieved a luminous quality through the use of an arduous glazing process, which was learned from his mentor, Maxfield Parrish.", "Bok shared one of the inaugural 1953 Hugo Awards for science fiction achievement (best Cover Artist)." ], [ "Life and career", "Wayne Woodard (the name is sometimes mistakenly rendered as \"Woodward\") was born in Kansas City, Missouri.", "His parents divorced when he was five; and his father and stepmother, strict disciplinarians, discouraged his artistic efforts.", "Once he graduated high school, in Duluth, Minnesota, Bok cut off contact with his father and moved to Seattle to live with his mother.", "There he became active in SF fandom, including the publication and illustration of fanzines.", "It was in connection with these activities that he originated his pseudonym, first \"Hans\", then \"Hannes\", Bok.", "The pseudonym derives from Johann Sebastian Bach (whose name can be rendered both as \"Johann S. Bach\" and \"Johannes Bach\").Hannes Bok's illustration for the printing of \"Pickman's Model\" in the December 1951 issue of ''Famous Fantastic Mysteries''In 1937, Bok moved to Los Angeles, where he met Ray Bradbury.", "In 1938, he relocated to Seattle – where he worked for the W.P.A.", "and became acquainted with artists like Mark Tobey and Morris Graves.", "Late in 1939, Bok moved to New York City in order to be closer to the editors and magazines which would publish his work, and where he became a member of the influential Futurians science fiction fans.", "Bok had corresponded with and had met Maxfield Parrish (ca.", "1939?", "), and the influence of Parrish's art on Bok's is evident in his choice of subject matter, use of color, and application of glazes.Bok was gay, according to his friends Forrest J Ackerman and Emil Petaja.", "The erotic fantasy elements of his artwork, especially his male nude subjects, display homoerotic overtones unusual for the time.", "The opening chapters of his novel ''Beyond the Golden Stair'' hint at a sexual relationship between two prison inmates, the hero John Hibbert and the gangster Frank Scarlatti.Like his contemporary Virgil Finlay, Hannes Bok broke into commercial art and achieved initial career success as a ''Weird Tales'' artist – though he did so through one of the stranger events in the history of science fiction and fantasy.", "In the summer of 1939, Ray Bradbury carried samples of Bok's art eastward to introduce his friend's work to magazine editors at the first World Science Fiction Convention.", "This was a bold move, since Bradbury was a neophyte with no connections to commercial art or the magazine industry; but it reflects the close ties within the fan and professional community.", "Bradbury was, at the time, a 19-year-old newspaper seller, and he borrowed funds for the trip from fellow science fiction fan Forrest J Ackerman.", "Bradbury succeeded; Farnsworth Wright, editor of ''Weird Tales'', accepted Bok's art, which debuted in the December 1939 issue of ''Weird Tales''.", "More than 50 issues of the magazine featured Bok's pen-and-ink work until March 1954.Bok also executed six color covers for ''Weird Tales'' between March 1940 and March 1942.", "''Weird Tales'' also published five of Bok's stories and two of his poems between 1942 and 1951.Once he broke through into professional publications, Bok moved to New York City and lived there the rest of his life.Throughout his life, Bok was deeply interested in astrology, as well as in the music of the Finnish composer Jean Sibelius, with whom Bok had a correspondence.", "(Bok's copy of Karl Ekman's ''Jean Sibelius: His Life and Personality'' Knopf, 1938, for example, is annotated with Bok's comments and astrological charts.)", "As the years passed, Bok became prone to disagreements with editors over money and artistic issues; he grew reclusive and mystical, and preoccupied with the occult.", "He eked out a living, often in near poverty, until his death in 1964.He died, apparently of a heart attack (he \"starved to death\" according to Ackerman), at the age of 49.ISFDB catalogs only a few 1956 interior illustrations after March 1954, his last for ''Weird Tales'', and only two cover illustrations after January 1957." ], [ "Awards", "* Hugo Award for Best Cover Artist, 1953" ], [ "Novels and novellas", "*''A Hannes Bok Treasury,'' edited and an introduction by Stephen Korshak, Foreword By Ray Bradbury (Underwood-Miler), 1993 * ''Starstone World'' (novella), ''Science Fiction Quarterly'', Summer 1942; reprinted in ''The Fantastic Fiction of Hannes Bok'', American Fantasy Press, 2020.", "* ''The Sorcerer's Ship'', complete novel in the magazine ''Unknown'', December 1942; reprinted as a Ballantine Adult Fantasy series paperback, 1969; reprinted in ''The Fantastic Fiction of Hannes Bok'', American Fantasy Press, 2020.", "*''The Fox Woman and The Blue Pagoda'' (posthumous completion of the novel ''The Fox Woman'' by A. Merritt; also illustrated by Bok), New Collectors Group, 1946.", "*''The Black Wheel'' (posthumous completion of a novel by A. Merritt; also illustrated by Bok), New Collectors Group, 1947.", "*''Beyond the Golden Stair'' (longer version of the novella ''The Blue Flamingo'' in the magazine ''Startling Stories'', January 1948), Ballantine Adult Fantasy series paperback, 1969; reprinted in ''The Fantastic Fiction of Hannes Bok'', American Fantasy Press, 2020." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * includes an extensive bibliography* Hannes Bok gallery at American Art Archives" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" ], [ "Introduction", "\"''''''\" () is the unofficial national anthem of Wales.", "The title, taken from the first words of the song, means \"Old Land of My Fathers\" in Welsh, usually rendered in English as simply \"'''Land of My Fathers'''\".", "The words were written by Evan James and the tune composed by his son, James James, both residents of Pontypridd, Glamorgan, in January 1856.The earliest written copy survives and is part of the collections of the National Library of Wales." ], [ "History", "=== Origins ===The earliest version of \"\" in the hand of the composer, James James, 1856\"Glan Rhondda\" (\"Banks of the Rhondda\"), as it was known when it was composed, was first performed in the vestry of the original Capel Tabor, Maesteg (which later became a working men's club), in either January or February 1856, by Elizabeth John from Pontypridd, and it soon became popular in the locality.James James, the composer, was a harpist who played his instrument in the public house which he ran, for the purpose of dancing.", "The song was originally intended to be performed in 6/8 time but had to be slowed down to its present tempo when it began to be sung by large crowds.=== Popularity ===The popularity of the song increased after the Llangollen Eisteddfod of 1858.Thomas Llewelyn of Aberdare won a competition for an unpublished collection of Welsh airs with a collection that included \"Glan Rhondda\".", "The adjudicator of the competition, \"Owain Alaw\" (John Owen, 1821–83) asked for permission to include \"Glan Rhondda\" in his publication, ''Gems of Welsh melody'' (1860–64).", "This volume gave \"Glan Rhondda\" its more famous title, \"\", and was sold in large quantities and ensured the popularity of the anthem across the whole of Wales.At the Bangor Eisteddfod of 1874 \"\" gained further popularity when it was sung by Robert Rees (\"Eos Morlais\"), one of the leading Welsh soloists of his day.", "It was increasingly sung at patriotic gatherings and gradually it developed into a national anthem.", "\"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" was also one of the first Welsh-language songs recorded, when Madge Breese sang it on 11 March 1899, for the Gramophone Company, as part of the first recording in the Welsh language.", "\"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" was the first national anthem to be sung at the start of a sporting event.", "In 1905, the Welsh national rugby team hosted New Zealand's first touring team, who started every match performing a haka.", "As a response, Wales player Teddy Morgan led the crowd singing the anthem.", "Although crowds often sang anthems during games, there was no precedent for an anthem to be sung before a match.In 1978 for their ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau'' album, Geraint Jarman a'r Cynganeddwyr recorded a version of the anthem using electric guitars, inspired by Jimi Hendrix's rendition of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" (as famously performed during the Woodstock festival in 1969 and featured in the documentary of that festival released in 1970).", "Jarman's version, played by Welsh guitarist Tich Gwilym, is one of the most famous modern versions of the song." ], [ "Usage", "Tradition has established \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" as an unofficial Welsh anthem since 1905, when it was first sung by fans at rugby games, although the official anthem at the time was \"God Bless the Prince of Wales\".", "\"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" slowly established itself as the more popular anthem over the next four decades and was sung along with \"God Bless the Prince of Wales\" and \"God Save the Queen\" before sporting events until 1975, when sports officials decided that \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" should be sung alone.", "Like other British anthems, it has not been established as a national anthem by law, but it has been used as a national anthem at official governmental ceremonies, including the opening of the Welsh Parliament / Senedd Cymru (formerly Welsh Assembly), and at receptions of the British monarchy since the 1970s.", "Petitions to make the song an official national anthem for Wales are occasionally submitted to the Senedd, but the last time one raised sufficient signatures to be debated, in 2014, the conclusion was that this is 'not currently a possible development'.", "It is recognised and used as an anthem at both national and local events in Wales.Usually, \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" will be the only anthem sung: only the first stanza and chorus are usually sung (and in the Welsh language).", "\"God Save the King\", the national anthem of the United Kingdom, is sometimes played alongside \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" during official events with a royal connection.The existence of a separate national anthem for Wales has not always been apparent to those from outside the country.", "In 1993, the newly appointed Secretary of State for Wales, John Redwood, was embarrassingly videotaped opening and closing his mouth during a communal singing of the national anthem, clearly ignorant of the words but unable to mime convincingly; the pictures were frequently cited as evidence of his unsuitability for the post.", "According to John Major's autobiography, the first thing Redwood's successor William Hague said, on being appointed, was that he had better find someone to teach him the words.", "He found Ffion Jenkins, and later married her.", "\"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" has been adapted to the anthems of Cornwall (\"Bro Goth agan Tasow\"), Brittany (\"Bro Gozh ma Zadoù\"), and Y Wladfa (\"Gwlad Newydd y Cymry\", see below).", "These adaptions share the same tune as \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" and have similar lyrics." ], [ "Lyrics", "Welsh originalIPA transcriptionEnglish verse translation by A.P.", "GravesEnglish verse translation by W.S.", "Gwynn WilliamsEnglish verse translation by Owain AlawA more literal English translation'''I'''O Land of my fathers, O land of my love,Dear mother of minstrels who kindle and move,And hero on hero, who at honour's proud call,For freedom their lifeblood let fall.Country!", "Country!", "O but my heart is with you!As long as the sea your bulwark shall be,To Cymru my heart shall be true.", "'''II'''O land of the mountains, the bard's paradise,Whose precipice, valleys are fair to my eyes,Green murmuring forest, far echoing floodFire the fancy and quicken the blood'''III'''For tho' the fierce foeman has ravaged your realm,The old speech of Wales he cannot o'erwhelm,Our passionate poets to silence command,Or banish the harp from your strand.𝄆 𝄇'''I'''The land of my fathers is dear to me,Old land where the minstrels are honoured and free;Its warring defenders so gallant and brave,For freedom their life's blood they gave.Home, home, true I am to home,While seas secure the land so pure,O may the old language endure.", "'''II'''Old land of the mountains, the Eden of bards,Each gorge and each valley a loveliness guards;Through love of my country, charmed voices will beIts streams, and its rivers, to me.", "'''III'''Though foemen have trampled my land 'neath their feet,The language of Cambria still knows no retreat;The muse is not vanquished by traitor's fell hand,Nor silenced the harp of my land.𝄆 𝄇'''I'''Оh!", "Land of my fathers, the land of the free,The home of the Telyn, so soothing to me;Thy noble defenders were gallant and brave,For thy freedom their hearts' life they gave!Wales, Wales, my mother's sweet home is in Wales,Till death be pass'd my love shall last,My longing, my hiraeth for Wales.", "'''II'''Thou Eden of bards, and birthplace of song,The sons of thy mountains are valiant and strong;The voice of thy streamlets is soft to the ear,Thy hills and thy vallies how dear!", "'''III'''Though trampled and crush'd by oppression's foul wrong,The language of Cambria still lives on in song;The Awen survives, nor have envious talesYet silenced the harp of dear Wales.𝄆 𝄇'''I'''The old land of my fathers is dear to me,Land of bards and singers, famous men of renown;Her brave warriors, very splendid patriots,For freedom shed their blood.Country, Country, I am faithful to my Country.While the sea is a wall to the pure, most loved land,O may the old language ''sc.''", "Welsh endure.", "'''II'''Old mountainous Wales, paradise of the bard,Every valley, every cliff, to my look is beautiful.Through patriotic feeling, so charming is the murmurOf her brooks, rivers, to me.", "'''III'''If the enemy oppresses my land under his foot,The old language of the Welsh is as alive as ever.The muse is not hindered by the hideous hand of treason,Nor is the melodious harp of my country.𝄆 𝄇" ], [ "Cultural influence", "The Royal Badge of WalesThe Welsh poet Dylan Thomas is often quoted as saying \"The land of my fathers.", "My fathers can have it!\"", "in reference to Wales.", "However, this is misleading, as it was a villainous character in one of Thomas' short stories that spoke this line.Gwynfor Evans named his history of Wales ''Land of my fathers: 2,000 years of Welsh history''.", "It was a translation of the Welsh original, ''Aros Mae''.The £1 coins minted in 1985, 1990, 1995 and 2000 with a Welsh emblem on the reverse, also bear the edge inscription PLEIDIOL WYF I'M GWLAD (\"I am devoted to my country\"), from the refrain of \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\".", "The new Royal Badge of Wales adopted in 2008 features this motto." ], [ "\"Gwlad Newydd y Cymry\"", "A printed version of \"Gwlad Newydd y Cymry\"A version of \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" was written by Lewis Evans, a migrant from Wales to Y Wladfa, a Welsh-speaking settlement in Patagonia, South America.", "The version penned by Evans is called \"Gwlad Newydd y Cymry\" (\"The New Country of the Welsh\").", "\"Gwlad Newydd y Cymry\" is played to the same tune as \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\".The lyrics to \"Gwlad Newydd y Cymry\" are as follows (note that the spelling is not consistent with modern Welsh):Welsh originalEnglish translation'''I'''Patagonia is dear to me,The new land of the noble Welsh people;True freedom we breathe in our new country,Far from the reach of oppression and betrayal:Nation or country, Nation, I am faithful to my Nation.While the sun rises above the land,Oh!", "may the Settlement continue.", "'''II'''The Welsh have been lying broken in scorn,Well, thanks to the ''Wladfa'' from dust we're reborn;Our language of old we laud and esteemWhile Camwy flows with shining stream:'''III'''Let Welshman submit to the English no more,Their oppression is ended, and silenced their roar;''Y Wladfa'' we praise while the great white Andes,With its peak in the chamber of dawn:𝄆 𝄇" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* Siôn T. Jobbins, '' The Welsh National Anthem: its story, its meaning'' (Y Lolfa, 2013)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Herman Brood" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hermanus''' \"'''Herman'''\" '''Brood ''' (; 5 November 1946 – 11 July 2001) was a Dutch musician, painter, actor and poet.", "As a musician he achieved artistic and commercial success in the 1970s and 1980s, and was called \"the greatest and only Dutch rock 'n' roll star\".", "Later in life he started a successful career as a painter.Known for his hedonistic lifestyle of \"sex, drugs and rock 'n' roll\", Brood was an ''enfant terrible'' and a cultural figure whose suicide by jumping from a hotel roof, apparently influenced by a failure to kick his drug and alcohol habit, strengthened his controversial status; according to a poll organised to celebrate fifty years of Dutch popular music, it was the most significant event in its history." ], [ "Musical career", "Herman Brood was born in Zwolle, and started playing the piano at age 12.He founded beat band The Moans in 1964, which would later become Long Tall Ernie and the Shakers.", "Brood was asked to play with Cuby and the Blizzards, but was removed by management when the record company discovered he used drugs.", "For a number of years Brood was in jail (for dealing LSD), or abroad, and had a number of short-term engagements (with The Studs, the Flash & Dance Band, Vitesse).In 1976, Brood started his own group, Herman Brood & His Wild Romance (and started work with photographer Anton Corbijn), initially with Ferdi Karmelk (guitar), Gerrit Veen (bass), Peter Walrecht (drums), and Ellen Piebes and Ria Ruiters (vocals).", "They played the club and bar circuit, first in Groningen (the northeasternmost province of the Netherlands).", "In 1977 the band released their first album, ''Street''.The band played all over the Netherlands, playing as many gigs as possible.", "And Herman's drug habit became public: In 1977 for instance the Wild Romance played a gig in a high school in Almelo, the Christelijk Lyceum; during the break Brood was caught on the toilet taking heroin or speed (there are different reports on the type of drug, but it is a well-known story amongst former students), the rest of the concert was cancelled, and this also was the last time a rock concert took place at this school for many years.Murals by Brood on a parking garage in LeidschendamHerman Brood in 2000Brood's grave at ''Zorgvlied''They are still best known for their second album, ''Shpritsz''—a play on the German word ''Spritze'' for ''syringe''—from 1978.This album contained Brood anthems like \"Dope Sucks,\" \"Rock & Roll Junkie,\" and their first Dutch hit single, \"Saturday Night.\"", "The band went through many personnel changes over the years; the best-known formation was Freddy Cavalli (bass), Dany Lademacher (guitar) (later replaced with David Hollestelle), and Cees 'Ani' Meerman (drums).", "A frequent contributor was Bertus Borgers (saxophone).Brood's outspoken statements in the press about sex and drug use brought him into the Dutch public arena even more than his music.", "He was romantically involved with the German singer Nina Hagen, with whom he appeared in the 1979 film ''Cha-Cha''.", "He is reputed to be the subject of her song \"Herrmann Hiess Er\" (English title \"Herrmann Was His Name\") from the 1979 ''Unbehagen'' album, a song about a drug addict.", "Brood relished the media attention and became the most famous hard drug user in the Netherlands.", "\"It is quite common for an artist to use drugs, but not for him to tell everybody.", "I admit that it scared me that my popularity could make people start using drugs,\" he once said in an interview.In the summer of 1979, Brood tried to enter the American market, with support from Ariola's US division, which was attempting to expand into rock music.", "Following on the success of ''Shpritsz'', the band was booked as a support act for The Kinks and The Cars, playing in auditoriums; \"Herman Brood and His Wild Romance Tour Cha Cha '79\" headlined in New York's (Bottom Line) and Los Angeles' (Roxy).", "A re-recorded version of \"Saturday Night\" peaked at number 35 in the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, but the big break Brood hoped for didn't happen.", "When he returned to the Netherlands in October 1979, his band had begun to fall apart, and soon his popularity went downhill.", "''Go Nutz'', the album Brood had recorded while in the States, and the movie ''Cha-Cha'', which finally premiered in December 1979, were considered artistic failures, even though ''Go Nutz'' produced three charting singles in the Netherlands and the ''Cha Cha'' soundtrack attained platinum status.", "The 1980 album ''Wait a Minute...'' was a minor success, but the follow-up albums ''Modern Times Revive'' (1981) and ''Frisz & Sympatisz'' (1982) failed to make the Dutch album charts.Brood continued to record throughout the 1980s and had a few hits—a top-10 single, \"Als Je Wint\" with Henny Vrienten, and a minor hit with a reggae song, \"Tattoo Song,\" but he spent more and more time on his art work.", "At the end of the '80s he made a comeback of sorts; ''Yada Yada'' (1988), produced by George Kooymans, was well-received, and he toured Germany with a renewed Wild Romance (which saw the return of Dany Lademacher).", "In 1990, he won the BV Popprijs, one of the highest Dutch awards for popular music, and recorded ''Freeze'' with Clarence Clemons of the E Street Band and Tejano accordion player Flaco Jiménez.", "A live \"best of\" album, ''Saturday Night Live'', appeared in 1992.His 50th birthday, in 1996, was celebrated with a show at the Paradiso music and cultural center in Amsterdam, and the album (of duets) was released the same year." ], [ "Visual arts career", "After his career in music, Brood turned to painting and became a well-known character in Amsterdam art circles.", "His art is best described as pop-art, often very colorful and graffiti-inspired screen prints, and he achieved some commercial success and notoriety by, for instance, creating murals in various public spaces in and around Amsterdam.", "He continued to remain in the public eye, by appearing in the media and by his cooperation with biographical films such as 1994's ''Rock'n Roll Junkie''." ], [ "Suicide and legacy", "Toward the end of his life, Brood vowed to abstain from most drugs, reducing his drug use to alcohol and a daily shot of speed (\"2 grams per day\").", "On 11 July 2001, depressed by the failure of his drug rehabilitation program and facing serious medical problems because of his prolonged drug use, he committed suicide by jumping from the roof of the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel at the age of 54.He left a note, stating \"Ik heb er geen zin meer in, misschien zie ik jullie nog wel eens.", "Maak er een mooi feest van.\"", "which translates to \"I don't feel like it anymore, maybe I'll see you all again some day.", "Have a nice party.", "\"Herman Brood Museum & Experience, ZwolleExtensively covered by the national media, his cremation took place five days later.", "Before the cremation, Brood's coffin was driven from the Hilton hotel to Paradiso, Amsterdam, the streets lined with thousands of spectators.", "A commemorative concert was held in Paradiso, with performances by Hans Dulfer, André Hazes, and Jules Deelder, and the leading Dutch music magazine ''Muziekkrant OOR'' devoted an entire issue to him.", "His ashes were inurned at Zorgvlied cemetery.Soon after his suicide, Brood's version of \"My Way\" spent three weeks as number one in the Dutch singles charts; the market value of his art work also increased greatly.", "A characteristic note is that Brood's paintings had often been targeted by vandals during his life, but after his death they were stolen for their value.", "His popularity (or notoriety) was confirmed by the fact that his name turned out to be the strongest brand of the year.When U2 performed in the Netherlands three weeks after Brood's suicide, they paid tribute to him at each of the three shows.", "They dedicated a version of \"Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of\" (written for Michael Hutchence after his death) to him, with Bono singing Brood's \"When I Get Home\" as an a capella intro.At the third show in Arnhem they also dedicated their own \"Gone\" to him and had his version of \"My Way\" played over the PA as outro music.", "In the middle of the show Bono delivered an emotional eulogy to Brood before the band performed \"In a Little While\".On 5 November 2006 the Groninger Museum opened an exposition devoted to Herman Brood's life and work, comprising paintings, lyrics, and poetry, portraits by photographer Anton Corbijn, a collection of private pictures (from the family album), and concert photos and videos.", "The exhibition continued until 28January.", "It was centered on Herman's atelier (studio) where he created most of his paintings.", "The atelier had been entirely re-built in the museum.", "During the 1990s, Herman Brood's studio was located on the second floor of the gallery in the Spuistraat in Amsterdam and has remained untouched since his death.In 2007 the film Wild Romance, a movie about Brood's life, premiered in the Netherlands, with Brood portrayed by Daniël Boissevain.", "He continues to inspire other artists: the 2007 album ''Bluefinger'' by Black Francis is based on Brood's life and works.", "A tribute band called the Brood Roosters (\"bread toasters\") was active in the Netherlands until they split up in early 2009.Another tribute band called Yada Yada is still active in the Netherlands, often appearing with original members of the Wild Romance (Dany Lademacher, Ramon Rambeaux).In 2010 the Catastrophic Theatre Company collaborated with Frank Black on a rock opera based on the ''Bluefinger'' album.", "The opera's first performance, with Matt Kelly portraying Brood, was on 12 November 2010 in Houston, Texas." ], [ "Discography (albums)", "* ''Street'' (1977)* ''Shpritsz'' (1978)* ''Cha Cha'' (1978)* ''Cha Cha'' (1979, soundtrack for the movie ''Cha Cha'')* ''Herman Brood & His Wild Romance'' (1979, Shpritsz re-release for US market, contains an edited version of Saturday Night)* ''Go Nutz'' (1980)* ''Wait a Minute...'' (1980)* ''Modern Times Revive'' (1981)* ''Frisz & Sympatisz'' (1982)* ''The Brood'' (1984)* ''Bühnensucht'' (1985, live album)* ''Yada Yada'' (1988)* ''Hooks'' (1989)* ''Freeze'' (1990)* ''Saturday Night Live!''", "(1992)* ''Fresh Poison'' (1994)* ''50 – The Soundtrack'' (1996 duets, a tribute album for his 50th birthday)* ''Back on the Corner'' (1999)* ''Ciao Monkey'' (2000)* ''My Way – The Hits'' (2001)* ''Final'' (2006, 3-CD compilation)" ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Cha-Cha'' (1979)* ''Stadtrand'' (1987, German movie)* ''Zusje'' (1995) - Bovenbuurman / Upstairs neighbor* ''Total Love'' (2000, Israeli movie) - M.J* ''Rock 'N Roll Junkie'' (1994, documentary)* ''Live And More'' (2003, Concerts from Philipshalle, Düsseldorf 1978 & Musik Hall, Koln 1990 (3DVDBox))* ''Wild Romance'' (2006, scenes from Herman Brood's life)* ''Herman Brood Uncut'' (2006, documentary)* ''Kunst begin drrr niet an'' (2015, 80 min.", "documentary by Gwen Jansen, DVD, 90% of all screenprints and paintings are made by Herman in the IQ studio between the late 80s until his passing in 2001.Compiled from over 70 hours of footage, produced by Ivo de Lange for iq.nl)* ''Unknown Brood'' (2016, documentary directed by Dennis Alink)" ], [ "Literature", "* * * Book and DVD.", "**Brigitte Tast, Hans-Juergen Tast (2009) ''\"be bop\" – Rock-Tempel & Nachtasyl – Band 2 zur Legende''.", "Hildesheim: Verlag Gebr.", "Gerstenberg.", ".", "*Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast (2016) ''Herman Brood.", "Der Ladykiller im \"be bop\"'', Schellerten 2015, ." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Herman Brood Museum* Discografie Cuby + Blizzards (with Herman Brood)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Homomorphism" ], [ "Introduction", "In algebra, a '''homomorphism''' is a structure-preserving map between two algebraic structures of the same type (such as two groups, two rings, or two vector spaces).", "The word ''homomorphism'' comes from the Ancient Greek language: () meaning \"same\" and () meaning \"form\" or \"shape\".", "However, the word was apparently introduced to mathematics due to a (mis)translation of German meaning \"similar\" to meaning \"same\".", "The term \"homomorphism\" appeared as early as 1892, when it was attributed to the German mathematician Felix Klein (1849–1925).Homomorphisms of vector spaces are also called linear maps, and their study is the subject of linear algebra.The concept of homomorphism has been generalized, under the name of morphism, to many other structures that either do not have an underlying set, or are not algebraic.", "This generalization is the starting point of category theory.A homomorphism may also be an isomorphism, an endomorphism, an automorphism, etc.", "(see below).", "Each of those can be defined in a way that may be generalized to any class of morphisms." ], [ "Definition", "A homomorphism is a map between two algebraic structures of the same type (that is of the same name), that preserves the operations of the structures.", "This means a map between two sets , equipped with the same structure such that, if is an operation of the structure (supposed here, for simplification, to be a binary operation), then:for every pair , of elements of .", "One says often that preserves the operation or is compatible with the operation.Formally, a map preserves an operation of arity , defined on both and if : for all elements in .The operations that must be preserved by a homomorphism include 0-ary operations, that is the constants.", "In particular, when an identity element is required by the type of structure, the identity element of the first structure must be mapped to the corresponding identity element of the second structure.For example:* A semigroup homomorphism is a map between semigroups that preserves the semigroup operation.", "* A monoid homomorphism is a map between monoids that preserves the monoid operation and maps the identity element of the first monoid to that of the second monoid (the identity element is a 0-ary operation).", "* A group homomorphism is a map between groups that preserves the group operation.", "This implies that the group homomorphism maps the identity element of the first group to the identity element of the second group, and maps the inverse of an element of the first group to the inverse of the image of this element.", "Thus a semigroup homomorphism between groups is necessarily a group homomorphism.", "* A ring homomorphism is a map between rings that preserves the ring addition, the ring multiplication, and the multiplicative identity.", "Whether the multiplicative identity is to be preserved depends upon the definition of ''ring'' in use.", "If the multiplicative identity is not preserved, one has a rng homomorphism.", "* A linear map is a homomorphism of vector spaces; that is, a group homomorphism between vector spaces that preserves the abelian group structure and scalar multiplication.", "* A module homomorphism, also called a linear map between modules, is defined similarly.", "* An algebra homomorphism is a map that preserves the algebra operations.An algebraic structure may have more than one operation, and a homomorphism is required to preserve each operation.", "Thus a map that preserves only some of the operations is not a homomorphism of the structure, but only a homomorphism of the substructure obtained by considering only the preserved operations.", "For example, a map between monoids that preserves the monoid operation and not the identity element, is not a monoid homomorphism, but only a semigroup homomorphism.The notation for the operations does not need to be the same in the source and the target of a homomorphism.", "For example, the real numbers form a group for addition, and the positive real numbers form a group for multiplication.", "The exponential function :satisfies:and is thus a homomorphism between these two groups.", "It is even an isomorphism (see below), as its inverse function, the natural logarithm, satisfies :and is also a group homomorphism." ], [ "Examples", "Monoid homomorphism from the monoid to the monoid , defined by .", "It is injective, but not surjective.The real numbers are a ring, having both addition and multiplication.", "The set of all 2×2 matrices is also a ring, under matrix addition and matrix multiplication.", "If we define a function between these rings as follows::where is a real number, then is a homomorphism of rings, since preserves both addition::and multiplication::For another example, the nonzero complex numbers form a group under the operation of multiplication, as do the nonzero real numbers.", "(Zero must be excluded from both groups since it does not have a multiplicative inverse, which is required for elements of a group.)", "Define a function from the nonzero complex numbers to the nonzero real numbers by:That is, is the absolute value (or modulus) of the complex number .", "Then is a homomorphism of groups, since it preserves multiplication::Note that cannot be extended to a homomorphism of rings (from the complex numbers to the real numbers), since it does not preserve addition::As another example, the diagram shows a monoid homomorphism from the monoid to the monoid .", "Due to the different names of corresponding operations, the structure preservation properties satisfied by amount to and .A composition algebra over a field has a quadratic form, called a ''norm'', , which is a group homomorphism from the multiplicative group of to the multiplicative group of ." ], [ "Special homomorphisms", "Several kinds of homomorphisms have a specific name, which is also defined for general morphisms.=== Isomorphism ===An isomorphism between algebraic structures of the same type is commonly defined as a bijective homomorphism.", "In the more general context of category theory, an isomorphism is defined as a morphism that has an inverse that is also a morphism.", "In the specific case of algebraic structures, the two definitions are equivalent, although they may differ for non-algebraic structures, which have an underlying set.More precisely, if :is a (homo)morphism, it has an inverse if there exists a homomorphism:such that:If and have underlying sets, and has an inverse , then is bijective.", "In fact, is injective, as implies , and is surjective, as, for any in , one has , and is the image of an element of .Conversely, if is a bijective homomorphism between algebraic structures, let be the map such that is the unique element of such that .", "One has and it remains only to show that is a homomorphism.", "If is a binary operation of the structure, for every pair , of elements of , one has:and is thus compatible with As the proof is similar for any arity, this shows that is a homomorphism.This proof does not work for non-algebraic structures.", "For example, for topological spaces, a morphism is a continuous map, and the inverse of a bijective continuous map is not necessarily continuous.", "An isomorphism of topological spaces, called homeomorphism or bicontinuous map, is thus a bijective continuous map, whose inverse is also continuous.===Endomorphism===An endomorphism is a homomorphism whose domain equals the codomain, or, more generally, a morphism whose source is equal to its target.The endomorphisms of an algebraic structure, or of an object of a category form a monoid under composition.The endomorphisms of a vector space or of a module form a ring.", "In the case of a vector space or a free module of finite dimension, the choice of a basis induces a ring isomorphism between the ring of endomorphisms and the ring of square matrices of the same dimension.===Automorphism===An automorphism is an endomorphism that is also an isomorphism.The automorphisms of an algebraic structure or of an object of a category form a group under composition, which is called the automorphism group of the structure.Many groups that have received a name are automorphism groups of some algebraic structure.", "For example, the general linear group is the automorphism group of a vector space of dimension over a field .The automorphism groups of fields were introduced by Évariste Galois for studying the roots of polynomials, and are the basis of Galois theory.===Monomorphism===For algebraic structures, monomorphisms are commonly defined as injective homomorphisms.", "In the more general context of category theory, a monomorphism is defined as a morphism that is '''left cancelable'''.", "This means that a (homo)morphism is a monomorphism if, for any pair , of morphisms from any other object to , then implies .These two definitions of ''monomorphism'' are equivalent for all common algebraic structures.", "More precisely, they are equivalent for fields, for which every homomorphism is a monomorphism, and for varieties of universal algebra, that is algebraic structures for which operations and axioms (identities) are defined without any restriction (the fields do not form a variety, as the multiplicative inverse is defined either as a unary operation or as a property of the multiplication, which are, in both cases, defined only for nonzero elements).In particular, the two definitions of a monomorphism are equivalent for sets, magmas, semigroups, monoids, groups, rings, fields, vector spaces and modules.A '''split monomorphism''' is a homomorphism that has a left inverse and thus it is itself a right inverse of that other homomorphism.", "That is, a homomorphism is a split monomorphism if there exists a homomorphism such that A split monomorphism is always a monomorphism, for both meanings of ''monomorphism''.", "For sets and vector spaces, every monomorphism is a split monomorphism, but this property does not hold for most common algebraic structures.", "''An injective homomorphism is left cancelable'': If one has for every in , the common source of and .", "If is injective, then , and thus .", "This proof works not only for algebraic structures, but also for any category whose objects are sets and arrows are maps between these sets.", "For example, an injective continuous map is a monomorphism in the category of topological spaces.For proving that, conversely, a left cancelable homomorphism is injective, it is useful to consider a ''free object on ''.", "Given a variety of algebraic structures a free object on is a pair consisting of an algebraic structure of this variety and an element of satisfying the following universal property: for every structure of the variety, and every element of , there is a unique homomorphism such that .", "For example, for sets, the free object on is simply ; for semigroups, the free object on is which, as, a semigroup, is isomorphic to the additive semigroup of the positive integers; for monoids, the free object on is which, as, a monoid, is isomorphic to the additive monoid of the nonnegative integers; for groups, the free object on is the infinite cyclic group which, as, a group, is isomorphic to the additive group of the integers; for rings, the free object on is the polynomial ring for vector spaces or modules, the free object on is the vector space or free module that has as a basis.", "''If a free object over exists, then every left cancelable homomorphism is injective'': let be a left cancelable homomorphism, and and be two elements of such .", "By definition of the free object , there exist homomorphisms and from to such that and .", "As , one has by the uniqueness in the definition of a universal property.", "As is left cancelable, one has , and thus .", "Therefore, is injective.", "''Existence of a free object on for a variety'' (see also ): For building a free object over , consider the set of the well-formed formulas built up from and the operations of the structure.", "Two such formulas are said equivalent if one may pass from one to the other by applying the axioms (identities of the structure).", "This defines an equivalence relation, if the identities are not subject to conditions, that is if one works with a variety.", "Then the operations of the variety are well defined on the set of equivalence classes of for this relation.", "It is straightforward to show that the resulting object is a free object on .===Epimorphism===In algebra, '''epimorphisms''' are often defined as surjective homomorphisms.", "On the other hand, in category theory, epimorphisms are defined as '''right cancelable''' morphisms.", "This means that a (homo)morphism is an epimorphism if, for any pair , of morphisms from to any other object , the equality implies .A surjective homomorphism is always right cancelable, but the converse is not always true for algebraic structures.", "However, the two definitions of ''epimorphism'' are equivalent for sets, vector spaces, abelian groups, modules (see below for a proof), and groups.", "The importance of these structures in all mathematics, especially in linear algebra and homological algebra, may explain the coexistence of two non-equivalent definitions.Algebraic structures for which there exist non-surjective epimorphisms include semigroups and rings.", "The most basic example is the inclusion of integers into rational numbers, which is a homomorphism of rings and of multiplicative semigroups.", "For both structures it is a monomorphism and a non-surjective epimorphism, but not an isomorphism.A wide generalization of this example is the localization of a ring by a multiplicative set.", "Every localization is a ring epimorphism, which is not, in general, surjective.", "As localizations are fundamental in commutative algebra and algebraic geometry, this may explain why in these areas, the definition of epimorphisms as right cancelable homomorphisms is generally preferred.A '''split epimorphism''' is a homomorphism that has a right inverse and thus it is itself a left inverse of that other homomorphism.", "That is, a homomorphism is a split epimorphism if there exists a homomorphism such that A split epimorphism is always an epimorphism, for both meanings of ''epimorphism''.", "For sets and vector spaces, every epimorphism is a split epimorphism, but this property does not hold for most common algebraic structures.In summary, one has : the last implication is an equivalence for sets, vector spaces, modules, abelian groups, and groups; the first implication is an equivalence for sets and vector spaces.Let be a homomorphism.", "We want to prove that if it is not surjective, it is not right cancelable.In the case of sets, let be an element of that not belongs to , and define such that is the identity function, and that for every except that is any other element of .", "Clearly is not right cancelable, as and In the case of vector spaces, abelian groups and modules, the proof relies on the existence of cokernels and on the fact that the zero maps are homomorphisms: let be the cokernel of , and be the canonical map, such that .", "Let be the zero map.", "If is not surjective, , and thus (one is a zero map, while the other is not).", "Thus is not cancelable, as (both are the zero map from to )." ], [ "Kernel", "Any homomorphism defines an equivalence relation on by if and only if .", "The relation is called the '''kernel''' of .", "It is a congruence relation on .", "The quotient set can then be given a structure of the same type as , in a natural way, by defining the operations of the quotient set by , for each operation of .", "In that case the image of in under the homomorphism is necessarily isomorphic to ; this fact is one of the isomorphism theorems.When the algebraic structure is a group for some operation, the equivalence class of the identity element of this operation suffices to characterize the equivalence relation.", "In this case, the quotient by the equivalence relation is denoted by (usually read as \" mod \").", "Also in this case, it is , rather than , that is called the kernel of .", "The kernels of homomorphisms of a given type of algebraic structure are naturally equipped with some structure.", "This structure type of the kernels is the same as the considered structure, in the case of abelian groups, vector spaces and modules, but is different and has received a specific name in other cases, such as normal subgroup for kernels of group homomorphisms and ideals for kernels of ring homomorphisms (in the case of non-commutative rings, the kernels are the two-sided ideals)." ], [ "Relational structures", "In model theory, the notion of an algebraic structure is generalized to structures involving both operations and relations.", "Let ''L'' be a signature consisting of function and relation symbols, and ''A'', ''B'' be two ''L''-structures.", "Then a '''homomorphism''' from ''A'' to ''B'' is a mapping ''h'' from the domain of ''A'' to the domain of ''B'' such that* ''h''(''F''''A''(''a''1,…,''a''''n'')) = ''F''''B''(''h''(''a''1),…,''h''(''a''''n'')) for each ''n''-ary function symbol ''F'' in ''L'',* ''R''''A''(''a''1,…,''a''''n'') implies ''R''''B''(''h''(''a''1),…,''h''(''a''''n'')) for each ''n''-ary relation symbol ''R'' in ''L''.In the special case with just one binary relation, we obtain the notion of a graph homomorphism." ], [ "Formal language theory", "Homomorphisms are also used in the study of formal languages and are often briefly referred to as ''morphisms''.", "Given alphabets and , a function such that for all is called a ''homomorphism'' on .", "If is a homomorphism on and denotes the empty string, then is called an ''-free homomorphism'' when for all in .A homomorphism on that satisfies for all is called a ''-uniform'' homomorphism.", "If for all (that is, is 1-uniform), then is also called a ''coding'' or a ''projection''.The set of words formed from the alphabet may be thought of as the free monoid generated by .", "Here the monoid operation is concatenation and the identity element is the empty word.", "From this perspective, a language homomorphism is precisely a monoid homomorphism." ], [ "See also", "* Diffeomorphism* Homomorphic encryption* Homomorphic secret sharing – a simplistic decentralized voting protocol* Morphism* Quasimorphism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* ***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "HyperCard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''HyperCard''' is a software application and development kit for Apple Macintosh and Apple IIGS computers.", "It is among the first successful hypermedia systems predating the World Wide Web.HyperCard combines a flat-file database with a graphical, flexible, user-modifiable interface.", "HyperCard includes a built-in programming language called HyperTalk for manipulating data and the user interface.This combination of features – a database with simple form layout, flexible support for graphics, and ease of programming – suits HyperCard for many different projects such as rapid application development of applications and databases, interactive applications with no database requirements, command and control systems, and many examples in the demoscene.HyperCard was originally released in 1987 for $49.95 and was included free with all new Macs sold afterwards.", "It was withdrawn from sale in March 2004, having received its final update in 1998 upon the return of Steve Jobs to Apple.", "HyperCard was not ported to Mac OS X, but can run in the Classic Environment on versions of Mac OS X that support it." ], [ "Overview", "===Design===The SE/30 was one of Apple's Macintosh computers that were contemporaneous with the HyperCard application.A screenshot from the Datebook stack, included in the original release of HyperCardHyperCard is based on the concept of a \"stack\" of virtual \"cards\".", "Cards hold data, just as they would in a Rolodex card-filing device.", "Each card contains a set of interactive objects, including text fields, check boxes, buttons, and similar common graphical user interface (GUI) elements.", "Users browse the stack by navigating from card to card, using built-in navigation features, a powerful search mechanism, or through user-created scripts.Users build or modify stacks by adding new cards.", "They place GUI objects on the cards using an interactive layout engine based on a simple drag-and-drop interface.", "Also, HyperCard includes prototype or template cards called backgrounds; when new cards are created they can refer to one of these background cards, which causes all of the objects on the background to \"show through\" behind the new card.", "This way, a stack of cards with a common layout and functionality can be created.", "The layout engine is similar in concept to a form as used in most rapid application development (RAD) environments such as Borland Delphi, and Microsoft Visual Basic and Visual Studio.The database features of the HyperCard system are based on the storage of the state of all of the objects on the cards in the physical file representing the stack.", "The database does not exist as a separate system within the HyperCard stack; no database engine or similar construct exists.", "Instead, the state of any object in the system is considered to be live and editable at any time.", "From the HyperCard runtime's perspective, there is no difference between moving a text field on the card and typing into it; both operations simply change the state of the target object within the stack.", "Such changes are immediately saved when complete, so typing into a field causes that text to be stored to the stack's physical file.", "The system operates in a largely stateless fashion, with no need to save during operation.", "This is in common with many database-oriented systems, although somewhat different from document-based applications.The final key element in HyperCard is the script, a single code-carrying element of every object within the stack.", "The script is a text field whose contents are interpreted in the HyperTalk language.", "Like any other property, the script of any object can be edited at any time and changes are saved as soon as they were complete.", "When the user invokes actions in the GUI, like clicking on a button or typing into a field, these actions are translated into events by the HyperCard runtime.", "The runtime then examines the script of the object that is the target of the event, like a button, to see if its script object contains the event's code, called a handler.", "If it does, the HyperTalk engine runs the handler; if it does not, the runtime examines other objects in the visual hierarchy.These concepts make up the majority of the HyperCard system; stacks, backgrounds and cards provide a form-like GUI system, the stack file provides object persistence and database-like functionality, and HyperTalk allows handlers to be written for GUI events.", "Unlike the majority of RAD or database systems of the era, however, HyperCard combines all of these features, both user-facing and developer-facing, in a single application.", "This allows rapid turnaround and immediate prototyping, possibly without any coding, allowing users to author custom solutions to problems with their own personalized interface.", "\"Empowerment\" became a catchword as this possibility was embraced by the Macintosh community, as was the phrase \"programming for the rest of us\", that is, anyone, not just professional programmers.It is this combination of features that also makes HyperCard a powerful hypermedia system.", "Users can build backgrounds to suit the needs of some system, say a rolodex, and use simple HyperTalk commands to provide buttons to move from place to place within the stack, or provide the same navigation system within the data elements of the UI, like text fields.", "Using these features, it is easy to build linked systems similar to hypertext links on the Web.", "Unlike the Web, programming, placement, and browsing are all the same tool.", "Similar systems have been created for HTML, but traditional Web services are considerably more heavyweight.===HyperTalk===HyperCard contains an object-oriented scripting language called HyperTalk, which was noted for having a syntax resembling casual English language.", "HyperTalk language features were predetermined by the HyperCard environment, although they could be extended by the use of externals functions (XFCN) and commands (XCMD), written in a compiled language.", "The weakly typed HyperTalk supports most standard programming structures such as \"if–then\" and \"repeat\".", "HyperTalk is verbose, hence its ease of use and readability.", "HyperTalk code segments are referred to as \"scripts\", a term that is considered less daunting to beginning programmers.===Externals===HyperCard can be extended significantly through the use of ''external command'' (XCMD) and ''external function'' (XFCN) modules.", "These are code libraries packaged in a resource fork that integrate into either the system generally or the HyperTalk language specifically; this is an early example of the plug-in concept.", "Unlike conventional plug-ins, these do not require separate installation before they are available for use; they can be included in a stack, where they are directly available to scripts in that stack.During HyperCard's peak popularity in the late 1980s, a whole ecosystem of vendors offered thousands of these externals such as HyperTalk compilers, graphing systems, database access, Internet connectivity, and animation.", "Oracle offered an XCMD that allows HyperCard to directly query Oracle databases on any platform, superseded by Oracle Card.", "BeeHive Technologies offered a hardware interface that allows the computer to control external devices.", "Connected via the Apple Desktop Bus (ADB), this instrument can read the state of connected external switches or write digital outputs to a multitude of devices.Externals allow access to the Macintosh Toolbox, which contains many lower-level commands and functions not native to HyperTalk, such as control of the serial and ADB ports." ], [ "History", "===Development===HyperCard was created by Bill Atkinson following an LSD trip.", "Work for it began in March 1985 under the name of WildCard (hence its creator code of WILD).", "In 1986, Dan Winkler began work on HyperTalk and the name was changed to HyperCard for trademark reasons.", "It was released on 11 August 1987 for the first day of the MacWorld Conference & Expo in Boston, with the understanding that Atkinson would give HyperCard to Apple only if the company promised to release it for free on all Macs.", "Apple timed its release to coincide with the MacWorld Conference & Expo in Boston, Massachusetts to guarantee maximum publicity.===Launch===HyperCard was successful almost instantly.", "The Apple Programmer's and Developer's Association (APDA) said, \"HyperCard has been an informational feeding frenzy.", "From August 1987, when it was announced to October our phones never stopped ringing.", "It was a zoo.\"", "Within a few months of release, there were multiple HyperCard books and a 50 disk set of public domain stacks.", "Apple's project managers found HyperCard was being used by a huge number of people, internally and externally.", "Bug reports and upgrade suggestions continued to flow in, demonstrating its wide variety of users.", "Since it was also free, it was difficult to justify dedicating engineering resources to improvements in the software.", "Apple and its mainstream developers understood that HyperCard's user empowerment could reduce the sales of ordinary shrink-wrapped products.", "Stewart Alsop II speculated that HyperCard might replace Finder as the shell of the Macintosh graphical user interface.===HyperCard 2.0===In late 1989, Kevin Calhoun, then a HyperCard engineer at Apple, led an effort to upgrade the program.", "This resulted in HyperCard 2.0, released in 1990.The new version included an on-the-fly compiler that greatly increased performance of computationally intensive code, a new debugger and many improvements to the underlying HyperTalk language.At the same time HyperCard 2.0 was being developed, a separate group within Apple developed and in 1991 released HyperCard IIGS, a version of HyperCard for the Apple IIGS system.", "Aimed mainly at the education market, HyperCard IIGS has roughly the same feature set as the 1.x versions of Macintosh HyperCard, while adding support for the color graphics abilities of the IIGS.", "Although ''stacks'' (HyperCard program documents) are not binary-compatible, a translator program (another HyperCard stack) allows them to be moved from one platform to the other.Then, Apple decided that most of its application software packages, including HyperCard, would be the property of a wholly owned subsidiary called Claris.", "Many of the HyperCard developers chose to stay at Apple rather than move to Claris, causing the development team to be split.", "Claris attempted to create a business model where HyperCard could also generate revenues.", "At first the freely-distributed versions of HyperCard shipped with authoring disabled.", "Early versions of Claris HyperCard contain an Easter Egg: typing \"magic\" into the message box converts the player into a full HyperCard authoring environment.", "When this trick became nearly universal, they wrote a new version, HyperCard Player, which Apple distributed with the Macintosh operating system, while Claris sold the full version commercially.", "Many users were upset that they had to pay to use software that had traditionally been supplied free and which many considered a basic part of the Mac.Even after HyperCard was generating revenue, Claris did little to market it.", "Development continued with minor upgrades, and the first failed attempt to create a third generation of HyperCard.", "During this period, HyperCard began losing market share.", "Without several important, basic features, HyperCard authors began moving to systems such as SuperCard and Macromedia Authorware.", "Nonetheless, HyperCard continued to be popular and used for a widening range of applications, from the game ''The Manhole'', an earlier effort by the creators of ''Myst'', to corporate information services.Apple eventually folded Claris back into the parent company, returning HyperCard to Apple's core engineering group.", "In 1992, Apple released the eagerly anticipated upgrade of HyperCard 2.2 and included licensed versions of Color Tools and Addmotion II, adding support for color pictures and animations.", "However, these tools are limited and often cumbersome to use because HyperCard 2.0 lacks true, internal color support.===HyperCard 3.0===Several attempts were made to restart HyperCard development once it returned to Apple.", "Because of the product's widespread use as a multimedia-authoring tool it was rolled into the QuickTime group.", "A new effort to allow HyperCard to create QuickTime interactive (QTi) movies started, once again under the direction of Kevin Calhoun.", "QTi extended QuickTime's core multimedia playback features to provide true interactive facilities and a low-level programming language based on 68000 assembly language.", "The resulting HyperCard 3.0 was first presented in 1996 when an alpha-quality version was shown to developers at Apple's annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC).", "Under the leadership of Dan Crow development continued through the late 1990s, with public demos showing many popular features such as color support, Internet connectivity, and the ability to play HyperCard stacks (which were now special QuickTime movies) in a web browser.", "Development upon HyperCard 3.0 stalled when the QuickTime team was focused away from developing QuickTime interactive to the streaming features of QuickTime 4.0.in 1998 Steve Jobs disliked the software because Atkinson had chosen to stay at Apple to finish it instead of joining Jobs at NeXT, and (according to Atkinson) \"it had Sculley's stink all over it\".", "In 2000, the HyperCard engineering team was reassigned to other tasks after Jobs decided to abandon the product.", "Calhoun and Crow both left Apple shortly after, in 2001.Its final release was in 1998, and it was totally discontinued in March 2004.HyperCard runs natively only in the classic Mac OS, but it can still be used in Mac OS X's Classic mode on PowerPC based machines (G5 and earlier).", "The last functional native HyperCard authoring environment is Classic mode in Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger) on PowerPC-based machines." ], [ "Applications", "HyperCard has been used for a range of hypertext and artistic purposes.", "Before the advent of PowerPoint, HyperCard was often used as a general-purpose presentation program.", "Examples of HyperCard applications include simple databases, \"choose your own adventure\"-type games, and educational teaching aids.Due to its rapid application design facilities, HyperCard was also often used for prototyping applications and sometimes even for version 1.0 implementations.", "Inside Apple, the QuickTime team was one of HyperCard's biggest customers.HyperCard has lower hardware requirements than Macromedia Director.", "Several commercial software products were created in HyperCard, most notably the original version of the graphic adventure game ''Myst'', the Voyager Company's Expanded Books, multimedia CD-ROMs of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony CD-ROM, ''A Hard Day's Night'' by the Beatles, and the Voyager ''MacBeth''.", "An early electronic edition of the ''Whole Earth Catalog'' was implemented in HyperCard.", "and stored on CD-ROM.The prototype and demo of the popular game ''You Don't Know Jack'' was written in HyperCard.", "The French auto manufacturer Renault used it to control their inventory system.In Quebec, Canada, HyperCard was used to control a robot arm used to insert and retrieve video disks at the National Film Board CinéRobothèque.In 1989, Hypercard was used to control the BBC Radiophonic Workshop Studio Network, using a single Macintosh.HyperCard was used to prototype a fully functional prototype of SIDOCI (one of the first experiments in the world to develop an integrated electronic patient record system) and was heavily used by Montréal Consulting firm DMR to demonstrate how \"a typical day in the life of a patient about to get surgery\" would look like in a paperless age.Activision, which was until then mainly a game company, saw HyperCard as an entry point into the business market.", "Changing its name to Mediagenic, it published several major HyperCard-based applications, most notably Danny Goodman's Focal Point, a personal information manager, and Reports For HyperCard, a program by Nine To Five Software that allows users to treat HyperCard as a full database system with robust information viewing and printing features.The HyperCard-inspired SuperCard for a while included the ''Roadster'' plug-in that allowed stacks to be placed inside web pages and viewed by web browsers with an appropriate browser plug-in.", "There was even a Windows version of this plug-in allowing computers other than Macintoshes to use the plug-in.===Exploits===The first HyperCard virus was discovered in Belgium and the Netherlands in April 1991.Because HyperCard executed scripts in stacks immediately on opening, it was also one of the first applications susceptible to macro viruses.", "The Merryxmas virus was discovered in early 1993 by Ken Dunham, two years before the ''Concept'' virus.", "Very few viruses were based on HyperCard, and their overall impact was minimal." ], [ "Reception", "''Compute!", "'s Apple Applications'' in 1987 stated that HyperCard \"may make Macintosh the personal computer of choice\".", "While noting that its large memory requirement made it best suited for computers with 2 MB of memory and hard drives, the magazine predicted that \"the smallest programming shop should be able to turn out stackware\", especially for using CD-ROMs.", "''Compute!''", "predicted in 1988 that most future Mac software would be developed using HyperCard, if only because using it was so addictive that developers \"won't be able to tear themselves away from it long enough to create anything else\".", "''Byte'' in 1989 listed it as among the \"Excellence\" winners of the Byte Awards.", "While stating that \"like any first entry, it has some flaws\", the magazine wrote that \"HyperCard opened up a new category of software\", and praised Apple for bundling it with every Mac.", "In 2001 Steve Wozniak called HyperCard \"the best program ever written\"." ], [ "Legacy", "HyperCard is one of the first products that made use of and popularized the hypertext concept to a large popular base of users.Jakob Nielsen has pointed out that HyperCard was really only a hypermedia program since its links started from regions on a card, not text objects; actual HTML-style text hyperlinks were possible in later versions, but were awkward to implement and seldom used.", "Deena Larsen programmed links into HyperCard for Marble Springs.", "Bill Atkinson later lamented that if he had only realized the power of network-oriented stacks, instead of focusing on local stacks on a single machine, HyperCard could have become the first Web browser.HyperCard saw a loss in popularity with the growth of the World Wide Web, since the Web could handle and deliver data in much the same way as HyperCard without being limited to files on a local hard disk.", "HyperCard had a significant impact on the web as it inspired the creation of both HTTP (through its influence on Tim Berners-Lee's colleague Robert Cailliau), and JavaScript (whose creator, Brendan Eich, was inspired by HyperTalk).", "It was also a key inspiration for ViolaWWW, an early web browser.The pointing-finger cursor used for navigating stacks was later used in the first web browsers, as the hyperlink cursor.The ''Myst'' computer game franchise, initially released as a HyperCard stack and included bundled with some Macs (for example the Performa 5300), still lives on, making HyperCard a facilitating technology for starting one of the best-selling computer games of all time.According to Ward Cunningham, the inventor of Wiki, the wiki concept can be traced back to a HyperCard stack he wrote in the late 1980s.In 2017 the Internet Archive established a project to preserve and emulate HyperCard stacks, allowing users to upload their own.The GUI of the prototype Apple Wizzy Active Lifestyle Telephone was based on HyperCard.===World Wide Web===HyperCard influenced the development of the Web in late 1990 through its influence on Robert Cailliau, who assisted in developing Tim Berners-Lee's first Web browser.", "Javascript was inspired by HyperTalk.Although HyperCard stacks do not operate over the Internet, by 1988, at least 300 stacks were publicly available for download from the commercial CompuServe network (which was not connected to the official Internet yet).", "The system can link phone numbers on a user's computer together and enable them to dial numbers without a modem, using a less expensive piece of hardware, the Hyperdialer.In this sense, like the Web, it does form an association-based experience of information browsing via links, though not operating remotely over the TCP/IP protocol then.", "Like the Web, it also allows for the connections of many different kinds of media.===Similar systems===Other companies have offered their own versions.", ", four products are available which offer HyperCard-like abilities:* HyperNext is a software development system that uses many ideas from HyperCard and can create both standalone applications and stacks that run on the freeware Hypernext Player.", "HyperNext is available for Mac OS 9 & X, and Windows XP & Vista.", "* HyperStudio, one of the first HyperCard clones, is , developed and published by Software MacKiev.", "* LiveCode, published by LiveCode, Ltd., expands greatly on HyperCard's feature set and offers color and a GUI toolkit which can be deployed on many popular platforms (Android, iOS, Classic Macintosh system software, Mac OS X, Windows 98 through 10, and Linux/Unix).", "LiveCode directly imports extant HyperCard stacks and provides a migration path for stacks still in use.", "* SuperCard, the first HyperCard clone, is similar to HyperCard, but with many added features such as: full color support, pixel and vector graphics, a full GUI toolkit, and support for many modern Mac OS X features.", "It can create both standalone applications and projects that run on the freeware SuperCard Player.", "SuperCard can also convert extant HyperCard stacks into SuperCard projects.", "It runs only on Macs.Past products include:* SK8 was a \"HyperCard killer\" developed within Apple but never released.", "It extends HyperTalk to allow arbitrary objects which allowed it to build complete Mac-like applications (instead of stacks).", "The project was never released, although the source code was placed in the public domain.", "* Hyper DA by Symmetry was a Desk Accessory for classic single-tasked Mac OS that allows viewing HyperCard 1.x stacks as added windows in any extant application, and is also embedded into many Claris products (like MacDraw II) to display their user documentation.", "* HyperPad from Brightbill-Roberts is a clone of HyperCard, written for DOS.", "It makes use of ASCII linedrawing to create the graphics of cards and buttons.", "* Plus, later renamed WinPlus, is similar to HyperCard, for Windows and Macintosh.", "* Oracle purchased Plus and created a cross-platform version as Oracle Card, later renamed Oracle Media Objects, used as a 4GL for database access.", "* IBM LinkWay - a mouse-controlled HyperCard-like environment for DOS PCs.", "It has minimal system requirements, runs in graphics CGA and VGA.", "It even supported video disc control.", "* Asymetrix's Windows application ToolBook resembles HyperCard, and later included an external converter to read HyperCard stacks (the first was a third-party product from Heizer software).", "* TileStack is an attempt to create a web based version of HyperCard that is compatible with the original HyperCard files.", "The site closed down January 24, 2011.In addition, many of the basic concepts of the original system were later re-used in other forms.", "Apple built its system-wide scripting engine AppleScript on a language similar to HyperTalk; it is often used for desktop publishing (DTP) workflow automation needs.", "In the 1990s FaceSpan provided a third-party graphical interface.", "AppleScript also has a native graphical programming front-end called Automator, released with Mac OS X Tiger in April 2005.One of HyperCard's strengths was its handling of multimedia, and many multimedia systems like Macromedia Authorware and Macromedia Director are based on concepts originating in HyperCard.AppWare, originally named Serius Developer, is sometimes seen to be similar to HyperCard, as both are rapid application development (RAD) systems.", "AppWare was sold in the early 90s and worked on both Mac and Windows systems.Zoomracks, a DOS application with a similar \"stack\" database metaphor, predates HyperCard by 4 years, which led to a contentious lawsuit against Apple." ], [ "See also", "* Apple Media Tool* MetaCard, LiveCode* Morphic (software)* mTropolis* NoteCards* Stagecast Creator" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography ===* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Collection of emulated HyperCard stacks via the Internet Archive* * * * * ; HyperCard conversion utility* * HyperCard online simulator" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Histology" ], [ "Introduction", "Histologic specimen being placed on the stage of an optical microscope.Human lung tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin as seen under a microscope.", "'''Histology''',also known as '''microscopic anatomy''' or '''microanatomy''', is the branch of biology that studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues.", "Histology is the microscopic counterpart to gross anatomy, which looks at larger structures visible without a microscope.", "Although one may divide microscopic anatomy into ''organology'', the study of organs, ''histology'', the study of tissues, and ''cytology'', the study of cells, modern usage places all of these topics under the field of histology.", "In medicine, histopathology is the branch of histology that includes the microscopic identification and study of diseased tissue.", "In the field of paleontology, the term paleohistology refers to the histology of fossil organisms." ], [ "Biological tissues", "===Animal tissue classification ===There are four basic types of animal tissues: muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue, and epithelial tissue.", "All animal tissues are considered to be subtypes of these four principal tissue types (for example, blood is classified as connective tissue, since the blood cells are suspended in an extracellular matrix, the plasma).===Plant tissue classification===Histologic section of a plant stem (''Alliaria petiolata'').For plants, the study of their tissues falls under the field of plant anatomy, with the following four main types:* Dermal tissue* Vascular tissue* Ground tissue* Meristematic tissue" ], [ "Medical histology", "Histopathology is the branch of histology that includes the microscopic identification and study of diseased tissue.", "It is an important part of anatomical pathology and surgical pathology, as accurate diagnosis of cancer and other diseases often requires histopathological examination of tissue samples.", "Trained physicians, frequently licensed pathologists, perform histopathological examination and provide diagnostic information based on their observations.===Occupations===The field of histology that includes the preparation of tissues for microscopic examination is known as histotechnology.", "Job titles for the trained personnel who prepare histological specimens for examination are numerous and include histotechnicians, histotechnologists, histology technicians and technologists, medical laboratory technicians, and biomedical scientists." ], [ "Sample preparation", "Most histological samples need preparation before microscopic observation; these methods depend on the specimen and method of observation.===Fixation ===Histologic section of a fossilized invertebrate.", "Ordovician bryozoan.Chemical fixatives are used to preserve and maintain the structure of tissues and cells; fixation also hardens tissues which aids in cutting the thin sections of tissue needed for observation under the microscope.", "Fixatives generally preserve tissues (and cells) by irreversibly cross-linking proteins.", "The most widely used fixative for light microscopy is 10% neutral buffered formalin, or NBF (4% formaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline).For electron microscopy, the most commonly used fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually as a 2.5% solution in phosphate buffered saline.", "Other fixatives used for electron microscopy are osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetate.The main action of these aldehyde fixatives is to cross-link amino groups in proteins through the formation of methylene bridges (-CH2-), in the case of formaldehyde, or by C5H10 cross-links in the case of glutaraldehyde.", "This process, while preserving the structural integrity of the cells and tissue can damage the biological functionality of proteins, particularly enzymes.Formalin fixation leads to degradation of mRNA, miRNA, and DNA as well as denaturation and modification of proteins in tissues.", "However, extraction and analysis of nucleic acids and proteins from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is possible using appropriate protocols.===Selection and trimming===Items used for submitting specimens: (Biopsy) wrap, (biopsy) sponge, (tissue processing) cassette and (biopsy) bag.", "''Selection'' is the choice of relevant tissue in cases where it is not necessary to put the entire original tissue mass through further processing.", "The remainder may remain fixated in case it needs to be examined at a later time.", "''Trimming'' is the cutting of tissue samples in order to expose the relevant surfaces for later sectioning.", "It also creates tissue samples of appropriate size to fit into cassettes.===Embedding===Tissues are embedded in a harder medium both as a support and to allow the cutting of thin tissue slices.", "In general, water must first be removed from tissues (dehydration) and replaced with a medium that either solidifies directly, or with an intermediary fluid (clearing) that is miscible with the embedding media.==== Paraffin wax ====Histologic sample being embedded in paraffin wax (tissue is held at the bottom of a metal mold, and more molten paraffin is poured over it to fill it).For light microscopy, paraffin wax is the most frequently used embedding material.", "Paraffin is immiscible with water, the main constituent of biological tissue, so it must first be removed in a series of dehydration steps.", "Samples are transferred through a series of progressively more concentrated ethanol baths, up to 100% ethanol to remove remaining traces of water.", "Dehydration is followed by a ''clearing agent'' (typically xylene although other environmental safe substitutes are in use) which removes the alcohol and is miscible with the wax, finally melted paraffin wax is added to replace the xylene and infiltrate the tissue.", "In most histology, or histopathology laboratories the dehydration, clearing, and wax infiltration are carried out in ''tissue processors'' which automate this process.", "Once infiltrated in paraffin, tissues are oriented in molds which are filled with wax; once positioned, the wax is cooled, solidifying the block and tissue.==== Other materials ====Paraffin wax does not always provide a sufficiently hard matrix for cutting very thin sections (which are especially important for electron microscopy).", "Paraffin wax may also be too soft in relation to the tissue, the heat of the melted wax may alter the tissue in undesirable ways, or the dehydrating or clearing chemicals may harm the tissue.", "Alternatives to paraffin wax include, epoxy, acrylic, agar, gelatin, celloidin, and other types of waxes.In electron microscopy epoxy resins are the most commonly employed embedding media, but acrylic resins are also used, particularly where immunohistochemistry is required.For tissues to be cut in a frozen state, tissues are placed in a water-based embedding medium.", "Pre-frozen tissues are placed into molds with the liquid embedding material, usually a water-based glycol, OCT, TBS, Cryogen, or resin, which is then frozen to form hardened blocks.===Sectioning===Histologic sample being cut on a microtome.For light microscopy, a knife mounted in a microtome is used to cut tissue sections (typically between 5-15 micrometers thick) which are mounted on a glass microscope slide.", "For transmission electron microscopy (TEM), a diamond or glass knife mounted in an ultramicrotome is used to cut between 50 and 150 nanometer thick tissue sections.A limited number of manufacturers are recognized for their production of microtomes, including vibrating microtomes commonly referred to as vibratomes, primarily for research and clinical studies.", "Precisionary Instruments is a known producer of microtomes and vibratomes for research and clinical studies.", "Additionally, Leica Biosystems is known for its production of products related to light microscopy in the context of research and clinical studies.===Staining===Biological tissue has little inherent contrast in either the light or electron microscope.", "Staining is employed to give both contrast to the tissue as well as highlighting particular features of interest.", "When the stain is used to target a specific chemical component of the tissue (and not the general structure), the term histochemistry is used.====Light microscopy====Masson's trichrome staining on rat trachea.", "Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E stain) is one of the most commonly used stains in histology to show the general structure of the tissue.", "Hematoxylin stains cell nuclei blue; eosin, an acidic dye, stains the cytoplasm and other tissues in different stains of pink.In contrast to H&E, which is used as a general stain, there are many techniques that more selectively stain cells, cellular components, and specific substances.", "A commonly performed histochemical technique that targets a specific chemical is the Perls' Prussian blue reaction, used to demonstrate iron deposits in diseases like hemochromatosis.", "The Nissl method for Nissl substance and Golgi's method (and related silver stains) are useful in identifying neurons are other examples of more specific stains.====Historadiography====In historadiography, a slide (sometimes stained histochemically) is X-rayed.", "More commonly, autoradiography is used in visualizing the locations to which a radioactive substance has been transported within the body, such as cells in S phase (undergoing DNA replication) which incorporate tritiated thymidine, or sites to which radiolabeled nucleic acid probes bind in in situ hybridization.", "For autoradiography on a microscopic level, the slide is typically dipped into liquid nuclear tract emulsion, which dries to form the exposure film.", "Individual silver grains in the film are visualized with dark field microscopy.====Immunohistochemistry====Recently, antibodies have been used to specifically visualize proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.", "This process is called immunohistochemistry, or when the stain is a fluorescent molecule, immunofluorescence.", "This technique has greatly increased the ability to identify categories of cells under a microscope.", "Other advanced techniques, such as nonradioactive ''in situ'' hybridization, can be combined with immunochemistry to identify specific DNA or RNA molecules with fluorescent probes or tags that can be used for immunofluorescence and enzyme-linked fluorescence amplification (especially alkaline phosphatase and tyramide signal amplification).", "Fluorescence microscopy and confocal microscopy are used to detect fluorescent signals with good intracellular detail.====Electron microscopy====For electron microscopy heavy metals are typically used to stain tissue sections.", "Uranyl acetate and lead citrate are commonly used to impart contrast to tissue in the electron microscope.===Specialized techniques=======Cryosectioning==== Similar to the frozen section procedure employed in medicine, '''cryosectioning''' is a method to rapidly freeze, cut, and mount sections of tissue for histology.", "The tissue is usually sectioned on a cryostat or freezing microtome.", "The frozen sections are mounted on a glass slide and may be stained to enhance the contrast between different tissues.", "Unfixed frozen sections can be used for studies requiring enzyme localization in tissues and cells.", "Tissue fixation is required for certain procedures such as antibody-linked immunofluorescence staining.", "Frozen sections are often prepared during surgical removal of tumors to allow rapid identification of tumor margins, as in Mohs surgery, or determination of tumor malignancy, when a tumor is discovered incidentally during surgery.====Ultramicrotomy====Green algae under a Transmission electron microscope Ultramicrotomy is a method of preparing extremely thin sections for transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis.", "Tissues are commonly embedded in epoxy or other plastic resin.", "Very thin sections (less than 0.1 micrometer in thickness) are cut using diamond or glass knives on an ultramicrotome.===Artifacts===Artifacts are structures or features in tissue that interfere with normal histological examination.", "Artifacts interfere with histology by changing the tissues appearance and hiding structures.", "Tissue processing artifacts can include pigments formed by fixatives, shrinkage, washing out of cellular components, color changes in different tissues types and alterations of the structures in the tissue.", "An example is mercury pigment left behind after using Zenker's fixative to fix a section.", "Formalin fixation can also leave a brown to black pigment under acidic conditions." ], [ "History", "Santiago Ramón y Cajal in his laboratory.In the 17th century the Italian Marcello Malpighi used microscopes to study tiny biological entities; some regard him as the founder of the fields of histology and microscopic pathology.", "Malpighi analyzed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope.", "While studying the structure of the lung, Malpighi noticed its membranous alveoli and the hair-like connections between veins and arteries, which he named capillaries.", "His discovery established how the oxygen breathed in enters the blood stream and serves the body.In the 19th century histology was an academic discipline in its own right.", "The French anatomist Xavier Bichat introduced the concept of tissue in anatomy in 1801, and the term \"histology\" (), coined to denote the \"study of tissues\", first appeared in a book by Karl Meyer in 1819.Bichat described twenty-one human tissues, which can be subsumed under the four categories currently accepted by histologists.", "The usage of illustrations in histology, deemed as useless by Bichat, was promoted by Jean Cruveilhier.In the early 1830s Purkynĕ invented a microtome with high precision.During the 19th century many fixation techniques were developed by Adolph Hannover (solutions of chromates and chromic acid), Franz Schulze and Max Schultze (osmic acid), Alexander Butlerov (formaldehyde) and Benedikt Stilling (freezing).Mounting techniques were developed by Rudolf Heidenhain (1824-1898), who introduced gum Arabic; Salomon Stricker (1834-1898), who advocated a mixture of wax and oil; and Andrew Pritchard (1804-1884) who, in 1832, used a gum/isinglass mixture.", "In the same year, Canada balsam appeared on the scene, and in 1869 Edwin Klebs (1834-1913) reported that he had for some years embedded his specimens in paraffin.The 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal.", "They had conflicting interpretations of the neural structure of the brain based on differing interpretations of the same images.", "Ramón y Cajal won the prize for his correct theory, and Golgi for the silver-staining technique that he invented to make it possible." ], [ "Future directions", "===''In vivo'' histology===Currently there is intense interest in developing techniques for ''in vivo'' histology (predominantly using MRI), which would enable doctors to non-invasively gather information about healthy and diseased tissues in living patients, rather than from fixed tissue samples." ], [ "See also", "*National Society for Histotechnology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Herodotus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herodotus''' (; BC) was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria, Italy.", "He is known for having written the ''Histories'' – a detailed account of the Greco-Persian Wars.", "Herodotus was the first writer to perform systematic investigation of historical events.", "He has been described as \"The Father of History\", a title conferred on him by the ancient Roman orator Cicero.The ''Histories'' primarily cover the lives of prominent kings and famous battles such as Marathon, Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale.", "His work deviates from the main topics to provide a cultural, ethnographical, geographical, and historiographical background that forms an essential part of the narrative and provides readers with a wellspring of additional information.Herodotus has been criticized for his inclusion of \"legends and fanciful accounts\" in his work.", "The contemporaneous historian Thucydides accused him of making up stories for entertainment.", "However, Herodotus explained that he reported what he could see and was told.", "A sizable portion of the ''Histories'' has since been confirmed by modern historians and archaeologists." ], [ "Life", "Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus' own writing for reliable information about his life, supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, such as the Byzantine ''Suda'', an 11th-century encyclopedia which possibly took its information from traditional accounts.", "Still, the challenge is great:===Childhood===Herodotus was, according to his own statement, at the beginning of his work, a native of Halicarnassus in Anatolia, and it is generally accepted that he was born there around 485 BC.", "The ''Suda'' says his family was influential, that he was the son of Lyxes and Dryo and the brother of Theodorus, and that he was also related to Panyassis – an epic poet of the time.Halicarnassus was then within the Persian Empire, making Herodotus a Persian subject, and it may be that the young Herodotus heard local eyewitness accounts of events within the empire and of Persian preparations for the invasion of Greece, including the movements of the local fleet under the command of Artemisia I of Caria.Inscriptions recently discovered at Halicarnassus indicate that Artemesia's grandson Lygdamis negotiated with a local assembly to settle disputes over seized property, which is consistent with a tyrant under pressure.", "His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League, indicating that there might well have been a successful uprising against him some time before 454 BC.Romanticized statue of Herodotus in his hometown of Halicarnassus, modern Bodrum, Turkey.Herodotus wrote his ''Histories'' in the Ionian dialect, in spite of being born in a Dorian settlement.", "According to the ''Suda'', Herodotus learned the Ionian dialect as a boy living on the island of Samos, to which he had fled with his family from the oppressions of Lygdamis, tyrant of Halicarnassus and grandson of Artemisia.", "Panyassis, the epic poet related to Herodotus, is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising.The ''Suda'' also informs us that Herodotus later returned home to lead the revolt that eventually overthrew the tyrant.", "Due to recent discoveries of inscriptions at Halicarnassus dated to about Herodotus' time, we now know that the Ionic dialect was used in Halicarnassus in some official documents, so there is no need to assume (like the ''Suda'') that he must have learned the dialect elsewhere.", "The ''Suda'' is the only source placing Herodotus as the heroic liberator of his birthplace, casting doubt upon the veracity of that romantic account.===Early travels===As Herodotus himself reveals, Halicarnassus, though a Dorian city, had ended its close relations with its Dorian neighbours after an unseemly quarrel (I, 144), and it had helped pioneer Greek trade with Egypt (II, 178).", "It was, therefore, an outward-looking, international-minded port within the Persian Empire, and the historian's family could well have had contacts in other countries under Persian rule, facilitating his travels and his researches.Herodotus' eyewitness accounts indicate that he traveled in Egypt in association with Athenians, probably sometime after 454 BC or possibly earlier, after an Athenian fleet had assisted the uprising against Persian rule in 460–454 BC.", "He probably traveled to Tyre next and then down the Euphrates to Babylon.", "For some reason, possibly associated with local politics, he subsequently found himself unpopular in Halicarnassus, and sometime around 447 BC, migrated to Periclean Athens – a city whose people and democratic institutions he openly admired (V, 78).", "Athens was also the place where he came to know the local topography (VI, 137; VIII, 52–55), as well as leading citizens such as the Alcmaeonids, a clan whose history is featured frequently in his writing.According to Plutarch, Herodotus was granted a financial reward by the Athenian assembly in recognition of his work.", "Plutarch, using Diyllus as a source, says this was 10 talents.===Later life===In 443 BC or shortly afterwards, he migrated to Thurii, in modern Calabria, as part of an Athenian-sponsored colony.", "Aristotle refers to a version of the ''Histories'' written by \"Herodotus of Thurium\", and some passages in the ''Histories'' have been interpreted as proof that he wrote about Magna Graecia from personal experience there (IV, 15,99; VI, 127).", "Intimate knowledge of some events in the first years of the Peloponnesian War (VI, 91; VII, 133, 233; IX, 73) suggests that he returned to Athens, in which case it is possible that he died there during an outbreak of the plague.", "It is also possible he died in Macedonia instead, after obtaining the patronage of the court there; or else he died back in Thurii.", "There is nothing in the ''Histories'' that can be dated to later than 430 BC with any certainty, and it is generally assumed that he died not long afterwards, possibly before his sixtieth year.===Author and orator===Herodotus would have made his researches known to the larger world through oral recitations to a public crowd.", "John Marincola writes in his introduction to the Penguin edition of the ''Histories'' that there are certain identifiable pieces in the early books of Herodotus' work which could be labeled as \"performance pieces\".", "These portions of the research seem independent and \"almost detachable\", so that they might have been set aside by the author for the purposes of an oral performance.", "The intellectual matrix of the 5th century, Marincola suggests, comprised many oral performances in which philosophers would dramatically recite such detachable pieces of their work.", "The idea was to criticize previous arguments on a topic and emphatically and enthusiastically insert their own in order to win over the audience.It was conventional in Herodotus' day for authors to \"publish\" their works by reciting them at popular festivals.", "According to Lucian, Herodotus took his finished work straight from Anatolia to the Olympic Games and read the entire ''Histories'' to the assembled spectators in one sitting, receiving rapturous applause at the end of it.", "According to a very different account by an ancient grammarian, Herodotus refused to begin reading his work at the festival of Olympia until some clouds offered him a bit of shade – by which time the assembly had dispersed.", "(Hence the proverbial expression \"Herodotus and his shade\" to describe someone who misses an opportunity through delay.)", "Herodotus' recitation at Olympia was a favourite theme among ancient writers, and there is another interesting variation on the story to be found in the ''Suda'': that of Photius and Tzetzes, in which a young Thucydides happened to be in the assembly with his father, and burst into tears during the recital.", "Herodotus observed prophetically to the boy's father, \"Your son's soul yearns for knowledge.", "\"Eventually, Thucydides and Herodotus became close enough for both to be interred in Thucydides' tomb in Athens.", "Such at least was the opinion of Marcellinus in his ''Life of Thucydides''.", "According to the ''Suda'', he was buried in Macedonian Pella and in the agora in Thurii." ], [ "Place in history", "Reconstructed map of the world based on the writings of Herodotus.Herodotus announced the purpose and scope of his work at the beginning of his ''Histories:''===Predecessors===His record of the achievements of others was an achievement in itself, though the extent of it has been debated.", "Herodotus' place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked.", "His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact.", "However, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a literary critic of Augustan Rome, listed seven predecessors of Herodotus, describing their works as simple, unadorned accounts of their own and other cities and people, Greek or foreign, including popular legends, sometimes melodramatic and naïve, often charming – all traits that can be found in the work of Herodotus himself.Modern historians regard the chronology as uncertain, but according to the ancient account, these predecessors included Dionysius of Miletus, Charon of Lampsacus, Hellanicus of Lesbos, Xanthus of Lydia and, the best attested of them all, Hecataeus of Miletus.", "Of these, only fragments of Hecataeus' works survived, and the authenticity of these is debatable, but they provide a glimpse into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own ''Histories''.===Contemporary and modern critics===It is on account of the many strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics have branded him \"The Father of Lies\".", "Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement.", "In fact, one modern scholar has wondered whether Herodotus left his home in Greek Anatolia, migrating westwards to Athens and beyond, because his own countrymen had ridiculed his work, a circumstance possibly hinted at in an epitaph said to have been dedicated to Herodotus at one of his three supposed resting places, Thuria:Yet it was in Athens where his most formidable contemporary critics could be found.", "In 425 BC, which is about the time that Herodotus is thought by many scholars to have died, the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes created ''The Acharnians'', in which he blames the Peloponnesian War on the abduction of some prostitutes – a mocking reference to Herodotus, who reported the Persians' account of their wars with Greece, beginning with the rapes of the mythical heroines Io, Europa, Medea, and Helen.Similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a story-teller.", "Thucydides, who had been trained in rhetoric, became the model for subsequent prose-writers as an author who seeks to appear firmly in control of his material, whereas with his frequent digressions Herodotus appeared to minimize (or possibly disguise) his authorial control.", "Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view: focused on the context of the ''polis'' or city-state.", "The interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory.Though Herodotus is generally considered a reliable source of ancient history, many present-day historians believe that his accounts are at least partially inaccurate, attributing the observed inconsistencies in the ''Histories'' to exaggeration." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Critical editions", "* C. Hude (ed.)", "''Herodoti Historiae.", "Tomvs prior: Libros I–IV continens.''", "(Oxford 1908)* C. Hude (ed.)", "''Herodoti Historiae.", "Tomvs alter: Libri V–IX continens.''", "(Oxford 1908)* H. B. Rosén (ed.)", "''Herodoti Historiae.", "Vol.", "I: Libros I–IV continens.''", "(Leipzig 1987)* H. B. Rosén (ed.)", "''Herodoti Historiae.", "Vol.", "II: Libros V–IX continens indicibus criticis adiectis'' (Stuttgart 1997)* N. G. Wilson (ed.)", "''Herodoti Historiae.", "Tomvs prior: Libros I–IV continens.''", "(Oxford 2015)* N. G. Wilson (ed.)", "''Herodoti Historiae.", "Tomvs alter: Libri V–IX continens.''", "(Oxford 2015)" ], [ "Translations", "Several English translations of Herodotus' ''Histories'' are readily available in multiple editions.", "The most readily available are those translated by:* Henry Cary (judge), translation 1849: text Internet Archive* George Rawlinson, translation 1858–1860.Public domain; many editions available, although Everyman's Library and Wordsworth Classics editions are the most common ones still in print.", "(revised in 1935 by A. W. Lawrence)* George Campbell Macaulay, translation 1890, published in two volumes.", "London: Macmillan and Co.* A. D. Godley 1920; revised 1926.Reprinted 1931, 1946, 1960, 1966, 1975, 1981, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2004.Available in four volumes from Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press.", "Printed with Greek on the left and English on the right:** A. D. Godley ''Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume I : Books 1–2'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1920)** A. D. Godley ''Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume II : Books 3–4'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1921)** A. D. Godley ''Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume III : Books 5–7'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1922)** A. D. Godley ''Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume IV : Books 8–9'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1925)* Aubrey de Sélincourt, originally 1954; revised by John Marincola in 1996.Several editions from Penguin Books available.", "* David Grene, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.", "* Robin Waterfield, with an Introduction and Notes by Carolyn Dewald, Oxford World Classics, 1997.", "* Andrea L. Purvis, ''The Landmark Herodotus'', edited by Robert B. Strassler.", "Pantheon, 2007.with adequate ancillary information.", "* Walter Blanco, ''Herodotus: The Histories: The Complete Translation, Backgrounds, Commentaries''.", "Edited by Jennifer Tolbert Roberts.", "New York: W. W. Norton, 2013.", "* Tom Holland, ''The Histories, Herodotus''.", "Introduction and notes by Paul Cartledge.", "New York, Penguin, 2013." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " ===Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Pitcher, Luke (2009).", "''Writing Ancient History: An Introduction to Classical Historiography''.", "New York: I.B.", "Tauris & Co Ltd.* * * * * * * * Waters, K.H.", "(1985).", "''Herodotus the Historian: His Problems, Methods and Originality''.", "Beckenham: Croom Helm Ltd." ], [ "External links", "* Herodotus on the Web* Herodotus of Halicarnassus at Livius.org* * * ** (translation by George Campbell Macaulay, 1852–1915)** * * * The History of Herodotus, at The Internet Classics Archive (translation by George Rawlinson).", "* Parallel Greek and English text of the History of Herodotus at the Internet Sacred Text Archive* Excerpts of Sélincourt's translation* Herodotus ''Histories'' on the Perseus Project* Herodotus ''Histories'' on the Scaife Viewer* The Histories of Herodotus, A.D. Godley translation with footnotes ( )" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Historian" ], [ "Introduction", " Herodotus () was a Greek historian who lived in the fifth century BC and one of the earliest historians whose work survives.A '''historian''' is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it.", "Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time.", "Some historians are recognized by publications or training and experience.", "\"Historian\" became a professional occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany and elsewhere." ], [ "Objectivity", "===Among historians=======Ancient historians====In the 19th century scholars used to study ancient Greek and Roman historians to see how generally reliable they were.", "In recent decades, however, scholars have focused more on the constructions, genres, and meanings that ancient historians sought to convey to their audiences.", "History is always written with contemporary concerns and ancient historians wrote their histories in response to the needs of their times.", "Out of thousands of Greek and Roman historians, only the tiniest fraction's works survive and it is out of this small pool that ancient historians and ancient historiography are analyzed today.", "Historians of the ancient world have to deal with diverse types of evidence, which are debated more today than in the 19th century due to innovations in the field.Ancient historians were very different from modern historians in terms of goals, documentation, sources, and methods.", "For instance, chronological systems were not widely used, their sources were often absorbed (traceability of such sources usually disappeared), and the goal of an ancient work was often to create political or military paradigms.", "It was only after the emergence of Christianity that philosophies of history grew in prominence due to the destiny of man from the Christian account.", "Epics such as Homer's works were used by historians and considered history even by Thucydides.====Modern historians====In the 19th-century historical studies became professionalized at universities and research centers along with a belief that history was a type of science.", "However, in the 20th century historians incorporated social science dimensions like politics, economy, and culture in their historiography, including postmodernism.", "Since the 1980s there has been a special interest in the memories and commemoration of past events.", "History by its nature is prone to continuous debate, and historians tend to be divided.", "There is no past that is commonly agreed upon, since there are competing histories (e.g., of elites, non-elites, men, women, races, etc.).", "It is widely accepted that \"strict objectivity is epistemologically unattainable for historians\".", "Historians rarely articulate their conception of objectivity or discuss it in detail.", "And like in other professions, historians rarely analyze themselves or their activity.", "In practice, \"specific canons of historical proof are neither widely observed nor generally agreed upon\" among professional historians.", "Though objectivity is often seen as the goal of those who work on history, in practice there is no convergence on anything in particular.", "Historical scholarship is never value free since historian's writings are impacted by the frameworks of their times.", "Some scholars of history have observed that there are no particular standards for historical fields such as religion, art, science, democracy, and social justice as these are by their nature 'essentially contested' fields, such that they require diverse tools particular to each field beforehand in order to interpret topics from those fields.", "There are three commonly held reasons why avoiding bias is not seen as possible in historical practice: a historian's interest inevitably influences their judgement (what information to use and omit, how to present the information, etc); the sources used by historians for their history all have bias, and historians are products of their culture, concepts, and beliefs.", "Racial and cultural biases can play major roles in national histories, which often ignore or downplay the roles on other groups.", "Gender biases as well.", "Moral or worldview evaluations by historians are also seen partly inevitable, causing complications for historians and their historical writings.", "One way to deal with this is for historians to state their biases explicitly for their readers.", "In the modern era, newspapers (which have a bias of their own) impacts historical accounts made by historians.", "Wikipedia also contributes to difficulties for historians.===Legal cases===During the ''Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt'' trial, the court relied on Richard Evan's witness report which mentioned \"objective historian\" in the same vein as the reasonable person, and reminiscent of the standard traditionally used in English law of \"the man on the Clapham omnibus\".", "This was necessary so that there would be a legal benchmark to compare and contrast the scholarship of an objective historian against the illegitimate methods employed by David Irving, as before the ''Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt'' trial, there was no legal precedent for what constituted an objective historian.Justice Gray leant heavily on the research of one of the expert witnesses, Richard J. Evans, who compared illegitimate distortion of the historical record practiced by Holocaust deniers with established historical methodologies.By summarizing Gray's judgment, in an article published in the ''Yale Law Journal'', Wendie E. Schneider distils these seven points for what he meant by an objective historian:Schneider uses the concept of the \"objective historian\" to suggest that this could be an aid in assessing what makes a historian suitable as expert witnesses under the Daubert standard in the United States.", "Schneider proposed this, because, in her opinion, Irving could not have passed the standard Daubert tests unless a court was given \"a great deal of assistance from historians\".Schneider proposes that by testing a historian against the criteria of the \"objective historian\" then, even if a historian holds specific political views (and she gives an example of a well-qualified historian's testimony that was disregarded by a United States court because he was a member of a feminist group), providing the historian uses the \"objective historian\" standards, they are a \"conscientious historian\".", "It was Irving's failure as an \"objective historian\" not his right-wing views that caused him to lose his libel case, as a \"conscientious historian\" would not have \"deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence\" to support his political views." ], [ "History analysis", "The process of historical analysis involves investigation and analysis of competing ideas, facts, and purported facts to create coherent narratives that explain \"what happened\" and \"why or how it happened\".", "Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics.", "While ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times.", "An important part of the contribution of many modern historians is the verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources and recent scholarship or through parallel disciplines like archaeology." ], [ "Historiography", "===Ancient===Reproduction of part of a tenth-century copy of Thucydides's ''History of the Peloponnesian War''.Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the telling of history has emerged independently in civilizations around the world.", "What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history).", "The earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name.Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region.", "The earliest known critical historical works were ''The Histories'', composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 – c. 425 BCE) who later became known as the \"father of history\" (Cicero).", "Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures.", "Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events.", "Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element that set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings.", "He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon ( – 355 BCE) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.Leonardo Bruni (–1444), the historian who first divided history into the three eras of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and Modern times.The Romans adopted the Greek tradition.", "While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the ''Origines'', composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE), was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence.", "Strabo (63 BCE –  CE) was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era.", "Livy (59 BCE – 17 CE) records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire.", "His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.In Chinese historiography, the ''Classic of History'' is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China.", "The ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 to 481 BCE, is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts arranged on annalistic principles.", "Sima Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing.", "His written work was the ''Shiji'' (''Records of the Grand Historian''), a monumental lifelong achievement in literature.", "Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BCE, and it includes many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people and also explores the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras.A page of Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People''Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age.", "Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages.", "They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers.", "In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes.", "An example of this type of writing is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, which were the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late ninth century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154.Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the seventh century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death.", "With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, scholars had to verify which sources were more reliable.", "To evaluate these sources, they developed various methodologies, such as the ''science of biography'', ''science of hadith'' and ''Isnad'' (chain of transmission).", "They later applied these methodologies to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization.", "Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745–822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) and Ibn Hajar (1372–1449).===Enlightenment===During the Age of Enlightenment, the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began.Voltaire's works of history are an excellent example of Enlightenment era history writing.", "Painting by Pierre Charles Baquoy.French ''philosophe'' Voltaire (1694–1778) had an enormous influence on the art of history writing.", "His best-known histories are ''The Age of Louis XIV'' (1751), and ''Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations'' (1756).", "\"My chief object,\" he wrote in 1739, \"is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization – in a word, – of the human mind.\"", "He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history, and achievements in the arts and sciences.", "He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture, and political history.Edward Gibbon's ''Decline of the Roman Empire'' (1776) was a masterpiece of late 18th-century history writing.At the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar impact on history in Great Britain.", "In 1754, he published the ''History of England'', a six-volume work that extended from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688.Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as the history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well.", "William Robertson, a Scottish historian, and the Historiographer Royal published the ''History of Scotland 1542 – 1603'', in 1759 and his most famous work, ''The history of the reign of Charles V'' in 1769.His scholarship was painstaking for the time and he was able to access a large number of documentary sources that had previously been unstudied.", "He was also one of the first historians who understood the importance of general and universally applicable ideas in the shaping of historical events.The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon's, monumental six-volume work, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published on 17 February 1776.Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, at the time its methodology became a model for later historians.", "This has led to Gibbon being called the first \"modern historian\".", "The book sold impressively, earning its author a total of about £9000.Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, \"His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting.", "\"===19th century===The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century.", "Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England.Thomas Carlyle published his magnum opus, the three-volume ''The French Revolution: A History'' in 1837.The resulting work had a passion new to historical writing.", "Thomas Macaulay produced his most famous work of history, ''The History of England from the Accession of James the Second'', in 1848.His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with the freedom of belief and expression.", "This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history.Jules Michelet, later in his career.In his main work ''Histoire de France'', French historian Jules Michelet coined the term Renaissance (meaning \"Re-birth\" in French language), as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world.The nineteen-volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the Revolution.", "Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country.", "Another important French historian of the period was Hippolyte Taine.", "He was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism.", "Literary historicism as a critical movement has been said to originate with him.One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art, was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt Burckhardt's best-known work is ''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy'' (1860).", "According to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place.", "By the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional government.", "William Stubbs's ''Constitutional History of England'' (3 vols., 1874–78) was an important influence on this developing field.", "The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning.Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world-historical development.", "In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point.", "Previous historians had focused on the cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations.", "Process of nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of \"one's own\" history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation.", "A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.===Professionalization in Germany===Ranke established history as a professional academic discipline in Germany.The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th-century German universities.", "Leopold von Ranke was a pivotal influence in this regard, and is considered as the founder of modern source-based history.Specifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents.", "Beginning with his first book in 1824, the ''History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514'', Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age, including \"memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first-hand accounts of eye-witnesses\".", "Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources (empiricism), an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (''aussenpolitik'').", "Sources had to be hard, not speculations and rationalizations.", "His credo was to write history the way it was.", "He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity.===20th century===The term Whig history was coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book ''The Whig Interpretation of History'' in 1931, (a reference to the British Whigs, advocates of the power of Parliament) to refer to the approach to historiography that presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy.", "In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms, and scientific progress.", "The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (the history of science, for example) to criticize any teleological (or goal-directed), hero-based, and transhistorical narrative.", "Butterfield's antidote to Whig history was \"...to evoke a certain sensibility towards the past, the sensibility which studies the past 'for the sake of the past', which delights in the concrete and the complex, which 'goes out to meet the past', which searches for 'unlikenesses between past and present'.\"", "Butterfield's formulation received much attention, and the kind of historical writing he argued against in generalised terms is no longer academically respectable.The 20th century saw the creation of a huge variety of historiographical approaches.", "Marc Bloch's focus on social history rather than traditional political history was of tremendous influence.The French Annales School radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes.", "The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography.", "An eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his approach to history as one that relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society, and civilisation.Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes.", "Friedrich Engels wrote ''The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844'', which was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on, e.g.", "the Fabian Society.", "R. H. Tawney's ''The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century'' (1912) and ''Religion and the Rise of Capitalism'' (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history.", "A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society.", "Members included Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbawm and E. P. Thompson.World history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s.", "It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures.", "Arnold J. Toynbee's ten-volume ''A Study of History'', written between 1933 and 1954, was an important influence on this developing field.", "He took a comparative topical approach to independent civilizations and demonstrated that they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay.", "William H. McNeill wrote ''The Rise of the West'' (1965) to improve upon Toynbee by showing how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary.====Historical editing====A new advanced specialty opened in the late 20th century: historical editing.", "Edmund Morgan reports on its emergence in the United States:It required, to begin with, large sums of money.", "But money has proved easier to recruit than talent.", "Historians who undertake these large editorial projects must leave the main channel of academic life.", "They do not teach; they do not write their own books; they do not enjoy long vacations for rumination, reflection, and research on whatever topic interests them at the moment.", "Instead they must live in unremitting daily pursuit of an individual whose company, whatever his genius, may ultimately begin to pall.", "Anyone who has edited historical manuscripts knows that it requires as much physical and intellectual labor to prepare a text for publication as it does to write a book of one's own.", "Indeed, the new editorial projects are far too large for one man.", "The editor-in-chief, having decided to forego a regular academic career, must entice other scholars to help him; and with the present high demand for college teachers, this is no easy task." ], [ "Education and profession", "Peter R.L Brown, a Princeton historian of late antiquity and the medieval period.An undergraduate history degree is often used as a stepping stone to graduate studies in business or law.", "Many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary education.", "In addition, it is normal for colleges and universities to require a PhD degree for new full-time hires.", "A scholarly thesis, such as a doctoral dissertation, is now regarded as the baseline qualification for a professional historian.", "However, some historians still gain recognition based on published (academic) works and the award of fellowships by academic bodies like the Royal Historical Society.", "Publication is increasingly required by smaller schools, so graduate papers become journal articles and PhD dissertations become published monographs.", "The graduate student experience is difficult—those who finish their doctorate in the United States take on average 8 or more years; funding is scarce except at a few very rich universities.", "Being a teaching assistant in a course is required in some programs; in others it is a paid opportunity awarded a fraction of the students.", "Until the 1970s it was rare for graduate programs to teach how to teach; the assumption was that teaching was easy and that learning how to do research was the main mission.", "A critical experience for graduate students is having a mentor who will provide psychological, social, intellectual and professional support, while directing scholarship and providing an introduction to the profession.Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants.", "The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse, with many relegated to part-time \"adjunct\" teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits.===\"Amateur\" historians===C.", "Vann Woodward (1908–1999), Sterling Professor of History at Yale University, cautioned that the academicians had themselves abdicated their role as storytellers:Professionals do well to apply the term \"amateur\" with caution to the historian outside their ranks.", "The word does have deprecatory and patronizing connotations that occasionally backfire.", "This is especially true of narrative history, which nonprofessionals have all but taken over.", "The gradual withering of the narrative impulse in favor of the analytical urge among professional academic historians has resulted in a virtual abdication of the oldest and most honored role of the historian, that of storyteller.", "Having abdicated... the professional is in a poor position to patronize amateurs who fulfill the needed function he has abandoned." ], [ "See also", "* List of historians* * * * **" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature'' ed.", "by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (3rd ed.", "2 vol, Oxford U.P.", "1995) 2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics vol 1 online, vol 2 online* Allison, William Henry.", "''A guide to historical literature'' (1931) comprehensive bibliography for scholarship to 1930.online edition* Barnes, Harry Elmer''A history of historical writing'' (1962)* Barraclough, Geoffrey.", "''History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences,'' (1978)*Bentley, Michael.", "ed., ''Companion to Historiography'', Routledge, 1997, pp; 39 chapters by experts* Bender, Thomas, et al. ''", "The Education of Historians for Twenty-first Century'' (2003) report by the Committee on Graduate Education of the American Historical Association*Breisach, Ernst.", "''Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern'', 3rd edition, 2007, * Boia, Lucian ''et al.", "'', eds.", "''Great Historians of the Modern Age: An International Dictionary'' (1991)* Cannon, John, et al., eds.", "''The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians''.", "Blackwell Publishers, 1988 .", "*Gilderhus, Mark T. ''History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction'', 2002, *Iggers, Georg G. ''Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge'' (2005)* Kelly, Boyd, ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing''.", "(1999).", "Fitzroy Dearborn * Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds.", "''A Companion to Western Historical Thought'' Blackwell 2006.520pp; .", "* Todd, Richard B. ed.", "''Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500–1960'', (2004).", "Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 .", "* Woolf D. R. ''A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing'' (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities) (2 vol 1998) excerpt and text search" ], [ "External links", "* Selected texts by the most known historians" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harthouse" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harthouse''' is a German record label specializing in techno music.The company was founded by Sven Väth in the early 1990s as a sublabel of Eye Q Records with the divisions Harthouse Frankfurt, Harthouse UK and Harthouse America.In the beginning of 1997 the future of the label was uncertain, sales were dropping in the wake of rising commercial trance labels, and Sven Väth had left the label in January, causing further confusion.", "The firm moved from its office in Offenbach to Berlin.", "Two months later the firm was insolvent, and filed for bankruptcy.At the beginning of 1998 the Under Cover Music Group (UCMG) took over the rights to use the brand name of the label as well as the trademark Harthouse.", "UCMG put together a ''Retrospective Box'', a collection of the most successful releases of Harthouse.Between 1998 and 2003, there were only several new releases.In early 2003, UCMG started to get into financial problems.", "In the middle of 2003 Harthouse planned to re-release a set of old classic singles, but after some test vinyl was pressed, UCMG was closed.In 2004 Daredo Music took over the rights of the Harthouse brand." ], [ "See also", "* Lists of record labels* List of electronic music record labels" ], [ "External links", "* Official site* Harthouse at Discogs.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hermann Hesse" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hermann Karl Hesse''' (; 2 July 1877 – 9 August 1962) was a German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter.", "His best-known works include ''Demian'', ''Steppenwolf'', ''Siddhartha'', and ''The Glass Bead Game'', each of which explores an individual's search for authenticity, self-knowledge, and spirituality.", "In 1946, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature." ], [ "Life and work", "=== Family background ===Hermann Karl Hesse was born on 2 July 1877 in the Black Forest town of Calw, in Württemberg, German Empire.", "His grandparents served in India at a mission under the auspices of the Basel Mission, a Protestant Christian missionary society.", "His grandfather Hermann Gundert compiled a Malayalam grammar and a Malayalam-English dictionary, and also contributed to a translation of the Bible into Malayalam in South India.", "Hesse's mother, Marie Gundert, was born at such a mission in South India in 1842.In describing her own childhood, she said, \"A happy child I was not...\".", "As was usual among missionaries at the time, she was left behind in Europe at the age of four when her parents returned to India.Hesse's birthplace in Calw, 2007Hesse's father, Johannes Hesse, the son of a doctor, was born in 1847 in Weissenstein, Governorate of Estonia in the Russian Empire (now Paide, Järva County, Estonia).", "Johannes Hesse belonged to the Baltic German minority in the Russian-ruled Baltic region: thus his son Hermann was at birth a citizen of both the German Empire and the Russian Empire.", "Hermann had five siblings, but two of them died in infancy.", "In 1873, the Hesse family moved to Calw, where Johannes worked for the Calwer Verlagsverein, a publishing house specializing in theological texts and schoolbooks.", "Marie's father, Hermann Gundert (also the namesake of his grandson), managed the publishing house at the time, and Johannes Hesse succeeded him in 1893.Hesse grew up in a Swabian Pietist household, with the Pietist tendency to insulate believers into small, deeply thoughtful groups.", "Furthermore, Hesse described his father's Baltic German heritage as \"an important and potent fact\" of his developing identity.", "His father, Hesse stated, \"always seemed like a very polite, very foreign, lonely, little-understood guest\".", "His father's tales from Estonia instilled a contrasting sense of religion in young Hermann.", "\"It was an exceedingly cheerful, and, for all its Christianity, a merry world... We wished for nothing so longingly as to be allowed to see this Estonia... where life was so paradisiacal, so colourful and happy\".", "Hermann Hesse's sense of estrangement from the Swabian petite bourgeoisie grew further through his relationship with his maternal grandmother Julie Gundert, née Dubois, whose French-Swiss heritage kept her from ever quite fitting in among that milieu.=== Childhood ===From childhood, Hesse was headstrong and hard for his family to handle.", "In a letter to her husband, Hermann's mother Marie wrote: \"The little fellow has a life in him, an unbelievable strength, a powerful will, and, for his four years of age, a truly astonishing mind.", "How can he express all that?", "It truly gnaws at my life, this internal fighting against his tyrannical temperament, his passionate turbulence ... God must shape this proud spirit, then it will become something noble and magnificent – but I shudder to think what this young and passionate person might become should his upbringing be false or weak.\"St.", "Nicholas-Bridge (''Nikolausbrücke''), one of Hesse's favourite childhood places.", "Click to see an enlarged image, in which the statue of Hesse can be seen near the centre.Hesse showed signs of serious depression as early as his first year at school.", "In his juvenilia collection ''Gerbersau'', Hesse vividly describes experiences and anecdotes from his childhood and youth in Calw: the atmosphere and adventures by the river, the bridge, the chapel, the houses leaning closely together, hidden nooks and crannies, as well as the inhabitants with their admirable qualities, their oddities, and their idiosyncrasies.", "The fictional town of Gerbersau is pseudonymous for Calw, imitating the real name of the nearby town of Hirsau.", "It is derived from the German words ''gerber'', meaning \"tanner\", and ''aue'', meaning \"meadow\".", "Calw had a centuries-old leather-working industry, and during Hesse's childhood the tanneries' influence on the town was still very much in evidence.", "Hesse's favourite place in Calw was the St. Nicholas Bridge (''Nikolausbrücke''), which is why a Hesse monument was built there in 2002.Hermann Hesse's grandfather Hermann Gundert, a doctor of philosophy and fluent in multiple languages, encouraged the boy to read widely, giving him access to his library, which was filled with works of world literature.", "All this instilled a sense in Hermann Hesse that he was a citizen of the world.", "His family background became, he noted, \"the basis of an isolation and a resistance to any sort of nationalism that so defined my life\".Young Hesse shared a love of music with his mother.", "Both music and poetry were important in his family.", "His mother wrote poetry, and his father was known for his use of language in both his sermons and the writing of religious tracts.", "His first role model for becoming an artist was his half-brother, Theo, who rebelled against the family by entering a music conservatory in 1885.Hesse showed a precocious ability to rhyme, and by 1889–90 had decided that he wanted to be a writer.=== Education ===The Swiss city of Basel, which became an important point of reference throughout Hesse's life and played an important role during the author's educationIn 1881, when Hesse was four, the family moved to Basel, Switzerland, staying for six years and then returning to Calw.", "After successful attendance at the Latin School in Göppingen, Hesse entered the Evangelical Theological Seminary of Maulbronn Abbey in 1891.The pupils lived and studied at the abbey, one of Germany's most beautiful and well-preserved, attending 41 hours of classes a week.", "Although Hesse did well during the first months, writing in a letter that he particularly enjoyed writing essays and translating classic Greek poetry into German, his time in Maulbronn was the beginning of a serious personal crisis.", "In March 1892, Hesse showed his rebellious character, and, in one instance, he fled from the Seminary and was found in a field a day later.", "Hesse began a journey through various institutions and schools and experienced intense conflicts with his parents.", "In May, after an attempt at suicide, he spent time at an institution in Bad Boll under the care of theologian and minister Christoph Friedrich Blumhardt.", "Later, he was placed in a mental institution in Stetten im Remstal, and then a boys' institution in Basel.", "At the end of 1892, he attended the Gymnasium in Cannstatt, now part of Stuttgart.", "In 1893, he passed the One Year Examination, which concluded his schooling.", "The same year, he began spending time with older companions and took up drinking and smoking.After this, Hesse began a bookshop apprenticeship in Esslingen am Neckar, but quit after three days.", "Then, in the early summer of 1894, he began a 14-month mechanic apprenticeship at a clock tower factory in Calw.", "The monotony of soldering and filing work made him turn himself toward more spiritual activities.", "In October 1895, he was ready to begin wholeheartedly a new apprenticeship with a bookseller in Tübingen.", "This experience from his youth, especially his time spent at the Seminary in Maulbronn, he returns to later in his novel ''Beneath the Wheel''.=== Becoming a writer ===''Modern Book Printing'' from the Walk of Ideas in Berlin, GermanyOn 17 October 1895, Hesse began working in the bookshop in Tübingen, which had a specialized collection in theology, philology, and law.", "Hesse's tasks consisted of organizing, packing, and archiving the books.", "After the end of each twelve-hour workday, Hesse pursued his own work, and he spent his long, idle Sundays with books rather than friends.", "Hesse studied theological writings and later Goethe, Lessing, Schiller, and Greek mythology.", "He also began reading Nietzsche in 1895, and that philosopher's ideas of \"dual…impulses of passion and order\" in humankind was a heavy influence on most of his novels.By 1898, Hesse had a respectable income that enabled financial independence from his parents.", "During this time, he concentrated on the works of the German Romantics, including much of the work of Clemens Brentano, Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff, Friedrich Hölderlin, and Novalis.", "In letters to his parents, he expressed a belief that \"the morality of artists is replaced by aesthetics\".During this time, he was introduced to the home of Fräulein von Reutern, a friend of his family's.", "There he met with people his own age.", "His relationships with his contemporaries were \"problematic\", in that most of them were now at university.", "This usually left him feeling awkward in social situations.In 1896, his poem \"Madonna\" appeared in a Viennese periodical and Hesse released his first small volume of poetry, ''Romantic Songs''.", "In 1897, a published poem of his, \"Grand Valse\", drew him a fan letter.", "It was from Helene Voigt, who the next year married Eugen Diederichs, a young publisher.", "To please his wife, Diederichs agreed to publish Hesse's collection of prose entitled ''One Hour After Midnight'' in 1898 (although it is dated 1899).", "Neither work was a commercial success.", "In two years, only 54 of the 600 printed copies of ''Romantic Songs'' were sold, and ''One Hour After Midnight'' received only one printing and sold sluggishly.", "Furthermore, Hesse \"suffered a great shock\" when his mother disapproved of \"Romantic Songs\" on the grounds that they were too secular and even \"vaguely sinful\".From late 1899, Hesse worked in a distinguished antique bookshop in Basel.", "Through family contacts, he stayed with the intellectual families of Basel.", "In this environment with rich stimuli for his pursuits, he further developed spiritually and artistically.", "At the same time, Basel offered the solitary Hesse many opportunities for withdrawal into a private life of artistic self-exploration, journeys and wanderings.", "In 1900, Hesse was exempted from compulsory military service due to an eye condition.", "This, along with nerve disorders and persistent headaches, affected him his entire life.In 1901, Hesse undertook to fulfill a long-held dream and travelled for the first time to Italy.", "In the same year, Hesse changed jobs and began working at the antiquarium Wattenwyl in Basel.", "Hesse had more opportunities to release poems and small literary texts to journals.", "These publications now provided honorariums.", "His new bookstore agreed to publish his next work, ''Posthumous Writings and Poems of Hermann Lauscher''.", "In 1902, his mother died after a long and painful illness.", "He could not bring himself to attend her funeral, stating in a letter to his father: \"I think it would be better for us both that I do not come, in spite of my love for my mother\".Due to the good notices that Hesse received for ''Lauscher'', the publisher Samuel Fischer became interested in Hesse and, with the novel ''Peter Camenzind'', which appeared first as a pre-publication in 1903 and then as a regular printing by Fischer in 1904, came a breakthrough: from now on, Hesse could make a living as a writer.", "The novel became popular throughout Germany.", "Sigmund Freud \"praised ''Peter Camenzind'' as one of his favourite readings\".=== Between Lake Constance and India ===1905 portrait by Ernst Würtenberger (1868–1934)Hesse's writing desk, pictured at the Museum GaienhofenHaving realised he could make a living as a writer, Hesse finally married Maria Bernoulli (of the famous family of mathematicians) in 1904, while her father, who disapproved of their relationship, was away for the weekend.", "The couple settled down in Gaienhofen on Lake Constance, and began a family, eventually having three sons.", "In Gaienhofen, he wrote his second novel, ''Beneath the Wheel'', which was published in 1906.In the following time, he composed primarily short stories and poems.", "His story \"The Wolf\", written in 1906–07, was \"quite possibly\" a foreshadowing of ''Steppenwolf''.His next novel, ''Gertrude'', published in 1910, revealed a production crisis.", "He had to struggle through writing it, and he later would describe it as \"a miscarriage\".", "Gaienhofen was the place where Hesse's interest in Buddhism was re-sparked.", "Following a letter to Kapff in 1895 entitled ''Nirvana'', Hesse had ceased alluding to Buddhist references in his work.", "In 1904, however, Arthur Schopenhauer and his philosophical ideas started receiving attention again, and Hesse discovered theosophy.", "Schopenhauer and theosophy renewed Hesse's interest in India.", "Although it was many years before the publication of Hesse's ''Siddhartha'' (1922), this masterpiece was to be derived from these new influences.During this time, there also was increased dissonance between him and Maria, and in 1911 Hesse left for a long trip to Sri Lanka and Indonesia.", "He also visited Sumatra, Borneo, and Burma, but \"the physical experience... was to depress him\".", "Any spiritual or religious inspiration that he was looking for eluded him, but the journey made a strong impression on his literary work.", "Following Hesse's return, the family moved to Bern (1912), but the change of environment could not solve the marriage problems, as he himself confessed in his novel ''Rosshalde'' from 1914.=== During the First World War ===At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Hesse registered himself as a volunteer with the Imperial Army, saying that he could not sit inactively by a warm fireplace while other young authors were dying on the front.", "He was found unfit for combat duty, but was assigned to service involving the care of prisoners of war.", "While most poets and authors of the warring countries quickly became embroiled in a tirade of mutual hate, Hesse, seemingly immune to the general war enthusiasm of the time, wrote an essay titled \"O Friends, Not These Tones\" (\"O Freunde, nicht diese Töne\"), which was published in the , on 3 November.", "In this essay he appealed to his fellow intellectuals not to fall for nationalistic madness and hatred.", "Calling for subdued voices and recognition of Europe's common heritage, Hesse wrote: \"That love is greater than hate, understanding greater than ire, peace nobler than war, this exactly is what this unholy World War should burn into our memories, more so than ever felt before\".", "What followed from this, Hesse later indicated, was a great turning point in his life.", "For the first time, he found himself in the middle of a serious political conflict, attacked by the German press, the recipient of hate mail, and distanced from old friends.", "However, he did receive support from his friend Theodor Heuss, and the French writer Romain Rolland, who visited Hesse in August 1915.In 1917, Hesse wrote to Rolland, \"The attempt...to apply love to matters political has failed\".This public controversy was not yet resolved when a deeper life crisis befell Hesse with the death of his father on 8 March 1916, the serious illness of his son Martin, and his wife's schizophrenia.", "He was forced to leave his military service and begin receiving psychotherapy.", "This began for Hesse a long preoccupation with psychoanalysis, through which he came to know Carl Jung personally, and was challenged to new creative heights.", "Hesse and Jung both later maintained a correspondence with Chilean author, diplomat and Nazi sympathizer Miguel Serrano, who detailed his relationship with both figures in the book ''C.", "G. Jung & Hermann Hesse: A Record of Two Friendships''.", "During a three-week period in September and October 1917, Hesse penned his novel ''Demian'', which would be published following the armistice in 1919 under the pseudonym Emil Sinclair.=== Casa Camuzzi ===By the time Hesse returned to civilian life in 1919, his marriage had fallen apart.", "His wife had a severe episode of psychosis, but, even after her recovery, Hesse saw no possible future with her.", "Their home in Bern was divided, their children were accommodated in boarding houses and by relatives, and Hesse resettled alone in the middle of April in Ticino.", "He occupied a small farmhouse near Minusio (close to Locarno), living from 25 April to 11 May in Sorengo.", "On 11 May, he moved to the town Montagnola and rented four small rooms in a castle-like building, the Casa Camuzzi.", "Here, he explored his writing projects further; he began to paint, an activity reflected in his next major story, \"Klingsor's Last Summer\", published in 1920.This new beginning in different surroundings brought him happiness, and Hesse later called his first year in Ticino \"the fullest, most prolific, most industrious and most passionate time of my life\".", "In 1922, Hesse's novella ''Siddhartha'' appeared, which showed the love for Indian culture and Buddhist philosophy that had already developed earlier in his life.", "In 1924, Hesse married the singer Ruth Wenger, the daughter of the Swiss writer Lisa Wenger and aunt of Méret Oppenheim.", "This marriage never attained any stability, however.In 1923, Hesse was granted Swiss citizenship.", "His next major works, ''Kurgast'' (1925) and ''The Nuremberg Trip'' (1927), were autobiographical narratives with ironic undertones and foreshadowed Hesse's following novel, ''Steppenwolf'', which was published in 1927.In the year of his 50th birthday, the first biography of Hesse appeared, written by his friend Hugo Ball.", "Shortly after his new successful novel, he turned away from the solitude of ''Steppenwolf'' and started a cohabitation with art historian Ninon Dolbin, née Ausländer.", "This change to companionship was reflected in the novel ''Narcissus and Goldmund'', appearing in 1930.=== Later life and death ===Hesse, In 1931, Hesse left the Casa Camuzzi and moved with Ninon to a larger house, also near Montagnola, which was built for him to use for the rest of his life, by his friend and patron Hans C. Bodmer.", "In the same year, Hesse formally married Ninon, and began planning what would become his last major work, ''The Glass Bead Game'' (a.k.a.", "''Magister Ludi'').", "In 1932, as a preliminary study, he released the novella ''Journey to the East''.Hesse observed the rise to power of Nazism in Germany with concern.", "In 1933, Bertolt Brecht and Thomas Mann made their travels into exile, each aided by Hesse.", "In this way, Hesse attempted to work against Hitler's suppression of art and literature that protested Nazi ideology.", "Hesse's third wife was Jewish, and he had publicly expressed his opposition to anti-Semitism long before then.", "Hesse was criticized for not condemning the Nazi Party, but his failure to criticize or support any political idea stemmed from his \"politics of detachment ... At no time did he openly condemn (the Nazis), although his detestation of their politics is beyond question.\"", "Nazism, with its blood sacrifice of the individual to the state and the race, represented the opposite of everything he believed in.", "In March 1933, seven weeks after Hitler took power, Hesse wrote to a correspondent in Germany, \"It is the duty of spiritual types to stand alongside the spirit and not to sing along when the people start belting out the patriotic songs their leaders have ordered them to sing\".", "In the 1930s, Hesse made a quiet statement of resistance by reviewing and publicizing the work of banned Jewish authors, including Franz Kafka.", "In the late 1930s, German journals stopped publishing Hesse's work, and the Nazis eventually banned it.According to Hesse, he \"survived the years of the Hitler regime and the Second World War through the eleven years of work that he spent on ''The Glass Bead Game''\".''''", "Printed in 1943 in Switzerland, this was to be his last novel.", "He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1946.During the last twenty years of his life, Hesse wrote many short stories (chiefly recollections of his childhood) and poems (frequently with nature as their theme).", "Hesse also wrote ironic essays about his alienation from writing (for instance, the mock autobiographies: ''Life Story Briefly Told'' and ''Aus den Briefwechseln eines Dichters'') and spent much time pursuing his interest in watercolours.", "Hesse also occupied himself with the steady stream of letters he received as a result of the Nobel Prize and as a new generation of German readers explored his work.", "In one essay, Hesse reflected wryly on his lifelong failure to acquire a talent for idleness and speculated that his average daily correspondence exceeded 150 pages.", "He died on 9 August 1962, aged 85, and was buried in the cemetery of Sant’Abbondio in Gentilino, where his friend and biographer Hugo Ball and another German personality, the conductor Bruno Walter, are also buried." ], [ "Religious views", "As reflected in ''Demian'', and other works, he believed that \"for different people, there are different ways to God\".", "Despite the influence he drew from Hindu and Buddhist philosophies, he stated about his parents that \"their Christianity, one not preached but lived, was the strongest of the powers that shaped and moulded me\"." ], [ "Influence", "Statue in CalwIn his time, Hesse was a popular and influential author in the German-speaking world; worldwide fame only came later.", "Hesse's first great novel, ''Peter Camenzind'', was received enthusiastically by young Germans desiring a different and more \"natural\" way of life in this time of great economic and technological progress in the country (see also Wandervogel movement).", "''Demian'' had a strong and enduring influence on the generation returning home from the First World War.", "Similarly, ''The Glass Bead Game'', with its disciplined intellectual world of Castalia and the powers of meditation and humanity, captivated Germans' longing for a new order amid the chaos of a broken nation following the loss in the Second World War.Towards the end of his life, German (born Bavarian) composer Richard Strauss (1864–1949) set three of Hesse's poems to music in his song cycle ''Four Last Songs'' for soprano and orchestra (composed 1948, first performed posthumously in 1950): \"Frühling\" (\"Spring\"), \"September\", and \"Beim Schlafengehen\" (\"On Going to Sleep\").In the 1950s, Hesse's popularity began to wane, while literature critics and intellectuals turned their attention to other subjects.", "In 1955, the sales of Hesse's books by his publisher Suhrkamp reached an all-time low.", "However, after Hesse's death in 1962, posthumously published writings, including letters and previously unknown pieces of prose, contributed to a new level of understanding and appreciation of his works.By the time of Hesse's death in 1962, his works were still relatively little read in the United States, despite his status as a Nobel laureate.", "A memorial published in ''The New York Times'' went so far as to claim that Hesse's works were largely \"inaccessible\" to American readers.", "The situation changed in the mid-1960s when Hesse's works suddenly became bestsellers in the United States.", "The revival in popularity of Hesse's works has been credited to their association with some of the popular themes of the 1960s counterculture (or hippie) movement.", "In particular, the quest-for-enlightenment theme of ''Siddhartha'', ''Journey to the East'', and ''Narcissus and Goldmund'' resonated with those espousing counter-cultural ideals.", "The \"magic theatre\" sequences in ''Steppenwolf'' were interpreted by some as drug-induced psychedelia although there is no evidence that Hesse ever took psychedelic drugs or recommended their use.", "In large part, the Hesse boom in the United States can be traced back to enthusiastic writings by two influential counter-culture figures: Colin Wilson and Timothy Leary.", "From the United States, the Hesse renaissance spread to other parts of the world and even back to Germany: more than 800,000 copies were sold in the German-speaking world from 1972 to 1973.In a space of just a few years, Hesse became the most widely read and translated European author of the 20th century.", "Hesse was especially popular among young readers, a tendency which continues today.There is a quote from ''Demian'' on the cover of Santana's 1970 album ''Abraxas'', revealing the source of the album's title.Hesse's ''Siddhartha'' is one of the most popular Western novels set in India.", "An authorised translation of ''Siddhartha'' was published in the Malayalam language in 1990, the language that surrounded Hesse's grandfather, Hermann Gundert, for most of his life.", "A Hermann Hesse Society of India has also been formed.", "It aims to bring out authentic translations of ''Siddhartha'' in all Indian languages and has already prepared the Sanskrit,Malayalam and Hindi translations of ''Siddhartha''.", "One enduring monument to Hesse's lasting popularity in the United States is the Magic Theatre in San Francisco.", "Referring to \"The Magic Theatre for Madmen Only\" in ''Steppenwolf'' (a kind of spiritual and somewhat nightmarish cabaret attended by some of the characters, including Harry Haller), the Magic Theatre was founded in 1967 to perform works by new playwrights.", "Founded by John Lion, the Magic Theatre has fulfilled that mission for many years, including the world premieres of many plays by Sam Shepard.There is also a theatre in Chicago named after the novel, Steppenwolf Theatre.Throughout Germany, many schools are named after him.", "The Hermann-Hesse-Literaturpreis is a literary prize associated with the city of Karlsruhe that has been awarded since 1957.Since 1990, the Calw Hermann Hesse Prize has been awarded every two years alternately to a German-language literary journal and a translator of Hesse's work.", "The Internationale Hermann-Hesse-Gesellschaft (unofficial English name: ''International Hermann Hesse Society'') was founded in 2002 on Hesse's 125th birthday and began awarding its Hermann Hesse prize in 2017.Musician Steve Adey adapted the poem \"How Heavy the Days\" on his 2017 LP ''Do Me a Kindness''.The band Steppenwolf took its name from Hesse's novel." ], [ "Awards", "* 1906: Bauernfeld-Preis* 1928: Mejstrik-Preis of the Schiller Foundation in Vienna* 1936: Gottfried-Keller-Preis* 1946: Goethe Prize* 1946: Nobel Prize in Literature* 1947: Honorary Doctorate from the University of Bern* 1950: Wilhelm Raabe Literature Prize* 1954: Pour le Mérite* 1955: Peace Prize of the German Book Trade" ], [ "Books", "''Demian,'' 1919===Novella===* (1899) ''Eine Stunde hinter Mitternacht'' (''An Hour after Midnight'')* (1908) ''Freunde''* (1914) ''In the Old Sun''* (1916) ''Schön ist die Jugend''* (1919) ''Klein und Wagner''* (1920) ''Klingsors letzter Sommer'' (''Klingsor's Last Summer'')===Novels===* (1904) ''Peter Camenzind''* (1906) ''Unterm Rad'' (''Beneath the Wheel''; also published as ''The Prodigy'')* (1910) ''Gertrud''* (1914) ''Roßhalde''* (1915) ''Knulp'' (also published as ''Three Tales from the Life of Knulp'')* (1919) ''Demian'' (published under the pen name Emil Sinclair)* (1922) ''Siddhartha''* (1927) ''Der Steppenwolf''* (1930) ''Narziß und Goldmund'' (''Narcissus and Goldmund''; also published as ''Death and the Lover'')* (1932) ''Die Morgenlandfahrt'' (''Journey to the East'')* (1943) ''Das Glasperlenspiel'' (''The Glass Bead Game''; also published as ''Magister Ludi'')===Short story collections===* (1919) ''Strange News from Another Star'' (originally published as ''Märchen'') — written between 1913 and 1918* (1972) ''Stories of Five Decades'' (23 stories written between 1899 and 1948)===Non-fiction===* (1913) ''Besuch aus Indien'' (''Visitor from India'')—philosophy* (1920) ''Blick ins Chaos'' (''A Glimpse into Chaos'')—essays* (1920) ''Wandering''—notes and sketches* (1971) ''If the War Goes On''—essays* (1972) ''Autobiographical Writings'' (including \"A Guest at the Spa\")—collection of prose pieces===Poetry collections===* (1898) ''Romantische Lieder'' (''Romantic Songs'')* (1900) ''Hinterlassene Schriften und Gedichte von Hermann Lauscher'' (''The Posthumous Writings and Poems of Hermann Lauscher'')—with prose* (1970) ''Poems'' (21 poems written between 1899 and 1921)* (1975) ''Crisis: Pages from a Diary''* (1979) ''Hours in the Garden and Other Poems '' (written during the same period as ''The Glass Bead Game'')" ], [ "Film adaptations", "*1966: ''El lobo estepario'' (based on ''Steppenwolf'')*1971: ''Zachariah'' (based on ''Siddartha'')*1972: ''Siddhartha''*1974: ''Steppenwolf''*1981: ''Kinderseele''*1989: ''Francesco''*1996: ''Ansatsu'' (based on ''Demian'')*2003: ''Poem: I Set My Foot Upon the Air and It Carried Me''*2003: ''Siddhartha''*2012: ''''*2020: ''''" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * List of works* * * * Hermann Hesse Page – in German and English, maintained by Professor Gunther Gottschalk* Hermann-Hesse.de* Hesse's art – Galerie Ludorff, Düsseldorf, Germany" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Mediterranean region" ], [ "Introduction", "Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II, Rome (cart.", "naut.", "2 – cart.", "naut 6/1-2).The '''history of the Mediterranean region''' and of the cultures and people of the Mediterranean Basin is important for understanding the origin and development of the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Canaanite, Phoenician, Hebrew, Carthaginian, Minoan, Greek, Persian, Illyrian, Thracian, Etruscan, Iberian, Roman, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Arab, Berber, Ottoman, Christian and Islamic cultures.", "The Mediterranean Sea was the central superhighway of transport, trade and cultural exchange between diverse peoples encompassing three continents: Western Asia, North Africa, and Southern Europe." ], [ "Early history", "The Fertile Crescent in the 2nd millennium BC.Lézignan-la-Cèbe in France, Orce in Spain, Monte Poggiolo in Italy and Kozarnika in Bulgaria are amongst the oldest Paleolithic sites in Europe and are located around the Mediterranean Basin.There is evidence of stone tools on Crete in 130,000 years BC, which indicates that early humans were capable of using boats to reach the island.The cultural stage of civilization (organised society structured around urban centers) first arises in Southwest Asia, as an extension of the Neolithic trend, from as early as the 8th millennium BC, of proto-urban centers such as Çatalhöyük.", "Urban civilizations proper begin to emerge in the Chalcolithic, in 5th-to-4th-millennium Egypt and in Mesopotamia.The Black Sea area is a cradle of the European civilization.", "The site of Solnitsata (5500 BC - 4200 BC) is believed to be the oldest town in Europe - prehistoric fortified (walled) stone settlement (prehistoric city).", "The first gold artifacts in the world appear from the 5th millennium BC, such as those found in a burial site from 4569–4340 BC and one of the most important archaeological sites in world prehistory – the Varna Necropolis near Lake Varna in Bulgaria, thought to be the earliest \"well-dated\" find of gold artifacts.As of 1990, gold artifacts found at the Wadi Qana cave cemetery of the 4th millennium BC in the West Bank were the earliest from the Levant.The Bronze Age arises in this region during the final centuries of the 4th millennium.", "The urban civilizations of the Fertile Crescent now have writing systems and develop bureaucracy, by the mid-3rd millennium leading to the development of the earliest empires.", "In the 2nd millennium, the eastern coastlines of the Mediterranean are dominated by the Hittite and Egyptian empires, competing for control over the city states in the Levant (Canaan).", "The Minoans are trading throughout much of the Mediterranean.The Bronze Age collapse is the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age, expressed by the collapse of palace economies of the Aegean and Anatolia, which were replaced after a hiatus by the isolated village cultures of the ancient Near East.", "Some have gone so far as to call the catalyst that ended the Bronze Age a \"catastrophe\".", "The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region, beginning with precocious iron-working in what is now Romania in the 13th and 12th centuries.", "The cultural collapse of the Mycenaean kingdoms, the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and Syria, and the Egyptian Empire in Syria and Israel, the scission of long-distance trade contacts and sudden eclipse of literacy occurred between 1206 and 1150 BC.", "In the first phase of this period, almost every city between Troy and Gaza was violently destroyed, and often left unoccupied thereafter (for example, Hattusas, Mycenae, Ugarit).", "The gradual end of the Dark Age that ensued saw the rise of settled Neo-Hittite Aramaean kingdoms of the mid-10th century BC, and the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.While the cultural advances during the Bronze Age had mostly been confined to the eastern parts of the Mediterranean, with the Iron Age, the entire coastal region surrounding the Mediterranean now becomes involved, significantly due to the Phoenician expansion from the Levant, beginning in ca.", "the 12th century.", "Fernand Braudel remarked in ''The Perspective of the World'' that Phoenicia was an early example of a \"world-economy\" surrounded by empires.", "The high point of Phoenician culture and sea power is usually placed ca.", "1200–800 BC.", "Many of the most important Phoenician settlements had been established long before this: Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Simyra, Arwad, and Berytus, all appear in the Amarna tablets.The Phoenicians and the Assyrians transported elements of the Late Bronze Age culture of the Near East to Iron Age Greece and Italy, but also further afield to Northwestern Africa and to Iberia, initiating the beginning of Mediterranean history now known as Classical Antiquity.They notably spread alphabetic writing, which would become the hallmark of the Mediterranean civilizations of the Iron Age, in contrast to the cuneiform writing of Assyria and the logographic system in the Far East (and later the abugida systems of India)." ], [ "Classical antiquity", "Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period (750–550 BC)Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians.", "The Greeks spread to the shores of the Black Sea, Southern Italy (the so-called \"Magna Graecia\") and Asia Minor.", "The Phoenicians spread through the western Mediterranean reaching North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.", "From the 6th century BC up to including the 5th century BC, many of the significant Mediterranean peoples were under Persian rule, making them dominate the Mediterranean during these years.", "Both the Phoenicians and some of the Greek city states in Asia Minor provided the naval forces of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.", "Persian dominance ended after the Greco-Persian War in the 5th century BC and Persia was crippled by Macedonia in the 4th century BC.", "The Odrysian Kingdom existed between the 5th century BC and the 1st century AD as the most important and powerful thracian state formation.=== Persian period ===From the 6th century BC up to including the first half of the 4th century BC, many of the significant Mediterranean peoples came under Achaemenid Persian rule, making them dominate the Mediterranean during all these years.", "The empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, would include Macedonia, Thrace and the western Black sea coast (modern day southeastern and eastern Bulgaria), Egypt, Anatolia, the Phoenician lands, the Levant, and many other basin regions of the Mediterranean later on.", "Darius the Great (Darius I) is to be credited as the first Achaemenid king to invest in a Persian fleet.", "Even by then no true \"imperial navy\" had existed either in Greece or Egypt.", "Persia would become the first empire, under Darius, to inaugurate and deploy the first regular imperial navy.", "Both the Phoenicians and the Greeks provided the bulk of the naval forces of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, alongside the Cypriots and Egyptians.", "Full Persian dominance in the Mediterranean ended after the Greco-Persian War in the 5th century BC, and Persia eventually lost all her influence in the Mediterranean in the late 4th century BC following Alexander's conquests.=== Hellenistic period ===The Mediterranean region in 220 BC.In the northernmost part of ancient Greece, in the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, technological and organizational skills were forged with a long history of cavalry warfare.", "The ''hetairoi'' (Companion cavalry) was considered the strongest of their time.", "Under Alexander the Great, this force turned east, and in a series of decisive battles, it routed the Persian forces and took over as the dominant empire of the Mediterranean.", "Their Macedonia empire included present-day Greece, Bulgaria, Egypt, the Phoenician lands and many other basin regions of the Mediterranean and Asia Minor.The major centres of the Mediterranean at the time became part of Alexander's empire as a result.", "His empire quickly disintegrated, and the Middle East, Egypt, and Greece were soon again independent.", "Alexander's conquests spread Greek knowledge and ideas throughout the region.=== Roman–Carthaginian rivalry ===These eastern powers soon began to be overshadowed by those farther west.", "In North Africa, the former Phoenician colony of Carthage rose to dominate its surroundings with an empire that contained many of the former Phoenician holdings.", "However, it was a city on the Italian Peninsula, Rome, that would eventually dominate the entire Mediterranean basin.", "Spreading first through Italy, Rome defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars, despite Hannibal's famous efforts against Rome in the Second Punic War.After the Third Punic War, Rome then became the leading force in the Mediterranean region.", "The Romans soon spread east, taking Greece, and spreading Latin knowledge and ideas throughout the place.", "By this point the coastal trading cultures were thoroughly dominant over the inland river valleys that had once been the heart of the great powers.", "Egyptian power moved from the Nile cities to the coastal ones, especially Alexandria.", "Mesopotamia became a fringe border region between the Roman Empire and the Persians.=== Roman ''Mare Nostrum'' ===Roman territory in c. 400 AD.When Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Mediterranean sea began to be called ''Mare Nostrum'' (Latin: \"Our Sea\") by the Romans.", "Their empire was centered on this sea and all the area was full of commerce and naval development.", "For the first time in history, an entire sea (the Mediterranean) was free of piracy.", "For several centuries, the Mediterranean was a \"Roman Lake\", surrounded on all sides by the empire.The empire began to crumble, however, in the fifth century and Rome collapsed after 476 AD.=== Sasanian and Byzantine times ===The Eastern Roman or Byzantine empire began its domination of the Levant during its wars with neighbouring Sassanid Persia.", "The rule through the 6th century AD saw climatic instability, causing inconsistent production, distribution, and a general economic decline.", "The Sasanians gained territory on Mediterranean land regularly, but the Eastern Romans remained superior in the Mediterranean sea for centuries.", "In the first quarter of the 7th century CE, the Sasanians took swaths of the Mediterranean region from the Eastern Romans during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, though the Sasanians lost territories by the end of the war.", "Ultimately, Byzantine domination in the region was forever finished by invasions of the Arabs and later the Turks." ], [ "Middle Ages", "The expansion of the Caliphate in the Mediterranean region from 622 to 750 AD.", "Another power was rising in the east, that of Islam, whilst the Eastern Roman Empire and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by centuries of stalemate warfare during the Roman–Persian Wars.", "In a series of rapid Muslim conquests, the Arab armies, motivated by Islam and led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East; reducing Byzantine lands by more than half and completely engulfing the Persian lands.The Arab invasions disrupted the trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while cutting the trade route with Oriental lands.", "This however had the indirect effect of promoting the trade across the Caspian Sea.", "The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world.", "Oriental goods like silk and spices were carried from Egypt to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants.", "The Viking raids further disrupted the trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt.", "However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea, while also trading in luxury goods from Spain and the Mediterranean.", "The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean.", "Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of oriental goods at Venice.The powerful and long-lived Bulgarian Empire was the main European rival in the region of the Mediterranean Balkan peninsula between the 7th and the 14th centuries, creating an important cultural, political, linguistic and religious legacy during the Middle Ages.In Anatolia, the Muslim expansion was blocked by the still capable Byzantines with the help of the Tervel of Bulgaria.", "The Byzantine provinces of Roman Syria, North Africa, and Sicily, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions.", "At the far west, they crossed the sea taking Visigothic Hispania before being halted in southern France by the Franks.", "At its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled three-quarters of the Mediterranean coast, and fostered an economic interrelationship between the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean.", "Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centers in the Middle East, but Al Andalus and Morocco soon broke from this distant control and became highly advanced societies in their own right.", "Between 831 and 1071, the Emirate of Sicily was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean.", "After its conquest by the Christian Normans, the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Latin and Byzantine influences.", "Palermo remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages.naval operations and battles in the Mediterranean, 7th to 11th centuriesThe Fatimids maintained trade relations with the Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents.", "A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo.", "Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with Alexandria.", "The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice.More organized and centralized states gradually began to form in Europe during the later Middle Ages.", "Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the holy land.", "The Crusades were unsuccessful in this goal, but they were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire that began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the Seljuk Turks and later to the Ottoman Turks.", "They also rearranged the balance of power in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power in the eastern Mediterranean.The Crusades led to flourishing of trade between Europe and the ''outremer'' region.", "Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with the Orient.", "These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world.", "Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted the trade with the Orient, it however continued.The Zirid state in eastern Maghreb developed around the great metropolis of Kairouan collapsed in mid 12th century, with a henceforth fragmented Ifriqiya becoming a ground for competing external powers from then on.", "The high middle ages also saw the successive rise of two Berber powers, the Almoravids and the Almohads, in the Western Maghreb, fostering the developments of cities such as Marrakech and Fez upon their control over Trans-Saharan trade.", "Cities in southern Iberia such as Almería (under Almoravid rule) also thrived in the high middle ages.", "The 12th century also saw increasing naval and trading progress on the part of Christian powers in the northern shores of the Mediterranean (including Genoa, Pisa, and Aragon), seemingly offering a challenge to the balance of power in the Western Mediterranean.=== Slavery ===Slave market in Algiers, c. 1684Slavery was a strategic and very important part of all Mediterranean societies during the Middle Ages.", "The threat of becoming a slave was a constant fear for peasants, fishermen and merchants.", "Those with money or who had financial backing only feared the lack of support, should they be threatened with abduction for ransom.There were several things which could happen to people in the Mediterranean region of the Middle Ages:# When Corsairs, pirate, Barbary corsairs, French corsairs or commerce raiders plied their trade, a peasant, fisherman or coastal villager, who had no financial backing, could be abducted or sold to slave traders, or adversaries, who made large profits on an international market;# If the captive was wealthy or had influential supporters, the captive could be ransomed.", "This would be the most advantageous plan, since the money exchange was immediate and direct, not long and drawn out as in the slave market business;# The captive could be used immediately by the corsair for labour on the ship rather than traded.", "In battles during this era, prisoners of war were often captured and used as slaves.Emperors would take large numbers of prisoners, parade them through the capital, hold feasts in honour of their capture and parade diplomats in front of them as a display of victory.=== Late Middle Ages ===Genoese (red) and Venetian (green) maritime trade routes in the Mediterranean.The \"Repubbliche Marinare\" (Maritime republics) of Amalfi, Gaeta, Venice, Genoa, Ancona, Pisa and Ragusa developed their own empires in the Mediterranean shores.", "The Islamic states had never been major naval powers, and trade from the east to Europe was soon in the hands of Italian traders, especially the Genoese and the Venetians, who profited immensely from it.", "The Republic of Pisa and later the Republic of Ragusa used diplomacy to further trade and maintained a libertarian approach in civil matters to further sentiment in its inhabitants.The Republic of Venice got to dominate the eastern mediterranean shores after the Fourth Crusade.Between 1275 and 1344 a struggle for the control of the Strait of Gibraltar took place.", "Featuring the Marinid Sultanate, the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, the Crown of Castile, the Crown of Aragón, the Kingdom of Portugal and the Republic of Genoa, it was characterized by changing alliances between the main actors.", "The iberian cities of Tarifa, Ceuta, Algeciras or Ronda and the African port of Ceuta were at stake.", "The Western Mediterranean sea was dominated by the Crown of Aragon: thanks to their possessions of Sicily, the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, the Duchy of Athens the Duchy of Neopatria, and several northern African cities.In 1347 the Black Death spread from Constantinople across the mediterranean basin.Ottoman power continued to grow, and in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the fall of Constantinople.", "The Ottomans already controlled Greece, Bulgaria and much of the Balkans and soon also began to spread through North Africa.", "North Africa had grown wealthy from the trade across the Sahara Desert, but the Portuguese, who, along with other Christian powers, had been engaged in a long campaign to evict the Muslims from Iberia, had found a method to circumvent this trade by trading directly with West Africa.", "This was enabled by a new type of ships, the caravel, that made trade in the rough Atlantic waters profitable for the first time.", "The reduction in the Saharan trade weakened North Africa, and made them an easy target for the Ottomans.Ceuta was ultimately taken by the Kingdom of Portugal in 1415, searching to undermine Castilian, Aragonese, and Genoese interests in the area.During the Middle Ages, rival Christian and Muslim kingdoms forbade the trade of particular goods to enemy kingdoms including weaponry and other contraband items.", "The popes forbade the export of these commodities to the Islamic world.", "The Ottomans too forbade the export of weapons and other strategic items, declaring them ''memnu eşya'' or ''memnu olan'' to Christian states even in peace treaties, however friendly states could import some of the prohibited goods through capitulations.", "Despite these prohibitions, trade of contraband occurred on both sides.", "The European merchants traded in illegal goods with Muslims.", "The Ottomans were unable to suppress the trade with smuggling being undertaken mainly in the winter when the Ottoman Navy stationed at the Istanbul Arsenal was unable to stop Ottoman and non-Ottoman vessels from indulging in the trade." ], [ "Modern era", "Ottoman Empire territories acquired between 1300 and 1683.Greatest extent of Italian control of the Mediterranean littoral and seas (within green line & dots) in summer/fall 1942.Allied-controlled areas in red.The growing naval prowess of the European powers confronted further rapid Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the power of the Ottoman navy.", "However, as Braudel argued forcefully, this only slowed the Ottoman expansion instead of ending it.", "The prized island of Cyprus became Ottoman in 1571.The last resistance in Tunisia ended in 1574 and almost a generation long siege in Crete pushed Venetians out of this strategic island in 1669.A balance of power was then established between the Spanish Crown and the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century, each dominating their respective half of Mediterranean, reducing Italian navies as naval powers increasingly more irrelevant.", "Furthermore, the Ottoman Empire had succeeded in their objective of extending Muslim rule across the North African coast.The development of long range seafaring had an influence upon the entire Mediterranean.", "While once all trade from the east had passed through the region, the circumnavigation of Africa allowed gold, spices, and dyes to be imported directly to the Atlantic ports of western Europe.", "The Americas were also a source of extreme wealth to the western powers, from which some of the Mediterranean states were largely cut off.The base of European power thus shifted northward and the once wealthy Italy became a peripheral area dominated by foreigners.", "The Ottoman Empire also began a slow decline that saw its North African possessions gain de facto independence and its European holdings gradually reduced by the territorial gains of Austria and the Russian Empire.", "In the wake of the aftermath of the 1768–1774 Russo-Turkish War, the Russian empire gained direct access to the Black Sea.By the nineteenth century the European States were vastly more powerful, and began to colonize North Africa.", "France spread its power south by starting their conquest of the Regency of Algiers in 1830 and later gaining control over the Beylik of Tunis.", "Following the British capture of Gibraltar (1713), Malta (1814) and Cyprus (1878), the British Empire occupied Egypt as a result of the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War.", "The Suez Canal was opened during this period, with far-reaching consequences for trade between Asia, East Africa and Europe.", "The Mediterranean countries were preferred because of the shorter route, and port cities such as Trieste with their direct, fast access to Central and Northern Europe were booming.", "Italy conquered Libya from the Ottomans in 1911.Greece achieved independence in 1832.The Ottoman Empire finally collapsed in the First World War, and its holdings were carved up among France and Britain.", "The rump state of the wider Ottoman Empire became the independent state of Turkey in 1923.Yugoslavia was created from the former Austro-Hungarian empire at the end of the First World War.During the first half of the twentieth century the Mediterranean was at the center of the expansion of the Kingdom of Italy, and was one of the main areas of battle during World War II between the Axis and the Allies.", "Post-world war period was marked by increasing activity in the Eastern Mediterranean, where naval actions formed part of ongoing Arab–Israeli conflict and Turkey had occupied the northern part of Cyprus.", "Cold War tensions split the Mediterranean into pro-American and pro-Soviet factions, with Turkey, Greece, Spain, Italy and France being NATO members.", "Syria was socialist and a pro-Soviet regime, offering the Soviets a port for their navy from an agreement in 1971.Yugoslavia was Communist but in neither the Soviet nor American camps.", "Egypt tilted towards the Soviets during the time of Nasser but then turned towards American influence during the time of Sadat.", "Israel and Egypt both received massive American military aid.", "American naval power made the Mediterranean a base for the United States Sixth Fleet during the Cold war.Today, the Mediterranean Sea is the southern border of the European Union and represents one of the largest area by Trade in the World.", "The Maltese prime minister described the Mediterranean sea as a \"cemetery\" due to the large amounts of migrants who drown there.", "Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government, has decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorizing Operation Mare Nostrum, a military and humanitarian operation in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants." ], [ "See also", "* Eastern Mediterranean* History of Anatolia* History of Europe* History of the Middle East* History of North Africa* History of the Levant* History of Western civilization* Life zones of the Mediterranean region* Mediterranean Basin* Union for the Mediterranean" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Bohlman, Philip V.; Keller, Marcello Sorce; Azzaroni, Loris (eds.", "), ''Musical Anthropology of the Mediterranean: Interpretation, Performance, Identity'', Bologna, Edizioni Clueb – Cooperativa Libraria Universitaria Editrice, 2009.", "* Braudel, Fernand.", "''The Mediterranean in the Age of Philip II''.", "2 vol 1972), the classic history by the leader of the French Annales School* * Burke, III, Edmund.", "\"Toward a Comparative History of the Modern Mediterranean, 1750–1919,\" ''Journal of World History'' (2012) 23:4.pp.", "907–939.DOI: 10.1353/jwh.2012.0133* Chambers, Iain.", "''Mediterranean Crossings: The Politics of an Interrupted Modernity'' (Duke University Press, 2008).", "* Horden, Peregrine and Nicholas Purcell.", "''The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History''.", "Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000.", "* Horden, Peregrine and Purcell, Nicholas.", "\"The Mediterranean and 'the New Thalassology'\" ''American Historical Review'' (2006) 111#3 pp 722–740 online* Marino, John A.", "(2003) \"The Exile and His Kingdom—The Reception of Braudel's Mediterranean,\" ''Sixteenth Century Journal'' 34:4.", "* Rogerson, Barnaby.", "''The Last Crusaders: The Hundred-Year Battle for the Center of the World'' (Overlook Press; 2010) 482 pages.", "Traces power struggles in the Mediterranean between 1450 and 1590.", "* Thiollet, Jean-Pierre.", "''Je m'appelle Byblos''.", "* Schlicht, Alfred, \"Die Araber und Europa\" Stuttgart 2008 (Kohlhammer Verlag)* Sorce Keller, Marcello.", "\"Mediterranean\", Janet Sturman (ed.)", "''The SAGE Encyclopedia of Music and Culture''.", "Los Angeles: SAGE Reference, 2019, Vol.", "III, 618-623." ], [ "External links", "* Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations Timeline (10000 BC – 700 AD)* ''Ancient Mediterranean History Encyclopedia''* History of the Mediterranean at historyworld.net" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hugo de Garis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hugo de Garis''' (born 1947) is an Australian retired researcher in the sub-field of artificial intelligence (AI) known as evolvable hardware.", "He became known in the 1990s for his research on the use of genetic algorithms to evolve artificial neural networks using three-dimensional cellular automata inside field programmable gate arrays.", "He claimed that this approach would enable the creation of what he terms \"artificial brains\" which would quickly surpass human levels of intelligence.He has been noted for his belief that a major war between the supporters and opponents of intelligent machines, resulting in billions of deaths, is almost inevitable before the end of the 21st century.", "He suggests AI systems may simply eliminate the human race, and humans would be powerless to stop them because of technological singularity.", "This prediction has attracted debate and criticism from the AI research community, and some of its more notable members, such as Kevin Warwick, Bill Joy, Ken MacLeod, Ray Kurzweil, and Hans Moravec, have voiced their opinions on whether or not this future is likely.De Garis originally studied theoretical physics, but he abandoned this field in favour of artificial intelligence.", "In 1992 he received his PhD from Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium.", "He worked as a researcher at ATR (Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International, 国際電気通信基礎技術研究所), Japan from 1994–2000, a researcher at Starlab, Brussels from 2000–2001, and associate professor of computer science at Utah State University from 2001–2006.Until his retirement in late 2010 he was a professor at Xiamen University, where he taught theoretical physics and computer science, and ran the Artificial Brain Lab." ], [ "Evolvable hardware", "From 1993 to 2000 de Garis participated in a research project at ATR's Human Information Processing Research Laboratories (ATR-HIP) which aimed to create a billion-neuron artificial brain by the year 2001.The project was known as \"cellular automata machine brain,\" or \"CAM-Brain.\"", "During this 8-year span he and his fellow researchers published a series of papers in which they discussed the use of genetic algorithms to evolve neural structures inside 3D cellular automata.", "They argued that existing neural models had failed to produce intelligent behaviour because they were too small, and that in order to create \"artificial brains\" it was necessary to manually assemble tens of thousands of evolved neural modules together, with the billion neuron \"CAM-Brain\" requiring around 10 million modules; this idea was rejected by Igor Aleksander, who said \"The point is that these puzzles are not puzzles because our neural models are not large enough.", "\"Though it was initially envisaged that these cellular automata would run on special computers, such as MIT's \"Cellular Automata Machine-8\" (CAM-8), by 1996 it was realised that the model originally proposed, which required cellular automata with thousands of states, was too complex to be realised in hardware.", "The design was considerably simplified, and in 1997 the \"collect and distribute 1 bit\" (\"CoDi-1Bit\") model was published, and work began on a hardware implementation using Xilinx XC6264 FPGAs.", "This was to be known as the \"CAM Brain Machine\" (CBM).The researchers evolved cellular automata for several tasks (using software simulation, not hardware):* Reproducing the XOR function.", "* Generating a bitstream that alternates between 0 and 1 three times (i.e.", "000..111..000..).", "* Generated a bitstream where the output alternates, but can be changed from a majority of 1s to a majority of 0s by toggling an input.", "* Discriminating between two square wave inputs with a different period.", "* Discriminating between horizontal lines (input on a 2D grid) and random noise.Ultimately the project failed to produce a functional robot control system, and ATR terminated it along with the closure of ATR-HIP in February 2001.The original aim of de Garis' work was to establish the field of \"brain building\" (a term of his invention) and to \"create a trillion dollar industry within 20 years\".", "Throughout the 90s his papers claimed that by 2001 the ATR \"Robokoneko\" (translation: kitten robot) project would develop a billion-neuron \"cellular automata machine brain\" (CAM-brain), with \"computational power equivalent to 10,000 pentiums\" that could simulate the brain of a real cat.", "de Garis received a US$0.4 million \"fat brain building grant\" to develop this.", "The first \"CAM-brain\" was delivered to ATR in 1999.After receiving a further US$1 million grant at Starlab de Garis failed to deliver a working \"brain\" before Starlab's bankruptcy.", "At USU de Garis announced he was establishing a \"brain builder\" group to create a second generation \"CAM-brain\"." ], [ "Past research", "de Garis published his last \"CAM-Brain\" research paper in 2002.He still works on evolvable hardware.", "Using a Celoxica FPGA board he says he can create up to 50,000 neural network modules for less than $3000.Since 2002 he has co-authored several papers on evolutionary algorithms.He believes that topological quantum computing is about to revolutionize computer science, and hopes that his teaching will help his students to understand its principles.In 2008 de Garis received a 3 million Chinese yuan grant (around $436,000) to build an artificial brain for China (the ''China-Brain Project''), as part of the ''Brain Builder Group'' at Wuhan University.Hugo de Garis retired in 2010.Before that he was director of the artificial brains lab at Xiamen University in China.", "In 2013 he was studying Maths and Physics at PhD level and over the next 20 years plans to publish 500 graduate level free lecture videos.", "This is called \"degarisMPC\" and some lectures are already available." ], [ "Employment history", "de Garis's original work on \"CAM-brain\" machines was part of an 8-year research project, from 1993 to 2000, at the ATR Human Information Processing Research Laboratories (ATR-HIP) in Kyoto Prefecture, Japan.", "de Garis left in 2000, and ATR-HIP was closed on 28 February 2001.de Garis then moved to Starlab in Brussels, where he received a million dollars in funding from the government of Belgium (\"over a third of the Brussels government's total budget for scientific research\", according to de Garis).", "Starlab went bankrupt in June 2001.A few months later de Garis was employed as an associate professor at the computer science department of Utah State University.", "In May 2006 he became a professor at Wuhan University's international school of software, teaching graduate level pure mathematics, theoretical physics and computer science.Since June 2006 he has been a member of the advisory board of Novamente, a commercial company which aims to create artificial general intelligence.==The Artilect War==Hugo De Garis believes that a major war before the end of the 21st century, resulting in billions of deaths, is almost inevitable.", "Intelligent machines (or \"artilects\", a shortened form of \"artificial intellects\") will be far more intelligent than humans and will threaten to attain world domination, resulting in a conflict between \"Cosmists\", who support the artilects, and \"Terrans\", who oppose them (both of these are terms of his invention).", "He describes this conflict as a \"gigadeath\" war, reinforcing the point that billions of people will be killed.", "This scenario has been criticised by other AI researchers, including Chris Malcolm, who described it as \"entertaining science fiction horror stories which happen to have caught the attention of the popular media\".", "Kevin Warwick called it a \"hellish nightmare, as portrayed in films such as the Terminator\".In 2005, de Garis published a book describing his views on this topic entitled ''The Artilect War: Cosmists vs. Terrans: A Bitter Controversy Concerning Whether Humanity Should Build Godlike Massively Intelligent Machines''.", "'''''Cosmism''''' is a moral philosophy that favours building or growing strong artificial intelligence and ultimately leaving Earth to the Terrans, who oppose this path for humanity.", "The first half of the book describes technologies which he believes will make it possible for computers to be billions or trillions of times more intelligent than humans.", "He predicts that as artificial intelligence improves and becomes progressively more human-like, differing views will begin to emerge regarding how far such research should be allowed to proceed.", "Cosmists will foresee the massive, truly astronomical potential of substrate-independent cognition, and will therefore advocate unlimited growth in the designated fields, in the hopes that \"super intelligent\" machines might one day colonise the universe.", "It is this \"cosmic\" view of history, in which the fate of one single species, on one single planet, is seen as insignificant next to the fate of the known universe, that gives the Cosmists their name.", "Hugo identifies with that group and noted that it \"would be a cosmic tragedy if humanity freezes evolution at the puny human level\".", "'''''Terrans''''', on the other hand, will have a more \"terrestrial\" Earth-centred view, in which the fate of the Earth and its species (like humanity) are seen as being all-important.", "To Terrans, a future without humans is to be avoided at all costs, as it would represent ''the'' worst-case scenario.", "As such, Terrans will find themselves unable to ignore the possibility that super intelligent machines might one day cause the destruction of the human race—being very immensely intelligent and so cosmically inclined, these artilect machines may have no more moral or ethical difficulty in exterminating humanity than humans do in using medicines to cure diseases.", "So, Terrans will see themselves as living during the closing of a window of opportunity, to disable future artilects before they are built, after which humans will no longer have a say in the affairs of intelligent machines.It is these two extreme ideologies which de Garis believes may herald a new world war, wherein one group with a \"grand plan\" (the Cosmists) will be rabidly opposed by another which feels itself to be under deadly threat from that plan (the Terrans).", "The factions, he predicts, may eventually war to the death because of this, as the Terrans will come to view the Cosmists as \"arch-monsters\" when they begin seriously discussing acceptable risks, and the probabilities of large percentages of Earth-based life going extinct.", "In response to this, the Cosmists will come to view the Terrans as being reactionary extremists, and will stop treating them and their ideas seriously, further aggravating the situation, possibly beyond reconciliation.Throughout his book, de Garis states that he is ambivalent about which viewpoint he ultimately supports, and attempts to make convincing cases for both sides.", "He elaborates towards the end of the book that the more he thinks about it, the more he feels like a Cosmist, because he feels that despite the horrible possibility that humanity might ultimately be destroyed, perhaps inadvertently or at least indifferently, by the artilects, he cannot ignore the fact that the human species is just another link in the evolutionary chain, and must become extinct in their current form anyway, whereas the artilects could very well be the ''next'' link in that chain and therefore would be excellent candidates to carry the torch of science and exploration forward into the rest of the universe.He relates a morally isomorphic scenario in which extraterrestrial intelligences visit the earth three billion years ago and discover two domains of life living there, one domain which is ''older'' but ''simpler'' and contemporarily dominant, but which upon closer study appears to be incapable of much further evolutionary development; and one ''younger'' domain which is struggling to survive, but which upon further study displays the potential to evolve into all the varieties of life existing on the Earth today, including humanity, and then queries the reader as to whether they would feel ethically compelled to destroy the dominant domain of life to ensure the survival of the younger one, or to destroy the younger one in order to ensure the survival of the older and more populous domain which was \"there first\".", "He states that he believes that, like himself, most of the public would feel torn or at least ambivalent about the outcome of artilects at first, but that as the technology advances, the issue would be forced and most would feel compelled to choose a side, and that as such the public consciousness of the coming issue should be raised now so that society can ''choose'', hopefully before the factions becomes irreconcilably polarised, which outcome it prefers.He also predicts a third group that will emerge between the two.", "He refers to this third party as '''''Cyborgians''''' or ''Cyborgs'', because they will not be opposed to artilects as such, but desire to become artilects themselves by adding components to their own human brains, rather than falling into obsolescence.", "They will seek to become artilects by gradually merging themselves with machines and think that the dichotomy between the Cosmists and Terrans can be avoided because all human beings would become artilects.The transhumanist movement are usually identified as Cyborgians.His concept of the Cyborgians might have stemmed from a conversation with Kevin Warwick: in 2000, de Garis noted, \"Just out of curiosity, I asked Kevin Warwick whether he was a Terran or a Cosmist.", "He said he was against the idea of artilects being built (i.e., he is Terran).", "I was surprised, and felt a shiver go up my spine.", "That moment reminded me of a biography of Lenin that I had read in my 20s in which the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks first started debating the future government of Russia.", "What began as an intellectual difference ended up as a Russian Civil War after 1917 between the white and the red Russians\"." ], [ "Quotes", "* \"Humans should not stand in the way of a higher form of evolution.", "These machines are godlike.", "It is human destiny to create them.", "\"— as quoted in ''New York Times Magazine'' of 1 August 1999, speaking of the 'artilects' of the future.", "* \"I believe that the ideological disagreements between these two groups on this issue will be so strong, that a major \"artilect\" war, killing billions of people, will be almost inevitable before the end of the 21st century.", "\"— speaking in 2005 of the Cosmist/Terran conflict.", "* \"Twenty years from now, the author envisages the brain builder industry as being one of the world's top industries, comparable with oil, automobile, and construction.", "\"— prediction made in 1996." ], [ "Writings", "* * *" ], [ "Misogyny and anti-semitism", "In recent years, De Garis has become vocal in the Masculist and Men Going Their Own Way (MGTOW) movements.", "He is a believer in anti-semitic conspiracy theories and has written (and presented on YouTube) a series of essays on the subject.", "Because of the danger of generalized anti-semitism (as manifested in Nazi Germany from 1932 to 1945), de Garis is not opposed to \"all Jews,\" just those whom he denotes as \"massively evil\" (ME) or \"ME Jews,\" which he claims are \"a small subset of overall Jews who have sought totalitarian power,\" much as the Nazis were a small subset of \"overall Germans who had attained totalitarian power,\" and one does not properly call \"anti-Nazi conspiracy theorists\" by the name \"anti-German conspiracy theorists.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Artificial brain" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* De Garis is on the editorial board of Engineering Letters* * Notes from de Garis' presentation to the artificial general intelligence research institute* Man vs. Machine – Article from Utah local newspaper* Building Gods – Rough cut of a documentary which details, amongst other things, the personal beliefs of Hugo de Garis and Kevin Warwick on the possibilities of artificial life* Human v 2.0 – Programme from the BBC Horizon series featuring discussion between Ray Kurzweil and Hugo de Garis* Cosmism and brainbuilding – Article by de Garis* Interview* Interview from 2007 at Machines Like Us* Interview with H+ Magazine" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "HTTPS" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure''' ('''HTTPS''') is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).", "It uses encryption for secure communication over a computer network, and is widely used on the Internet.", "In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS) or, formerly, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL).", "The protocol is therefore also referred to as '''HTTP over TLS''', or '''HTTP over SSL'''.The principal motivations for HTTPS are authentication of the accessed website and protection of the privacy and integrity of the exchanged data while it is in transit.", "It protects against man-in-the-middle attacks, and the bidirectional block cipher encryption of communications between a client and server protects the communications against eavesdropping and tampering.", "The authentication aspect of HTTPS requires a trusted third party to sign server-side digital certificates.", "This was historically an expensive operation, which meant fully authenticated HTTPS connections were usually found only on secured payment transaction services and other secured corporate information systems on the World Wide Web.", "In 2016, a campaign by the Electronic Frontier Foundation with the support of web browser developers led to the protocol becoming more prevalent.", "HTTPS is now used more often by web users than the original, non-secure HTTP, primarily to protect page authenticity on all types of websites, secure accounts, and keep user communications, identity, and web browsing private." ], [ "Overview", "URL beginning with the HTTPS scheme and the WWW domain name labelThe Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) scheme ''HTTPS'' has identical usage syntax to the HTTP scheme.", "However, HTTPS signals the browser to use an added encryption layer of SSL/TLS to protect the traffic.", "SSL/TLS is especially suited for HTTP, since it can provide some protection even if only one side of the communication is authenticated.", "This is the case with HTTP transactions over the Internet, where typically only the server is authenticated (by the client examining the server's certificate).HTTPS creates a secure channel over an insecure network.", "This ensures reasonable protection from eavesdroppers and man-in-the-middle attacks, provided that adequate cipher suites are used and that the server certificate is verified and trusted.Because HTTPS piggybacks HTTP entirely on top of TLS, the entirety of the underlying HTTP protocol can be encrypted.", "This includes the request's URL, query parameters, headers, and cookies (which often contain identifying information about the user).", "However, because website addresses and port numbers are necessarily part of the underlying TCP/IP protocols, HTTPS cannot protect their disclosure.", "In practice this means that even on a correctly configured web server, eavesdroppers can infer the IP address and port number of the web server, and sometimes even the domain name (e.g.", "www.example.org, but not the rest of the URL) that a user is communicating with, along with the amount of data transferred and the duration of the communication, though not the content of the communication.Web browsers know how to trust HTTPS websites based on certificate authorities that come pre-installed in their software.", "Certificate authorities are in this way being trusted by web browser creators to provide valid certificates.", "Therefore, a user should trust an HTTPS connection to a website if and only if all of the following are true:* The user trusts that their device, hosting the browser and the method to get the browser itself, is not compromised (i.e.", "there is no supply chain attack).", "* The user trusts that the browser software correctly implements HTTPS with correctly pre-installed certificate authorities.", "* The user trusts the certificate authority to vouch only for legitimate websites (i.e.", "the certificate authority is not compromised and there is no mis-issuance of certificates).", "* The website provides a valid certificate, which means it was signed by a trusted authority.", "* The certificate correctly identifies the website (e.g., when the browser visits \"https://example.com\", the received certificate is properly for \"example.com\" and not some other entity).", "* The user trusts that the protocol's encryption layer (SSL/TLS) is sufficiently secure against eavesdroppers.HTTPS is especially important over insecure networks and networks that may be subject to tampering.", "Insecure networks, such as public Wi-Fi access points, allow anyone on the same local network to packet-sniff and discover sensitive information not protected by HTTPS.", "Additionally, some free-to-use and paid WLAN networks have been observed tampering with webpages by engaging in packet injection in order to serve their own ads on other websites.", "This practice can be exploited maliciously in many ways, such as by injecting malware onto webpages and stealing users' private information.HTTPS is also important for connections over the Tor network, as malicious Tor nodes could otherwise damage or alter the contents passing through them in an insecure fashion and inject malware into the connection.", "This is one reason why the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Tor Project started the development of HTTPS Everywhere, which is included in Tor Browser.As more information is revealed about global mass surveillance and criminals stealing personal information, the use of HTTPS security on all websites is becoming increasingly important regardless of the type of Internet connection being used.", "Even though metadata about individual pages that a user visits might not be considered sensitive, when aggregated it can reveal a lot about the user and compromise the user's privacy.Deploying HTTPS also allows the use of HTTP/2 and HTTP/3 (and their predecessors SPDY and QUIC), which are new HTTP versions designed to reduce page load times, size, and latency.It is recommended to use HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS) with HTTPS to protect users from man-in-the-middle attacks, especially SSL stripping.HTTPS should not be confused with the seldom-used Secure HTTP (S-HTTP) specified in RFC 2660.===Usage in websites===, 33.2% of Alexa top 1,000,000 websites use HTTPS as default and 70% of page loads (measured by Firefox Telemetry) use HTTPS.", ", 58.4% of the Internet's 135,422 most popular websites have a secure implementation of HTTPS, However, despite TLS 1.3's release in 2018, adoption has been slow, with many still remain on the older TLS 1.2 protocol.===Browser integration===Most browsers display a warning if they receive an invalid certificate.", "Older browsers, when connecting to a site with an invalid certificate, would present the user with a dialog box asking whether they wanted to continue.", "Newer browsers display a warning across the entire window.", "Newer browsers also prominently display the site's security information in the address bar.", "Extended validation certificates show the legal entity on the certificate information.", "Most browsers also display a warning to the user when visiting a site that contains a mixture of encrypted and unencrypted content.", "Additionally, many web filters return a security warning when visiting prohibited websites.The Electronic Frontier Foundation, opining that \"In an ideal world, every web request could be defaulted to HTTPS\", has provided an add-on called HTTPS Everywhere for Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Chromium, and Android, which enables HTTPS by default for hundreds of frequently used websites.Forcing a web browser to load only HTTPS content has been supported in Firefox starting in version 83.Starting in version 94, Google Chrome is able to \"always use secure connections\" if toggled in the browser's settings." ], [ "Security", "The security of HTTPS is that of the underlying TLS, which typically uses long-term public and private keys to generate a short-term session key, which is then used to encrypt the data flow between the client and the server.", "X.509 certificates are used to authenticate the server (and sometimes the client as well).", "As a consequence, certificate authorities and public key certificates are necessary to verify the relation between the certificate and its owner, as well as to generate, sign, and administer the validity of certificates.", "While this can be more beneficial than verifying the identities via a web of trust, the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures drew attention to certificate authorities as a potential weak point allowing man-in-the-middle attacks.", "An important property in this context is forward secrecy, which ensures that encrypted communications recorded in the past cannot be retrieved and decrypted should long-term secret keys or passwords be compromised in the future.", "Not all web servers provide forward secrecy.For HTTPS to be effective, a site must be completely hosted over HTTPS.", "If some of the site's contents are loaded over HTTP (scripts or images, for example), or if only a certain page that contains sensitive information, such as a log-in page, is loaded over HTTPS while the rest of the site is loaded over plain HTTP, the user will be vulnerable to attacks and surveillance.", "Additionally, cookies on a site served through HTTPS must have the secure attribute enabled.", "On a site that has sensitive information on it, the user and the session will get exposed every time that site is accessed with HTTP instead of HTTPS." ], [ "Technical", "===Difference from HTTP===HTTPS URLs begin with \"https://\" and use port 443 by default, whereas, HTTP URLs begin with \"http://\" and use port 80 by default.HTTP is not encrypted and thus is vulnerable to man-in-the-middle and eavesdropping attacks, which can let attackers gain access to website accounts and sensitive information, and modify webpages to inject malware or advertisements.", "HTTPS is designed to withstand such attacks and is considered secure against them (with the exception of HTTPS implementations that use deprecated versions of SSL).===Network layers===HTTP operates at the highest layer of the TCP/IP model—the application layer; as does the TLS security protocol (operating as a lower sublayer of the same layer), which encrypts an HTTP message prior to transmission and decrypts a message upon arrival.", "Strictly speaking, HTTPS is not a separate protocol, but refers to the use of ordinary HTTP over an encrypted SSL/TLS connection.HTTPS encrypts all message contents, including the HTTP headers and the request/response data.", "With the exception of the possible CCA cryptographic attack described in the limitations section below, an attacker should at most be able to discover that a connection is taking place between two parties, along with their domain names and IP addresses.===Server setup===To prepare a web server to accept HTTPS connections, the administrator must create a public key certificate for the web server.", "This certificate must be signed by a trusted certificate authority for the web browser to accept it without warning.", "The authority certifies that the certificate holder is the operator of the web server that presents it.", "Web browsers are generally distributed with a list of signing certificates of major certificate authorities so that they can verify certificates signed by them.====Acquiring certificates====A number of commercial certificate authorities exist, offering paid-for SSL/TLS certificates of a number of types, including Extended Validation Certificates.Let's Encrypt, launched in April 2016, provides free and automated service that delivers basic SSL/TLS certificates to websites.", "According to the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Let's Encrypt will make switching from HTTP to HTTPS \"as easy as issuing one command, or clicking one button.\"", "The majority of web hosts and cloud providers now leverage Let's Encrypt, providing free certificates to their customers.====Use as access control====The system can also be used for client authentication in order to limit access to a web server to authorized users.", "To do this, the site administrator typically creates a certificate for each user, which the user loads into their browser.", "Normally, the certificate contains the name and e-mail address of the authorized user and is automatically checked by the server on each connection to verify the user's identity, potentially without even requiring a password.====In case of compromised secret (private) key====An important property in this context is perfect forward secrecy (PFS).", "Possessing one of the long-term asymmetric secret keys used to establish an HTTPS session should not make it easier to derive the short-term session key to then decrypt the conversation, even at a later time.", "Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DHE) and Elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange (ECDHE) are in 2013 the only schemes known to have that property.", "In 2013, only 30% of Firefox, Opera, and Chromium Browser sessions used it, and nearly 0% of Apple's Safari and Microsoft Internet Explorer sessions.", "TLS 1.3, published in August 2018, dropped support for ciphers without forward secrecy.", ", 96.6% of web servers surveyed support some form of forward secrecy, and 52.1% will use forward secrecy with most browsers.", ", 99.6% of web servers surveyed support some form of forward secrecy, and 75.2% will use forward secrecy with most browsers.=====Certificate revocation=====A certificate may be revoked before it expires, for example because the secrecy of the private key has been compromised.", "Newer versions of popular browsers such as Firefox, Opera, and Internet Explorer on Windows Vista implement the Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) to verify that this is not the case.", "The browser sends the certificate's serial number to the certificate authority or its delegate via OCSP (Online Certificate Status Protocol) and the authority responds, telling the browser whether the certificate is still valid or not.", "The CA may also issue a CRL to tell people that these certificates are revoked.", "CRLs are no longer required by the CA/Browser forum, nevertheless, they are still widely used by the CAs.", "Most revocation statuses on the Internet disappear soon after the expiration of the certificates.===Limitations===SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security) encryption can be configured in two modes: ''simple'' and ''mutual''.", "In simple mode, authentication is only performed by the server.", "The mutual version requires the user to install a personal client certificate in the web browser for user authentication.", "In either case, the level of protection depends on the correctness of the implementation of the software and the cryptographic algorithms in use.SSL/TLS does not prevent the indexing of the site by a web crawler, and in some cases the URI of the encrypted resource can be inferred by knowing only the intercepted request/response size.", "This allows an attacker to have access to the plaintext (the publicly available static content), and the encrypted text (the encrypted version of the static content), permitting a cryptographic attack.Because TLS operates at a protocol level below that of HTTP and has no knowledge of the higher-level protocols, TLS servers can only strictly present one certificate for a particular address and port combination.", "In the past, this meant that it was not feasible to use name-based virtual hosting with HTTPS.", "A solution called Server Name Indication (SNI) exists, which sends the hostname to the server before encrypting the connection, although many old browsers do not support this extension.", "Support for SNI is available since Firefox 2, Opera 8, Apple Safari 2.1, Google Chrome 6, and Internet Explorer 7 on Windows Vista.From an architectural point of view:* An SSL/TLS connection is managed by the first front machine that initiates the TLS connection.", "If, for any reasons (routing, traffic optimization, etc.", "), this front machine is not the application server and it has to decipher data, solutions have to be found to propagate user authentication information or certificate to the application server, which needs to know who is going to be connected.", "* For SSL/TLS with mutual authentication, the SSL/TLS session is managed by the first server that initiates the connection.", "In situations where encryption has to be propagated along chained servers, session timeout management becomes extremely tricky to implement.", "* Security is maximal with mutual SSL/TLS, but on the client-side there is no way to properly end the SSL/TLS connection and disconnect the user except by waiting for the server session to expire or by closing all related client applications.A sophisticated type of man-in-the-middle attack called SSL stripping was presented at the 2009 Blackhat Conference.", "This type of attack defeats the security provided by HTTPS by changing the link into an link, taking advantage of the fact that few Internet users actually type \"https\" into their browser interface: they get to a secure site by clicking on a link, and thus are fooled into thinking that they are using HTTPS when in fact they are using HTTP.", "The attacker then communicates in clear with the client.", "This prompted the development of a countermeasure in HTTP called HTTP Strict Transport Security.HTTPS has been shown to be vulnerable to a range of traffic analysis attacks.", "Traffic analysis attacks are a type of side-channel attack that relies on variations in the timing and size of traffic in order to infer properties about the encrypted traffic itself.", "Traffic analysis is possible because SSL/TLS encryption changes the contents of traffic, but has minimal impact on the size and timing of traffic.", "In May 2010, a research paper by researchers from Microsoft Research and Indiana University discovered that detailed sensitive user data can be inferred from side channels such as packet sizes.", "The researchers found that, despite HTTPS protection in several high-profile, top-of-the-line web applications in healthcare, taxation, investment, and web search, an eavesdropper could infer the illnesses/medications/surgeries of the user, his/her family income, and investment secrets.", "Although this work demonstrated the vulnerability of HTTPS to traffic analysis, the approach presented by the authors required manual analysis and focused specifically on web applications protected by HTTPS.The fact that most modern websites, including Google, Yahoo!, and Amazon, use HTTPS causes problems for many users trying to access public Wi-Fi hot spots, because a Wi-Fi hot spot login page fails to load if the user tries to open an HTTPS resource.", "Several websites, such as neverssl.com, guarantee that they will always remain accessible by HTTP." ], [ "History", "Netscape Communications created HTTPS in 1994 for its Netscape Navigator web browser.", "Originally, HTTPS was used with the SSL protocol.", "As SSL evolved into Transport Layer Security (TLS), HTTPS was formally specified by RFC 2818 in May 2000.Google announced in February 2018 that its Chrome browser would mark HTTP sites as \"Not Secure\" after July 2018.This move was to encourage website owners to implement HTTPS, as an effort to make the World Wide Web more secure." ], [ "See also", "* Transport Layer Security* Bullrun (decryption program) a secret anti-encryption program run by the US National Security Agency* Computer security* HSTS* Opportunistic encryption* Stunnel" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.3" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", "The ''' history of Egypt''' has been long and wealthy, due to the flow of the Nile River with its fertile banks and delta, as well as the accomplishments of Egypt's native inhabitants and outside influence.", "Much of Egypt's ancient history was a mystery until Egyptian hieroglyphs were deciphered with the discovery and deciphering of the Rosetta Stone.", "Among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is the Great Pyramid of Giza.Ancient Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first king of the First Dynasty, Narmer.", "Predominantly native Egyptian rule lasted until the conquest by the Achaemenid Empire in the sixth century BC.In 332 BC, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered Egypt as he toppled the Achaemenids and established the short-lived Macedonian Empire, which gave rise to the Hellenistic Ptolemaic Kingdom, founded in 305 BC by one of Alexander's former generals, Ptolemy I Soter.", "The Ptolemies had to fight native rebellions and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its final annexation by Rome.", "The death of Cleopatra ended the nominal independence of Egypt, resulting in Egypt's becoming one of the provinces of the Roman Empire.Roman rule in Egypt (including Byzantine) lasted from 30 BC to 641 AD, with a brief interlude of control by the Sasanian Empire between 619 and 629, known as Sasanian Egypt.", "After the Muslim conquest of Egypt, parts of Egypt became provinces of successive Caliphates and other Muslim dynasties: Rashidun Caliphate (632-661), Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Abbasid Caliphate (750–935), Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), Ayyubid Sultanate (1171–1260), and the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517).", "In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo, absorbing Egypt into the Ottoman Empire.Egypt remained entirely Ottoman until 1805, except during French occupation from 1798 to 1801.Starting in 1867, Egypt became a nominally autonomous tributary state called the Khedivate of Egypt.", "However, Khedivate Egypt fell under British control in 1882 following the Anglo-Egyptian War.", "After the end of World War I and following the Egyptian revolution of 1919, the Kingdom of Egypt was established.", "While a ''de jure'' independent state, the United Kingdom retained control over foreign affairs, defense, and other matters.", "British occupation lasted until 1954, with the Anglo-Egyptian agreement of 1954.The modern Republic of Egypt was founded in 1953, and with the complete withdrawal of British forces from the Suez Canal in 1956, President Gamal Abdel Nasser (president from 1956 to 1970) introduced many reforms and created the short-lived United Arab Republic (with Syria).", "His terms also saw the Six-Day War and the creation of the international Non-Aligned Movement.", "His successor, Anwar Sadat (president from 1970 to 1981) changed Egypt's trajectory, departing from many of the political, and economic tenets of Nasserism, re-instituting a multi-party system and launching the Infitah economic policy.", "He led Egypt in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 to regain Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, which Israel had occupied since the Six-Day War of 1967.This later led to the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.Recent Egyptian history has been dominated by events following nearly thirty years of rule by the former president Hosni Mubarak.", "The Egyptian revolution of 2011 deposed Mubarak and resulted in the first democratically elected president in Egyptian history, Mohamed Morsi.", "Unrest after the 2011 revolution and related disputes led to the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, Morsi's imprisonment and the election of Abdel Fattah al-Sisi as president in 2014." ], [ "Predynastic Egypt (pre-3150 BC)", "Badarian ivory figurine, a Naqada II jar, a Bat figurine.", "Second row: a diorite vase, a flint knife, a cosmetic palette.There is evidence of petroglyphs along the Nile terraces and in desert oases.", "In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishermen was replaced by a grain-grinding culture.", "Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara.", "Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.By about 6000 BC, a Neolithic culture had taken root in the Nile Valley.", "During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt.", "The Badari culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to dynastic Egypt.", "The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimde, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years.", "Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade.", "The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC." ], [ "Dynastic Egypt (3150–332 BC)", "=== Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom ===A unified kingdom was formed in 3150 BC by King Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia.", "Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs.Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old Kingdom.The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period (c. 2700–2200 BC), which constructed many pyramids, most notably the pyramid of Djoser, constructed during the Third Dynasty and the Giza Pyramids, constructed in the Fourth Dynasty.=== First Intermediate Period, the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period ===The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.", "Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III.", "A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic-speaking Hyksos.", "The Hyksos migrants took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris.", "They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.=== New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period and Late Period ===New Kingdom in the 15th century BCThe New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire from Syria to Upper Nubia.", "This period is noted for some of the most well known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II.", "The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period as Atenism, although some consider Atenism to be a form of monolatry rather than of monotheism.", "Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom.", "The country was later ruled and invaded by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.=== Achaemenid rule ===Egyptian soldier of the Achaemenid army, .", "Xerxes I tomb relief.In the sixth century BC, the Achaemenid Empire conquered Egypt.", "The entire Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt, from 525 BC to 402 BC, save for Petubastis III and possibly Psammetichus IV, was an entirely Persian-ruled period, with the Achaemenid kings being granted the title of pharaoh.", "Amyrtaeus' successful rebellion ended the first Achaemenid rule and inaugurated Egypt's last significant phase of independence under native rulers.", "The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch.", "It fell to the Persians again in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle.=== Second Achaemenid conquest ===The Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the Second Egyptian Satrapy, was effectively a short-living province of the Achaemenid Empire between 343 BC to 332 BC.", "After an interval of independence, during which three indigenous dynasties reigned (the 28th, 29th and 30th dynasty), Artaxerxes III (358–338 BC) reconquered the Nile valley for a brief second period (343–332 BC), which is called the Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, thus starting another period of pharaohs of Persian origin.A team led by Johannes Krause managed the first reliable sequencing of the genomes of 90 mummified individuals in 2017.Whilst not conclusive, because of the non-exhaustive time frame and restricted location that the mummies represent, their study nevertheless showed that these Ancient Egyptians \"closely resembled ancient and modern Near Eastern populations, especially those in the Levant, and had almost no DNA from sub-Saharan Africa.", "What's more, the genetics of the mummies remained remarkably consistent even as different powers—including Nubians, Greeks, and Romans—conquered the empire\"." ], [ "Greek rule", "===Ptolemaic Kingdom===Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra and her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion, at the Dendera Temple complex.Ptolemaic Egypt .", "The green areas were lost to the Seleucid Empire thirty five years later.The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia.", "Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture and trade.", "To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs.", "The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.The last ruler from the Ptolemaic dynasty was Cleopatra, who committed suicide following the burial of her lover Mark Antony, who had died in her arms (from a self-inflicted stab wound) after Augustus had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled.The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians, often caused by an unwanted regime, and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome.", "Nevertheless, Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest.", "The native Egyptian/Coptic culture continued to exist as well (the Coptic language itself was Egypt's most widely spoken language until at least the 10th century)." ], [ "Roman Egypt", "===Roman province of Egypt===Egypt quickly became the Empire's breadbasket supplying the greater portion of the Empire's grain in addition to flax, papyrus, glass and many other finished goods.", "The city of Alexandria became a key trading outpost for the Roman Empire (by some accounts, the most important for a time).", "Shipping from Egypt regularly reached India and Ethiopia among other international destinations.", "It was also a leading (perhaps ''the'' leading) scientific and technological center of the Empire.", "Scholars such as Ptolemy, Hypatia, and Heron broke new ground in astronomy, mathematics, and other disciplines.", "Culturally, the city of Alexandria at times rivaled Rome in its importance.=== Diocese of Egypt ===The Hanging Church of Cairo, first built in the 3rd or 4th century, is one of the most famous Coptic Orthodox churches in Egypt.Christianity reached Egypt relatively early in the evangelist period of the first century (traditionally credited to Mark the Evangelist).", "Alexandria, Egypt and Antioch, Syria quickly became the leading centers of Christianity.", "Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the classical Roman to the Late antique/Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted.", "The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian.", "After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.=== Sassanid Conquest of Egypt ===Sasanian Egypt (known in Middle Persian sources as ''Agiptus'') refers to the brief rule of Egypt and parts of Libya by the Sasanian Empire, which lasted from 619 to 629, until the Sasanian rebel Shahrbaraz made an alliance with the Byzantine emperor Heraclius and had control over Egypt returned to him." ], [ "Early Islamic Egypt", "Extent of the Tulunid domains under Khumarawayh, in 893The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persian invasion early in the 7th century, until 639–642, when Egypt was invaded and conquered by the Arab Islamic Empire.", "The final loss of Egypt was of incalculable significance to the Byzantine Empire, which had relied on Egypt for many agricultural and manufactured goods.When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought Sunni Islam to the country.", "Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with their Christian traditions as well as other indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day.", "These earlier rites had survived the period of Coptic Christianity." ], [ "Late Medieval Egypt", "The Al-Azhar Mosque, of medieval Fatimid Cairo.|227x227pxMuslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids.", "With the end of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about AD 1250.By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.", "The Greek and Coptic languages and cultures went into a steep decline in favor of Arabic culture (though Coptic managed to last as a spoken language until the 17th century and remains a liturgical language today).The Mamluks continued to govern the country until the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire.", "The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 40% of the population of Egypt." ], [ "Ottoman Egypt", "Selim I (1470–1520), conquered EgyptAfter the 15th century, the Ottoman invasion pushed the Egyptian system into decline.", "The defensive militarization damaged its civil society and economic institutions.", "The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of the plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion.", "Portuguese traders took over their trade.", "Egypt suffered six famines between 1687 and 1731.The 1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.The brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte began in 1798.The campaign eventually led to the discovery of the Rosetta Stone, creating the field of Egyptology.", "Despite early victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, Napoleon and his Armée d'Orient were eventually defeated and forced to withdraw, especially after suffering the defeat of the supporting French fleet at the Battle of the Nile." ], [ "Muhammed Ali Dynasty", "Map of Egypt under Muhammad Ali dynastyThe expulsion of the French in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and Albanians — who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans – wrestled for power.", "Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the Sultan in Istanbul as his viceroy in Egypt; the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952.After 1882 the dynasty became a British puppet.Muhammad Ali's primary focus was military: he annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans.", "He kept the Sudan and his title to Egypt was made hereditary.", "A more lasting result of his military ambition is that it required him to modernize the country.", "Eager to adopt the military (and therefore industrial) techniques of the great powers, he sent students to the West and invited training missions to Egypt.", "He built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton, the Egyptian variety of which became notable, transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century.", "The social effects of this were enormous: land ownership became concentrated and many foreigners arrived, shifting production towards international markets." ], [ "British Protectorate (1882–1952)", "Nationalists demonstrating in Cairo, 1919British indirect rule lasted from 1882, when the British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at Tel el-Kebir in September and took control of the country, to the 1952 Egyptian revolution which made Egypt a republic and when British advisers were expelled.Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863).Abbas I was cautious.", "Said and Ismail were ambitious developers, but they spent beyond their means.", "The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869.The cost of this and other projects had two effects: it led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it required.", "In 1875, Ismail sold Egypt's 44% share in the canal to the British Government.Ismail also tried to conquer the Ethiopian Empire and was defeated twice at Gundet in 1875 and again at the Battle of Gura in 1876.Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, \"with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government.", "\"Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent figure.", "In 1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministry committed to democratic reforms including parliamentary control of the budget.", "Fearing a reduction of their control, Britain and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel el-Kebir.", "They reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as the figurehead of a ''de facto'' British protectorate.In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the Ottoman Empire no longer had a role.", "The title for the head of state, which in 1867 had changed from ''pasha'' to ''khedive'', was changed again to ''sultan''.", "Abbas II was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, Hussein Kamel, as sultan.In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement.", "After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly.", "When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution.", "The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922.The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system.", "Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924.In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded.", "Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing political involvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a military ''coup d'état'' known as the 1952 Revolution.", "The Free Officers Movement forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954." ], [ "Republican Egypt (since 1953)", "On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic.", "Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasserthe real architect of the 1952 movementand was later put under house arrest.=== Nasser era ===228x228pxNasser assumed power as president in June 1956.British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956.He nationalized the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the 1956 Suez Crisis.In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the United Arab Republic.", "The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded, thus ending the union.", "During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose confederation with North Yemen (the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen) known as the United Arab States.In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel invaded and occupied Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt had occupied since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.", "Three years later (1970), President Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat.=== Sadat era ===Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords: Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, Anwar Al Sadat.Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972.He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition.In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.", "It was an attempt to regain part of the Sinai territory that Israel had captured six years earlier.", "Sadat hoped to seize some territory through military force, and then regain the rest of the peninsula by diplomacy.", "The conflict sparked an international crisis between the US and the USSR, both of whom intervened.", "The second UN-mandated ceasefire halted military action.", "While the war ended with a military stalemate, it presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return for peace with Israel.Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai.", "Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.", "On 6 October 1981, Sadat and six diplomats were assassinated while observing a military parade commemorating the eighth anniversary of the October 1973 War.", "He was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak.=== Terrorist insurgency ===In 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Copts and foreign tourists as well as government officials.", "Some scholars and authors have credited Islamist writer Sayyid Qutb, who was executed in 1967, as the inspiration for the new wave of attacks.The 1990s saw an Islamist group, al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engage in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners.", "Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.Victims of the campaign against the Egyptian state from 1992 to 1997 exceeded 1,200 and included the head of the counter-terrorism police (Major General Raouf Khayrat), a speaker of parliament (Rifaat el-Mahgoub), dozens of European tourists and Egyptian bystanders, and over 100 Egyptian police.", "At times, travel by foreigners in parts of Upper Egypt was severely restricted and dangerous.", "On 17 November 1997, 62 people, mostly tourists, were killed near Luxor.", "The assailants trapped the people in the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut.", "During this period, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya was given support by the governments of Iran and Sudan, as well as al-Qaeda.", "The Egyptian government received support during that time from the United States.=== Civil unrest (2011–14) ======= Revolution ====In 2003, the ''Kefaya'' (\"Egyptian Movement for Change\"), was launched to oppose the Mubarak regime and to establish democratic reforms and greater civil liberties.Celebrations in Tahrir Square after Omar Suleiman's statement announcing Hosni Mubarak's resignationOn 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's government.", "The objective of the protest was the removal of Mubarak from power.", "These took the form of an intensive campaign of civil resistance supported by a very large number of people and mainly consisting of continuous mass demonstrations.", "By 29 January, it was becoming clear that Mubarak's government had lost control when a curfew order was ignored, and the army took a semi-neutral stance on enforcing the curfew decree.On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo.", "Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had stepped down and that the Egyptian military would assume control of the nation's affairs in the short term.", "Jubilant celebrations broke out in Tahrir Square at the news.", "Mubarak may have left Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh the previous night, before or shortly after the airing of a taped speech in which Mubarak vowed he would not step down or leave.On 13 February 2011, the high level military command of Egypt announced that both the constitution and the parliament of Egypt had been dissolved.", "The parliamentary election was to be held in September.A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011.On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the Mubarak regime fell.", "Turnout was high and there were no reports of violence, although members of some parties broke the ban on campaigning at polling places by handing out pamphlets and banners.", "There were, however, complaints of irregularities.==== Morsi's presidency ====The first round of a presidential election was held in Egypt on 23 and 24 May 2012.Mohamed Morsi won 25% of the vote and Ahmed Shafik, the last prime minister under deposed leader Hosni Mubarak, 24%.", "A second round was held on 16 and 17 June.", "On 24 June 2012, the election commission announced that Mohamed Morsi had won the election, making him the first democratically elected president of Egypt.", "According to official results, Morsi took 51.7 percent of the vote while Shafik received 48.3 percent.", "On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's new president.On 8 July 2012, Egypt's new president Mohamed Morsi announced he was overriding the military edict that dissolved the country's elected parliament and called lawmakers back into session.On 10 July 2012, the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt negated the decision by Morsi to call the nation's parliament back into session.", "On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35-member cabinet, including 28 newcomers, of whom four came from the influential Muslim Brotherhood while six and the former interim military ruler Mohamed Hussein Tantawi as the Defence Minister came from the previous Government.On 22 November 2012, Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly drafting the new constitution.", "The declaration also requires a retrial of those accused in the Mubarak-era killings of protesters, who had been acquitted, and extends the mandate of the constituent assembly by two months.", "Additionally, the declaration authorizes Morsi to take any measures necessary to protect the revolution.", "Liberal and secular groups previously walked out of the constitutional constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.The move was criticized by Mohamed ElBaradei, the leader of Egypt's Constitution Party, who stated \"Morsi today usurped all state powers & appointed himself Egypt's new pharaoh\" on his Twitter feed.", "The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.", "On 5 December 2012, Tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of Egypt's president clashed, hurling rocks and Molotov cocktails and brawling in Cairo's streets, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.", "Six senior advisors and three other officials resigned from the government and the country's leading Islamic institution called on Morsi to stem his powers.", "Protesters also clamored from coastal cities to desert towns.Morsi offered a \"national dialogue\" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel a 15 December vote on a draft constitution written by an Islamist-dominated assembly that has ignited two weeks of political unrest.A constitutional referendum was held in two rounds on 15 and 22 December 2012, with 64% support, and 33% against.", "It was signed into law by a presidential decree issued by Morsi on 26 December 2012.On 3 July 2013, the constitution was suspended by order of the Egyptian army.On 30 June 2013, on the first anniversary of the election of Morsi, millions of protesters across Egypt took to the streets and demanded the immediate resignation of the president.", "On 1 July, the Egyptian Armed Forces issued a 48-hour ultimatum that gave the country's political parties until 3 July to meet the demands of the Egyptian people.", "The presidency rejected the Egyptian Army's 48-hour ultimatum, vowing that the president would pursue his own plans for national reconciliation to resolve the political crisis.", "On 3 July, General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, announced that he had removed Morsi from power, suspended the constitution and would be calling new presidential and Shura Council elections and named Supreme Constitutional Court's leader, Adly Mansour as acting president.", "Mansour was sworn in on 4 July 2013.==== After Morsi ====During the months after the coup d'état, a new constitution was prepared, which took effect on 18 January 2014.After that, presidential and parliamentary elections have to be held in June 2014.On 24 March 2014, 529 Morsi's supporters were sentenced to death, while the trial of Morsi himself was still ongoing.", "Having delivered a final judgement, 492 sentences were commuted to life imprisonment with 37 death sentences being upheld.", "On 28 April, another mass trial took place with 683 Morsi supporters sentenced to death for killing 1 police officer.", "In 2015, Egypt participated in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen.=== El-Sisi Presidency ===Satellite image of ''Ever Given'' blocking the canal in March 2021In the elections of June 2014 El-Sisi won with a percentage of 96.1%.", "On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president.", "Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between the Gaza strip and Sinai.In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by landslide in election with no real opposition.", "In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years.", "President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for third term in next election in 2024.Under El-Sisi Egypt is said to have returned to authoritarianism.", "New constitutional reforms have been implemented, meaning strengthening the role of military and limiting the political opposition.", "The constitutional changes were accepted in a referendum in April 2019.In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Want (Nation's Future) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi.", "The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.During the 2020–2021 Tigray War, Egypt was also involved.", "On 19 December 2020, an EEPA report stated, based on testimonials of three Egyptian officials and one European diplomat, that the UAE used its base in Assab (Eritrea) to launch drones strikes against Tigray.", "The investigative platform Bellingcat confirmed the presence of Chinese-produced drones at the UAE's military base in Assab, Eritrea.", "Egyptian officials were concerned about strengthening ties between the UAE and Israel.", "They fear that both countries will collaborate in the construction of an alternative to the Suez Canal, starting from Haifa in Israel.", "On 19 December 2020, Egypt was reportedly encouraging Sudan to support the TPLF in Tigray.", "It wants to strengthen a joint position in relation to negotiations on the GERD Dam, which impacts both countries downstream." ], [ "See also", "* History of Cairo* History of Alexandria* List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries* Population history of Egypt* Timeline of Alexandria* Timeline of Cairo" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Botman, Selma.", "''Egypt from Independence to Revolution, 1919-1952'' (Syracuse UP, 1991).", "* Daly, M.W.", "''The Cambridge History of Egypt Volume 2 Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century'' (1998) pp 217–84 on 1879–1923.online* Goldschmidt Jr., Arthur, ed.", "''Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt'' (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1999).", "* Goldschmidt Jr., Arthur.", "ed.", "''Historical Dictionary of Egypt'' (Scarecrow Press, 1994).", "* Petry, Carl F. ed.", "''The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol.", "1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517 '' (1999) online* Shaw, Ian.", "''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'' (2003)* Tignor, Robert L. ''Modernization and British colonial rule in Egypt, 1882-1914'' (Princeton UP, 2015).", "* Tucker, Judith E. ''Women in nineteenth-century Egypt'' (Cambridge UP, 1985).", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "House" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''house''' is a single-unit residential building.", "It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems.", "Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space.", "Houses generally have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space and protect its inhabitants and contents from burglars or other trespassers.", "Most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room.", "A house may have a separate dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into the kitchen or another room.", "Some large houses in North America have a recreation room.", "In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock (like cattle) may share part of the house with humans.The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household.", "Most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also have other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals, that typically use a house as their home.", "Some houses only have a dwelling space for one family or similar-sized group; larger houses called townhouses or row houses may contain numerous family dwellings in the same structure.", "A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment and tools.", "A house may have a backyard, a front yard or both, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax, eat, or excercise." ], [ "Etymology", "Hus, an Old English wordThe English word ''house'' derives directly from the Old English word ''hus,'' meaning \"dwelling, shelter, home, house,\" which in turn derives from Proto-Germanic ''husan'' (reconstructed by etymological analysis) which is of unknown origin.", "The term house itself gave rise to the letter 'B' through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house.", "The symbol was called \"bayt\", \"bet\" or \"beth\" in various related languages, and became ''beta'', the Greek letter, before it was used by the Romans.", "''Beit'' in Arabic means house, while in Maltese ''bejt'' refers to the roof of the house." ], [ "Elements", "=== Layout ===Victorian \"Gingerbread House\" in Connecticut, United States, built in 1855Ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house.", "Feng shui, originally a Chinese method of moving houses according to such factors as rain and micro-climates, has recently expanded its scope to address the design of interior spaces, with a view to promoting harmonious effects on the people living inside the house, although no actual effect has ever been demonstrated.", "Feng shui can also mean the \"aura\" in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real estate sales concept of \"indoor-outdoor flow\".The square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of \"living space\", excluding the garage and other non-living spaces.", "The \"square metres\" figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the walls enclosing the home, and thus includes any attached garage and non-living spaces.", "The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home.Birdhouse made to look like a real houseHumans often build houses for domestic or wild animals, often resembling smaller versions of human domiciles.", "Familiar animal houses built by humans include birdhouses, hen houses and dog houses, while housed agricultural animals more often live in barns and stables.=== Parts ===Many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons.", "These may include a living/eating area, a sleeping area, and (if suitable facilities and services exist) separate or combined washing and lavatory areas.", "Some larger properties may also feature rooms such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court, and other 'non-essential' facilities.", "In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with humans.", "Most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room.The names of parts of a house often echo the names of parts of other buildings, but could typically include:* Alcove* Atrium* Attic* Basement/cellar* Bathroom* Bedroom (or nursery)* Box-room / storage room* Conservatory* Dining room* Family room or den* Fireplace* Foyer* Front room* Garage* Hallway / passage / Vestibule* Hearth* Home-office or study* Kitchen* Larder* Laundry room* Library* Living room* Loft* Nook* Pantry* Parlour* Porch* Recreation room / rumpus room / television room* Shrines to serve the religious functions associated with a family* Stairwell* Sunroom* Swimming pool* Window* Workshop" ], [ "History", "Scale models of some Ancient Egyptian house, in the LouvreMinoan house model, -1675 BC, terracotta, in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum (Heraklion, Greece)Floor plan of a \"foursquare\" houseLittle is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior; however, it can be traced back to the simplest form of shelters.", "An exceptionally well-preserved house dating to the fifth millennium BC and with its contents still preserved was for example excavated at Tell Madhur in Iraq.", "Roman architect Vitruvius' theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut.Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today.=== Middle Ages ===In the Middle Ages, the Manor Houses facilitated different activities and events.", "Furthermore, the houses accommodated numerous people, including family, relatives, employees, servants and their guests.", "Their lifestyles were largely communal, as areas such as the Great Hall enforced the custom of dining and meetings and the Solar intended for shared sleeping beds.During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Italian Renaissance Palazzo consisted of plentiful rooms of connectivity.", "Unlike the qualities and uses of the Manor Houses, most rooms of the palazzo contained no purpose, yet were given several doors.", "These doors adjoined rooms in which Robin Evans describes as a \"matrix of discrete but thoroughly interconnected chambers.\"", "The layout allowed occupants to freely walk room to room from one door to another, thus breaking the boundaries of privacy.", ":\"Once inside it is necessary to pass from one room to the next, then to the next to traverse the building.", "Where passages and staircases are used, as inevitably they are, they nearly always connect just one space to another and never serve as general distributors of movement.", "Thus, despite the precise architectural containment offered by the addition of room upon room, the villa was, in terms of occupation, an open plan, relatively permeable to the numerous members of the household.\"", "Although very public, the open plan encouraged sociality and connectivity for all inhabitants.An early example of the segregation of rooms and consequent enhancement of privacy may be found in 1597 at the Beaufort House built in Chelsea, London.", "It was designed by English architect John Thorpe who wrote on his plans, \"A Long Entry through all\".", "The separation of the passageway from the room developed the function of the corridor.", "This new extension was revolutionary at the time, allowing the integration of one door per room, in which all universally connected to the same corridor.", "English architect Sir Roger Pratt states \"the common way in the middle through the whole length of the house, avoids the offices from one molesting the other by continual passing through them.\"", "Social hierarchies within the 17th century were highly regarded, as architecture was able to epitomize the servants and the upper class.", "More privacy is offered to the occupant as Pratt further claims, \"the ordinary servants may never publicly appear in passing to and fro for their occasions there.\"", "This social divide between rich and poor favored the physical integration of the corridor into housing by the 19th century.Sociologist Witold Rybczynski wrote, \"the subdivision of the house into day and night uses, and into formal and informal areas, had begun.\"", "Rooms were changed from public to private as single entryways forced notions of entering a room with a specific purpose.=== Industrial Revolution ===Compared to the large scaled houses in England and the Renaissance, the 17th Century Dutch house was smaller, and was only inhabited by up to four to five members.", "This was because they embraced \"self-reliance\" in contrast to the dependence on servants, and a design for a lifestyle centered on the family.", "It was important for the Dutch to separate work from domesticity, as the home became an escape and a place of comfort.", "This way of living and the home has been noted as highly similar to the contemporary family and their dwellings.By the end of the 17th century, the house layout was transformed to become employment-free, enforcing these ideas for the future.", "This came in favour for the industrial revolution, gaining large-scale factory production and workers.", "The house layout of the Dutch and its functions are still relevant today.A stereoscopic image of 988 High Street, Worsham house, circa 1880s===19th and 20th centuries===Doctor's residence and surgery, No 8 Milford Ave, Randwick, New South Wales, Australia In the American context, some professions, such as doctors, in the 19th and early 20th century typically operated out of the front room or parlor or had a two-room office on their property, which was detached from the house.", "By the mid 20th century, the increase in high-tech equipment created a marked shift whereby the contemporary doctor typically worked from an office or hospital.", "Technology and electronic systems has caused privacy issues and issues with segregating personal life from remote work.", "Technological advances of surveillance and communications allow insight of personal habits and private lives.", "As a result, the \"private becomes ever more public, and the desire for a protective home life increases, fuelled by the very media that undermine it,\" writes Jonathan Hill.", "Work has been altered by the increase of communications.", "The \"deluge of information\" has expressed the efforts of work conveniently gaining access inside the house.", "Although commuting is reduced, the desire to separate working and living remains apparent.", "On the other hand, some architects have designed homes in which eating, working and living are brought together." ], [ "Gallery", "File:German House.jpg|Modern land house in GermanyFile:Casa dr. Ion Popescu, Str.", "Decebal nr.", "9, Ploiești.JPG|The Belle Époque Ion Popescu House from Ploiești, RomaniaFile:House in Poland.png|Modern suburban house in PolandFile:Casas standard.png|Standard montevidean houses in UruguayFile:Bhutanese Farmhouse Soe Yaksa.jpg|Farmhouse in BhutanFile:Cambo 169.jpg|Khmer house in CambodiaFile:La cabaña de Alpina.jpg|Traditional house in ColombiaFile:Rumah Minangkabau.jpg|Minangkabau traditional house in IndonesiaFile:Faza in Kenya's Coast Province.JPEG|Traditional houses in Faza, KenyaFile:Banaue Philippines Batad-Rice-Terraces-03.jpg|Traditional village house in Banaue, PhilippinesFile:Brgule 006.jpg|House in Brgule, SerbiaFile:Varassaari5.JPG|A traditional Finnish house from the beginning of 20th century in JyväskyläFile:Gokayama Suganuma 五箇山菅沼地区 PA101516.jpg|Traditional house in JapanFile:দোতলা টিনের ঘর, ঢাকা.jpg|Traditional two-story tin shed house in BangladeshFile:Kamena kuca u Pokreveniku.jpg|Traditional stone house in SerbiaFile:Xaniyê Gundê Dîlan.JPG|A traditional Kurdish stone houseFile:Grachtenstad De Laak.jpg|Energy-efficient houses in Amersfoort, NetherlandsFile:NorthYorkHouse2.JPG|A house in Ontario, CanadaFile:Muurschildering Loevenhoutsedijk- Hoogstraat 90, Utrecht.jpg|A decorated house in Utrecht, NetherlandsFile:House (May 30, 2020).jpg|A single living house in Addis Ababa, EthiopiaFile:Gentrification with an old and a new home side by side in Old East Dallas.jpg|Old and new houses side by side in DallasFile:House Darchula.jpg|Traditional house in Darchula District NepalFile:A standard house.jpg|A standard house in Ghana" ], [ "Construction", "In many parts of the world, houses are constructed using scavenged materials.", "In Manila's Payatas neighborhood, slum houses are often made of material sourced from a nearby garbage dump.", "In Dakar, it is common to see houses made of recycled materials standing atop a mixture of garbage and sand which serves as a foundation.", "The garbage-sand mixture is also used to protect the house from flooding.Some houses are constructed from bricks and wood and are later covered by insulating panels.", "The roof construction is also seen.Two ''baracche''(slum in Italian) near Oltre il Colle, Italy.", "These homes are often illegally built and without electricity, proper sanitation and taps for drinking water.", "In the United States, modern house construction techniques include light-frame construction (in areas with access to supplies of wood) and adobe or sometimes rammed-earth construction (in arid regions with scarce wood-resources).", "Some areas use brick almost exclusively, and quarried stone has long provided foundations and walls.", "To some extent, aluminum and steel have displaced some traditional building materials.", "Increasingly popular alternative construction materials include insulating concrete forms (foam forms filled with concrete), structural insulated panels (foam panels faced with oriented strand board or fiber cement), light-gauge steel, and steel framing.", "More generally, people often build houses out of the nearest available material, and often tradition or culture govern construction-materials, so whole towns, areas, counties or even states/countries may be built out of one main type of material.", "For example, a large portion of American houses use wood, while most British and many European houses use stone, brick, or mud.Construction of a house using bamboo.", "Bamboo-made houses are popular in China, Japan and other Asian countries, because of their resistance to earthquakes and hurricanes.", "In the early 20th century, some house designers started using prefabrication.", "Sears, Roebuck & Co. first marketed their Sears Catalog Homes to the general public in 1908.Prefab techniques became popular after World War II.", "First small inside rooms framing, then later, whole walls were prefabricated and carried to the construction site.", "The original impetus was to use the labor force inside a shelter during inclement weather.", "More recently, builders have begun to collaborate with structural engineers who use finite element analysis to design prefabricated steel-framed homes with known resistance to high wind loads and seismic forces.", "These newer products provide labor savings, more consistent quality, and possibly accelerated construction processes.Lesser-used construction methods have gained (or regained) popularity in recent years.", "Though not in wide use, these methods frequently appeal to homeowners who may become actively involved in the construction process.", "They include:* Hempcrete construction* Cordwood construction* Geodesic domes* Straw-bale construction* Wattle and daub* * Framing (construction)Thermographic comparison of traditional (left) and \"passivhaus\" (right) buildingsIn the developed world, energy-conservation has grown in importance in house design.", "Housing produces a major proportion of carbon emissions (studies have shown that it is 30% of the total in the United Kingdom).Development of a number of low-energy building types and techniques continues.", "They include the zero-energy house, the passive solar house, the autonomous buildings, the super insulated houses and houses built to the ''Passivhaus'' standard." ], [ "Legal issues", "Houses may be repeatedly expanded leading to a complex construction history.Buildings with historical importance have legal restrictions.", "New houses in the UK are not covered by the Sale of Goods Act.", "When purchasing a new house , the buyer has different legal protection than when buying other products.", "New houses in the UK are covered by a National House Building Council guarantee." ], [ "Identification and symbolism", "With the growth of dense settlement, humans designed ways of identifying houses and parcels of land.", "Individual houses sometimes acquire proper names, and those names may acquire in their turn considerable emotional connotations.", "A more systematic and general approach to identifying houses may use various methods of house numbering.Houses may express the circumstances or opinions of their builders or their inhabitants.", "Thus, a vast and elaborate house may serve as a sign of conspicuous wealth whereas a low-profile house built of recycled materials may indicate support of energy conservation.", "Houses of particular historical significance (former residences of the famous, for example, or even just very old houses) may gain a protected status in town planning as examples of built heritage or of streetscape.", "Commemorative plaques may mark such structures.", "Home ownership provides a common measure of prosperity in economics.", "Contrast the importance of house-destruction, tent dwelling and house rebuilding in the wake of many natural disasters.== See also =='''Building'''* House-building* Index of construction articles'''Functions'''* Building science* Mixed-use development* Visitability'''Types'''* Boarding house* Earth sheltering* Home automation* Housing estate* Housing in Japan* Hurricane-proof house* Lodging* Lustron house* Mobile home* Modular home* Summer house* Tiny house'''Economics'''* Affordable housing* Real estate bubble** United States housing bubble* Housing tenure* Show house'''Miscellaneous'''* Domestic robot* Homelessness* Home network* Housewarming party* Squatting'''Institutions'''* U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development** HUD USER** Regulatory Barriers Clearinghouse'''Lists'''* List of American houses* List of house styles* List of house types* List of real estate topics* Open-air museum" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * Housing through the centuries, animation by ''The Atlantic''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Java applet" ], [ "Introduction", "A Java applet that was created as supplementary demonstration material for a scientific publicationA Java applet that uses 3D hardware acceleration to visualize 3D files in .pdb format downloaded from a serverUsing applet for nontrivial animation illustrating biophysical topic (randomly moving ions pass through voltage gates)Using a Java applet for computation intensive visualization of the Mandelbrot setApplets' running speed is sufficient for making e.g.", "nontrivial computer games that play chess.NASA World Wind (open source) is a second generation applet that makes heavy use of OpenGL and on-demand data downloading to provide a detailed 3D map of the world.access to the server console at the hardware level with the help of a Java appletDemonstration of image processing using two dimensional Fourier transform '''Java applets''' were small applications written in the Java programming language, or another programming language that compiles to Java bytecode, and delivered to users in the form of Java bytecode.", "The user launched the Java applet from a web page, and the applet was then executed within a Java virtual machine (JVM) in a process separate from the web browser itself.", "A Java applet could appear in a frame of the web page, a new application window, a program from Sun called appletviewer, or a stand-alone tool for testing applets.Java applets were introduced in the first version of the Java language, which was released in 1995.Beginning in 2013, major web browsers began to phase out support for the underlying technology applets used to run, with applets becoming completely unable to be run by 2015–2017.Java applets were deprecated by Java 9 in 2017.Java applets were usually written in Java, but other languages such as Jython, JRuby, Pascal, Scala, NetRexx, or Eiffel (via SmartEiffel) could be used as well.Java applets run at very fast speeds and until 2011, they were many times faster than JavaScript.", "Unlike JavaScript, Java applets had access to 3D hardware acceleration, making them well-suited for non-trivial, computation-intensive visualizations.", "As browsers have gained support for hardware-accelerated graphics thanks to the canvas technology (or specifically WebGL in the case of 3D graphics), as well as just-in-time compiled JavaScript, the speed difference has become less noticeable.Since Java bytecode is cross-platform (or platform independent), Java applets could be executed by clients for many platforms, including Microsoft Windows, FreeBSD, Unix, macOS and Linux.", "They could not be run on mobile devices, which do not support running standard Oracle JVM bytecode.", "Android devices can run code written in Java compiled for the Android Runtime." ], [ "Overview", "The applets are used to provide interactive features to web applications that cannot be provided by HTML alone.", "They can capture mouse input and also have controls like buttons or check boxes.", "In response to user actions, an applet can change the provided graphic content.", "This makes applets well-suited for demonstration, visualization, and teaching.", "There are online applet collections for studying various subjects, from physics to heart physiology.An applet can also be a text area only; providing, for instance, a cross-platform command-line interface to some remote system.", "If needed, an applet can leave the dedicated area and run as a separate window.", "However, applets have very little control over web page content outside the applet's dedicated area, so they are less useful for improving the site appearance in general, unlike other types of browser extensions (while applets like news tickers or WYSIWYG editors are also known).", "Applets can also play media in formats that are not natively supported by the browser.Pages coded in HTML may embed parameters within them that are passed to the applet.", "Because of this, the same applet may have a different appearance depending on the parameters that were passed.As applets were available before HTML5, modern CSS and JavaScript interface DOM were standard, they were also widely used for trivial effects such as mouseover and navigation buttons.", "This approach, which posed major problems for accessibility and misused system resources, is no longer in use and was strongly discouraged even at the time." ], [ "Technical information", "Most browsers executed Java applets in a ''sandbox'', preventing applets from accessing local data like the file system.", "The code of the applet was downloaded from a web server, after which the browser either embedded the applet into a web page or opened a new window showing the applet's user interface.The first implementations involved downloading an applet class by class.", "While classes are small files, there are often many of them, so applets got a reputation as slow-loading components.", "However, since .jar files were introduced, an applet is usually delivered as a single file that has a size similar to an image file (hundreds of kilobytes to several megabytes).Java system libraries and runtimes are backwards-compatible, allowing one to write code that runs both on current and on future versions of the Java virtual machine.=== Similar technologies ===Many Java developers, blogs and magazines recommended that the Java Web Start technology be used in place of applets.", "Java Web Start allowed the launching of unmodified applet code, which then ran in a separate window (not inside the invoking browser).A Java Servlet is sometimes informally compared to be \"like\" a server-side applet, but it is different in its language, functions, and in each of the characteristics described here about applets." ], [ "Embedding into a web page", "The applet would be displayed on the web page by making use of the deprecated applet HTML element, or the recommended object element.", "The embed element can be used with Mozilla family browsers (embed was deprecated in HTML 4 but is included in HTML 5).", "This specifies the applet's source and location.", "Both object and embed tags can also download and install Java virtual machine (if required) or at least lead to the plugin page.", "applet and object tags also support loading of the serialized applets that start in some particular (rather than initial) state.", "Tags also specify the message that shows up in place of the applet if the browser cannot run it due to any reason.However, despite object being officially a recommended tag in 2010, the support of the object tag was not yet consistent among browsers and Sun kept recommending the older applet tag for deploying in multibrowser environments, as it remained the only tag consistently supported by the most popular browsers.", "To support multiple browsers, using the object tag to embed an applet would require JavaScript (that recognizes the browser and adjusts the tag), usage of additional browser-specific tags or delivering adapted output from the server side.The Java browser plug-in relied on NPAPI, which nearly all web browser vendors have removed support for, or do not implement, due to its age and security issues.", "In January 2016, Oracle announced that Java runtime environments based on JDK 9 will discontinue the browser plug-in." ], [ "Advantages", "A Java applet could have any or all of the following advantages:* It was simple to make it work on FreeBSD, Linux, Microsoft Windows and macOS that is, to make it cross-platform.", "Applets were supported by most web browsers through the first decade of the 21st century; since then, however, most browsers have dropped applet support for security reasons.", "* The same applet would work on \"all\" installed versions of Java at the same time, rather than just the latest plug-in version only.", "However, if an applet requires a later version of the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) the client would be forced to wait during the large download.", "* Most web browsers cached applets so they were quick to load when returning to a web page.", "Applets also improved with use: after a first applet is run, the JVM was already running and subsequent applets started quickly (the JVM will need to restart each time the browser starts afresh).", "JRE versions 1.5 and greater restarted the JVM when the browser navigates between pages, as a security measure which removed that performance gain.", "* It moved work from the server to the client, making a web solution more scalable with the number of users/clients.", "* If a standalone program (like Google Earth) talks to a web server, that server normally needs to support all prior versions for users who have not kept their client software updated.", "In contrast, a browser loaded (and cached) the latest applet version, so there is no need to support legacy versions.", "* Applet naturally supported changing user state, such as figure positions on the chessboard.", "* Developers could develop and debug an applet directly simply by creating a main routine (either in the applet's class or in a separate class) and calling init() and start() on the applet, thus allowing for development in their favorite Java SE development environment.", "All one had to do was to re-test the applet in the AppletViewer program or a web browser to ensure it conforms to security restrictions.", "* An untrusted applet had no access to the local machine and can only access the server it came from.", "This makes applets much safer to run than the native executables that they would replace.", "However, a signed applet could have full access to the machine it is running on, if the user agreed.", "* Java applets were fast, with similar performance to natively installed software." ], [ "Disadvantages", "Java applets had the following disadvantages compared to other client-side web technologies:* Java applets would depend on a Java Runtime Environment (JRE), a complex and heavy-weight software package.", "They also normally required a plug-in for the web browser.", "Some organizations only allow software installed by an administrator.", "As a result, users were unable to view applets unless one was important enough to justify contacting the administrator to request installation of the JRE and plug-in.", "* If an applet requires a newer JRE than available on the system, the user running it the first time will need to wait for the large JRE download to complete.", "* Mobile browsers on iOS or Android, never run Java applets at all.", "Even before the deprecation of applets on all platforms, desktop browsers phased out Java applet support concurrently with the rise of mobile operating systems.", "* There was no standard to make the content of applets available to screen readers.", "Therefore, applets harmed the accessibility of a web site to users with special needs.", "* As with any client-side scripting, security restrictions made it difficult or even impossible for some untrusted applets to achieve their desired goals.", "Only by editing the java.policy file in the JAVA JRE installation could one grant access to the local filesystem or system clipboard, or to network sources other than the one that served the applet to the browser.", "* Most users did not care about the difference between untrusted and trusted applets, so this distinction did not help much with security.", "The ability to run untrusted applets was eventually removed entirely to fix this, before all applets were removed." ], [ "Compatibility-related lawsuits", "Sun made considerable efforts to ensure compatibility is maintained between Java versions as they evolve, enforcing Java portability by law if required.", "Oracle seems to be continuing the same strategy.=== 1997: Sun vs Microsoft ===The 1997 lawsuit, was filed after Microsoft created a modified Java Virtual Machine of their own, which shipped with Internet Explorer.", "Microsoft added about 50 methods and 50 fields into the classes within the ''java.awt, java.lang'', and ''java.io'' packages.", "Other modifications included removal of RMI capability and replacement of Java Native Interface from JNI to RNI, a different standard.", "RMI was removed because it only easily supports Java to Java communications and competes with Microsoft DCOM technology.", "Applets that relied on these changes or just inadvertently used them worked only within Microsoft's Java system.", "Sun sued for breach of trademark, as the point of Java was that there should be no proprietary extensions and that code should work everywhere.", "Microsoft agreed to pay Sun $20 million, and Sun agreed to grant Microsoft limited license to use Java without modifications only and for a limited time.=== 2002: Sun vs Microsoft ===Microsoft continued to ship its own unmodified Java virtual machine.", "Over the years it became extremely outdated yet still default for Internet Explorer.", "A later study revealed that applets of this time often contain their own classes that mirror Swing and other newer features in a limited way.", "In 2002, Sun filed an antitrust lawsuit, claiming that Microsoft's attempts at illegal monopolization had harmed the Java platform.", "Sun demanded Microsoft distribute Sun's current, binary implementation of Java technology as part of Windows, distribute it as a recommended update for older Microsoft desktop operating systems and stop the distribution of Microsoft's Virtual Machine (as its licensing time, agreed in the prior lawsuit, had expired).", "Microsoft paid $700 million for pending antitrust issues, another $900 million for patent issues and a $350 million royalty fee to use Sun's software in the future." ], [ "Security", "There were two applet types with very different security models: signed applets and unsigned applets.", "Starting with Java SE 7 Update 21 (April 2013) applets and Web-Start Apps are encouraged to be signed with a trusted certificate, and warning messages appear when running unsigned applets.", "Further, starting with Java 7 Update 51 unsigned applets were blocked by default; they could be run by creating an exception in the Java Control Panel.=== Unsigned ===Limits on unsigned applets were understood as \"draconian\": they have no access to the local filesystem and web access limited to the applet download site; there are also many other important restrictions.", "For instance, they cannot access all system properties, use their own class loader, call native code, execute external commands on a local system or redefine classes belonging to core packages included as part of a Java release.", "While they can run in a standalone frame, such frame contains a header, indicating that this is an untrusted applet.", "Successful initial call of the forbidden method does not automatically create a security hole as an access controller checks the entire stack of the calling code to be sure the call is not coming from an improper location.As with any complex system, many security problems have been discovered and fixed since Java was first released.", "Some of these (like the Calendar serialization security bug) persisted for many years with nobody being aware.", "Others have been discovered in use by malware in the wild.Some studies mention applets crashing the browser or overusing CPU resources but these are classified as nuisances and not as true security flaws.", "However, unsigned applets may be involved in combined attacks that exploit a combination of multiple severe configuration errors in other parts of the system.", "An unsigned applet can also be more dangerous to run directly on the server where it is hosted because while code base allows it to talk with the server, running inside it can bypass the firewall.", "An applet may also try DoS attacks on the server where it is hosted, but usually people who manage the web site also manage the applet, making this unreasonable.", "Communities may solve this problem via source code review or running applets on a dedicated domain.The unsigned applet can also try to download malware hosted on originating server.", "However it could only store such file into a temporary folder (as it is transient data) and has no means to complete the attack by executing it.", "There were attempts to use applets for spreading Phoenix and Siberia exploits this way, but these exploits do not use Java internally and were also distributed in several other ways.=== Signed ===A signed applet contains a signature that the browser should verify through a remotely running, independent certificate authority server.", "Producing this signature involves specialized tools and interaction with the authority server maintainers.", "Once the signature is verified, and the user of the current machine also approves, a signed applet can get more rights, becoming equivalent to an ordinary standalone program.", "The rationale is that the author of the applet is now known and will be responsible for any deliberate damage.", "This approach allows applets to be used for many tasks that are otherwise not possible by client-side scripting.", "However, this approach requires more responsibility from the user, deciding whom he or she trusts.", "The related concerns include a non-responsive authority server, wrong evaluation of the signer identity when issuing certificates, and known applet publishers still doing something that the user would not approve of.", "Hence signed applets that appeared from Java 1.1 may actually have more security concerns.=== Self-signed ===Self-signed applets, which are applets signed by the developer themselves, may potentially pose a security risk; java plugins provide a warning when requesting authorization for a self-signed applet, as the function and safety of the applet is guaranteed only by the developer itself, and has not been independently confirmed.", "Such self-signed certificates are usually only used during development prior to release where third-party confirmation of security is unimportant, but most applet developers will seek third-party signing to ensure that users trust the applet's safety.Java security problems are not fundamentally different from similar problems of any client-side scripting platform.", "In particular, all issues related to signed applets also apply to Microsoft ActiveX components.As of 2014, self-signed and unsigned applets are no longer accepted by the commonly available Java plugins or Java Web Start.", "Consequently, developers who wish to deploy Java applets have no alternative but to acquire trusted certificates from commercial sources." ], [ "Alternatives", "Alternative technologies exist (for example, WebAssembly and JavaScript) that satisfy all or more of the scope of what was possible with an applet.", "JavaScript could coexist with applets in the same page, assist in launching applets (for instance, in a separate frame or providing platform workarounds) and later be called from the applet code.", "As JavaScript gained in features and performance, the support for and use of applets declined, until their eventual removal.== See also ==* ActiveX* Curl (programming language)* Jakarta Servlet* Java Web Start* JavaFX* Rich web application* WebGL" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Latest version of Sun Microsystems' Java Virtual Machine (includes browser plug-ins for running Java applets in most web browsers).", "* Information about writing applets from Oracle* Demonstration applets from Sun Microsystems (JDK 1.4 include source code)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heathrow Airport" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heathrow Airport''' (), called '''London Airport''' until 1966 and now known as '''London Heathrow''' , is the main international airport serving London, the capital of England and the United Kingdom.", "It is the largest of the six international airports in the London airport system (the others being Gatwick, City, Luton, Stansted and Southend).", "The airport is owned and operated by Heathrow Airport Holdings, owned mostly by FGP and Qatar Investment Authority and CDPQ.", "In 2022, it was the second-busiest airport in the world by international passenger traffic and the busiest airport in Europe in 2023.It is also the airport with the world's most international connections as of 2023.Heathrow was founded as a small airfield in 1929 but was developed into a much larger airport after World War II.", "It lies west of Central London on a site that covers .", "It was gradually expanded over 75 years and now has two parallel east–west runways, four operational passenger terminals and one cargo terminal.", "The airport is the primary hub for British Airways and Virgin Atlantic." ], [ "Location", "Heathrow is west of Central London.", "It is located west of Hounslow, south of Hayes, and north-east of Staines-upon-Thames.Heathrow falls entirely within the boundaries of the London Borough of Hillingdon, and under the Twickenham postcode area, with the postcode TW6.It is surrounded by the villages of Sipson, Harlington, Harmondsworth, and Longford to the north and the neighbourhoods of Cranford and Hatton to the east.", "To the south lie Feltham, Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough, Horton and Windsor in Berkshire by the M25 motorway.", "The airport is located within the Hayes and Harlington parliamentary constituency.As the airport is located west of London and as its runways run east–west, an aircraft's landing approach is usually directly over the Greater London Urban Area when the wind is from the south-west — as it is, most of the time.The airport forms part of a travel to work area consisting of (most of) Greater London, and neighbouring parts of the surrounding Home Counties." ], [ "History", "Aerial photo of Heathrow Airport from the 1950s, before the terminals were builtHeathrow Airport began in 1929 as a small airfield (Great West Aerodrome) on land southeast of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name.", "At that time the land consisted of farms, market gardens and orchards; there was a \"Heathrow Farm\" approximately where the modern Terminal 2 is situated, a \"Heathrow Hall\" and a \"Heathrow House.\"", "This hamlet was largely along a country lane (Heathrow Road), which ran roughly along the east and south edges of the present central terminals area.Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944 during World War II.", "It was intended for long-distance military aircraft bound for the Far East.", "By the time some of the airfields runways were usable, World War II had ended, and the UK Government continued to develop the site as a civil airport.", "The airport was opened on 25 March 1946 as London Airport.", "The airport was renamed Heathrow Airport in the last week of September 1966, to avoid confusion with the other two airports which serve London, Gatwick and Stansted.", "The design for the airport was by Sir Frederick Gibberd.", "He set out the original terminals and central-area buildings, including the original control tower and the multi-faith Chapel of St George's." ], [ "Operations", "===Facilities===A former Qantas Boeing 747-400 passing over Myrtle Avenue on approach to runway ''27L'' at Heathrow.Terminal 3.", "''G-BOAB'', a former British Airways Concorde on display at Heathrow.Heathrow Airport is used by over 89 airlines flying to 214 destinations in 84 countries.", "The airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic.", "It has four passenger terminals (numbered 2 to 5) and a cargo terminal.", "In 2021 Heathrow served 19.4 million passengers, of which 17 million were international and 2,4 million domestic.", "The busiest year ever recorded was 2019 when 80.9 million passengers travelled through the airport.", "Heathrow is the UK's largest port by value with a network of over 218 destinations worldwide.", "The busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over threemillion passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2021.In the 1950s, Heathrow had six runways, arranged in three pairs at different angles in the shape of a hexagram with the permanent passenger terminal in the middle and the older terminal along the north edge of the field; two of its runways would always be within 30° of the wind direction.", "As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has only two parallel runways running east–west.", "These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram.", "From the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways.", "North of the northern runway and the former taxiway and aprons, now the site of extensive car parks, is the entrance to the access tunnel and the site of Heathrow's unofficial \"gate guardian\".", "For many years the home of a 40% scale model of a British Airways Concorde, G-CONC; the site has been occupied by a model of an Emirates Airbus A380 since 2008.Heathrow Airport has Anglican, Catholic, Free Church, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim and Sikh chaplains.", "There is a multi-faith prayer room and counselling room in each terminal, in addition to St. George's Interdenominational Chapel in an underground vault adjacent to the old control tower, where Christian services take place.", "The chaplains organise and lead prayers at certain times in the prayer room.The airport has its resident press corps, consisting of six photographers and one TV crew, serving all the major newspapers and television stations around the world.Most of Heathrow's internal roads’ names are coded by their first letter: N in the north (e.g.", "Newall Road), E in the east (e.g.", "Elmdon Road), S in the south (e.g.", "Stratford Road), W in the west (e.g.", "Walrus Road), C in the centre (e.g.", "Camborne Road).=== Cargo ===The top cargo export destinations include the United States, China and the United Arab Emirates handling 1.4 million tonnes of cargo in 2022.Top products exported were books, salmon and medicine.===Flight movements===Aircraft destined for Heathrow are usually routed to one of four holding points.", "Air traffic controllers at Heathrow Approach Control (based in Swanwick, Hampshire) then guide the aircraft to their final approach, merging aircraft from the four holds into a single stream of traffic, sometimes as close as apart.", "Considerable use is made of continuous descent approach techniques to minimise the environmental effects of incoming aircraft, particularly at night.", "Once an aircraft is established on its final approach, control is handed over to Heathrow Tower.When runway alternation was introduced, aircraft generated significantly more noise on departure than when landing, so a preference for westerly operations during daylight was introduced, which continues to this day.", "In this mode, aircraft take off towards the west and land from the east over London, thereby minimising the impact of noise on the most densely populated areas.", "Heathrow's two runways generally operate in segregated mode, whereby landings are allocated to one runway and takeoffs to the other.", "To further reduce noise nuisance, the use of runways 27R and 27L is swapped at 15:00 each day if the wind is from the west.", "When landings are easterly there is no alternation; 09L remains the landing runway and 09R the takeoff runway due to the legacy of the now rescinded Cranford Agreement, pending taxiway works to allow the roles to be reversed.", "Occasionally, landings are allowed on the nominated departure runway, to help reduce airborne delays and to position landing aircraft closer to their terminal, reducing taxi times.Night-time flights at Heathrow are subject to restrictions.", "Between 23:00 and 04:00, the noisiest aircraft (rated QC/8 and QC/16) cannot be scheduled for operation.", "Also, during the night quota period (23:30–06:00) there are four limits:* A limit on the number of flights allowed.", "* A Quota Count system which limits the total amount of noise permitted, but allows operators to choose to operate fewer noisy aircraft or a greater number of quieter planes.", "* QC/4 aircraft cannot be scheduled for operation.", "* A voluntary agreement with the airlines that no early-morning arrivals will be scheduled to land before 04:30.A trial of \"noise-relief zones\" ran from December 2012 to March 2013, which concentrated approach flight paths into defined areas compared with the existing paths which were spread out.", "The zones used alternated weekly, meaning residents in the \"no-fly\" areas received respite from aircraft noise for set periods.", "However, it was concluded that some residents in other areas experienced more noise as a consequence of the trial and that it should therefore not be taken forward in its current form.", "Heathrow received more than 25,000 noise complaints in just three months over the summer of 2016, but around half were made by the same ten people.In 2017, Heathrow introduced \"Fly Quiet & Green\", a quarterly published league table (currently suspended due to the Covid pandemic) that awards points to the 50 busiest airlines at the airport, ostensibly based on their performance relative to each other across a range of seven environmental benchmarks, such as emissions.", "Heathrow has acknowledged, but not attempted to refute, criticism over discrepancies and a lack of transparency over the way in which the figures are calculated.", "The airport has always refused to publish a breakdown showing how many \"Fly Quiet points\" each performance benchmark has contributed towards the total score it awards to an airline, thereby putting obstacles in the way of any independent auditing of the published results.", "Among other criticisms of the league table are the unexplained omission of some of the poorer performers among the 50 busiest airlines and the emphasis on relative rather than absolute performance, so an airline could well improve its \"Fly Quiet\" score quarter-on-quarter even if its environmental performance had in fact worsened over the period.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic Heathrow has seen a big increase in cargo-only flights, not only by already established carriers at the airport operating cargo-only flights using passenger aircraft, but also several cargo-only airlines.===Arrival stacks===Inbound aircraft to London Heathrow Airport typically follow one of several Standard Arrival Routes (STARs).", "The STARs each terminate at one of four different RNAV waypoints, and these also define four \"stacks\" where aircraft can be held, if necessary until they are cleared to begin their approach to land.", "Stacks are sections of airspace where inbound aircraft will normally use the pattern closest to their arrival route.", "They can be visualised as a helix in the sky.", "Each stack descends in intervals from down to .", "Aircraft hold between at 1,000-foot intervals.", "If these holds become full, aircraft are held at more distant points before being cleared onward to one of the four main holds.The following four stacks are currently in place:* The Bovingdon stack is for arrivals from the northwest.", "It extends above the village of Bovingdon and the town of Chesham, and uses the RNAV waypoint BNN, which is situated on the former RAF Bovingdon airfield.", "* The Biggin Hill stack on the southeast edge of Greater London is for arrivals from the southeast.", "It uses the RNAV waypoint BIG, which is situated on London Biggin Hill Airport.", "* The Lambourne stack in Essex is for arrivals from the northeast.", "It uses the RNAV waypoint LAM, which is situated adjacent to Stapleford Aerodrome.", "* The Ockham stack in Surrey is for arrivals from the southwest.", "It uses the RNAV waypoint OCK, which is situated on the former Wisley Airfield.===Third runway===In September 2012, the Government of the United Kingdom established the Airports Commission, an independent commission chaired by Sir Howard Davies to examine various options for increasing capacity at UK airports.", "In July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow, which the government approved in October 2016.However, the England and Wales Court of Appeal rejected this plan for a third runway at Heathrow, on the basis that the government failed to consider climate change and the environmental impact of aviation.", "On 16 December 2020, the UK Supreme Court lifted the ban on the third runway expansion, allowing the construction plan to go ahead.===Regulation===Until it was required to sell Gatwick and Stansted Airports, Heathrow Airport Holdings, owned mostly by FGP and Qatar Investment Authority and CDPQ held a dominant position in the London aviation market and has been heavily regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) as to how much it can charge airlines to land.", "The annual increase in landing charge per passenger was capped at inflation minus 3% until 1 April 2003.From 2003 to 2007 charges increased by inflation plus 6.5% per year, taking the fee to £9.28 per passenger in 2007.In March 2008, the CAA announced that the charge would be allowed to increase by 23.5% to £12.80 from 1 April 2008 and by inflation plus 7.5% for each of the following four years.", "In April 2013, the CAA announced a proposal for Heathrow to charge fees calculated by inflation minus 1.3%, continuing until 2019.Whilst the charges for landing at Heathrow are determined by the CAA and Heathrow Airport Holdings, the allocation of landing slots to airlines is carried out by Airport Co-ordination Limited (ACL).Until 2008, air traffic between Heathrow and the United States was strictly governed by the countries' bilateral Bermuda II treaty.", "The treaty originally allowed only British Airways, Pan Am and TWA to fly from Heathrow to designated gateways in the US.", "In 1991, Pan Am and TWA sold their rights to United Airlines and American Airlines respectively, while Virgin Atlantic was added to the list of airlines allowed to operate on these routes.", "The Bermuda II Air Service Agreement was superseded by a new \"open skies\" agreement that was signed by the United States and the European Union on 30 April 2007 and came into effect on 30 March 2008.Shortly afterwards, additional US airlines, including Northwest Airlines, Continental Airlines, US Airways and Delta Air Lines started services to Heathrow.", "Following Brexit, the US and UK signed a new US-UK Air Transport Agreement in November 2020 incorporating all the essential elements of Open Skies, which came into effect in March 2021.The airport was criticised in 2007 for overcrowding and delays; according to Heathrow Airport Holdings, Heathrow's facilities were originally designed to accommodate 55million passengers annually.", "The number of passengers using the airport reached a record 70million in 2012.In 2007 the airport was voted the world's least favourite, alongside Chicago O'Hare, in a TripAdvisor survey.", "However, the opening of Terminal 5 in 2008 has relieved some pressure on terminal facilities, increasing the airport's terminal capacity to 90million passengers per year.", "A tie-up is also in place with McLaren Applied Technologies to optimise the general procedure, reducing delays and pollution.With only two runways, operating at over 98% of their capacity, Heathrow has little room for more flights, although the use of larger aircraft such as the Airbus A380 has allowed some increase in passenger numbers.", "It is difficult for existing airlines to obtain landing slots to enable them to increase their services from the airport, or for new airlines to start operations.", "To increase the number of flights, Heathrow Airport Holdings has proposed using the existing two runways in 'mixed mode' whereby aircraft would be allowed to take off and land on the same runway.", "This would increase the airport's capacity from its current 480,000 movements per year to as many as 550,000 according to British Airways CEO Willie Walsh.", "Heathrow Airport Holdings has also proposed building a third runway to the north of the airport, which would significantly increase traffic capacity.===Security===Policing of the airport is the responsibility of the aviation security, a unit of the Metropolitan Police, although the British Army, including armoured vehicles of the Household Cavalry, has occasionally been deployed at the airport during periods of heightened security.", "Full body scanners are now used at the airport, and passengers who refuse to use them are required to submit to a hand search in a private room.", "The scanners display passengers' bodies as cartoon figures, with indicators showing where concealed items may be.For many decades Heathrow had a reputation for theft from baggage by baggage handlers.", "This led to the airport being nicknamed \"Thiefrow\", with periodic arrests of baggage handlers.Following the widespread disruption caused by reports of drone sightings at Gatwick Airport, and a subsequent incident at Heathrow, a drone-detection system was installed airport-wide to attempt to combat disruption caused by the illegal use of drones." ], [ "Terminals", "Heathrow Airport currently consists of four operational passenger terminals.", "The former Terminal 1 closed in 2015.=== Terminal 2 ===Terminal 2 central departures areaThe airport's newest terminal, officially known as the Queen's Terminal, was opened on 4 June 2014 and has 24 gates.", "Designed by Spanish architect Luis Vidal, it was built on the site that had been occupied by the original Terminal 2 and the Queens Building.", "The main complex was completed in November 2013 and underwent six months of testing before opening to passengers.", "It includes a satellite pier (T2B), a 1,340-space car park, and a cooling station to generate chilled water.", "There are 52 shops and 17 bars and restaurants.The airlines moved from their original locations over six months, with only 10% of flights operating from there in the first six weeks (United Airlines' transatlantic flights) to avoid the opening problems seen at Terminal 5.On 4 June 2014, United became the first airline to move into Terminal 2 from Terminals 1 and 4 followed by All Nippon Airways, Air Canada and Air China from Terminal 3.Air New Zealand, Asiana Airlines, Croatia Airlines, LOT Polish Airlines, South African Airways, and TAP Air Portugal moved in on 22 October 2014.Most flights from Terminal 2 are coming from northern Europe or west Europe.", "It is primarily used by Star Alliance airlines (consolidating the airlines under Star Alliance's co-location policy \"Move Under One Roof\").", "The terminal is also used by SkyTeam member China Airlines along with a few non-aligned airlines.", "Terminal 2 is one of the two terminals that operate UK and Irish domestic flights.The original Terminal 2 opened as the Europa Building in 1955 and was the airport's oldest terminal.", "It had an area of and was designed to handle around 1.2million passengers annually.", "In its final years, it accommodated up to 8million.", "A total of 316million passengers passed through the terminal in its lifetime.", "The building was demolished in 2010, along with the Queens Building which had housed airline company offices.=== Terminal 3 ===Terminal 3 bird's-eye viewTerminal 3 opened as the Oceanic Terminal on 13 November 1961 to handle flight departures for long-haul routes for foreign carriers to the United States, Asia and other Far Eastern destinations.", "At this time the airport had a direct helicopter service to central London from the gardens on the roof of the terminal building.", "Renamed Terminal 3 in 1968, it was expanded in 1970 with the addition of an arrivals building.", "Other facilities added included the UK's first moving walkways.", "In 2006, the new £105million Pier 6 was completed to accommodate the Airbus A380 superjumbo; Emirates and Qantas operate regular flights from Terminal 3 using the Airbus A380.Redevelopment of Terminal 3's forecourt by the addition of a new four-lane drop-off area and a large pedestrianised plaza, complete with a canopy to the front of the terminal building, was completed in 2007.These improvements were intended to improve passengers' experience, reduce traffic congestion and improve security.", "As part of this project, Virgin Atlantic was assigned its dedicated check-in area, known as 'Zone A', which features a large sculpture and atrium., Terminal 3 has an area of with 28 gates, and in 2011 it handled 19.8million passengers on 104,100flights.Most flights from Terminal 3 are long haul flights from North America, Asia and other foreign countries other than Europe.", "Terminal 3 is home to Oneworld members (with the exception of Malaysia Airlines, Qatar Airways and Royal Air Maroc, all of which use Terminal 4), SkyTeam members Aeroméxico, Delta Air Lines, Middle East Airlines, Virgin Atlantic, and several long haul unaffiliated carriers.", "British Airways also operates several flights from this terminal, as does Iberia and Vueling.=== Terminal 4 ===Terminal 4 bird's-eye viewOpened in 1986, Terminal 4 has 22 gates and is situated to the south of the southern runway next to the cargo terminal and is connected to Terminals 2 and 3 by the Heathrow Cargo Tunnel.", "The terminal has an area of and is now home to the SkyTeam alliance, except China Airlines which uses Terminal 2, and Aeroméxico, Delta Air Lines, Middle East Airlines, and Virgin Atlantic which use Terminal 3, Oneworld carriers Malaysia Airlines, Qatar Airways, Royal Air Maroc, and Gulf Air and to most unaffiliated carriers.", "It has undergone a £200million upgrade to enable it to accommodate 45airlines with an upgraded forecourt to reduce traffic congestion and improve security.", "Most flights that go to Terminal 4 are flights coming from East Europe, Central Asia, North Africa and the Middle East as well as a few flights to Europe.", "An extended check-in area with renovated piers and departure lounges and a new baggage system were installed, and four new stands were built to accommodate the Airbus A380; Qatar Airways operates regular A380 flights.", "Etihad Airways and Malaysia Airlines operate regular A350 flights.", "China Southern Airlines, El Al, Etihad Airways, Gulf Air, and Vietnam Airlines operate regular Boeing 787 flights.=== Terminal 5 ===Terminal 5 bird's-eye viewTerminal 5CTerminal 5Terminal 5 lies between the northern and southern runways at the western end of the Heathrow site and was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 14 March 2008, 19 years after its inception.", "It opened to the public on 27 March 2008, and British Airways and its partner company Iberia have exclusive use of this terminal, which has 50gates, including three hardstands.", "The first passenger to enter Terminal 5 was a UK ex-pat from Kenya who passed through security at 04:30 on the day.", "He was presented with a boarding pass by British Airways CEO Willie Walsh for the first departing flight, BA302 to Paris.", "During the two weeks after its opening, operations were disrupted by problems with the terminal's IT systems, coupled with insufficient testing and staff training, which caused over 500 flights to be cancelled.", "Terminal 5 is exclusively used by British Airways as its global hub.", "However, because of the merger, between 25 March 2012 and 12 July 2022, Iberia's operations at Heathrow were moved to the terminal, making it the home of International Airlines Group.", "On 12 July 2022, Iberia's flight operations were moved back to Terminal 3.On 7 July 2020, American moved to Terminal 5, to allow for easier connections from American's transatlantic flights to British Airways flights during the pandemic.", "However, all the American flights, except JFK, have returned to Terminal 3.China Southern Airlines used Terminal 5 due to the pandemic until it was relocated to Terminal 4 in November 2022.Built for £4.3billion, the terminal consists of a four-story main terminal building (Concourse A) and two satellite buildings linked to the main terminal by an underground people mover transit system.", "Concourse A is dedicated to British Airways's narrowbody fleet for flights around the UK and the rest of Europe, the first satellite (Concourse B) includes dedicated stands for BA and Iberia's widebody fleet except for the Airbus A380, and the second satellite (Concourse C), includes 7 dedicated aircraft stands for the A380.It became fully operational on 1 June 2011.Terminal 5 was voted Skytrax World's Best Airport Terminal 2014 in the Annual World Airport Awards.The main terminal building (Concourse A) has an area of while Concourse B covers .", "It has 60 aircraft stands and capacity for 30million passengers annually as well as more than 100shops and restaurants.", "It is also home to British Airways' Flagship lounge, the Concorde Room, alongside four further British Airways branded lounges.", "One of those lounges is the British Airways Arrivals Lounge which is located land-side.A further building, designated Concourse D and of similar size to Concourse C, may yet be built to the east of the existing site, providing up to another 16stands.", "Following British Airways' merger with Iberia, this may become a priority since the combined business will require accommodation at Heathrow under one roof to maximise the cost savings envisaged under the deal.", "A proposal for Concourse D was featured in Heathrow's most recent capital investment plan.The transport network around the airport has been extended to cope with the increase in passenger numbers.", "New branches of both the Heathrow Express and the Underground's Piccadilly line serve a new shared Heathrow Terminal 5 station.", "A dedicated motorway spur links the terminal to the M25 (between junctions 14 and 15).", "The terminal has a 3,800spaces multi-storey car park.", "A more distant long-stay car park for business passengers is connected to the terminal by a personal rapid transit system, the Heathrow Pod, which became operational in the spring of 2011.An automated people mover (APM) system, known as the Transit, transports airside passengers between the main terminal building and the satellite concourses.===Terminal assignments===As of 2 September 2023, Heathrow's four passenger terminals are assigned as follows:TerminalAirlines and alliancesStar Alliance, China Airlines and several short-haul non-aligned airlinesTerminal 3Oneworld (except Iberia, Malaysia Airlines, Royal Air Maroc and Qatar Airways), Aeromėxico, Delta Air Lines, Middle East Airlines, Virgin Atlantic and several long-haul non-aligned airlinesTerminal 4SkyTeam (except Aeromėxico, China Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Middle East Airlines, and Virgin Atlantic), Malaysia Airlines, Royal Air Maroc, Qatar Airways as well as most non-aligned airlinesTerminal 5British Airways (most destinations), Iberia Following the opening of Terminal 5 in March 2008, a complex programme of terminal moves was implemented.", "This saw many airlines move to be grouped in terminals by airline alliance as far as possible.Following the opening of Phase 1 of the new Terminal 2 in June 2014, all Star Alliance member airlines (with the exception of new member Air India which moved in early 2017) along with Aer Lingus and Germanwings relocated to Terminal 2 in a phased process completed on 22 October 2014.Additionally, by 30 June 2015 all airlines left Terminal 1 in preparation for its demolition to make room for the construction of Phase 2 of Terminal 2.Some other airlines made further minor moves at a later point, e.g.", "Delta Air Lines merging all departures in Terminal 3 instead of a split between Terminals 3 and 4.Iberia moved to Terminal 5 on 1 June 2023.==== Terminal usage during the COVID-19 pandemic ====Heathrow Airport has four terminals with a total of 115 gates, 66 of which can support wide-body aircraft and 24 gates that can support an Airbus A380.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Heathrow's services were sharply reduced.", "It announced that as of 6 April 2020, the airport would be transitioning to single-runway operations and that it would be temporarily closing Terminals 3 and 4, moving all remaining flights into Terminals 2 or 5.Dual runway operations were restored in August 2020.Heathrow returned to single-runway operations on 9 November 2020.On 11 December 2020, Heathrow announced Terminal 4 would be shut until the end of 2021.Terminal 3 was reopened for use by Virgin Atlantic and Delta on 15 July 2021, and Terminal 4 was reopened on 14 June 2022.===Former Terminal 1===Terminal 1 opened in 1968 and was inaugurated by Queen Elizabeth II in April 1969.Terminal 1 was the Heathrow base for British Airways' (BA) domestic and European network and a few of its long haul routes before Terminal 5 opened.", "The acquisition of British Midland International (BMI) in 2012 by BA's owner International Airlines Group meant British Airways took over BMI's short-haul and medium-haul destinations from the terminal.", "Terminal 1 was also the main base for most Star Alliance members though some were also based at Terminal 3.Terminal 1 closed at the end of June 2015, the site is now being used to extend Terminal 2 which opened in June 2014.A number of the newer gates used by Terminal 1 were built as part of the Terminal 2 development and are being retained.", "The last tenants along with British Airways were El Al, Icelandair (moved to Terminal 2 on 25 March 2015) and LATAM Brasil (the third to move in to Terminal 3 on 27 May 2015).", "British Airways was the last operator in Terminal 1.Two flights of this carrier, one departing to Hanover and one arriving from Baku, marked the terminal closure on 29 June 2015.British Airways operations have been relocated to Terminals 3 and 5." ], [ "Airlines and destinations", "===Passenger===The following airlines operate regularly scheduled passenger flights at London Heathrow Airport:===Cargo===" ], [ "Air traffic and statistics", "===Overview===Development of passenger numbers, aircraft movements and air freight between 1986 and 2014When ranked by passenger traffic, Heathrow is the eight busiest internationally, behind Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport, Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Denver International Airport, Chicago O'Hare International Airport, Dubai International Airport, Los Angeles International Airport, and Istanbul Airport, for the 12 months ending December 2022.London Heathrow Airport was noted as the best-connected airport globally in 2019 according to the OAG's Megahubs Index with a connectivity score of 317.Dominant carrier British Airways was recorded as holding a 51% share of flights at the hub.In 2015, Heathrow was the busiest airport in Europe in total passenger traffic, with 14% more passengers than Paris–Charles de Gaulle Airport and 22% more than Istanbul Atatürk Airport.", "Heathrow was the fourth busiest European airport by cargo traffic in 2013, after Frankfurt Airport, Paris Charles de Gaulle and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.In 2020, Heathrow's passenger numbers dropped sharply by over 72%, (a decrease of 58million travellers compared to 2019), due to the impact caused by restrictions and/or bans on travel caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic.", "More than four million passengers travelled on domestic and international flights in and out of Heathrow in March 2023, meaning it was once again the busiest airport in Europe after falling to the second spot in November of 2022.===Annual traffic statistics=======Overview========In table====+Annual traffic statistics at HeathrowYearPassengers handledCargoAircraft movements Numbers % Change (tonnes) % Change Numbers % Change1986315,7531987329,977 4.31988351,592 6.11989368,429 4.61990390,372 5.61991381,724 2.31992406,481 6.11993411,173 1.11994424,557 3.21995434,525 2.31996440,343 1.31997440,631 0.11998451,382 2.41999458,300 1.52000466,799 1.82001463,567 0.72002466,545 0.62003463,650 0.62004476,001 2.62005477,887 0.42006477,048 0.22007481,476 0.92008478,693 0.62009466,393 2.6201065,881,660 454,823 2.5201169,433,230 480,906 5.4201270,037,417 475,176 1.2201372,367,054 1,422,939 471,936 0.7201473,374,825 1,498,906 472,802 0.2201574,959,058 1,496,551 473,087 2.7201675,676,223 1,541,029 473,231 0.2201777,988,752 1,698,455 474,033 0.6201880,102,017 1,788,815 477,604 1.0201980,884,310 1,587,451 475,861 0.3202022,109,723 1,150,030 200,90557.8202119,393,145 1,402,913 190,0325.4202261,611,838 1,350,878 384,38398.7202379,151,723 1,387,060 454,08918.1===Busiest routes===+ Busiest routes from LHR (2022) Rank Destination Passengers Change 2021 / 22 1 New York–JFK, United States 2,373,529 286% 2 Dubai–International, United Arab Emirates 2,260,330 180% 3 Doha, Qatar 1,491,364 278% 4 Dublin, Republic of Ireland 1,320,119 227% 5 Los Angeles, United States 1,225,487 326% 6 Madrid, Spain 1,185,456 178% 7 Amsterdam, Netherlands 1,143,986 226% 8 Istanbul, Turkey 1,103,949 186% 9 Frankfurt, Germany 1,046,015 232% 10 Singapore–Changi, Singapore 949,782 406% 11 Munich, Germany 933,939 363% 12 Paris–Charles de Gaulle, France 917,541 168% 13 Lisbon, Portugal 912,824 203% 14 Chicago–O'Hare, United States 896,746 279% 15 Geneva, Switzerland 894,269 303% 16 Delhi, India 892,836 176% 17 San Francisco, United States 878,892 459% 18 Zurich, Switzerland 827,907 210% 19 Newark, United States 810,084 477% 20 Boston, United States 800,673 363% ''Source: CAA Statistics''+ Busiest domestic routes from LHR (2022) Rank Destination Passengers Change 2021 / 22 1 Edinburgh 732,421 91% 2 Glasgow 694,334 88% 3 Belfast-City 598,977 77% 4 Manchester 412,547 81% 5 Aberdeen 411,683 68% 6 Newcastle upon Tyne 328,801 184% 7 Jersey 316,997 101% 8 Inverness 132,529 107% 9 Isle of Man 20,345 194% 10 Newquay 11,704 14% ''Source: CAA Statistics''" ], [ "Other facilities", "The Compass Centre, the head office of Heathrow Airport HoldingsThe head office of Heathrow Airport Holdings (formerly BAA Limited) is located in the Compass Centre by Heathrow's northern runway, a building that previously served as a British Airways flight crew centre.", "The World Business Centre Heathrow consists of three buildings.", "1 World Business Centre houses offices of Heathrow Airport Holdings, Heathrow Airport itself, and Scandinavian Airlines.", "Previously International Airlines Group had its head office in 2 World Business Centre.At one time the British Airways head office was located within Heathrow Airport at Speedbird House before the completion of Waterside, the current BA head office in Harmondsworth, in June 1998.To the north of the airfield lies the Northern Perimeter Road, along which most of Heathrow's car rental agencies are based, and Bath Road, which runs parallel to it, but outside the airport campus." ], [ "Transport", "===Public transport===Heathrow Airport tube and rail stations (Note: The map is outdated as TfL Rail is now the Elizabeth line.", ")====Train====Heathrow Express train at London PaddingtonThere are three train services to Central London:* Heathrow Express: a non-stop service direct to London Paddington; trains leave every 15 minutes for the 15-minute journey (21 minutes to and from Terminal 5).", "Trains depart from Heathrow Terminal 5 station or Heathrow Central station (Terminals 2 & 3).", "There is a free transfer service between Terminal 4 and Heathrow Central to connect with services from London and Terminal 5.", "* Elizabeth line: a stopping service to Abbey Wood and Shenfield via Paddington and central London – 6 trains per hour, two originating from Terminal 5 and four originating from Terminal 4.Calls at Hayes & Harlington for connecting trains to Reading.", "Scheduled journey time into Central London is around 35 minutes.", "* London Underground (Piccadilly line): four stations serve the airport: Terminal 2 & 3, Terminal 4 and Terminal 5 serve the passenger terminals; Hatton Cross serves the maintenance areas.", "The usual journey time from Heathrow Central to Central London is around 40–50 minutes.====Bus and coach====Many bus and coach services operate from the large Heathrow Central bus station, which serves Terminal 2 and Terminal 3.Services also operate from the bus stations located at Terminal 4 and Terminal 5.===Inter-terminal transport===Terminal 5 airside transit systemTerminals 2 and 3 are within walking distance of each other.", "Transfers from Terminals 2 and 3 to Terminals 4 and 5 are provided by Elizabeth line and Heathrow Express trains and the London Underground Piccadilly line.", "Direct transfer between Terminals 4 and 5 is provided for free by route H30, introduced by Diamond Buses on 1 December 2022.Transit passengers remaining airside are provided with free dedicated transfer buses between terminals.", "These use dedicated airside tunnels (Heathrow Cargo Tunnel between Terminals 2/3 and 4, Heathrow Airside Road Tunnel between Terminals 2/3 and 5) to minimise disruption to aircraft operations.The Heathrow Pod personal rapid transit system shuttles passengers between Terminal 5 and the business car park using 21 small, driverless transportation pods.", "The pods are battery-powered and run on-demand on a four-kilometre track, each able to carry up to four adults, two children, and their luggage.", "Plans exist to extend the Pod system to connect Terminals 2 and 3 to remote car parks.An underground automated people mover system known as the ''Transit'' operates within Terminal 5, linking the main terminal with the satellite Terminals 5B and 5C.", "The Transit operates entirely airside using Bombardier Innovia APM 200 people mover vehicles.===Hotel access===The Hotel Hoppa bus network connects all terminals to major hotels in the area.===Taxi===Taxis are available at all terminals.===Car===Heathrow is accessible via the nearby M4 motorway or A4 road (Terminals 2–3), the M25 motorway (Terminals 4 and 5) and the A30 road (Terminal 4).", "There are drop-off and pick-up areas at all terminals and short- and long-stay multi-storey car parks.", "All the Heathrow forecourts are drop-off only.", "There are further car parks, not run by Heathrow Airport Holdings, just outside the airport: the most recognisable is the National Car Parks facility, although there are many other options; these car parks are connected to the terminals by shuttle buses.Four parallel tunnels under the northern runway connect the M4 Heathrow spur and the A4 road to Terminals 2–3.The two larger tunnels are each two lanes wide and are used for motorised traffic.", "The two smaller tunnels were originally reserved for pedestrians and bicycles; to increase traffic capacity the cycle lanes have been modified to each take a single lane of cars, although bicycles still have priority over cars.", "Pedestrian access to the smaller tunnels has been discontinued, with the free bus services being used instead.===Bicycle===There are (mainly off-road) bicycle routes to some of the terminals.", "Free bicycle parking places are available in car parks 1 and 1A, at Terminal 4, and to the North and South of Terminal 5's Interchange Plaza.", "Cycling is not currently allowed through the main tunnel to access the central area and Terminals 2 and 3." ], [ "Incidents and accidents", "* On 3 March 1948, Sabena Douglas DC-3 OO-AWH crashed in fog.", "Three crew and 19 of the 22 passengers on board died.", "* On 31 October 1950, BEA Vickers Viking G-AHPN crashed at Heathrow after hitting the runway during a go-around.", "Three crew and 25 passengers died.", "* On 16 January 1955, a BEA Vickers Viscount (registered as G-AMOK) crashed into barriers whilst taking off in the fog from a disused runway strip parallel to the desired runway.", "There were two injuries.", "* On 22 June 1955, a BOAC de Havilland Dove (registration: G-ALTM) crashed just short of the runway during a filming flight when the pilot shut down the incorrect engine.", "There were no casualties.", "* On 1 October 1956, XA897, an Avro Vulcan strategic bomber of the Royal Air Force, crashed at Heathrow after an approach in bad weather.", "The Vulcan was the first to be delivered to the RAF and was returning from a demonstration flight to Australia and New Zealand.", "The pilot and co-pilot ejected and survived, but the four other occupants were killed.", "* On 7 January 1960, Vickers Viscount G-AOHU of BEA was damaged beyond economic repair when the nose wheel collapsed on landing.", "A fire then developed and burnt out the fuselage.", "There were no casualties among the 59 people on board.", "* On 27 October 1965, BEA Vickers Vanguard G-APEE, flying from Edinburgh, crashed on Runway 28R while attempting to land in poor visibility.", "All 30 passengers and six crew on board died.", "* On 8 April 1968, BOAC Flight 712 Boeing 707 G-ARWE, departing for Australia via Singapore, suffered an engine fire just after take-off.", "The engine fell from the wing into a nearby gravel pit in Staines, before the plane managed to perform an emergency landing with the wing on fire.", "However, the plane was consumed by fire once on the ground.", "Five people – four passengers and a flight attendant – died, while 122 survived.", "The flight attendant, Barbara Harrison, who helped with the evacuation, was posthumously awarded the George Cross.", "* On 3 July 1968, the port flap operating rod of G-AMAD, an Airspeed Ambassador operated by BKS Air Transport failed due to fatigue, thereby allowing the port flaps to retract.", "This resulted in a rolling movement to the port which could not be controlled during the approach, causing the aircraft to contact the grass and swerve towards the terminal building.", "It hit two parked British European Airways Hawker Siddeley Trident aircraft, burst into flames and came to rest against the ground floor of the terminal building.", "Six of the eight crew died, as did eight horses on board.", "Trident G-ARPT was written off, and Trident G-ARPI was badly damaged, but subsequently repaired, only to be lost in the Staines crash in 1972.", "* On 18 June 1972, Trident G-ARPI, operating as BEA548, crashed in a field close to the Crooked Billet Public House, Staines, two minutes after taking off.", "All 118 passengers and crew on board died.", "* On 17 January 2008, a British Airways Boeing 777-236ER, G-YMMM, operating flight BA038 from Beijing, crash-landed at Heathrow.", "The aircraft landed on grass short of the south runway, then slid to the edge of the runway and stopped on the threshold, leading to 18 minor injuries.", "The aircraft was later found to have suffered a loss of thrust caused by fuel icing.", "* On 28 September 2022, there was a ground collision involving a Korean Air Boeing 777 that was about to take off to Seoul, and an Icelandair Boeing 757 which had landed from Reykjavik.", "The 777 aborted its takeoff and no injuries were reported, but the aircraft suffered minor damage.===Terrorism and security incidents===* On 8 June 1968, James Earl Ray, the man convicted of the 4 April 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., was captured and arrested at Heathrow Airport while attempting to leave the United Kingdom for Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) on a false Canadian passport.", "* On 6 September 1970, El Al Flight 219 experienced an attempted hijack by two PFLP members.", "One hijacker was killed and the other was subdued as the plane made an emergency landing at Heathrow Airport.", "* On 19 May 1974, the IRA planted a series of bombs in the Terminal 1 car park.", "Two people were injured by the explosions.", "* On 26 November 1983, the Brink's-Mat robbery occurred, in which 6,800 gold bars worth nearly £26million were taken from a vault near Heathrow.", "Only a small amount of the gold was recovered and only two men were convicted of the crime.", "* On 17 April 1986, semtex explosives were found in the bag of a pregnant Irishwoman attempting to board an El Al flight.", "The explosives had been given to her by her Jordanian boyfriend and the father of her unborn child Nizar Hindawi.", "The incident became known as the Hindawi Affair.", "*On 21 December 1988, Pan Am Flight 103 exploded mid-air over the town of Lockerbie, killing all 259 onboard and eleven people on the ground.", "The flight originated from Frankfurt as a feeder flight with a change of aircraft at Heathrow and was on its transatlantic leg to New York's JFK airport at the time of the incident.", "An unaccompanied suitcase containing a boombox radio/cassette player which housed the explosive was checked in at Malta and forwarded as interline baggage for this flight at Frankfurt, wherein it made its way to the transatlantic leg.", "* In 1994, over six days, Heathrow was targeted three times (8, 10, and 13 March) by the IRA, which fired 12 mortars.", "Heathrow was a symbolic target due to its importance to the UK economy, and much disruption was caused when areas of the airport were closed over the period.", "The gravity of the incident was heightened because the Queen was being flown back to Heathrow by the RAF on 10 March.", "* In March 2002, thieves stole US$3million that had arrived on a South African Airways flight.", "Just a few weeks earlier, a similar amount of money was stolen from a British Airways flight that arrived from Bahrain.", "* In February 2003, the British Army was deployed to Heathrow along with 1,000 police officers in response to intelligence reports suggesting that al-Qaeda terrorists might launch surface-to-air missile attacks at British or American airliners.", "* On 17 May 2004, Scotland Yard's Flying Squad foiled an attempt by seven men to steal £40million in gold bullion and a similar quantity of cash from the Swissport warehouse at Heathrow.", "* On 25 February 2008, Greenpeace activists protesting against the planned construction of a third runway managed to cross the ramp and climb atop a British Airways Airbus A320, which had just arrived from Manchester Airport.", "At about 09:45 GMT the protesters unveiled a \"Climate Emergency – No Third Runway\" banner over the aircraft's tailfin.", "By 11:00 GMT four arrests had been made.", "* In October 2010, an Angolan national was being deported on a British Airways plane.", "Security guards were heavy-handed with him and they put him in a dangerous position, leading to asphyxia.", "He did not survive.", "* On 13 July 2015, thirteen activists belonging to the climate change protest group Plane Stupid managed to break through the perimeter fence and get onto the northern runway.", "They chained themselves together in protest, disrupting hundreds of flights.", "All were eventually arrested.", "*In June 2022, many protesters gathered at Heathrow and Gatwick airports to protest the UK-Rwanda deal.", "A flight which was supposed to carry asylum seekers from the UK to Rwanda was cancelled.", "*In December 2022, a piece of uranium metal discovered in the airport triggers a counter-terrorism investigation.", "It was found in the scrap metal package originated from Pakistan via a passenger flight from Oman on 29 December.", "It was bound for an Iranian business with premises in the UK.===Other incidents===* On 18 December 2010, 'heavy' (9 cm, according to the Heathrow Winter Resilience Enquiry) snowfall caused the closure of the entire airport, causing one of the largest incidents at Heathrow of all time.", "Some 4,000 flights were cancelled over five days and 9,500 passengers spent the night at Heathrow on 18 December following the initial snowfall.", "The problems were caused not only by snow on the runways but also by snow and ice on the 198 parking stands which were all occupied by aircraft.", "*On 12 July 2013, the ELT on an Ethiopian Airlines Boeing 787 Dreamliner parked at Heathrow airport caught fire due to a short circuit.", "There were no passengers aboard and no injuries.", "* From 12 September 2019, the climate change campaign group, Heathrow Pause attempted to disrupt flights into and out of Heathrow Airport in London by flying drones in the airport's exclusion zone.", "The action was unsuccessful in disrupting flights and nineteen people were arrested." ], [ "Future expansion and plans", "===Runway and terminal expansion===British Airways aircraft queuing for take-offThere is a long history of expansion proposals for Heathrow since it was first designated as a civil airport.", "Following the cancellation of the Maplin project in 1974, a fourth terminal was proposed but expansion beyond this was ruled out.", "However, the Airports Inquiries of 1981–83 and the 1985 Airports Policy White Paper considered further expansion and, following a four-year-long public inquiry in 1995–99, Terminal 5 was approved.", "In 2003, after many studies and consultations, the Future of Air Transport White Paper was published which proposed a third runway at Heathrow, as well as a second runway at Stansted Airport.", "In January 2009, the Transport Secretary at the time, Geoff Hoon announced that the British government supported the expansion of Heathrow by building a third runway and a sixth terminal building.", "This decision followed the 2003 white paper on the future of air transport in the UK, and a public consultation in November 2007.This was a controversial decision which met with widespread opposition because of the expected greenhouse gas emissions, impact on local communities, as well as noise and air pollution concerns.Before the 2010 general election, the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties announced that they would prevent the construction of any third runway or further material expansion of the airport's operating capacity.", "The Mayor of London, then Boris Johnson, took the position that London needs more airport capacity, favouring the construction of an entirely new airport in the Thames Estuary rather than expanding Heathrow.", "After the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition took power, it was announced that the third runway expansion was cancelled.", "Two years later, leading Conservatives were reported to have changed their minds on the subject.Another proposal for expanding Heathrow's capacity was the Heathrow Hub, which aims to extend both runways to a total length of about 7,000 metres and divide them into four so that they each provide two, full-length runways, allowing simultaneous take-offs and landings while decreasing noise levels.In July 2013, the airport submitted three new proposals for expansion to the Airports Commission, which was established to review airport capacity in the southeast of England.", "The Airports Commission was chaired by Sir Howard Davies.", "He, at the time of his appointment, was in the employ of GIC Private Limited (formerly known as Government Investment Corporation of Singapore) and a member of its International Advisory Board.", "GIC Private Limited was then (2012), as it remains today, one of Heathrow's principal owners.", "Sir Howard Davies resigned from these positions upon confirmation of his appointment to lead the Airports Commission, although it has been observed that he failed to identify these interests when invited to complete the Airports Commission's register of interests.", "Each of the three proposals that were to be considered by Sir Howard Davies's commission involved the construction of a third runway, either to the north, northwest or southwest of the airport.The commission released its interim report in December 2013, shortlisting three options: the north-west third runway option at Heathrow, extending an existing runway at Heathrow, and a second runway at Gatwick Airport.", "After this report was published, the government confirmed that no options had been ruled out for airport expansion in the South-east and that a new runway would not be built at Heathrow before 2015.The full report was published on 1 July 2015, and backed a third, north-west, runway at Heathrow.", "Reaction to the report was generally adverse, particularly from London Mayor Boris Johnson.", "One senior Conservative told Channel 4: \"Howard Davies has dumped an utter steaming pile of poo on the Prime Minister's desk.\"", "On 25 October 2016, the government confirmed that Heathrow would be allowed to build a third runway; however, a final decision would not be taken until winter of 2017/18, after consultations and government votes.", "The earliest opening year would be 2025.On 5 June 2018, the UK Cabinet approved the third runway, with a full vote planned for Parliament.", "On 25 June 2018, the House of Commons voted, 415–119, in favour of the third runway.", "The bill received support from most MPs in the Conservative and Labour parties.", "A judicial review against the decision was launched by four London local authorities affected by the expansion—Wandsworth, Richmond, Hillingdon and Hammersmith and Fulham—in partnership with Greenpeace and London mayor Sadiq Khan.", "Khan previously stated he would take legal action if it were passed by Parliament.In February 2020, the Court of Appeal ruled that the plans for a third runway were illegal since they did not adequately take into account the government's commitments to the Paris climate agreement.", "However, this ruling was later overturned by the Supreme Court in December 2020.===New transport proposals===One of the transport projects being considered is the Western Rail Approach to HeathrowCurrently, all rail connections with Heathrow airport run along an east–west alignment to and from central London, and a number of schemes have been proposed over the years to develop new rail transport links with other parts of London and with stations outside the city.", "This mainline rail service is due to be extended to central London and Essex when the Elizabeth line, currently under construction, opens.A 2009 proposal to create a southern link with via the Waterloo–Reading line was abandoned in 2011 due to lack of funding and difficulties with a high number of level crossings on the route into London, and a plan to link Heathrow to the planned High Speed 2 (HS2) railway line (with a new station, ) was also dropped from the HS2 plans in March 2015.Among other schemes that have been considered is a rapid transport link between Heathrow and Gatwick Airports, known as ''Heathwick'', which would allow the airports to operate jointly as an airline hub; In 2018, the Department for Transport began to invite proposals for privately funded rail links to Heathrow Airport.", "Projects being considered under this initiative include:* the Western Rail Approach to Heathrow, a proposal for a spur from the Great Western Main Line to link Heathrow to , , the South West, South Wales and the West Midlands;* Heathrow Southern Railway, a similar scheme to the abandoned Airtrack proposal, which would connect Terminal 5 station with or , , , Guildford and ;" ], [ "See also", "*Airports of London*Heathrow Worldwide Distribution Centre*List of airports in the United Kingdom and the British Crown Dependencies" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* Cotton, Jonathan; Mills, John & Clegg, Gillian.", "(1986) ''Archaeology in West Middlesex''.", "Uxbridge: London Borough of Hillingdon * Gallop, Alan.", "(2005) ''Time Flies: Heathrow at 60''.", "Stroud: Sutton Publishing * Helpenny, Bruce B.", "(1992) ''Action Stations Vol.8: Military Airfields of Greater London''.", "* Le Blond, Paul.", "(2018) ''Inside London's Airports Policy: Indecision, decision and counter-decision,'' ICE Publishing, * Sherwood, Philip.", "(1990) ''The History of Heathrow''.", "Uxbridge: London Borough of Hillingdon * Sherwood, Philip (editor).", "(1993) ''The Villages of Harmondsworth''.", "West Middlesex Family History Society, * Sherwood, Philip.", "(1999) ''Heathrow: 2000 Years of History''.", "Stroud: Sutton Publishing * Sherwood, Philip.", "(2006) ''Around Heathrow Past & Present''.", "Sutton Publishing ** (Contains many pairs of photographs, old (or in one case a painting), and new, each pair made from the same viewpoint.", ")* Sherwood, Philip.", "(2009) ''Heathrow: 2000 Years of History''.", "Stroud: The History Press * Sherwood, Philip.", "(2012) ''Around Heathrow Through Time''.", "Amberley Publishing, * Sherwood, Tim.", "(1999) ''Coming in to Land: A Short History of Hounslow, Hanworth and Heston Aerodromes'' 1911–1946.Heritage Publications (Hounslow Library) * Smith, Graham.", "(2003) ''Taking to the Skies: the Story of British Aviation 1903–1939''.", "Countryside * Smith, Ron.", "(2002) ''British Built Aircraft Vol.1''.", "Greater London: Tempus * Sturtivant, Ray.", "(1995) ''Fairey Aircraft: in Old Photographs''.", "Alan Sutton * Taylor, H.A.", "(1974) ''Fairey Aircraft since 1915''.", "Putnam .", "* Taylor, John WR.", "(1997) ''Fairey Aviation: Archive Photographs''.", "Chalford" ], [ "External links", "* * Heathrow Community Engagement Board website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hipparchus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hipparchus''' (; , ''Hipparkhos'';  BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician.", "He is considered the founder of trigonometry, but is most famous for his incidental discovery of the precession of the equinoxes.", "Hipparchus was born in Nicaea, Bithynia, and probably died on the island of Rhodes, Greece.", "He is known to have been a working astronomer between 162 and 127 BC.Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall astronomer of antiquity.", "He was the first whose quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the Sun and Moon survive.", "For this he certainly made use of the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques accumulated over centuries by the Babylonians and by Meton of Athens (fifth century BC), Timocharis, Aristyllus, Aristarchus of Samos, and Eratosthenes, among others.He developed trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he solved several problems of spherical trigonometry.", "With his solar and lunar theories and his trigonometry, he may have been the first to develop a reliable method to predict solar eclipses.His other reputed achievements include the discovery and measurement of Earth's precession, the compilation of the first known comprehensive star catalog from the western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe, as well as of the armillary sphere that he may have used in creating the star catalogue.", "Hipparchus is sometimes called the \"father of astronomy\", a title conferred on him by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre in 1817." ], [ "Life and work", "Hipparchus was born in Nicaea (), in Bithynia.", "The exact dates of his life are not known, but Ptolemy attributes astronomical observations to him in the period from 147 to 127 BC, and some of these are stated as made in Rhodes; earlier observations since 162 BC might also have been made by him.", "His birth date ( BC) was calculated by Delambre based on clues in his work.", "Hipparchus must have lived some time after 127 BC because he analyzed and published his observations from that year.", "Hipparchus obtained information from Alexandria as well as Babylon, but it is not known when or if he visited these places.", "He is believed to have died on the island of Rhodes, where he seems to have spent most of his later life.In the second and third centuries, coins were made in his honour in Bithynia that bear his name and show him with a globe.Relatively little of Hipparchus's direct work survives into modern times.", "Although he wrote at least fourteen books, only his commentary on the popular astronomical poem by Aratus was preserved by later copyists.", "Most of what is known about Hipparchus comes from Strabo's ''Geography'' and Pliny's ''Natural History'' in the first century; Ptolemy's second-century ''Almagest''; and additional references to him in the fourth century by Pappus and Theon of Alexandria in their commentaries on the ''Almagest''.Hipparchus's only preserved work is ''Commentary on the Phaenomena of Eudoxus and Aratus'' ().", "This is a highly critical commentary in the form of two books on a popular poem by Aratus based on the work by Eudoxus.", "Hipparchus also made a list of his major works that apparently mentioned about fourteen books, but which is only known from references by later authors.", "His famous star catalog was incorporated into the one by Ptolemy and may be almost perfectly reconstructed by subtraction of two and two-thirds degrees from the longitudes of Ptolemy's stars.", "The first trigonometric table was apparently compiled by Hipparchus, who is consequently now known as \"the father of trigonometry\"." ], [ "Babylonian sources", "Earlier Greek astronomers and mathematicians were influenced by Babylonian astronomy to some extent, for instance the period relations of the Metonic cycle and Saros cycle may have come from Babylonian sources (see \"Babylonian astronomical diaries\").", "Hipparchus seems to have been the first to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically.", "Eudoxus in the 4th century BC and Timocharis and Aristillus in the 3rd century BC already divided the ecliptic in 360 parts (our degrees, Greek: moira) of 60 arcminutes and Hipparchus continued this tradition.", "It was only in Hipparchus's time (2nd century BC) when this division was introduced (probably by Hipparchus's contemporary Hypsikles) for all circles in mathematics.", "Eratosthenes (3rd century BC), in contrast, used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts.", "Hipparchus also adopted the Babylonian astronomical ''cubit'' unit (Akkadian ''ammatu'', Greek πῆχυς ''pēchys'') that was equivalent to 2° or 2.5° ('large cubit').Hipparchus probably compiled a list of Babylonian astronomical observations; Gerald J. Toomer, a historian of astronomy, has suggested that Ptolemy's knowledge of eclipse records and other Babylonian observations in the ''Almagest'' came from a list made by Hipparchus.", "Hipparchus's use of Babylonian sources has always been known in a general way, because of Ptolemy's statements, but the only text by Hipparchus that survives does not provide sufficient information to decide whether Hipparchus's knowledge (such as his usage of the units cubit and finger, degrees and minutes, or the concept of hour stars) was based on Babylonian practice.", "However, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that the synodic and anomalistic periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian ephemerides, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called \"System B\" (sometimes attributed to Kidinnu).Hipparchus's long draconitic lunar period (5,458 months = 5,923 lunar nodal periods) also appears a few times in Babylonian records.", "But the only such tablet explicitly dated, is post-Hipparchus so the direction of transmission is not settled by the tablets." ], [ "Geometry, trigonometry and other mathematical techniques", "Hipparchus was recognized as the first mathematician known to have possessed a trigonometric table, which he needed when computing the eccentricity of the orbits of the Moon and Sun.", "He tabulated values for the chord function, which for a central angle in a circle gives the length of the straight line segment between the points where the angle intersects the circle.", "He may have computed this for a circle with a circumference of 21,600 units and a radius (rounded) of 3,438 units; this circle has a unit length for each arcminute along its perimeter.", "(This was “proven” by Toomer, but he later “cast doubt“ upon his earlier affirmation.", "Other authors have argued that a circle of radius 3,600 units may instead have been used by Hipparchus.)", "He tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°.", "In modern terms, the chord subtended by a central angle in a circle of given radius equals the radius times twice the sine of half of the angle, i.e.", "::The now-lost work in which Hipparchus is said to have developed his chord table, is called ''Tōn en kuklōi eutheiōn'' (''Of Lines Inside a Circle'') in Theon of Alexandria's fourth-century commentary on section I.10 of the ''Almagest''.", "Some claim the table of Hipparchus may have survived in astronomical treatises in India, such as the ''Surya Siddhanta''.", "Trigonometry was a significant innovation, because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques.Hipparchus must have used a better approximation for π than the one from Archimedes of between (3.14085) and (3.14286).", "Perhaps he had the one later used by Ptolemy: 3;8,30 (sexagesimal)(3.1417) (''Almagest'' VI.7), but it is not known whether he computed an improved value.Hipparchus could have constructed his chord table using the Pythagorean theorem and a theorem known to Archimedes.", "He also might have developed and used the theorem called Ptolemy's theorem; this was proved by Ptolemy in his ''Almagest'' (I.10) (and later extended by Carnot).The stereographic projection was ambiguously attributed to Hipparchus by Synesius (c. 400 AD), and on that basis Hipparchus is often credited with inventing it or at least knowing of it.", "However, some scholars believe this conclusion to be unjustified by available evidence.", "The oldest extant description of the stereographic projection is found in Ptolemy's ''Planisphere'' (2nd century AD).Besides geometry, Hipparchus also used arithmetic techniques developed by the Chaldeans.", "He was one of the first Greek mathematicians to do this and, in this way, expanded the techniques available to astronomers and geographers.There are several indications that Hipparchus knew spherical trigonometry, but the first surviving text discussing it is by Menelaus of Alexandria in the first century, who now, on that basis, commonly is credited with its discovery.", "(Previous to the finding of the proofs of Menelaus a century ago, Ptolemy was credited with the invention of spherical trigonometry.)", "Ptolemy later used spherical trigonometry to compute things such as the rising and setting points of the ecliptic, or to take account of the lunar parallax.", "If he did not use spherical trigonometry, Hipparchus may have used a globe for these tasks, reading values off coordinate grids drawn on it, or he may have made approximations from planar geometry, or perhaps used arithmetical approximations developed by the Chaldeans." ], [ "Lunar and solar theory", "Geometric construction used by Hipparchus in his determination of the distances to the Sun and Moon===Motion of the Moon===Hipparchus also studied the motion of the Moon and confirmed the accurate values for two periods of its motion that Chaldean astronomers are widely presumed to have possessed before him.", "The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean synodic month is 29 days; 31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... days.", "Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours +  hours this value has been used later in the Hebrew calendar.", "The Chaldeans also knew that 251 synodic months ≈ 269 anomalistic months.", "Hipparchus used the multiple of this period by a factor of 17, because that interval is also an eclipse period, and is also close to an integer number of years (4,267 moons : 4,573 anomalistic periods : 4,630.53 nodal periods : 4,611.98 lunar orbits : 344.996 years : 344.982 solar orbits : 126,007.003 days : 126,351.985 rotations).", "What was so exceptional and useful about the cycle was that all 345-year-interval eclipse pairs occur slightly more than 126,007 days apart within a tight range of only approximately ± hour, guaranteeing (after division by 4,267) an estimate of the synodic month correct to one part in order of magnitude 10 million.Hipparchus could confirm his computations by comparing eclipses from his own time (presumably 27 January 141 BC and 26 November 139 BC according to Toomer) with eclipses from Babylonian records 345 years earlier (''Almagest'' IV.2).", "Later al-Biruni (''Qanun'' VII.2.II) and Copernicus (''de revolutionibus'' IV.4) noted that the period of 4,267 moons is approximately five minutes longer than the value for the eclipse period that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus.", "However, the timing methods of the Babylonians had an error of no fewer than eight minutes.", "Modern scholars agree that Hipparchus rounded the eclipse period to the nearest hour, and used it to confirm the validity of the traditional values, rather than to try to derive an improved value from his own observations.", "From modern ephemerides and taking account of the change in the length of the day (see ΔT) we estimate that the error in the assumed length of the synodic month was less than 0.2 second in the fourth century BC and less than 0.1 second in Hipparchus's time.===Orbit of the Moon===It had been known for a long time that the motion of the Moon is not uniform: its speed varies.", "This is called its ''anomaly'' and it repeats with its own period; the anomalistic month.", "The Chaldeans took account of this arithmetically, and used a table giving the daily motion of the Moon according to the date within a long period.", "However, the Greeks preferred to think in geometrical models of the sky.", "At the end of the third century BC, Apollonius of Perga had proposed two models for lunar and planetary motion:# In the first, the Moon would move uniformly along a circle, but the Earth would be eccentric, i.e., at some distance of the center of the circle.", "So the apparent angular speed of the Moon (and its distance) would vary.# The Moon would move uniformly (with some mean motion in anomaly) on a secondary circular orbit, called an ''epicycle'' that would move uniformly (with some mean motion in longitude) over the main circular orbit around the Earth, called ''deferent''; see deferent and epicycle.Apollonius demonstrated that these two models were in fact mathematically equivalent.", "However, all this was theory and had not been put to practice.", "Hipparchus is the first astronomer known to attempt to determine the relative proportions and actual sizes of these orbits.", "Hipparchus devised a geometrical method to find the parameters from three positions of the Moon at particular phases of its anomaly.", "In fact, he did this separately for the eccentric and the epicycle model.", "Ptolemy describes the details in the ''Almagest'' IV.11.Hipparchus used two sets of three lunar eclipse observations that he carefully selected to satisfy the requirements.", "The eccentric model he fitted to these eclipses from his Babylonian eclipse list: 22/23 December 383 BC, 18/19 June 382 BC, and 12/13 December 382 BC.", "The epicycle model he fitted to lunar eclipse observations made in Alexandria at 22 September 201 BC, 19 March 200 BC, and 11 September 200 BC.", "* For the eccentric model, Hipparchus found for the ratio between the radius of the eccenter and the distance between the center of the eccenter and the center of the ecliptic (i.e., the observer on Earth): 3144 : ;* and for the epicycle model, the ratio between the radius of the deferent and the epicycle: : .These figures are due to the cumbersome unit he used in his chord table and may partly be due to some sloppy rounding and calculation errors by Hipparchus, for which Ptolemy criticised him while also making rounding errors.", "A simpler alternate reconstruction agrees with all four numbers.", "Hipparchus found inconsistent results; he later used the ratio of the epicycle model ( : ), which is too small (60 : 4;45 sexagesimal).", "Ptolemy established a ratio of 60 : .", "(The maximum angular deviation producible by this geometry is the arcsin of divided by 60, or approximately 5° 1', a figure that is sometimes therefore quoted as the equivalent of the Moon's equation of the center in the Hipparchan model.", ")===Apparent motion of the Sun===Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and their pupils at Athens had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment of the summer solstice) on 27 June 432 BC (proleptic Julian calendar).", "Aristarchus of Samos is said to have done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also had an observation by Archimedes.", "He observed the summer solstices in 146 and 135 BC both accurately to a few hours, but observations of the moment of equinox were simpler, and he made twenty during his lifetime.", "Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus's work on the length of the year in the ''Almagest'' III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning 162–128 BC, including an equinox timing by Hipparchus (at 24 March 146 BC at dawn) that differs by 5 hours from the observation made on Alexandria's large public equatorial ring that same day (at 1 hour before noon).", "Ptolemy claims his solar observations were on a transit instrument set in the meridian.At the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote a book entitled ''Peri eniausíou megéthous'' (\"On the Length of the Year\") regarding his results.", "The established value for the tropical year, introduced by Callippus in or before 330 BC was days.", "Speculating a Babylonian origin for the Callippic year is difficult to defend, since Babylon did not observe solstices thus the only extant System B year length was based on Greek solstices (see below).", "Hipparchus's equinox observations gave varying results, but he points out (quoted in ''Almagest'' III.1(H195)) that the observation errors by him and his predecessors may have been as large as day.", "He used old solstice observations and determined a difference of approximately one day in approximately 300 years.", "So he set the length of the tropical year to − days (= 365.24666... days = 365 days 5 hours 55 min, which differs from the modern estimate of the value (including earth spin acceleration), in his time of approximately 365.2425 days, an error of approximately 6 min per year, an hour per decade, and ten hours per century.Between the solstice observation of Meton and his own, there were 297 years spanning 108,478 days; this implies a tropical year of 365.24579... days = 365 days;14,44,51 (sexagesimal; = 365 days + + + ), a year length found on one of the few Babylonian clay tablets which explicitly specifies the System B month.", "Whether Babylonians knew of Hipparchus's work or the other way around is debatable.Another value for the year that is attributed to Hipparchus (by the astrologer Vettius Valens in the first century) is 365 + + days (= 365.25347... days = 365 days 6 hours 5 min), but this may be a corruption of another value attributed to a Babylonian source: 365 + + days (= 365.25694... days = 365 days 6 hours 10 min).", "It is not clear whether this would be a value for the sidereal year at his time or the modern estimate of approximately 365.2565 days, but the difference with Hipparchus's value for the tropical year is consistent with his rate of precession (see below).===Orbit of the Sun===Before Hipparchus, astronomers knew that the lengths of the seasons are not equal.", "Hipparchus made observations of equinox and solstice, and according to Ptolemy (''Almagest'' III.4) determined that spring (from spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 94 days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox) days.", "This is inconsistent with a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed.", "Hipparchus's solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the center.", "This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well.", "It is known today that the planets, including the Earth, move in approximate ellipses around the Sun, but this was not discovered until Johannes Kepler published his first two laws of planetary motion in 1609.The value for the eccentricity attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy is that the offset is of the radius of the orbit (which is a little too large), and the direction of the apogee would be at longitude 65.5° from the vernal equinox.", "Hipparchus may also have used other sets of observations, which would lead to different values.", "One of his two eclipse trios' solar longitudes are consistent with his having initially adopted inaccurate lengths for spring and summer of and days.", "His other triplet of solar positions is consistent with and days, an improvement on the results ( and days) attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy.", "Ptolemy made no change three centuries later, and expressed lengths for the autumn and winter seasons which were already implicit (as shown, e.g., by A. Aaboe).===Distance, parallax, size of the Moon and the Sun===Diagram used in reconstructing one of Hipparchus's methods of determining the distance to the Moon.", "This represents the Earth–Moon system during a partial solar eclipse at A (Alexandria) and a total solar eclipse at H (Hellespont).Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon, in the now-lost work ''On Sizes and Distances'' ( ).", "His work is mentioned in Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' V.11, and in a commentary thereon by Pappus; Theon of Smyrna (2nd century) also mentions the work, under the title ''On Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon''.Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his ''diopter''.", "Like others before and after him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation in the apparent diameter of the Sun.", "He found that at the ''mean'' distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the same apparent diameter; at that distance, the Moon's diameter fits 650 times into the circle, i.e., the mean apparent diameters are = 0°33′14″.Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable parallax, i.e., that it appears displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or stars), and the difference is greater when closer to the horizon.", "He knew that this is because in the then-current models the Moon circles the center of the Earth, but the observer is at the surface—the Moon, Earth and observer form a triangle with a sharp angle that changes all the time.", "From the size of this parallax, the distance of the Moon as measured in Earth radii can be determined.", "For the Sun however, there was no observable parallax (we now know that it is about 8.8\", several times smaller than the resolution of the unaided eye).In the first book, Hipparchus assumes that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as if it is at infinite distance.", "He then analyzed a solar eclipse, which Toomer presumes to be the eclipse of 14 March 190 BC.", "It was total in the region of the Hellespont (and in his birthplace, Nicaea); at the time Toomer proposes the Romans were preparing for war with Antiochus III in the area, and the eclipse is mentioned by Livy in his ''Ab Urbe Condita Libri'' VIII.2.It was also observed in Alexandria, where the Sun was reported to be obscured 4/5ths by the Moon.", "Alexandria and Nicaea are on the same meridian.", "Alexandria is at about 31° North, and the region of the Hellespont about 40° North.", "(It has been contended that authors like Strabo and Ptolemy had fairly decent values for these geographical positions, so Hipparchus must have known them too.", "However, Strabo's Hipparchus dependent latitudes for this region are at least 1° too high, and Ptolemy appears to copy them, placing Byzantium 2° high in latitude.)", "Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed by the two places and the Moon, and from simple geometry was able to establish a distance of the Moon, expressed in Earth radii.", "Because the eclipse occurred in the morning, the Moon was not in the meridian, and it has been proposed that as a consequence the distance found by Hipparchus was a lower limit.", "In any case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus found that the least distance is 71 (from this eclipse), and the greatest 83 Earth radii.In the second book, Hipparchus starts from the opposite extreme assumption: he assigns a (minimum) distance to the Sun of 490 Earth radii.", "This would correspond to a parallax of 7′, which is apparently the greatest parallax that Hipparchus thought would not be noticed (for comparison: the typical resolution of the human eye is about 2′; Tycho Brahe made naked eye observation with an accuracy down to 1′).", "In this case, the shadow of the Earth is a cone rather than a cylinder as under the first assumption.", "Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses) that at the mean distance of the Moon, the diameter of the shadow cone is lunar diameters.", "That apparent diameter is, as he had observed, degrees.", "With these values and simple geometry, Hipparchus could determine the mean distance; because it was computed for a minimum distance of the Sun, it is the maximum mean distance possible for the Moon.", "With his value for the eccentricity of the orbit, he could compute the least and greatest distances of the Moon too.", "According to Pappus, he found a least distance of 62, a mean of , and consequently a greatest distance of Earth radii.", "With this method, as the parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e., its distance increases), the minimum limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth radii—exactly the mean distance that Ptolemy later derived.Hipparchus thus had the problematic result that his minimum distance (from book 1) was greater than his maximum mean distance (from book 2).", "He was intellectually honest about this discrepancy, and probably realized that especially the first method is very sensitive to the accuracy of the observations and parameters.", "(In fact, modern calculations show that the size of the 189 BC solar eclipse at Alexandria must have been closer to ths and not the reported ths, a fraction more closely matched by the degree of totality at Alexandria of eclipses occurring in 310 and 129 BC which were also nearly total in the Hellespont and are thought by many to be more likely possibilities for the eclipse Hipparchus used for his computations.", ")Ptolemy later measured the lunar parallax directly (''Almagest'' V.13), and used the second method of Hipparchus with lunar eclipses to compute the distance of the Sun (''Almagest'' V.15).", "He criticizes Hipparchus for making contradictory assumptions, and obtaining conflicting results (''Almagest'' V.11): but apparently he failed to understand Hipparchus's strategy to establish limits consistent with the observations, rather than a single value for the distance.", "His results were the best so far: the actual mean distance of the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within his limits from Hipparchus's second book.Theon of Smyrna wrote that according to Hipparchus, the Sun is 1,880 times the size of the Earth, and the Earth twenty-seven times the size of the Moon; apparently this refers to volumes, not diameters.", "From the geometry of book 2 it follows that the Sun is at 2,550 Earth radii, and the mean distance of the Moon is radii.", "Similarly, Cleomedes quotes Hipparchus for the sizes of the Sun and Earth as 1050:1; this leads to a mean lunar distance of 61 radii.", "Apparently Hipparchus later refined his computations, and derived accurate single values that he could use for predictions of solar eclipses.See Toomer (1974) for a more detailed discussion.===Eclipses===Pliny (''Naturalis Historia'' II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart, and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days, but as seen by different nations.", "Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in ''Almagest'' VI.6.The geometry, and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained in ''Almagest'' VI.5.Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations.", "The result that two solar eclipses can occur one month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the northern and the other on the southern hemisphere—as Pliny indicates—and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek.Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper treatment of the lunar parallax.", "Hipparchus must have been the first to be able to do this.", "A rigorous treatment requires spherical trigonometry, thus those who remain certain that Hipparchus lacked it must speculate that he may have made do with planar approximations.", "He may have discussed these things in ''Perí tēs katá plátos mēniaías tēs selēnēs kinēseōs'' (\"On the monthly motion of the Moon in latitude\"), a work mentioned in the ''Suda''.Pliny also remarks that \"he also discovered for what exact reason, although the shadow causing the eclipse must from sunrise onward be below the earth, it happened once in the past that the Moon was eclipsed in the west while both luminaries were visible above the earth\" (translation H. Rackham (1938), Loeb Classical Library 330 p. 207).", "Toomer argued that this must refer to the large total lunar eclipse of 26 November 139 BC, when over a clean sea horizon as seen from Rhodes, the Moon was eclipsed in the northwest just after the Sun rose in the southeast.", "This would be the second eclipse of the 345-year interval that Hipparchus used to verify the traditional Babylonian periods: this puts a late date to the development of Hipparchus's lunar theory.", "We do not know what \"exact reason\" Hipparchus found for seeing the Moon eclipsed while apparently it was not in exact opposition to the Sun.", "Parallax lowers the altitude of the luminaries; refraction raises them, and from a high point of view the horizon is lowered." ], [ "Astronomical instruments and astrometry", "Hipparchus and his predecessors used various instruments for astronomical calculations and observations, such as the gnomon, the astrolabe, and the armillary sphere.Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for a long time for naked-eye observations.", "According to Synesius of Ptolemais (4th century) he made the first ''astrolabion'': this may have been an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy however says he constructed, in ''Almagest'' V.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called astrolabe (also mentioned by Theon of Alexandria).", "With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical latitude and time by observing fixed stars.", "Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, by recording the length of the longest day of the year or with the portable instrument known as a ''scaphe''.", "Equatorial ring of Hipparchus's time.Ptolemy mentions (''Almagest'' V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called ''dioptra'', to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon.", "Pappus of Alexandria described it (in his commentary on the ''Almagest'' of that chapter), as did Proclus (''Hypotyposis'' IV).", "It was a four-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a wedge that could be moved along the rod to exactly obscure the disk of Sun or Moon.Hipparchus also observed solar equinoxes, which may be done with an equatorial ring: its shadow falls on itself when the Sun is on the equator (i.e., in one of the equinoctial points on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls above or below the opposite side of the ring when the Sun is south or north of the equator.", "Ptolemy quotes (in ''Almagest'' III.1 (H195)) a description by Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in Alexandria; a little further he describes two such instruments present in Alexandria in his own time.Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface.", "Before him a grid system had been used by Dicaearchus of Messana, but Hipparchus was the first to apply mathematical rigor to the determination of the latitude and longitude of places on the Earth.", "Hipparchus wrote a critique in three books on the work of the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene (3rd century BC), called ''Pròs tèn Eratosthénous geographían'' (\"Against the Geography of Eratosthenes\").", "It is known to us from Strabo of Amaseia, who in his turn criticised Hipparchus in his own ''Geographia''.", "Hipparchus apparently made many detailed corrections to the locations and distances mentioned by Eratosthenes.", "It seems he did not introduce many improvements in methods, but he did propose a means to determine the geographical longitudes of different cities at lunar eclipses (Strabo ''Geographia'' 1 January 2012).", "A lunar eclipse is visible simultaneously on half of the Earth, and the difference in longitude between places can be computed from the difference in local time when the eclipse is observed.", "His approach would give accurate results if it were correctly carried out but the limitations of timekeeping accuracy in his era made this method impractical." ], [ "Star catalog", "Late in his career (possibly about 135 BC) Hipparchus compiled his star catalog.", "Scholars have been searching for it for centuries.", "In 2022, it was announced that a part of it was discovered in a medieval parchment manuscript, Codex Climaci Rescriptus, from Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt as hidden text (palimpsest).The figure on the left may be Hipparchus, from Raphael’s fresco ''The School of Athens''Hipparchus also constructed a celestial globe depicting the constellations, based on his observations.", "His interest in the fixed stars may have been inspired by the observation of a supernova (according to Pliny), or by his discovery of precession, according to Ptolemy, who says that Hipparchus could not reconcile his data with earlier observations made by Timocharis and Aristillus.", "For more information see Discovery of precession.", "In Raphael's painting ''The School of Athens'', Hipparchus may be depicted holding his celestial globe, as the representative figure for astronomy.", "It is not certain that the figure is meant to represent him.Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the fourth century BC had described the stars and constellations in two books called ''Phaenomena'' and ''Entropon''.", "Aratus wrote a poem called ''Phaenomena'' or ''Arateia'' based on Eudoxus's work.", "Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the ''Arateia''—his only preserved work—which contains many stellar positions and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations, and these are likely to have been based on his own measurements.A 19th century artist's impression of HipparchusAccording to Roman sources, Hipparchus made his measurements with a scientific instrument and he obtained the positions of roughly 850 stars.", "Pliny the Elder writes in book II, 24–26 of his Natural History:This passage reports that* Hipparchus was inspired by a newly emerging star * he doubts on the stability of stellar brightnesses* he observed with appropriate instruments (plural—it is not said that he observed everything with the same instrument) * he made a catalogue of starsIt is unknown what instrument he used.", "The armillary sphere was probably invented only later—maybe by Ptolemy 265 years after Hipparchus.", "The historian of science S. Hoffmann found clues that Hipparchus may have observed the longitudes and latitudes in different coordinate systems and, thus, with different instrumentation.", "Right ascensions, for instance, could have been observed with a clock, while angular separations could have been measured with another device.===Stellar magnitude===Hipparchus is conjectured to have ranked the apparent magnitudes of stars on a numerical scale from 1, the brightest, to 6, the faintest.", "This hypothesis is based on the vague statement by Pliny the Elder but cannot be proven by the data in Hipparchus's commentary on Aratus's poem.", "In this only work by his hand that has survived until today, he does not use the magnitude scale but estimates brightnesses unsystematically.", "However, this does not prove or disprove anything because the commentary might be an early work while the magnitude scale could have been introduced later.Nevertheless, this system certainly precedes Ptolemy, who used it extensively about AD 150.This system was made more precise and extended by N. R. Pogson in 1856, who placed the magnitudes on a logarithmic scale, making magnitude 1 stars 100 times brighter than magnitude 6 stars, thus each magnitude is or 2.512 times brighter than the next faintest magnitude.=== Coordinate System ===It is disputed which coordinate system(s) he used.", "Ptolemy's catalog in the ''Almagest'', which is derived from Hipparchus's catalog, is given in ecliptic coordinates.", "Although Hipparchus strictly distinguishes between \"signs\" (30° section of the zodiac) and \"constellations\" in the zodiac, it is highly questionable whether or not he had an instrument to directly observe / measure units on the ecliptic.", "He probably marked them as a unit on his celestial globe but the instrumentation for his observations is unknown.Ptolemy's constellation areas (blue polygons) and \"signs\" of the zodiac had different sizes and extends; it is highly likely Hipparchus considered these units the same.", "Reconstruction from the AlmagestDelambre in his (1817) concluded that Hipparchus knew and used the equatorial coordinate system, a conclusion challenged by Otto Neugebauer in his ''History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy'' (1975).", "Hipparchus seems to have used a mix of ecliptic coordinates and equatorial coordinates: in his commentary on Eudoxus he provides stars' polar distance (equivalent to the declination in the equatorial system), right ascension (equatorial), longitude (ecliptic), polar longitude (hybrid), but not celestial latitude.", "This opinion was confirmed by the careful investigation of Hoffmann who independently studied the material, potential sources, techniques and results of Hipparchus and reconstructed his celestial globe and its making.As with most of his work, Hipparchus's star catalog was adopted and perhaps expanded by Ptolemy, who has (since Brahe in 1598) been accused by some of fraud for stating (''Syntaxis'', book 7, chapter 4) that he observed all 1025 stars—critics claim that, for almost every star, he used Hipparchus's data and precessed it to his own epoch centuries later by adding 2°40' to the longitude, using an erroneously small precession constant of 1° per century.", "This claim is highly exaggerated because it applies modern standards of citation to an ancient author.", "True is only that \"the ancient star catalogue\" that was initiated by Hipparchus in the second century BC, was reworked and improved multiple times in the 265 years to the Almagest (which is good scientific practise even today).", "Although the Almagest star catalogue is based upon Hipparchus's, it is not only a blind copy but enriched, enhanced, and thus (at least partially) re-observed.=== Celestial globe ===Reconstruction of Hipparchus's celestial globe according to ancient descriptions and the data in manuscripts by his hand (excellence cluster TOPOI, Berlin, 2015 - published in Hoffmann (2017)).Hipparchus's celestial globe was an instrument similar to modern electronic computers.", "He used it to determine risings, settings and culminations (cf.", "also Almagest, book VIII, chapter 3).", "Therefore, his globe was mounted in a horizontal plane and had a meridian ring with a scale.", "In combination with a grid that divided the celestial equator into 24 hour lines (longitudes equalling our right ascension hours) the instrument allowed him to determine the hours.", "The ecliptic was marked and divided in 12 sections of equal length (the \"signs\", which he called or in order to distinguish them from constellations ().", "The globe was virtually reconstructed by a historian of science.=== Arguments for and against Hipparchus's star catalog in the Almagest ===For:* common errors in the reconstructed Hipparchian star catalogue and the Almagest suggest a direct transfer without re-observation within 265 years.", "There are 18 stars with common errors - for the other ~800 stars, the errors are not extant or within the error ellipse.", "That means, no further statement is allowed on these hundreds of stars.", "* further statistical argumentsAgainst:* Unlike Ptolemy, Hipparchus did not use ecliptic coordinates to describe stellar positions.", "* Hipparchus's catalogue is reported in Roman times to have enlisted about 850 stars but Ptolemy's catalogue has 1025 stars.", "Thus, somebody has added further entries.", "* There are stars cited in the Almagest from Hipparchus that are missing in the Almagest star catalogue.", "Thus, by all the reworking within scientific progress in 265 years, not all of Hipparchus's stars made it into the Almagest version of the star catalogue.Conclusion: Hipparchus's star catalogue is one of the sources of the Almagest star catalogue but not the only source." ], [ "Precession of the equinoxes (146–127&nbsp;BC)", "Hipparchus is generally recognized as discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes in 127 BC.", "His two books on precession, ''On the Displacement of the Solstitial and Equinoctial Points'' and ''On the Length of the Year'', are both mentioned in the ''Almagest'' of Claudius Ptolemy.", "According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and Regulus and other bright stars.", "Comparing his measurements with data from his predecessors, Timocharis and Aristillus, he concluded that Spica had moved 2° relative to the autumnal equinox.", "He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy.", "Hipparchus concluded that the equinoxes were moving (\"precessing\") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1° in a century." ], [ "Geography", "Hipparchus's treatise ''Against the Geography of Eratosthenes'' in three books is not preserved.", "Most of our knowledge of it comes from Strabo, according to whom Hipparchus thoroughly and often unfairly criticized Eratosthenes, mainly for internal contradictions and inaccuracy in determining positions of geographical localities.", "Hipparchus insists that a geographic map must be based only on astronomical measurements of latitudes and longitudes and triangulation for finding unknown distances.", "In geographic theory and methods Hipparchus introduced three main innovations.He was the first to use the grade grid, to determine geographic latitude from star observations, and not only from the Sun's altitude, a method known long before him, and to suggest that geographic longitude could be determined by means of simultaneous observations of lunar eclipses in distant places.", "In the practical part of his work, the so-called \"table of climata\", Hipparchus listed latitudes for several tens of localities.", "In particular, he improved Eratosthenes' values for the latitudes of Athens, Sicily, and southern extremity of India.", "In calculating latitudes of climata (latitudes correlated with the length of the longest solstitial day), Hipparchus used an unexpectedly accurate value for the obliquity of the ecliptic, 23°40' (the actual value in the second half of the second century BC was approximately 23°43'), whereas all other ancient authors knew only a roughly rounded value 24°, and even Ptolemy used a less accurate value, 23°51'.Hipparchus opposed the view generally accepted in the Hellenistic period that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and the Caspian Sea are parts of a single ocean.", "At the same time he extends the limits of the oikoumene, i.e.", "the inhabited part of the land, up to the equator and the Arctic Circle.", "Hipparchus's ideas found their reflection in the ''Geography'' of Ptolemy.", "In essence, Ptolemy's work is an extended attempt to realize Hipparchus's vision of what geography ought to be." ], [ "Modern speculation", "Hipparchus was in the international news in 2005, when it was again proposed (as in 1898) that the data on the celestial globe of Hipparchus or in his star catalog may have been preserved in the only surviving large ancient celestial globe which depicts the constellations with moderate accuracy, the globe carried by the Farnese Atlas.", "Evidence suggests that the Farnese globe may show constellations in the Aratean tradition and deviate from the constellations used by Hipparchus.A line in Plutarch's ''Table Talk'' states that Hipparchus counted 103,049 compound propositions that can be formed from ten simple propositions.", "103,049 is the tenth Schröder–Hipparchus number, which counts the number of ways of adding one or more pairs of parentheses around consecutive subsequences of two or more items in any sequence of ten symbols.", "This has led to speculation that Hipparchus knew about enumerative combinatorics, a field of mathematics that developed independently in modern mathematics.Hipparchos was suggested in a 2013 paper to have accidentally observed the planet Uranus in 128 BC and catalogued it as a star, over a millennium and a half before its formal discovery in 1781." ], [ "Legacy", "''Hipparcos'' satellite in the Large Solar Simulator, ESTEC, February 1988Hipparchus may be depicted opposite Ptolemy in Raphael's 1509–1511 painting ''The School of Athens'', although this figure is usually identified as Zoroaster.The formal name for the ESA's Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission is High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite, making a backronym, HiPParCoS, that echoes and commemorates the name of Hipparchus.The lunar crater Hipparchus, the Martian crater Hipparchus, and the asteroid 4000 Hipparchus are named after him.He was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 2004.Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, historian of astronomy, mathematical astronomer and director of the Paris Observatory, in his history of astronomy in the 18th century (1821), considered Hipparchus along with Johannes Kepler and James Bradley the greatest astronomers of all time.The ''Astronomers Monument'' at the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California, United States features a relief of Hipparchus as one of six of the greatest astronomers of all time and the only one from Antiquity.Johannes Kepler had great respect for Tycho Brahe's methods and the accuracy of his observations, and considered him to be the new Hipparchus, who would provide the foundation for a restoration of the science of astronomy." ], [ "Translations", "* * * * Originally published in" ], [ "See also", "* Aristarchus of Samos (), a Greek mathematician who calculated the distance from the Earth to the Sun.", "* Eratosthenes (), a Greek mathematician who calculated the circumference of the Earth and also the distance from the Earth to the Sun.", "* Greek mathematics* ''On the Sizes and Distances'' (Aristarchus)* ''On the Sizes and Distances'' (Hipparchus)* Posidonius (), a Greek astronomer and mathematician who calculated the circumference of the Earth." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * * * * * * ** *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* David Ulansey about Hipparchus's understanding of the precession* A brief view by Carmen Rush on Hipparchus' stellar catalog" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hebrew (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hebrew''' is a language native to Israel.", "'''Hebrew''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Language", "* A form of the Hebrew language:** Biblical Hebrew** Modern Hebrew* The Hebrew alphabet, used to write Hebrew and other Jewish languages** Hebrew (Unicode block), a block of Hebrew characters in Unicode." ], [ "Moths", "* Hebrew moth, or ''Polygrammate hebraeicum''* Hebrew character, or ''Orthosia gothica''* Setaceous Hebrew character, or ''Xestia c-nigrum''" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hebrews, a term for the Israelites and Jews* Epistle to the Hebrews, abbreviated as ''Hebrews'', a book of the Bible* He’Brew, a brand of beer* Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in Israel* Hebrew College, in Massachusetts, United States" ], [ "See also", "* Semitic (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Huldrych Zwingli" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Huldrych''' or '''Ulrich Zwingli''' (1 January 1484 – 11 October 1531) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland, born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system.", "He attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly center of Renaissance humanism.", "He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus.In 1519, Zwingli became the (people's priest) of the Grossmünster in Zürich where he began to preach ideas on reform of the Catholic Church.", "In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent.", "In his publications, he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked the use of images in places of worship.", "Among his most notable contributions to the Reformation was his expository preaching, starting in 1519, through the Gospel of Matthew, before eventually using Biblical exegesis to go through the entire New Testament, a radical departure from the Catholic mass.", "In 1525, he introduced a new communion liturgy to replace the Mass.", "He also clashed with the Anabaptists, which resulted in their persecution.", "Historians have debated whether or not he turned Zürich into a theocracy.The Reformation spread to other parts of the Swiss Confederation, but several cantons resisted, preferring to remain Catholic.", "Zwingli formed an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation along religious lines.", "In 1529, a war was averted at the last moment between the two sides.", "Meanwhile, Zwingli's ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers.", "They met at the Marburg Colloquy and agreed on many points of doctrine, but they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist.In 1531, Zwingli's alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons.", "The cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zürich was ill-prepared, and Zwingli died on the battlefield.", "His legacy lives on in the confessions, liturgy, and church orders of the Reformed churches of today." ], [ "Historical context", "Map of the Swiss Confederation in 1515The Swiss Confederation in Huldrych Zwingli's time consisted of thirteen states (cantons) as well as affiliated areas and common lordships.", "Unlike the modern state of Switzerland, which operates under a federal government, each of the thirteen cantons was nearly independent, conducting its own domestic and foreign affairs.", "Each canton formed its own alliances within and without the Confederation.", "This relative independence served as the basis for conflict during the time of the Reformation when the various cantons divided between different confessional camps.", "Military ambitions gained an additional impetus with the competition to acquire new territory and resources, as seen for example in the Old Zürich War of 1440–1446.The wider political environment in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile.", "For centuries the relationship with the Confederation's powerful neighbour, France, determined the foreign policies of the Swiss.", "Nominally, the Confederation formed a part of the Holy Roman Empire.", "However, through a succession of wars culminating in the Swabian War in 1499, the Confederation had become ''de facto'' independent.", "As the two continental powers and minor regional states such as the Duchy of Milan, the Duchy of Savoy, and the Papal States competed and fought against each other, there were far-reaching political, economic, and social consequences for the Confederation.", "During this time the mercenary pension system became a subject of disagreement.", "The religious factions of Zwingli's time debated vociferously the merits of sending young Swiss men to fight in foreign wars mainly for the enrichment of the cantonal authorities.These internal and external factors contributed to the rise of a Confederation national consciousness, in which the term ''fatherland'' () began to take on meaning beyond a reference to an individual canton.", "At the same time, Renaissance humanism, with its universal values and emphasis on scholarship (as exemplified by Erasmus (1466–1536), the \"prince of humanism\"), had taken root in the Confederation.", "Within this environment, defined by the confluence of Swiss patriotism and humanism, Zwingli was born in 1484." ], [ "Life", "===Early years (1484–1518)===House where Zwingli was born in Wildhaus in what is now the Canton of St. GallenHuldrych Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 in Wildhaus, in the Toggenburg valley of Switzerland, to a family of farmers, the third child of eleven.", "His father, Ulrich, played a leading role in the administration of the community (''Amtmann'' or chief local magistrate).", "Zwingli's primary schooling was provided by his uncle, Bartholomew, a cleric in Weesen, where he probably met Katharina von Zimmern.", "At ten years old, Zwingli was sent to Basel to obtain his secondary education where he learned Latin under Magistrate Gregory Bünzli.", "After three years in Basel, he stayed a short time in Bern with the humanist Henry Wölfflin.", "The Dominicans in Bern tried to persuade Zwingli to join their order and it is possible that he was received as a novice.However, his father and uncle disapproved of such a course and he left Bern without completing his Latin studies.", "He enrolled in the University of Vienna in the winter semester of 1498 but was expelled, according to the university's records.", "However, it is not certain that Zwingli was indeed expelled, and he re-enrolled in the summer semester of 1500; his activities in 1499 are unknown.", "Zwingli continued his studies in Vienna until 1502, after which he transferred to the University of Basel where he received the Master of Arts degree (''Magister'') in 1506.In Basel, one of Zwingli's teachers was Thomas Wyttenbach from Biel, with whom he later corresponded on the doctrine of transubstantiation.Zwingli was ordained in Constance, the seat of the local diocese, and he celebrated his first Mass in his hometown, Wildhaus, on 29 September 1506.As a young priest he had studied little theology, but this was not considered unusual at the time.", "His first ecclesiastical post was the pastorate of the town of Glarus, where he stayed for ten years.", "It was in Glarus, whose soldiers were used as mercenaries in Europe, that Zwingli became involved in politics.", "The Swiss Confederation was embroiled in various campaigns with its neighbours: the French, the Habsburgs, and the Papal States.", "Zwingli placed himself solidly on the side of the Roman See.", "In return, Pope Julius II honoured Zwingli by providing him with an annual pension.", "He took the role of chaplain in several campaigns in Italy, including the Battle of Novara in 1513.However, the decisive defeat of the Swiss in the Battle of Marignano caused a shift in mood in Glarus in favour of the French rather than the pope.", "Zwingli, the papal partisan, found himself in a difficult position and he decided to retreat to Einsiedeln in the canton of Schwyz.", "By this time, he had become convinced that mercenary service was immoral and that Swiss unity was indispensable for any future achievements.", "Some of his earliest extant writings, such as ''The Ox'' (1510) and ''The Labyrinth'' (1516), attacked the mercenary system using allegory and satire.", "His countrymen were presented as virtuous people within a French, imperial, and papal triangle.Zwingli stayed in Einsiedeln for two years during which he withdrew completely from politics in favour of ecclesiastical activities and personal studies.", "His time as pastor of Glarus and Einsiedeln was characterized by inner growth and development.", "He perfected his Greek and he took up the study of Hebrew.", "His library contained over three hundred volumes from which he was able to draw upon classical, patristic, and scholastic works.", "He exchanged scholarly letters with a circle of Swiss humanists and began to study the writings of Erasmus.", "Zwingli took the opportunity to meet him while Erasmus was in Basel between August 1514 and May 1516.Zwingli's turn to relative pacifism and his focus on preaching can be traced to the influence of Erasmus.In late 1518, the post of the ''Leutpriestertum'' (people's priest) of the Grossmünster at Zürich became vacant.", "The canons of the foundation that administered the Grossmünster recognised Zwingli's reputation as a fine preacher and writer.", "His connection with humanists was a decisive factor as several canons were sympathetic to Erasmian reform.", "In addition, his opposition to the French and to mercenary service was welcomed by Zürich politicians.", "On 11 December 1518, the canons elected Zwingli to become the stipendiary priest and on 27 December he moved permanently to Zürich.===Beginning of Zürich ministry (1519–1521)===The Grossmünster in the centre of the medieval town of Zürich (Murerplan, 1576)On 1 January 1519, Zwingli gave his first sermon in Zürich.", "Deviating from the prevalent practice of basing a sermon on the Gospel lesson of a particular Sunday, Zwingli, using Erasmus' New Testament as a guide, began to read through the Gospel of Matthew, giving his interpretation during the sermon, known as the method of ''lectio continua''.", "He continued to read and interpret the book on subsequent Sundays until he reached the end and then proceeded in the same manner with the Acts of the Apostles, the New Testament epistles, and finally the Old Testament.", "His motives for doing this are not clear, but in his sermons he used exhortation to achieve moral and ecclesiastical improvement which were goals comparable with Erasmian reform.", "Sometime after 1520, Zwingli's theological model began to evolve into an idiosyncratic form that was neither Erasmian nor Lutheran.", "Scholars do not agree on the process of how he developed his own unique model.", "One view is that Zwingli was trained as an Erasmian humanist and Luther played a decisive role in changing his theology.Another view is that Zwingli did not pay much attention to Luther's theology and in fact he considered it as part of the humanist reform movement.", "A third view is that Zwingli was not a complete follower of Erasmus, but had diverged from him as early as 1516 and that he independently developed his theology.Zwingli's theological stance was gradually revealed through his sermons.", "He attacked moral corruption and in the process he named individuals who were the targets of his denunciations.", "Monks were accused of indolence and high living.", "In 1519, Zwingli specifically rejected the veneration of saints and called for the need to distinguish between their true and fictional accounts.", "He cast doubts on hellfire, asserted that unbaptised children were not damned, and questioned the power of excommunication.", "His attack on the claim that tithing was a divine institution, however, had the greatest theological and social impact.", "This contradicted the immediate economic interests of the foundation.", "One of the elderly canons who had supported Zwingli's election, Konrad Hofmann, complained about his sermons in a letter.", "Some canons supported Hofmann, but the opposition never grew very large.", "Zwingli insisted that he was not an innovator and that the sole basis of his teachings was Scripture.Within the diocese of Constance, Bernhardin Sanson was offering a special indulgence for contributors to the building of St Peter's in Rome.", "When Sanson arrived at the gates of Zürich at the end of January 1519, parishioners prompted Zwingli with questions.", "He responded with displeasure that the people were not being properly informed about the conditions of the indulgence and were being induced to part with their money on false pretences.", "This was over a year after Martin Luther published his Ninety-five theses (31 October 1517).", "The council of Zürich refused Sanson entry into the city.", "As the authorities in Rome were anxious to contain the fire started by Luther, the Bishop of Constance denied any support of Sanson and he was recalled.In August 1519, Zürich was struck by an outbreak of the plague during which at least one in four persons died.", "All of those who could afford it left the city, but Zwingli remained and continued his pastoral duties.", "In September, he caught the disease and nearly died.", "He described his preparation for death in a poem, Zwingli's ''Pestlied'', consisting of three parts: the onset of the illness, the closeness to death, and the joy of recovery.", "The final verses of the first part read::''Thuo, wie du wilt;'':''mich nüt befilt.", "'':''Din haf bin ich.", "'':''Mach gantz ald brich;'':''dann nimpst mich hin'':''der geiste min von diser Erd,'':''thuost du's, dass er nit böser werd,'':''ald anderen nit'':''befleck ir läben fromm und sit.", "'':Thy purpose fulfil::nothing can be too severe for me.", ":I am thy vessel,:for you to make whole or break to pieces.", ":Since, if you take hence:my spirit from this earth,:you do it so that it will not grow evil,:and will not mar:the pious lives of others.In the years following his recovery, Zwingli's opponents remained in the minority.", "When a vacancy occurred among the canons of the Grossmünster, Zwingli was elected to fulfill that vacancy on 29 April 1521.In becoming a canon, he became a full citizen of Zürich.", "He also retained his post as the people's priest of the Grossmünster.===First rifts (1522–1524)===The first public controversy regarding Zwingli's preaching broke out during the season of Lent in 1522.On the first fasting Sunday, 9 March, Zwingli and about a dozen other participants consciously transgressed the fasting rule by cutting and distributing two smoked sausages (the ''Wurstessen'' in Christoph Froschauer's workshop).", "Zwingli defended this act in a sermon which was published on 16 April, under the title ''Von Erkiesen und Freiheit der Speisen'' (Regarding the Choice and Freedom of Foods).", "He noted that no general valid rule on food can be derived from the Bible and that to transgress such a rule is not a sin.", "The event, which came to be referred to as the Affair of the Sausages, is considered to be the start of the Reformation in Switzerland.Even before the publication of this treatise, the diocese of Constance reacted by sending a delegation to Zürich.", "The city council condemned the fasting violation, but assumed responsibility over ecclesiastical matters and requested the religious authorities clarify the issue.", "The bishop responded on 24 May by admonishing the Grossmünster and city council and repeating the traditional position.Following this event, Zwingli and other humanist friends petitioned the bishop on 2 July to abolish the requirement of celibacy on the clergy.", "Two weeks later the petition was reprinted for the public in German as ''Eine freundliche Bitte und Ermahnung an die Eidgenossen'' (A Friendly Petition and Admonition to the Confederates).", "The issue was not just an abstract problem for Zwingli, as he had secretly married a widow, Anna Reinhart, earlier in the year.", "Their cohabitation was well-known and their public wedding took place on 2 April 1524, three months before the birth of their first child.", "They would have four children: Regula, William, Huldrych, and Anna.", "As the petition was addressed to the secular authorities, the bishop responded at the same level by notifying the Zürich government to maintain the ecclesiastical order.", "Other Swiss clergymen joined in Zwingli's cause which encouraged him to make his first major statement of faith, ''Apologeticus Archeteles'' (The First and Last Word).", "He defended himself against charges of inciting unrest and heresy.", "He denied the ecclesiastical hierarchy any right to judge on matters of church order because of its corrupted state.===Zürich disputations (1523)===Relief of Zwingli preaching at the pulpit, Otto Münch, 1935The events of 1522 brought no clarification on the issues.", "Not only did the unrest between Zürich and the bishop continue, tensions were growing among Zürich's Confederation partners in the Swiss Diet.", "On 22 December, the Diet recommended that its members prohibit the new teachings, a strong indictment directed at Zürich.", "The city council felt obliged to take the initiative and find its own solution.====First Disputation====On 3 January 1523, the Zürich city council invited the clergy of the city and outlying region to a meeting to allow the factions to present their opinions.", "The bishop was invited to attend or to send a representative.", "The council would render a decision on who would be allowed to continue to proclaim their views.", "This meeting, the first Zürich disputation, took place on 29 January 1523.The meeting attracted a large crowd of approximately six hundred participants.", "The bishop sent a delegation led by his vicar general, Johannes Fabri.", "Zwingli summarised his position in the ''Schlussreden'' (Concluding Statements or the Sixty-seven Articles).", "Fabri, who had not envisaged an academic disputation in the manner Zwingli had prepared for, was forbidden to discuss high theology before laymen, and simply insisted on the necessity of the ecclesiastical authority.", "The decision of the council was that Zwingli would be allowed to continue his preaching and that all other preachers should teach only in accordance with Scripture.====Second Disputation====In September 1523, Leo Jud, Zwingli's closest friend and colleague and pastor of St Peterskirche, publicly called for the removal of statues of saints and other icons.", "This led to demonstrations and iconoclastic activities.", "The city council decided to work out the matter of images in a second disputation.", "The essence of the mass and its sacrificial character was also included as a subject of discussion.", "Supporters of the mass claimed that the eucharist was a true sacrifice, while Zwingli claimed that it was a commemorative meal.", "As in the first disputation, an invitation was sent out to the Zürich clergy and the bishop of Constance.", "This time, however, the lay people of Zürich, the dioceses of Chur and Basel, the University of Basel, and the twelve members of the Confederation were also invited.", "About nine hundred persons attended this meeting, but neither the bishop nor the Confederation sent representatives.", "The disputation started on 26 October 1523 and lasted two days.Zwingli again took the lead in the disputation.", "His opponent was the aforementioned canon, Konrad Hofmann, who had initially supported Zwingli's election.", "Also taking part was a group of young men demanding a much faster pace of reformation, who among other things pleaded for replacing infant baptism with adult baptism.", "This group was led by Conrad Grebel, one of the initiators of the Anabaptist movement.", "During the first three days of dispute, although the controversy of images and the mass were discussed, the arguments led to the question of whether the city council or the ecclesiastical government had the authority to decide on these issues.At this point, Konrad Schmid, a priest from Aargau and follower of Zwingli, made a pragmatic suggestion.", "As images were not yet considered to be valueless by everyone, he suggested that pastors preach on this subject under threat of punishment.", "He believed the opinions of the people would gradually change and the voluntary removal of images would follow.", "Hence, Schmid rejected the radicals and their iconoclasm, but supported Zwingli's position.", "In November the council passed ordinances in support of Schmid's motion.", "Zwingli wrote a booklet on the evangelical duties of a minister, ''Kurze, christliche Einleitung'' (Short Christian Introduction), and the council sent it out to the clergy and the members of the Confederation.===Reformation progresses in Zürich (1524–1525)===Huldrych Zwingli was a major figure in the Swiss Reformation, advocating for the authority of scripture and the rejection of religious practices not supported by the Bible.", "His preaching and teachings helped spread Reformation ideas beyond Switzerland and influenced the development of Protestantism throughout Europe.Above the entrance to the Grossmünster doors is inscribed Matthew 11:28, \"Come to me, all who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.", "\"In December 1523, the council set a deadline of Pentecost in 1524 for a solution to the elimination of the Mass and images.", "Zwingli gave a formal opinion in ''Vorschlag wegen der Bilder und der Messe'' (Proposal Concerning Images and the Mass).", "He did not urge an immediate, general abolition.", "The council decided on the orderly removal of images within Zürich, but rural congregations were granted the right to remove them based on majority vote.", "The decision on the Mass was postponed.Evidence of the effect of the Reformation was seen in early 1524.Candlemas was not celebrated, processions of robed clergy ceased, worshippers did not go with palms or relics on Palm Sunday to the Lindenhof, and triptychs remained covered and closed after Lent.", "Opposition to the changes came from Konrad Hofmann and his followers, but the council decided in favour of keeping the government mandates.", "When Hofmann left the city, opposition from pastors hostile to the Reformation broke down.", "The bishop of Constance tried to intervene in defending the Mass and the veneration of images.", "Zwingli wrote an official response for the council and the result was the severance of all ties between the city and the diocese.Although the council had hesitated in abolishing the Mass, the decrease in the exercise of traditional piety allowed pastors to be unofficially released from the requirement of celebrating Mass.", "As individual pastors altered their practices as each saw fit, Zwingli was prompted to address this disorganised situation by designing a communion liturgy in the German language.", "This was published in ''Aktion oder Brauch des Nachtmahls'' (Act or Custom of the Supper).", "Shortly before Easter, Zwingli and his closest associates requested the council to cancel the Mass and to introduce the new public order of worship.On Maundy Thursday, 13 April 1525, Zwingli celebrated communion under his new liturgy.", "Wooden cups and plates were used to avoid any outward displays of formality.", "The congregation sat at set tables to emphasise the meal aspect of the sacrament.", "The sermon was the focal point of the service and there was no organ music or singing.", "The importance of the sermon in the worship service was underlined by Zwingli's proposal to limit the celebration of communion to four times a year.For some time Zwingli had accused mendicant orders of hypocrisy and demanded their abolition in order to support the truly poor.", "He suggested the monasteries be changed into hospitals and welfare institutions and incorporate their wealth into a welfare fund.", "This was done by reorganising the foundations of the Grossmünster and Fraumünster and pensioning off remaining nuns and monks.", "The council secularised the church properties (Fraumünster handed over to the city of Zurich by Zwingli's acquaintance Katharina von Zimmern in 1524) and established new welfare programs for the poor.Zwingli requested permission to establish a Latin school, the ''Prophezei'' (Prophecy) or ''Carolinum'', at the Grossmünster.", "The council agreed and it was officially opened on 19 June 1525 with Zwingli and Jud as teachers.", "It served to retrain and re-educate the clergy.", "The Zürich Bible translation, traditionally attributed to Zwingli and printed by Christoph Froschauer, bears the mark of teamwork from the Prophecy school.", "Scholars have not yet attempted to clarify Zwingli's share of the work based on external and stylistic evidence.===Conflict with the Anabaptists (1525–1527)===Shortly after the second Zürich disputation, many in the radical wing of the Reformation became convinced that Zwingli was making too many concessions to the Zürich council.", "They rejected the role of civil government and demanded the immediate establishment of a congregation of the faithful.", "Conrad Grebel, the leader of the radicals and the emerging Anabaptist movement, spoke disparagingly of Zwingli in private.", "On 15 August 1524 the council insisted on the obligation to baptise all newborn infants.", "Zwingli secretly conferred with Grebel's group and late in 1524, the council called for official discussions.", "When talks were broken off, Zwingli published ''Wer Ursache gebe zu Aufruhr'' (Whoever Causes Unrest) clarifying the opposing points of view.", "On 17 January 1525 a public debate was held and the council decided in favour of Zwingli.", "Anyone refusing to have their children baptised was required to leave Zürich.", "The radicals ignored these measures and on 21 January, they met at the house of the mother of another radical leader, Felix Manz.", "Grebel and a third leader, George Blaurock, performed the first recorded Anabaptist adult baptisms.On 2 February, the council repeated the requirement on the baptism of all babies and some who failed to comply were arrested and fined, Manz and Blaurock among them.", "Zwingli and Jud interviewed them and more debates were held before the Zürich council.", "Meanwhile, the new teachings continued to spread to other parts of the Confederation as well as a number of Swabian towns.", "On 6–8 November, the last debate on the subject of baptism took place in the Grossmünster.", "Grebel, Manz, and Blaurock defended their cause before Zwingli, Jud, and other reformers.", "There was no serious exchange of views as each side would not move from their positions and the debates degenerated into an uproar, each side shouting abuse at the other.The Zürich council decided that no compromise was possible.", "On 7 March 1526 it released the notorious mandate that no one shall rebaptise another under the penalty of death.", "Although Zwingli, technically, had nothing to do with the mandate, there is no indication that he disapproved.", "Felix Manz, who had sworn to leave Zürich and not to baptise any more, had deliberately returned and continued the practice.", "After he was arrested and tried, he was executed on 5 January 1527 by being drowned in the Limmat.", "He was the first Anabaptist martyr; three more were to follow, after which all others either fled or were expelled from Zürich.===Reformation in the Confederation (1526–1528)===Statue of Zwingli in front of the ''Wasserkirche'' church in ZürichOn 8 April 1524, five cantons, Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Zug, formed an alliance, ''die fünf Orte'' (the Five States) to defend themselves from Zwingli's Reformation.", "They contacted the opponents of Martin Luther including John Eck, who had debated Luther in the Leipzig Disputation of 1519.Eck offered to dispute Zwingli and he accepted.", "However, they could not agree on the selection of the judging authority, the location of the debate, and the use of the Swiss Diet as a court.", "Because of the disagreements, Zwingli decided to boycott the disputation.", "On 19 May 1526, all the cantons sent delegates to Baden.", "Although Zürich's representatives were present, they did not participate in the sessions.", "Eck led the Catholic party while the reformers were represented by Johannes Oecolampadius of Basel, a theologian from Württemberg who had carried on an extensive and friendly correspondence with Zwingli.", "While the debate proceeded, Zwingli was kept informed of the proceedings and printed pamphlets giving his opinions.", "It was of little use as the Diet decided against Zwingli.", "He was to be banned and his writings were no longer to be distributed.", "Of the thirteen Confederation members, Glarus, Solothurn, Fribourg, and Appenzell as well as the Five States voted against Zwingli.", "Bern, Basel, Schaffhausen, and Zürich supported him.The Baden disputation exposed a deep rift in the Confederation on matters of religion.", "The Reformation was now emerging in other states.", "The city of St Gallen, an affiliated state to the Confederation, was led by a reformed mayor, Joachim Vadian, and the city abolished the mass in 1527, just two years after Zürich.", "In Basel, although Zwingli had a close relationship with Oecolampadius, the government did not officially sanction any reformatory changes until 1 April 1529 when the mass was prohibited.", "Schaffhausen, which had closely followed Zürich's example, formally adopted the Reformation in September 1529.In the case of Bern, Berchtold Haller, the priest at St Vincent Münster, and Niklaus Manuel, the poet, painter, and politician, had campaigned for the reformed cause.", "But it was only after another disputation that Bern counted itself as a canton of the Reformation.", "Three hundred and fifty persons participated, including pastors from Bern and other cantons as well as theologians from outside the Confederation such as Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito from Strasbourg, Ambrosius Blarer from Constance, and Andreas Althamer from Nuremberg.", "Eck and Fabri refused to attend and the Catholic cantons did not send representatives.", "The meeting started on 6 January 1528 and lasted nearly three weeks.", "Zwingli assumed the main burden of defending the Reformation and he preached twice in the Münster.", "On 7 February 1528 the council decreed that the Reformation be established in Bern.===First Kappel War (1529)===Even before the Bern Disputation, Zwingli was canvassing for an alliance of reformed cities.", "Once Bern officially accepted the Reformation, a new alliance, ''das Christliche Burgrecht'' (the Christian Civic Union) was created.", "The first meetings were held in Bern between representatives of Bern, Constance, and Zürich on 5–6 January 1528.Other cities, including Basel, Biel, Mülhausen, Schaffhausen, and St Gallen, eventually joined the alliance.", "The Five (Catholic) States felt encircled and isolated, so they searched for outside allies.", "After two months of negotiations, the Five States formed ''die Christliche Vereinigung'' (the Christian Alliance) with Ferdinand of Austria on 22 April 1529.1549 painting by Hans AsperSoon after the Austrian treaty was signed, a reformed preacher, Jacob Kaiser, was captured in Uznach and executed in Schwyz.", "This triggered a strong reaction from Zwingli; he drafted ''Ratschlag über den Krieg'' (Advice About the War) for the government.", "He outlined justifications for an attack on the Catholic states and other measures to be taken.", "Before Zürich could implement his plans, a delegation from Bern that included Niklaus Manuel arrived in Zürich.", "The delegation called on Zürich to settle the matter peacefully.", "Manuel added that an attack would expose Bern to further dangers as Catholic Valais and the Duchy of Savoy bordered its southern flank.", "He then noted, \"You cannot really bring faith by means of spears and halberds.\"", "Zürich, however, decided that it would act alone, knowing that Bern would be obliged to acquiesce.", "War was declared on 8 June 1529.Zürich was able to raise an army of 30,000 men.", "The Five States were abandoned by Austria and could raise only 9,000 men.", "The two forces met near Kappel, but war was averted due to the intervention of Hans Aebli, a relative of Zwingli, who pleaded for an armistice.Zwingli was obliged to state the terms of the armistice.", "He demanded the dissolution of the Christian Alliance; unhindered preaching by reformers in the Catholic states; prohibition of the pension system; payment of war reparations; and compensation to the children of Jacob Kaiser.", "Manuel was involved in the negotiations.", "Bern was not prepared to insist on the unhindered preaching or the prohibition of the pension system.", "Zürich and Bern could not agree and the Five (Catholic) States pledged only to dissolve their alliance with Austria.", "This was a bitter disappointment for Zwingli and it marked his decline in political influence.", "The first Land Peace of Kappel, ''der erste Landfriede'', ended the war on 24 June.===Marburg Colloquy (1529)===Coloured woodcut of the Marburg Colloquy, anonymous, 1557While Zwingli carried on the political work of the Swiss Reformation, he developed his theological views with his colleagues.", "The famous disagreement between Luther and Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist originated when Andreas Karlstadt, Luther's former colleague from Wittenberg, published three pamphlets on the Lord's Supper in which Karlstadt rejected the idea of a real presence in the elements.", "These pamphlets, published in Basel in 1524, received the approval of Oecolampadius and Zwingli.", "Luther rejected Karlstadt's arguments and considered Zwingli primarily to be a partisan of Karlstadt.", "Zwingli began to express his thoughts on the eucharist in several publications including ''de Eucharistia'' (On the Eucharist).", "Understanding that Christ had ascended to heaven and was sitting at the Father's right hand, Zwingli criticized the idea that Christ's humanity could be in two places at once.", "Unlike his divinity, Christ's human body was not omnipresent and so could not be in heaven and at the same time be present in the elements.", "Timothy George, evangelical author, editor of ''Christianity Today'' and professor of Historical Theology at Beeson Divinity School at Samford University, has refuted a long-standing misreading of Zwingli that erroneously claimed the Reformer denied all notions of real presence and believed in a memorial view of the Supper, where it was purely symbolic.By spring 1527, Luther reacted strongly to Zwingli's views in the treatise ''Dass Diese Worte Christi \"Das ist mein Leib etc.\"", "noch fest stehen wider die Schwarmgeister'' (That These Words of Christ \"This is My Body etc.\"", "Still Stand Firm Against the Fanatics).", "The controversy continued until 1528 when efforts to build bridges between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian views began.", "Martin Bucer tried to mediate while Philip of Hesse, who wanted to form a political coalition of all Protestant forces, invited the two parties to Marburg to discuss their differences.", "This event became known as the Marburg Colloquy.Zwingli accepted Philip's invitation fully believing that he would be able to convince Luther.", "In contrast, Luther did not expect anything to come out of the meeting and had to be urged by Philip to attend.", "Zwingli, accompanied by Oecolampadius, arrived on 28 September 1529, with Luther and Philipp Melanchthon arriving shortly thereafter.", "Other theologians also participated including Martin Bucer, Andreas Osiander, Johannes Brenz, and Justus Jonas.The debates were held from 1–4 October and the results were published in the fifteen ''Marburg Articles''.", "The participants were able to agree on fourteen of the articles, but the fifteenth article established the differences in their views on the presence of Christ in the eucharist.", "Professor George summarized the incompatible views, \"On this issue, they parted without having reached an agreement.", "Both Luther and Zwingli agreed that the bread in the Supper was a sign.", "For Luther, however, that which the bread signified, namely the body of Christ, was present \"in, with, and under\" the sign itself.", "For Zwingli, though, sign and thing signified were separated by a distance—the width between heaven and earth.", "\"The failure to find agreement resulted in strong emotions on both sides.", "\"When the two sides departed, Zwingli cried out in tears, \"There are no people on earth with whom I would rather be at one than the Lutheran Wittenbergers.", "\"\"Due to these differences, Luther initially refused to acknowledge Zwingli and his followers as Christians.===Politics, confessions, the Kappel Wars and death (1529–1531)===Battle of Kappel, 11 October 1531, from ''Chronik'' by Johannes Stumpf, 1548\"The murder of Zwingli\", by Karl Jauslin (1842–1904).With the failure of the Marburg Colloquy and the split of the Confederation, Zwingli set his goal on an alliance with Philip of Hesse.", "He kept up a lively correspondence with Philip.", "Bern refused to participate, but after a long process, Zürich, Basel, and Strasbourg signed a mutual defence treaty with Philip in November 1530.Zwingli also personally negotiated with France's diplomatic representative, but the two sides were too far apart.", "France wanted to maintain good relations with the Five States.", "Approaches to Venice and Milan also failed.As Zwingli was working on establishing these political alliances, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, invited Protestants to the Augsburg Diet to present their views so that he could make a verdict on the issue of faith.", "The Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession.", "Under the leadership of Martin Bucer, the cities of Strasbourg, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau produced the Tetrapolitan Confession.", "This document attempted to take a middle position between the Lutherans and Zwinglians.It was too late for the ''Burgrecht'' cities to produce a confession of their own.", "Zwingli then produced his own private confession, ''Fidei ratio'' (Account of Faith) in which he explained his faith in twelve articles conforming to the articles of the Apostles' Creed.", "The tone was strongly anti-Catholic as well as anti-Lutheran.", "The Lutherans did not react officially, but criticised it privately.", "Zwingli's and Luther's old opponent, Johann Eck, counter-attacked with a publication, ''Refutation of the Articles Zwingli Submitted to the Emperor''.When Philip of Hesse formed the Schmalkaldic League at the end of 1530, the four cities of the Tetrapolitan Confession joined on the basis of a Lutheran interpretation of that confession.", "Given the flexibility of the league's entrance requirements, Zürich, Basel, and Bern also considered joining.", "However, Zwingli could not reconcile the Tetrapolitan Confession with his own beliefs and wrote a harsh refusal to Bucer and Capito.", "This offended Philip to the point where relations with the League were severed.", "The ''Burgrecht'' cities now had no external allies to help deal with internal Confederation religious conflicts.The peace treaty of the First Kappel War did not define the right of unhindered preaching in the Catholic states.", "Zwingli interpreted this to mean that preaching should be permitted, but the Five States suppressed any attempts to reform.", "The ''Burgrecht'' cities considered different means of applying pressure to the Five States.", "Basel and Schaffhausen preferred quiet diplomacy while Zürich wanted armed conflict.", "Zwingli and Jud unequivocally advocated an attack on the Five States.", "Bern took a middle position which eventually prevailed.", "In May 1531, Zürich reluctantly agreed to impose a food blockade.", "It failed to have any effect and in October, Bern decided to withdraw the blockade.", "Zürich urged its continuation and the ''Burgrecht'' cities began to quarrel among themselves.On 9 October 1531, in a surprise move, the Five States declared war on Zürich.", "Zürich's mobilisation was slow due to internal squabbling and, on 11 October, 3500 poorly deployed men encountered a Five States force nearly double their size near Kappel.", "Many pastors, including Zwingli, were among the soldiers.", "The battle lasted less than one hour and Zwingli was among the 500 casualties in the Zürich army.Zwingli had considered himself first and foremost a soldier of Christ; second a defender of his country, the Confederation; and third a leader of his city, Zürich, where he had lived for the previous twelve years.", "Ironically, he died at the age of 47, not for Christ nor for the Confederation, but for Zürich.", "In Tabletalk, Luther is recorded saying: \"They say that Zwingli recently died thus; if his error had prevailed, we would have perished, and our church with us.", "It was a judgment of God.", "That was always a proud people.", "The others, the papists, will probably also be dealt with by our Lord God.", "\"Erasmus wrote, \"We are freed from great fear by the death of the two preachers, Zwingli and Oecolampadius, whose fate has wrought an incredible change in the mind of many.", "This is the wonderful hand of God on high.\"", "Oecolampadius had died on 24 November.", "Erasmus also wrote, \"If Bellona had favoured them, it would have been all over with us.\"" ], [ "Theology", "According to Zwingli, the cornerstone of theology is the Bible.", "Zwingli appealed to scripture constantly in his writings.", "He placed its authority above other sources such as the ecumenical councils or the Church Fathers, although he did not hesitate to use other sources to support his arguments.", "The principles that guide Zwingli's interpretations are derived from his rationalist humanist education and his Reformed understanding of the Bible.", "He rejected literalist interpretations of a passage, such as those of the Anabaptists, and used synecdoche and analogies, methods he describes in ''A Friendly Exegesis'' (1527).", "Two analogies that he used quite effectively were between Baptism and circumcision and between the Eucharist and Passover.", "He also paid attention to the immediate context and attempted to understand the purpose behind it, comparing passages of scripture with each other.A rendition of Huldrych Zwingli from the 1906 edition of the Zwingli rejected the word ''sacrament'' in the popular usage of his time.", "For ordinary people, the word meant some kind of holy action of which there is inherent power to free the conscience from sin.", "For Zwingli, a sacrament was an initiatory ceremony or a pledge, pointing out that the word was derived from ''sacramentum'' meaning an oath.", "(However, the word is also translated \"mystery\".)", "In his early writings on baptism, he noted that baptism was an example of such a pledge.", "He challenged Catholics by accusing them of superstition when they ascribed the water of baptism a certain power to wash away sin.", "Later, in his conflict with the Anabaptists, he defended the practice of infant baptism, noting that there is no law forbidding the practice.", "He argued that baptism was a sign of a covenant with God, thereby replacing circumcision in the Old Testament.Zwingli approached the eucharist in a similar manner to baptism.", "During the first Zürich disputation in 1523, he denied that an actual sacrifice occurred during the mass, arguing that Christ made the sacrifice only once and for all eternity.", "Hence, the eucharist was \"a memorial of the sacrifice\".", "Following this argument, he further developed his view, coming to the conclusion of the \"signifies\" interpretation for the words of the institution.", "He used various passages of scripture to argue against transubstantiation as well as Luther's views, the key text being John 6:63, \"It is the Spirit who gives life, the flesh is of no avail\".", "Zwingli's approach and interpretation of scripture to understand the meaning of the eucharist was one reason he could not reach a consensus with Luther.The impact of Luther on Zwingli's theological development has long been a source of interest and discussion among Lutheran scholars, who seek to firmly establish Luther as the first Reformer.", "Zwingli himself asserted vigorously his independence of Luther and the most recent studies have lent credibility to this claim.", "Zwingli appears to have read Luther's books in search of confirmation from Luther for his own views.", "He agreed with the stand Luther took against the pope.", "Like Luther, Zwingli was also a student and admirer of Augustine.In contrast to Luther, Zwingli adhered to official church theology on Judaism.", "However, as most Protestants and Catholics did at the time, he believed that the crucifixion of Christ led to the dispersal of Jews from Jerusalem.", "In contrast, Zwingli's creed was convinced that the papacy and its military power derived from Jewish influences.", "Together with John Calvin, he protracted Jewish influences in Christian churches and advocated the ''Principle of Sola Scriptura'', in which the Old Testament and its subjects would remain a constant influence in future churches.", "He thereby opposed the anti-Semitic tendencies of Luther, and placed himself closer to Catholicism during the Reformation." ], [ "Music", "Zwingli enjoyed music and could play several instruments, including the violin, harp, flute, dulcimer and hunting horn.", "He would sometimes amuse the children of his congregation on his lute and was so well known for his playing that his enemies mocked him as \"the evangelical lute-player and fifer.\"", "Three of Zwingli's ''Lieder'' or hymns have been preserved: the ''Pestlied'' mentioned above, an adaptation of Psalm 65 (), and the ''Kappeler Lied'', which is believed to have been composed during the campaign of the first war of Kappel (1529).", "These songs were not meant to be sung during worship services and are not identified as hymns of the Reformation, though they were published in some 16th-century hymnals.Painting of Zwingli by Hans AsperZwingli criticized the practice of priestly chanting and monastic choirs.", "The criticism dates from 1523 when he attacked certain worship practices.", "His arguments are detailed in the Conclusions of 1525, in which, Conclusions 44, 45 and 46 are concerned with musical practices under the rubric of \"prayer\".", "He associated music with images and vestments, all of which he felt diverted people's attention from true spiritual worship.", "It is not known what he thought of the musical practices in early Lutheran churches.", "Zwingli, however, eliminated instrumental music from worship in the church, stating that God had not commanded it in worship.", "The organist of the People's Church in Zürich is recorded as weeping upon seeing the great organ broken up.", "Although Zwingli did not express an opinion on congregational singing, he made no effort to encourage it.", "Nevertheless, scholars have found that Zwingli was supportive of a role for music in the church.", "Gottfried W. Locher writes, \"The old assertion 'Zwingli was against church singing' holds good no longer ... Zwingli's polemic is concerned exclusively with the medieval Latin choral and priestly chanting and not with the hymns of evangelical congregations or choirs\".", "Locher goes on to say that \"Zwingli freely allowed vernacular psalm or choral singing.", "In addition, he even seems to have striven for lively, antiphonal, unison recitative\".", "Locher then summarizes his comments on Zwingli's view of church music as follows: \"The chief thought in his conception of worship was always 'conscious attendance and understanding'—'devotion', yet with the lively participation of all concerned\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Zwingli was a humanist and a scholar with many devoted friends and disciples.", "He communicated as easily with the ordinary people of his congregation as with rulers such as Philip of Hesse.", "His reputation as a stern, stolid reformer is counterbalanced by the fact that he had an excellent sense of humour and used satiric fables, spoofing, and puns in his writings.", "He was more conscious of social obligations than was Luther, and he genuinely believed that the masses would accept a government guided by God's word.", "He tirelessly promoted assistance to the poor, who he believed should be cared for by a truly Christian community.In December 1531 the Zürich council selected Heinrich Bullinger (1504–1575) as Zwingli's successor.", "Bullinger immediately removed any doubts about Zwingli's orthodoxy and defended him as a prophet and a martyr.", "During Bullinger's ascendancy, the confessional divisions of the Swiss Confederation stabilised.", "Bullinger rallied the reformed cities and cantons and helped them to recover from the defeat at Kappel.", "Zwingli had instituted fundamental reforms; Bullinger consolidated and refined them.Zwingli (right) and John Calvin on a Swiss 20 franc coin commemorating the 500th anniversary of the Reformation, 2017.Scholars have found it difficult to assess Zwingli's impact on history, for several reasons.", "There is no consensus on the definition of \"Zwinglianism\"; by any definition, Zwinglianism evolved under his successor, Heinrich Bullinger; and research into Zwingli's influence on Bullinger and John Calvin remains rudimentary.", "Bullinger adopted most of Zwingli's points of doctrine.", "Like Zwingli, he summarised his theology several times, the best-known example being the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566.Meanwhile, Calvin had taken over the Reformation in Geneva.", "Calvin differed with Zwingli on the eucharist and criticised him for regarding it as simply a metaphorical event.", "In 1549, however, Bullinger and Calvin succeeded in overcoming the differences in doctrine and produced the ''Consensus Tigurinus'' (Zürich Consensus).", "They declared that the eucharist was not just symbolic of the meal, but they also rejected the Lutheran position that the body and blood of Christ is in union with the elements.", "With this rapprochement, Calvin established his role in the Swiss Reformed Churches and eventually in the wider world.The Swiss Reformed churches count Zwingli as their founder, as does the Reformed Church in the United States (both its present liberal and conservative descendant denominations, with the former taking a historical-critical interpretation of Zwinglian theology and using it as a basis for ecumenism, and the latter interpreting his teachings as binding upon consciences and, in effect, as inerrant as Scripture itself), according to 19th-century RCUS historian J.I.", "Good.", "Scholars speculate as to why Zwinglianism has not diffused more widely, even though Zwingli's theology is considered the first expression of Reformed theology.", "Although his name is not widely recognised, Zwingli's legacy lives on in the basic confessions of the Reformed churches of today.", "He is often called, after Martin Luther and John Calvin, the \"Third Man of the Reformation\".In 2019 the Swiss director released a Swiss-German film on the career of the reformer: ''Zwingli''.", "It was filmed in Swiss German with French and English subtitles available.2019 began the 500th anniversary of the Swiss Reformation with a conference at John Calvin University, and renewed interest in revisiting the life and impact of Zwingli.", "Examples include the film ''Zwingli'', Bruce Gordon's book, ''Zwingli: God's Armed Prophet'' and an article by Thomas Quinn Marabello, \"The 500th Anniversary of the Swiss Reformation: How Zwingli changed and continues to impact Switzerland today\"." ], [ "List of works", "Zwingli's collected works are expected to fill 21 volumes.", "A collection of selected works was published in 1995 by the ''Zwingliverein'' in collaboration with the ''Theologischer Verlag Zürich''.", "This four-volume collection contains the following works:* Volume 1: 1995, 512 pages, ** ''Pestlied'' (1519/20) \"The Plague Song\"** ''Die freie Wahl der Speisen'' (1522) \"Choice and Liberty regarding Food\"** ''Eine göttliche Ermahnung der Schwyzer'' (1522) \"A Solemn Exhortation to the people of Schwyz\"** ''Die Klarheit und Gewissheit des Wortes Gottes'' (1522) \"The Clarity and Certainty of the Word of God\"** ''Göttliche und menschliche Gerechtigkeit'' (1523) \"Divine and Human Righteousness\"** ''Wie Jugendliche aus gutem Haus zu erziehen sind'' (1523) \"How to educate adolescents from a good home\"** ''Der Hirt'' (1524) \"The Shepherd\"** ''Eine freundschaftliche und ernste Ermahnung der Eidgenossen'' (1524) \"Zwingli's Letter to the Federation\"** ''Wer Ursache zum Aufruhr gibt'' (1524) \"Those Who Give Cause for Tumult\"* Volume 2: 1995, 556 pages, ** ''Auslegung und Begründung der Thesen oder Artikel'' (1523) \"Interpretation and justification of the theses or articles\"* Volume 3: 1995, 519 pages, ** ''Empfehlung zur Vorbereitung auf einen möglichen Krieg'' (1524) \"Plan for a Campaign\"** ''Kommentar über die wahre und die falsche Religion'' (1525) \"Commentary on True and False Religion\"* Volume 4: 1995, 512 pages, ** ''Antwort auf die Predigt Luthers gegen die Schwärmer'' (1527) \"A Refutation of Luther's sermon against vain enthusiasm\"** ''Die beiden Berner Predigten'' (1528) \"The Berne sermons\"** ''Rechenschaft über den Glauben'' (1530) \"An Exposition of the Faith\"** ''Die Vorsehung'' (1530) \"Providence\"** ''Erklärung des christlichen Glaubens'' (1531) \"Explanation of the Christian faith\"The complete 21-volume edition is being undertaken by the ''Zwingliverein'' in collaboration with the ''Institut für schweizerische Reformationsgeschichte'', and is projected to be organised as follows:* vols.", "I–VI ''Werke'': Zwingli's theological and political writings, essays, sermons etc., in chronological order.", "This section was completed in 1991.", "* vols.", "VII–XI ''Briefe'': Letters* vol.", "XII ''Randglossen'': Zwingli's glosses in the margin of books* vols XIII ff.", "''Exegetische Schriften'': Zwingli's exegetical notes on the Bible.Vols.", "XIII and XIV have been published, vols.", "XV and XVI are under preparation.", "Vols.", "XVII to XXI are planned to cover the New Testament.Older German / Latin editions available online include:* ''Huldreich Zwinglis sämtliche Werke'', vol.", "1, ''Corpus Reformatorum'' vol.", "88, ed.", "Emil Egli.", "Berlin: Schwetschke, 1905.", "* '' Analecta Reformatoria: Dokumente und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Zwinglis und seiner Zeit'', vol.", "1, ed.", "Emil Egli.", "Zürich: Züricher and Furrer, 1899.", "* ''Huldreich Zwingli's Werke'', ed.", "Melchior Schuler and Johannes Schulthess, 1824ff.", ": vol.", "I; vol.", "II; vol.", "III; vol.", "IV; vol.", "V; vol.", "VI, 1; vol.", "VI, 2; vol.", "VII; vol.", "VIII.", "* '' Der evangelische Glaube nach den Hauptschriften der Reformatoren'', ed.", "Paul Wernle.", "Tübingen: Mohr, 1918.", "* '' Von Freiheit der Speisen, eine Reformationsschrift, 1522'', ed.", "Otto Walther.", "Halle: Niemeyer, 1900.See also the following English translations of selected works by Zwingli:* '' The Christian Education of Youth''.", "Collegeville: Thompson Bros., 1899.", "* '' Selected Works of Huldreich Zwingli (1484–1531)''.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1901.", "* ''The Latin Works and the Correspondence of Huldreich Zwingli, Together with Selections from his German Works''.", "** Vol.", "1, 1510–1522, New York: G.P.", "Putnam and Sons, 1912.", "** Vol.", "2, Philadelphia: Heidelberg Press, 1912.", "** Vol.", "3, Philadelphia: Heidelberg Press, 1912." ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of Huldrych Zwingli* Reformation in Zürich* The Reformed tradition" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* , .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* * .", "* Burnett, Amy Nelson and Campi, Emidio (eds.).", "''A Companion to the Swiss Reformation'', Leiden – Boston: Brill, 2016.", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* Marabello, Thomas Quinn (2021) \"The 500th Anniversary of the Swiss Reformation: How Zwingli changed and continues to impact Switzerland today,\" ''Swiss American Historical Society Review'', Vol.", "57: No.", "1, Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sahs_review/vol57/iss1/3* ." ], [ "External links", "* Biography of Anna Reinhard, wife of Zwingli in ''Leben'' magazine from a seminary of the Reformed Church in the United States* Website of the Zwingli Association and ''Zwingliana'' journal **" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Homeschooling" ], [ "Introduction", "A person educating children at home'''Homeschooling''' or '''home schooling''', also known as '''home education''' or '''elective home education''' ('''EHE'''), is the education of school-aged children at home or a variety of places other than a school.", "Usually conducted by a parent, tutor, or online teacher, many homeschool families use less formal, more personalized and individualized methods of learning that are not always found in schools.", "The actual practice of homeschooling varies considerably.", "The spectrum ranges from highly structured forms based on traditional school lessons to more open, free forms such as unschooling, which is a lesson- and curriculum-free implementation of homeschooling.", "Some families who initially attended a school go through a deschool phase to break away from school habits and prepare for homeschooling.", "While \"homeschooling\" is the term commonly used in North America, \"home education\" is primarily used in Europe and many Commonwealth countries.", "Homeschooling should not be confused with distance education, which generally refers to the arrangement where the student is educated by and conforms to the requirements of an online school, rather than being educated independently and unrestrictedly by their parents or by themselves.Before the introduction of compulsory school attendance laws, most childhood education was done by families and local communities.", "By the early 19th century, attending a school became the most common means of education in the developed world.", "In the mid to late 20th century, more people began questioning the efficiency and sustainability of school learning, which again led to an increase in the number of homeschoolers, especially in the Americas and some European countries.", "Today, homeschooling is a relatively widespread form of education and a legal alternative to public and private schools in many countries, which many people believe is due to the rise of the Internet, which enables people to obtain information very quickly.", "There are also nations in which homeschooling is regulated or illegal.", "During the COVID-19 pandemic, many students from all over the world had to study from home due to the danger posed by the virus.", "However, this was mostly implemented in the form of distance education rather than traditional homeschooling.There are many different reasons for homeschooling, ranging from personal interests to dissatisfaction with the public school system.", "Some parents see better educational opportunities for their child in homeschooling, for example because they know their child more accurately than a teacher and can concentrate fully on educating usually one to a few persons and therefore can respond more precisely to their individual strengths and weaknesses, or because they think that they can better prepare their children for life outside of school.", "Some children can also learn better at home, for example, because they are not held back, disturbed or distracted from school matters, do not feel underchallenged or overwhelmed with certain topics, find that certain temperaments are encouraged in school, while others are inhibited, do not cope well with the often predetermined structure or are bullied there.", "Homeschooling is also an option for families living in remote rural areas, those temporarily abroad, those who travel frequently and therefore face the physical impossibility or difficulty of getting their children into school, and those who want to spend more and better time with their children.", "Health reasons and special needs can also play a role in why children cannot attend a school regularly and are at least partially homeschooled.Critics of homeschooling argue that children may lack adequate socialization and therefore have poorer social skills.", "Some are also concerned that parents may be unqualified to guide and advise their children in life skills.", "Critics also say that a child might not encounter people of other cultures, worldviews, and socioeconomic groups if they are not enrolled in a school.", "Therefore, these critics believe that homeschooling cannot guarantee a comprehensive and neutral education if educational standards are not prescribed.", "Homeschooled children sometimes score higher on standardized tests and their parents reported via survey that their children have equally or better developed social skills and participate more in cultural and family activities on average than public school students.", "In addition, studies suggest that homeschoolers are generally more likely to have higher self-esteem, deeper friendships, and better relationships with adults, and are less susceptible to peer pressure." ], [ "Terminology", "While \"homeschooling\" is the term commonly used in the United States and other nations in North America, \"home education\" is primarily used in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe and many Commonwealth countries.", "Some believe that homeschooling has become more attractive and popular than ever before since the days of quick information retrieval on the Internet." ], [ "History", "Samuel Griswold (Goodrich)=== Early history ===For most of history and in different cultures, homeschooling was a common practice by family members and local communities.", "Enlisting professional tutors was an option available only to the wealthy.", "Homeschooling declined in the 19th and 20th centuries with the enactment of compulsory school attendance laws.", "However, it continued to be practised in isolated communities.", "Homeschooling began a resurgence in the 1960s and 1970s with educational reformists dissatisfied with industrialized education.=== Public schools ===The earliest public schools in modern Western culture were established during the Reformation with the encouragement of Martin Luther in the German states of Gotha and Thuringia in 1524 and 1527.From the 1500s to 1800s the literacy rate increased until a majority of adults were literate, but development of the literacy rate occurred before the implementation of compulsory attendance and universal education.Home education and apprenticeship continued to remain the main form of education until the 1830s.", "However, in the 18th century, the majority of people in Europe lacked formal education.", "Since the early 19th century, formal classroom schooling became the most common means of schooling throughout the developed countries.=== Colonial North America ===In 1647, New England provided compulsory elementary education.", "Regional differences in schooling existed in colonial America.", "In the south, farms and plantations were so widely dispersed that community schools such as those in the more compact settlements of the north were impossible.", "In the middle colonies, the educational situation varied when comparing New York with New England.Most Native American tribal cultures traditionally used homeschooling and apprenticeship to pass knowledge to children.", "Parents were supported by extended relatives and tribal leaders in the education of their children.", "The Native Americans vigorously resisted compulsory education in the United States.=== United States in 1960s ===In the 1960s, Rousas John Rushdoony began to advocate homeschooling, which he saw as a way to combat the secular nature of the public school system in the United States.", "He vigorously attacked progressive school reformers such as Horace Mann and John Dewey, and argued for the dismantling of the state's influence in education in three works: ''Intellectual Schizophrenia'', ''The Messianic Character of American Education'', and ''The Philosophy of the Christian Curriculum''.", "Rushdoony was frequently called as an expert witness by the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) in court cases.", "He frequently advocated the use of private schools.=== Raymond and Dorothy Moore ===During this time, American educational professionals Raymond and Dorothy Moore began to research the academic validity of the rapidly growing Early Childhood Education movement.", "This research included independent studies by other researchers and a review of over 8,000 studies bearing on early childhood education and the physical and mental development of children.They asserted that formal schooling before ages 8–12 not only lacked the anticipated effectiveness but also harmed children.", "The Moores published their view that formal schooling was damaging young children academically, socially, mentally, and even physiologically.", "The Moores presented evidence that childhood problems such as juvenile delinquency, nearsightedness, increased enrollment of students in special education classes and behavioral problems were the results of increasingly earlier enrollment of students.", "The Moores cited studies demonstrating that orphans who were given surrogate mothers were measurably more intelligent, with superior long-term effects – even though the mothers were \"mentally retarded teenagers\" – and that illiterate tribal mothers in Africa produced children who were socially and emotionally more advanced than typical western children, \"by western standards of measurement\".Their primary assertion was that the bonds and emotional development made at home with parents during these years produced critical long-term results that were cut short by enrollment in schools, and could neither be replaced nor corrected in an institutional setting afterwards.", "Recognizing a necessity for early out-of-home care for some children, particularly special needs and impoverished children and children from exceptionally inferior homes, they maintained that the vast majority of children were far better situated at home, even with mediocre parents, than with the most gifted and motivated teachers in a school setting.", "They described the difference as follows: \"This is like saying, if you can help a child by taking him off the cold street and housing him in a warm tent, then warm tents should be provided for ''all'' children – when obviously most children already have even more secure housing.", "\"The Moores embraced homeschooling after the publication of their first work, ''Better Late Than Early'', in 1975, and became important homeschool advocates and consultants with the publication of books such as ''Home Grown Kids'' (1981), and ''Homeschool Burnout''.Simultaneously, other authors published books questioning the premises and efficacy of compulsory schooling, including ''Deschooling Society'' by Ivan Illich in 1970 and ''No More Public School'' by Harold Bennet in 1972.=== John Holt ===In 1976, educator John Holt published ''Instead of Education: Ways to Help People Do Things Better''.", "In its conclusion, he called for a \"Children's Underground Railroad\" to help children escape compulsory schooling.", "In response, Holt was contacted by families from around the U.S. to tell him that they were educating their children at home.", "In 1977, after corresponding with a number of these families, Holt began producing the magazine ''Growing Without Schooling'' (''GWS''), a newsletter dedicated to home education.", "Holt was nicknamed the \"father of homeschooling.\"", "Holt later wrote a book about homeschooling, ''Teach Your Own'', in 1981.In 1980, Holt said,I want to make it clear that I don't see homeschooling as some kind of answer to badness of schools.", "I think that the home is the proper base for the exploration of the world which we call learning or education.", "The home would be the best base no matter how good the schools were.One common theme in the homeschool philosophies of both Holt and that of the Moores is that home education should not attempt to bring the school to construct into the home, or a view of education as an academic preliminary to life.", "They viewed home education as a natural, experiential aspect of life that occurs as the members of the family are involved with one another in daily living.Homeschooling can be used as a form of supplemental education and as a way of helping children learn under specific circumstances.", "The term may also refer to instruction in the home under the supervision of correspondence schools or umbrella schools.", "Some jurisdictions require adherence to an approved curriculum.=== United States in 1970s ===In the 1970s, a modern homeschooling movement began when American educator and author John Holt questioned the efficiency of schools and the sustainability of school learning, arguing that schools focus on strictly doing \"skill drill\" instead of other methods of learning.", "The influence of Raymond Moore is sometimes also held responsible for this movement on the religious right.", "A curriculum-free philosophy of homeschooling called \"unschooling\" also emerged around this time, although it would take a few more decades for this form of education to become popular.", "The term was coined in 1977 by Holt's GWS.", "The term emphasizes the more spontaneous, less structured learning environment in which a child's interests drive his pursuit of knowledge.", "Some parents provide a liberal arts education using the trivium and quadrivium as the main models.=== COVID-19 pandemic === File:8938Filipino_homeschooling_students_02.jpg|thumb|200px|right| Filipino homeschooling students - blended (printed-digital modular) distance learning with self-learning materials during the COVID-19 pandemic in San Miguel, BulacanThe COVID-19 pandemic led to school closures around the world, which is why over 300 million students had to study from home.", "Since the material to be learned was mainly outsourced to home and specified and checked by virtual schools, it can be said that this was mostly implemented in the form of distance education rather than traditional homeschooling in which parents educate their child independent from school.", "Because the transition to homeschooling often happened overnight without any possibilities of preparation for parents, teachers and children, this caused economic, educational, political and psychological distress." ], [ "Motivations", "When homeschooling is a choice, families have different reasons for choosing it.", "This cake diagram shows the motivations regarded as most important for 400x400pxThere are a multitude of sometimes complex reasons why parents and children choose to homeschool, some of which overlap with those for unschooling and may be very different depending on the country and (current) situation of parents and children.Parents commonly cite two main motivations for homeschooling their children: dissatisfaction with the local schools and the interest in increased involvement with their children's learning and development.", "Parental dissatisfaction with available schools typically includes concerns about the school environment, the quality of academic instruction, the curriculum, bullying, racism and lack of faith in the school's ability to cater to their children's special needs.", "Some parents homeschool in order to have greater control over what and how their children are taught, to cater more adequately to an individual child's aptitudes and abilities, to provide instruction from a specific religious or and moral position, and to take advantage of the efficiency of one-to-one instruction and thus allow the child to spend more time on childhood activities, socializing, and non-academic learning.Some African-American families choose to homeschool as a way of increasing their children's understanding of African-American history – such as the Jim Crow laws that resulted in African Americans being prevented from reading and writing – and to limit the harm caused by the unintentional and sometimes subtle systemic racism that affects most American schools.Some parents have objections to the secular nature of public schools and homeschool in order to give their children a religious education.", "Use of a religious curriculum is common among these families.Some parents are of the opinion that certain temperaments are promoted in school, while others are inhibited which may also be a reason to homeschool their children.Another argument for homeschooling children may be the protection against physical and emotional violence, bullying, exclusion, drugs, stress, sexualization, social pressures, excessive performance thoughts, socialization groups or role models with negative impact and degrading treatment in school.Some children may also prefer to or can learn more efficiently at home, for example, because they are not distracted or slowed down by school matters and can, for example, spend several hours dealing with the same topic undisturbed.", "There are studies that show that homeschooled children are more likely to graduate and perform better at university.Homeschooling may also be a factor in the choice of parenting style.", "Homeschooling can be a matter of consistency for families living in isolated rural locations, for those temporarily abroad, and for those who travel frequently.", "Many young athletes, actors, and musicians are taught at home to accommodate their training and practice schedules more conveniently.", "Homeschooling can be about mentorship and apprenticeship, in which a tutor or teacher is with the child for many years and becomes more intimately acquainted with the child.", "Many parents also homeschool their children and return their child into the school system later on, for example because they think that their child is too young or not yet ready to start school.Some children also have health issues and therefore cannot attend a school regularly and are at least partially homeschooled or take distance education instead.COVID-19 has reinforced some parent's minds about homeschooling.", "The fact that parents realized remote learning was possible thanks to new technologies means that they have additional options to consider should their child face problems of any kind at school." ], [ "Teaching methods, forms and philosophies", "Homeschooling is usually conducted by a parent, tutor, or an online teacher, but the concrete practice can be very different.", "The spectrum ranges from highly structured forms based on traditional school lessons to more open, free forms like unschooling, which is a curriculum-free implementation of homeschooling that involves teaching children based on their interests.Many homeschool families use a wide variety of methods and materials and less formal educational methods, which represent a variety of educational philosophies and paradigms.", "Some of the methods or learning environments used include classical education (including Trivium, Quadrivium), Charlotte Mason education, Montessori method, theory of multiple intelligences, unschooling, Waldorf education, school-at-home (curriculum choices from both secular and religious publishers), A Thomas Jefferson Education, unit studies, curriculum made up from private or small publishers, apprenticeship, hands-on-learning, distance learning (both online and correspondence), dual enrollment in local schools or colleges, and curriculum provided by local schools and many others.", "Some of these approaches are used in private and public schools.", "Educational research and studies support the use of some of these methods.", "Unschooling, natural learning, Charlotte Mason Education, Montessori, Waldorf, apprenticeship, hands-on-learning, unit studies are supported to varying degrees by research by constructivist learning theories and situated cognition theories.", "Elements of these theories may be found in the other methods as well.A student's education may be customized to support his or her learning level, style, and interests.", "It is not uncommon for a student to experience more than one approach as the family discovers what works best for their student.", "Many families use an eclectic approach, picking and choosing from various suppliers.", "For sources of curricula and books, a study found that 78 percent utilized \"a public library\"; 77 percent used \"a homeschooling catalogue, publisher, or individual specialist\"; 68 percent used \"retail bookstore or another store\"; 60 percent used \"an education publisher that was not affiliated with homeschooling.\"", "\"Approximately half\" used curriculum from \"a homeschooling organization\", 37 percent from a \"church, synagogue or other religious institution\" and 23 percent from \"their local public school or district.\"", "In 2003, 41 percent utilized some sort of distance learning, approximately 20 percent by \"television, video or radio\"; 19 percent via \"The Internet, e-mail, or the World Wide Web\"; and 15 percent taking a \"correspondence course by mail designed specifically for homeschoolers.", "\"Individual governmental units, e.g.", "states and local districts, vary in official curriculum and attendance requirements.=== Informal learning ===As a subset of homeschooling, '''informal learning''' happens outside of the classroom but has no traditional boundaries of education.", "Informal learning is an everyday form of learning through participation and creation, in contrast with the traditional view of teacher-centered learning.", "The term is often combined with non-formal learning and self-directed learning.", "Informal learning differs from traditional learning since there are no expected objectives or outcomes.", "From the learner's standpoint, the knowledge that they receive is not intentional.", "Topics such as planting a garden, baking a cake or even talking to a technician at work about the installation of new software can be considered informal learning.", "The individual is completing a task with different intentions but ends up learning skills in the process.", "Children watching their tomato plants grow will not generate questions about photosynthesis but they will learn that their plants are growing with water and sunlight.", "This leads them to have a base understanding of complex scientific concepts without any background studying.", "The recent trend of homeschooling becoming less stigmatized has been in connection with the traditional waning of the idea that the state needs to be in primary and ultimate control over the education and upbringing of all children to create future adult citizens.", "This breeds an ever-growing importance on the ideas and concepts that children learn outside of the traditional classroom setting, including informal learning.Depending on the part of the world, informal learning can take on many different identities and has differing cultural importances.", "Many ways of organizing homeschooling draw on apprenticeship qualities and on non-western cultures.", "In some South American indigenous cultures, such as the Chillihuani community in Peru, children learn irrigation and farming technique through play, advancing them not only in their own village and society but also in their knowledge of realistic techniques that they will need to survive.", "In Western culture, children use informal learning in two main ways.", "The first as talked about is through hands-on experience with new material.", "The second is asking questions to someone who has more experience than they have (i.e.", "parents, elders).", "Children's inquisitive nature is their way of cementing the ideas they have learned through exposure to informal learning.", "It is a more casual way of learning than traditional learning and serves the purpose of taking in information any which way they can.=== Structured versus unstructured ===All other approaches to homeschooling are subsumed under two basic categories: '''structured and unstructured homeschooling'''.", "Structured homeschooling includes any method or style of home education that follows a basic curriculum with articulated goals and outcomes.", "This style attempts to imitate the structure of the traditional school setting while personalizing the curriculum.", "Unstructured homeschooling is any form of home education where parents do not construct a curriculum at all.", "Unschooling, as it is known, attempts to teach through the child's daily experiences and focuses more on self-directed learning by the child, free of textbooks, teachers, and any formal assessment of success or failure.===Unit studies===In a '''unit study''' approach, multiple subjects such as math, science, history, art, and geography, are studied in relation to a single topic.", "Unit studies are useful for teaching multiple grades simultaneously as the difficulty level can be adjusted for each student.", "An extended form of unit studies, Integrated Thematic Instruction utilizes one central theme integrated throughout the curriculum so that students finish a school year with a deep understanding of a certain broad subject or idea.===All-in-one curricula==='''All-in-one homeschooling curricula''' (variously known as '''school-at-home''', the '''traditional approach''', or '''school-in-a-box''') are instructional methods of teaching in which the curriculum and homework of the student are similar or identical to those used in a public or private school.", "Purchased as a grade-level package or separately by subject, the package may contain all of the needed books, materials, tests, answer keys, and extensive teacher guides.", "These materials cover the same subject areas as public schools, allowing for an easy transition into the school system.", "These are among the most expensive options for homeschooling, but they require minimal preparation and are easy to use.", "Some localities provide the same materials used at local schools to homeschoolers.", "The purchase of a complete curriculum and their teaching/grading service from an accredited distance learning curriculum provider may allow students to obtain an accredited high school diploma.===Unschooling and natural learning==='''Natural learning''' refers to a type of learning-on-demand where children pursue knowledge based on their interests and parents take an active part in facilitating activities and experiences conducive to learning but do not rely heavily on textbooks or spend much time \"teaching\", looking instead for \"learning moments\" throughout their daily activities.", "Parents see their role as that of affirming through positive feedback and modeling the necessary skills, and the child's role as being responsible for asking and learning.The term '''unschooling''' as coined by John Holt describes an approach in which parents do not authoritatively direct the child's education, but interact with the child following the child's own interests, leaving them free to explore and learn as their interests lead.", "\"Unschooling\" does not indicate that the child is not being educated, but that the child is not being \"schooled\", or educated in a rigid school-type manner.", "Holt asserted that children learn through the experiences of life, and he encouraged parents to live their lives with their child.", "Also known as interest-led or child-led learning, unschooling attempts to follow opportunities as they arise in real life.", "Children at school learn from 1 teacher and 2 auxiliary teachers in a classroom of approximately 30.Kids have the opportunity of dedicated education at home with a ratio of 1 to 1.An unschooled child may utilize texts or classroom instruction, but these are not considered central to education.", "Holt asserted that there is no specific body of knowledge that is, or should be, required of a child.Both unschooling and natural learning advocates believe that children learn best by doing; a child may learn reading to further an interest about history or other cultures, or math skills by operating a small business or sharing in family finances.", "They may learn animal husbandry keeping dairy goats or meat rabbits, botany tending a kitchen garden, chemistry to understand the operation of firearms or the internal combustion engine, or politics and local history by following a zoning or historical-status dispute.", "While any type of homeschoolers may also use these methods, the unschooled child initiates these learning activities.", "The natural learner participates with parents and others in learning together.Another prominent proponent of unschooling is John Taylor Gatto, author of ''Dumbing Us Down'', ''The Exhausted School'', ''A Different Kind of Teacher'', and ''Weapons of Mass Instruction''.", "Gatto argues that public education is the primary tool of \"state-controlled consciousness\" and serves as a prime illustration of the total institution — a social system which impels obedience to the state and quells free-thinking or dissent.===Autonomous learning==='''Autonomous learning''' is a school of education which sees learners as individuals who can and should be autonomous; i.e., be responsible for their own learning climate.Autonomous education helps students develop their self-consciousness, vision, practicality, and freedom of discussion.", "These attributes serve to aid the student in his/her independent learning.", "However, a student must not start their autonomous learning completely on their own.", "It is said that first having interaction with someone who has more knowledge in a subject will speed up the student's learning and allow them to learn more independently.Some degree of autonomous learning is popular with those who home educate their children.", "In true autonomous learning, the child usually gets to decide what projects they wish to tackle or what interests to pursue.", "In-home education, this can be instead of or in addition to regular subjects like doing math or English.According to Home Education UK, the autonomous education philosophy emerged from the epistemology of Karl Popper in ''The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality'', which is developed in the debates, which seek to rebut the neo-Marxist social philosophy of convergence proposed by the Frankfurt School (e.g.", "Theodor W. Adorno, Jürgen Habermas, Max Horkheimer).=== Hybrid homeschooling ==='''Hybrid homeschooling''' or '''flex-school''' is a form of homeschooling in which children split their time between homeschool and a more traditional schooling environment like a school.", "The number of students who participated in hybrid homeschooling increased during the COVID-19 pandemic.A commonly cited reason for choosing this model is that parents are not sure whether they can provide their children a comprehensive and neutral education at home or cannot devote themselves to homeschooling full-time due to time constraints or excessive stress.", "Some families also want their children to socialize with other children and find that schools are better suited for this purpose because social exchange does not only take place occasionally, but is an everyday experience there." ], [ "Homeschool cooperatives", "A homeschool cooperative is a cooperative of families who homeschool their children.", "It provides an opportunity for children to learn from other parents who are more specialized in certain areas or subjects.", "Co-ops also provide social interaction.", "They may take lessons together or go on field trips.", "Some co-ops also offer events such as prom and graduation for homeschoolers.Homeschoolers are beginning to utilize Web 2.0 as a way to simulate homeschool cooperatives online.", "With social networks, homeschoolers can chat, discuss threads in forums, share information and tips, and even participate in online classes via learning management systems similar to those used by colleges." ], [ "Research", "===Test results===According to the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) in 2004, \"Many studies over the last few years have established the academic excellence of homeschooled children.\"", "''Home Schooling Achievement'', a compilation of studies published by the HSLDA, supported the academic integrity of homeschooling.", "This booklet summarized a 1997 study by Ray and the 1999 Rudner study.", "The Rudner study noted two limitations of its own research: it is not necessarily representative of all homeschoolers and it is not a comparison with other schooling methods.", "Among the homeschooled students who took the tests, the average homeschooled student outperformed his public school peers by 30 to 37 percentile points across all subjects.", "The study also indicates that public school performance gaps between minorities and genders were virtually non-existent among the homeschooled students who took the tests.A survey of 11,739 homeschooled students conducted in 2008 found that, on average, the homeschooled students scored 37 percentile points above public school students on standardized achievement tests.", "This is consistent with the 1999 Rudner study.", "However, Rudner said that these same students in public school may have scored just as well because of the dedicated parents they had.", "The Ray study also found that homeschooled students who had a certified teacher as a parent scored one percentile lower than homeschooled students who did not have a certified teacher as a parent.", "Studies have shown homeschooled students score higher on standardized tests than traditionally schooled youth Another nationwide descriptive study conducted by Ray contained students ranging from ages 5–18 and he found that homeschoolers scored in at least the 80th percentile on their tests.In 2011, a quasi-experimental study was conducted that included homeschooled and traditional public students between the ages of 5 and 10.It was discovered that the majority of the homeschooled children achieved higher standardized scores compared to their counterparts.", "However, Martin-Chang also found that unschooling children ages 5–10 scored significantly below traditionally educated children, while academically oriented homeschooled children scored from one half grade level above to 4.5 grade levels above traditionally schooled children on standardized tests (n=37 homeschooled children matched with children from the same socioeconomic and educational background).Studies have also examined the impact of homeschooling on students' GPAs.", "Cogan (2010) found that homeschooled students had higher high school GPAs (3.74) and transfer GPAs (3.65) than conventional students.", "Snyder (2013) provided corroborating evidence that homeschoolers were outperforming their peers in the areas of standardized tests and overall GPAs.", "Looking beyond high school, a study by the 1990 National Home Education Research Institute (as cited by Wichers, 2001) found that at least 33% of homeschooled students attended a four-year college, and 17% attended a two-year college.", "This same study examined the students after one year, finding that 17% pursued higher education.On average, studies suggest homeschoolers score at or above the national average on standardized tests.", "Homeschool students have been accepted into many Ivy League universities.", "However, The Coalition for Responsible Homeschooling notes that \"Our knowledge of homeschooling's effect on academic achievement is limited by the fact that many of the studies that have been conducted on homeschoolers suffer from methodological problems which make their findings inconclusive.", "\"===Outcomes===Homeschooled children may receive more individualized attention than students enrolled in traditional public schools.", "A 2011 study suggests that a structured environment could play a key role in homeschooler academic achievement.", "This means that parents were highly involved in their child's education and they were creating clear educational goals.", "In addition, these students were being offered organized lesson plans which are either self-made or purchased.Homeschooled youth are less likely to use and abuse illicit substances and are more likely to disapprove of using alcohol and marijuana.", "There are also studies according to which homeschooled children are less likely to be sexually abused than children in public schools.In the 1970s, Raymond and Dorothy Moore conducted four federally funded analyses of more than 8,000 early childhood studies, from which they published their original findings in ''Better Late Than Early'', 1975.This was followed by ''School Can Wait'', a repackaging of these same findings designed specifically for educational professionals.", "They concluded that \"where possible, children should be withheld from formal schooling until at least ages eight to ten.\"", "Their reason was that children \"are not mature enough for formal school programs until their senses, coordination, neurological development and cognition are ready\".", "They concluded that the outcome of forcing children into formal schooling is a sequence of \"1) uncertainty as the child leaves the family nest early for a less secure environment, 2) puzzlement at the new pressures and restrictions of the classroom, 3) frustration because unready learning tools – senses, cognition, brain hemispheres, coordination – cannot handle the regimentation of formal lessons and the pressures they bring, 4) hyperactivity growing out of nerves and jitter, from frustration, 5) failure which quite naturally flows from the four experiences above, and 6) delinquency which is failure's twin and apparently for the same reason.\"", "According to the Moores, \"early formal schooling is burning out our children.", "Teachers who attempt to cope with these youngsters also are burning out.\"", "Aside from academic performance, they think early formal schooling also destroys \"positive sociability\", encourages peer dependence, and discourages self-worth, optimism, respect for parents, and trust in peers.", "They believe this situation is particularly acute for boys because of their delay in maturity.", "The Moores cited a Smithsonian Report on the development of genius, indicating a requirement for \"1) much time spent with warm, responsive parents and other adults, 2) very little time spent with peers, and 3) a great deal of free exploration under parental guidance.\"", "Their analysis suggested that children need \"more of home and less of formal school\", \"more free exploration with... parents, and fewer limits of classroom and books\", and \"more old fashioned chores – children working with parents – and less attention to rivalry sports and amusements.", "\"A study conducted by Ray in 2010 indicates that the higher the level of parents' income, the more likely the homeschooled child is able to achieve academic success.Higher education admittance procedures were altered due to COVID-19 for the traditionally schooled student.The ACT and SAT became test optional, yet the homeschooled applicant is required to submit college entrance exams.Some homeschoolers averaged higher scores on these college entrance tests in South Carolina.", "Other scores (1999 data) showed mixed results, for example showing higher levels for homeschoolers in English (homeschooled 23.4 vs national average 20.5) and reading (homeschooled 24.4 vs national average 21.4) on the ACT, but mixed scores in math (homeschooled 20.4 vs national average 20.7 on the ACT as opposed homeschooled 535 vs national average 511 on the 1999 SAT math).Some advocates of homeschooling and educational choice counter with an input-output theory, pointing out that home educators expend only an average of $500–600 a year on each student (not counting the cost of the parents' time), in comparison to $9,000–10,000 (including the cost of staff time) for each public school student in the United States, which suggests home-educated students would be especially dominant on tests if afforded access to an equal commitment of tax-funded educational resources.Many teachers and school districts oppose the idea of homeschooling.", "However, research has shown that homeschooled children often excel in many areas of academic endeavour.", "According to a study done on the homeschool movement, homeschoolers often achieve academic success and admission into elite universities.", "According to the National Home Education Research Institute president, Brian Ray, socialization is not a problem for homeschooling children, many of whom are involved in community sports, volunteer activities, book groups, or homeschool co-ops.In the UK, the government has noted that no figures are available on educational attainment for children educated at home: \"This means no assessment can be made of the impact on educational attainment of being home schooled\".", "There is some evidence from 2009 that home-educated children in the UK are more likely to be NEET, Not in Employment, Education or Training, at age 16 to 18.===Socialization===Using the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, John Taylor later found that, \"while half of the conventionally schooled children scored at or below the 50th percentile (in self-concept), only 10.3% of the home-schooling children did so.\"", "He further stated that \"the self-concept of home-schooling children is significantly higher statistically than that of children attending conventional school.", "This has implications in the areas of academic achievement and socialization which have been found to parallel self-concept.", "Regarding socialization, Taylor's results would mean that very few home-schooling children are socially deprived.", "He states that critics who speak out against homeschooling on the basis of social deprivation are actually addressing an area which favours homeschoolers.In 2003, the National Home Education Research Institute conducted a survey of 7,300 U.S. adults who had been homeschooled (5,000 for more than seven years).", "Their findings included::*Homeschool graduates are active and involved in their communities.", "71% participate in an ongoing community service activity, like coaching a sports team, volunteering at a school, or working with a church or neighborhood association, compared with 37% of U.S. adults of similar ages from a traditional education background.", ":*Homeschool graduates are more involved in civic affairs and vote in much higher percentages than their peers.", "76% of those surveyed between the ages of 18 and 24 voted within the last five years, compared with only 29% of the corresponding U.S. populace.", "The numbers are even greater in older age groups, with voting levels not falling below 95%, compared with a high of 53% for the corresponding U.S.", "populace.", ":*58.9% report that they are \"very happy\" with life, compared with 27.6% for the general U.S. population.", "73.2% find life \"exciting\", compared with 47.3%Richard G. Medlin, Ph.D.'s research found that homeschooled children have better social skills than children attending traditional schools." ], [ "Legality and prevalence" ], [ "Criticism", "Some organizations of teachers and school districts resist homeschooling.", "The National Education Association, a United States teachers' union and professional association, has asserted that teachers should be licensed and that state-approved curricula should be used.Critics argue that homeschooled children can be indoctrinated if educational standards are not prescribed and if there is no regular monitoring by controlling authorities.", "There is also concern that homeschooling reduces a child's exposure to mandated reporters such as teachers, making children more susceptible to sustained, unreported abuse.", "The vast majority of homeschoolers are doing so for religious reasons.", "They are primarily concerned with producing \"virtuous\" adults, rather than \"educated\" adults.", "While there is not enough data to determine exact rates of abuse in homeschooling there is, however, strong evidence to suggest that parents who engage in maltreatment and educational neglect are more likely to use homeschooling as a guise.Elizabeth Bartholet, a Harvard professor of law and faculty director of the Law School's Child Advocacy Program, recommended a ban on home education in 2019, calling it a risky practice.Political scientist Rob Reich speculated in ''The Civic Perils of Homeschooling'' (2002) that homeschooling could threaten to \"insulate students from exposure to diverse ideas and people.", "\"Gallup polls of American voters have shown a significant change in attitude in the last 20 years, from 73% opposed to homeschooling in 1985 to 54% opposed in 2001.In 1988, when asked whether parents should have a right to choose homeschooling, 53 percent thought that they should, as revealed by another poll." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* A history of the modern homeschool movement, from the Cato Institute.", "* National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI).", "NHERI produces research about homeschooling and sponsors the peer-reviewed academic journal Homeschool Researcher.", "* \"Homeschooling\" in the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', written by Pat Farenga." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heteroatom" ], [ "Introduction", "Pyridine is a heterocyclic compound and the heteroatom is nitrogen.In chemistry, a '''heteroatom''' () is, strictly, any atom that is not carbon or hydrogen." ], [ "Organic chemistry", "In practice, the term is usually used more specifically to indicate that non-carbon atoms have replaced carbon in the backbone of the molecular structure.", "Typical heteroatoms are nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I), as well as the metals lithium (Li) and magnesium (Mg)." ], [ "Proteins", "It can also be used with highly specific meanings in specialised contexts.", "In the description of protein structure, in particular in the Protein Data Bank file format, a heteroatom record (HETATM) describes an atom as belonging to a small molecule cofactor rather than being part of a biopolymer chain." ], [ "Zeolites", "In the context of zeolites, the term ''heteroatom'' refers to partial isomorphous substitution of the typical framework atoms (silicon, aluminium, and phosphorus) by other elements such as beryllium, vanadium, and chromium.", "The goal is usually to adjust properties of the material (e.g., Lewis acidity) to optimize the material for a certain application (e.g., catalysis)." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Journal - Heteroatom Chemistry" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Half-life" ], [ "Introduction", " Number ofhalf-liveselapsed Fractionremaining Percentageremaining 0 100 1 50 2 25 3 12.5 4 6.25 5 3.125 6 1.5625 7 0.78125 '''Half-life''' (symbol ) is the time required for a quantity (of substance) to reduce to half of its initial value.", "The term is commonly used in nuclear physics to describe how quickly unstable atoms undergo radioactive decay or how long stable atoms survive.", "The term is also used more generally to characterize any type of exponential (or, rarely, non-exponential) decay.", "For example, the medical sciences refer to the biological half-life of drugs and other chemicals in the human body.", "The converse of half-life (in exponential growth) is doubling time.The original term, ''half-life period'', dating to Ernest Rutherford's discovery of the principle in 1907, was shortened to ''half-life'' in the early 1950s.", "Rutherford applied the principle of a radioactive element's half-life in studies of age determination of rocks by measuring the decay period of radium to lead-206.Half-life is constant over the lifetime of an exponentially decaying quantity, and it is a characteristic unit for the exponential decay equation.", "The accompanying table shows the reduction of a quantity as a function of the number of half-lives elapsed." ], [ "Probabilistic nature", "Simulation of many identical atoms undergoing radioactive decay, starting with either 4 atoms per box (left) or 400 (right).", "The number at the top is how many half-lives have elapsed.", "Note the consequence of the law of large numbers: with more atoms, the overall decay is more regular and more predictable.A half-life often describes the decay of discrete entities, such as radioactive atoms.", "In that case, it does not work to use the definition that states \"half-life is the time required for exactly half of the entities to decay\".", "For example, if there is just one radioactive atom, and its half-life is one second, there will ''not'' be \"half of an atom\" left after one second.Instead, the half-life is defined in terms of probability: \"Half-life is the time required for exactly half of the entities to decay ''on average''\".", "In other words, the ''probability'' of a radioactive atom decaying within its half-life is 50%.For example, the accompanying image is a simulation of many identical atoms undergoing radioactive decay.", "Note that after one half-life there are not ''exactly'' one-half of the atoms remaining, only ''approximately'', because of the random variation in the process.", "Nevertheless, when there are many identical atoms decaying (right boxes), the law of large numbers suggests that it is a ''very good approximation'' to say that half of the atoms remain after one half-life.Various simple exercises can demonstrate probabilistic decay, for example involving flipping coins or running a statistical computer program." ], [ "Formulas for half-life in exponential decay", "An exponential decay can be described by any of the following four equivalent formulas:where* is the initial quantity of the substance that will decay (this quantity may be measured in grams, moles, number of atoms, etc.", "),* is the quantity that still remains and has not yet decayed after a time ,* is the half-life of the decaying quantity,* is a positive number called the mean lifetime of the decaying quantity,* is a positive number called the decay constant of the decaying quantity.The three parameters , , and are directly related in the following way:where is the natural logarithm of 2 (approximately 0.693).=== Half-life and reaction orders ===In chemical kinetics, the value of the half-life depends on the reaction order:===Decay by two or more processes===Some quantities decay by two exponential-decay processes simultaneously.", "In this case, the actual half-life can be related to the half-lives and that the quantity would have if each of the decay processes acted in isolation:For three or more processes, the analogous formula is:For a proof of these formulas, see Exponential decay § Decay by two or more processes.===Examples===classroom experimentThere is a half-life describing any exponential-decay process.", "For example:*As noted above, in radioactive decay the half-life is the length of time after which there is a 50% chance that an atom will have undergone nuclear decay.", "It varies depending on the atom type and isotope, and is usually determined experimentally.", "See List of nuclides.", "*The current flowing through an RC circuit or RL circuit decays with a half-life of or , respectively.", "For this example the term half time tends to be used rather than \"half-life\", but they mean the same thing.", "*In a chemical reaction, the half-life of a species is the time it takes for the concentration of that substance to fall to half of its initial value.", "In a first-order reaction the half-life of the reactant is , where (also denoted as ) is the reaction rate constant." ], [ "In non-exponential decay", "The term \"half-life\" is almost exclusively used for decay processes that are exponential (such as radioactive decay or the other examples above), or approximately exponential (such as biological half-life discussed below).", "In a decay process that is not even close to exponential, the half-life will change dramatically while the decay is happening.", "In this situation it is generally uncommon to talk about half-life in the first place, but sometimes people will describe the decay in terms of its \"first half-life\", \"second half-life\", etc., where the first half-life is defined as the time required for decay from the initial value to 50%, the second half-life is from 50% to 25%, and so on." ], [ "In biology and pharmacology", "A biological half-life or elimination half-life is the time it takes for a substance (drug, radioactive nuclide, or other) to lose one-half of its pharmacologic, physiologic, or radiological activity.", "In a medical context, the half-life may also describe the time that it takes for the concentration of a substance in blood plasma to reach one-half of its steady-state value (the \"plasma half-life\").The relationship between the biological and plasma half-lives of a substance can be complex, due to factors including accumulation in tissues, active metabolites, and receptor interactions.While a radioactive isotope decays almost perfectly according to so-called \"first order kinetics\" where the rate constant is a fixed number, the elimination of a substance from a living organism usually follows more complex chemical kinetics.For example, the biological half-life of water in a human being is about 9 to 10 days, though this can be altered by behavior and other conditions.", "The biological half-life of caesium in human beings is between one and four months.The concept of a half-life has also been utilized for pesticides in plants, and certain authors maintain that pesticide risk and impact assessment models rely on and are sensitive to information describing dissipation from plants.In epidemiology, the concept of half-life can refer to the length of time for the number of incident cases in a disease outbreak to drop by half, particularly if the dynamics of the outbreak can be modeled exponentially." ], [ "See also", "*Half time (physics)*List of radioactive nuclides by half-life*Mean lifetime*Median lethal dose" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*https://www.calculator.net/half-life-calculator.html Comprehensive half-life calculator* wiki: Decay Engine, Nucleonica.net (archived 2016)* System Dynamics – Time Constants, Bucknell.edu* Researchers Nikhef and UvA measure slowest radioactive decay ever: Xe-124 with 18 billion trillion years*https://academo.org/demos/radioactive-decay-simulator/ Interactive radioactive decay simulator demonstrating how half-life is related to the rate of decay" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Humus" ], [ "Introduction", "carbon.", "Besides the three major soil horizons of (A) surface/topsoil, (B) subsoil, and (C) substratum, some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the very surface.", "Hard bedrock (R) is not in a strict sense soil.In classical soil science, '''humus''' is the dark organic matter in soil that is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter.", "It is a kind of soil organic matter.", "It is rich in nutrients and retains moisture in the soil.", "Humus is the Latin word for \"earth\" or \"ground\".", "In agriculture, \"humus\" sometimes also is used to describe mature or natural compost extracted from a woodland or other spontaneous source for use as a soil conditioner.", "It is also used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains organic matter (''humus type'', ''humus form'', or ''humus profile'').Humus has many nutrients that improve the health of soil, nitrogen being the most important.", "The ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C:N) of humus commonly ranges between 8:1 and 15:1 with the median being about 12:1.It also significantly affects the bulk density of soil.", "Humus is amorphous and lacks the cellular structure characteristic of plants, microorganisms or animals." ], [ "Description", "The primary materials needed for the process of humification are plant materials.", "The composition of humus varies dependent on the composition of the primary materials and the secondary microbial and animal products.", "The decomposition rate of the different compounds will affect the composition of the humus.It is difficult to define humus precisely because it is a very complex substance which is not fully understood.", "Humus is different from decomposing soil organic matter.", "The latter looks rough and has visible remains of the original plant or animal matter.", "Fully humified humus, on the contrary, has a uniformly dark, spongy, and jelly-like appearance, and is amorphous; it may gradually decay over several years or persist for millennia.", "It has no determinate shape, structure, or quality.", "However, when examined under a microscope, humus may reveal tiny plant, animal, or microbial remains that have been mechanically, but not chemically, degraded.", "This suggests an ambiguous boundary between humus and soil organic matter.", "While distinct, humus is an integral part of soil organic matter.There is little data available on the composition of forest humus because it is a complex mixture that is challenging for researchers to analyze.", "Researchers in the 1940s and 1960s tried using chemical separation to analyze plant and humic compounds in forest soil, but this proved impossible.", "Further research has been done in more recent years, though it remains an active field of study." ], [ "Humification", "Microorganisms decompose a large portion of the soil organic matter into inorganic minerals that the roots of plants can absorb as nutrients.", "This process is termed \"mineralization\".", "In this process, nitrogen (nitrogen cycle) and the other nutrients (nutrient cycle) in the decomposed organic matter are recycled.", "Depending on the conditions in which the decomposition occurs, a fraction of the organic matter does not mineralize and instead is transformed by a process called \"humification\".", "Prior to modern analytical methods, early evidence led scientists to believe that humification resulted in concatenations of organic polymer resistant to the action of microorganisms, however recent research has demonstrated that microorganisms are capable of digesting humus.Humification can occur naturally in soil or artificially in the production of compost.", "Organic matter is humified by a combination of saprotrophic fungi, bacteria, microbes and animals such as earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, and arthropods.", "Plant remains, including those that animals digested and excreted, contain organic compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins, and organic acids.", "Decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates, which decompose easily as detritivores initially invade the dead plant organs, while the remaining cellulose and lignin decompose more slowly.", "Simple proteins, organic acids, starches, and sugars decompose rapidly, while crude proteins, fats, waxes, and resins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time.", "Lignin, which is quickly transformed by white-rot fungi, is one of the primary precursors of humus, together with by-products of microbial and animal activity.", "The humus produced by humification is thus a mixture of compounds and complex biological chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin that has many functions and benefits in soil.", "Some judge earthworm humus (vermicompost) to be the optimal organic manure." ], [ "Stability", "Much of the humus in most soils has persisted for more than 100 years, rather than having been decomposed into CO2, and can be regarded as stable; this organic matter has been protected from decomposition by microbial or enzyme action because it is hidden (occluded) inside small aggregates of soil particles, or tightly sorbed or complexed to clays.", "Most humus that is not protected in this way is decomposed within 10 years and can be regarded as less stable or more labile.", "Stable humus contributes few plant-available nutrients in soil, but it helps maintain its physical structure.", "A very stable form of humus is formed from the slow oxidation (redox) of soil carbon after the incorporation of finely powdered charcoal into the topsoil.", "This process is speculated to have been important in the formation of the unusually fertile Amazonian .", "However, recent work suggests that complex soil organic molecules may be much less stable than previously thought: “the available evidence does not support the formation of large-molecular-size and persistent ‘humic substances’ in soils.", "Instead, soil organic matter is a continuum of progressively decomposing organic compounds.″" ], [ "Horizons", "Humus has a characteristic black or dark brown color and is organic due to an accumulation of organic carbon.", "Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to identify the master horizons, and lowercase letters for distinctions of these horizons.", "Most soils have three major horizons: the surface horizon (A), the subsoil (B), and the substratum (C).", "Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface, but this horizon can also be buried.", "The master horizon (E) is used for subsurface horizons that have significantly lost minerals (eluviation).", "Bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter R." ], [ "Benefits of soil organic matter and humus", "The importance of chemically stable humus is thought by some to be the fertility it provides to soils in both a physical and chemical sense, though some agricultural experts put a greater focus on other features of it, such as its ability to suppress disease.", "It helps the soil retain moisture by increasing microporosity and encourages the formation of good soil structure.", "The incorporation of oxygen into large organic molecular assemblages generates many active, negatively charged sites that bind to positively charged ions (cations) of plant nutrients, making them more available to the plant by way of ion exchange.", "Humus allows soil organisms to feed and reproduce and is often described as the \"life-force\" of the soil.", "* The process that converts soil organic matter into humus feeds the population of microorganisms and other creatures in the soil, and thus maintains high and healthy levels of soil life.", "* The rate at which soil organic matter is converted into humus promotes (when fast) or limits (when slow) the coexistence of plants, animals, and microorganisms in the soil.", "* Effective humus and stable humus are additional sources of nutrients for microbes: the former provides a readily available supply, and the latter acts as a long term storage reservoir.", "* Decomposition of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to be slowly oxidized (lignin-like humus) or to decompose into simpler forms (sugars and amino sugars, and aliphatic and phenolic organic acids), which are further transformed into microbial biomass (microbial humus) or reorganized and further oxidized into humic assemblages (fulvic acids and humic acids), which bind to clay minerals and metal hydroxides.", "The ability of plants to absorb humic substances with their roots and metabolize them has been long debated.", "There is now a consensus that humus functions hormonally rather than simply nutritionally in plant physiology.", "* Humus is a colloidal substance and increases the cation-exchange capacity of soil, hence its ability to store nutrients by chelation.", "While these nutrient cations are available to plants, they are held in the soil and prevented from being leached by rain or irrigation.", "* Humus can hold the equivalent of 80–90% of its weight in moisture and therefore increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought.", "* The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate, i.e.", "buffer, excessive acidic or alkaline soil conditions.", "* During humification, microbes secrete sticky, gum-like mucilages; these contribute to the crumby structure (tilth) of the soil by adhering particles together and allowing greater aeration of the soil.", "Toxic substances such as heavy metals and excess nutrients can be chelated, i.e., bound to the organic molecules of humus, and so prevented from leaching away.", "* The dark, usually brown or black, color of humus helps to warm cold soils in spring.", "*Humus can contribute to climate change mitigation through its carbon sequestration potential.", "Artificial humic acid and artificial fulvic acid synthesized from agricultural litter can increase the content of dissolved organic matter and total organic carbon in soil." ], [ "See also", "*Biochar*Biomass*Biotic material*Detritus*Glomalin*Humic acid*Immobilization (soil science)*Mineralization (soil science)*Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage*Organic matter*Plant litter*Soil horizon*Soil science*Terra preta" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrogen bond" ], [ "Introduction", "waterAFM image of naphthalenetetracarboxylic diimide molecules on silver-terminated silicon, interacting via hydrogen bonding, taken at 77 K. (\"Hydrogen bonds\" in the top image are exaggerated by artifacts of the imaging technique.", ")In chemistry, a '''hydrogen bond''' (or '''H-bond''') is primarily an electrostatic force of attraction between a hydrogen (H) atom which is covalently bonded to a more electronegative \"donor\" atom or group (Dn), and another electronegative atom bearing a lone pair of electrons—the hydrogen bond acceptor (Ac).", "Such an interacting system is generally denoted , where the solid line denotes a polar covalent bond, and the dotted or dashed line indicates the hydrogen bond.", "The most frequent donor and acceptor atoms are the period 2 elements nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and fluorine (F).Hydrogen bonds can be intermolecular (occurring between separate molecules) or intramolecular (occurring among parts of the same molecule).", "The energy of a hydrogen bond depends on the geometry, the environment, and the nature of the specific donor and acceptor atoms and can vary between 1 and 40 kcal/mol.", "This makes them somewhat stronger than a van der Waals interaction, and weaker than fully covalent or ionic bonds.", "This type of bond can occur in inorganic molecules such as water and in organic molecules like DNA and proteins.", "Hydrogen bonds are responsible for holding materials such as paper and felted wool together, and for causing separate sheets of paper to stick together after becoming wet and subsequently drying.The hydrogen bond is also responsible for many of the physical and chemical properties of compounds of N, O, and F that seem unusual compared with other similar structures.", "In particular, intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C) compared to the other group-16 hydrides that have much weaker hydrogen bonds.", "Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is partly responsible for the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins and nucleic acids." ], [ "Bonding", "An example of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in a self-assembled dimer complex.", "The hydrogen bonds are represented by dotted lines.Intramolecular hydrogen bonding in acetylacetone helps stabilize the enol tautomer.===Definitions and general characteristics===In a hydrogen bond, the electronegative atom not covalently attached to the hydrogen is named the proton acceptor, whereas the one covalently bound to the hydrogen is named the proton donor.", "This nomenclature is recommended by the IUPAC.", "The hydrogen of the donor is protic and therefore can act as a Lewis acid and the acceptor is the Lewis base.", "Hydrogen bonds are represented as system, where the dots represent the hydrogen bond.", "Liquids that display hydrogen bonding (such as water) are called '''associated liquids'''.Examples of hydrogen bond donating (donors) and hydrogen bond accepting groups (acceptors)Cyclic dimer of acetic acid; dashed '''green''' lines represent hydrogen bondsHydrogen bonds arise from a combination of electrostatics (multipole-multipole and multipole-induced multipole interactions), covalency (charge transfer by orbital overlap), and dispersion (London forces).In weaker hydrogen bonds, hydrogen atoms tend to bond to elements such as sulfur (S) or chlorine (Cl); even carbon (C) can serve as a donor, particularly when the carbon or one of its neighbors is electronegative (e.g., in chloroform, aldehydes and terminal acetylenes).", "Gradually, it was recognized that there are many examples of weaker hydrogen bonding involving donor other than N, O, or F and/or acceptor Ac with electronegativity approaching that of hydrogen (rather than being much more electronegative).", "Although weak (≈1 kcal/mol), \"non-traditional\" hydrogen bonding interactions are ubiquitous and influence structures of many kinds of materials.The definition of hydrogen bonding has gradually broadened over time to include these weaker attractive interactions.", "In 2011, an IUPAC Task Group recommended a modern evidence-based definition of hydrogen bonding, which was published in the IUPAC journal ''Pure and Applied Chemistry''.", "This definition specifies:===Bond strength===Hydrogen bonds can vary in strength from weak (1–2 kJ/mol) to strong (161.5 kJ/mol in the bifluoride ion, ).", "Typical enthalpies in vapor include:* (161.5 kJ/mol or 38.6 kcal/mol), illustrated uniquely by * (29 kJ/mol or 6.9 kcal/mol), illustrated water-ammonia* (21 kJ/mol or 5.0 kcal/mol), illustrated water-water, alcohol-alcohol* (13 kJ/mol or 3.1 kcal/mol), illustrated by ammonia-ammonia* (8 kJ/mol or 1.9 kcal/mol), illustrated water-amide* (18 kJ/mol or 4.3 kcal/mol)The strength of intermolecular hydrogen bonds is most often evaluated by measurements of equilibria between molecules containing donor and/or acceptor units, most often in solution.", "The strength of intramolecular hydrogen bonds can be studied with equilibria between conformers with and without hydrogen bonds.", "The most important method for the identification of hydrogen bonds also in complicated molecules is crystallography, sometimes also NMR-spectroscopy.", "Structural details, in particular distances between donor and acceptor which are smaller than the sum of the van der Waals radii can be taken as indication of the hydrogen bond strength.", "One scheme gives the following somewhat arbitrary classification: those that are 15 to 40 kcal/mol, 5 to 15 kcal/mol, and >0 to 5 kcal/mol are considered strong, moderate, and weak, respectively.Hydrogen bonds involving C-H bonds are both very rare and weak.===Resonance assisted hydrogen bond===The '''resonance assisted hydrogen bond''' (commonly abbreviated as RAHB) is a strong type of hydrogen bond.", "It is characterized by the π-delocalization that involves the hydrogen and cannot be properly described by the electrostatic model alone.", "This description of the hydrogen bond has been proposed to describe unusually short distances generally observed between or .===Structural details===The distance is typically ≈110 pm, whereas the distance is ≈160 to 200 pm.", "The typical length of a hydrogen bond in water is 197 pm.", "The ideal bond angle depends on the nature of the hydrogen bond donor.", "The following hydrogen bond angles between a hydrofluoric acid donor and various acceptors have been determined experimentally:VSEPR geometryAngle (°)linear180trigonal planar120pyramidal46pyramidal89trigonal 142===Spectroscopy===Strong hydrogen bonds are revealed by downfield shifts in the 1H NMR spectrum.", "For example, the acidic proton in the enol tautomer of acetylacetone appears at  15.5, which is about 10 ppm downfield of a conventional alcohol.In the IR spectrum, hydrogen bonding shifts the stretching frequency to lower energy (i.e.", "the vibration frequency decreases).", "This shift reflects a weakening of the bond.", "Certain hydrogen bonds - improper hydrogen bonds - show a blue shift of the stretching frequency and a decrease in the bond length.", "H-bonds can also be measured by IR vibrational mode shifts of the acceptor.", "The amide I mode of backbone carbonyls in α-helices shifts to lower frequencies when they form H-bonds with side-chain hydroxyl groups.", "The dynamics of hydrogen bond structures in water can be probed by this OH stretching vibration.", "In the hydrogen bonding network in protic organic ionic plastic crystals (POIPCs), which are a type of phase change material exhibiting solid-solid phase transitions prior to melting, variable-temperature infrared spectroscopy can reveal the temperature dependence of hydrogen bonds and the dynamics of both the anions and the cations.", "The sudden weakening of hydrogen bonds during the solid-solid phase transition seems to be coupled with the onset of orientational or rotational disorder of the ions.===Theoretical considerations===Hydrogen bonding is of persistent theoretical interest.", "According to a modern description integrates both the intermolecular O:H lone pair \":\" nonbond and the intramolecular polar-covalent bond associated with repulsive coupling.Quantum chemical calculations of the relevant interresidue potential constants (compliance constants) revealed large differences between individual H bonds of the same type.", "For example, the central interresidue hydrogen bond between guanine and cytosine is much stronger in comparison to the bond between the adenine-thymine pair.Theoretically, the bond strength of the hydrogen bonds can be assessed using NCI index, non-covalent interactions index, which allows a visualization of these non-covalent interactions, as its name indicates, using the electron density of the system.Interpretations of the anisotropies in the Compton profile of ordinary ice claim that the hydrogen bond is partly covalent.", "However, this interpretation was challenged.Most generally, the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a metric-dependent electrostatic scalar field between two or more intermolecular bonds.", "This is slightly different from the intramolecular bound states of, for example, covalent or ionic bonds.", "However, hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state phenomenon, since the interaction energy has a net negative sum.", "The initial theory of hydrogen bonding proposed by Linus Pauling suggested that the hydrogen bonds had a partial covalent nature.", "This interpretation remained controversial until NMR techniques demonstrated information transfer between hydrogen-bonded nuclei, a feat that would only be possible if the hydrogen bond contained some covalent character." ], [ "History", "The concept of hydrogen bonding once was challenging.", "Linus Pauling credits T. S. Moore and T. F. Winmill with the first mention of the hydrogen bond, in 1912.Moore and Winmill used the hydrogen bond to account for the fact that trimethylammonium hydroxide is a weaker base than tetramethylammonium hydroxide.", "The description of hydrogen bonding in its better-known setting, water, came some years later, in 1920, from Latimer and Rodebush.", "In that paper, Latimer and Rodebush cited the work of a fellow scientist at their laboratory, Maurice Loyal Huggins, saying, \"Mr. Huggins of this laboratory in some work as yet unpublished, has used the idea of a hydrogen kernel held between two atoms as a theory in regard to certain organic compounds.\"" ], [ "Hydrogen bonds in small molecules", "Crystal structure of hexagonal ice.", "Gray dashed lines indicate hydrogen bondsStructure of nickel bis(dimethylglyoximate), which features two linear hydrogen-bonds.===Water===An ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules.", "In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.", "The simplest case is a pair of water molecules with one hydrogen bond between them, which is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system.", "When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule.", "This can repeat such that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms).", "Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an open hexagonal lattice.", "The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances.Liquid water's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can form, relative to its low molecular mass.", "Owing to the difficulty of breaking these bonds, water has a very high boiling point, melting point, and viscosity compared to otherwise similar liquids not conjoined by hydrogen bonds.", "Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four.The number of hydrogen bonds formed by a molecule of liquid water fluctuates with time and temperature.", "From TIP4P liquid water simulations at 25 °C, it was estimated that each water molecule participates in an average of 3.59 hydrogen bonds.", "At 100 °C, this number decreases to 3.24 due to the increased molecular motion and decreased density, while at 0 °C, the average number of hydrogen bonds increases to 3.69.Another study found a much smaller number of hydrogen bonds: 2.357 at 25 °C.", "Defining and counting the hydrogen bonds is not straightforward however.Because water may form hydrogen bonds with solute proton donors and acceptors, it may competitively inhibit the formation of solute intermolecular or intramolecular hydrogen bonds.", "Consequently, hydrogen bonds between or within solute molecules dissolved in water are almost always unfavorable relative to hydrogen bonds between water and the donors and acceptors for hydrogen bonds on those solutes.", "Hydrogen bonds between water molecules have an average lifetime of 10−11 seconds, or 10 picoseconds.=== Bifurcated and over-coordinated hydrogen bonds in water ===A single hydrogen atom can participate in two hydrogen bonds.", "This type of bonding is called \"bifurcated\" (split in two or \"two-forked\").", "It can exist, for instance, in complex organic molecules.", "It has been suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation.Acceptor-type hydrogen bonds (terminating on an oxygen's lone pairs) are more likely to form bifurcation (it is called overcoordinated oxygen, OCO) than are donor-type hydrogen bonds, beginning on the same oxygen's hydrogens.===Other liquids===For example, hydrogen fluoride—which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H atom—can form only two bonds; (ammonia has the opposite problem: three hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair).", ":H-F***H-F***H-F===Further manifestations of solvent hydrogen bonding===* Increase in the melting point, boiling point, solubility, and viscosity of many compounds can be explained by the concept of hydrogen bonding.", "* Negative azeotropy of mixtures of HF and water.", "* The fact that ice is less dense than liquid water is due to a crystal structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds.", "* Dramatically higher boiling points of , , and HF compared to the heavier analogues , , and HCl, where hydrogen-bonding is absent.", "* Viscosity of anhydrous phosphoric acid and of glycerol.", "* Dimer formation in carboxylic acids and hexamer formation in hydrogen fluoride, which occur even in the gas phase, resulting in gross deviations from the ideal gas law.", "* Pentamer formation of water and alcohols in apolar solvents." ], [ "Hydrogen bonds in polymers", "Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in determining the three-dimensional structures and the properties adopted by many proteins.", "Compared to the , , and bonds that comprise most polymers, hydrogen bonds are far weaker, perhaps 5%.", "Thus, hydrogen bonds can be broken by chemical or mechanical means while retaining the basic structure of the polymer backbone.", "This hierarchy of bond strengths (covalent bonds being stronger than hydrogen-bonds being stronger than van der Waals forces) is relevant in the properties of many materials.===DNA===The structure of part of a DNA double helixHydrogen bonding between guanine and cytosine, one of two types of base pairs in DNAIn these macromolecules, bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape, which helps determine the molecule's physiological or biochemical role.", "For example, the double helical structure of DNA is due largely to hydrogen bonding between its base pairs (as well as pi stacking interactions), which link one complementary strand to the other and enable replication.===Proteins===In the secondary structure of proteins, hydrogen bonds form between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens.", "When the spacing of the amino acid residues participating in a hydrogen bond occurs regularly between positions ''i'' and , an alpha helix is formed.", "When the spacing is less, between positions ''i'' and , then a 310 helix is formed.", "When two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds involving alternating residues on each participating strand, a beta sheet is formed.", "Hydrogen bonds also play a part in forming the tertiary structure of protein through interaction of R-groups.", "(See also protein folding).Bifurcated H-bond systems are common in alpha-helical transmembrane proteins between the backbone amide of residue ''i'' as the H-bond acceptor and two H-bond donors from residue : the backbone amide and a side-chain hydroxyl or thiol .", "The energy preference of the bifurcated H-bond hydroxyl or thiol system is -3.4 kcal/mol or -2.6 kcal/mol, respectively.", "This type of bifurcated H-bond provides an intrahelical H-bonding partner for polar side-chains, such as serine, threonine, and cysteine within the hydrophobic membrane environments.The role of hydrogen bonds in protein folding has also been linked to osmolyte-induced protein stabilization.", "Protective osmolytes, such as trehalose and sorbitol, shift the protein folding equilibrium toward the folded state, in a concentration dependent manner.", "While the prevalent explanation for osmolyte action relies on excluded volume effects that are entropic in nature, circular dichroism (CD) experiments have shown osmolyte to act through an enthalpic effect.", "The molecular mechanism for their role in protein stabilization is still not well established, though several mechanisms have been proposed.", "Computer molecular dynamics simulations suggest that osmolytes stabilize proteins by modifying the hydrogen bonds in the protein hydration layer.Several studies have shown that hydrogen bonds play an important role for the stability between subunits in multimeric proteins.", "For example, a study of sorbitol dehydrogenase displayed an important hydrogen bonding network which stabilizes the tetrameric quaternary structure within the mammalian sorbitol dehydrogenase protein family.A protein backbone hydrogen bond incompletely shielded from water attack is a dehydron.", "Dehydrons promote the removal of water through proteins or ligand binding.", "The exogenous dehydration enhances the electrostatic interaction between the amide and carbonyl groups by de-shielding their partial charges.", "Furthermore, the dehydration stabilizes the hydrogen bond by destabilizing the nonbonded state consisting of dehydrated isolated charges.Wool, being a protein fibre, is held together by hydrogen bonds, causing wool to recoil when stretched.", "However, washing at high temperatures can permanently break the hydrogen bonds and a garment may permanently lose its shape.===Other polymers===Para-aramid structureA strand of cellulose (conformation Iα), showing the hydrogen bonds (dashed) within and between cellulose moleculesThe properties of many polymers are affected by hydrogen bonds within and/or between the chains.", "Prominent examples include cellulose and its derived fibers, such as cotton and flax.", "In nylon, hydrogen bonds between carbonyl and the amide N''H'' effectively link adjacent chains, which gives the material mechanical strength.", "Hydrogen bonds also affect the aramid fibre, where hydrogen bonds stabilize the linear chains laterally.", "The chain axes are aligned along the fibre axis, making the fibres extremely stiff and strong.", "Hydrogen-bond networks make both polymers sensitive to humidity levels in the atmosphere because water molecules can diffuse into the surface and disrupt the network.", "Some polymers are more sensitive than others.", "Thus nylons are more sensitive than aramids, and nylon 6 more sensitive than nylon-11." ], [ "Symmetric hydrogen bond", "A symmetric hydrogen bond is a special type of hydrogen bond in which the proton is spaced exactly halfway between two identical atoms.", "The strength of the bond to each of those atoms is equal.", "It is an example of a three-center four-electron bond.", "This type of bond is much stronger than a \"normal\" hydrogen bond.", "The effective bond order is 0.5, so its strength is comparable to a covalent bond.", "It is seen in ice at high pressure, and also in the solid phase of many anhydrous acids such as hydrofluoric acid and formic acid at high pressure.", "It is also seen in the bifluoride ion .", "Due to severe steric constraint, the protonated form of Proton Sponge (1,8-bis(dimethylamino)naphthalene) and its derivatives also have symmetric hydrogen bonds (), although in the case of protonated Proton Sponge, the assembly is bent." ], [ "Dihydrogen bond", "The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related dihydrogen bond, which is also an intermolecular bonding interaction involving hydrogen atoms.", "These structures have been known for some time, and well characterized by crystallography; however, an understanding of their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond, ionic bond, and covalent bond remains unclear.", "Generally, the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms (most notably in the nitrogen, and chalcogen groups).", "In some cases, these proton acceptors may be pi-bonds or metal complexes.", "In the dihydrogen bond, however, a metal hydride serves as a proton acceptor, thus forming a hydrogen-hydrogen interaction.", "Neutron diffraction has shown that the molecular geometry of these complexes is similar to hydrogen bonds, in that the bond length is very adaptable to the metal complex/hydrogen donor system." ], [ "Application to drugs", "The Hydrogen bond is relevant to drug design.", "According to Lipinski's rule of five the majority of orally active drugs have no more than five hydrogen bond donors and fewer than ten hydrogen bond acceptors.", "These interactions exist between nitrogen–hydrogen and oxygen–hydrogen centers.", "Many drugs do not, however, obey these \"rules\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* George A. Jeffrey.", "''An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry)''.", "Oxford University Press, US (March 13, 1997)." ], [ "External links", "* The Bubble Wall (Audio slideshow from the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory explaining cohesion, surface tension and hydrogen bonds)* isotopic effect on bond dynamics" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heraldry" ], [ "Introduction", "The German ''Hyghalmen Roll'' was made in the late 15th century and illustrates the German practice of repeating themes from the arms in the crest.", "(See Roll of arms).", "'''Heraldry''' is a discipline relating to the design, display and study of armorial bearings (known as armory), as well as related disciplines, such as vexillology, together with the study of ceremony, rank and pedigree.", "Armory, the best-known branch of heraldry, concerns the design and transmission of the heraldic achievement.", "The achievement, or armorial bearings usually includes a coat of arms on a shield, helmet and crest, together with any accompanying devices, such as supporters, badges, heraldic banners and mottoes.Although the use of various devices to signify individuals and groups goes back to antiquity, both the form and use of such devices varied widely, as the concept of regular, hereditary designs, constituting the distinguishing feature of heraldry, did not develop until the High Middle Ages.", "It is often claimed that the use of helmets with face guards during this period made it difficult to recognize one's commanders in the field when large armies gathered together for extended periods, necessitating the development of heraldry as a symbolic language, but there is little support for this view.The perceived beauty and pageantry of heraldic designs allowed them to survive the gradual abandonment of armour on the battlefield during the seventeenth century.", "Heraldry has been described poetically as \"the handmaid of history\", \"the shorthand of history\", and \"the floral border in the garden of history\".", "In modern times, individuals, public and private organizations, corporations, cities, towns, regions, and other entities use heraldry and its conventions to symbolize their heritage, achievements, and aspirations." ], [ "History", "===Precursors===Various symbols have been used to represent individuals or groups for thousands of years.", "The earliest representations of distinct persons and regions in Egyptian art show the use of standards topped with the images or symbols of various gods, and the names of kings appear upon emblems known as serekhs, representing the king's palace, and usually topped with a falcon representing the god Horus, of whom the king was regarded as the earthly incarnation.", "Similar emblems and devices are found in ancient Mesopotamian art of the same period, and the precursors of heraldic beasts such as the griffin can also be found.", "In the Bible, the Book of Numbers refers to the standards and ensigns of the children of Israel, who were commanded to gather beneath these emblems and declare their pedigrees.", "The Greek and Latin writers frequently describe the shields and symbols of various heroes, and units of the Roman army were sometimes identified by distinctive markings on their shields.", "At least one pre-historic European object, the Nebra sky disc, is also thought to serve as a heraldic precursor.Until the nineteenth century, it was common for heraldic writers to cite examples such as these, and metaphorical symbols such as the \"Lion of Judah\" or \"Eagle of the Caesars\" as evidence of the antiquity of heraldry itself; and to infer therefrom that the great figures of ancient history bore arms representing their noble status and descent.", "The Book of Saint Albans, compiled in 1486, declares that Christ himself was a gentleman of coat armour.", "These claims are now regarded as the fantasy of medieval heralds, as there is no evidence of a distinctive symbolic language akin to that of heraldry during this early period; nor do many of the shields described in antiquity bear a close resemblance to those of medieval heraldry; nor is there any evidence that specific symbols or designs were passed down from one generation to the next, representing a particular person or line of descent.The medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature.", "Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the various arms attributed to the Nine Worthies and the Knights of the Round Table.", "These too are readily dismissed as fanciful inventions, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry.File:Narmer Palette serpopard side.jpg|Reverse of the Narmer Palette, ''circa'' 3100 BC.", "The top row depicts four men carrying standards.", "Directly above them is a serekh containing the name of the king, Narmer.File:NAMA Mycènes bouclier 2.jpg|Fresco depicting a shield of a type common in Mycenaean Greece.File:Hoplitodromos Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1471.jpg|Vase with Greek soldiers in armor, ''circa'' 550 BC.File:RMW - Legionärsschild.jpg|A reconstruction of a shield that would have been carried by a Roman Legionary.File:Bodl Canon.Misc.378 roll159B frame28.jpg|alt=Shields from the \"Magister Militum Praesentalis II\".", "From the Notitia Dignitatum, a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands.|Shields from the \"Magister Militum Praesentalis II\".", "From the , a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands.", "However, it is likely the art on the shields are made to fit the time/age and not from the original.File:Harold dead bayeux tapestry.png|The death of King Harold, from the Bayeux Tapestry.", "The shields look heraldic, but do not seem to have been personal or hereditary emblems.===Origins of modern heraldry===Enamel from the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, one of the earliest depictions of modern heraldry.The development of the modern heraldic language cannot be attributed to a single individual, time, or place.", "Although certain designs that are now considered heraldic were evidently in use during the eleventh century, most accounts and depictions of shields up to the beginning of the twelfth century contain little or no evidence of their heraldic character.", "For example, the Bayeux Tapestry, illustrating the Norman invasion of England in 1066, and probably commissioned about 1077, when the cathedral of Bayeux was rebuilt, depicts a number of shields of various shapes and designs, many of which are plain, while others are decorated with dragons, crosses, or other typically heraldic figures.", "Yet no individual is depicted twice bearing the same arms, nor are any of the descendants of the various persons depicted known to have borne devices resembling those in the tapestry.Similarly, an account of the French knights at the court of the Byzantine emperor Alexius I at the beginning of the twelfth century describes their shields of polished metal, devoid of heraldic design.", "A Spanish manuscript from 1109 describes both plain and decorated shields, none of which appears to have been heraldic.", "The Abbey of St. Denis contained a window commemorating the knights who embarked on the Second Crusade in 1147, and was probably made soon after the event; but Montfaucon's illustration of the window before it was destroyed shows no heraldic design on any of the shields.In England, from the time of the Norman conquest, official documents had to be sealed.", "Beginning in the twelfth century, seals assumed a distinctly heraldic character; a number of seals dating from between 1135 and 1155 appear to show the adoption of heraldic devices in England, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy.", "A notable example of an early armorial seal is attached to a charter granted by Philip I, Count of Flanders, in 1164.Seals from the latter part of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries show no evidence of heraldic symbolism, but by the end of the twelfth century, seals are uniformly heraldic in nature.One of the earliest known examples of armory as it subsequently came to be practiced can be seen on the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, who died in 1151.An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffrey's widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a blue shield decorated with six golden lions rampant.", "He wears a blue helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in vair.", "A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, Henry I, in 1128; but this account probably dates to about 1175.The earlier heraldic writers attributed the lions of England to William the Conqueror, but the earliest evidence of the association of lions with the English crown is a seal bearing two lions passant, used by the future King John during the lifetime of his father, Henry II, who died in 1189.Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an heraldic emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffrey's shield.", "John's elder brother, Richard the Lionheart, who succeeded his father on the throne, is believed to have been the first to have borne the arms of three lions passant-guardant, still the arms of England, having earlier used two lions rampant combatant, which arms may also have belonged to his father.", "Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant (now statant-guardant).The origins of heraldry are sometimes associated with the Crusades, a series of military campaigns undertaken by Christian armies from 1096 to 1487, with the goal of reconquering Jerusalem and other former Byzantine territories captured by Muslim forces during the seventh century.", "While there is no evidence that heraldic art originated in the course of the Crusades, there is no reason to doubt that the gathering of large armies, drawn from across Europe for a united cause, would have encouraged the adoption of armorial bearings as a means of identifying one's commanders in the field, or that it helped disseminate the principles of armory across Europe.", "At least two distinctive features of heraldry are generally accepted as products of the crusaders: the surcoat, an outer garment worn over the armor to protect the wearer from the heat of the sun, was often decorated with the same devices that appeared on a knight's shield.", "It is from this garment that the phrase \"coat of arms\" is derived.", "Also the lambrequin, or mantling, that depends from the helmet and frames the shield in modern heraldry, began as a practical covering for the helmet and the back of the neck during the Crusades, serving much the same function as the surcoat.", "Its slashed or scalloped edge, today rendered as billowing flourishes, is thought to have originated from hard wearing in the field, or as a means of deadening a sword blow and perhaps entangling the attacker's weapon.===Heralds and heraldic authorities===The spread of armorial bearings across Europe gave rise to a new occupation: the herald, originally a type of messenger employed by noblemen, assumed the responsibility of learning and knowing the rank, pedigree, and heraldic devices of various knights and lords, as well as the rules governing the design and description, or ''blazoning'' of arms, and the precedence of their bearers.", "As early as the late thirteenth century, certain heralds in the employ of monarchs were given the title \"King of Heralds\", which eventually became \"King of Arms.", "\"pursuivants wearing tabards, Windsor Castle, 2006In the earliest period, arms were assumed by their bearers without any need for heraldic authority.", "However, by the middle of the fourteenth century, the principle that only a single individual was entitled to bear a particular coat of arms was generally accepted, and disputes over the ownership of arms seems to have led to gradual establishment of heraldic authorities to regulate their use.", "The earliest known work of heraldic jurisprudence, ''De Insigniis et Armis'', was written about 1350 by Bartolus de Saxoferrato, a professor of law at the University of Padua.", "The most celebrated armorial dispute in English heraldry is that of ''Scrope v Grosvenor'' (1390), in which two different men claimed the right to bear ''azure, a bend or''.", "The continued proliferation of arms, and the number of disputes arising from different men assuming the same arms, led Henry V to issue a proclamation in 1419, forbidding all those who had not borne arms at the Battle of Agincourt from assuming arms, except by inheritance or a grant from the crown.Beginning in the reign of Henry VIII of England, the English Kings of Arms were commanded to make ''visitations'', in which they traveled about the country, recording arms borne under proper authority, and requiring those who bore arms without authority either to obtain authority for them, or cease their use.", "Arms borne improperly were to be taken down and defaced.", "The first such visitation began in 1530, and the last was carried out in 1700, although no new commissions to carry out visitations were made after the accession of William III in 1689.There is little evidence that Scottish heralds ever went on visitations.In 1484, during the reign of Richard III, the various heralds employed by the crown were incorporated into England's College of Arms, through which all new grants of arms would eventually be issued.", "The college currently consists of three Kings of Arms, assisted by six Heralds, and four Pursuivants, or junior officers of arms, all under the authority of the Earl Marshal; but all of the arms granted by the college are granted by the authority of the crown.", "In Scotland Court of the Lord Lyon King of Arms oversees the heraldry, and holds court sessions which are an official part of Scotland's court system.Similar bodies regulate the granting of arms in other monarchies and several members of the Commonwealth of Nations, but in most other countries there is no heraldic authority, and no law preventing anyone from assuming whatever arms they please, provided that they do not infringe upon the arms of another.===Later uses and developments===Although heraldry originated from military necessity, it soon found itself at home in the pageantry of the medieval tournament.", "The opportunity for knights and lords to display their heraldic bearings in a competitive medium led to further refinements, such as the development of elaborate tournament helms, and further popularized the art of heraldry throughout Europe.", "Prominent burghers and corporations, including many cities and towns, assumed or obtained grants of arms, with only nominal military associations.", "Heraldic devices were depicted in various contexts, such as religious and funerary art, and in using a wide variety of media, including stonework, carved wood, enamel, stained glass, and embroidery.As the rise of firearms rendered the mounted knight increasingly irrelevant during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and the tournament faded into history, the military character of heraldry gave way to its use as a decorative art.", "Freed from the limitations of actual shields and the need for arms to be easily distinguished in combat, heraldic artists designed increasingly elaborate achievements, culminating in the development of \"landscape heraldry\", incorporating realistic depictions of landscapes, during the latter part of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century.", "These fell out of fashion during the mid-nineteenth century, when a renewed interest in the history of armory led to the re-evaluation of earlier designs, and a new appreciation for the medieval origins of the art.", "In particular, a late use of heraldic imagery has been in patriotic commemorations and nationalistic propaganda during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.", "Since the late nineteenth century, heraldry has focused on the use of varied lines of partition and little-used ordinaries to produce new and unique designs." ], [ "Heraldic achievement", "===Elements of an achievement===A heraldic achievement consists of a shield of arms, the coat of arms, or simply coat, together with all of its accompanying elements, such as a crest, supporters, and other heraldic embellishments.", "The term \"coat of arms\" technically refers to the shield of arms itself, but the phrase is commonly used to refer to the entire achievement.", "The one indispensable element of a coat of arms is the shield; many ancient coats of arms consist of nothing else, but no achievement or armorial bearings exists without a coat of arms.From a very early date, illustrations of arms were frequently embellished with helmets placed above the shields.", "These in turn came to be decorated with fan-shaped or sculptural crests, often incorporating elements from the shield of arms; as well as a wreath or torse, or sometimes a coronet, from which depended the lambrequin or mantling.", "To these elements, modern heraldry often adds a motto displayed on a ribbon, typically below the shield.", "The helmet is borne of right, and forms no part of a grant of arms; it may be assumed without authority by anyone entitled to bear arms, together with mantling and whatever motto the armiger may desire.", "The crest, however, together with the torse or coronet from which it arises, must be granted or confirmed by the relevant heraldic authority.If the bearer is entitled to the ribbon, collar, or badge of a knightly order, it may encircle or depend from the shield.", "Some arms, particularly those of the nobility, are further embellished with supporters, heraldic figures standing alongside or behind the shield; often these stand on a compartment, typically a mound of earth and grass, on which other badges, symbols, or heraldic banners may be displayed.", "The most elaborate achievements sometimes display the entire coat of arms beneath a pavilion, an embellished tent or canopy of the type associated with the medieval tournament, though this is only very rarely found in English or Scots achievements.====Shield====The primary element of a heraldic achievement is the shield, or escutcheon, upon which the coat of arms is depicted.", "All of the other elements of an achievement are designed to decorate and complement these arms, but only the shield of arms is required.", "The shape of the shield, like many other details, is normally left to the discretion of the heraldic artist, and many different shapes have prevailed during different periods of heraldic design, and in different parts of Europe.One shape alone is normally reserved for a specific purpose: the lozenge, a diamond-shaped escutcheon, was traditionally used to display the arms of women, on the grounds that shields, as implements of war, were inappropriate for this purpose.", "This distinction was not always strictly adhered to, and a general exception was usually made for sovereigns, whose arms represented an entire nation.", "Sometimes an oval shield, or cartouche, was substituted for the lozenge; this shape was also widely used for the arms of clerics in French, Spanish, and Italian heraldry, although it was never reserved for their use.", "In recent years, the use of the cartouche for women's arms has become general in Scottish heraldry, while both Scottish and Irish authorities have permitted a traditional shield under certain circumstances, and in Canadian heraldry the shield is now regularly granted.The whole surface of the escutcheon is termed the field, which may be plain, consisting of a single tincture, or divided into multiple sections of differing tinctures by various lines of partition; and any part of the field may be ''semé'', or powdered with small charges.", "The edges and adjacent parts of the escutcheon are used to identify the placement of various heraldic charges; the upper edge, and the corresponding upper third of the shield, are referred to as the chief; the lower part is the base.", "The sides of the shield are known as the dexter and sinister flanks, although these terms are based on the point of view of the bearer of the shield, who would be standing behind it; to the observer, and in all heraldic illustration, the dexter is on the left side, and the sinister on the right.The placement of various charges may also refer to a number of specific points, nine in number according to some authorities, but eleven according to others.", "The three most important are ''fess point'', located in the visual center of the shield; the ''honour point'', located midway between fess point and the chief; and the ''nombril point'', located midway between fess point and the base.", "The other points include ''dexter chief'', ''center chief'', and ''sinister chief'', running along the upper part of the shield from left to right, above the honour point; ''dexter flank'' and ''sinister flank'', on the sides approximately level with fess point; and ''dexter base'', ''middle base'', and ''sinister base'' along the lower part of the shield, below the nombril point.====Tinctures====Table of the tinctures and fursOne of the most distinctive qualities of heraldry is the use of a limited palette of colours and patterns, usually referred to as tinctures.", "These are divided into three categories, known as ''metals'', ''colours'', and ''furs''.The metals are ''or'' and ''argent'', representing gold and silver, respectively, although in practice they are usually depicted as yellow and white.", "Five colours are universally recognized: ''gules'', or red; ''sable'', or black; ''azure'', or blue; ''vert'', or green; and ''purpure'', or purple; and most heraldic authorities also admit two additional colours, known as ''sanguine'' or ''murrey'', a dark red or mulberry colour between gules and purpure, and ''tenné'', an orange or dark yellow to brown colour.", "These last two are quite rare, and are often referred to as ''stains'', from the belief that they were used to represent some dishonourable act, although in fact there is no evidence that this use existed outside of fanciful heraldic writers.", "Perhaps owing to the realization that there is really no such thing as a ''stain'' in genuine heraldry, as well as the desire to create new and unique designs, the use of these colours for general purposes has become accepted in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.", "Occasionally one meets with other colours, particularly in continental heraldry, although they are not generally regarded among the standard heraldic colours.", "Among these are ''cendrée'', or ash-colour; ''brunâtre'', or brown; ''bleu-céleste'' or ''bleu de ciel'', sky blue; ''amaranth'' or ''columbine'', a bright violet-red or pink colour; and ''carnation'', commonly used to represent flesh in French heraldry.", "A more recent addition is the use of ''copper'' as a metal in one or two Canadian coats of arms.There are two basic types of heraldic fur, known as ermine and vair, but over the course of centuries each has developed a number of variations.", "Ermine represents the fur of the stoat, a type of weasel, in its white winter coat, when it is called an ermine.", "It consists of a white, or occasionally silver field, powdered with black figures known as ''ermine spots'', representing the black tip of the animal's tail.", "Ermine was traditionally used to line the cloaks and caps of the nobility.", "The shape of the heraldic ermine spot has varied considerably over time, and nowadays is typically drawn as an arrowhead surmounted by three small dots, but older forms may be employed at the artist's discretion.", "When the field is sable and the ermine spots argent, the same pattern is termed ''ermines''; when the field is ''or'' rather than argent, the fur is termed ''erminois''; and when the field is sable and the ermine spots ''or'', it is termed ''pean''.Vair represents the winter coat of the red squirrel, which is blue-grey on top and white underneath.", "To form the linings of cloaks, the pelts were sewn together, forming an undulating, bell-shaped pattern, with interlocking light and dark rows.", "The heraldic fur is depicted with interlocking rows of argent and azure, although the shape of the pelts, usually referred to as \"vair bells\", is usually left to the artist's discretion.", "In the modern form, the bells are depicted with straight lines and sharp angles, and meet only at points; in the older, undulating pattern, now known as ''vair ondé'' or ''vair ancien'', the bells of each tincture are curved and joined at the base.", "There is no fixed rule as to whether the argent bells should be at the top or the bottom of each row.", "At one time vair commonly came in three sizes, and this distinction is sometimes encountered in continental heraldry; if the field contains fewer than four rows, the fur is termed ''gros vair'' or ''beffroi''; if of six or more, it is ''menu-vair'', or miniver.A common variation is ''counter-vair'', in which alternating rows are reversed, so that the bases of the vair bells of each tincture are joined to those of the same tincture in the row above or below.", "When the rows are arranged so that the bells of each tincture form vertical columns, it is termed ''vair in pale''; in continental heraldry one may encounter ''vair in bend'', which is similar to vair in pale, but diagonal.", "When alternating rows are reversed as in counter-vair, and then displaced by half the width of one bell, it is termed ''vair in point'', or wave-vair.", "A form peculiar to German heraldry is ''alternate vair'', in which each vair bell is divided in half vertically, with half argent and half azure.", "All of these variations can also be depicted in the form known as ''potent'', in which the shape of the vair bell is replaced by a ''T''-shaped figure, known as a potent from its resemblance to a crutch.", "Although it is really just a variation of vair, it is frequently treated as a separate fur.When the same patterns are composed of tinctures other than argent and azure, they are termed ''vairé'' or ''vairy'' of those tinctures, rather than ''vair''; ''potenté'' of other colours may also be found.", "Usually vairé will consist of one metal and one colour, but ermine or one of its variations may also be used, and vairé of four tinctures, usually two metals and two colours, is sometimes found.Three additional furs are sometimes encountered in continental heraldry; in French and Italian heraldry one meets with ''plumeté'' or ''plumetty'', in which the field appears to be covered with feathers, and ''papelonné'', in which it is decorated with scales.", "In German heraldry one may encounter ''kursch'', or vair bellies, depicted as brown and furry; all of these probably originated as variations of vair.Considerable latitude is given to the heraldic artist in depicting the heraldic tinctures; there is no fixed shade or hue to any of them.Whenever an object is depicted as it appears in nature, rather than in one or more of the heraldic tinctures, it is termed ''proper'', or the colour of nature.", "This does not seem to have been done in the earliest heraldry, but examples are known from at least the seventeenth century.", "While there can be no objection to the occasional depiction of objects in this manner, the overuse of charges in their natural colours is often cited as indicative of bad heraldic practice.", "The practice of landscape heraldry, which flourished in the latter part of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century, made extensive use of non-heraldic colours.One of the most important conventions of heraldry is the so-called \"rule of tincture\".", "To provide for contrast and visibility, metals should never be placed on metals, and colours should never be placed on colours.", "This rule does not apply to charges which cross a division of the field, which is partly metal and partly colour; nor, strictly speaking, does it prevent a field from consisting of two metals or two colours, although this is unusual.", "Furs are considered amphibious, and neither metal nor colour; but in practice ermine and erminois are usually treated as metals, while ermines and pean are treated as colours.", "This rule is strictly adhered to in British armory, with only rare exceptions; although generally observed in continental heraldry, it is not adhered to quite as strictly.", "Arms which violate this rule are sometimes known as \"puzzle arms\", of which the most famous example is the arms of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, consisting of gold crosses on a silver field.====Variations of the field====The field of a shield, or less often a charge or crest, is sometimes made up of a pattern of colours, or ''variation''.", "A pattern of horizontal (barwise) stripes, for example, is called ''barry'', while a pattern of vertical (palewise) stripes is called ''paly''.", "A pattern of diagonal stripes may be called ''bendy'' or ''bendy sinister'', depending on the direction of the stripes.", "Other variations include ''chevrony'', ''gyronny'' and ''chequy''.", "Wave shaped stripes are termed ''undy''.", "For further variations, these are sometimes combined to produce patterns of ''barry-bendy'', ''paly-bendy'', ''lozengy'' and ''fusilly''.", "Semés, or patterns of repeated charges, are also considered variations of the field.", "The Rule of tincture applies to all semés and variations of the field.====Divisions of the field====Finnish municipality of VarpaisjärviThe field of a shield in heraldry can be divided into more than one tincture, as can the various heraldic charges.", "Many coats of arms consist simply of a division of the field into two contrasting tinctures.", "These are considered divisions of a shield, so the rule of tincture can be ignored.", "For example, a shield divided azure and gules would be perfectly acceptable.", "A line of partition may be straight or it may be varied.", "The variations of partition lines can be wavy, indented, embattled, engrailed, nebuly, or made into myriad other forms; see Line (heraldry).====Ordinaries====In the early days of heraldry, very simple bold rectilinear shapes were painted on shields.", "These could be easily recognized at a long distance and could be easily remembered.", "They therefore served the main purpose of heraldry: identification.", "As more complicated shields came into use, these bold shapes were set apart in a separate class as the \"honourable ordinaries\".", "They act as charges and are always written first in blazon.", "Unless otherwise specified they extend to the edges of the field.", "Though ordinaries are not easily defined, they are generally described as including the cross, the fess, the pale, the bend, the chevron, the saltire, and the pall.There is a separate class of charges called sub-ordinaries which are of a geometrical shape subordinate to the ordinary.", "According to Friar, they are distinguished by their order in blazon.", "The sub-ordinaries include the inescutcheon, the orle, the tressure, the double tressure, the bordure, the chief, the canton, the label, and flaunches.Ordinaries may appear in parallel series, in which case blazons in English give them different names such as pallets, bars, bendlets, and chevronels.", "French blazon makes no such distinction between these diminutives and the ordinaries when borne singly.", "Unless otherwise specified an ordinary is drawn with straight lines, but each may be indented, embattled, wavy, engrailed, or otherwise have their lines varied.====Charges====A charge is any object or figure placed on a heraldic shield or on any other object of an armorial composition.", "Any object found in nature or technology may appear as a heraldic charge in armory.", "Charges can be animals, objects, or geometric shapes.", "Apart from the ordinaries, the most frequent charges are the cross – with its hundreds of variations – and the lion and eagle.", "Other common animals are bears, stags, wild boars, martlets, wolves and fish.", "Dragons, bats, unicorns, griffins, and other monsters appear as charges and as supporters.Animals are found in various stereotyped positions or ''attitudes''.", "Quadrupeds can often be found rampant (standing on the left hind foot).", "Another frequent position is passant, or walking, like the lions of the coat of arms of England.", "Eagles are almost always shown with their wings spread, or displayed.", "A pair of wings conjoined is called a vol.In English heraldry the crescent, mullet, martlet, annulet, fleur-de-lis, and rose may be added to a shield to distinguish cadet branches of a family from the senior line.", "These cadency marks are usually shown smaller than normal charges, but it still does not follow that a shield containing such a charge belongs to a cadet branch.", "All of these charges occur frequently in basic undifferenced coats of arms.====Marshalling====Grenville Armorial at Stowe HouseTo ''marshal'' two or more coats of arms is to combine them in one shield, to express inheritance, claims to property, or the occupation of an office.", "This can be done in a number of ways, of which the simplest is impalement: dividing the field ''per pale'' and putting one whole coat in each half.", "Impalement replaced the earlier dimidiation – combining the dexter half of one coat with the sinister half of another – because dimidiation can create ambiguity between, for example, a bend and a chevron.", "\"Dexter\" (from Latin ''dextra'', \"right\") means to the right from the viewpoint of the bearer of the arms and \"sinister\" (from Latin ''sinistra'', \"left\") means to the bearer's left.", "The dexter side is considered the side of greatest honour (see also dexter and sinister).A more versatile method is quartering, division of the field by both vertical and horizontal lines.", "This practice originated in Spain (Castile and León) after the 13th century.", "As the name implies, the usual number of divisions is four, but the principle has been extended to very large numbers of \"quarters\".Quarters are numbered from the dexter chief (the corner nearest to the right shoulder of a man standing behind the shield), proceeding across the top row, and then across the next row and so on.", "When three coats are quartered, the first is repeated as the fourth; when only two coats are quartered, the second is also repeated as the third.", "The quarters of a personal coat of arms correspond to the ancestors from whom the bearer has inherited arms, normally in the same sequence as if the pedigree were laid out with the father's father's ... father (to as many generations as necessary) on the extreme left and the mother's mother's...mother on the extreme right.", "A few lineages have accumulated hundreds of quarters, though such a number is usually displayed only in documentary contexts.", "The Scottish and Spanish traditions resist allowing more than four quarters, preferring to subdivide one or more \"grand quarters\" into sub-quarters as needed.The third common mode of marshalling is with an inescutcheon, a small shield placed in front of the main shield.", "In Britain this is most often an \"escutcheon of pretence\" indicating, in the arms of a married couple, that the wife is an heraldic heiress (i.e., she inherits a coat of arms because she has no brothers).", "In continental Europe an inescutcheon (sometimes called a \"heart shield\") usually carries the ancestral arms of a monarch or noble whose domains are represented by the quarters of the main shield.In German heraldry, animate charges in combined coats usually turn to face the centre of the composition.Dimidiation demo.svg|Dimidiation Dimidiation, worse case demo.svg|Dimidiation (worst case)Impalement demo.svg|ImpalementImpalement demo 2.svg|Impalement (worst case)Escutcheon of pretence demo.svg|Escutcheon of pretenceQuartering demo.svg|Quartering ===Helm and crest===German heraldry has examples of shields with numerous crests, as this arms of Saxe-Altenburg featuring a total of seven crests.", "Some thaler coins display as many as fifteen.In English the word \"crest\" is commonly (but erroneously) used to refer to an entire heraldic achievement of armorial bearings.", "The technical use of the heraldic term crest refers to just one component of a complete achievement.", "The crest rests on top of a helmet which itself rests on the most important part of the achievement: the shield.The modern crest has grown out of the three-dimensional figure placed on the top of the mounted knights' helms as a further means of identification.", "In most heraldic traditions, a woman does not display a crest, though this tradition is being relaxed in some heraldic jurisdictions, and the stall plate of Lady Marion Fraser in the Thistle Chapel in St Giles, Edinburgh, shows her coat on a lozenge but with helmet, crest, and motto.The crest is usually found on a wreath of twisted cloth and sometimes within a coronet.", "Crest-coronets are generally simpler than coronets of rank, but several specialized forms exist; for example, in Canada, descendants of the United Empire Loyalists are entitled to use a Loyalist military coronet (for descendants of members of Loyalist regiments) or Loyalist civil coronet (for others).When the helm and crest are shown, they are usually accompanied by a mantling.", "This was originally a cloth worn over the back of the helmet as partial protection against heating by sunlight.", "Today it takes the form of a stylized cloak hanging from the helmet.", "Typically in British heraldry, the outer surface of the mantling is of the principal colour in the shield and the inner surface is of the principal metal, though peers in the United Kingdom use standard colourings (Gules doubled Argent - Red/White) regardless of rank or the colourings of their arms.", "The mantling is sometimes conventionally depicted with a ragged edge, as if damaged in combat, though the edges of most are simply decorated at the emblazoner's discretion.Clergy often refrain from displaying a helm or crest in their heraldic achievements.", "Members of the clergy may display appropriate headwear.", "This often takes the form of a small crowned, wide brimmed hat called a galero with the colours and tassels denoting rank; or, in the case of Papal coats of arms until the inauguration of Pope Benedict XVI in 2005, an elaborate triple crown known as a tiara.", "Benedict broke with tradition to substitute a mitre in his arms.", "Orthodox and Presbyterian clergy do sometimes adopt other forms of headgear to ensign their shields.", "In the Anglican tradition, clergy members may pass crests on to their offspring, but rarely display them on their own shields.===Mottoes===An armorial motto is a phrase or collection of words intended to describe the motivation or intention of the armigerous person or corporation.", "This can form a pun on the family name as in Thomas Nevile's motto ''Ne vile velis''.", "Mottoes are generally changed at will and do not make up an integral part of the armorial achievement.", "Mottoes can typically be found on a scroll under the shield.", "In Scottish heraldry, where the motto is granted as part of the blazon, it is usually shown on a scroll above the crest, and may not be changed at will.", "A motto may be in any language.===Supporters and other insignia===Prince of Vergara.Supporters are human or animal figures or, very rarely, inanimate objects, usually placed on either side of a coat of arms as though supporting it.", "In many traditions, these have acquired strict guidelines for use by certain social classes.", "On the European continent, there are often fewer restrictions on the use of supporters.", "In the United Kingdom, only peers of the realm, a few baronets, senior members of orders of knighthood, and some corporate bodies are granted supporters.", "Often, these can have local significance or a historical link to the armiger.If the armiger has the title of baron, hereditary knight, or higher, he may display a coronet of rank above the shield.", "In the United Kingdom, this is shown between the shield and helmet, though it is often above the crest in Continental heraldry.Another addition that can be made to a coat of arms is the insignia of a baronet or of an order of knighthood.", "This is usually represented by a collar or similar band surrounding the shield.", "When the arms of a knight and his wife are shown in one achievement, the insignia of knighthood surround the husband's arms only, and the wife's arms are customarily surrounded by an ornamental garland of leaves for visual balance.===Differencing and cadency===Since arms pass from parents to offspring, and there is frequently more than one child per couple, it is necessary to distinguish the arms of siblings and extended family members from the original arms as passed on from eldest son to eldest son.", "Over time several schemes have been used.===Blazon===To \"blazon\" arms means to describe them using the formal language of heraldry.", "This language has its own vocabulary and syntax, or rules governing word order, which becomes essential for comprehension when blazoning a complex coat of arms.", "The verb comes from the Middle English ''blasoun'', itself a derivative of the French ''blason'' meaning \"shield\".", "The system of blazoning arms used in English-speaking countries today was developed by heraldic officers in the Middle Ages.", "The blazon includes a description of the arms contained within the escutcheon or shield, the crest, supporters where present, motto and other insignia.", "Complex rules, such as the rule of tincture, apply to the physical and artistic form of newly created arms, and a thorough understanding of these rules is essential to the art of heraldry.", "Though heraldic forms initially were broadly similar across Europe, several national styles had developed by the end of the Middle Ages, and artistic and blazoning styles today range from the very simple to extraordinarily complex." ], [ "National styles", "The emergence of heraldry occurred across western Europe almost simultaneously in the various countries.", "Originally, heraldic style was very similar from country to country.", "Over time, heraldic tradition diverged into four broad styles: German-Nordic, Gallo-British, Latin, and Eastern.", "In addition, it can be argued that newer national heraldic traditions, such as South African and Canadian heraldry, have emerged in the 20th century.===German-Nordic heraldry===The coat of arms of Mikkeli, a city of South Savonia, Finland, has been drawn up in honour of the headquarters of the Finnish Army led by Marshal C. G. E. Mannerheim; this was stationed in the city during the Winter War, the Continuation War and the Lapland War.", "The coat of arms was originally used without the Mannerheim Cross, and is the third coat of arms affixed to the city.Coats of arms in Germany, the Nordic countries, Estonia, Latvia, the Czech lands and northern Switzerland generally change very little over time.", "Marks of difference are very rare in this tradition, as are heraldic furs.", "One of the most striking characteristics of German-Nordic heraldry is the treatment of the crest.", "Often, the same design is repeated in the shield and the crest.", "The use of multiple crests is also common.", "The crest is rarely used separately as in British heraldry, but can sometimes serve as a mark of difference between different branches of a family.", "Torse is optional.", "Heraldic courtoisie is observed: that is, charges in a composite shield (or two shields displayed together) usually turn to face the centre.Coats consisting only of a divided field are somewhat more frequent in Germany than elsewhere.===Dutch heraldry===The Low Countries were great centres of heraldry in medieval times.", "One of the famous armorials is the Gelre Armorial or ''Wapenboek'', written between 1370 and 1414.Coats of arms in the Netherlands were not controlled by an official heraldic system like the two in the United Kingdom, nor were they used solely by noble families.", "Any person could develop and use a coat of arms if they wished to do so, provided they did not usurp someone else's arms, and historically, this right was enshrined in Roman Dutch law.", "As a result, many merchant families had coats of arms even though they were not members of the nobility.", "These are sometimes referred to as ''burgher arms,'' and it is thought that most arms of this type were adopted while the Netherlands was a republic (1581–1806).", "This heraldic tradition was also exported to the erstwhile Dutch colonies.", "Dutch heraldry is characterised by its simple and rather sober style, and in this sense, is closer to its medieval origins than the elaborate styles which developed in other heraldic traditions.===Gallo-British heraldry===The use of cadency marks to difference arms within the same family and the use of semy fields are distinctive features of Gallo-British heraldry (in Scotland the most significant mark of cadency being the bordure, the small brisures playing a very minor role).", "Marks of cadency are mandatory in Scotland, where no two persons can own identical arms at a time.", "It is common to see heraldic furs used.", "In the United Kingdom, the style is notably still controlled by royal officers of arms.", "French heraldry experienced a period of strict rules of construction under Napoleon.", "English and Scots heraldries make greater use of supporters than other European countries.Furs, chevrons and five-pointed stars are more frequent in France and Britain than elsewhere.In Britain, a distinct category of burgher arms does not exist and heraldry is inherently associated with nobility.", "Armigers and their male-line legitimate descendants (i.e.", "those entitled to a matriculation, in Scotland with mandatory marks of cadency, rather than a grant of new arms) are considered to be, if possessing no higher dignity, members of the gentry or lower nobility.", "Men have the rank of Gentleman in the narrow sense of the word.", "Depending on interpretation, a grant of arms made by one of Britain's two heraldic officers, Garter King of Arms or Lord Lyon King of Arms, to a British subject, is either a grant or a confirmation of hereditary nobility, and recognized as such by CILANE and the Order of Malta.", "The majority, though not all, families of the hereditary Peerage and traditional Landed Gentry, are armigerous, non-armigerous families usually having inherited their titles and/or estates in the female line and failed to apply for a grant of arms.===Latin heraldry===The heraldry of southern France, Andorra, Spain, and Italy is characterized by a lack of crests, and uniquely shaped shields.", "Portuguese heraldry, however, does use crests.", "Portuguese and Spanish heraldry, which together form a larger Iberian tradition of heraldry, occasionally introduce words to the shield of arms, a practice usually avoided in British heraldry.", "Latin heraldry is known for extensive use of quartering, because of armorial inheritance via the male and the female lines.", "Moreover, Italian heraldry is dominated by the Roman Catholic Church, featuring many shields and achievements, most bearing some reference to the Church.Trees are frequent charges in Latin arms.", "Charged bordures, including bordures inscribed with words, are seen often in Spain.===Eastern European heraldry===Coat of arms of the Turiec county in SlovakiaEastern European heraldry is in the traditions developed in Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine.", "Eastern coats of arms are characterized by a pronounced, territorial, clan system – often, entire villages or military groups were granted the same coat of arms irrespective of family relationships.", "In Poland, nearly six hundred unrelated families are known to bear the same Jastrzębiec coat of arms.", "Marks of cadency are almost unknown, and shields are generally very simple, with only one charge.", "Many heraldic shields derive from ancient house marks.", "At least fifteen per cent of all Hungarian personal arms bear a severed Turk's head, referring to their wars against the Ottoman Empire." ], [ "Quasi-heraldic emblems", "True heraldry, as now generally understood, has its roots in medieval Europe.", "However, there have been other historical cultures which have used symbols and emblems to represent families or individuals, and in some cases these symbols have been adopted into Western heraldry.", "For example, the coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire incorporated the royal tughra as part of its crest, along with such traditional Western heraldic elements as the escutcheon and the compartment.===Greek symbols===Ancient Greeks were among the first civilizations to use symbols consistently in order to identify a warrior, clan or a state.", "The first record of a shield blazon is illustrated in Aeschylus' tragedy ''Seven Against Thebes''.===Mon===, also , , and , are Japanese emblems used to decorate and identify an individual or family.", "While ''mon'' is an encompassing term that may refer to any such device, ''kamon'' and ''mondokoro'' refer specifically to emblems used to identify a family.", "An authoritative ''mon'' reference compiles Japan's 241 general categories of ''mon'' based on structural resemblance (a single ''mon'' may belong to multiple categories), with 5116 distinct individual ''mon'' (it is however well acknowledged that there exist lost or obscure ''mon'' that are not in this compilation).The devices are similar to the badges and coats of arms in European heraldic tradition, which likewise are used to identify individuals and families.", "''Mon'' are often referred to as crests in Western literature, another European heraldic device similar to the ''mon'' in function.", "Japanese helmets (''kabuto'') also incorporated elements similar to crests, called ''datemono'', which helped identify the wearer while they were concealed by armour.", "These devices sometimes incorporated ''mon'', and some figures, like Date Masamune, were well-known for their helmet designs.===Socialist emblems===State Emblem of the Soviet Union (1956–1991 version)Communist states often followed a unique style characterized by communist symbolism.", "Although commonly called ''coats of arms'', most such devices are not actually coats of arms in the traditional heraldic sense and should therefore, in a strict sense, not be called arms at all.", "Many communist governments purposely diverged from the traditional forms of European heraldry in order to distance themselves from the monarchies that they usually replaced, with actual coats of arms being seen as symbols of the monarchs.The Soviet Union was the first state to use this type of emblem, beginning at its creation in 1922.The style became more widespread after World War II, when many other communist states were established.", "Even a few non-socialist states have adopted the style, for various reasons—usually because communists had helped them to gain independence—but also when no apparent connection to a Communist nation exists, such as the emblem of Italy.", "After the fall of the Soviet Union and the other communist states in Eastern Europe in 1989–1991, this style of heraldry was often abandoned for the old heraldic practices, with many new governments reinstating the traditional heraldry that was previously cast aside.===Tamgas===A '''tamga''' or '''tamgha''' \"stamp, seal\" (, Turkic: tamga) is an abstract seal or stamp used by Eurasian nomadic peoples and by cultures influenced by them.", "The tamga was normally the emblem of a particular tribe, clan or family.", "They were common among the Eurasian nomads throughout Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages (including Alans, Mongols, Sarmatians, Scythians and Turkic peoples).", "Similar \"tamga-like\" symbols were sometimes also adopted by sedentary peoples adjacent to the Pontic-Caspian steppe both in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, such as the East Slavs, whose ancient royal symbols are sometimes referred to as \"tamgas\" and have similar appearance.Unlike European coats of arms, tamgas were not always inherited, and could stand for families or clans (for example, when denoting territory, livestock, or religious items) as well as for specific individuals (such as when used for weapons, or for royal seals).", "One could also adopt the tamga of one's master or ruler, therefore signifying said master's patronage.", "Outside of denoting ownership, tamgas also possessed religious significance, and were used as talismans to protect one from curses (it was believed that, as symbols of family, tamgas embodied the power of one's heritage).", "Tamgas depicted geometric shapes, images of animals, items, or glyphs.", "As they were usually inscribed using heavy and unwieldy instruments, such as knives or brands, and on different surfaces (meaning that their appearance could vary somewhat), tamgas were always simple and stylised, and needed to be laconic and easily recognisable.===Tughras===Every sultan of the Ottoman Empire had his own monogram, called the tughra, which served as a royal symbol.", "A coat of arms in the European heraldic sense was created in the late 19th century.", "Hampton Court requested from Ottoman Empire the coat of arms to be included in their collection.", "As the coat of arms had not been previously used in Ottoman Empire, it was designed after this request and the final design was adopted by Sultan Abdul Hamid II on April 17, 1882.It included two flags: the flag of the Ottoman Dynasty, which had a crescent and a star on red base, and the flag of the Islamic Caliph, which had three crescents on a green base.===Ancient Iran===The word of \"arms\" in the Pahlavi scripts is 𐭥𐭢𐭱𐭠𐭥 which is read as nišān (Persian: نشان).", "In Islamic sources there are some references to the existence of nišāns in ancient Iran.", "It is suggested that the words arms, mon, and nišān are oscillating on a same semantic context as they all satisfy a similar need: Heraldic identification.", "al-Masudi writes that nišāns (Arabic: شعار) used by Parthians and Sasanians.", "When al-Masudi talks about Sasanians, he describes their arms as \"flags of Persians and their emblems\" (رایات الفرس و أعلامهم).", "In the world of \"pahlavans\" (پهلوانان) of Iranian national narratives, as same as the world of Eruopean knights, each army under the command of a pahlavan from one of the noble families identified by a nišān on its flag.", "Usually, when the pahlavans were presented in the court of the king of Iran, they were distinguishing each troop from another with a flag which had their lords' nišāns on itself." ], [ "Modern heraldry", "Heraldry flourishes in the modern world; institutions, companies, and private persons continue using coats of arms as their pictorial identification.", "In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the English Kings of Arms, Scotland's Lord Lyon King of Arms, and the Chief Herald of Ireland continue making grants of arms.", "There are heraldic authorities in Canada, South Africa, Spain, and Sweden that grant or register coats of arms.", "In South Africa, the right to armorial bearings is also determined by Roman Dutch law, due to its origins as a 17th-century colony of the Netherlands.Heraldic societies abound in Africa, Asia, Australasia, the Americas and Europe.", "Heraldry aficionados participate in the Society for Creative Anachronism, medieval revivals, micronations and other related projects.", "Modern armigers use heraldry to express ancestral and personal heritage as well as professional, academic, civic, and national pride.", "Little is left of class identification in modern heraldry, where the emphasis is more than ever on expression of identity.Heraldry continues to build on its rich tradition in academia, government, guilds and professional associations, religious institutions, and the military.", "Nations and their subdivisions – provinces, states, counties, cities, etc.", "– continue to build on the traditions of civic heraldry.", "The Roman Catholic Church, Anglican churches, and other religious institutions maintain the traditions of ecclesiastical heraldry for clergy, religious orders, and schools.Many of these institutions have begun to employ blazons representing modern objects.", "For example, some heraldic symbols issued by the United States Army Institute of Heraldry incorporate symbols such as guns, airplanes, or locomotives.", "Some scientific institutions incorporate symbols of modern science such as the atom or particular scientific instruments.", "The arms of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority uses traditional heraldic symbols to depict the harnessing of atomic power.", "Locations with strong associations to particular industries may incorporate associated symbols.", "The coat of arms of Stenungsund Municipality in Sweden incorporates a hydrocarbon molecule, alluding to the historical significance of the petrochemical industry in the region.Heraldry in countries with heraldic authorities continues to be regulated generally by laws granting rights to arms and recognizing possession of arms as well as protecting against their misuse.", "Countries without heraldic authorities usually treat coats of arms as creative property in the manner of logos, offering protection under copyright laws.", "This is the case in Nigeria, where most of the components of its heraldic system are otherwise unregulated.File:Stenungsund vapen.svg|2022 arms with a hydrocarbon moleculeFile:Italian Coat of Arms of Castagneto by Dario Scaricamazza.png|2022 arms of Castagneto, showing chestnuts (''castagne'')|alt=Coat of arms of CastagnetoFile:052-ADA-Rgmt-COA.png|Military coat of arms, with a red locomotive" ], [ "See also", "* Heraldic societies, an extended list including non-official heraldic authorities and societies* Emblematic, discipline relating to the design of emblems* Heraldry of Middle-earth, the specialised version used in Tolkien's universe* Sigillography, scholarly discipline that studies seals* Totem pole, a somewhat similar concept in North America" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * Hart, Vaughan.", "'London's Standard: Christopher Wren and the Heraldry of the Monument', in ''RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics'', vol.73/74, Autumn 2020, pp.", "325-39* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* EuropeanHeraldry.org catalogues a large number of European noble titles and heraldry.", "* Heraldry of Greatlitvan Nobility* Heraldry of the World (civic heraldry), an overview of thousands of coats of arms of towns and countries* * International heraldry Introduction and examples* Heraldisk Selskab The Scandinavian Heraldry Society (one of the oldest and largest societies dedicated to heraldic research)* Heraldry for Kids Introducing Heraldry for Kids with free heraldry activity sheets* Heraldica The history of heraldry, knighthood and chivalry, glossary of the blazon, themes, coats of arms, etc.", "* Heraldic Arts Founded in 1987, the Society of Heraldic Arts was the first organisation of its kind in the world." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heretic (video game)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Heretic''''' is a dark fantasy first-person shooter video game released in December 1994.It was developed by Raven Software and published by id Software through GT Interactive.Using a modified version of the ''Doom'' engine, ''Heretic'' was one of the first first-person games to feature inventory manipulation and the ability to look up and down.", "It also introduced multiple gib objects that spawned when a character suffered a death by extreme force or heat.", "Previously, the character would simply crumple into a heap.", "The game used randomised ambient sounds and noises, such as evil laughter, chains rattling, distantly ringing bells, and water dripping in addition to the background music to further enhance the atmosphere.", "The music in the game was composed by Kevin Schilder.", "An indirect sequel, ''Hexen: Beyond Heretic'', was released the following year.", "''Heretic II'' was released in 1998, which served as a direct sequel continuing the story." ], [ "Plot", "Three brothers (D'Sparil, Korax, and Eidolon), known as the Serpent Riders, have used their powerful magic to possess seven kings of Parthoris, turning them into mindless puppets and corrupting their armies.", "The Sidhe elves resist the Serpent Riders' magic.", "The Serpent Riders thus declared the Sidhe as heretics and waged war against them.", "The Sidhe are forced to take a drastic measure to sever the natural power of the kings destroying them and their armies, but at the cost of weakening the elves' power, giving the Serpent Riders an advantage to slay the elders.", "While the Sidhe retreat, one elf (revealed to be named Corvus in ''Heretic II'') sets off on a quest of vengeance against the weakest of the three Serpent Riders, D'Sparil.", "He travels through the \"City of the Damned\", the ruined capital of the Sidhe (its real name is revealed to be Silverspring in ''Heretic II''), then past the demonic breeding grounds of Hell's Maw and finally the secret Dome of D'Sparil.The player must first fight through the undead hordes infesting the location where the elders performed their ritual.", "At its end is the gateway to Hell's Maw, guarded by the Iron Liches.", "After defeating them, the player must seal the portal and so prevent further infestation, but after he enters the portal guarded by the Maulotaurs, he finds himself inside D'Sparil's dome.", "After killing D'Sparil, Corvus ends up on a perilous journey with little hope of returning home.", "However, he eventually succeeds in his endeavour, only to find that Parthoris is in disarray once again." ], [ "Gameplay", "The gameplay of ''Heretic'' is heavily derived from ''Doom'', with a level-based structure and an emphasis on finding the proper keys to progress.", "Many weapons are similar to those from ''Doom''; the early weapons in particular are near-exact copies in functionality to those seen in ''Doom''.", "Raven added a number of features to ''Heretic'' that differentiated it from ''Doom'', notably interactive environments, such as rushing water that pushes the player along, and inventory items.", "In ''Heretic'', the player can pick up many different items to use at their discretion.", "These items range from health potions to the \"morph ovum\", which transforms enemies into chickens.", "One of the most notable pickups that can be found is the \"Tome of Power\" which acts as a secondary firing mode for certain weapons, resulting in a much more powerful projectile from each weapon, some of which change the look of the projectile entirely.", "''Heretic'' also features an improved version of the ''Doom'' engine, sporting the ability to look up and down within constraints, as well as fly.", "However, the rendering method for looking up and down merely uses a proportional pixel-shearing effect rather than any new rendering algorithm, which distorts the view considerably when looking at high-elevation angles.As with ''Doom'', ''Heretic'' contains various cheat codes that allow the player to be invulnerable, obtain every weapon, be able to instantly kill every monster in a particular level, and several other abilities.", "If the player uses the \"all weapons and keys\" cheat (\"IDKFA\") from ''Doom'', a message appears warning the player against cheating and takes away all of their weapons, leaving them with only a quarterstaff.", "If the player uses the \"god mode\" cheat (\"IDDQD\") from ''Doom'', the game will display a message saying \"Trying to cheat, eh?", "Now you die!\"", "and kills the player character.The original shareware release of ''Heretic'' came bundled with support for online multiplayer through the new DWANGO service." ], [ "Development", "''Heretic'' was developed by Raven Software with assistance by publisher id Software, the latter of which had recently pioneered the first-person shooter genre with ''Wolfenstein 3D'' and ''Doom''.", "Brian Raffel, the game's director and vice-president of Raven at the time, revealed that the developer first came to id's attention with the release of its debut title ''Black Crypt''.", "After providing Raven with a modified ''Wolfenstein 3D'' engine for its next project ''ShadowCaster'' and being impressed by the final result, id requested that Raven develop a medieval-themed/dark fantasy game using a modified version of id's signature ''Doom'' engine.", "Raffel considered himself and his colleagues as typical ''D&D'' fans and initially drafted the game with role-playing elements.", "They then took instruction from id programmer John Carmack to simply \"do it like ''Doom'', and add the fantasy flavor.\"", "''Heretic'' began development in March 1994 with Ben Gokey as lead programmer and a rough storyline penned by Michael Raymond-Judy that was finalized by the game's publisher.id designer John Romero signed on as executive producer.", "He recalled visiting the team at Raven, bringing them several Intel-based Epson NeXT computers, and teaching them how to use id's tools and engine.", "Major additions to the engine for graphics and gameplay included an expendable inventory system; the ability to look up, look down, and fly; water and wind effects on the player character's movement; and improved audio for both ambient and localized sound.", "Assistant programmer Chris Rhinehart was responsible for adding the flight mechanic, which Raffel described as a \"happy accident\".", "The director explained, \"Chris came up with the idea of moving the horizon line just up and down.", "It wasn't a real calculation of flying, it was a hack... That was such a big event for us, and that gave us our unique flavor.\"" ], [ "Release", "===''Shadow of the Serpent Riders''===The original version of ''Heretic'' was only available through shareware registration (i.e.", "mail order) and contained three episodes.", "The retail version, ''Heretic: Shadow of the Serpent Riders'', was distributed by GT Interactive in 1996, and featured the original three episodes and two additional episodes: ''The Ossuary'', which takes the player to the shattered remains of a world conquered by the Serpent Riders several centuries ago, and ''The Stagnant Demesne'', where the player enters D'Sparil's birthplace.", "This version was the first official release of ''Heretic'' in Europe.", "A free patch was also downloadable from Raven's website to update the original ''Heretic'' with the content found in ''Shadow of the Serpent Riders''.Along with the two full additional episodes, ''Shadow of the Serpent Riders'' contains three additional levels in a third additional episode (unofficially known as ''Fate's Path'') which is inaccessible without the use of cheat codes.", "The first of these three levels can be accessed by typing the cheat (\"ENGAGE61\").", "The first two levels are fully playable, but the third level does not have an exit so the player is unable to progress further.===Source release===On January 11, 1999, the source code of the game engine used in ''Heretic'' was published by Raven Software under a license that granted rights to non-commercial use, and was re-released under the GNU GPL-2.0-only on September 4, 2008.This resulted in ports to Linux, Amiga, Atari, and other operating systems, and updates to the game engine to utilize 3D acceleration.", "The shareware version of a console port for the Dreamcast was also released." ], [ "Reception", "''Heretic'' and ''Hexen'' shipped a combined total of roughly 1 million units by August 1997.", "''Heretic'' received generally positive reviews, garnering 78% on ''PC Zone''.", "''Next Generation'' reviewed the PC version of the game, and stated that \"if you're only going to get one action game in the next couple of months, this is the one\".While remarking that ''Heretic'' is a thinly-veiled clone of ''Doom'', and that its being released in Europe after its sequel and with ''Quake'' due out shortly makes it somewhat outdated, ''Maximum'' nonetheless regarded it as an extremely polished and worthwhile purchase.", "They particularly highlighted the two additional episodes of the retail version, saying they offer a satisfying challenge even to first person shooter veterans and are largely what make the game worth buying.In 1996, ''Computer Gaming World'' listed being turned into a chicken as #3 on its list of \"the 15 best ways to die in computer gaming\"." ], [ "Legacy", "''Heretic'' has received three sequels: ''Hexen: Beyond Heretic'', ''Hexen II'', and ''Heretic II''.", "Following ZeniMax Media's acquisition of id Software, the rights to the series have been disputed between both id and Raven Software; Raven's parent company Activision holds the developing rights, while id holds the publishing rights to the first three games.The game was re-released for Windows on Steam on August 3, 2007.Further homages to the series have been made in other id Software titles; In 2009's ''Wolfenstein'', which Raven Software developed, ''Heretic'''s Tomes of Power are collectible power-ups found throughout the game.", "The character Galena from ''Quake Champions'' wears armor bearing the icon of the Serpent Riders.In 2014, Raven co-founder Brian Raffel had expressed interest in making a sequel to the ''Heretic'' series.", "Rather than licensing it to other developers, he wants Raven to do it themselves." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hexen: Beyond Heretic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Hexen: Beyond Heretic''''' is a fantasy first-person shooter video game developed by Raven Software and published by id Software distributed through GT Interactive on October 30, 1995.It is the sequel to 1994's ''Heretic'', and the second game in Raven Software's \"Serpent Riders\" trilogy, which culminated with ''Hexen II''.", "The title comes from the German noun ''Hexen'', which means \"witches\", and/or the verb ''hexen'', which means \"to cast a spell\".", "Game producer John Romero stated that a third, unreleased game in this series was to be called ''Hecatomb''.", "''Hexen: Beyond Heretic'' met with highly positive reviews upon release, though the various 1997 console ports were negatively received because of problems with frame rate and controls and the aging of the game itself.", "Critical plaudits for the game centered on the non-linear level design and the selection of three playable characters, each offering a distinct gameplay experience." ], [ "Plot", "Following the tale of D'Sparil's defeat in ''Heretic'', ''Hexen'' takes place in another realm, Cronos, which is besieged by the second of the three Serpent Riders, Korax.", "Three heroes set out to destroy Korax.", "The player assumes the role of one such hero.", "Throughout the course of his quest, he travels through elemental dungeons, a wilderness region, a mountainside seminary, a large castle, and finally a necropolis, before the final showdown with the Serpent Rider." ], [ "Gameplay", "A new series feature introduced in ''Hexen'' is the choice of three character classes.", "Players may choose to play as a fighter (Baratus), a cleric (Parias), or a mage (Daedolon).", "Each character has unique weapons and physical characteristics, lending an additional degree of variety and replay value to the game.", "The Fighter relies mainly on close-quarters physical attacks with weapons both mundane and magical in nature, and is tougher and faster than the other characters.", "The Mage uses an assortment of long-range spells, whose reach is counterbalanced by the fact that he is the most fragile and slowest moving of the classes.", "The Cleric arms himself with a combination of both melee and ranged capabilities, being a middle ground of sorts between the other two classes.", "Additionally, certain items, such as the flechette (poison gas bomb), behave differently when collected and used by each of the classes, functioning in a manner better suiting their varying approach to combat.", "''Hexen'' introduces \"hub\" levels to the series, wherein the player can travel back and forth between central hub levels and connected side levels.", "This is done in order to solve larger-scale puzzles that require a series of items or switches to be used.", "The player must traverse through a hub in order to advance to the next hub.The inventory system returns from ''Heretic'' with several new items, such as the \"Disc of Repulsion\", which pushes enemies away from the player, and the \"Icon of the Defender\", which provides invincibility to each class in a different manner." ], [ "Development", "Like ''Heretic'', ''Hexen'' was developed on NeXTSTEP.", "''Hexen'' uses a modified version of the ''Doom'' engine, which allows looking up and down, network play with up to eight players, and the choice of three character classes.", "It also popularized the \"hub system\" of level progression in the genre of first-person shooter games.", "Unlike previous games, which had relied purely on General MIDI for music, ''Hexen'' is also able to play tracks from a CD.", "The game's own CD contained a soundtrack in an audio format that was exactly the same as the MIDI soundtrack, but played through a high-quality sound module.", "However, the most significant improvement was the addition of wall translation, rotation, and level scripting.The Macintosh version of the game was developed by Presage Software.===Engine modifications===\"Polyobjects\" are the walls that move within the game.", "Because the ''Doom'' engine uses the binary space partitioning system for rendering, it does not enable moving walls.", "''Hexen''s moving walls are actually one-sided lines built somewhere else on the map and rendered at the desired start spot when the level is loaded.", "This enables a pseudo-moving wall, but does not allow moving sectors (such as seeing the tops of moving doors).", "This often creates problems in sectors containing more than one node, however, explaining the relatively limited use of polyobjects.Whereas ''Doom'', ''Doom II'', and ''Heretic'' rely on lines within the maps to perform simple actions, ''Hexen'' also allows these actions to be activated by Action Code Script (ACS).", "These scripts use a syntactic variant of C, thus allowing special sequencing of game actions.", "Programming features such as randomization, variables, and intermap script activation enable smooth hub gameplay and are responsible for most of the special effects within the game: on-screen messages, random sound effects, monster spawning, sidedef texture changes, versatile control of polyobjects, level initialization for deathmatch, and even complex environment changes such as earthquakes manipulating floor textures and heights.===Source code===On January 11, 1999, the source code for ''Hexen'' was released by Raven Software under a license that granted rights to non-commercial use, and was re-released under the GNU GPL-2.0-only on September 4, 2008.This allowed the game to be ported to different platforms such as Linux, AmigaOS, and OS/2 (including eComStation and ArcaOS).", "''Hexen'' is compatible with many ''Doom'' source ports; ''Hexen''s features are also compatible with ''Doom'' WADs made for source ports regardless of what game they are being played on.===Music===The score was composed by Kevin Schilder.", "In contrast to ''Heretic'', some songs in ''Hexen'', in addition to MIDI versions, had higher-quality versions on CD.", "When playing in CD-audio mode, songs absent from CD would be replaced by some existing CD tracks." ], [ "Console versions", "''Hexen'' was released for the Sega Saturn, PlayStation, and Nintendo 64, all released and distrubuted by GT Interactive during the first half of 1997.While presenting several specific differences in their respective translations of the original PC game, all of them constitute essentially the same game with no major changes to level design, plot, or overall delivery.The PlayStation version, developed by Probe Entertainment, has the FMV scenes and Red Book audio music from the PC CD-ROM version, but no multiplayer mode.", "The scripting and animation is slower, enemies have only their front sprites and lack gory deaths when attacked by strong hits or weapons, and the frame rate is slower.", "Although all levels are present in this version and feature their correct layouts, their architecture details are somewhat simplified and there is some loss in overall lighting quality.", "This port is based on a beta version of the original PC version of ''Hexen'' as many gameplay tweaks are shared, such as the simpler level design and the Fighter's weapons being weaker compared to other versions.The Sega Saturn version, also developed by Probe, inherits most of the restrictions of the PlayStation version, such as the simplified scenery architecture and the downgraded lighting, although it does feature improvements in certain aspects.", "The scripting is faster, and the frame rate, while not fluid or consistent, is slightly better.", "The enemies still have all but their front sprites missing, but they retain their gory deaths when killed by a strong hit or weapon.", "This version also has hidden two-player link-up cooperative and deathmatch modes, accessible only through the unlockable cheat menu.", "While this port shares the FMV scenes and most of the Redbook audio music from the other CD-ROM versions, it also includes some new music tracks.The Nintendo 64 version, developed by Software Creations, retains all of the graphical quality and scenery architecture, has a consistent frame rate, and includes high detail and smooth filtering.", "This version also has four-player split-screen cooperative and deathmatch modes, although they must be played in low detail mode.", "Due to cartridge storage limitations, the Nintendo 64 version is based on the original PC floppy version and lacks the FMV scenes and Redbook audio music introduced in the CD-ROM version, although it has new narrative introductions to the levels." ], [ "''Deathkings of the Dark Citadel''", "''Deathkings of the Dark Citadel'' is an official expansion pack that was released for ''Hexen'' on September 3, 1996.It features three more hubs with a total of 20 new single player levels and six new deathmatch levels.", "Unlike the ''Shadow of the Serpent Riders'' expansion pack for ''Heretic'', it had to be purchased in retail stores or by mail order.", "This was unusual at the time, as most non-free expansion packs also included other new or revised gameplay elements.", "''Deathkings of the Dark Citadel'', unlike ''Shadow of the Serpent Riders'', was not packaged with the original game, meaning that both had to be purchased separately, and the expansion would not work without already having ''Hexen''.", "This expansion pack also did not initially include nor enable any music.", "Music could be fully enabled by applying a patch specially released to address this issue (usually found online under the name \"dkpatch\").Each of the hubs (The Blight, The Constable's Gate, and The Nave) features one secret level, and new puzzles based on the quest items from the original game (no new quest artifacts were added).", "Any type of enemy may spawn on the map.The final level of the expansion, the Dark Citadel itself, is an arena-like level, which features teleporting waves of monsters and three bosses (Fighter, Cleric, and Mage clones)." ], [ "Reception", "''Heretic'' and ''Hexen'' shipped a combined total of roughly 1 million units to retailers by August 1997.Reviewing the PC version, ''Maximum'' remarked that ''Hexen'' sets itself apart from other \"3D slashers\" with its selection of characters and novel approach to level design, which \"leads to your character choosing their path rather than being guided around a rather linear series of rooms, proving that 3D games have matured\".", "They also commented that the gameplay is consistently intense due to the difficulty of the enemies, the variety of weapons and power-ups, and the sheer size and breadth of the levels.", "They gave the game 5 out of 5 stars and their \"Maximum Game of the Month\" award.", "A reviewer for ''Next Generation'' opined that \"''Hexen'' takes everything that was good about ''Heretic'', and makes it even better.\"", "He commented that the ability to choose between three different character classes gives the game replay value, something that had been missing from first-person shooters up until then, and though the graphics are blocky and pixelated, the \"eerily lifelike\" sound effects make up for it to a large extent.", "Like ''Maximum'', he praised the non-linear level design and concluded the game to be a must-have for any first-person shooter fan.", "Chris Hudak, citing the differing abilities of the three playable characters, called ''Hexen'' \"Slicker, smarter and more stylish than ''Doom''---with all the killing and three times the replay value.", "\"''Computer Games Strategy Plus'' named ''Hexen'' the best \"First-Person Action\" title of 1995.It was also a runner-up for ''Computer Gaming World''s 1995 \"Action Game of the Year\" award, which ultimately went to ''Crusader: No Remorse''.", "The editors called it \"another ''Doom'' bloodfest distinguished by its fantasy setting and the fact that it let you play as either a fighter, priest or mage, each with unique attributes and weapons\".The Saturn version was far less well received.", "A review in ''Next Generation'' of the Saturn version reasoned that, \"Like oil and water, ''Doom''-style games and console conversions don't mix well.", "Unless the programmers are willing to rewrite the graphics engine from scratch, PC ports suffer from getting cramped into too little memory and neglecting the console's native 3D hardware.\"", "The reviewer recommended Saturn owners instead try ''PowerSlave'' or ''Ghen War'', first-person shooters specifically designed for the console.", "Shawn Smith and Sushi-X of ''Electronic Gaming Monthly'' similarly said the game had not been converted well from PC.", "Others described the Saturn port as an exact conversion, and argued the problem was simply that ''Hexen'' was too old a game to be released for console in 1997 without any improvements.", "Though they disagreed on exact reasons, most critics agreed that the Saturn version suffers from pixelated graphics, dramatic drops in frame rate, and cumbersome controls.", "Scary Larry of ''GamePro'' gave it a mixed review, summarizing that \"although it doesn't live up to ''PowerSlave''s standards, it's still decent fun.\"", "John Broady of ''GameSpot'' gave a slightly more dismal assessment: \"Despite these glaring deficiencies, ''Hexen'' nonetheless offers enough enhancements over the standard shooter to warrant a rental, especially for fans of role-playing games who thirst for real-time action.", "...", "But for the rest, the Saturn version of ''Hexen'' is a classic game of too little and too late.\"", "Rich Leadbetter of ''Sega Saturn Magazine'' and James Price of ''Saturn Power'' defended the Saturn version, commenting that, although not outstanding, it is far superior to the Saturn version of ''Doom'', which was released at roughly the same time.", "Price was particularly enthusiastic about the link cable-enabled multiplayer mode.The Nintendo 64 version also left most critics unimpressed.", "The four-player mode was praised as an unprecedented feature in console first person shooters, but the graphics were considered unacceptably poor, particularly the frame rate and the usage of the Nintendo 64's mip-mapping and anti-aliasing in a way which actually worsened the visuals of the game.", "As with the Saturn version, some critics opined that ''Hexen'' was too dated by this time to be receiving a straightforward port.", "Joe Fielder of ''GameSpot'' additionally complained of a severe bug in the save feature.", "In a dissenting opinion, Scary Larry concluded that \"Although not as polished as ''Turok'' or as fun and creepy as ''Doom 64'', ''Hexen'' gives you three characters to choose from, and the action's addicting once you get into it.\"", "He gave it higher scores than the Saturn version in every category except sound.", "In contrast, Matt Casamassina of ''IGN'' called it \"A shoddy port of a PC game that wasn't so great to begin with.", "\"The PlayStation version was even more negatively received; critics universally panned the port for its poor frame rate, pixelated graphics, and sloppy platform-jumping controls.", "''Electronic Gaming Monthly''s 1998 Video Game Buyer's Guide named ''Hexen'' the 1997 \"Game that Should've Stayed on the PC\", commenting that while the Nintendo 64 version was the best of the console ports, all three were poor conversions, and ''Hexen'' was too old by the time they were released." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official ''Hexen'' webpage at Raven Software* * Mini-documentary and gameplay of ''Hexen''* Hexen at MobyGames" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hexen II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Hexen II''''' is a dark fantasy first-person shooter (FPS) video game developed by Raven Software and published by id Software in 1997.It is the third game in the ''Hexen''/''Heretic'' series, and the last in the ''Serpent Riders'' trilogy.", "Using a modified ''Quake'' engine, it features single-player and multiplayer game modes, as well as four character classes to choose from, each with different abilities.", "These include the \"offensive\" Paladin, the \"defensive\" Crusader, the spell-casting Necromancer, and the stealthy Assassin.Improvements from ''Hexen: Beyond Heretic'' and ''Quake'' include destructible environments, mounted weapons, and unique level up abilities.", "Like its predecessor, ''Hexen II'' also uses a hub system.", "These hubs are a number of interconnected levels; changes made in one level have effects in another.", "Furthermore, the Tome of Power artifact makes a return from ''Heretic''." ], [ "Gameplay", "The gameplay of ''Hexen II'' is very similar to that of the original ''Hexen''.", "Instead of three classes, ''Hexen II'' features four: Paladin, Crusader, Assassin, and Necromancer, each with their own unique weapons and play style.", "''Hexen II'' also adds certain role-playing video game elements to the mix.", "Each character has a series of statistics which increase as they gain experience.", "This then causes the player character to grow in power as his or her HP and mana increases." ], [ "Plot", "Thyrion is a world that was enslaved by the Serpent Riders.", "The two previous games in the series documented the liberation of two other worlds, along with the death of their Serpent Rider overlords.", "Now, the oldest and most powerful of the three Serpent Rider brothers, Eidolon, must be defeated to free Thyrion.", "Eidolon is supported by his four generals, themselves a reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse.", "To confront each general, the player has to travel to four different continents, each possessing a distinct theme (Medieval European for Blackmarsh, Mesoamerican for Mazaera, Ancient Egyptian for Thysis, and Greco-Roman for Septimus).", "Then, finally, the player returns to Blackmarsh in order to confront Eidolon himself inside of his own dominion Cathedral." ], [ "Development", "What was originally supposed to be the final game in a trilogy, the sequel to ''Hexen'' was originally titled ''Hecatomb'' but was abandoned after John Romero left id Software in 1996.Activision, the distributor at the time, pressured Raven Software to split development of Hecatomb into two different games, ''Hexen II'' and ''Heretic II''.", "Activision felt that the previous entries in the series, Heretic and Hexen, were different enough from one another that they should treat them as separate entities going forward, instead of just one final game to complete a trilogy.", "Only a select few ideas of Romero's from ''Hecatomb'' would ultimately make their way into what became ''Hexen II'' and ''Heretic II''.", "''Hexen II'' was based on an enhanced version of the ''Quake'' engine.", "''Hexen II'', by way of the ''Quake'' engine, uses OpenGL for 3D acceleration.", "However, due to the prevalence of 3dfx hardware at the time of release, the Windows version of the game installs an OpenGL ICD (opengl32.dll) designed specifically for 3dfx's hardware.", "This driver acts as a wrapper for the proprietary Glide API, and thus is only compatible with 3dfx hardware.", "Custom OpenGL drivers were also released by PowerVR and Rendition for running ''Hexen II'' with their respective (and also now defunct) products.", "Removal of the ICD allows the game to use the default OpenGL system library.", "Much of the music in this game is remixed versions of the soundtracks of ''Hexen'' and ''Heretic'' to match the hub themes.Activision acquired the rights to publish versions of the game for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn.", "Neither port was released.", "''Hexen II'' was made available on Steam on August 3, 2007.===''Siege''===A modification titled ''Siege'' was created and released by Raven Software in 1998 using updated QuakeWorld architecture, aptly dubbed \"HexenWorld\".", "The production concept was to eliminate a normal deathmatch environment in favor of a teamplay castle siege.", "The basic premise was to divide the players into two teams—attackers and defenders—with each side either assaulting or protecting the castle respectively.", "At the end of the time limit, whichever team controlled the crown was declared victorious.", "The mod featured appropriate objects used in the single-player portion of the game, namely catapults and ballistae.", "The classes were drastically altered with new weapons and abilities, reflecting the departure from the normal deathmatch experience presented in ''HexenWorld''.===Source release===Following the tradition from ''Heretic'' and ''Hexen'', Raven released the source code of the ''Hexen II'' engine on November 10, 2000.This time the source was released under the GNU GPL-2.0-only, allowing source ports to be made to different platforms like Linux and the Dreamcast." ], [ "''Portal of Praevus''", "An expansion pack called ''Hexen II Mission Pack: Portal of Praevus'' was released on April 1, 1998.It features new levels, new enemies and a new playable character class, The Demoness.", "It focuses on the attempted resurrection of the three Serpent Riders by the evil wizard Praevus, and takes place in a fifth continent, Tulku, featuring a Sino-Tibetan setting.", "Unlike the original game, the expansion was not published by id Software, and as such is not currently available via digital re-releases.The expansion features new quest items, new enemies, and new weapons for the Demoness.", "She is the only player class to have a ranged starting weapon (similar to the Mage class in the original ''Hexen''), whereas all other characters start with melee weapons.", "It also introduced minor enhancements to the game engine, mostly related to user interface, level scripts, particle effects (rain or snow), and 3D objects.", "''Portal of Praevus'' also features a secret (easter egg) skill level, with respawning monsters.", "The only released patch for the expansion added respawning of certain items (such as health and ammo) in Nightmare mode, so that it would be slightly easier for playing." ], [ "Reception", "Upon its release, ''Hexen II'' received mixed to positive reviews.", "''Edge'' praised the game for being different from other ''Quake'' engine-based games, highlighting its inventive and interactive levels, enemy variety, and artificial intelligence.", "The magazine also credited the game's diversity of weapons and spells for offering different combat strategies.", "''GameSpot'' summarized, \"''Hexen II'' is a game with many strengths - its design is superior to the original ''Hexen'', it has a significant payoff for single players winding through its twisted corridors, and visually it is without equal in the action genre.", "But the game's attempt to break from the standard first-person shooter mold has some nasty side effects, and the end result is a confusing and often frustratingly difficult experience.\"", "The reviewer elaborated that while the lush, detailed environments and astoundingly animated bosses make ''Hexen II'' \"one of the most beautiful games ever made\", the actions needed to progress are so obscure that they are comparable to what is required to find optional secret areas in most games, forcing the player to undertake frustrating, exhaustive searches of the game's environments.", "''GamePro'' praised the high speed of the multiplayer sessions, the selection of character classes, and the high detail present when graphical acceleration is used.", "They concluded, \"For replay value and sheer fun, ''Hexen II'' is going to be hard to beat; you could spend days playing through all four characters in single-player mode without even entering multiplayer battles.", "\"According to Erik Bethke, ''Hexen II'' was commercially unsuccessful, with sales slightly above 30,000 units." ], [ "Reviews", "*''Backstab'' #6" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official ''Hexen II'' website at Raven Software (archived)* Official website from id Software (archived)**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heretic II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Heretic II''''' is a dark fantasy action-adventure game developed by Raven Software and published by Activision in November 1998 continuing the story of Corvus, the main character from its predecessor, ''Heretic''.", "It is the fourth game in the ''Hexen: Beyond Heretic'' series and comes after the \"Serpent Rider\" trilogy.", "Although Id Software owns the publishing rights to the previous titles, ''Heretic 2'' is owned by Activision since they own Raven Software and its IPs.Using a modified ''Quake II'' engine, the game features a mix of a third-person camera with a first-person shooter's action, making for a new gaming experience at the time.", "While progressive, this was a controversial design decision among fans of the original game, a well-known first-person shooter built on the ''Doom'' engine.", "The music was composed by Kevin Schilder.", "Gerald Brom contributed conceptual work to characters and creatures for the game.", "This is the only ''Heretic''/''Hexen'' video game that is unrelated to id Software, apart from its role as engine licenser.", "''Heretic II'' was later ported to Linux by Loki Software, to the Amiga by Hyperion Entertainment, and Macintosh by MacPlay." ], [ "Plot", "After Corvus returns from his banishment, he finds that a mysterious plague has swept the land of Parthoris, taking the sanity of those it does not kill.", "Corvus, the protagonist of the first game, is forced to flee his hometown of Silverspring after the infected attack him, but not before he is infected himself.", "The effects of the disease are held at bay in Corvus’ case because he holds one of the Tomes of Power, but he still must find a cure before he succumbs.His quest leads him through the city and swamps to a jungle palace, then through a desert canyon and insect hive, followed by a dark network of mines and finally to a castle on a high mountain where he finds an ancient Seraph named Morcalavin.", "Morcalavin is trying to reach immortality using the seven Tomes of Power, but he uses a false tome, as Corvus has one of them.", "This has caused Morcalavin to go insane and create the plague.", "During a battle between Corvus and Morcalavin, Corvus switches the false tome for his real one, curing Morcalavin's insanity and ending the plague." ], [ "Gameplay", "Unlike previous games in the ''Heretic/Hexen'' series, which were first-person shooters, players control Corvus from a camera fixed behind him in the third-person perspective.", "Players are able to use a combination of both melee and ranged attacks, similar to its predecessor.", "While there are still three weapons the player can collect that each use their own ammo, they also have the ability to use several offensive and defensive spells that draw from pools of green and blue mana, respectively.", "The Tome of Power is no longer an item scattered around the levels, but a defensive spell that still works in the same manner as the other games in the series by improving damage and granting weapons and offensive spells new abilities for a limited time.", "Melee combat is also more varied, with the ability to perform several attacks using Corvus' bladestaff and cut off the limbs of enemies, rendering them harmless.", "Players are also able to utilize magical shrines throughout the game that grant a variety of effects upon use, such as silver or gold armor, a temporary boost in health, a permanent enhancement to the bladestaff, etc.The game consists of a wide variety of high fantasy medieval backdrops to Corvus's adventure.", "The third-person perspective and three-dimensional game environment allowed developers to introduce a wide variety of gymnastic moves, like climbing up ledges, back-flipping off walls, and pole vaulting, in a much more dynamic environment than the original game's engine could produce.", "Both games invite comparison with their respective game engine namesake: the original ''Heretic'' was built on the ''Doom'' engine, and ''Heretic II'' was built using the ''Quake II'' engine, later known as id Tech 2.", "''Heretic II'' was favorably received at release because it took a different approach to its design." ], [ "Development", "The game was in development since November 1997 by a team of 20 people.", "Inspired by the ''Tomb Raider'' series, Raven Software decided to make use of the ''Quake II'' engine to create a third-person action game.", "A major step in the early development was Gerald Brom's concept art.", "In a month, the company had programmed the game's camera system.", "After Activision's approval of the game's demo, Raven Software aimed to get the full game finished by Christmas (it would release just prior to that Thanksgiving).", "To add to complications, they needed a software renderer to make the game playable to 16-bit users (especially in Europe).For the animation, the main character Corvus was provided with a backbone for realism and had a total of 1600 frames.", "Most of the animations were done using Softimage.", "The static world objects and simplified animations were done with 3D Studio Max.", "The engine was capable of showing up to 4,000 polygons on screen.Following ZeniMax Media's acquisition of id Software in 2009, the rights to the series have been disputed between both id and Raven Software; Raven holds the development rights, while id holds the publishing rights to ''Heretic II'''s predecessors." ], [ "Reception", "''Heretic II'' was a commercial flop.", "According to PC Data, its sales in the United States totaled 28,994 units by April 1999.Activision's Steve Felsen blamed this performance on the game's design: he noted that \"fans of first-person shooters—the target audience for this game—stayed away due to the third-person perspective\".", "''Next Generation'' reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that \"''Heretic II'' has a lot going for it.", "It easily earns it space on the shelf with the heavy hitters this season, but it also serves as a reminder to all that every aspect of game design needs to be pushed if you want your project to truly stand out\".", "''Edge'' praised the game for its mixture of platform and shoot 'em up action, saying that ''Heretic II'' is different enough to stand out from both first-person and third-person games like id Software's first-person shooters or Core Design's ''Tomb Raider'' games.", "''Heretic II'' was a finalist for ''Computer Gaming World''s 1998 \"Best Action\" award, which ultimately went to ''Battlezone''.", "The editors wrote that ''Heretic II'' \"proved that the ''Quake II'' engine could work in a third-person game ''and'' that a spell-casting, shirtless elf could actually kick ass\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website via Internet Archive*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Household hardware" ], [ "Introduction", "Hardware store.", "Yarkand.", "'''Household hardware''' (or simply, '''hardware''') is equipment that can be touched or held by hand such as keys, locks, nuts, screws, washers, hinges, latches, handles, wire, chains, belts, plumbing supplies, electrical supplies, tools, utensils, cutlery and machine parts.", "Household hardware is typically sold in hardware stores." ], [ "See also", "* Builders hardware" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Howard Carter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Howard Carter''' (9 May 18742 March 1939) was a British archaeologist and Egyptologist who discovered the intact tomb of the 18th Dynasty Pharaoh Tutankhamun in November 1922, the best-preserved pharaonic tomb ever found in the Valley of the Kings." ], [ "Early life", "Howard Carter was born in Kensington on 9 May 1874, the youngest child (of eleven) of artist and illustrator Samuel John Carter and Martha Joyce Carter ().", "His father helped train and develop his artistic talents.Carter spent much of his childhood with relatives in the Norfolk market town of Swaffham, the birthplace of both his parents.", "His father had previously relocated to London, but after three of the children had died young, Carter, who was a sickly child, was moved to Norfolk and raised for the most part by a nurse in Swaffham.Receiving only limited formal education at Swaffham, he showed talent as an artist.", "The nearby mansion of the Amherst family, Didlington Hall, contained a sizable collection of Egyptian antiques, which sparked Carter's interest in that subject.", "Lady Amherst was impressed by his artistic skills, and in 1891 she prompted the Egypt Exploration Fund (EEF) to send Carter to assist an Amherst family friend, Percy Newberry, in the excavation and recording of Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni Hasan.Although only 17, Carter was innovative in improving the methods of copying tomb decoration.", "In 1892, he worked under the tutelage of Flinders Petrie for one season at Amarna, the capital founded by the pharaoh Akhenaten.", "From 1894 to 1899, he worked with Édouard Naville at Deir el-Bahari, where he recorded the wall reliefs in the temple of Hatshepsut.In 1899, Carter was appointed Inspector of Monuments for Upper Egypt in the Egyptian Antiquities Service (EAS).", "Based at Luxor, he oversaw a number of excavations and restorations at nearby Thebes, while in the Valley of the Kings he supervised the systematic exploration of the valley by the American archaeologist Theodore Davis.", "In the early 1902, Carter began searching the Valley of the Kings on his own.", "He initially aimed at the southeast rocky wall of the valley basin.", "Despite being an inaccessible area, within 3 days he found what he was looking for: stone steps, sepulchral entrance, corridor, sarcophagus chamber, in short, the last home of the fourth Thutmose, carefully stripped (except for a few furnishings and a cart).", "While digging to find Thutmose IV's final resting place, Howard unearthed an alabaster cup and a small blue scarab with Queen Hatshepsut's name on it.", "On February 1903, sixty meters north of the tomb of Thutmose IV, Carter found a stone bearing the ring with the name of Hatshepsut.In 1904, after a dispute with local people over tomb thefts, he was transferred to the Inspectorate of Lower Egypt.", "Carter was praised for his improvements in the protection of, and accessibility to, existing excavation sites, and his development of a grid-block system for searching for tombs.", "The Antiquities Service also provided funding for Carter to head his own excavation projects.Carter resigned from the Antiquities Service in 1905 after a formal inquiry into what became known as the Saqqara Affair, a violent confrontation that took place on January 8, 1905.between Egyptian site guards and a group of French tourists.", "Carter sided with the Egyptian personnel, refusing to apologise when the French authorities made an official complaint.", "Moving back to Luxor, Carter was without formal employment for nearly three years.", "He made a living by painting and selling watercolours to tourists and, in 1906, acting as a freelance draughtsman for Theodore Davis." ], [ "Tutankhamun's tomb", "Tomb of TutankhamunIn 1907, he began work for Lord Carnarvon, who employed him to supervise the excavation of nobles' tombs in Deir el-Bahri, near Thebes.", "Gaston Maspero, head of the Egyptian Antiquities Service, had recommended Carter to Carnarvon as he knew he would apply modern archaeological methods and systems of recording.", "Carter soon developed a good working relationship with his patron, with Lady Burghclere, Carnarvon's sister, observing that \"for the next sixteen years the two men worked together with varying fortune, yet ever united not more by their common aim than by their mutual regard and affection\".KV62 in the Valley of the KingsIn 1914, Lord Carnarvon received the concession to dig in the Valley of the Kings.", "Carter led the work, undertaking a systematic search for any tombs missed by previous expeditions, in particular that of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun.", "However, excavations were soon interrupted by the First World War, Carter spending the war years working for the British Government as a diplomatic courier and translator.", "He enthusiastically resumed his excavation work towards the end of 1917.By 1922, Lord Carnarvon had become dissatisfied with the lack of results after several years of finding little.", "After considering withdrawing his funding, Carnarvon agreed, after a discussion with Carter, that he would fund one more season of work in the Valley of the Kings.Carter returned to the Valley of Kings, and investigated a line of huts that he had abandoned a few seasons earlier.", "The crew cleared the huts and rock debris beneath.", "On 4 November 1922, their young water boy accidentally stumbled on a stone that turned out to be the top of a flight of steps cut into the bedrock.", "Carter had the steps partially dug out until the top of a mud-plastered doorway was found.", "The doorway was stamped with indistinct cartouches (oval seals with hieroglyphic writing).", "Carter ordered the staircase to be refilled, and sent a telegram to Carnarvon, who arrived from England two-and-a-half weeks later on 23 November, accompanied by his daughter Lady Evelyn Herbert.On 24 November 1922, the full extent of the stairway was cleared and a seal containing Tutankhamun's cartouche found on the outer doorway.", "This door was removed and the rubble-filled corridor behind cleared, revealing the door of the tomb itself.", "On 26 November, Carter, with Carnarvon, Lady Evelyn and assistant Arthur Callender in attendance, made a \"tiny breach in the top left-hand corner\" of the doorway, using a chisel that his grandmother had given him for his 17th birthday.", "He was able to peer in by the light of a candle and see that many of the gold and ebony treasures were still in place.", "He did not yet know whether it was \"a tomb or merely an old cache\", but he did see a promising sealed doorway between two sentinel statues.", "Carnarvon asked, \"Can you see anything?\"", "Carter replied: \"Yes, wonderful things!\"", "Carter had, in fact, discovered Tutankhamun's tomb (subsequently designated KV62).", "The tomb was then secured, to be entered in the presence of an official of the Egyptian Department of Antiquities the next day.", "However that night, Carter, Carnarvon, Lady Evelyn and Callender apparently made an unauthorised visit, becoming the first people in modern times to enter the tomb.", "Some sources suggest that the group also entered the inner burial chamber.", "In this account, a small hole was found in the chamber's sealed doorway and Carter, Carnarvon and Lady Evelyn crawled through.The next morning, 27 November, saw an inspection of the tomb in the presence of an Egyptian official.", "Callender rigged up electric lighting, illuminating a vast haul of items, including gilded couches, chests, thrones, and shrines.", "They also saw evidence of two further chambers, including the sealed doorway to the inner burial chamber, guarded by two life-size statues of Tutankhamun.", "In spite of evidence of break-ins in ancient times, the tomb was virtually intact, and would ultimately be found to contain over 5,000 items.On 29 November the tomb was officially opened in the presence of a number of invited dignitaries and Egyptian officials.Carter's house in the Theban Necropolis, in 2009Realising the size and scope of the task ahead, Carter sought help from Albert Lythgoe of the Metropolitan Museum's excavation team, working nearby, who readily agreed to lend a number of his staff, including Arthur Mace and archaeological photographer Harry Burton, while the Egyptian government loaned analytical chemist Alfred Lucas.", "The next several months were spent cataloguing and conserving the contents of the antechamber under the \"often stressful\" supervision of Pierre Lacau, director general of the Department of Antiquities.", "On 16 February 1923, Carter opened the sealed doorway and confirmed it led to a burial chamber, containing the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun.", "The tomb was considered the best preserved and most intact pharaonic tomb ever found in the Valley of the Kings, and the discovery was eagerly covered by the world's press.", "However, much to the annoyance of other newspapers, Lord Carnarvon sold exclusive reporting rights to ''The Times''.", "Only Arthur Merton of that paper was allowed on the scene, and his vivid descriptions helped to establish Carter's reputation with the British public.Towards the end of February 1923, a rift between Lord Carnarvon and Carter, probably caused by a disagreement on how to manage the supervising Egyptian authorities, temporarily halted the excavation.", "Work recommenced in early March after Lord Carnarvon apologised to Carter.", "Later that month Lord Carnarvon contracted blood poisoning while staying in Luxor near the tomb site.", "He died in Cairo on 5 April 1923.Lady Carnarvon retained her late husband's concession in the Valley of the Kings, allowing Carter to continue his work.Carter's meticulous assessing and cataloguing of the thousands of objects in the tomb took nearly ten years, most being moved to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.", "There were several breaks in the work, including one lasting nearly a year in 1924–25, caused by a dispute over what Carter saw as excessive control of the excavation by the Egyptian Antiquities Service.", "The Egyptian authorities eventually agreed that Carter should complete the tomb's clearance.", "This continued until 1929, with some final work lasting until February 1932.Despite the significance of his archaeological find, Carter received no honour from the British government.", "However, in 1926, he received the Order of the Nile, third class, from King Fuad I of Egypt.", "He was also awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Science by Yale University and honorary membership in the Real Academia de la Historia of Madrid, Spain.Carter wrote a number of books on Egyptology during his career, including ''Five Years' Exploration at Thebes'', co-written with Lord Carnarvon in 1912, describing their early excavations, and a three-volume popular account of the discovery and excavation of Tutankhamun's tomb.", "He also delivered a series of illustrated lectures on the excavation, including a 1924 tour of Britain, France, Spain and the United States.", "Those in New York and other US cities were attended by large and enthusiastic audiences, sparking American Egyptomania, with President Coolidge requesting a private lecture.In 2022, a 1934 letter to Carter from Alan Gardiner came to light, accusing him of stealing from Tutankhamun's tomb.", "Carter had given Gardiner an amulet and assured him it had not come from the tomb, but Reginald Engelbach, director of the Egyptian Museum, later confirmed its match with other samples originating in the tomb.", "Egyptologist Bob Brier said the letter proved previous rumours, and the contemporary suspicions of Egyptian authorities, that Carter had been siphoning treasures for himself.Manuel Rosenberg autographed sketch of Howard Carter, 1924 for the Cincinnati Post" ], [ "Personal life", "Carter could be awkward in company, particularly with those of a higher social standing.", "Often abrasive, he admitted to having a hot temper, which often aggravated disputes, including the 1905 Saqqara Affair and the 1924–25 dispute with Egyptian authorities.The suggestion that Carter had an affair with Lady Evelyn Herbert, the daughter of the 5th Earl of Carnarvon, was later rejected by Lady Evelyn herself, who told her daughter Patricia that \"at first I was in awe of him, later I was rather frightened of him\", resenting Carter's \"determination\" to come between her and her father.", "More recently, the 8th Earl dismissed the idea, describing Carter as a \"stoical loner\".", "Harold Plenderleith, a former associate of Carter's at the British Museum, was quoted as saying that he knew \"something about Carter that was not fit to disclose\", which some have interpreted as meaning that Plenderleith believed that Carter was homosexual.", "An Egyptian guide who knew Carter claimed that his tastes extended to \"both boys and the occasional 'dancing girl'\" There is, however, no evidence that Carter enjoyed any close relationships throughout his life, and he never married nor had children.King Tut as I know him\" drawing by Howard Carter 1926 for Manuel Rosenberg" ], [ "Later life", "Carter's grave at Putney Vale Cemetery, London, in 2015After the clearance of the tomb had been completed in 1932 Carter retired from excavation work.", "He continued to live in his house near Luxor in winter and retained a flat in London but, as interest in Tutankhamun declined, he lived a fairly isolated existence with few close friends.He had acted as a part-time dealer for both collectors and museums for a number of years.", "He continued in this role, including acting for the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Detroit Institute of Arts." ], [ "Death", "Carter died from Hodgkin's disease aged 64 at his London flat at 49 Albert Court, next to the Royal Albert Hall, on 2 March 1939.He was buried in Putney Vale Cemetery in London on 6 March, nine people attending his funeral.His love for Egypt remained strong; the epitaph on his gravestone reads: \"May your spirit live, may you spend millions of years, you who love Thebes, sitting with your face to the north wind, your eyes beholding happiness\", a quotation taken from the Wishing Cup of Tutankhamun, and \"O night, spread thy wings over me as the imperishable stars\".Probate was granted on 5 July 1939 to Egyptologist Henry Burton and to publisher Bruce Sterling Ingram.", "Carter is described as Howard Carter of Luxor, Upper Egypt, Africa, and of 49 Albert Court, Kensington Grove, Kensington, London.", "His estate was valued at £2,002 ().", "The second grant of Probate was issued in Cairo on 1 September 1939.In his role as executor, Burton identified at least 18 items in Carter's antiquities collection that had been taken from Tutankhamun's tomb without authorisation.", "As this was a sensitive matter that could affect Anglo-Egyptian relations, Burton sought wider advice, finally recommending that the items be discreetly presented or sold to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, with most eventually going either there or to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.", "The Metropolitan Museum items were later returned to Egypt.Blue plaque, 19 Collingham Gardens, Kensington, London" ], [ "Selected publications", "* ''The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen'' (1923) (written together with A. C. Mace)* ''The Tomb of Tutankhamun: Volume I – Search, Discovery and Clearance of the Antechamber'' (1923) (written together with A. C. Mace)* ''The Tomb of Tutankhamun: Volume II – Burial Chamber & Mummy'' (1927)* ''The Tomb of Tutankhamun: Volume III – Treasury & Annex'' (1933)" ], [ "In popular culture", "Carter's discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb revived popular interest in Ancient Egypt – 'Egyptomania' – and created \"Tutmania\", which influenced popular song and fashion.", "Carter used this heightened interest to promote his books on the discovery and his lecture tours in Britain, America and Europe.", "While interest had waned by the mid-1930s, from the early 1970s touring exhibitions of the tomb's artefacts led to a sustained rise in popularity.", "This has been reflected in TV dramas, films and books, with Carter's quest and discovery of the tomb portrayed with varying levels of accuracy.One common element in popular representations of the excavation is the idea of a 'curse'.", "Carter consistently dismissed the suggestion as 'tommy-rot', commenting that \"the sentiment of the Egyptologist ... is not one of fear, but of respect and awe ... entirely opposed to foolish superstitions\".===Dramas===Carter has been portrayed or referred to in many film, television and radio productions:*In the BBC Radio play ''The Tomb of Tutankhamen'', written by Leonard Cottrell and first broadcast in 1949, he is voiced by Jack Hawkins.", "*In the Columbia Pictures Television film ''The Curse of King Tut's Tomb'' (1980), he is portrayed by Robin Ellis.", "*In the 1981 film ''Sphinx'', he is portrayed by Mark Kingston.", "*In George Lucas's TV films ''Young Indiana Jones and the Curse of the Jackal'' (1992) and ''Young Indiana Jones and the Treasure of the Peacock's Eye'' (1995), he is portrayed by Pip Torrens.", "*In the IMAX documentary ''Mysteries of Egypt'' (1998), he is portrayed by Timothy Davies.", "*In the made-for-TV film ''The Tutankhamun Conspiracy'' (2001), he is portrayed by Giles Watling.", "*In an episode of 2005 BBC docudrama ''Egypt'', he is portrayed by Stuart Graham.", "*He was portrayed in the 2008 Big Finish Radio Drama Forty-five, a title in the Doctor Who range, voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch.", "*As the main character in 2016 ITV miniseries ''Tutankhamun'', portrayed by Max Irons.===Literature===*He is referenced in Hergé's volume 13 of ''The Adventures of Tintin'': ''The Seven Crystal Balls'' (1948).", "*He is parodied in the 1979 book ''Motel of the Mysteries'' by David Macaulay, with a character in the book named Howard Carson.", "*He is a key character in Christian Jacq's 1992 book ''The Tutankhamun Affair''.", "*James Patterson and Martin Dugard's 2010 book ''The Murder of King Tut'' focuses on Carter's search for King Tut's tomb.", "*He appears as a main character in Muhammad Al-Mansi Qindeel's 2010 novel ''A Cloudy Day on the West Side''.", "*In Laura Lee Guhrke's 2011 historical romance novel ''Wedding of the Season'', Carter's telegram to the fictional British Egyptologist, the Duke of Sunderland, reports discovering \"steps to a new tomb\" and creates a climactic conflict.", "*He is referenced in Sally Beauman's 2014 novel ''The Visitors'', a re-creation of the hunt for Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt's Valley of the Kings.", "*He is a main character in Philipp Vandenberg's 2001 German-language book ''Der König von Luxor'' (The King Of Luxor).", "*He is a recurring figure in the 1975–2010 Amelia Peabody series, written by Barbara Mertz under the pseudonym Elizabeth Peters.", "He appears in many of the books, and numbers among the Emersons' circle of friends.", "In ''The Ape Who Guards the Balance'', for example, he joins them for Christmas dinner shortly after his loss of work for Theodore Davis and his resignation related to the Saqqara Affair, mentioned above.", "* Emma Carroll's 2018 novel ''Secrets of a Sun King'' depicts Carter as the primary antagonist in a fictional retelling of the discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb.", "A group of children, in possession of a mysterious jar, seek to return it to its original resting place following a series of troubling consequences.===Other===*A paraphrased extract from Carter's diary of 26 November 1922 is used as the plaintext for Part 3 of the encrypted ''Kryptos'' sculpture at the CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia.", "*On 9 May 2012, Google commemorated Carter's 138th birthday with a Google doodle.", "*In 2019, the great-niece of Howard Carter opened a bistro in the town of Swaffham, the town in which Carter spent most of his childhood.", "The bistro has a collection of Egyptian artefacts and a collection of Carters work, it also bears the name of Carter's discovery, Tutankhamun." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources and further reading", "**********Paine, Michael.", "''Cities of the Dead''; fiction (Howard Carter as narrator); copyright by John Curlovich; Charter Books Publishing, 1988 () *Peck, William H. ''The Discoverer of the Tomb of Tutankhamun and the Detroit Institute of Arts''.", "''Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities''.", "Vol.", "XI, No.", "2, March 1981, pp.", "65–67***Vandenberg, Philipp.", "''Der vergessene Pharao: Unternehmen Tut-ench-Amun, grösste Abenteuer der Archäologie''.", "Orbis, 1978 (); translated as ''The Forgotten Pharaoh: The Discovery of Tutankhamun''.", "London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1980 ()**" ], [ "External links", "** Five Years' Explorations at Thebes* * *" ] ]
wikipedia