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[ [ "History of Scotland" ], [ "Introduction", "The recorded '''history of Scotland''' begins with the arrival of the Roman Empire in the 1st century, when the province of Britannia reached as far north as the Antonine Wall.", "North of this was Caledonia, inhabited by the ''Picti'', whose uprisings forced Rome's legions back to Hadrian's Wall.", "As Rome finally withdrew from Britain, a Gaelic tribe from Ireland called the ''Scoti'' began colonising Western Scotland and Wales.", "Before Roman times, prehistoric Scotland entered the Neolithic Era about 4000 BC, the Bronze Age about 2000 BC, and the Iron Age around 700 BC.The Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata was founded on the west coast of Scotland in the 6th century.", "In the following century, Irish missionaries introduced the previously pagan Picts to Celtic Christianity.", "Following England's Gregorian mission, the Pictish king Nechtan chose to abolish most Celtic practices in favour of the Roman rite, restricting Gaelic influence on his kingdom and avoiding war with Anglian Northumbria.", "Towards the end of the 8th century, the Viking invasions began, forcing the Picts and Gaels to cease their historic hostility to each other and to unite in the 9th century, forming the Kingdom of Scotland.The Kingdom of Scotland was united under the House of Alpin, whose members fought among each other during frequent disputed successions.", "The last Alpin king, Malcolm II, died without a male issue in the early 11th century and the kingdom passed through his daughter's son to the House of Dunkeld or Canmore.", "The last Dunkeld king, Alexander III, died in 1286.He left only his infant granddaughter, Margaret, as heir, who died herself four years later.", "England, under Edward I, would take advantage of this questioned succession to launch a series of conquests, resulting in the Wars of Scottish Independence, as Scotland passed back and forth between the House of Balliol and the House of Bruce through the late Middle Ages.", "Scotland's ultimate victory confirmed Scotland as a fully independent and sovereign kingdom.When King David II died in 1371 without issue, his nephew Robert II established the House of Stuart, which would rule Scotland uncontested for the next three centuries.", "James VI, Stuart king of Scotland, also inherited the throne of England in 1603, becoming James I of England, and this Union of the Crowns of the two independent kingdoms lasted until the Acts of Union in 1707 merged the two kingdoms into a new state, the Kingdom of Great Britain.", "Ruling until 1714, Queen Anne was the last Stuart monarch.", "Since 1714, the succession of the British monarchs of the houses of Hanover and Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Windsor) has been due to their descent from James VI and I of the House of Stuart.During the Scottish Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution, Scotland became one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe.", "Later, its industrial decline following the Second World War was particularly acute.", "In recent decades Scotland has enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance, fuelled in part by the proceeds of North Sea oil and gas.", "Since the 1950s, nationalism has become a strong political topic, with serious debates on Scottish independence, and a referendum in 2014 about leaving the British Union." ], [ "Pre-history", "The oldest standing house in Northern Europe is at Knap of Howar, dating from 3500 BC.People lived in Scotland for at least 8,500 years before Britain's recorded history.", "At times during the last interglacial period (130,000–70,000 BC) Europe had a climate warmer than today's, and early humans may have made their way to Scotland, with the possible discovery of pre-Ice Age axes on Orkney and mainland Scotland.", "Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around 9600 BC.", "Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated an encampment near Biggar to around 12000 BC.", "Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers.", "The oldest house for which there is evidence in Britain is the oval structure of wooden posts found at South Queensferry near the Firth of Forth, dating from the Mesolithic period, about 8240 BC.", "The earliest stone structures are probably the three hearths found at Jura, dated to about 6000 BC.Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements.", "Evidence of these includes the well-preserved stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray, dating from around 3500 BC and the village of similar houses at Skara Brae on West Mainland, Orkney from about 500 years later.", "The settlers introduced chambered cairn tombs from around 3500 BC, as at Maeshowe, and from about 3000 BC the many standing stones and circles such as those at Stenness on the mainland of Orkney, which date from about 3100 BC, of four stones, the tallest of which is in height.", "These were part of a pattern that developed in many regions across Europe at about the same time.The creation of cairns and Megalithic monuments continued into the Bronze Age, which began in Scotland about 2000 BC.", "As elsewhere in Europe, hill forts were first introduced in this period, including the occupation of Eildon Hill near Melrose in the Scottish Borders, from around 1000 BC, which accommodated several hundred houses on a fortified hilltop.", "From the Early and Middle Bronze Age there is evidence of cellular round houses of stone, as at Jarlshof and Sumburgh in Shetland.", "There is also evidence of the occupation of crannogs, roundhouses partially or entirely built on artificial islands, usually in lakes, rivers and estuarine waters.In the early Iron Age, from the seventh century BC, cellular houses began to be replaced on the northern isles by simple Atlantic roundhouses, substantial circular buildings with a dry stone construction.", "From about 400 BC, more complex Atlantic roundhouses began to be built, as at Howe, Orkney and Crosskirk, Caithness.", "The most massive constructions that date from this era are the circular broch towers, probably dating from about 200 BC.", "This period also saw the first wheelhouses, a roundhouse with a characteristic outer wall, within which was a circle of stone piers (bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel), but these would flourish most in the era of Roman occupation.", "There is evidence for about 1,000 Iron Age hill forts in Scotland, most located below the Clyde-Forth line, which have suggested to some archaeologists the emergence of a society of petty rulers and warrior elites recognisable from Roman accounts." ], [ "Roman invasion", "Roman cavalryman trampling conquered Picts, on a tablet found at Bo'ness dated to and now in the National Museum of ScotlandOf the surviving pre-Roman accounts of Scotland, the first written reference to Scotland was the Greek Pytheas of Massalia, who may have circumnavigated the British Isles of Albion (Britain) and Ierne (Ireland) sometime around 325 BC.", "The most northerly point of Britain was called ''Orcas'' (Orkney).", "By the time of Pliny the Elder, who died in AD 79, Roman knowledge of the geography of Scotland had extended to the ''Hebudes'' (The Hebrides), ''Dumna'' (probably the Outer Hebrides), the Caledonian Forest and the people of the Caledonii, from whom the Romans named the region north of their control Caledonia.", "Ptolemy, possibly drawing on earlier sources of information as well as more contemporary accounts from the Agricolan invasion, identified 18 tribes in Scotland in his ''Geography'', but many of the names are obscure and the geography becomes less reliable in the north and west, suggesting early Roman knowledge of these areas was confined to observations from the sea.The Roman invasion of Britain began in earnest in AD 43, leading to the establishment of the Roman province of Britannia in the south.", "By the year 71, the Roman governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis had launched an invasion of what is now Scotland.", "In the year 78, Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain to take up his appointment as the new governor and began a series of major incursions.", "He is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the \"River Taus\" (usually assumed to be the River Tay) and established forts there, including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil.", "After his victory over the northern tribes at Mons Graupius in 84, a series of forts and towers were established along the Gask Ridge, which marked the boundary between the Lowland and Highland zones, probably forming the first Roman ''limes'' or frontier in Scotland.", "Agricola's successors were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north.", "By the year 87, the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands and by the end of the first century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth.", "The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England, building the fortification known as Hadrian's Wall from coast to coast.Around 141, the Romans undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland, moving up to construct a new ''limes'' between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde, which became the Antonine Wall.", "The largest Roman construction inside Scotland, it is a sward-covered wall made of turf around high, with nineteen forts.", "It extended for .", "Having taken twelve years to build, the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after 160.The Romans retreated to the line of Hadrian's Wall.", "Roman troops penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times, with at least four major campaigns.", "The most notable invasion was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus led a major force north.", "After the death of Severus in 210 they withdrew south to Hadrian's Wall, which would be Roman frontier until it collapsed in the 5th century.The Great Conspiracy constituted a seemingly coordinated invasion against Roman rule in Britain in the later 4th century, which included the participation of the Gaelic Scoti and the Caledonians, who were then known as Picts by the Romans.", "This was defeated by the ''comes'' Theodosius, however, Roman military government was withdrawn from the island altogether by the early 5th century, resulting in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain and the immigration of the Saxons to southeastern Scotland and the rest of eastern Great Britain.By the close of the Roman occupation of southern and central Britain in the 5th century, the Picts had emerged as the dominant force in northern Scotland, with the various Brythonic tribes the Romans had first encountered there occupying the southern half of the country.", "Roman influence on Scottish culture and history was not enduring." ], [ "Post-Roman Scotland", "Clach an Tiompain, a Pictish symbol stone in StrathpefferIn the centuries after the departure of the Romans from Britain, there were four groups within the borders of what is now Scotland.", "In the east were the Picts, with kingdoms between the river Forth and Shetland.", "In the late 6th century the dominant force was the Kingdom of Fortriu, whose lands were centred on Strathearn and Menteith and who raided along the eastern coast into modern England.", "In the west were the Gaelic (Goidelic)-speaking people of Dál Riata with their royal fortress at Dunadd in Argyll, with close links with the island of Ireland, from whom comes the name Scots.", "In the south was the British (Brythonic) Kingdom of Strathclyde, descendants of the peoples of the Roman influenced kingdoms of \"Hen Ogledd\" (Old north), often named Alt Clut, the Brythonic name for their capital at Dumbarton Rock.", "Finally, there were the English or \"Angles\", Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia, in the south-east.", "The first English king in the historical record is Ida, who is said to have obtained the throne and the kingdom about 547.Ida's grandson, Æthelfrith, united his kingdom with Deira to the south to form Northumbria around the year 604.There were changes of dynasty, and the kingdom was divided, but it was re-united under Æthelfrith's son Oswald (r. 634–642).Scotland was largely converted to Christianity by Irish-Scots missions associated with figures such as St Columba, from the fifth to the seventh centuries.", "These missions tended to found monastic institutions and collegiate churches that served large areas.", "Partly as a result of these factors, some scholars have identified a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity, in which abbots were more significant than bishops, attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed and there were some significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity, particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter, although most of these issues had been resolved by the mid-7th century." ], [ "Rise of the Kingdom of Alba", "Conversion to Christianity may have sped a long-term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, which adopted Gaelic language and customs.", "There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns, although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata, or the other way around.", "This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) in the 840s, which brought to power the House of Alpin.", "In 867 AD the Vikings seized the southern half of Northumbria, forming the Kingdom of York; three years later they stormed the Britons' fortress of Dumbarton and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex, leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled.", "When he died as king of the combined kingdom in 900, Domnall II (Donald II) was the first man to be called ''rí Alban'' (i.e.", "''King of Alba'').", "The term Scotia was increasingly used to describe the kingdom between North of the Forth and Clyde and eventually the entire area controlled by its kings was referred to as Scotland.Scotland from the Matthew Paris map, c. 1250, showing Hadrian's Wall and above it the Antonine Wall, both depicted battlementedThe long reign (900–942/3) of Causantín (Constantine II) is often regarded as the key to formation of the Kingdom of Alba.", "He was later credited with bringing Scottish Christianity into conformity with the Catholic Church.", "After fighting many battles, his defeat at Brunanburh was followed by his retirement as a Culdee monk at St. Andrews.", "The period between the accession of his successor Máel Coluim I (Malcolm I) and Máel Coluim mac Cináeda (Malcolm II) was marked by good relations with the Wessex rulers of England, intense internal dynastic disunity and relatively successful expansionary policies.", "In 945, Máel Coluim I annexed Strathclyde as part of a deal with King Edmund of England, where the kings of Alba had probably exercised some authority since the later 9th century, an event offset somewhat by loss of control in Moray.", "The reign of King Donnchad I (Duncan I) from 1034 was marred by failed military adventures, and he was defeated and killed by MacBeth, the mormaer of Moray, who became king in 1040.MacBeth ruled for seventeen years before he was overthrown by Máel Coluim, the son of Donnchad, who some months later defeated MacBeth's step-son and successor Lulach to become King Máel Coluim III (Malcolm III).It was Máel Coluim III, who acquired the nickname \"Canmore\" (''Cenn Mór'', \"Great Chief\"), which he passed to his successors and who did most to create the Dunkeld dynasty that ruled Scotland for the following two centuries.", "Particularly important was his second marriage to the Anglo-Hungarian princess Margaret.", "This marriage, and raids on northern England, prompted William the Conqueror to invade and Máel Coluim submitted to his authority, opening up Scotland to later claims of sovereignty by English kings.", "When Malcolm died in 1093, his brother Domnall III (Donald III) succeeded him.", "However, William II of England backed Máel Coluim's son by his first marriage, Donnchad, as a pretender to the throne and he seized power.", "His murder within a few months saw Domnall restored with one of Máel Coluim sons by his second marriage, Edmund, as his heir.", "The two ruled Scotland until two of Edmund's younger brothers returned from exile in England, again with English military backing.", "Victorious, Edgar, the oldest of the three, became king in 1097.Shortly afterwards Edgar and the King of Norway, Magnus Barefoot concluded a treaty recognising Norwegian authority over the Western Isles.", "In practice Norse control of the Isles was loose, with local chiefs enjoying a high degree of independence.", "He was succeeded by his brother Alexander, who reigned 1107–1124.King Alexander III of Scotland on the left with Llywelyn, Prince of Wales on the right as guests to King Edward I of England at the sitting of an English parliament.When Alexander died in 1124, the crown passed to Margaret's fourth son David I, who had spent most of his life as a Norman French baron in England.", "His reign saw what has been characterised as a \"Davidian Revolution\", by which native institutions and personnel were replaced by English and French ones, underpinning the development of later Medieval Scotland.", "Members of the Anglo-Norman nobility took up places in the Scottish aristocracy and he introduced a system of feudal land tenure, which produced knight service, castles and an available body of heavily armed cavalry.", "He created an Anglo-Norman style of court, introduced the office of justicar to oversee justice, and local offices of sheriffs to administer localities.", "He established the first royal burghs in Scotland, granting rights to particular settlements, which led to the development of the first true Scottish towns and helped facilitate economic development as did the introduction of the first recorded Scottish coinage.", "He continued a process begun by his mother and brothers helping to establish foundations that brought reform to Scottish monasticism based on those at Cluny and he played a part in organising diocese on lines closer to those in the rest of Western Europe.These reforms were pursued under his successors and grandchildren Malcolm IV of Scotland and William I, with the crown now passing down the main line of descent through primogeniture, leading to the first of a series of minorities.", "The benefits of greater authority were reaped by William's son Alexander II and his son Alexander III, who pursued a policy of peace with England to expand their authority in the Highlands and Islands.", "By the reign of Alexander III, the Scots were in a position to annexe the remainder of the western seaboard, which they did following Haakon Haakonarson's ill-fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs with the Treaty of Perth in 1266." ], [ "The Wars of Independence", "The death of King Alexander III in 1286, and the death of his granddaughter and heir, Margaret, Maid of Norway, in 1290, left 14 rivals for succession.", "To prevent civil war the Scottish magnates asked Edward I of England to arbitrate, for which he extracted legal recognition that the realm of Scotland was held as a feudal dependency to the throne of England before choosing John Balliol, the man with the strongest claim, who became king in 1292.Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale, the next strongest claimant, accepted this outcome with reluctance.", "Over the next few years Edward I used the concessions he had gained to systematically undermine both the authority of King John and the independence of Scotland.", "In 1295, John, on the urgings of his chief councillors, entered into an alliance with France, known as the Auld Alliance.Edward I of England, 'Hammer of the Scots', depicted on a late-15thC woodcut.In 1296, Edward invaded Scotland, deposing King John.", "The following year William Wallace and Andrew de Moray raised forces to resist the occupation and under their joint leadership an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge.", "For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as Guardian of the realm.", "Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298.Wallace escaped but probably resigned as Guardian of Scotland.", "In 1305, he fell into the hands of the English, who executed him for treason despite the fact that he owed no allegiance to England.Rivals John Comyn and Robert the Bruce, grandson of the claimant, were appointed as joint guardians in his place.", "On 10 February 1306, Bruce participated in the murder of Comyn, at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries.", "Less than seven weeks later, on 25 March, Bruce was crowned as King.", "However, Edward's forces overran the country after defeating Bruce's small army at the Battle of Methven.", "Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by Pope Clement V, his support slowly strengthened; and by 1314 with the help of leading nobles such as Sir James Douglas and Thomas Randolph only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control.", "Edward I had died in 1307.His heir Edward II moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and reassert control.", "Robert defeated that army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, securing ''de facto'' independence.", "In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath, a remonstrance to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland, helped convince Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and nullify the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland's sovereignty could be recognised by the major European dynasties.", "The Declaration has also been seen as one of the most important documents in the development of a Scottish national identity.In 1326, what may have been the first full Parliament of Scotland met.", "The parliament had evolved from an earlier council of nobility and clergy, the ''colloquium'', constituted around 1235, but perhaps in 1326 representatives of the burghs – the burgh commissioners – joined them to form the Three Estates.", "In 1328, Edward III signed the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton acknowledging Scottish independence under the rule of Robert the Bruce.", "However, four years after Robert's death in 1329, England once more invaded on the pretext of restoring Edward Balliol, son of John Balliol, to the Scottish throne, thus starting the Second War of Independence.", "Despite victories at Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill, in the face of tough Scottish resistance led by Sir Andrew Murray, the son of Wallace's comrade in arms, successive attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed.", "Edward III lost interest in the fate of his protégé after the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France.", "In 1341, David II, King Robert's son and heir, was able to return from temporary exile in France.", "Balliol finally resigned his claim to the throne to Edward in 1356, before retiring to Yorkshire, where he died in 1364." ], [ "The Stuarts", "Highlands in 1482Heraldic depiction of the King of Scots from a 15th-century French armorialAfter David II's death, Robert II, the first of the Stewart kings, came to the throne in 1371.He was followed in 1390 by his ailing son John, who took the regnal name Robert III.", "During Robert III's reign (1390–1406), actual power rested largely in the hands of his brother, Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany.", "After the suspicious death (possibly on the orders of the Duke of Albany) of his elder son, David, Duke of Rothesay in 1402, Robert, fearful for the safety of his younger son, the future James I, sent him to France in 1406.However, the English captured him en route and he spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom.", "As a result, after the death of Robert III, regents ruled Scotland: first, the Duke of Albany; and later his son Murdoch.", "When Scotland finally paid the ransom in 1424, James, aged 32, returned with his English bride determined to assert his authority.", "Several of the Albany family were executed; but he succeeded in centralising control in the hands of the crown, at the cost of increasing unpopularity, and was assassinated in 1437.His son James II (reigned 1437–1460), when he came of age in 1449, continued his father's policy of weakening the great noble families, most notably taking on the powerful Black Douglas family that had come to prominence at the time of the Bruce.In 1468, the last significant acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when James III was engaged to Margaret of Denmark, receiving the Orkney Islands and the Shetland Islands in payment of her dowry.", "Berwick upon Tweed was captured by England in 1482.With the death of James III in 1488 at the Battle of Sauchieburn, his successor James IV successfully ended the quasi-independent rule of the Lord of the Isles, bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time.", "In 1503, he married Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII of England, thus laying the foundation for the 17th-century Union of the Crowns.Scotland advanced markedly in educational terms during the 15th century with the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413, the University of Glasgow in 1450 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495, and with the passing of the Education Act 1496, which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools.", "James IV's reign is often considered to have seen a flowering of Scottish culture under the influence of the European Renaissance.View from the royal apartments of the Stewart monarchs, Edinburgh Castle.In 1512, the Auld Alliance was renewed and under its terms, when the French were attacked by the English under Henry VIII, James IV invaded England in support.", "The invasion was stopped decisively at the Battle of Flodden Field during which the King, many of his nobles, and a large number of ordinary troops were killed, commemorated by the song ''Flowers of the Forest''.", "Once again Scotland's government lay in the hands of regents in the name of the infant James V.James V finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents in 1528.He continued his father's policy of subduing the rebellious Highlands, Western and Northern isles and the troublesome borders.", "He also continued the French alliance, marrying first the French noblewoman Madeleine of Valois and then after her death Marie of Guise.", "James V's domestic and foreign policy successes were overshadowed by another disastrous campaign against England that led to defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss (1542).", "James died a short time later, a demise blamed by contemporaries on \"a broken heart\".", "The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: a daughter, who would become Mary, Queen of Scots.Once again, Scotland was in the hands of a regent.", "Within two years, the Rough Wooing began, Henry VIII's military attempt to force a marriage between Mary and his son, Edward.", "This took the form of border skirmishing and several English campaigns into Scotland.", "In 1547, after the death of Henry VIII, forces under the English regent Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset were victorious at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh, the climax of the Rough Wooing, and followed up by the occupation of Haddington.", "Mary was then sent to France at the age of five, as the intended bride of the heir to the French throne.", "Her mother, Marie de Guise, stayed in Scotland to look after the interests of Mary – and of France – although the Earl of Arran acted officially as regent.", "Guise responded by calling on French troops, who helped stiffen resistance to the English occupation.", "By 1550, after a change of regent in England, the English withdrew from Scotland completely.From 1554 on, Marie de Guise took over the regency and continued to advance French interests in Scotland.", "French cultural influence resulted in a large influx of French vocabulary into Scots.", "But anti-French sentiment also grew, particularly among Protestants, who saw the English as their natural allies.", "This led to armed conflict at the siege of Leith.", "Marie de Guise died in June 1560, and soon after the Auld Alliance also ended, with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh, which provided for the removal of French and English troops from Scotland.", "The Scottish Reformation took place only days later when the Scottish Parliament abolished the Roman Catholic religion and outlawed the Mass.Depiction of David Rizzio's murder in 1566Meanwhile, Queen Mary had been raised as a Catholic in France, and married to the Dauphin, who became king as Francis II in 1559, making her queen consort of France.", "When Francis died in 1560, Mary, now 19, returned to Scotland to take up the government.", "Despite her private religion, she did not attempt to re-impose Catholicism on her largely Protestant subjects, thus angering the chief Catholic nobles.", "Her six-year personal reign was marred by a series of crises, largely caused by the intrigues and rivalries of the leading nobles.", "The murder of her secretary, David Riccio, was followed by that of her unpopular second husband Lord Darnley, and her abduction by and marriage to the Earl of Bothwell, who was implicated in Darnley's murder.", "Mary and Bothwell confronted the lords at Carberry Hill and after their forces melted away, he fled and she was captured by Bothwell's rivals.", "Mary was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle, and in July 1567, was forced to abdicate in favour of her infant son James VI.", "Mary eventually escaped and attempted to regain the throne by force.", "After her defeat at the Battle of Langside in 1568, she took refuge in England, leaving her young son in the hands of regents.", "In Scotland the regents fought a civil war on behalf of James VI against his mother's supporters.", "In England, Mary became a focal point for Catholic conspirators and was eventually tried for treason and executed on the orders of her kinswoman Elizabeth I." ], [ "Protestant Reformation", "In 1559, John Knox returned from ministering in Geneva to lead the Calvinist reformation in Scotland.During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominantly Calvinist national Kirk, which became Presbyterian in outlook and severely reduced the powers of bishops.", "In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of first Martin Luther and then John Calvin began to influence Scotland, particularly through Scottish scholars, often training for the priesthood, who had visited Continental universities.", "The Lutheran preacher Patrick Hamilton was executed for heresy in St. Andrews in 1528.The execution of others, especially the Zwingli-influenced George Wishart, who was burnt at the stake on the orders of Cardinal Beaton in 1546, angered Protestants.", "Wishart's supporters assassinated Beaton soon after and seized St. Andrews Castle, which they held for a year before they were defeated with the help of French forces.", "The survivors, including chaplain John Knox, were condemned to be galley slaves in France, stoking resentment of the French and creating martyrs for the Protestant cause.Limited toleration and the influence of exiled Scots and Protestants in other countries, led to the expansion of Protestantism, with a group of lairds declaring themselves Lords of the Congregation in 1557 and representing their interests politically.", "The collapse of the French alliance and English intervention in 1560 meant that a relatively small, but highly influential, group of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the Scottish church.", "A confession of faith, rejecting papal jurisdiction and the mass, was adopted by Parliament in 1560, while the young Mary, Queen of Scots, was still in France.Knox, having escaped the galleys and spent time in Geneva as a follower of Calvin, emerged as the most significant figure of the period.", "The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the medieval church.", "The reformed Kirk gave considerable power to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy.", "There were widespread, but generally orderly outbreaks of iconoclasm.", "At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk found it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.Women shared in the religiosity of the day.", "The egalitarian and emotional aspects of Calvinism appealed to men and women alike.", "Historian Alasdair Raffe finds that, \"Men and women were thought equally likely to be among the elect....Godly men valued the prayers and conversation of their female co-religionists, and this reciprocity made for loving marriages and close friendships between men and women.\"", "Furthermore, there was an increasingly intense relationship in the pious bonds between minister and his women parishioners.", "For the first time, laywomen gained numerous new religious roles and took a prominent place in prayer societies." ], [ "17th century", "In 1603, James VI King of Scots inherited the throne of the Kingdom of England and became King James I of England, leaving Edinburgh for London and uniting England with Scotland under one monarch.", "The Union was a personal or dynastic union, with the Crowns remaining both distinct and separate—despite James's best efforts to create a new \"imperial\" throne of \"Great Britain\".", "The acquisition of the Irish crown along with the English facilitated a process of settlement by Scots in what was historically the most troublesome area of the kingdom in Ulster, with perhaps 50,000 Scots settling in the province by the mid-17th century.", "James adopted a different approach to impose his authority in the western Highlands and Islands.", "The additional military resource that was now available, particularly the English navy, resulted in the enactment of the Statutes of Iona which compelled integration of Hebridean clan leaders with the rest of Scottish society.", "Attempts to found a Scottish colony in North America in Nova Scotia were largely unsuccessful without sufficient funds or willing colonists.===Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth=======Bishops' Wars====St.", "Giles riot initiated by Jenny Geddes sparked off the Bishops' Wars.Although James had tried to get the Scottish Church to accept some of the High Church Anglicanism of his southern kingdom, he met with limited success.", "His son and successor, Charles I, took matters further, introducing an English-style Prayer Book into the Scottish church in 1637.This resulted in anger and widespread rioting.", "(The story goes that it was initiated by a certain Jenny Geddes who threw a stool in St Giles Cathedral.)", "Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the National Covenant in 1638, objecting to the King's liturgical innovations.", "In November of the same year matters were taken even further, when at a meeting of the General Assembly in Glasgow the Scottish bishops were formally expelled from the Church, which was then established on a full Presbyterian basis.", "Charles gathered a military force; but as neither side wished to push the matter to a full military conflict, a temporary settlement was concluded at Pacification of Berwick.", "Matters remained unresolved until 1640 when, in a renewal of hostilities, Charles's northern forces were defeated by the Scots at the Battle of Newburn to the west of Newcastle.", "During the course of these Bishops' Wars Charles tried to raise an army of Irish Catholics, but was forced to back down after a storm of protest in Scotland and England.", "The backlash from this venture provoked a rebellion in Ireland and Charles was forced to appeal to the English Parliament for funds.", "Parliament's demands for reform in England eventually resulted in the English Civil War.", "This series of civil wars that engulfed England, Ireland and Scotland in the 1640s and 1650s is known to modern historians as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "The Covenanters meanwhile, were left governing Scotland, where they raised a large army of their own and tried to impose their religious settlement on Episcopalians and Roman Catholics in the north of the country.", "In England his religious policies caused similar resentment and he ruled without recourse to parliament from 1629.====Civil war====James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, who led a successful pro-royalist campaign in the Highlands in 1644–1646.As the civil wars developed, the English Parliamentarians appealed to the Scots Covenanters for military aid against the King.", "A Solemn League and Covenant was entered into, guaranteeing the Scottish Church settlement and promising further reform in England.", "Scottish troops played a major part in the defeat of Charles I, notably at the battle of Marston Moor.", "An army under the Earl of Leven occupied the North of England for some time.However, not all Scots supported the Covenanter's taking arms against their King.", "In 1644, James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose attempted to raise the Highlands for the King.", "Few Scots would follow him, but, aided by 1,000 Irish, Highland and Islesmen troops sent by the Irish Confederates under Alasdair MacDonald (MacColla), and an instinctive genius for mobile warfare, he was stunningly successful.", "A Scottish Civil War began in September 1644 with his victory at battle of Tippermuir.", "After a series of victories over poorly trained Covenanter militias, the lowlands were at his mercy.", "However, at this high point, his army was reduced in size, as MacColla and the Highlanders preferred to continue the war in the north against the Campbells.", "Shortly after, what was left of his force was defeated at the Battle of Philiphaugh.", "Escaping to the north, Montrose attempted to continue the struggle with fresh troops; but in July 1646 his army was disbanded after the King surrendered to the Scots army at Newark, and the civil war came to an end.The following year Charles, while he was being held captive in Carisbrooke Castle, entered into an agreement with moderate Scots Presbyterians.", "In this secret 'Engagement', the Scots promised military aid in return for the King's agreement to implement Presbyterianism in England on a three-year trial basis.", "The Duke of Hamilton led an invasion of England to free the King, but he was defeated by Oliver Cromwell in August 1648 at the Battle of Preston.====Cromwellian occupation and Restoration====\"Cromwell at Dunbar\" by Andrew Carrick Gow.", "The battle of Dunbar was a crushing defeat for the Scottish CovenantersThe execution of Charles I in 1649 was carried out in the face of objections by the Covenanter government and his son was immediately proclaimed as King Charles II in Edinburgh.", "Oliver Cromwell led an invasion of Scotland in 1650, and defeated the Scottish army at Dunbar.", "One year later, a Scottish invasion of England was again defeated by Cromwell at Worcester.", "Cromwell emerged as the leading figure in the English government and Scotland was occupied by an English force under George Monck.", "The country was incorporated into the Puritan-governed Commonwealth and lost its independent church government, parliament and legal system, but gained access to English markets.", "Various attempts were made to legitimise the union, calling representatives from the Scottish burghs and shires to negotiations and to various English parliaments, where they were always under-represented and had little opportunity for dissent.", "However, final ratification was delayed by Cromwell's problems with his various parliaments and the union did not become the subject of an act until 1657 (see Tender of Union).After the death of Cromwell and the regime's collapse, Charles II was restored in 1660 and Scotland again became an independent kingdom.", "Scotland regained its system of law, parliament and kirk, but also the Lords of the Articles (by which the crown managed parliament), bishops and a king who did not visit the country.", "He ruled largely without reference to Parliament, through a series of commissioners.", "These began with John, Earl of Middleton and ended with the king's brother and heir, James, Duke of York (known in Scotland as the Duke of Albany).", "The English Navigation Acts prevented the Scots engaging in what would have been lucrative trading with England's colonies.", "The restoration of episcopacy was a source of trouble, particularly in the south-west of the country, an area with strong Presbyterian sympathies.", "Abandoning the official church, many of the inhabitants began to attend illegal field assemblies, known as conventicles.", "Official attempts to suppress these led to a rising in 1679, defeated by James, Duke of Monmouth, the King's illegitimate son, at the Battle of Bothwell Bridge.", "In the early 1680s a more intense phase of persecution began, later to be called \"the Killing Time\".", "When Charles died in 1685 and his brother, a Roman Catholic, succeeded him as James VII of Scotland (and II of England), matters came to a head.===The deposition of James VII===James VII of Scotland (and II of England), who fled the throne in 1688.James put Catholics in key positions in the government and attendance at conventicles was made punishable by death.", "He disregarded parliament, purged the council and forced through religious toleration to Roman Catholics, alienating his Protestant subjects.", "It was believed that the king would be succeeded by his daughter Mary, a Protestant and the wife of William of Orange, Stadtholder of the Netherlands, but when in 1688, James produced a male heir, James Francis Edward Stuart, it was clear that his policies would outlive him.", "An invitation by seven leading Englishmen led William to land in England with 40,000 men, and James fled, leading to the almost bloodless \"Glorious Revolution\".", "The Estates issued a ''Claim of Right'' that suggested that James had forfeited the crown by his actions (in contrast to England, which relied on the legal fiction of an abdication) and offered it to William and Mary, which William accepted, along with limitations on royal power.", "The final settlement restored Presbyterianism and abolished the bishops who had generally supported James.", "However, William, who was more tolerant than the Kirk tended to be, passed acts restoring the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution.Although William's supporters dominated the government, there remained a significant following for James, particularly in the Highlands.", "His cause, which became known as Jacobitism, from the Latin ''(Jacobus)'' for James, led to a series of risings.", "An initial Jacobite military attempt was led by John Graham, Viscount Dundee.", "His forces, almost all Highlanders, defeated William's forces at the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689, but they took heavy losses and Dundee was slain in the fighting.", "Without his leadership the Jacobite army was soon defeated at the Battle of Dunkeld.", "In the aftermath of the Jacobite defeat on 13 February 1692, in an incident since known as the Massacre of Glencoe, 38 members of the Clan MacDonald of Glencoe were killed by members of the Earl of Argyll's Regiment of Foot, on the grounds that they had not been prompt in pledging allegiance to the new monarchs.===Economic crisis of the 1690s===The colony of New Caledonia on the Isthmus of DarienThe closing decade of the 17th century saw the generally favourable economic conditions that had dominated since the Restoration come to an end.", "There was a slump in trade with the Baltic and France from 1689 to 1691, caused by French protectionism and changes in the Scottish cattle trade, followed by four years of failed harvests (1695, 1696 and 1698–1699), an era known as the \"seven ill years\".", "The result was severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north.", "The Parliament of Scotland of 1695 enacted proposals to help the desperate economic situation, including setting up the Bank of Scotland.", "The \"Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies\" received a charter to raise capital through public subscription.===Failure of Darien scheme===With the dream of building a lucrative overseas colony for Scotland, the Company of Scotland invested in the Darien scheme, an ambitious plan devised by William Paterson to establish a colony on the Isthmus of Panama in the hope of establishing trade with the Far East.", "The Darién scheme won widespread support in Scotland as the landed gentry and the merchant class were in agreement in seeing overseas trade and colonialism as routes to upgrade Scotland's economy.", "Since the capital resources of the Edinburgh merchants and landholder elite were insufficient, the company appealed to middling social ranks, who responded with patriotic fervour to the call for money; the lower classes volunteered as colonists.", "But the English government opposed the idea: involved in the War of the Grand Alliance from 1689 to 1697 against France, it did not want to offend Spain, which claimed the territory as part of New Granada.", "The English investors withdrew.", "Returning to Edinburgh, the Company raised 400,000 pounds in a few weeks.", "Three small fleets with a total of 3,000 men eventually set out for Panama in 1698.The exercise proved a disaster.", "Poorly equipped; beset by incessant rain; under attack by the Spanish from nearby Cartagena; and refused aid by the English in the West Indies, the colonists abandoned their project in 1700.Only 1,000 survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland." ], [ "18th century", "Cross of St George of England, with the Cross of St. Andrew of Scotland.Scotland was a poor rural, agricultural society with a population of 1.3 million in 1755.Although Scotland lost home rule, the Union allowed it to break free of a stultifying system and opened the way for the Scottish enlightenment as well as a great expansion of trade and increase in opportunity and wealth.", "Edinburgh economist Adam Smith concluded in 1776 that \"By the union with England, the middling and inferior ranks of people in Scotland gained a complete deliverance from the power of an aristocracy which had always before oppressed them.\"", "Historian Jonathan Israel holds that the Union \"proved a decisive catalyst politically and economically,\" by allowing ambitious Scots entry on an equal basis to a rich expanding empire and its increasing trade.Scotland's transformation into a rich leader of modern industry came suddenly and unexpectedly in the next 150 years, following its union with England in 1707 and its integration with the advanced English and imperial economies.", "The transformation was led by two cities that grew rapidly after 1770.Glasgow, on the river Clyde, was the base for the tobacco and sugar trade with an emerging textile industry.", "Edinburgh was the administrative and intellectual centre where the Scottish Enlightenment was chiefly based.===Union with England===By the start of the 18th century, a political union between Scotland and England became politically and economically attractive, promising to open up the much larger markets of England, as well as those of the growing English Empire.", "With economic stagnation since the late 17th century, which was particularly acute in 1704, the country depended more and more heavily on sales of cattle and linen to England, who used this to create pressure for a union.", "The Scottish parliament voted on 6 January 1707, by 110 to 69, to adopt the Treaty of Union.", "It was also a full economic union; indeed, most of its 25 articles dealt with economic arrangements for the new state known as \"Great Britain\".", "It added 45 Scots to the 513 members of the House of Commons and 16 Scots to the 190 members of the House of Lords, and ended the Scottish parliament.", "It also replaced the Scottish systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade with laws made in London.", "Scottish law remained separate from English law, and the religious system was not changed.", "England had about five times the population of Scotland at the time, and about 36 times as much wealth.===Jacobitism===Charles Edward Stuart, known as ''The Young Pretender'' and ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'', who led the '45 risingJacobitism was revived by the unpopularity of the union.", "In 1708, James Francis Edward Stuart, the son of James VII, who became known as \"The Old Pretender\", attempted an invasion with a French fleet carrying 6,000 men, but the Royal Navy prevented it from landing troops.", "A more serious attempt occurred in 1715, soon after the death of Anne and the accession of the first Hanoverian king, the eldest son of Sophie, as George I of Great Britain.", "This rising (known as ''The 'Fifteen'') envisaged simultaneous uprisings in Wales, Devon, and Scotland.", "However, government arrests forestalled the southern ventures.", "In Scotland, John Erskine, Earl of Mar, nicknamed ''Bobbin' John'', raised the Jacobite clans but proved to be an indecisive leader and an incompetent soldier.", "Mar captured Perth, but let a smaller government force under the Duke of Argyll hold the Stirling plain.", "Part of Mar's army joined up with risings in northern England and southern Scotland, and the Jacobites fought their way into England before being defeated at the Battle of Preston, surrendering on 14 November 1715.The day before, Mar had failed to defeat Argyll at the Battle of Sheriffmuir.", "At this point, James belatedly landed in Scotland, but was advised that the cause was hopeless.", "He fled back to France.", "An attempted Jacobite invasion with Spanish assistance in 1719 met with little support from the clans and ended in defeat at the Battle of Glen Shiel.In 1745, the Jacobite rising known as ''The 'Forty-Five'' began.", "Charles Edward Stuart, son of the ''Old Pretender'', often referred to as ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'' or the ''Young Pretender'', landed on the island of Eriskay in the Outer Hebrides.", "Several clans unenthusiastically joined him.", "At the outset he was successful, taking Edinburgh and then defeating the only government army in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans.", "The Jacobite army marched into England, took Carlisle and advanced as far as south as Derby.", "However, it became increasingly evident that England would not support a Roman Catholic Stuart monarch.", "The Jacobite leadership had a crisis of confidence and they retreated to Scotland as two English armies closed in and Hanoverian troops began to return from the continent.", "Charles' position in Scotland began to deteriorate as the Whig supporters rallied and regained control of Edinburgh.", "After an unsuccessful attempt on Stirling, he retreated north towards Inverness.", "He was pursued by the Duke of Cumberland and gave battle with an exhausted army at Culloden on 16 April 1746, where the Jacobite cause was crushed.", "Charles hid in Scotland with the aid of Highlanders until September 1746, when he escaped back to France.", "There were bloody reprisals against his supporters and foreign powers abandoned the Jacobite cause, with the court in exile forced to leave France.", "The Old Pretender died in 1766 and the Young Pretender, without legitimate issue, in 1788.When his brother, Henry, Cardinal of York, died in 1807, the Jacobite cause was at an end.===Post-Jacobite politics===Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, and dominant political figure in Scotland, 1720s–61.With the advent of the Union and the demise of Jacobitism, access to London and the Empire opened up very attractive career opportunities for ambitious middle-class and upper-class Scots, who seized the chance to become entrepreneurs, intellectuals, and soldiers.", "Thousands of Scots, mainly Lowlanders, took up positions of power in politics, civil service, the army and navy, trade, economics, colonial enterprises and other areas across the nascent British Empire.", "Historian Neil Davidson notes that \"after 1746 there was an entirely new level of participation by Scots in political life, particularly outside Scotland\".", "Davidson also states that \"far from being ‘peripheral’ to the British economy, Scotland – or more precisely, the Lowlands – lay at its core\".", "British officials especially appreciated Scottish soldiers.", "As the Secretary of War told Parliament in 1751, \"I am for having always in our army as many Scottish soldiers as possible...because they are generally more hardy and less mutinous\".", "The national policy of aggressively recruiting Scots for senior civilian positions stirred up resentment among Englishmen, ranging from violent diatribes by John Wilkes, to vulgar jokes and obscene cartoons in the popular press, and the haughty ridicule by intellectuals such as Samuel Johnson that was much resented by Scots.", "In his great ''Dictionary'' Johnson defined oats as, \"a grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people.\"", "To which Lord Elibank retorted, \"Very true, and where will you find such men and such horses?", "\"Scottish politics in the late 18th century was dominated by the Whigs, with the benign management of Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll (1682–1761), who was in effect the \"viceroy of Scotland\" from the 1720s until his death in 1761.Scotland generally supported the king with enthusiasm during the American Revolution.", "Henry Dundas (1742–1811) dominated political affairs in the latter part of the century.", "Dundas defeated advocates of intellectual and social change through his ruthless manipulation of patronage in alliance with Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, until he lost power in 1806.The main unit of local government was the parish, and since it was also part of the church, the elders imposed public humiliation for what the locals considered immoral behaviour, including fornication, drunkenness, wife beating, cursing and Sabbath breaking.", "The main focus was on the poor and the landlords (\"lairds\") and gentry, and their servants, were not subject to the parish's control.", "The policing system weakened after 1800 and disappeared in most places by the 1850s.===Collapse of the clan system===The remains of old run rig strips beside Loch Eynort, Isle of Skye.", "Run rig was the pre-clearance method of arable farming before agricultural improvements were introduced.The clan system of the Highlands and Islands had been seen as a challenge to the rulers of Scotland from before the 17th century.", "James VI's various measures to exert control included the Statutes of Iona, an attempt to force clan leaders to become integrated into the rest of Scottish society.", "This started a slow process of change which, by the second half of the 18th century, saw clan chiefs start to think of themselves as commercial landlords, rather than as patriarchs of their people.", "To their tenants, initially this meant that monetary rents replaced those paid in kind.", "Later, rent increases became common.", "In the 1710s the Dukes of Argyll started putting leases of some of their land up for auction; by 1737 this was done across the Argyll property.", "This commercial attitude replaced the principle of '''', which included the obligation on clan chiefs to provide land for clan members.", "The shift of this attitude slowly spread through the Highland elite (but not among their tenants).", "As clan chiefs became more integrated into Scottish and British society, many of them built up large debts.", "It became easier to borrow against the security of a Highland estate from the 1770s onwards.", "As the lenders became predominantly people and organisations outside the Highlands, there was a greater willingness to foreclose if the borrower defaulted.", "Combined with an astounding level of financial incompetence among the Highland elite, this ultimately forced the sale of the estates of many Highland landed families over the period 1770–1850.", "(The greatest number of sales of whole estates was toward the end of this period.", ")The Jacobite rebellion of 1745 gave a final period of importance to the ability of Highland clans to raise bodies of fighting men at short notice.", "With the defeat at Culloden, any enthusiasm for continued warfare disappeared and clan leaders returned to their transition to being commercial landlords.", "This was arguably accelerated by some of the punitive laws enacted after the rebellion.", "These included the Heritable Jurisdictions Act of 1746, which removed judicial roles from clan chiefs and gave them to the Scottish law courts.", "T. M. Devine warns against seeing a clear cause and effect relationship between the post-Culloden legislation and the collapse of clanship.", "He questions the basic effectiveness of the measures, quoting W. A. Speck who ascribes the pacification of the area more to \"a disinclination to rebel than to the government's repressive measures.\"", "Devine points out that social change in Gaeldom did not pick up until the 1760s and 1770s, as this coincided with the increased market pressures from the industrialising and urbanising Lowlands.41 properties belonging to rebels were forfeited to the Crown in the aftermath of the '45.The vast majority of these were sold by auction to pay creditors.", "13 were retained and managed on behalf of the government between 1752 and 1784.The changes by the Dukes of Argyll in the 1730s displaced many of the tacksmen in the area.", "From the 1770s onwards, this became a matter of policy throughout the Highlands.", "The restriction on subletting by tacksmen meant that landlords received all the rent paid by the actual farming tenants – thereby increasing their income.", "By the early part of the 19th century, the tacksman had become a rare component of Highland society.", "T. M. Devine describes \"the displacement of this class as one of the clearest demonstrations of the death of the old Gaelic society.\"", "Many emigrated, leading parties of their tenants to North America.", "These tenants were from the better off part of Highland peasant society, and, together with the tacksmen, they took their capital and entrepreneurial energy to the New World, unwilling to participate in economic changes imposed by their landlords which often involved a loss of status for the tenant.Agricultural improvement was introduced across the Highlands over the relatively short period of 1760–1850.The evictions involved in this became known as the Highland clearances.", "There was regional variation.", "In the east and south of the Highlands, the old townships or '''', which were farmed under the run rig system were replaced by larger enclosed farms, with fewer people holding leases and proportionately more of the population working as employees on these larger farms.", "(This was broadly similar to the situation in the Lowlands.)", "In the north and west, including the Hebrides, as land was taken out of run rig, Crofting communities were established.", "Much of this change involved establishing large pastoral sheep farms, with the old displaced tenants moving to new crofts in coastal areas or on poor quality land.", "Sheep farming was increasingly profitable at the end of the 18th century, so could pay substantially higher rents than the previous tenants.", "Particularly in the Hebrides, some crofting communities were established to work in the kelp industry.", "Others were engaged in fishing.", "Croft sizes were kept small, so that the occupiers were forced to seek employment to supplement what they could grow.", "This increased the number of seasonal migrant workers travelling to the Lowlands.", "The resulting connection with the Lowlands was highly influential on all aspects of Highland life, touching on income levels, social attitudes and language.", "Migrant working gave an advantage in speaking English, which came to be considered \"the language of work\".In 1846 the Highland potato famine struck the crofting communities of the North and West Highlands.", "By 1850 the charitable relief effort was wound up, despite the continuing crop failure, and landlords, charities and the government resorted to encouraging emigration.", "The overall result was that almost 11,000 people were provided with \"assisted passages\" by their landlords between 1846 and 1856, with the greatest number travelling in 1851.A further 5,000 emigrated to Australia, through the Highland and Island Emigration Society.", "To this should be added an unknown, but significant number, who paid their own fares to emigrate, and a further unknown number assisted by the Colonial Land and Emigration Commission.", "This was out of a famine-affected population of about 200,000 people.", "Many of those who remained became even more involved in temporary migration for work in the Lowlands, both out of necessity during the famine and having become accustomed to working away by the time the famine ceased.", "Much longer periods were spent out of the Highlands – often for much of the year or more.", "One illustration of this migrant working was the estimated 30,000 men and women from the far west of the Gaelic speaking area who travelled to the east coast fishing ports for the herring fishing season – providing labour in an industry that grew by 60% between 1854 and 1884.The clearances were followed by a period of even greater emigration from the Highlands, which continued (with a brief lull for the First World War) up to the start of the Great Depression.===Enlightenment===Adam Smith, the father of modern economics.Historian Jonathan Israel argues that by 1750 Scotland's major cities had created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions, such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges.", "The Scottish network was \"predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment .\"", "In France Voltaire said \"we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization,\" and the Scots in turn paid close attention to French ideas.", "Historian Bruce Lenman says their \"central achievement was a new capacity to recognize and interpret social patterns.\"", "The first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment was Francis Hutcheson, who held the Chair of Philosophy at the University of Glasgow from 1729 to 1746.A moral philosopher who produced alternatives to the ideas of Thomas Hobbes, one of his major contributions to world thought was the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, \"the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers\".", "Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith.", "Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy.", "He and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what he called a 'science of man', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.", "Modern sociology largely originated from this movement and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the US Constitution) and when popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.", "Adam Smith published ''The Wealth of Nations'', often considered the first work on modern economics.", "It had an immediate impact on British economic policy and in the 21st century still framed discussions on globalisation and tariffs.", "The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of the physician and chemist William Cullen, the agriculturalist and economist James Anderson, chemist and physician Joseph Black, natural historian John Walker and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.===Beginnings of industrialisation===Former Head Office of the British Linen Bank in St Andrew Square, Edinburgh.", "Now offices of the Bank of Scotland.With tariffs with England now abolished, the potential for trade for Scottish merchants was considerable.", "However, Scotland in 1750 was still a poor rural, agricultural society with a population of 1.3 million.", "Some progress was visible: agriculture in the Lowlands was steadily upgraded after 1700 and standards remained high.", "There were the sales of linen and cattle to England, the cash flows from military service, and the tobacco trade that was dominated by Glasgow Tobacco Lords after 1740.Merchants who profited from the American trade began investing in leather, textiles, iron, coal, sugar, rope, sailcloth, glassworks, breweries, and soapworks, setting the foundations for the city's emergence as a leading industrial centre after 1815.The tobacco trade collapsed during the American Revolution (1776–1783), when its sources were cut off by the British blockade of American ports.", "However, trade with the West Indies began to make up for the loss of the tobacco business, reflecting the British demand for sugar and the demand in the West Indies for herring and linen goods.Linen was Scotland's premier industry in the 18th century and formed the basis for the later cotton, jute, and woollen industries.", "Scottish industrial policy was made by the board of trustees for Fisheries and Manufactures in Scotland, which sought to build an economy complementary, not competitive, with England.", "Since England had woollens, this meant linen.", "Encouraged and subsidised by the Board of Trustees so it could compete with German products, merchant entrepreneurs became dominant in all stages of linen manufacturing and built up the market share of Scottish linens, especially in the American colonial market.", "The British Linen Company, established in 1746, was the largest firm in the Scottish linen industry in the 18th century, exporting linen to England and America.", "As a joint-stock company, it had the right to raise funds through the issue of promissory notes or bonds.", "With its bonds functioning as bank notes, the company gradually moved into the business of lending and discounting to other linen manufacturers, and in the early 1770s banking became its main activity.", "It joined the established Scottish banks such as the Bank of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1695) and the Royal Bank of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1727).", "Glasgow would soon follow and Scotland had a flourishing financial system by the end of the century.", "There were over 400 branches, amounting to one office per 7,000 people, double the level in England, where banks were also more heavily regulated.", "Historians have emphasised that the flexibility and dynamism of the Scottish banking system contributed significantly to the rapid development of the economy in the 19th century.German sociologist Max Weber mentioned Scottish Presbyterianism in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), and many scholars argued that \"this worldly asceticism\" of Calvinism was integral to Scotland's rapid economic modernisation.", "More recent scholarship however emphasises other factors.", "These include technology transfers from England and the appeal of a highly mobile, low-cost labour-force for English investors like Richard Arkwright.", "Scotland's natural resources in water power, black-band ironstone and coal were also important foundations for mechanised industry.===Religious fragmentation===Ebenezer Erskine whose actions led to the establishment of the Secession Church.In the 1690s the Presbyterian establishment purged the land of Episcopalians and heretics, and made blasphemy a capital crime.", "Thomas Aitkenhead, the son of an Edinburgh surgeon, aged 18, was indicted for blasphemy by order of the Privy Council for calling the New Testament \"The History of the Imposter Christ\"; he was hanged in 1696.Their extremism led to a reaction known as the \"Moderate\" cause that ultimately prevailed and opened the way for liberal thinking in the cities.The early 18th century saw the beginnings of a fragmentation of the Church of Scotland.", "These fractures were prompted by issues of government and patronage, but reflected a wider division between the hard-line Evangelicals and the theologically more tolerant Moderate Party.", "The battle was over fears of fanaticism by the former and the promotion of Enlightenment ideas by the latter.", "The Patronage Act of 1712 was a major blow to the evangelicals, for it meant that local landlords could choose the minister, not the members of the congregation.", "Schisms erupted as the evangelicals left the main body, starting in 1733 with the First Secession headed by figures including Ebenezer Erskine.", "The second schism in 1761 lead to the foundation of the independent Relief Church.", "These churches gained strength in the Evangelical Revival of the later 18th century.", "A key result was the main Presbyterian church was in the hands of the Moderate faction, which provided critical support for the Enlightenment in the cities.Long after the triumph of the Church of Scotland in the Lowlands, Highlanders and Islanders clung to an old-fashioned Christianity infused with animistic folk beliefs and practices.", "The remoteness of the region and the lack of a Gaelic-speaking clergy undermined the missionary efforts of the established church.", "The later 18th century saw some success, owing to the efforts of the SSPCK missionaries and to the disruption of traditional society.", "Catholicism had been reduced to the fringes of the country, particularly the Gaelic-speaking areas of the Highlands and Islands.", "Conditions also grew worse for Catholics after the Jacobite rebellions and Catholicism was reduced to little more than a poorly run mission.", "Also important was Episcopalianism, which had retained supporters through the civil wars and changes of regime in the 17th century.", "Since most Episcopalians had given their support to the Jacobite rebellions in the early 18th century, they also suffered a decline in fortunes.===Literature===Robert Burns (1759–1796) exalted as Scotland's national poet.Although Scotland increasingly adopted the English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation.", "Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form.", "James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation, claiming to have found poetry written by Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics.", "''Fingal'' written in 1762 was speedily translated into many European languages, and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German, literature, influencing Herder and Goethe.", "Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.", "Both the major literary figures of the following century, Robert Burns and Walter Scott, would be highly influenced by the Ossian cycle.", "Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement.", "As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them.", "His poem (and song) \"Auld Lang Syne\" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and \"Scots Wha Hae\" served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country.===Education===Old College, University of Edinburgh, rebuilt in 1789 according to plans drawn up by Robert AdamA legacy of the Reformation in Scotland was the aim of having a school in every parish, which was underlined by an act of the Scottish parliament in 1696 (reinforced in 1801).", "In rural communities this obliged local landowners (heritors) to provide a schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster, while ministers and local presbyteries oversaw the quality of the education.", "The headmaster or \"dominie\" was often university educated and enjoyed high local prestige.", "The kirk schools were active in the rural lowlands but played a minor role in the Highlands, the islands, and in the fast-growing industrial towns and cities.", "The schools taught in English, not in Gaelic, because that language was seen as a leftover of Catholicism and was not an expression of Scottish nationalism.", "In cities such as Glasgow the Catholics operated their own schools, which directed their youth into clerical and middle class occupations, as well as religious vocations.A \"democratic myth\" emerged in the 19th century to the effect that many a \"lad of pairts\" had been able to rise up through the system to take high office and that literacy was much more widespread in Scotland than in neighbouring states, particularly England.", "Historical research has largely undermined the myth.", "Kirk schools were not free, attendance was not compulsory and they generally imparted only basic literacy such as the ability to read the Bible.", "Poor children, starting at age 7, were done by age 8 or 9; the majority were finished by age 11 or 12.The result was widespread basic reading ability; since there was an extra fee for writing, half the people never learned to write.", "Scots were not significantly better educated than the English and other contemporary nations.", "A few talented poor boys did go to university, but usually they were helped by aristocratic or gentry sponsors.", "Most of them became poorly paid teachers or ministers, and none became important figures in the Scottish Enlightenment or the Industrial Revolution.By the 18th century there were five universities in Scotland, at Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. Andrews and King's and Marischial Colleges in Aberdeen, compared with only two in England.", "Originally oriented to clerical and legal training, after the religious and political upheavals of the 17th century they recovered with a lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry.", "It helped the universities to become major centres of medical education and to put Scotland at the forefront of Enlightenment thinking." ], [ "19th century", "An election advertisement for Scottish Labour leader Keir HardieScotland's transformation into a rich leader of modern industry came suddenly and unexpectedly.", "The population grew steadily in the 19th century, from 1,608,000 in the census of 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901.The economy, long based on agriculture, began to industrialise after 1790.At first the leading industry, based in the west, was the spinning and weaving of cotton.", "In 1861, the American Civil War suddenly cut off the supplies of raw cotton and the industry never recovered.", "Thanks to its many entrepreneurs and engineers, and its large stock of easily mined coal, Scotland became a world centre for engineering, shipbuilding, and locomotive construction, with steel replacing iron after 1870.===Party politics===The Scottish Reform Act 1832 increased the number of Scottish MPs and significantly widened the franchise to include more of the middle classes.", "From this point until the end of the century, the Whigs and (after 1859) their successors the Liberal Party, managed to gain a majority of the Westminster Parliamentary seats for Scotland, although these were often outnumbered by the much larger number of English and Welsh Conservatives.", "The English-educated Scottish peer Lord Aberdeen (1784–1860) led a coalition government from 1852 to 1855, but in general very few Scots held office in the government.", "From the mid-century there were increasing calls for Home Rule for Scotland and when the Conservative Lord Salisbury became prime minister in 1885 he responded to pressure by reviving the post of Secretary of State for Scotland, which had been in abeyance since 1746.He appointed the Duke of Richmond, a wealthy landowner who was both Chancellor of Aberdeen University and Lord Lieutenant of Banff.", "Towards the end of the century Prime Ministers of Scottish descent included the Tory, Peelite and Liberal William Gladstone, who held the office four times between 1868 and 1894.The first Scottish Liberal to become prime minister was the Earl of Rosebery, from 1894 to 1895, like Aberdeen before him a product of the English education system.", "In the later 19th century the issue of Irish Home Rule led to a split among the Liberals, with a minority breaking away to form the Liberal Unionists in 1886.The growing importance of the working classes was marked by Keir Hardie's success in the 1888 Mid Lanarkshire by-election, leading to the foundation of the Scottish Labour Party, which was absorbed into the Independent Labour Party in 1895, with Hardie as its first leader.===Industrial expansion===New Lanark cotton mill on the banks of the River Clyde, founded in 1786.From about 1790 textiles became the most important industry in the west of Scotland, especially the spinning and weaving of cotton, which flourished until in 1861 the American Civil War cut off the supplies of raw cotton.", "The industry never recovered, but by that time Scotland had developed heavy industries based on its coal and iron resources.", "The invention of the hot blast for smelting iron (1828) revolutionised the Scottish iron industry.", "As a result, Scotland became a centre for engineering, shipbuilding and the production of locomotives.", "Toward the end of the 19th century, steel production largely replaced iron production.", "Coal mining continued to grow into the 20th century, producing the fuel to heat homes, factories and drive steam engines locomotives and steamships.", "By 1914, there were 1,000,000 coal miners in Scotland.", "The stereotype emerged early on of Scottish colliers as brutish, non-religious and socially isolated serfs; that was an exaggeration, for their life style resembled the miners everywhere, with a strong emphasis on masculinity, equalitarianism, group solidarity, and support for radical labour movements.Britain was the world leader in the construction of railways, and their use to expand trade and coal supplies.", "The first successful locomotive-powered line in Scotland, between Monkland and Kirkintilloch, opened in 1831.Not only was good passenger service established by the late 1840s, but an excellent network of freight lines reduce the cost of shipping coal, and made products manufactured in Scotland competitive throughout Britain.", "For example, railways opened the London market to Scottish beef and milk.", "They enabled the Aberdeen Angus to become a cattle breed of worldwide reputation.", "By 1900, Scotland had 3500 miles of railway; their main economic contribution was moving supplies in and product out for heavy industry, especially coal-mining.", "\"Shipping on the Clyde\", by John Atkinson Grimshaw, 1881.Scotland was already one of the most urbanised societies in Europe by 1800.The industrial belt ran across the country from southwest to northeast; by 1900 the four industrialised counties of Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, Dunbartonshire, and Ayrshire contained 44 per cent of the population.", "Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world, and known as \"the Second City of the Empire\" after London.", "Shipbuilding on Clydeside (the river Clyde through Glasgow and other points) began when the first small yards were opened in 1712 at the Scott family's shipyard at Greenock.", "After 1860, the Clydeside shipyards specialised in steamships made of iron (after 1870, made of steel), which rapidly replaced the wooden sailing vessels of both the merchant fleets and the battle fleets of the world.", "It became the world's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre.", "''Clydebuilt'' became an industry benchmark of quality, and the river's shipyards were given contracts for warships.===Public health and welfare===The industrial developments, while they brought work and wealth, were so rapid that housing, town-planning, and provision for public health did not keep pace with them, and for a time living conditions in some of the towns and cities were notoriously bad, with overcrowding, high infant mortality, and growing rates of tuberculosis.", "The companies attracted rural workers, as well as immigrants from Catholic Ireland, by inexpensive company housing that was a dramatic move upward from the inner-city slums.", "This paternalistic policy led many owners to endorse government sponsored housing programs as well as self-help projects among the respectable working class.===Intellectual life===Walter Scott whose Waverley Novels helped define Scottish identity in the 19th century.While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century, disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more, thanks to such figures as the mathematicians and physicists James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, and the engineers and inventors James Watt and William Murdoch, whose work was critical to the technological developments of the Industrial Revolution throughout Britain.In literature the most successful figure of the mid-nineteenth century was Walter Scott, who began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads.", "His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.", "It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity.", "In the late 19th century, a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations.", "Robert Louis Stevenson's work included the urban Gothic novella ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'' (1886), and played a major part in developing the historical adventure in books like ''Kidnapped'' and ''Treasure Island''.", "Arthur Conan Doyle's ''Sherlock Holmes'' stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction.", "The \"kailyard tradition\" at the end of the century, brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion as can be seen in the work of figures like J. M. Barrie, most famous for his creation of Peter Pan, and George MacDonald, whose works, including ''Phantasies'', played a major part in the creation of the fantasy genre.Scotland also played a major part in the development of art and architecture.", "The Glasgow School, which developed in the late 19th century, and flourished in the early 20th century, produced a distinctive blend of influences including the Celtic Revival the Arts and Crafts Movement, and Japonisme, which found favour throughout the modern art world of continental Europe and helped define the Art Nouveau style.", "Among the most prominent members were the loose collective of The Four: acclaimed architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh, his wife the painter and glass artist Margaret MacDonald, her sister the artist Frances, and her husband, the artist and teacher Herbert MacNair.===Decline and romanticism of the Highlands===David Wilkie's flattering portrait of the kilted King George IV.This period saw a process of rehabilitation for highland culture.", "Tartan had already been adopted for highland regiments in the British army, which poor highlanders joined in large numbers until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, but by the 19th century it had largely been abandoned by the ordinary people.", "In the 1820s, as part of the Romantic revival, tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland, but across Europe, prompted by the popularity of Macpherson's Ossian cycle and then Walter Scott's Waverley novels.", "The world paid attention to their literary redefinition of Scottishness, as they forged an image largely based on characteristics in polar opposition to those associated with England and modernity.", "This new identity made it possible for Scottish culture to become integrated into a wider European and North American context, not to mention tourist sites, but it also locked in a sense of \"otherness\" which Scotland began to shed only in the late 20th century.", "Scott's \"staging\" of the royal Visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 and the king's wearing of tartan, resulted in a massive upsurge in demand for kilts and tartans that could not be met by the Scottish linen industry.", "The designation of individual clan tartans was largely defined in this period and became a major symbol of Scottish identity.", "The fashion for all things Scottish was maintained by Queen Victoria, who helped secure the identity of Scotland as a tourist resort, with Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire becoming a major royal residence from 1852.=== Land use and ownership ===Despite these changes the highlands remained very poor and traditional, with few connections to the uplift of the Scottish Enlightenment and little role in the Industrial Revolution.", "A handful of powerful families, typified by the dukes of Argyll, Atholl, Buccleuch, and Sutherland, owned large amounts of land and controlled local political, legal and economic affairs.", "Particularly after the end of the boom created by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1790–1815), these landlords needed cash to maintain their position in London society, and had less need of soldiers.", "They turned to money rents, displaced farmers to raise sheep, and downplayed the traditional patriarchal relationship that had historically sustained the clans.", "Potato blight reached the Highlands in 1846, where 150,000 people faced disaster because their food supply was largely potatoes (with a little herring, oatmeal and milk).", "They were rescued by an effective emergency relief system that stands in dramatic contrast to the failures of relief in Ireland.", "As the famine continued, landlords, charities and government agencies provided \"assisted passages\" for destitute tenants to emigrate to Canada and Australia; in excess of 16,000 people emigrated, with most travelling in 1851.Deer stalkers on Glenfeshie Estate spying with monoculars, Caused by the advent of refrigeration and imports of lamb, mutton and wool from overseas, the 1870s brought with them a collapse of sheep prices and an abrupt halt in the previous sheep farming boom.", "Land prices subsequently plummeted, too, and accelerated the process of the so-called \"Balmoralisation\" of Scotland, an era in the second half of the 19th century that saw an increase in tourism and the establishment of large estates dedicated to field sports like deer stalking and grouse shooting, especially in the Scottish Highlands.", "The process was named after Balmoral estate, purchased by Queen Victoria in 1848, that fueled the romanticisation of upland Scotland and initiated an influx of the newly wealthy acquiring similar estates in the following decades.", "By the late 19th century just 118 people owned half of Scotland, with nearly 60 per cent of the whole country being part of shooting estates.", "While their relative importance has somewhat declined due to changing recreational interests throughout the 20th century, deer stalking and grouse shooting remain of prime importance on many private estates in Scotland.===Rural life===The unequal concentration of land ownership remained an emotional subject and eventually became a cornerstone of liberal radicalism.", "The politically powerless poor crofters embraced the popularly oriented, fervently evangelical Presbyterian revival after 1800, and the breakaway \"Free Church\" after 1843.This evangelical movement was led by lay preachers who themselves came from the lower strata, and whose preaching was implicitly critical of the established order.", "This energised the crofters and separated them from the landlords, preparing them for their successful and violent challenge to the landlords in the 1880s through the Highland Land League.", "Violence began on the Isle of Skye when Highland landlords cleared their lands for sheep and deer parks.", "It was quieted when the government stepped in passing the Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Act, 1886 to reduce rents, guarantee fixity of tenure, and break up large estates to provide crofts for the homeless.", "In 1885, three Independent Crofter candidates were elected to Parliament, leading to explicit security for the Scottish smallholders; the legal right to bequeath tenancies to descendants; and creating a Crofting Commission.", "The Crofters as a political movement faded away by 1892, and the Liberal Party gained most of their votes.===Emigration===The Statue of emigrant, industrialist and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie in his home town of Dunfermline.The population of Scotland grew steadily in the 19th century, from 1,608,000 in the census of 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901.Even with the development of industry there were insufficient good jobs; as a result, during the period 1841–1931, about 2 million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia, and another 750,000 Scots relocated to England.", "Scotland lost a much higher proportion of its population than England and Wales, reaching perhaps as much as 30.2 per cent of its natural increase from the 1850s onwards.", "This not only limited Scotland's population increase, but meant that almost every family lost members due to emigration and, because more of them were young males, it skewed the sex and age ratios of the country.Scots-born emigrants that played a leading role in the foundation and development of the United States included cleric and revolutionary John Witherspoon, sailor John Paul Jones, industrialist and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, and scientist and inventor Alexander Graham Bell.", "In Canada they included soldier and governor of Quebec James Murray, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and politician and social reformer Tommy Douglas.", "For Australia they included soldier and governor Lachlan Macquarie, governor and scientist Thomas Brisbane and Prime Minister Andrew Fisher.", "For New Zealand they included politician Peter Fraser and outlaw James Mckenzie.", "By the 21st century, there would be about as many people who were Scottish Canadians and Scottish Americans as the 5 million remaining in Scotland.===Religious schism and revival===Thomas Chalmers statue in George Street, EdinburghAfter prolonged years of struggle, in 1834 the Evangelicals gained control of the General Assembly and passed the Veto Act, which allowed congregations to reject unwanted \"intrusive\" presentations to livings by patrons.", "The following \"Ten Years' Conflict\" of legal and political wrangling ended in defeat for the non-intrusionists in the civil courts.", "The result was a schism from the church by some of the non-intrusionists led by Dr Thomas Chalmers known as the Great Disruption of 1843.Roughly a third of the clergy, mainly from the North and Highlands, formed the separate Free Church of Scotland.", "The evangelical Free Churches, which were more accepting of Gaelic language and culture, grew rapidly in the Highlands and Islands, appealing much more strongly than did the established church.", "Chalmers's ideas shaped the breakaway group.", "He stressed a social vision that revived and preserved Scotland's communal traditions at a time of strain on the social fabric of the country.", "Chalmers's idealised small equalitarian, kirk-based, self-contained communities that recognised the individuality of their members and the need for co-operation.", "That vision also affected the mainstream Presbyterian churches, and by the 1870s it had been assimilated by the established Church of Scotland.", "Chalmers's ideals demonstrated that the church was concerned with the problems of urban society, and they represented a real attempt to overcome the social fragmentation that took place in industrial towns and cities.In the late 19th century the major debates were between fundamentalist Calvinists and theological liberals, who rejected a literal interpretation of the Bible.", "This resulted in a further split in the Free Church as the rigid Calvinists broke away to form the Free Presbyterian Church in 1893.There were, however, also moves towards reunion, beginning with the unification of some secessionist churches into the United Secession Church in 1820, which united with the Relief Church in 1847 to form the United Presbyterian Church, which in turn joined with the Free Church in 1900 to form the United Free Church of Scotland.", "The removal of legislation on lay patronage would allow the majority of the Free Church to rejoin Church of Scotland in 1929.The schisms left small denominations including the Free Presbyterians and a remnant that had not merged in 1900 as the Free Church.Catholic Emancipation in 1829 and the influx of large numbers of Irish immigrants, particularly after the famine years of the late 1840s, principally to the growing lowland centres like Glasgow, led to a transformation in the fortunes of Catholicism.", "In 1878, despite opposition, a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy was restored to the country, and Catholicism became a significant denomination within Scotland.", "Episcopalianism also revived in the 19th century as the issue of succession receded, becoming established as the Episcopal Church in Scotland in 1804, as an autonomous organisation in communion with the Church of England.", "Baptist, Congregationalist and Methodist churches had appeared in Scotland in the 18th century, but did not begin significant growth until the 19th century, partly because more radical and evangelical traditions already existed within the Church of Scotland and the free churches.", "From 1879 they were joined by the evangelical revivalism of the Salvation Army, which attempted to make major inroads in the growing urban centres.===Development of state education===The Mearns Street Public School built for the Greenock Burgh School Board.Industrialisation, urbanisation and the Disruption of 1843 all undermined the tradition of parish schools.", "From 1830 the state began to fund buildings with grants, then from 1846 it was funding schools by direct sponsorship, and in 1872 Scotland moved to a system like that in England of state-sponsored largely free schools, run by local school boards.", "Overall administration was in the hands of the Scotch (later Scottish) Education Department in London.", "Education was now compulsory from five to thirteen and many new board schools were built.", "Larger urban school boards established \"higher grade\" (secondary) schools as a cheaper alternative to the burgh schools.", "The Scottish Education Department introduced a Leaving Certificate Examination in 1888 to set national standards for secondary education and in 1890 school fees were abolished, creating a state-funded national system of free basic education and common examinations.At the beginning of the 19th century, Scottish universities had no entrance exam, students typically entered at ages of 15 or 16, attended for as little as two years, chose which lectures to attend and could leave without qualifications.", "After two commissions of enquiry in 1826 and 1876 and reforming acts of parliament in 1858 and 1889, the curriculum and system of graduation were reformed to meet the needs of the emerging middle classes and the professions.", "Entrance examinations equivalent to the School Leaving Certificate were introduced and average ages of entry rose to 17 or 18.Standard patterns of graduation in the arts curriculum offered 3-year ordinary and 4-year honours degrees and separate science faculties were able to move away from the compulsory Latin, Greek and philosophy of the old MA curriculum.", "The historic University of Glasgow became a leader in British higher education by providing the educational needs of youth from the urban and commercial classes, as well as the upper class.", "It prepared students for non-commercial careers in government, the law, medicine, education, and the ministry and a smaller group for careers in science and engineering.", "St Andrews pioneered the admission of women to Scottish universities, creating the Lady Licentiate in Arts (LLA), which proved highly popular.", "From 1892 Scottish universities could admit and graduate women and the numbers of women at Scottish universities steadily increased until the early 20th century." ], [ "Early 20th century", "===Fishing===The years before the First World War were the golden age of the inshore fisheries.", "Landings reached new heights, and Scottish catches dominated Europe's herring trade, accounting for a third of the British catch.", "High productivity came about thanks to the transition to more productive steam-powered boats, while the rest of Europe's fishing fleets were slower because they were still powered by sails.===Political realignment===Winston Churchill with the Royal Scots Fusiliers near the Western Front in 1916In the Khaki Election of 1900, nationalist concern with the Boer War meant that the Conservatives and their Liberal Unionist allies gained a majority of Scottish seats for the first time, although the Liberals regained their ascendancy in the next election.", "The Unionists and Conservatives merged in 1912, usually known as the Conservatives in England and Wales, they adopted the name Unionist Party in Scotland.", "Scots played a major part in the leadership of UK political parties producing a Conservative Prime Minister in Arthur Balfour (1902–1905) and a Liberal one in Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1905–1908).", "Various organisations, including the Independent Labour Party, joined to make the British Labour Party in 1906, with Keir Hardie as its first chairman.===First World War (1914–1918)===Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War.", "It especially provided manpower, ships, machinery, food (particularly fish) and money, engaging with the conflict with some enthusiasm.", "Scotland's industries were directed at the war effort.", "For example, the Singer Clydebank sewing machine factory received over 5000 government contracts, and made 303 million artillery shells, shell components, fuses, and aeroplane parts, as well as grenades, rifle parts, and 361,000 horseshoes.", "Its labour force of 14,000 was about 70 per cent female at war's end.With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to the war, of whom 74,000 died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded.", "Scottish urban centres, with their poverty and unemployment, were favourite recruiting grounds of the regular British army, and Dundee, where the female-dominated jute industry limited male employment, had one of the highest proportion of reservists and serving soldiers than almost any other British city.", "Concern for their families' standard of living made men hesitate to enlist; voluntary enlistment rates went up after the government guaranteed a weekly stipend for life to the survivors of men who were killed or disabled.", "After the introduction of conscription from January 1916 every part of the country was affected.", "Occasionally Scottish troops made up large proportions of the active combatants, and suffered corresponding loses, as at the Battle of Loos, where there were three full Scots divisions and other Scottish units.", "Thus, although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population, they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead.", "Some areas, like the thinly populated island of Lewis and Harris, suffered some of the highest proportional losses of any part of Britain.", "Clydeside shipyards and the nearby engineering shops were the major centres of war industry in Scotland.", "In Glasgow, radical agitation led to industrial and political unrest that continued after the war ended.", "After the end of the war in June 1919 the German fleet interned at Scapa Flow was scuttled by its German crews, to avoid its ships being taken over by the victorious allies.At the start of the war, the main Scottish military airfield was RAF Montrose, established a year earlier by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC).", "The Royal Naval Air Service established flying-boat and seaplane stations on Shetland, at East Fortune and Inchinnan, the latter two also serving as the army's airship bases and protecting Edinburgh and Glasgow, the two largest cities.", "The world's first aircraft carriers were based at Rosyth Dockyard in Fife, where numerous trials were undertaken of aircraft landing on them.", "The Beardmore W.B.III aircraft was produced by the Glasgow–based William Beardmore and Company, and was the first Royal Navy aircraft designed for flight operations on an aircraft carrier.", "Due to the scale and significance of Rosyth dockyard to war efforts, it was a prime target for Germany at the outbreak of World War I.===Economic boom and stagnation===A 1923 advert for William Beardmore and Company, Clydeside, who employed 40,000 workers at its heightA boom was created by the First World War, with the shipbuilding industry expanding by a third, but a serious depression hit the economy by 1922.The most skilled craftsmen were especially hard hit, because there were few alternative uses for their specialised skills.", "The main social indicators such as poor health, bad housing, and long-term mass unemployment, pointed to terminal social and economic stagnation at best, or even a downward spiral.", "The heavy dependence on obsolescent heavy industry and mining was a central problem, and no one offered workable solutions.", "The despair reflected what Finlay (1994) describes as a widespread sense of hopelessness that prepared local business and political leaders to accept a new orthodoxy of centralised government economic planning when it arrived during the Second World War.A few industries did grow, such as chemicals and whisky, which developed a global market for premium \"Scotch\".", "However, in general the Scottish economy stagnated leading to growing unemployment and political agitation among industrial workers.===Interwar politics===After World War I the Liberal Party began to disintegrate and Labour emerged as the party of progressive politics in Scotland, gaining a solid following among working classes of the urban lowlands.", "As a result, the Unionists were able to gain most of the votes of the middle classes, who now feared Bolshevik revolution, setting the social and geographical electoral pattern in Scotland that would last until the late 20th century.", "The fear of the left had been fuelled by the emergence of a radical movement led by militant trades unionists.", "John MacLean emerged as a key political figure in what became known as Red Clydeside, and in January 1919, the British Government, fearful of a revolutionary uprising, deployed tanks and soldiers in central Glasgow.", "Formerly a Liberal stronghold, the industrial districts switched to Labour by 1922, with a base in the Irish Catholic working class districts.", "Women were especially active in building neighbourhood solidarity on housing and rent issues.", "However, the \"Reds\" operated within the Labour Party and had little influence in Parliament; in the face of heavy unemployment the workers' mood changed to passive despair by the late 1920s.", "Scottish educated Bonar Law led a Conservative government from 1922 to 1923 and another Scot, Ramsay MacDonald, would be the Labour Party's first Prime Minister in 1924 and again from 1929 to 1935.With all the main parties committed to the Union, new nationalist and independent political groupings began to emerge, including the National Party of Scotland in 1928 and Scottish Party in 1930.They joined to form the Scottish National Party (SNP) in 1934, with the goal of creating an independent Scotland, but it enjoyed little electoral success in the Westminster system.===Second World War (1939–1945)===Royal Scots with captured Japanese flag, Burma, January 1945As in World War I, Scapa Flow in Orkney served as an important Royal Navy base.", "Attacks on Scapa Flow and Rosyth gave RAF fighters their first successes downing bombers in the Firth of Forth and East Lothian.", "The shipyards and heavy engineering factories in Glasgow and Clydeside played a key part in the war effort, and suffered attacks from the Luftwaffe, enduring great destruction and loss of life.", "As transatlantic voyages involved negotiating north-west Britain, Scotland played a key part in the battle of the North Atlantic.", "Shetland's relative proximity to occupied Norway resulted in the Shetland Bus by which fishing boats helped Norwegians flee the Nazis, and expeditions across the North Sea to assist resistance.", "Significant individual contributions to the war effort by Scots included the invention of radar by Robert Watson-Watt, which was invaluable in the Battle of Britain, as was the leadership at RAF Fighter Command of Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding.Scotland's airfields provided \"a complex network of training and operational needs\", with each airfield said to have had an \"essential role\" in war efforts.", "A number of squadrons located on the Ayrshire and Fife coasts were mainly used for anti-shipping patrols.", "Fighter squadrons on Scotland's east coat – Wick, Dyce, Peterhead, Montrose, Leuchars, Drem, East Fortune, Kinloss and Grangemouth – were costal command bases, and used mainly to protect and defend the fleet of aircraft and equipment at both Rosyth Dockyard and Scapa Flow.", "East Fortune also served as a diversion airfield for Handley Page Halifax and Avro Lancaster bombers returning from bombing operations over Nazi Germany.", "By the end of the outbreak of World War II, a total of 94 military airfields were in operation across Scotland.In World War II, Prime Minister Winston Churchill appointed Labour politician Tom Johnston as Secretary of State for Scotland in February 1941; he controlled Scottish affairs until the war ended.", "He launched numerous initiatives to promote Scotland, attracting businesses and new jobs through his new Scottish Council of Industry.", "He set up 32 committees to deal with social and economic problems, ranging from juvenile delinquency to sheep farming.", "He regulated rents, and set up a prototype national health service, using new hospitals set up in the expectation of large numbers of casualties from German bombing.", "His most successful venture was setting up a system of hydro electricity using water power in the Highlands.", "A long-standing supporter of the Home Rule movement, Johnston persuaded Churchill of the need to counter the nationalist threat north of the border and created a Scottish Council of State and a Council of Industry as institutions to devolve some power away from Whitehall.In World War II, despite extensive bombing by the Luftwaffe, Scottish industry came out of the depression slump by a dramatic expansion of its industrial activity, absorbing unemployed men and many women as well.", "The shipyards were the centre of more activity, but many smaller industries produced the machinery needed by the British bombers, tanks and warships.", "Agriculture prospered, as did all sectors except for coal mining, which was operating mines near exhaustion.", "Real wages, adjusted for inflation, rose 25 per cent, and unemployment temporarily vanished.", "Increased income, and the more equal distribution of food, obtained through a tight rationing system, dramatically improved the health and nutrition; the average height of 13-year-olds in Glasgow increased by .===End of mass emigration===While emigration began to tail off in England and Wales after the First World War, it continued apace in Scotland, with 400,000 Scots, ten per cent of the population, estimated to have left the country between 1921 and 1931.The economic stagnation was only one factor; other push factors included a zest for travel and adventure, and the pull factors of better job opportunities abroad, personal networks to link into, and the basic cultural similarity of the United States, Canada, and Australia.", "Government subsidies for travel and relocation facilitated the decision to emigrate.", "Personal networks of family and friends who had gone ahead and wrote back, or sent money, prompted emigrants to retrace their paths.", "When the Great Depression hit in the 1930s there were no easily available jobs in the US and Canada and the numbers leaving fell to less than 50,000 a year, bringing to an end the period of mass emigrations that had opened in the mid-18th century.===Literary renaissance===A bust of Hugh MacDiarmid sculpted by William Lamb in 1927In the early 20th century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by modernism and resurgent nationalism, known as the Scottish Renaissance.", "The leading figure in the movement was Hugh MacDiarmid (the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve).", "MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including \"A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle\" (1936), developing a form of Synthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms.", "Other writers that emerged in this period, and are often treated as part of the movement, include the poets Edwin Muir and William Soutar, the novelists Neil Gunn, George Blake, Nan Shepherd, A. J. Cronin, Naomi Mitchison, Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon, and the playwright James Bridie.", "All were born within a fifteen-year period (1887 and 1901) and, although they cannot be described as members of a single school, they all pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues.===Educational reorganisation and retrenchment===In the 20th century, the centre of the education system became more focused on Scotland, with the ministry of education partly moving north in 1918 and then finally having its headquarters relocated to Edinburgh in 1939.The school leaving age was raised to 14 in 1901, but despite attempts to raise it to 15 this was only made law in 1939 and then postponed because of the outbreak of war.", "In 1918, Roman Catholic schools were brought into the state system, but retained their distinct religious character, access to schools by priests and the requirement that school staff be acceptable to the Church.The first half of the 20th century saw Scottish universities fall behind those in England and Europe in terms of participation and investment.", "The decline of traditional industries between the wars undermined recruitment.", "English universities increased the numbers of students registered between 1924 and 1927 by 19 per cent, but in Scotland the numbers fell, particularly among women.", "In the same period, while expenditure in English universities rose by 90 per cent, in Scotland the increase was less than a third of that figure.===Naval role===View of HMNB ClydeScotland's Scapa Flow was the main base for the Royal Navy in the 20th century.", "As the Cold War intensified in 1961, the United States deployed Polaris ballistic missiles, and submarines, in the Firth of Clyde's Holy Loch.", "Public protests from CND campaigners proved futile.", "The Royal Navy successfully convinced the government to allow the base because it wanted its own Polaris submarines, and it obtained them in 1963.The RN's nuclear submarine base opened with four Polaris submarines at the expanded Faslane Naval Base on the Gare Loch.", "The first patrol of a Trident-armed submarine occurred in 1994, although the US base was closed at the end of the Cold War.During the outbreak of the Cold War, Scotland's secret bunker at Anstruther were largely kept a closed and guarded secret.", "Initially used by the Royal Air Force (RAF) after World War II as one of a number of radar stations, it became a secret bunker to be used in the event of a nuclear attack.", "The bunker was 40 metres in depth and was constructed using a shell encased in three-metre solid concrete in order to deflect a nuclear attack.", "The facility remained in use until 1992, and was later redeveloped into a museum in 1994.The nuclear facility at Dounreay in the Highland area of Scotland was one of the 52 known nuclear targets of the Soviet Union until at least 1990." ], [ "Postwar", "=== Overview ===After World War II, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes.", "This only began to change in the 1970s, partly due to the discovery and development of North Sea oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service-based economy.", "This period saw the emergence of the Scottish National Party and movements for both Scottish independence and more popularly devolution.", "A referendum on devolution in 1979 was unsuccessful as it did not achieve the support of 40 per cent of the electorate.", "However, in 1997 Scottish voters voted in favour of establishing a Scottish Parliament which was established in 1998 and thus Scottish devolution was reformed.", "In 2014, the independence referendum saw vote against independence by 55% to 45% choosing to remain in the United Kingdom.===Politics and devolution===Scottish Parliament building, Holyrood, opened in 2004 and intended to evoke the crags of the Scottish landscape and, in places, upturned fishing boatsIn the second half of the 20th century the Labour Party usually won most Scottish seats in the Westminster parliament, losing this dominance briefly to the Unionists in the 1950s.", "Support in Scotland was critical to Labour's overall electoral fortunes as without Scottish MPs it would have gained only two UK electoral victories in the 20th century (1945 and 1966).", "The number of Scottish seats represented by Unionists (known as Conservatives from 1965 onwards) went into steady decline from 1959 onwards, until it fell to zero in 1997.Politicians with Scottish connections continued to play a prominent part in UK political life, with Prime Ministers including the Conservatives Harold Macmillan (whose father was Scottish) from 1957 to 1963 and Alec Douglas-Home from 1963 to 1964.The Scottish National Party gained its first seat at Westminster in 1945 and became a party of national prominence during the 1970s, achieving 11 MPs in 1974.However, a referendum on devolution in 1979 was unsuccessful as it did not achieve the necessary support of 40 per cent of the electorate (despite a small majority of those who voted supporting the proposal) and the SNP went into electoral decline during the 1980s.", "The introduction in 1989 by the Thatcher-led Conservative government of the Community Charge (widely known as the Poll Tax), one year before the rest of the United Kingdom, contributed to a growing movement for a return to direct Scottish control over domestic affairs.", "The electoral success of New Labour in 1997 was led by two Prime Ministers with Scottish connections: Tony Blair (who was brought up in Scotland) from 1997 to 2007 and Gordon Brown from 2007 to 2010, opened the way for constitutional change.", "On 11 September 1997, the 700th anniversary of Battle of Stirling Bridge, the Blair led Labour government again held a referendum on the issue of devolution.", "A positive outcome led to the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament in 1999.A coalition government, which would last until 2007, was formed between Labour and the Liberal Democrats, with Donald Dewar as First Minister.", "The new Scottish Parliament Building, adjacent to Holyrood House in Edinburgh, opened in 2004.Although not initially reaching its 1970s peak in Westminster elections, the SNP had more success in the Scottish Parliamentary elections with their system of mixed member proportional representation.", "It became the official opposition in 1999, a minority government in 2007 and a majority government from 2011.A national referendum to decide on Scottish independence was held on 18 September 2014.Voters were asked to answer either \"Yes\" or \"No\" to the question: \"Should Scotland be an independent country?\"", "55.3% of voters answered \"No\" and 44.7% answered \"Yes\", with a voter turnout of 84.5%.", "In the 2015 Westminster election, the SNP won 56 out of 59 Scottish seats, making them the third largest party in Westminster.===Economic reorientation===A drilling rig located in the North SeaAfter World War II, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes.", "This only began to change in the 1970s, partly due to the discovery and development of North Sea oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service-based economy.", "The discovery of the giant Forties oilfield in October 1970 signalled that Scotland was about to become a major oil producing nation, a view confirmed when Shell Expro discovered the giant Brent oilfield in the northern North Sea east of Shetland in 1971.Oil production started from the Argyll field (now Ardmore) in June 1975, followed by Forties in November of that year.", "Deindustrialisation took place rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s, as most of the traditional industries drastically shrank or were completely closed down.", "A new service-oriented economy emerged to replace traditional heavy industries.", "This included a resurgent financial services industry and the electronics manufacturing of Silicon Glen.===Religious diversity and decline===Glasgow Central Mosque, the largest mosque in ScotlandIn the 20th century existing Christian denominations were joined by other organisations, including the Brethren and Pentecostal churches.", "Although some denominations thrived, after World War II there was a steady overall decline in church attendance and resulting church closures for most denominations.", "Talks began in the 1950s aiming at a grand merger of the main Presbyterian, Episcopal and Methodist bodies in Scotland.", "The talks were ended in 2003, when the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland rejected the proposals.", "In the 2011 census, 53.8% of the Scottish population identified as Christian (declining from 65.1% in 2001).", "The Church of Scotland is the largest religious grouping in Scotland, with 32.4% of the population.", "The Roman Catholic Church accounted for 15.9% of the population and is especially important in West Central Scotland and the Highlands.", "In recent years other religions have established a presence in Scotland, mainly through immigration and higher birth rates among ethnic minorities, with a small number of converts.", "Those with the most adherents in the 2011 census are Islam (1.4%, mainly among immigrants from South Asia), Hinduism (0.3%), Buddhism (0.2%) and Sikhism (0.2%).", "Other minority faiths include the Bahá'í Faith and small Neopagan groups.", "There are also various organisations which actively promote humanism and secularism, included within the 43.6% who either indicated no religion or did not state a religion in the 2011 census.===Educational reforms===Although plans to raise the school leaving age to 15 in the 1940s were never ratified, increasing numbers stayed on beyond elementary education and it was eventually raised to 16 in 1973.As a result, secondary education was the major area of growth in the second half of the 20th century.", "New qualifications were developed to cope with changing aspirations and economics, with the Leaving Certificate being replaced by the Scottish Certificate of Education Ordinary Grade ('O-Grade') and Higher Grade ('Higher') qualifications in 1962, which became the basic entry qualification for university study.", "The higher education sector expanded in the second half of the 20th century, with four institutions being given university status in the 1960s (Dundee, Heriot-Watt, Stirling and Strathclyde) and five in the 1990s (Abertay, Glasgow Caledonian, Napier, Paisley and Robert Gordon).", "After devolution, in 1999 the new Scottish Executive set up an Education Department and an Enterprise, Transport and Lifelong Learning Department.", "One of the major diversions from practice in England, possible because of devolution, was the abolition of student tuition fees in 1999, instead retaining a system of means-tested student grants.===New literature===Carol Ann Duffy the first Scottish Poet LaureateSome writers that emerged after the Second World War followed Hugh MacDiarmid by writing in Scots, including Robert Garioch and Sydney Goodsir Smith.", "Others demonstrated a greater interest in English language poetry, among them Norman MacCaig, George Bruce and Maurice Lindsay.", "George Mackay Brown from Orkney, and Iain Crichton Smith from Lewis, wrote both poetry and prose fiction shaped by their distinctive island backgrounds.", "The Glaswegian poet Edwin Morgan became known for translations of works from a wide range of European languages.", "He was also the first Scots Makar (the official national poet), appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004.Many major Scottish post-war novelists, such as Muriel Spark, with ''The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie'' (1961) spent much or most of their lives outside Scotland, but often dealt with Scottish themes.", "Successful mass-market works included the action novels of Alistair MacLean, and the historical fiction of Dorothy Dunnett.", "A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s included Shena Mackay, Alan Spence, Allan Massie and the work of William McIlvanney.", "From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, this time led by a group of Glasgow writers associated with critic, poet and teacher Philip Hobsbaum and editor Peter Kravitz.", "In the 1990s major, prize winning, Scottish novels, often overtly political, that emerged from this movement included Irvine Welsh's ''Trainspotting'' (1993), Warner's ''Morvern Callar'' (1995), Gray's ''Poor Things'' (1992) and Kelman's ''How Late It Was, How Late'' (1994).", "Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth, particularly the success of Edinburgh's Ian Rankin and his Inspector Rebus novels.", "This period also saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage, including Carol Ann Duffy, who was named as Poet Laureate in May 2009, the first woman, the first Scot and the first openly gay poet to take the post." ], [ "Historiography" ], [ "See also", "* Economic history of ScotlandHistory of the Outer HebridesHistoric Sites in ScotlandHistory of the United KingdomKings of ScotlandList of years in ScotlandScottish clanTimeline of Scottish history" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography=======Surveys and reference books==== ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004) online; short scholarly biographies of all the major people* * * * Donnachie, Ian and George Hewitt.", "''Dictionary of Scottish History.''", "(2001).", "384 pp.", "* Houston, R.A. and W. Knox, eds.", "''New Penguin History of Scotland'', (2001).", "* Keay, John, and Julia Keay.", "''Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland'' (2nd ed.", "2001), 1101 pp; 4000 articles; emphasis on history* Lenman, Bruce P. ''Enlightenment and Change: Scotland 1746–1832'' (2nd ed.", "The New History of Scotland Series.", "Edinburgh University Press, 2009).", "280 pp.", "; 1st edition also published under the titles ''Integration, Enlightenment, and Industrialization: Scotland, 1746–1832'' (1981) and ''Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746–1832'' (1992).", "* * * * Maclean, Fitzroy, and Magnus Linklater, ''Scotland: A Concise History'' (2nd ed.", "2001) excerpt and text search* McNeill, Peter G. B. and Hector L. MacQueen, eds, ''Atlas of Scottish History to 1707'' (The Scottish Medievalists and Department of Geography, 1996).", "* Magnusson, Magnus.", "''Scotland: The Story of a Nation'' (2000), popular history focused on royalty and warfare* * * Panton, Kenneth J. and Keith A. Cowlard, ''Historical Dictionary of the United Kingdom.", "Vol.", "2: Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.''", "(1998).", "465 pp.", "* Paterson, Judy, and Sally J. Collins.", "''The History of Scotland for Children'' (2000)* Pittock, Murray, ''A New History of Scotland'' (2003) 352 pp; * Smout, T. C., ''A History of the Scottish People, 1560–1830'' (1969, Fontana, 1998).", "* Tabraham, Chris, and Colin Baxter.", "''The Illustrated History of Scotland'' (2004) excerpt and text search* Watson, Fiona, ''Scotland; From Prehistory to the Present.''", "Tempus, 2003.286 pp.", "* Wormald, Jenny, ''The New History of Scotland'' (2005) excerpt and text search====Specialized studies====* Buchan, James, ''Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh Changed the World'' (John Murray, 2003).", "* Colley, Linda, ''Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837'' (Yale University Press, 1992).", "* Cooke, Anthony.", "''The Rise and Fall of the Scottish Cotton Industry, 1778–1914'' (Manchester University Press, 2010).", "* * * * * Hamilton, David.", "''The healers: a history of medicine in Scotland'' (Pelican, 1981).", "* Harvie, Christopher ''Scotland and Nationalism: Scottish Society and Politics 1707–1977'' (4th edn., Routledge, 2004).", "* * * Pittock, Murray.", "''The Road to Independence?", "Scotland since the Sixties'' (2008) excerpt and text search.", "* Smout, T. C., ''Scottish Trade on the Eve of the Union, 1660–1707'' (Oliver & Boyd, 1963).", "* Smout, T. C., ''Scotland Since Prehistory: Natural History and Human Impact'' (Scottish Cultural Press, 1993).====Culture and religion====* * Browen, Ian, ed., ''The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature'' (3 vol 2006).", "* Brown, Callum G. ''Religion and Society in Scotland since 1707.''", "(1997).", "219 pp.", "* Burleigh, J.H.S.", "''A Church History of Scotland'' (1962), short and impartial.", "* Daiches, David.", "''A Companion to Scottish Culture'' (1982) online edition.", "* Dingwall, Helen M. ''Famous and flourishing society: the history of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, 1505–2005.''", "(2005) 350 pp.", ".", "* * Glendinning, Miles, Ranald MacInnes, Aonghus MacKechnie.", "''A History of Scottish Architecture: From the Renaissance to the Present Day'' (1996) online edition.", "* Hardy, Forsyth.", "''Scotland in Film'' 1990 online edition.", "* Harris, Nathaniel.", "''Heritage of Scotland: A Cultural History of Scotland and Its People.''", "Facts on File, 2000.159 pp.", "* Lawrence, Christopher.", "''Rockefeller money, the laboratory, and medicine in Edinburgh, 1919–1930: new science in an old country.''", "(2005) 373 pp.", "* Levack, Brian.", "''Scottish Witch Hunting: Law, Politics and Religion'' (2007).", "* McDonald, R. A., ed.", "''History, Literature and Music in Scotland, 700–1560.''", "(2002).", "243 pp.", "* Mackenzie, D. A.", "''Scottish Folklore and Folklife.''", "(1935).", "* McEwan, Peter J. M. ''Dictionary of Scottish Art and Architecture.''", "Wappingers Falls, N.Y.: Antique Collectors Club, 1995.626 pp.", "* McNeill, F. Marion, ''The Silver Bough'' (volume 1: Scottish Folk-Lore and Folk-Belief), 1989..* Menikoff, Barry.", "''Narrating Scotland: the Imagination of Robert Louis Stevenson.''", "(2005) 233 pp.", ".", "* Pelling, Margaret, ed., ''Practice of Reform in Health, Medicine, and Science, 1500–2000'' (2005).", "* Petrie, Duncan, ''Screening Scotland.''", "BFI, 2000.250 pp.", "on films.", "* Porter, James.", "\"The Folklore of Northern Scotland: Five Discourses on Cultural Representation.\"", "''Folklore'' vol.", "109.1998.pp 1+ online edition.", "* Ritchie, Anna and Graham Ritchie.", "''Scotland: An Oxford Archaeological Guide'' (1998) online edition.", "* Schoene, Berthold.", "''The Edinburgh Companion to Contemporary Scottish Literature'' (2007), 560 pp.", "* Smith, Bill and Skipwith, Selina.", "''A History of Scottish Art.''", "Merrell, 2003.288 pp.", "* Todd, Margo.", "''The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland.''", "(2002).", "450 pp.", "* Walker, Marshall, ''Scottish Literature since 1707.''", "(1997).", "443 pp.", "* Whatley, Christopher A.", "''Scottish Society, 1707–1830: Beyond Jacobitism, toward Industrialisation.''", "(2000).", "354 pp.", "* * * Withers, Charles W. J., ''Geography, Science, and National Identity: Scotland since 1520.''", "(2001).", "312 pp.====Prehistory and archaeology====* * * * * * * * * * * ====Medieval====* ** * * * * * * * * * * Taylor, S., ed., ''Picts, Kings, Saints and Chronicles: A Festschrift for Marjorie O. Anderson'' (Four Courts, 2000).", "* * * Woods, J. D., and Pelteret, D. A. E., eds, ''The Anglo-Saxons, Synthesis and Achievement'' (Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1985).", "* ** ====Early modern====* * Ryrie, Alec (2006).", "''The Origins of the Scottish Reformation'' (Manchester: Manchester University Press).", "* ====Enlightenment, 18th century====* Berry, Christopher J., ''The Social Theory of the Scottish Enlightenment'' (1997) excerpt and text search.", "* Broadie, Alexander.", "''The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment'' (2003) complete online edition; also excerpt and text search.", "* Broadie, Alexander, ed.", "''The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology'' (1998), primary sources.", "excerpt and text search* Buchan, James, ''Crowded with Genius: the Scottish Enlightenment; Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind'' (Harper Collins, 2003).", "excerpt and text search.", "* Campbell, R. H. and Andrew S. Skinner, eds.", "''The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment'' (1982), 12 essays by scholars, esp.", "on history of science.", "* Daiches, David, Peter Jones and Jean Jones.", "''A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730–1790'' (1986), 170 pp; well-illustrated introduction.", "* Davidson, Neil, ''Discovering the Scottish Revolution, 1692–1746'', Pluto Press, London, England (2003).", ".", "* Devine, T. M., ''Clanship to Crofters' War: the Social Transformation of the Scottish Highlands'', (1994).", ".", "* Dwyer, John, ''The Age of the Passions: An Interpretation of Adam Smith and Scottish Enlightenment Culture.''", "(1998).", "205 pp.", "* Goldie, Mark, \"The Scottish Catholic Enlightenment,\" ''The Journal of British Studies'' Vol.", "30, No.", "1 (January 1991), pp.", "20–62 in JSTOR* Graham, Gordon.", "\"Morality and Feeling in the Scottish Enlightenment,\" ''Philosophy'' Vol.", "76, No.", "296 (April 2001), pp.", "271–282 in JSTOR.", "* Hamilton, H. ''An Economic History of Scotland in the Eighteenth Century'' (1963).", "* Hamilton, Douglas J.", "''Scotland, the Caribbean and the Atlantic World, 1750-–1820.''", "(2005) 249 pp.", ".", "* Harvie, Christopher.", "''Scotland and Nationalism: Scottish Society and Politics 1707 to the Present'' (2004) excerpt and text search online edition.", "* Hemingway, Andrew.", "\"The 'Sociology' of Taste in the Scottish Enlightenment,\" ''Oxford Art Journal,'' Vol.", "12, No.", "2 (1989), pp.", "3–35 in JSTOR.", "* Herman, Arthur, ''How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The True Story of How Western Europe's Poorest Nation Created Our World & Everything in It'' (Crown, 2001), and text search.", "* Hont, Istvan, and Michael Ignatieff.", "''Wealth and Virtue: The Shaping of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment'' (1986) excerpt and text search* Hopfl, H. M. \"From Savage to Scotsman: Conjectural History in the Scottish Enlightenment,\" ''The Journal of British Studies,'' Vol.", "17, No.", "2 (Spring, 1978), pp.", "19–40 in JSTOR.", "* Howe, Daniel Walker.", "\"Why the Scottish Enlightenment Was Useful to the Framers of the American Constitution,\" ''Comparative Studies in Society and History,'' Vol.", "31, No.", "3 (July 1989), pp.", "572–587 in JSTOR.", "* Lenman, Bruce P. ''Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746–1832'' (1993) New History of Scotland excerpt and text search.", "* Ottenberg, June C. \"Musical Currents of the Scottish Enlightenment,\" ''International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music'' Vol.", "9, No.", "1 (June 1978), pp.", "99–109 in JSTOR.", "* Phillipson, N.T.", "and Mitchison, Rosalind, eds.", "''Scotland in the Age of Improvement'', (1996).", ".", "* Robertson, John.", "''The Case for the Enlightenment: Scotland and Naples 1680–1760'' (2005).", "* Swingewood, Alan.", "\"Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment,\" ''The British Journal of Sociology,'' Vol.", "21, No.", "2 (June 1970), pp.", "164–180 in JSTOR.", "* Withers, Charles W. J. and Wood, Paul, eds.", "''Science and Medicine in the Scottish Enlightenment.''", "(2002).", "364 pp.", "* Wood, P., ed.", "''The Scottish Enlightenment: Essays in Reinterpretation'' (2000).====Union and Jacobites====* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory.", "''The Jacobite Rebellion 1745–46'' (Essential Histories) (2011).", "* Fry, Michael.", "''The Union: England, Scotland and the Treaty of 1707'' (2006).", "* * * Macinnes, Allan I.", "\"Jacobitism in Scotland: Episodic Cause or National Movement?\"", "''Scottish Historical Review,'' Oct 2007, Vol.", "86,2 Issue 222, pp 225–252; emphasises its traditionalism.", "* Macinnes, Allan I.", "''Union and Empire: The Making of the United Kingdom in 1707'' (Cambridge Studies in Early Modern British History) (2007) excerpt and text search.", "* Oates, Jonathan.", "''Jacobite Campaigns: The British State at War'' (Warfare, Society and Culture) (2011).", "* Pittock, Murray.", "''The Myth of the Jacobite Clans: The Jacobite Army in 1745'' (2nd ed.", "2009).", "* Plank, Geoffrey.", "''Rebellion and Savagery: The Jacobite Rising of 1745 and the British Empire'' (2005).", "* Scott, P. H. ''1707: The Union of Scotland and England: In Contemporary Documents'' (1979), primary sources.", "* Trevor-Roper, Hugh.", "''From Counter-Reformation to Glorious Revolution'' (1992) pp.", "282–303 on Union.====Women====* Abrams, Lynn, et al.", "''Gender in Scottish History Since 1700'' (2006) excerpt and text search.", "* Breitenbach, Esther, and Eleanor Gordon.", "''Women in Scottish Society 1800–1945'' (1992) online edition.", "* Browne, Sarah.", "''The women's liberation movement in Scotland'' (2016).", "online review* Ewan, Elisabeth ''et al.''", "eds.", "''The Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Women: From the Earliest Times to 2004'' (2006).", "* Ewan, Elisabeth \"A New Trumpet?", "The History of Women in Scotland 1300–1700\", ''History Compass,'' March 2009, vol.", "7, issue 2, pp.", "431–446; a new field since the 1980s; favourite topics are work, family, religion, crime, and images of women; scholars are using women's letters, memoirs, poetry, and court records.", "* ====Historiography====* * * * Bowie, Karin.", "\"Cultural, British and Global Turns in the History of Early Modern Scotland,\" ''Scottish Historical Review'' (April 2013 Supplement), Vol.", "92, pp. 38–48.", "* * .", "* Dingwall, Helen M. ''A history of Scottish medicine: themes and influences'' (Edinburgh UP, 2003).", "* Elton, G. R. ''Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969'' (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles.", "online pp 198–205* * Kidd, C. ''Subverting Scotland's Past: Scottish Whig Historians and the Creation of an Anglo-British Identity 1689–1830'' (Cambridge University Press, 2003)* Linklater, Eric.", "\"The Matter of Scotland.\"", "''History Today'' (Jan 1951) 1#1 pp.", "43–52, online* * Lee, Jr., Maurice.", "\"Scottish History since 1966,\" in Richard Schlatter, ed., ''Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966'' (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp.", "377 – 400.", "* * Morton, Graeme, and Trevor Griffiths.", "\"Closing the Door on Modern Scotland's Gilded Cage,\" ''Scottish Historical Review'' (2013) Supplement, Vol.", "92, pp.", "49–69; on nationalism* * * ====Primary sources====* * Broadie, Alexander, ed.", "(1997), ''The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology''.", "* Cooke, Anthony, et al.", "eds (1998).", "''Modern Scottish History, 1707 To the Present: vol 5: Major Documents'' (Tuckwell Press) online edition.", "* ''Statistical Accounts of Scotland'' (1791–1845) online, detailed local descriptions." ], [ "External links", "* \"History of Scotland: Primary Documents\" from Brigham Young University* Scottish Timeline: Part of the Gazetteer for Scotland* Scottish History in 33 Chapters by Andrew Lang" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hadrian" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Hadrian''' (, ; ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138.Hadrian was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in Spain, an Italic settlement in Hispania Baetica; his branch of the Aelia ''gens'', the ''Aeli Hadriani'', came from the town of Hadria in eastern Italy.", "He was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty.Early in his political career, and several years before Trajan became emperor, Hadrian married Vibia Sabina, Trajan's grandniece.", "The marriage and Hadrian's later succession as emperor were probably promoted by Trajan's wife Pompeia Plotina.", "Soon after his own succession, Hadrian had four leading senators unlawfully put to death, probably because they seemed to threaten the security of his reign; this earned him the senate's lifelong enmity.", "He earned further disapproval by abandoning Trajan's expansionist policies and territorial gains in Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia, and parts of Dacia.", "Hadrian preferred to invest in the development of stable, defensible borders and the unification of the empire's disparate peoples as subjects of a panhellenic empire, led by Rome.Hadrian energetically pursued his own Imperial ideals and personal interests.", "He visited almost every province of the Empire, and indulged a preference for direct intervention in imperial and provincial affairs, especially building projects.", "He is particularly known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Britannia.", "In Rome itself, he rebuilt the Pantheon and constructed the vast Temple of Venus and Roma.", "In Egypt, he may have rebuilt the Serapeum of Alexandria.", "As an ardent admirer of Greek culture, he promoted Athens as the cultural capital of the Empire.", "His intense relationship with Greek youth Antinous and the latter's untimely death led Hadrian to establish a widespread, popular cult.", "Late in Hadrian's reign, he suppressed the Bar Kokhba revolt; he saw this rebellion as a failure of his panhellenic ideal.Hadrian's last years were marred by chronic illness.", "His marriage had been both unhappy and childless.", "In 138 he adopted Antoninus Pius and nominated him as a successor, on condition that Antoninus adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his own heirs.", "Hadrian died the same year at Baiae, and Antoninus had him deified, despite opposition from the Senate.", "Later historians counted him as one of Rome's so-called \"Five Good Emperors\", and as a \"benevolent dictator\".", "His own Senate found him remote and authoritarian.", "He has been described as enigmatic and contradictory, with a capacity for both great personal generosity and extreme cruelty and driven by insatiable curiosity, conceit, and ambition." ], [ "Early life", "Hadrian's Arch in central Athens, Greece.Hadrian's admiration for Greece materialised in such projects ordered during his reign.Publius Aelius Hadrianus was born on 24 January 76, in Italica (modern Santiponce, near Seville), a Roman town founded by Italic settlers in the province of Hispania Baetica during the Second Punic War at the initiative of Scipio Africanus; Hadrian's branch of the gens Aelia came from Hadria (modern Atri), an ancient town in the Picenum region of Italia, the source of the name ''Hadrianus''.", "One Roman biographer claims instead that Hadrian was born in Rome, but this view is held by a minority of scholars.Hadrian's father was Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, a senator of praetorian rank, born and raised in Italica.", "Hadrian's mother was Domitia Paulina, daughter of a distinguished Hispano-Roman senatorial family from Gades (Cádiz).", "His only sibling was an elder sister, Aelia Domitia Paulina.", "His wet nurse was the slave Germana, probably of Germanic origin, to whom he was devoted throughout his life.", "She was later freed by him and ultimately outlived him, as shown by her funerary inscription, which was found at Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.", "Hadrian's great-nephew, Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, from Barcino (Barcelona) would become Hadrian's colleague as co-consul in 118.As a senator, Hadrian's father would have spent much of his time in Rome.", "In terms of his later career, Hadrian's most significant family connection was to Trajan, his father's first cousin, who was also of senatorial stock, and had been born and raised in Italica.", "Hadrian and Trajan were both considered to bein the words of Aurelius Victor\"aliens\", people \"from the outside\" (''advenae'').Hadrian's parents died in 86 when he was ten years old.", "He and his sister became wards of Trajan and Publius Acilius Attianus (who later became Trajan's Praetorian prefect).", "Hadrian was physically active and enjoyed hunting; when he was 14, Trajan called him to Rome and arranged his further education in subjects appropriate to a young Roman aristocrat.", "Hadrian's enthusiasm for Greek literature and culture earned him the nickname ''Graeculus'' (\"Greekling\"), intended as a form of \"mild mockery\"." ], [ "Public service", "Hadrian's first official post in Rome was as a member of the ''decemviri stlitibus judicandis'', one among many vigintivirate offices at the lowest level of the ''cursus honorum'' (\"course of honours\") that could lead to higher office and a senatorial career.", "He then served as a military tribune, first with the LegioII ''Adiutrix'' in 95, then with the Legio V Macedonica.", "During Hadrian's second stint as tribune, the frail and aged reigning emperor Nerva adopted Trajan as his heir; Hadrian was dispatched to give Trajan the news – or most probably was one of many emissaries charged with this same commission.", "Then Hadrian was transferred to Legio XXII Primigenia and a third tribunate.", "Hadrian's three tribunates gave him some career advantage.", "Most scions of the older senatorial families might serve one, or at most two, military tribunates as a prerequisite to higher office.", "When Nerva died in 98, Hadrian is said to have hastened to Trajan, to inform him ahead of the official envoy sent by the governor, Hadrian's brother-in-law and rival Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus.In 101, Hadrian was back in Rome; he was elected quaestor, then ''quaestor imperatoris Traiani'', liaison officer between Emperor and the assembled Senate, to whom he read the Emperor's communiqués and speeches – which he possibly composed on the emperor's behalf.", "In his role as imperial ghostwriter, Hadrian took the place of the recently deceased Licinius Sura, Trajan's all-powerful friend and kingmaker.", "His next post was as ''ab actis senatus'', keeping the Senate's records.", "During the First Dacian War, Hadrian took the field as a member of Trajan's personal entourage, but was excused from his military post to take office in Rome as tribune of the plebs, in 105.After the war, he was probably elected praetor.", "During the Second Dacian War, Hadrian was in Trajan's personal service again.", "He was released to serve as legate of Legio I Minervia, then as governor of Lower Pannonia in 107, tasked with \"holding back the Sarmatians\".", "Between 107 and 108, Hadrian defeated an invasion of Roman-controlled Banat and Oltenia by the Iazyges.", "The exact terms of the peace treaty are not known.", "It is believed the Romans kept Oltenia in exchange for some form of concession, likely involving a one-time tribute payment.", "The Iazyges also took possession of Banat around this time, which may have been part of the treaty.Now in his mid-thirties, Hadrian travelled to Greece; he was granted Athenian citizenship and was appointed eponymous archon of Athens for a brief time (in 112).", "The Athenians awarded him a statue with an inscription in the Theatre of Dionysus (IG II2 3286) offering a detailed account of his ''cursus honorum'' thus far.", "Thereafter, no more is heard of him until Trajan's Parthian campaign.", "It is possible that he remained in Greece until his recall to the imperial retinue, when he joined Trajan's expedition against Parthia as a legate.", "When the governor of Syria was sent to deal with renewed troubles in Dacia, Hadrian was appointed his replacement, with independent command.", "Trajan became seriously ill, and took ship for Rome, while Hadrian remained in Syria, ''de facto'' general commander of the Eastern Roman army.", "Trajan got as far as the coastal city of Selinus, in Cilicia, and died there on 8 August 117; he would be regarded as one of Rome's most admired, popular and best emperors.===Relationship with Trajan and his family===Around the time of his quaestorship, in 100 or 101, Hadrian had married Trajan's seventeen- or eighteen-year-old grandniece, Vibia Sabina.", "Trajan himself seems to have been less than enthusiastic about the marriage, and with good reason, as the couple's relationship would prove to be scandalously poor.", "The marriage might have been arranged by Trajan's empress, Plotina.", "This highly cultured, influential woman shared many of Hadrian's values and interests, including the idea of the Roman Empire as a commonwealth with an underlying Hellenic culture.", "If Hadrian were to be appointed Trajan's successor, Plotina and her extended family could retain their social profile and political influence after Trajan's death.", "Hadrian could also count on the support of his mother-in-law, Salonia Matidia, who was the daughter of Trajan's beloved sister Ulpia Marciana.", "When Ulpia Marciana died in 112, Trajan had her deified, and made Salonia Matidia an ''Augusta''.Bust of Emperor Trajan; Musée Saint-Raymond, ToulouseHadrian's personal relationship with Trajan was complex and may have been difficult.", "Hadrian seems to have sought influence over Trajan, or Trajan's decisions, through cultivation of the latter's boy favourites; this gave rise to some unexplained quarrel, around the time of Hadrian's marriage to Sabina.", "Late in Trajan's reign, Hadrian failed to achieve a senior consulship, being only suffect consul for 108; this gave him parity of status with other members of the senatorial nobility, but no particular distinction befitting an heir designate.", "Had Trajan wished it, he could have promoted his protege to patrician rank and its privileges, which included opportunities for a fast track to consulship without prior experience as tribune; he chose not to.", "While Hadrian seems to have been granted the office of tribune of the plebs a year or so younger than was customary, he had to leave Dacia, and Trajan, to take up the appointment; Trajan might simply have wanted him out of the way.", "The ''Historia Augusta'' describes Trajan's gift to Hadrian of a diamond ring that Trajan himself had received from Nerva, which \"encouraged Hadrian's hopes of succeeding to the throne\".", "While Trajan actively promoted Hadrian's advancement, he did so with caution.===Succession===Failure to nominate an heir could invite chaotic, destructive wresting of power by a succession of competing claimants – a civil war.", "Too early a nomination could be seen as an abdication and reduce the chance for an orderly transmission of power.", "As Trajan lay dying, nursed by his wife, Plotina, and closely watched by Prefect Attianus, he could have lawfully adopted Hadrian as heir by means of a simple deathbed wish, expressed before witnesses; but when an adoption document was eventually presented, it was signed not by Trajan but by Plotina.", "That Hadrian was still in Syria was a further irregularity, as Roman adoption law required the presence of both parties at the adoption ceremony.", "Rumours, doubts, and speculation attended Hadrian's adoption and succession.", "It has been suggested that Trajan's young manservant Phaedimus, who died very soon after Trajan, was killed (or killed himself) rather than face awkward questions.", "Ancient sources are divided on the legitimacy of Hadrian's adoption: Dio Cassius saw it as bogus and the ''Historia Augusta'' writer as genuine.", "An aureus minted early in Hadrian's reign represents the official position; it presents Hadrian as Trajan's \"Caesar\" (Trajan's heir designate)." ], [ "Emperor (117)", "===Securing power===The Roman Empire in 125, under the rule of HadrianAccording to the ''Historia Augusta'', Hadrian informed the Senate of his accession in a letter as a ''fait accompli'', explaining that \"the unseemly haste of the troops in acclaiming him emperor was due to the belief that the state could not be without an emperor\".", "The new emperor rewarded the legions' loyalty with the customary bonus, and the Senate endorsed the acclamation.", "Various public ceremonies were organised on Hadrian's behalf, celebrating his \"divine election\" by all the gods, whose community now included Trajan, deified at Hadrian's request.Hadrian remained in the east for a while, suppressing the Jewish revolt that had broken out under Trajan.", "He relieved Judea's governor, the outstanding Moorish general Lusius Quietus, of his personal guard of Moorish auxiliaries; then he moved on to quell disturbances along the Danube frontier.", "In Rome, Hadrian's former guardian and current praetorian prefect, Attianus, claimed to have uncovered a conspiracy involving Lusius Quietus and three other leading senators, Lucius Publilius Celsus, Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus and Gaius Avidius Nigrinus.", "There was no public trial for the four – they were tried ''in absentia'', hunted down and killed.", "Hadrian claimed that Attianus had acted on his own initiative, and rewarded him with senatorial status and consular rank; then pensioned him off, no later than 120.Hadrian assured the senate that henceforth their ancient right to prosecute and judge their own would be respected.The reasons for these four executions remain obscure.", "Official recognition of Hadrian as a legitimate heir may have come too late to dissuade other potential claimants.", "Hadrian's greatest rivals were Trajan's closest friends, the most experienced and senior members of the imperial council; any of them might have been a legitimate competitor for the imperial office (''capaces imperii''); and any of them might have supported Trajan's expansionist policies, which Hadrian intended to change.", "One of their number was Aulus Cornelius Palma who as a former conqueror of Arabia Nabatea would have retained a stake in the East.", "The ''Historia Augusta'' describes Palma and a third executed senator, Lucius Publilius Celsus (consul for the second time in 113), as Hadrian's personal enemies, who had spoken in public against him.", "The fourth was Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, an ex-consul, intellectual, friend of Pliny the Younger and (briefly) Governor of Dacia at the start of Hadrian's reign.", "He was probably Hadrian's chief rival for the throne; a senator of the highest rank, breeding, and connections; according to the ''Historia Augusta'', Hadrian had considered making Nigrinus his heir apparent before deciding to get rid of him.A denarius of Hadrian issued in 119 AD for his third consulship.", "Inscription: HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS / LIBERALITAS AVG.", "CONS III, P. P.Soon after, in 125, Hadrian appointed Quintus Marcius Turbo as his Praetorian Prefect.", "Turbo was his close friend, a leading figure of the equestrian order, a senior court judge and a procurator.", "As Hadrian also forbade equestrians to try cases against senators, the Senate retained full legal authority over its members; it also remained the highest court of appeal, and formal appeals to the emperor regarding its decisions were forbidden.", "If this was an attempt to repair the damage done by Attianus, with or without Hadrian's full knowledge, it was not enough; Hadrian's reputation and relationship with his Senate were irredeemably soured, for the rest of his reign.", "Some sources describe Hadrian's occasional recourse to a network of informers, the ''frumentarii'', to discreetly investigate persons of high social standing, including senators and his close friends." ], [ "Travels", "This statue of Hadrian in Greek dress was revealed in 2008 to have been forged in the Victorian era by cobbling together a head of Hadrian and an unknown body.", "For years, the statue had been used by historians as proof of Hadrian's love of Hellenic culture.British Museum, London.Hadrian was to spend more than half his reign outside Italy.", "Whereas previous emperors had, for the most part, relied on the reports of their imperial representatives around the Empire, Hadrian wished to see things for himself.", "Previous emperors had often left Rome for long periods, but mostly to go to war, returning once the conflict was settled.", "Hadrian's near-incessant travels may represent a calculated break with traditions and attitudes in which the empire was a purely Roman hegemony.", "Hadrian sought to include provincials in a commonwealth of civilised peoples and a common Hellenic culture under Roman supervision.", "He supported the creation of provincial towns (municipia), semi-autonomous urban communities with their own customs and laws, rather than the imposition of new Roman colonies with Roman constitutions.A cosmopolitan, ecumenical intent is evident in coin issues of Hadrian's later reign, showing the emperor \"raising up\" the personifications of various provinces.", "Aelius Aristides would later write that Hadrian \"extended over his subjects a protecting hand, raising them as one helps fallen men on their feet\".", "All this did not go well with Roman traditionalists.", "The self-indulgent emperor Nero had enjoyed a prolonged and peaceful tour of Greece and had been criticised by the Roman elite for abandoning his fundamental responsibilities as emperor.", "In the eastern provinces, and to some extent in the west, Nero had enjoyed popular support; claims of his imminent return or rebirth emerged almost immediately after his death.", "Hadrian may have consciously exploited these positive, popular connections during his own travels.", "In the ''Historia Augusta'', Hadrian is described as \"a little too much Greek\", too cosmopolitan for a Roman emperor.===Britannia and the West (122)===Hadrian's Wall, the Roman frontier fortification in northern England.", "A milecastle is in the foreground.Prior to Hadrian's arrival in Britannia, the province had suffered a major rebellion from 119 to 121.Inscriptions tell of an ''expeditio Britannica'' that involved major troop movements, including the dispatch of a detachment (vexillatio), comprising some 3,000 soldiers.", "Fronto writes about military losses in Britannia at the time.", "Coin legends of 119–120 attest that Quintus Pompeius Falco was sent to restore order.", "In 122 Hadrian initiated the construction of a wall \"to separate Romans from barbarians\".", "The idea that the wall was built in order to deal with an actual threat or its resurgence, however, is probable but nevertheless conjectural.", "A general desire to cease the Empire's extension may have been the determining motive.", "Reduction of defence costs may also have played a role, as the Wall deterred attacks on Roman territory at a lower cost than a massed border army, and controlled cross-border trade and immigration.", "A shrine was erected in York to Britannia as the divine personification of Britain; coins were struck, bearing her image, identified as Britania.", "By the end of 122, Hadrian had concluded his visit to Britannia.", "He never saw the finished wall that bears his name.Hadrian appears to have continued through southern Gaul.", "At Nemausus, he may have overseen the building of a basilica dedicated to his patroness Plotina, who had recently died in Rome and had been deified at Hadrian's request.", "At around this time, Hadrian dismissed his secretary ''ab epistulis'', the biographer Suetonius, for \"excessive familiarity\" towards the empress.", "Marcius Turbo's colleague as praetorian prefect, Gaius Septicius Clarus, was dismissed for the same alleged reason, perhaps a pretext to remove him from office.", "Hadrian spent the winter of 122/123 at Tarraco, in Spain, where he restored the Temple of Augustus.===Africa, Parthia (123)===In 123, Hadrian crossed the Mediterranean to Mauretania, where he personally led a minor campaign against local rebels.", "The visit was cut short by reports of war preparations by Parthia; Hadrian quickly headed eastwards.", "At some point, he visited Cyrene, where he personally funded the training of young men from well-bred families for the Roman military.", "Cyrene had benefited earlier in Hadrian's reign (in 119) from his restoration of public buildings destroyed during the earlier, Trajanic Jewish revolt.", "Birley describes this kind of investment as \"characteristic of Hadrian\"=== Anatolia; Antinous (123–124)===When Hadrian arrived on the Euphrates, he personally negotiated a settlement with the Parthian King Osroes I, inspected the Roman defences, then set off westwards, along the Black Sea coast.", "He probably wintered in Nicomedia, the main city of Bithynia.", "Nicomedia had been hit by an earthquake only shortly before his stay; Hadrian provided funds for its rebuilding and was acclaimed as restorer of the province.Bust of Antinous from Patras, (National Archaeological Museum, Athens.It is possible that Hadrian visited Claudiopolis and saw the beautiful Antinous, a young man of humble birth who became Hadrian's lover.", "Literary and epigraphic sources say nothing of when or where they met; depictions of Antinous show him aged 20 or so, shortly before his death in 130.In 123 he would most likely have been a youth of 13 or 14.It is also possible that Antinous was sent to Rome to be trained as a page to serve the emperor and only gradually rose to the status of imperial favourite.", "The actual historical detail of their relationship is mostly unknown.With or without Antinous, Hadrian travelled through Anatolia.", "Various traditions suggest his presence at particular locations and allege his foundation of a city within Mysia, Hadrianutherae, after a successful boar hunt.", "At about this time, plans to complete the Temple of Zeus in Cyzicus, begun by the kings of Pergamon, were put into practice.", "The temple received a colossal statue of Hadrian.", "Cyzicus, Pergamon, Smyrna, Ephesus and Sardes were promoted as regional centres for the imperial cult (''neocoros'').===Greece (124–125)===Hadrian arrived in Greece during the autumn of 124 and participated in the Eleusinian Mysteries.", "He had a particular commitment to Athens, which had previously granted him citizenship and an ; at the Athenians' request, he revised their constitution – among other things, he added a new phyle (tribe), which was named after him.", "Hadrian combined active, hands-on interventions with cautious restraint.", "He refused to intervene in a local dispute between producers of olive oil and the Athenian Assembly and Council, who had imposed production quotas on oil producers; yet he granted an imperial subsidy for the Athenian grain supply.", "Hadrian created two foundations to fund Athens' public games, festivals and competitions if no citizen proved wealthy or willing enough to sponsor them as a Gymnasiarch or Agonothetes.", "Generally Hadrian preferred that Greek notables, including priests of the imperial cult, focus on more essential and durable provisions, especially ''munera'' such as aqueducts and public fountains (''nymphaea'').", "Athens was given two ''nymphaea''; one brought water from Mount Parnes to the Athenia Agora via a complex, challenging and ambitious system of aqueduct tunnels and reservoirs, to be constructed over several years.", "Several were given to Argos, to remedy a water-shortage so severe and so long-standing that \"thirsty Argos\" featured in Homeric epic.The Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens, completed under Emperor Hadrian in 131.During that winter, Hadrian toured the Peloponnese.", "His exact route is uncertain, but it took in Epidaurus; Pausanias describes temples built there by Hadrian, and his statue – in heroic nudity – erected by its citizens in thanks to their \"restorer\".", "Antinous and Hadrian may have already been lovers at this time; Hadrian showed particular generosity to Mantinea, which shared ancient, mythic, politically useful links with Antinous' home at Bithynia.", "He restored Mantinea's Temple of Poseidon Hippios, and according to Pausanias, restored the city's original, classical name.", "It had been renamed Antigoneia since Hellenistic times, after the Macedonian King Antigonus III Doson.", "Hadrian also rebuilt the ancient shrines of Abae and Megara, and the Heraion of Argos.During his tour of the Peloponnese, Hadrian persuaded the Spartan grandee Eurycles Herculanus – leader of the Euryclid family that had ruled Sparta since Augustus' day – to enter the Senate, alongside the Athenian grandee Herodes Atticus the Elder.", "The two aristocrats would be the first from \"Old Greece\" to enter the Roman Senate, as representatives of Sparta and Athens, traditional rivals and \"great powers\" of the Classical Age.", "This was an important step in overcoming Greek notables' reluctance to take part in Roman political life.", "In March 125, Hadrian presided at the Athenian festival of Dionysia, wearing Athenian dress.", "The Temple of Olympian Zeus had been under construction for more than five centuries; Hadrian committed the vast resources at his command to ensure that the job would be finished.===Return to Italy and trip to Africa (126–128)===On his return to Italy, Hadrian made a detour to Sicily.", "Coins celebrate him as the restorer of the island.", "Back in Rome, he saw the rebuilt Pantheon and his completed villa at nearby Tibur, among the Sabine Hills.", "In early March 127 Hadrian set off on a tour of Italy; his route has been reconstructed through the evidence of his gifts and donations.", "He restored the shrine of Cupra in Cupra Maritima and improved the drainage of the Fucine lake.", "Less welcome than such largesse was his decision in 127 to divide Italy into four regions under imperial legates with consular rank, acting as governors.", "They were given jurisdiction over all of Italy, excluding Rome itself, therefore shifting Italian cases from the courts of Rome.", "Having Italy effectively reduced to the status of a group of mere provinces did not go down well with the Roman Senate, and the innovation did not long outlive Hadrian's reign.Hadrian fell ill around this time; whatever the nature of his illness, it did not stop him from setting off in the spring of 128 to visit Africa.", "His arrival coincided with the good omen of rain, which ended a drought.", "Along with his usual role as benefactor and restorer, he found time to inspect the troops; his speech to them survives.", "Hadrian returned to Italy in the summer of 128, but his stay was brief, as he set off on another tour that would last three years.===Greece, Asia, and Egypt (128–130); Antinous's death===In September 128, Hadrian attended the Eleusinian Mysteries again.", "This time his visit to Greece seems to have concentrated on Athens and Sparta – the two ancient rivals for dominance of Greece.", "Hadrian had played with the idea of focusing his Greek revival around the Amphictyonic League based in Delphi, but by now he had decided on something far grander.", "His new Panhellenion was going to be a council that would bring Greek cities together.", "Having set in motion the preparations – deciding whose claim to be a Greek city was genuine would take time – Hadrian set off for Ephesus.", "From Greece, Hadrian proceeded by way of Asia to Egypt, probably conveyed across the Aegean with his entourage by an Ephesian merchant, Lucius Erastus.", "Hadrian later sent a letter to the Council of Ephesus, supporting Erastus as a worthy candidate for town councillor and offering to pay the requisite fee.Gateway of Hadrianus in PhilaeHadrian arrived in Egypt before the Egyptian New Year on 29 August 130.He opened his stay in Egypt by restoring Pompey the Great's tomb at Pelusium, offering sacrifice to him as a hero and composing an epigraph for the tomb.", "As Pompey was universally acknowledged as responsible for establishing Rome's power in the east, this restoration was probably linked to a need to reaffirm Roman Eastern hegemony following social unrest there during Trajan's late reign.", "Hadrian and Antinous held a lion hunt in the Libyan desert; a poem on the subject by the Greek Pankrates is the earliest evidence that they travelled together.While Hadrian and his entourage were sailing on the Nile, Antinous drowned.", "The exact circumstances surrounding his death are unknown, and accident, suicide, murder and religious sacrifice have all been postulated.", "''Historia Augusta'' offers the following account:Hadrian founded the city of Antinoöpolis in Antinous' honour on 30 October 130.He then continued down the Nile to Thebes, where his visit to the Colossi of Memnon on 20 and 21 November was commemorated by four epigrams inscribed by Julia Balbilla.", "After that, he headed north, reaching the Fayyum at the beginning of December.=== Greece and the East (130–132) ===Arch of Hadrian in Jerash, Transjordan, built to honour Hadrian's visit in 130Hadrian's movements after his journey down the Nile are uncertain.", "Whether or not he returned to Rome, he travelled in the East during 130–131, to organise and inaugurate his new Panhellenion, which was to be focused on the Athenian Temple to Olympian Zeus.", "As local conflicts had led to the failure of the previous scheme for a Hellenic association centered on Delphi, Hadrian decided instead for a grand league of all Greek cities.", "Successful applications for membership involved mythologised or fabricated claims to Greek origins, and affirmations of loyalty to imperial Rome, to satisfy Hadrian's personal, idealised notions of Hellenism.", "Hadrian saw himself as protector of Greek culture and the \"liberties\" of Greece – in this case, urban self-government.", "It allowed Hadrian to appear as the fictive heir to Pericles, who supposedly had convened a previous Panhellenic Congress – such a Congress is mentioned only in Pericles' biography by Plutarch, who respected Rome's imperial order.Epigraphical evidence suggests that the prospect of applying to the Panhellenion held little attraction to the wealthier, Hellenised cities of Asia Minor, which were jealous of Athenian and European Greek preeminence within Hadrian's scheme.", "Hadrian's notion of Hellenism was narrow and deliberately archaising; he defined \"Greekness\" in terms of classical roots, rather than a broader, Hellenistic culture.", "Some cities with a dubious claim to Greekness, however – such as Side – were acknowledged as fully Hellenic.", "The German sociologist Georg Simmel remarked that the Panhellenion was based on \"games, commemorations, preservation of an ideal, an entirely non-political Hellenism\".Hadrian bestowed honorific titles on many regional centres.", "Palmyra received a state visit and was given the civic name Hadriana Palmyra.", "Hadrian also bestowed honours on various Palmyrene magnates, among them one Soados, who had done much to protect Palmyrene trade between the Roman Empire and Parthia.Hadrian had spent the winter of 131–32 in Athens, where he dedicated the now-completed Temple of Olympian Zeus, At some time in 132, he headed East, to Judaea.===Third Roman–Jewish War (132–136)===File:Hadrian visit to Judea.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.15\|Coinage minted to mark Hadrian's visit to Judea.", "Inscription: HADRIANVS AVG.", "CONS.", "III, P. P. / ADVENTVI (arrival) AVG.", "IVDAEAE – S. C.====Background, causes====In Roman Judaea, Hadrian visited Jerusalem, which was still in ruins after the First Roman–Jewish War of 66–73.He may have planned to rebuild Jerusalem as a Roman colony – as Vespasian had done with Caesarea Maritima – with various honorific and fiscal privileges.", "The non-Roman population would have no obligation to participate in Roman religious rituals but were expected to support the Roman imperial order; this is attested in Caesarea, where some Jews served in the Roman army during both the 66 and 132 rebellions.", "It has been speculated that Hadrian intended to assimilate the Jewish Temple to the traditional Roman civic-religious imperial cult; such assimilations had long been commonplace practice in Greece and in other provinces, and on the whole, had been successful.", "The neighbouring Samaritans had already integrated their religious rites with Hellenistic ones.", "Strict Jewish monotheism proved more resistant to imperial cajoling, and then to imperial demands.A tradition based on the ''Historia Augusta'' suggests that the revolt was spurred by Hadrian's abolition of circumcision (''brit milah''); which as a Hellenist he viewed as mutilation.", "The scholar Peter Schäfer maintains that there is no evidence for this claim, given the notoriously problematical nature of the ''Historia Augusta'' as a source, the \"tomfoolery\" shown by the writer in the relevant passage, and the fact that contemporary Roman legislation on \"genital mutilation\" seems to address the general issue of castration of slaves by their masters.", "Other issues could have contributed to the outbreak: a heavy-handed, culturally insensitive Roman administration; tensions between the landless poor and incoming Roman colonists privileged with land-grants; and a strong undercurrent of messianism, predicated on Jeremiah's prophecy that the Temple would be rebuilt seventy years after its destruction, as the First Temple had been after the Babylonian exile.====Revolt====A massive anti-Hellenistic and anti-Roman Jewish uprising broke out, led by Simon bar Kokhba.", "Given the fragmentary nature of the existing evidence, it is impossible to ascertain an exact date for the beginning of the uprising.", "It probably began between summer and fall of 132.The Roman governor Tineius (Tynius) Rufus asked for an army to crush the resistance; bar Kokhba punished any Jew who refused to join his ranks.", "According to Justin Martyr and Eusebius, that had to do mostly with Christian converts, who opposed bar Kokhba's messianic claims.The Romans were overwhelmed by the organised ferocity of the uprising.", "Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britain and brought troops in from as far as the Danube.", "Roman losses were heavy; an entire legion or its numeric equivalent of around 4,000.Hadrian's report on the war to the Roman Senate omitted the customary salutation, \"If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health.", "\"The rebellion was quashed by 135.According to Cassius Dio.", "Beitar, a fortified city southwest of Jerusalem, fell after a three-and-a-half-year siege.====Aftermath; persecutions====goddess Roma and the Genii of the Senate and the Roman People; marble, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD, Capitoline Museums, Vatican CityRoman war operations in Judea left some 580,000 Jews dead and 50 fortified towns and 985 villages razed.An unknown proportion of the population was enslaved.", "The extent of punitive measures against the Jewish population remains a matter of debate.Hadrian replaced the province's name by renaming it Syria Palaestina.", "He renamed Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina after himself and Jupiter Capitolinus and had it rebuilt in Greek style.", "According to Epiphanius, Hadrian appointed Aquila from Sinope in Pontus as \"overseer of the work of building the city\", since he was related to him by marriage.", "Hadrian is said to have placed the city's main Forum at the junction of the main Cardo and Decumanus Maximus, now the location for the (smaller) Muristan.", "After the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Hadrian provided the Samaritans with a temple dedicated to Zeus Hypsistos (\"Highest Zeus\") on Mount Gerizim.", "The bloody repression of the revolt ended Jewish political independence from the Roman imperial order.====Hadrian's itinerary====Inscriptions make it clear that in 133, Hadrian took to the field with his armies against the rebels.", "He then returned to Rome, probably in that year and almost certainly – judging from inscriptions – via Illyricum." ], [ "Final years", "Mars and Venus; the male figure is a portrait of Hadrian, the female figure was perhaps reworked into a portrait of Annia Lucilla; marble, Roman artwork, c. 120–140 AD, reworked c. 170–175 AD.Hadrian spent the final years of his life in Rome.", "In 134, he took an imperial salutation for the end of the Third Jewish War (which was not actually concluded until the following year).", "Commemorations and achievement awards were kept to a minimum, as Hadrian came to see the war \"as a cruel and sudden disappointment to his aspirations\" towards a cosmopolitan empire.Empress Sabina died, probably in 136, after an unhappy marriage with which Hadrian had coped as a political necessity.", "The ''Historia Augusta'' biography states that Hadrian himself declared that his wife's \"ill-temper and irritability\" would be reason enough for a divorce, were he a private citizen.", "That gave credence, after Sabina's death, to the common belief that Hadrian had her poisoned.", "In keeping with well-established imperial propriety, Sabina – who had been made an ''Augusta'' sometime around 128 – was deified not long after her death.===Arranging the succession===Posthumous portrait of Hadrian; bronze, Roman artwork, c. 140 AD, perhaps from Roman Egypt, Louvre, ParisHadrian's marriage to Sabina had been childless.", "Suffering from poor health, Hadrian turned to the issue of succession.", "In 136, he adopted one of the ordinary consuls of that year, Lucius Ceionius Commodus, who, as an emperor-in-waiting, took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar.", "He was the son-in-law of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, one of the \"four consulars\" executed in 118.His health was delicate, and his reputation apparently more that \"of a voluptuous, well-educated great lord than that of a leader\".", "Various modern attempts have been made to explain Hadrian's choice: Jerome Carcopino proposes that Aelius was Hadrian's natural son.", "It has also been speculated that his adoption was Hadrian's belated attempt to reconcile with one of the most important of the four senatorial families whose leading members had been executed soon after Hadrian's succession.", "Aelius acquitted himself honourably as joint governor of Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior; he held a further consulship in 137 but died on 1 January 138.Hadrian next adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus (the future emperor Antoninus Pius), who had served Hadrian as one of the five imperial legates of Italy, and as proconsul of Asia.", "In the interests of dynastic stability, Hadrian required that Antoninus adopt both Lucius Ceionius Commodus (son of the deceased Aelius Caesar) and Marcus Annius Verus (grandson of an influential senator of the same name who had been Hadrian's close friend); Annius was already betrothed to Aelius Caesar's daughter Ceionia Fabia.", "It may not have been Hadrian, but rather Antoninus Pius – Annius Verus's uncle – who supported Annius Verus' advancement; the latter's divorce of Ceionia Fabia and subsequent marriage to Antoninus' daughter Annia Faustina points in the same direction.", "When he eventually became Emperor, Marcus Aurelius would co-opt Ceionius Commodus as his co-Emperor, under the name of Lucius Verus, on his own initiative.Hadrian's last few years were marked by conflict and unhappiness.", "His adoption of Aelius Caesar proved unpopular, not least with Hadrian's brother-in-law Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus and Servianus's grandson Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator.", "Servianus, though now far too old, had stood in the line of succession at the beginning of Hadrian's reign; Fuscus is said to have had designs on the imperial power for himself.", "In 137, he may have attempted a coup in which his grandfather was implicated; Hadrian ordered that both be put to death.", "Servianus is reported to have prayed before his execution that Hadrian would \"long for death but be unable to die\".", "During his final, protracted illness, Hadrian was prevented from suicide on several occasions.===Death===Mausoleum of Hadrian, commissioned by Hadrian as a mausoleum for himself and his family.Hadrian died in the year 138 on 10 July, in his villa at Baiae at the age of 62, having reigned for 21 years.", "Dio Cassius and the ''Historia Augusta'' record details of his failing health; some modern sources interpret the ear-creases on later portrayals (such as the Townley Hadrian) as signs of coronary artery disease.He was buried at Puteoli, near Baiae, on an estate that had once belonged to Cicero.", "Soon after, his remains were transferred to Rome and buried in the Gardens of Domitia, close to the almost-complete mausoleum.", "Upon completion of the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome in 139 by his successor Antoninus Pius, his body was cremated.", "His ashes were placed there together with those of his wife Vibia Sabina and his first adopted son, Lucius Aelius Caesar, who also died in 138.The Senate had been reluctant to grant Hadrian divine honours; but Antoninus persuaded them by threatening to refuse the position of Emperor.", "Hadrian was given a temple on the Campus Martius, ornamented with reliefs representing the provinces.", "The Senate awarded Antoninus the title of \"Pius\", in recognition of his filial piety in pressing for the deification of Hadrian, his adoptive father.", "At the same time, perhaps in reflection of the senate's ill will towards Hadrian, commemorative coinage honouring his deification was kept to a minimum." ], [ "Military activities", "Statue of Hadrian in military garb, wearing the civic crown and muscle cuirass, from Antalya, Turkey.Most of Hadrian's military activities were consistent with his ideology of empire as a community of mutual interest and support.", "He focused on protection from external and internal threats; on \"raising\" existing provinces rather than the aggressive acquisition of wealth and territory through subjugation of \"foreign\" peoples that had characterised the early empire.", "Hadrian's policy shift was part of a trend towards the slowing down of the empire's expansion, such expansion being not closed after him (the empire's greatest extent being achieved only during the Severan dynasty), but a significant step in that direction, given the empire's overstretching.", "While the empire as a whole benefited from this, military careerists resented the loss of opportunities.The 4th-century historian Aurelius Victor saw Hadrian's withdrawal from Trajan's territorial gains in Mesopotamia as a jealous belittlement of Trajan's achievements (''Traiani gloriae invidens'').", "More likely, an expansionist policy was no longer sustainable; the empire had lost two legions, the Legio XXII Deiotariana and the \"lost legion\" IX Hispania, possibly destroyed in a late Trajanic uprising by the Brigantes in Britain.", "Trajan himself may have thought his gains in Mesopotamia indefensible and abandoned them shortly before his death.", "Hadrian granted parts of Dacia to the Roxolani Sarmatians; their king, Rasparaganus, received Roman citizenship, client king status, and possibly an increased subsidy.", "Hadrian's presence on the Dacian front is mere conjecture, but Dacia was included in his coin series with allegories of the provinces.", "A controlled partial withdrawal of troops from the Dacian plains would have been less costly than maintaining several Roman cavalry units and a supporting network of fortifications.Hadrian retained control over Osroene through the client king Parthamaspates, who had once served as Trajan's client king of Parthia; and around 123, Hadrian negotiated a peace treaty with the now-independent Parthia (according to the ''Historia Augusta'', disputed).", "Late in his reign (135), the Alani attacked Roman Cappadocia with the covert support of Pharasmanes, the king of Caucasian Iberia.", "The attack was repulsed by Hadrian's governor, the historian Arrian, who subsequently installed a Roman \"adviser\" in Iberia.", "Arrian kept Hadrian well-informed on matters related to the Black Sea and the Caucasus.", "Between 131 and 132, he sent Hadrian a lengthy letter (''Periplus of the Euxine'') on a maritime trip around the Black Sea that was intended to offer relevant information in case a Roman intervention was needed.Hadrian also developed permanent fortifications and military posts along the empire's borders (''limites'', sl.", "''limes'') to support his policy of stability, peace and preparedness.", "That helped keep the military usefully occupied in times of peace; his wall across Britania was built by ordinary troops.", "A series of mostly wooden fortifications, forts, outposts and watchtowers strengthened the Danube and Rhine borders.", "Troops practised intensive, regular drill routines.", "Although his coins showed military images almost as often as peaceful ones, Hadrian's policy was peace through strength, even threat, with an emphasis on ''disciplina'' (discipline), which was the subject of two monetary series.", "Cassius Dio praised Hadrian's emphasis on \"spit and polish\" as cause for the generally peaceful character of his reign.", "Fronto, by contrast, claimed that Hadrian preferred war games to actual war and enjoyed \"giving eloquent speeches to the armies\" – like the inscribed series of addresses he made while on an inspection tour, during 128, at the new headquarters of Legio III Augusta in Lambaesis.Faced with a shortage of legionary recruits from Italy and other Romanised provinces, Hadrian systematised the use of less costly ''numeri'' – ethnic non-citizen troops with special weapons, such as Eastern mounted archers, in low-intensity, mobile defensive tasks such as dealing with border infiltrators and skirmishers.", "Hadrian is also credited with introducing units of heavy cavalry (cataphracts) into the Roman army.", "Fronto later blamed Hadrian for declining standards in the Roman army of his own time." ], [ "Legal and social reforms", "Bust of Emperor Hadrian, Roman, 117–138 CE.", "Probably from Rome, Italy.", "Formerly in the Townley Collection, now housed in the British Museum, LondonHadrian enacted, through the jurist Salvius Julianus, the first attempt to codify Roman law.", "This was the Perpetual Edict, according to which the legal actions of praetors became fixed statutes and, as such, could no longer be subjected to personal interpretation or change by any magistrate other than the Emperor.", "At the same time, following a procedure initiated by Domitian, Hadrian made the Emperor's legal advisory board, the ''consilia principis'' (\"council of the princeps\") into a permanent body, staffed by salaried legal aides.", "Its members were mostly drawn from the equestrian class, replacing the earlier freedmen of the imperial household.", "This innovation marked the superseding of surviving Republican institutions by an openly autocratic political system.", "The reformed bureaucracy was supposed to exercise administrative functions independently of traditional magistracies; objectively it did not detract from the Senate's position.", "The new civil servants were free men and as such supposed to act on behalf of the interests of the \"Crown\", not of the Emperor as an individual.", "However, the Senate never accepted the loss of its prestige caused by the emergence of a new aristocracy alongside it, placing more strain on the already troubled relationship between the Senate and the Emperor.Hadrian codified the customary legal privileges of the wealthiest, most influential, highest-status citizens (described as ''splendidiores personae'' or ''honestiores''), who held a traditional right to pay fines when found guilty of relatively minor, non-treasonous offences.", "Low-ranking persons – ''alii'' (\"the others\"), including low-ranking citizens – were ''humiliores'' who for the same offences could be subject to extreme physical punishments, including forced labour in the mines or in public works, as a form of fixed-term servitude.", "While Republican citizenship had carried at least notional equality under law, and the right to justice, offences in imperial courts were judged and punished according to the relative prestige, rank, reputation and moral worth of both parties; senatorial courts were apt to be lenient when trying one of their peers, and to deal very harshly with offences committed against one of their number by low-ranking citizens or non-citizens.", "For treason (maiestas), beheading was the worst punishment that the law could inflict on ''honestiores''; the ''humiliores'' might suffer crucifixion, burning, or condemnation to the beasts in the arena.NAMA.A great number of Roman citizens maintained a precarious social and economic advantage at the lower end of the hierarchy.", "Hadrian found it necessary to clarify that decurions, the usually middle-class, elected local officials responsible for running the ordinary, everyday official business of the provinces, counted as ''honestiores''; so did soldiers, veterans and their families, as far as civil law was concerned; by implication, almost all citizens below those ranks - the vast majority of the Empire's population - counted as ''humiliores'', with low citizen status, high tax obligations and limited rights.", "Like most Romans, Hadrian seems to have accepted slavery as morally correct, an expression of the same natural order that rewarded \"the best men\" with wealth, power and respect.", "When confronted by a crowd demanding the freeing of a popular slave charioteer, Hadrian replied that he could not free a slave belonging to another person.", "However, he limited the punishments that slaves could suffer; they could be lawfully tortured to provide evidence, but they could not be lawfully killed unless guilty of a capital offence.", "Masters were forbidden to sell slaves to a gladiator trainer (lanista) or to a procurer, except as legally justified punishment.", "Hadrian also forbade torture of free defendants and witnesses.", "He abolished ergastula, private prisons for slaves in which kidnapped free men had sometimes been illegally detained.Hadrian issued a general rescript, imposing a ban on castration, performed on freedman or slave, voluntarily or not, on pain of death for both the performer and the patient.", "Under the ''Lex Cornelia de Sicaris et Veneficis'', castration was placed on a par with conspiracy to murder and punished accordingly.", "Notwithstanding his philhellenism, Hadrian was also a traditionalist.", "He enforced dress-standards among the ''honestiores''; senators and knights were expected to wear the toga when in public.", "He imposed strict separation between the sexes in theatres and public baths; to discourage idleness, the latter were not allowed to open until 2:00 in the afternoon, \"except for medical reasons.\"" ], [ "Religious activities", "Statue of Hadrian as ''pontifex maximus'', dated 130–140 AD, from Rome, Palazzo Nuovo, Capitoline MuseumsOne of Hadrian's immediate duties on accession was to seek senatorial consent for the deification of his predecessor, Trajan, and any members of Trajan's family to whom he owed a debt of gratitude.", "Matidia Augusta, Hadrian's mother-in-law, died in December 119 and was duly deified.", "Hadrian may have stopped at Nemausus during his return from Britannia to oversee the completion or foundation of a basilica dedicated to his patroness Plotina.", "She had recently died in Rome and had been deified at Hadrian's request.As Emperor, Hadrian was also Rome's ''pontifex maximus'', responsible for all religious affairs and the proper functioning of official religious institutions throughout the empire.", "His Hispano-Roman origins and marked pro-Hellenism shifted the focus of the official imperial cult from Rome to the Provinces.", "While his standard coin issues identified him with the traditional ''genius populi Romani'', other issues stressed his personal identification with ''Hercules Gaditanus'' (Hercules of Gades), and Rome's imperial protection of Greek civilisation.", "He promoted Sagalassos in Greek Pisidia as the Empire's leading imperial cult centre; his exclusively Greek ''Panhellenion'' extolled Athens as the spiritual centre of Greek culture.Hadrian added several imperial cult centres to the existing roster, particularly in Greece, where traditional intercity rivalries were commonplace.", "Cities promoted as imperial cult centres drew imperial sponsorship of festivals and sacred games, and attracted tourism, trade and private investment.", "Local worthies and sponsors were encouraged to seek self-publicity as cult officials under the aegis of Roman rule and to foster reverence for imperial authority.", "Hadrian's rebuilding of long-established religious centres would have further underlined his respect for the glories of classical Greece – something well in line with contemporary antiquarian tastes.", "During Hadrian's third and last trip to the Greek East, there seems to have been an upwelling of religious fervour, focused on Hadrian himself.", "He was given personal cult as a deity, monuments and civic homage, according to the religious syncretism of the time.", "He may have had the great Serapeum of Alexandria rebuilt, following damage sustained in 116, during the Kitos War.In 136, just two years before his death, Hadrian dedicated his Temple of Venus and Roma.", "It was built on land he had set aside for the purpose in 121, formerly the site of Nero's Golden House.", "The temple was the largest in Rome and was built in a Hellenising style, more Greek than Roman.", "Its dedication and statuary associated the ''cultus'' of the traditional Roman goddess Venus, divine ancestress and protector of the Roman people, with the ''cultus'' of the goddess Roma – herself a Greek invention, hitherto worshipped only in the provinces – to emphasise the universal nature of the empire.===Antinous===Busts of Hadrian and Antinous in the British MuseumHadrian had Antinous deified as Osiris-Antinous by an Egyptian priest at the ancient Temple of Ramesses II, very near the place of his death.", "Hadrian dedicated a new temple-city complex there, built in a Graeco-Roman style, and named it Antinoöpolis.", "It was a proper Greek polis; it was granted an imperially subsidised alimentary scheme similar to Trajan's alimenta, and its citizens were allowed intermarriage with members of the native population without loss of citizen status.", "Hadrian thus identified an existing native cult (to Osiris) with Roman rule.", "The cult of Antinous was to become very popular in the Greek-speaking world and also found support in the West.", "In Hadrian's villa, statues of the Tyrannicides, with a bearded Aristogeiton and a clean-shaven Harmodios, linked his favourite to the classical tradition of Greek love.", "In the west, Antinous was identified with the Celtic sun god Belenos.Hadrian was criticised for the open intensity of his grief at Antinous's death, particularly as he had delayed the apotheosis of his own sister Paulina after her death.", "Nevertheless, his recreation of the deceased youth as a cult figure found little opposition.", "Though not a subject of the state-sponsored, official Roman imperial cult, Antinous offered a common focus for the emperor and his subjects, emphasising their sense of community.", "Medals were struck with his effigy, and statues were erected to him in all parts of the empire, in all kinds of garb, including Egyptian dress.", "Temples were built for his worship in Bithynia and Mantineia in Arcadia.", "In Athens, festivals were celebrated in his honour and oracles delivered in his name.", "As an \"international\" cult figure, Antinous had enduring fame, far outlasting Hadrian's reign.", "Local coins with his effigy were still being struck during Caracalla's reign, and he was invoked in a poem to celebrate the accession of Diocletian.===Christians===Hadrian continued Trajan's policy on Christians; they should not be sought out and should only be prosecuted for specific offences, such as refusal to swear oaths.", "In a rescript addressed to the proconsul of Asia, Gaius Minicius Fundanus, and preserved by Justin Martyr, Hadrian laid down that accusers of Christians had to bear the burden of proof for their denunciations or be punished for ''calumnia'' (defamation)." ], [ "Personal and cultural interests", "Hadrian on the obverse of an aureus (123).", "The reverse bears a personification of Aequitas Augusti or Juno Moneta.", "Inscription: IMP.", "CAESAR TRAIAN.", "HADRIANVS AVG.", "/ P. M., TR.", "P., CONS.", "III.Hadrian had an abiding and enthusiastic interest in art, architecture and public works.", "As part of his imperial restoration program, he founded, re-founded or rebuilt many towns and cities throughout the Empire, supplying them with temples, stadiums and other public buildings.", "Examples in the Roman Province of Thrace include monumental developments to the Stadium and Odeon of Philippopolis (present-day Plovdiv), the provincial capital, and his rebuilding and enlargement of the city of Uskudama, which he renamed Hadrianopolis, and is now known as Edirne.", "Several other towns and cities – including Roman Carthage – were named or renamed ''Hadrianopolis''.", "Rome's Pantheon (temple \"to all the gods\"), originally built by Agrippa and destroyed by fire in 80, was partly restored under Trajan and completed under Hadrian in its familiar domed form.", "Hadrian's Villa at Tibur (Tivoli) provides the greatest Roman equivalent of an Alexandrian garden, complete with domed Serapeum, recreating a sacred landscape.An anecdote from Cassius Dio's history suggests Hadrian had a high opinion of his own architectural tastes and talents and took their rejection as a personal offence: at some time before his reign, his predecessor Trajan was discussing an architectural problem with Apollodorus of Damascus – architect and designer of Trajan's Forum, the Column commemorating his Dacian conquest, and his bridge across the Danube – when Hadrian interrupted to offer his advice.", "Apollodorus gave him a scathing response: \"Be off, and draw your gourds a sarcastic reference to the domes which Hadrian apparently liked to draw.", "You don't understand any of these matters.\"", "Dio claims that once Hadrian became emperor, he showed Apollodorus drawings of the gigantic Temple of Venus and Roma, implying that great buildings could be created without his help.", "When Apollodorus pointed out the building's various insoluble problems and faults, Hadrian was enraged, sent him into exile and later put him to death on trumped-up charges.Hadrian was a passionate hunter from a young age.", "In northwest Asia, he founded and dedicated a city to commemorate a she-bear he killed.", "In Egypt he and his beloved Antinous killed a lion.", "In Rome, eight reliefs featuring Hadrian in different stages of hunting decorate a building that began as a monument celebrating a kill.Bust of the emperor Hadrian in the Capitoline MuseumsHadrian's philhellenism may have been one reason for his adoption, like Nero before him, of the beard as suited to Roman imperial dignity; Dio of Prusa had equated the growth of the beard with the Hellenic ethos.", "Hadrian's beard may also have served to conceal his natural facial blemishes.", "Before him, all emperors except Nero (who occasionally wore sideburns) had been clean-shaven, according to the fashion introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236 - 183 BCE); all adult emperors after Nero were bearded, until Constantine the Great (r. 306 - 337); this imperial fashion was revived by Phocas (r. 602 - 610) at the beginning of the 7th century.Hadrian was familiar with the rival philosophers Epictetus and Favorinus, and with their works, and held an interest in Roman philosophy.", "During his first stay in Greece, before he became emperor, he attended lectures by Epictetus at Nicopolis.", "Shortly before the death of Plotina, Hadrian had granted her wish that the leadership of the Epicurean School in Athens be open to a non-Roman candidate.During Hadrian's time as tribune of the plebs, omens and portents supposedly announced his future imperial condition.", "According to the ''Historia Augusta'', Hadrian had a great interest in astrology and divination and had been told of his future accession to the Empire by a granduncle who was himself a skilled astrologer.Hadrian wrote poetry in both Latin and Greek; one of the few surviving examples is a Latin poem he reportedly composed on his deathbed (see below).", "Some of his Greek productions found their way into the ''Palatine Anthology''.", "He also wrote an autobiography, which ''Historia Augusta'' says was published under the name of Hadrian's freedman Phlegon of Tralles.", "It was not a work of great length or revelation but designed to scotch various rumours or explain Hadrian's most controversial actions.", "It is possible that this autobiography had the form of a series of open letters to Antoninus Pius.===Poem by Hadrian===According to the ''Historia Augusta'', Hadrian composed the following poem shortly before his death:::::::::P. Aelius Hadrianus Imp.", ":''Roving amiable little soul,'':''Body's companion and guest,'':''Now descending for parts'':''Colourless, unbending, and bare'':''Your usual distractions no more shall be there...''The poem has enjoyed remarkable popularity, but uneven critical acclaim.", "According to Aelius Spartianus, the alleged author of Hadrian's biography in the ''Historia Augusta'', Hadrian \"wrote also similar poems in Greek, not much better than this one\".", "T. S. Eliot's poem \"Animula\" may have been inspired by Hadrian's, though the relationship is not unambiguous." ], [ "Appraisals", "Bust of Emperor HadrianHadrian has been described as the most versatile of all Roman emperors, who \"adroitly concealed a mind envious, melancholy, hedonistic, and excessive with respect to his own ostentation; he simulated restraint, affability, clemency, and conversely disguised the ardor for fame with which he burned.\"", "His successor Marcus Aurelius, in his ''Meditations'', lists those to whom he owes a debt of gratitude; Hadrian is conspicuously absent.", "Hadrian's tense, authoritarian relationship with his Senate was acknowledged a generation after his death by Fronto, himself a senator, who wrote in one of his letters to Marcus Aurelius that \"I praised the deified Hadrian, your grandfather, in the senate on a number of occasions with great enthusiasm, and I did this willingly, too ...", "But, if it can be said – respectfully acknowledging your devotion towards your grandfather – I wanted to appease and assuage Hadrian as I would Mars Gradivus or Dis Pater, rather than to love him.\"", "Fronto adds, in another letter, that he kept some friendships, during Hadrian's reign, \"under the risk of my life\" (''cum periculo capitis'').", "Hadrian underscored the autocratic character of his reign by counting his ''dies imperii'' from the day of his acclamation by the armies rather than the senate and legislating by frequent use of imperial decrees to bypass the need for the Senate's approval.", "The veiled antagonism between Hadrian and the Senate never grew to overt confrontation as had happened during the reigns of overtly \"bad\" emperors because Hadrian knew how to remain aloof and avoid an open clash.", "That Hadrian spent half of his reign away from Rome in constant travel probably helped to mitigate the worst of this permanently strained relationship.In 1503, Niccolò Machiavelli, though an avowed republican, esteemed Hadrian as an ideal ''princeps'', one of Rome's Five Good Emperors.", "Friedrich Schiller called Hadrian \"the Empire's first servant\".", "Edward Gibbon admired his \"vast and active genius\" and his \"equity and moderation\", and considered Hadrian's era as part of the \"happiest era of human history\".", "In Ronald Syme's view, Hadrian \"was a Führer, a Duce, a Caudillo\".", "According to Syme, Tacitus' description of the rise and accession of Tiberius is a disguised account of Hadrian's authoritarian Principate.", "According, again, to Syme, Tacitus' Annals would be a work of contemporary history, written \"during Hadrian's reign and hating it\".While the balance of ancient literary opinion almost invariably compares Hadrian unfavourably to his predecessor, modern historians have sought to examine his motives, purposes and the consequences of his actions and policies.", "For M.A.", "Levi, a summing-up of Hadrian's policies should stress the ecumenical character of the Empire, his development of an alternate bureaucracy disconnected from the Senate and adapted to the needs of an \"enlightened\" autocracy, and his overall defensive strategy; this would qualify him as a grand Roman political reformer, creator of an openly absolute monarchy to replace a sham senatorial republic.", "Robin Lane Fox credits Hadrian as creator of a unified Greco-Roman cultural tradition, and as the end of this same tradition; Hadrian's attempted \"restoration\" of Classical culture within a non-democratic Empire drained it of substantive meaning, or, in Fox's words, \"killed it with kindness\"." ], [ "Hadrian's Portraits", "Hadrian Aureus with the portrait type Delta-Omikron, Rome, 129-130ADHadrian's portraiture shows him as the first Roman emperor with a beard.", "Most emperors after him followed his lead.", "10 different portrait types are known of Hadrian.", "A juvenile type with curly hair, broad side burns and a light moustache (but a free chin) was shown on coins later in his life on rare aurei, but likely reflects an early prtrait before he became emperor .", "His first portrait type as Caesar and Augustus used on coins in Mid 117AD shows again broad sideburns merging into a strong moustache and still a free chin.", "The beard thus ressembles beard styles popular in the 19th century like emperor Franz Josef of Austria.", "Hadrian Portrait type I Rome, denarius 117AD, This is then followed by portraits showing Hadrian with a short, well groomed full beard until his death.", "Of note his portraits do not age during his reign.", ".", "See other portrait images of Hadrian in this article for examples of the later Hadrian portraits." ], [ "Sources and historiography", "In Hadrian's time, there was already a well-established convention that one could not write a contemporary Roman imperial history for fear of contradicting what the emperors wanted to say, read or hear about themselves.", "As an earlier Latin source, Fronto's correspondence and works attest to Hadrian's character and the internal politics of his rule.", "Greek authors such as Philostratus and Pausanias wrote shortly after Hadrian's reign, but confined their scope to the general historical framework that shaped Hadrian's decisions, especially those relating the Greek-speaking world, Greek cities and notables.", "Pausanias especially wrote a lot in praise of Hadrian's benefactions to Greece in general and Athens in particular.", "Political histories of Hadrian's reign come mostly from later sources, some of them written centuries after the reign itself.", "The early 3rd-century ''Roman History'' by Cassius Dio, written in Greek, gave a general account of Hadrian's reign, but the original is lost, and what survives, aside from some fragments, is a brief, Byzantine-era abridgment by the 11th-century monk Xiphilinius, who focused on Hadrian's religious interests, the Bar Kokhba war, and little else—mostly on Hadrian's moral qualities and his fraught relationship with the Senate.", "The principal source for Hadrian's life and reign is, therefore, in Latin: one of several late 4th-century imperial biographies, collectively known as the ''Historia Augusta''.", "The collection as a whole is notorious for its unreliability (\"a mish mash of actual fact, cloak and dagger, sword and sandal, with a sprinkling of ''Ubu Roi''\"), but most modern historians consider its account of Hadrian to be relatively free of outright fictions, and probably based on sound historical sources, principally one of a lost series of imperial biographies by the prominent 3rd-century senator Marius Maximus, who covered the reigns of Nerva through to Elagabalus.The first modern historian to produce a chronological account of Hadrian's life, supplementing the written sources with other epigraphical, numismatic, and archaeological evidence, was the German 19th-century medievalist Ferdinand Gregorovius.", "A 1907 biography by Weber, a German nationalist and later Nazi Party supporter, incorporates the same archaeological evidence to produce an account of Hadrian, and especially his Bar Kokhba war, that has been described as ideologically loaded.", "Epigraphical studies in the post-war period help support alternate views of Hadrian.", "Anthony Birley's 1997 biography of Hadrian sums up and reflects these developments in Hadrian historiography." ], [ "See also", "* ''Memoirs of Hadrian'', a 1951 semi-fictional autobiography of Hadrian, written by Marguerite Yourcenar.", "* Phallos, a 2004 novella in which the narrator encounters Hadrian and Antinous just before Antinous's murder and then, once more, minutes afterward, which changes the narrator's life, written by Samuel R.", "Delany.", "* ''Hadrian'', a 2018 opera based on Hadrian's life and death and his relationship with Antinous, composed by Rufus Wainwright." ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "===Primary sources===* Cassius Dio or Dio Cassius ''Roman History''.", "Greek Text and Translation by Earnest Cary at internet archive* Scriptores Historiae Augustae, ''Augustan History''.", "Latin Text Translated by David Magie* Aurelius Victor, ''Caesares'', XIV.", "Latin * Anon, ''Excerpta'' of Aurelius Victor: ''Epitome de Caesaribus'', XIII.", "Latin Inscriptions:* Eusebius of Caesarea, ''Church History (Book IV)'', * Smallwood, E.M, ''Documents Illustrating the Principates of Nerva Trajan and Hadrian'', Cambridge, 1966.===Secondary sources===* * * * * * * * * Gibbon, Edward, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', vol.", "I, 1776.The Online Library of Liberty * * * * * * * * * Reprinted in" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * Kouremenos, Anna (2022).", "''The Province of Achaea in the 2nd century CE: The Past Present''.", "Routledge.", "* " ], [ "External links", " Historia Augusta: Life of Hadrian* Hadrian coinage* Catholic Encyclopedia article* Major scultoric find at Sagalassos (Turkey), 2 August 2007 (between 13 and 16 feet in height, four to five meters), with some splendid photos courtesy of the Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project* Hadrian, in De Imperatoribus Romanis, Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Herman Melville" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herman Melville''' (born '''Melvill'''; August 1, 1819 – September 28, 1891) was an American novelist, short story writer, and poet of the American Renaissance period.", "Among his best-known works are ''Moby-Dick'' (1851); ''Typee'' (1846), a romanticized account of his experiences in Polynesia; and ''Billy Budd, Sailor'', a posthumously published novella.", "At the time of his death, Melville was no longer well known to the public, but the 1919 centennial of his birth was the starting point of a Melville revival.", "''Moby-Dick'' eventually would be considered one of the great American novels.Melville was born in New York City, the third child of a prosperous merchant whose death in 1832 left the family in dire financial straits.", "He took to sea in 1839 as a common sailor on a merchant ship and then on the whaler ''Acushnet'', but he jumped ship in the Marquesas Islands.", "''Typee'', his first book, and its sequel, ''Omoo'' (1847), were travel-adventures based on his encounters with the peoples of the islands.", "Their success gave him the financial security to marry Elizabeth Shaw, the daughter of the Boston jurist Lemuel Shaw.", "''Mardi'' (1849), a romance-adventure and his first book not based on his own experience, was not well received.", "''Redburn'' (1849) and ''White-Jacket'' (1850), both tales based on his experience as a well-born young man at sea, were given respectable reviews, but did not sell well enough to support his expanding family.Melville's growing literary ambition showed in ''Moby-Dick'' (1851), which took nearly a year and a half to write, but it did not find an audience, and critics scorned his psychological novel ''Pierre: or, The Ambiguities'' (1852).", "From 1853 to 1856, Melville published short fiction in magazines, including \"Benito Cereno\" and \"Bartleby, the Scrivener\".", "In 1857, he traveled to England, toured the Near East, and published his last work of prose, ''The Confidence-Man'' (1857).", "He moved to New York in 1863, eventually taking a position as a United States customs inspector.From that point, Melville focused his creative powers on poetry.", "''Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War'' (1866) was his poetic reflection on the moral questions of the American Civil War.", "In 1867, his eldest child Malcolm died at home from a self-inflicted gunshot.", "Melville's metaphysical epic ''Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land'' was published in 1876.In 1886, his other son Stanwix died of apparent tuberculosis, and Melville retired.", "During his last years, he privately published two volumes of poetry, and left one volume unpublished.", "The novella ''Billy Budd'' was left unfinished at his death, but was published posthumously in 1924.Melville died from cardiovascular disease in 1891." ], [ "Early life and education", "An 1810 portrait of Melville's father, Allan Melvill (1782–1832), by John Rubens Smith, now housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.", "In Melville's novel ''Pierre'' (1852), he fictionalized this portrait as the portrait of Pierre's father.A portrait of Melville's mother Maria Gansevoort Melville by Ezra Ames, now on display at the National Gallery of ArtMelville was born in New York City, on August 1, 1819, the third of eight children to Allan Melvill (1782–1832) and Maria (Gansevoort) Melvill (1791–1872), who were of Scottish and Dutch descent.", "His seven siblings, who played important roles in his career and emotional life, were Gansevoort (1815–1846), Helen Maria (1817–1888), Augusta (1821–1876), Allan (1823–1872), Catherine (1825–1905), Frances Priscilla (1827–1885), and Thomas (1830–1884), who eventually became a governor of Sailors' Snug Harbor.", "Part of a well-established and colorful Boston family, Allan Melvill spent considerable time away from New York City, travelling regularly to Europe as a commission merchant and an importer of French dry goods.Both of Melville's grandfathers both played significant roles in the American Revolutionary War, and Melville later expressed satisfaction in his \"double revolutionary descent\".", "Major Thomas Melvill (1751–1832) participated in the Boston Tea Party, and Melville's maternal grandfather, General Peter Gansevoort (1749–1812), commanded the defense of Fort Stanwix in New York in 1777.At the turn of the 19th century, Major Melvill did not send his son Allan (Herman's father) to college, but instead sent him to France, where he spent two years in Paris and learned to speak French fluently.", "In 1814, Allan, who subscribed to his father's Unitarianism, married Maria Gansevoort, who was committed to her family's more strict and biblically oriented Dutch Reformed version of the Calvinist creed.", "The Gansevoorts' severe Protestantism ensured that Maria was well versed in the Bible, in English as well as in Dutch, the language that the Gansevoorts spoke at home.On August 19, almost three weeks after his birth, Melville was baptized at home by a minister of the South Reformed Dutch Church.", "During the 1820s, Melville lived a privileged and opulent life in a household supported by three or more servants at a time.", "Every four years, the family moved to more spacious and elegant quarters, finally settling on Broadway in 1828.Allan Melvill lived beyond his means, on large sums that he borrowed from his father and from his wife's widowed mother.", "Although his wife's opinion of his financial conduct is unknown, biographer Hershel Parker says that Maria \"thought her mother's money was infinite and that she was entitled to much of her portion\" while her children were young.", "How well the parents managed to hide the truth from their children is \"impossible to know\", according to biographer Andrew Delbanco.In 1830, the Gansevoorts ended their financial support of the Melvilles, at which point Allan's lack of financial responsibility had left him in debt to both the Melvill and Gansevoort families for sum exceeding $20,000 ().", "But Melville biographer Newton Arvin writes that the relative happiness and comfort of Melville's early childhood depended less on Allan's wealth or on his profligate spending, as on the \"exceptionally tender and affectionate spirit in all the family relationships, especially in the immediate circle\".", "Arvin describes Allan as \"a man of real sensibility and a particularly warm and loving father,\" while Maria was \"warmly maternal, simple, robust, and affectionately devoted to her husband and her brood\".Melville's education began when he was five.", "In 1824, around the time the Melvills moved to a newly built house at 33 Bleecker Street in Manhattan, Herman and his older brother Gansevoort attended New York Male High School.", "Two years later, in 1826, the year that Herman contracted scarlet fever, Allan Melvill described him as \"very backwards in speech & somewhat slow in comprehension\" at first, but his development increased its pace and Allan was surprised \"that Herman proved the best Speaker in the introductory Department\".", "In 1829, both Gansevoort and Herman transferred to Columbia Grammar and Preparatory School, and Herman enrolled in the English Department on September 28.", "\"Herman I think is making more progress than formerly,\" Allan wrote in May 1830 to Major Melvill, \"and without being a bright Scholar, he maintains a respectable standing, and would proceed further, if he could only be induced to study more—being a most amiable and innocent child, I cannot find it in my heart to coerce him\".Emotionally unstable and behind on paying the rent for the house on Broadway, Herman's father tried to recover by moving his family to Albany, New York, in 1830 and going into the fur business.", "Herman attended The Albany Academy from October 1830 to October 1831, where he took the standard preparatory course, including reading and spelling, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, geography, natural history, universal, Greek, Roman, and English history, classical biography, and Jewish antiquities.", "In early August 1831, Herman marched in the Albany city government procession of the year's \"finest scholars\" and was presented with a copy of ''The London Carcanet'', a collection of poems and prose, inscribed to him as \"first best in ciphering books\".", "As Melville scholar Merton Sealts observed,In October 1831, Melville left the Academy.", "While the precise reason is not known definitively, Parker speculates it was for financial reasons, since \"even the tiny tuition fee seemed too much to pay\".In December 183`, Allan Melvill returned from New York City by steamboat, but he had to travel the last 70 miles in an open carriage for two days and two nights in subfreezing temperatures.", "In early January, he began to show \"signs of delirium\", and he grew worse until his wife felt that his suffering deprived him of his intellect.", "On January 28, 1832, he died, two months prior to reaching his 50th birthday.", "Since Herman was no longer attending school, he likely witnessed his father's medical and mental deterioration.", "Twenty years later, Melville described a similar death in ''Pierre''." ], [ "Work as a clerk", "The death of Allan caused many major shifts in the family's material and spiritual circumstances.", "One result was the greater influence of his mother's religious beliefs.", "Maria sought consolation in her faith and in April was admitted as a member of the First Reformed Dutch Church.", "Herman's saturation in orthodox Calvinism was surely the most decisive intellectual and spiritual influence of his early life.", "Two months after his father's death, Gansevoort entered the cap and fur business.", "Uncle Peter Gansevoort, a director of the New York State Bank, got Herman a job as clerk for $150 a year ().", "Biographers cite a passage from ''Redburn'' when trying to answer what Herman must have felt then: \"I had learned to think much and bitterly before my time,\" the narrator remarks, adding, \"I must not think of those delightful days, before my father became a bankrupt ... and we removed from the city; for when I think of those days, something rises up in my throat and almost strangles me\".", "With Melville, Arvin argues, one has to reckon with \"psychology, the tormented psychology, of the decayed patrician\".When Melville's paternal grandfather died on September 16, 1832, Maria and her children discovered Allan, somewhat unscrupulously, had borrowed more than his share of his inheritance, meaning Maria received only $20 ().", "His paternal grandmother died almost exactly seven months later.", "Melville did his job well at the bank; although he was only 14 in 1834, the bank considered him competent enough to be sent to Schenectady, New York, on an errand.", "Not much else is known from this period except that he was very fond of drawing.", "The visual arts became a lifelong interest.", "Around May 1834, the Melvilles moved to another house in Albany, a three-story brick house.", "That same month a fire destroyed Gansevoort's skin-preparing factory, which left him with personnel he could neither employ nor afford.", "Instead he pulled Melville out of the bank to man the cap and fur store." ], [ "Intermittent work and studies", "In 1835, while still working in the store, Melville enrolled in Albany Classical School, perhaps using Maria's part of the proceeds from the sale of the estate of his maternal grandmother in March 1835.In September of the following year, Herman was back at The Albany Academy, participating in the school's Latin course.", "He also participated in debating societies, in an apparent effort to make up as much as he could for his missed years of schooling.", "During this time, he read Shakespeare, including ''Macbeth'', whose witch scenes gave him the chance to teasingly scare his sisters.", "By March 1837, however, he again withdrew from The Albany Academy.Gansevoort served as a role model and support for Melville throughout his life, particularly during this time trying to cobble together an education.", "In early 1834, Gansevoort became a member of Albany's Young Men's Association for Mutual Improvement, and in January 1835 Melville joined him there.", "Gansevoort also had copies of John Todd's ''Index Rerum'', a blank register for indexing remarkable passages from books one had read for easy retrieval.", "Among the sample entries that Gansevoort made showing his academic scrupulousness was \"Pequot, beautiful description of the war with,\" with a short title reference to the place in Benjamin Trumbull's ''A Complete History of Connecticut'' (Volume I in 1797, and Volume II in 1818) in which the description could be found.", "The two surviving volumes of Gansevoort's are the best evidence for Melville's reading in this period.", "Gansevoort's entries include books Melville used for ''Moby-Dick'' and ''Clarel'', including \"Parsees—of India—an excellent description of their character, and religion and an account of their descent—East India Sketch Book p. 21\".", "Other entries are on Panther, the pirate's cabin, and storm at sea from James Fenimore Cooper's ''The Red Rover''." ], [ "Work as a school teacher", "The Panic of 1837 forced Gansevoort to file for bankruptcy in April.", "In June, Maria told the younger children they needed to leave Albany for somewhere cheaper.", "Gansevoort began studying law in New York City while Herman managed the farm before getting a teaching position at Sikes District School near Lenox, Massachusetts.", "He taught about 30 students of various ages, including some his own age.The semester over, he returned to his mother in 1838.In February he was elected president of the Philo Logos Society, which Peter Gansevoort invited to move into Stanwix Hall for no rent.", "In the ''Albany Microscope'' in March, Melville published two polemical letters about issues in vogue in the debating societies.", "Historians Leon Howard and Hershel Parker suggest the motive behind the letters was a youthful desire to have his rhetorical skills publicly recognized.", "In May, the Melvilles moved to a rented house in Lansingburgh, almost 12 miles north of Albany.", "Nothing is known about what Melville did or where he went for several months after he finished teaching at Sikes.", "On November 12, five days after arriving in Lansingburgh, Melville paid for a term at Lansingburgh Academy to study surveying and engineering.", "In an April 1839 letter recommending Herman for a job in the Engineer Department of the Erie Canal, Peter Gansevoort says his nephew \"possesses the ambition to make himself useful in a business which he desires to make his profession,\" but no job resulted.Just weeks after this failure, Melville's first known published essay appeared.", "Using the initials \"L.A.V.", "\", Herman contributed \"Fragments from a Writing Desk\" to the weekly newspaper ''Democratic Press and Lansingburgh Advertiser'', which printed it in two installments, the first on May 4.According to Merton Sealts, his use of heavy-handed allusions reveals familiarity with the work of William Shakespeare, John Milton, Walter Scott, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Edmund Burke, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, and Thomas Moore.", "Parker calls the piece \"characteristic Melvillean mood-stuff\" and considers its style \"excessive enough ... to indulge his extravagances and just enough overdone to allow him to deny that he was taking his style seriously\".", "For Delbanco, the style is \"overheated in the manner of Poe, with sexually charged echoes of Byron and ''The Arabian Nights''\"." ], [ "1839–1844: Years at sea", "Richard Tobias Greene, who jumped ship with Melville in the Marquesas Islands and is Toby in ''Typee'', pictured in 1846 Melville's desertion from the ''Acushnet'' in 1842On May 31, 1839, Gansevoort, then living in New York City, wrote that he was sure Herman could get a job on a whaler or merchant vessel.", "The next day, he signed aboard the merchant ship ''St.", "Lawrence'' as a \"boy\" (a green hand), which cruised from New York to Liverpool.", "''Redburn: His First Voyage'' (1849) draws on his experiences in this journey; at least two of the nine guide-books listed in chapter 30 of the book had been part of Allan Melvill's library.", "He arrived back in New York October 1, 1839 and resumed teaching, now at Greenbush, New York, but left after one term because he had not been paid.", "In the summer of 1840 he and his friend James Murdock Fly went to Galena, Illinois, to see if his Uncle Thomas could help them find work.", "Unsuccessful, he and his friend returned home in autumn, likely by way of St. Louis and up the Ohio River.Inspired by contemporaneous popular cultural reading, including Richard Henry Dana Jr.'s new book ''Two Years Before the Mast'' and Jeremiah N. Reynolds's account in the May 1839 issue of ''The Knickerbocker'' magazine of the hunt for a great white sperm whale named Mocha Dick, Herman and Gansevoort traveled to New Bedford, where Herman signed up for a whaling voyage aboard a new ship, the ''Acushnet''.", "Built in 1840, the ship measured some 104 feet in length, almost 28 feet in breadth, and almost 14 feet in depth.", "She measured slightly less than 360 tons and had two decks and three masts, but no quarter galleries.", "The ''Acushnet'' was owned by Melvin O. Bradford and Philemon Fuller of Fairhaven, Massachusetts, and was berthed near their office at the foot of Center Street in that town.", "Herman signed a contract on Christmas Day with the ship's agent as a \"green hand\" for 1/175th of whatever profits the voyage would yield.", "On Sunday the 27th, the brothers heard Reverend Enoch Mudge preach at the Seamen's Bethel on Johnnycake Hill, where white marble cenotaphs on the walls memorialized local sailors who had died at sea, often in battle with whales.", "When he signed the crew list the next day, Herman was advanced $84.On January 3, 1841, the ''Acushnet'' set sail.", "Melville slept with some twenty others in the forecastle; Captain Valentine Pease, the mates, and the skilled men slept aft.", "Whales were found near The Bahamas, and in March 150 barrels of oil were sent home from Rio de Janeiro.", "Cutting in and trying-out (boiling) a single whale took about three days, and a whale yielded approximately one barrel of oil per foot of length and per ton of weight (the average whale weighed 40 to 60 tons).", "The oil was kept on deck for a day to cool off, and was then stowed down; scrubbing the deck completed the labor.", "An average voyage meant that some forty whales were killed to yield some 1600 barrels of oil.On April 15, the ''Acushnet'' sailed around Cape Horn and traveled to the South Pacific, where the crew sighted whales without catching any.", "She then went up the coast of Chile to the region of Selkirk Island, and on May 7, near Juan Fernández Islands, she had 160 barrels.", "On June 23, the ship anchored for the first time since Rio, in Santa Harbor.", "The cruising grounds the ''Acushnet'' was sailing attracted much traffic, and Captain Pease not only paused to visit other whalers, but at times hunted in company with them.", "From July 23 into August, the ''Acushnet'' regularly gammed with the ''Lima'' from Nantucket, and Melville met William Henry Chase, the son of Owen Chase, who gave him a copy of his father's account of his adventures aboard the ''Essex''.", "Ten years later, Melville wrote in his other copy of the book: \"The reading of this wondrous story upon the landless sea, & close to the very latitude of the shipwreck had a surprising effect upon me\".On September 25, the ship reported having 600 barrels of oil to another whaler, and in October 700 barrels.", "On October 24, the ''Acushnet'' crossed the equator to the north, and six or seven days later arrived at the Galápagos Islands.", "This short visit would be the basis for \"The Encantadas\".", "On November 2, the ''Acushnet'' and three other American whalers were hunting together near the Galápagos Islands; Melville later exaggerated that number in Sketch Fourth of \"The Encantadas\".", "From November 19 to 25, the ship anchored at Chatham's Isle, and on December 2 reached the coast of Peru and anchored at Tombez near Paita, with 570 barrels of oil on board.", "On December 27, the ''Acushnet'' sighted Cape Blanco, off Ecuador.", "Point St. Elena was sighted the next day, and on January 6, 1842, the ship approached the Galápagos Islands from the southeast.", "From February 13 to May 7, seven sightings of sperm whales were recorded, but none were killed.", "From early May to early June, the ''Acushnet'' cooperatively set about its whaling endeavors several times with the ''Columbus'' of New Bedford, which also took letters from Melville's ship; the two ships were in the same area just south of the Equator.", "On June 16, the ''Acushnet'' carried 750 barrels of oil and sent home 200 on the ''Herald the Second'', and, on June 23, she reached the Marquesas Islands and anchored at Nuku Hiva.In the summer of 1842, Melville and his shipmate Richard Tobias Greene (\"Toby\") jumped ship at Nuku Hiva Bay.", "Melville's first book, ''Typee'' (1846), is based on his stay in or near the Taipi Valley.", "By around mid-August, Melville had left the island aboard the Australian whaler ''Lucy Ann'', bound for Tahiti, where he took part in a mutiny and was briefly jailed in the native ''Calabooza Beretanee''.", "In October, he and crew mate John B.", "Troy escaped Tahiti for Eimeo.", "He then spent a month as beachcomber and island rover (\"omoo\" in Tahitian), eventually crossing over to Moorea.", "He drew on these experiences for ''Omoo'', the sequel to ''Typee''.", "In November, he contracted to be a seaman on the Nantucket whaler ''Charles & Henry'' for a six-month cruise (November 1842 – April 1843), and was discharged at Lahaina, Maui, in the Hawaiian Islands, in May 1843.After four months of working several jobs in Hawaii, including as a clerk, Melville joined the US Navy on August 20, as an ordinary seaman on the frigate .", "During the next year, the homeward bound ship visited the Marquesas Islands, Tahiti, and Valparaiso, and then, from summer to fall 1844, Mazatlan, Lima, and Rio de Janeiro, before reaching Boston on October 3.Melville was discharged on October 14.This Navy experience is used in ''White-Jacket'' (1850), Melville's fifth book.Melville's wander-years created what biographer Arvin calls \"a settled hatred of external authority, a lust for personal freedom\", and a \"growing and intensifying sense of his own exceptionalism as a person\", along with \"the resentful sense that circumstance and mankind together had already imposed their will upon him in a series of injurious ways\".", "Scholar Robert Milder believes the encounter with the wide ocean, where he was seemingly abandoned by God, led Melville to experience a \"metaphysical estrangement\" and influenced his social views in two ways: first, that he belonged to the genteel classes, but sympathized with the \"disinherited commons\" he had been placed among and, second, that experiencing the cultures of Polynesia let him view the West from an outsider's perspective." ], [ "1845–1850: Successful writer", "Elizabeth \"Lizzie\" Shaw Melville, Melville's wife, in 1885Arrowhead in Pittsfield, MassachusettsUpon his return, Melville regaled his family and friends with his adventurous tales and romantic experiences, and they urged him to put them into writing.", "Melville completed ''Typee'', his first book, in the summer of 1845 while living in Troy, New York.", "His brother Gansevoort found a publisher for it in London, where it was published in February 1846 by John Murray in his travel adventure series.", "It became an overnight bestseller in England, then in New York, when it was published on March 17 by Wiley & Putnam.In the narrative, Melville likely extended the period of time he had spent on the island and also incorporated material from source books he had assembled.", "Milder calls ''Typee'' \"an appealing mixture of adventure, anecdote, ethnography, and social criticism presented with a genial latitudinarianism that gave novelty to a South Sea idyll at once erotically suggestive and romantically chaste\".An unsigned review in the ''Salem Advertiser'' written by Nathaniel Hawthorne called the book a \"skilfully managed\" narrative by an author with \"that freedom of view ... which renders him tolerant of codes of morals that may be little in accordance with our own\".", "Hawthorne continued: This book is lightly but vigorously written; and we are acquainted with no work that gives a freer and more effective picture of barbarian life, in that unadulterated state of which there are now so few specimens remaining.", "The gentleness of disposition that seems akin to the delicious climate, is shown in contrast with the traits of savage fierceness...He has that freedom of view—it would be too harsh to call it laxity of principle—which renders him tolerant of codes of morals that may be little in accordance with our own, a spirit proper enough to a young and adventurous sailor, and which makes his book the more wholesome to our staid landsmen.Pleased but not overwhelmed by the adulation of his new public, Melville later expressed concern that he would \"go down to posterity ... as a 'man who lived among the cannibals'!\"", "The writing of ''Typee'' brought Melville back into contact with his friend Greene—Toby in the book—who wrote confirming Melville's account in newspapers.", "The two corresponded until 1863, and in his final years Melville \"traced and successfully located his old friend\" for a further meeting of the two.", "In March 1847, ''Omoo'', a sequel to ''Typee'', was published by Murray in London, and in May by Harper in New York.", "''Omoo'' is \"a slighter but more professional book,\" according to Milder.", "''Typee'' and ''Omoo'' gave Melville overnight renown as a writer and adventurer, and he often entertained by telling stories to his admirers.", "As the writer and editor Nathaniel Parker Willis wrote, \"With his cigar and his Spanish eyes, he ''talks'' Typee and Omoo, just as you find the flow of his delightful mind on paper\".", "In 1847, Melville tried unsuccessfully to find a \"government job\" in Washington.In June 1847, Melville and Elizabeth \"Lizzie\" Knapp Shaw were engaged, after knowing each other for approximately three months.", "Melville had first asked her father, Lemuel Shaw, for her hand in March, but was at first turned down at the time.", "Shaw, Chief Justice of Massachusetts, had been a close friend of Melville's father, and Shaw's marriage with Melville's aunt Nancy was prevented only by her death.", "His warmth and financial support for the family continued after Allan's death.", "Melville dedicated his first book, ''Typee'', to him.", "Lizzie was raised by her grandmother and an Irish nurse.", "Arvin suggests that Melville's interest in Lizzie may have been stimulated by \"his need of Judge Shaw's paternal presence\".", "They were married on August 4, 1847.Lizzie described their marriage as \"very unexpected, and scarcely thought of until about two months before it actually took place\".", "She wanted to be married in church, but they had a private wedding ceremony at home to avoid possible crowds hoping to see the celebrity.", "The couple honeymooned in the then-British Province of Canada, and traveled to Montreal.", "They settled in a house on Fourth Avenue in New York City (now called Park Avenue).According to scholars Joyce Deveau Kennedy and Frederick James Kennedy, Lizzie brought to their marriage a sense of religious obligation, an intent to make a home with Melville regardless of place, a willingness to please her husband by performing such \"tasks of drudgery\" as mending stockings, an ability to hide her agitation, and a desire \"to shield Melville from unpleasantness\".", "The Kennedys conclude their assessment with:Biographer Robertson-Lorant cites \"Lizzie's adventurous spirit and abundant energy,\" and she suggests that \"her pluck and good humor might have been what attracted Melville to her, and vice versa\".", "An example of such good humor appears in a letter about her not yet used to being married: \"It seems sometimes exactly as if I were here for a ''visit''.", "The illusion is quite dispelled however when Herman stalks into my room without even the ceremony of knocking, bringing me perhaps a button to sew on, or some equally romantic occupation\".", "On February 16, 1849, the Melvilles' first child, Malcolm, was born.In March 1848, ''Mardi'' was published by Richard Bentley in London, and in April by Harper in New York.", "Nathaniel Hawthorne thought it a rich book \"with depths here and there that compel a man to swim for his life\".", "According to Milder, the book began as another South Sea story but, as he wrote, Melville left that genre behind, first in favor of \"a romance of the narrator Taji and the lost maiden Yillah,\" and then \"to an allegorical voyage of the philosopher Babbalanja and his companions through the imaginary archipelago of Mardi\".In October 1849, ''Redburn'' was published by Bentley in London, and in November by Harper in New York.", "The bankruptcy and death of Allan Melvill, and Melville's own youthful humiliations surface in this \"story of outward adaptation and inner impairment\".", "Biographer Robertson-Lorant regards the work as a deliberate attempt for popular appeal: \"Melville modeled each episode almost systematically on every genre that was popular with some group of antebellum readers,\" combining elements of \"the picaresque novel, the travelogue, the nautical adventure, the sentimental novel, the sensational French romance, the gothic thriller, temperance tracts, urban reform literature, and the English pastoral\".", "His next novel, ''White-Jacket'', was published by Bentley in London in January 1850, and in March by Harper in New York." ], [ "1850–1851: Hawthorne and ''Moby-Dick''", "Melville depicted in an oil painting, Mount Greylock in Massachusetts as seen from Melville's writing deskThe earliest surviving mention of ''Moby-Dick'' is from a May 1, 1850, letter in which Melville told fellow sea author Richard Henry Dana Jr. \"I am half way in the work.\"", "In June, he described the book to his English publisher as \"a romance of adventure, founded upon certain wild legends in the Southern Sperm Whale Fisheries,\" and promised it would be done by the fall.", "The original manuscript has not survived.", "That summer, Melville read Thomas Carlyle, borrowing copies of ''Sartor Resartus'' (1833–34) and ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History'' (1841) from the library of his friend Evert Duyckinck.", "These readings proved significant, occurring as Melville radically transformed his initial plan for the novel over the next several months, conceiving what Delbanco described in 2005 as \"the most ambitious book ever conceived by an American writer\".From August 4 to 12, 1850, the Melvilles, Sarah Morewood, Duyckinck, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and other literary figures from New York and Boston came to Pittsfield to enjoy a period of parties, picnics, dinners, and the like.", "Nathaniel Hawthorne and his publisher James T. Fields joined the group while Hawthorne's wife stayed at home to look after the children.", "On one picnic outing organized by Duyckinck, Hawthorne and Melville sought shelter from the rain together and had a deep, private conversation.", "Melville had been given a copy of Hawthorne's short story collection ''Mosses from an Old Manse'', though he had not yet read it.", "Melville then avidly read it and wrote a review, \"Hawthorne and His Mosses\", which appeared in two installments, on August 17 and 24, in ''The Literary World''.", "Melville wrote that these stories revealed a dark side to Hawthorne, \"shrouded in blackness, ten times black\".", "He repeatedly compared Hawthorne to Shakespeare, and urged that \"men not very much inferior to Shakespeare are this day being born on the banks of the Ohio.\"", "The critic Walter Bezanson finds the essay \"so deeply related to Melville's imaginative and intellectual world while writing ''Moby-Dick''\" that it could be regarded as a virtual preface and should be \"everybody's prime piece of contextual reading\".", "Later that summer, Duyckinck sent Hawthorne copies of Melville's three most recent books.", "Hawthorne read them, as he wrote to Duyckinck on August 29 that Melville in ''Redburn'' and ''White-Jacket'' put the reality \"more unflinchingly\" before his reader than any writer, and he thought ''Mardi'' was \"a rich book, with depths here and there that compel a man to swim for his life\".", "But he cautioned, \"It is so good that one scarcely pardons the writer for not having brooded long over it, so as to make it a great deal better\".In September 1850, Melville borrowed three thousand dollars from his father-in-law Lemuel Shaw to buy a 160-acre farm in Pittsfield, Massachusetts.", "Melville called his new home Arrowhead because of the arrowheads that were dug up around the property during planting season.", "That winter, Melville paid Hawthorne an unexpected visit, only to discover he was working and \"not in the mood for company\".", "Hawthorne's wife Sophia gave him copies of ''Twice-Told Tales'' and, for Malcolm, ''The Grandfather's Chair''.", "Melville invited them to visit Arrowhead soon, hoping to \"discuss the Universe with a bottle of brandy & cigars\" with Hawthorne, but Hawthorne would not stop working on his new book for more than one day and they did not come.", "After a second visit from Melville, Hawthorne surprised him by arriving at Arrowhead with his daughter Una.", "According to Robertson-Lorant, \"The handsome Hawthorne made quite an impression on the Melville women, especially Augusta, who was a great fan of his books\".", "They spent the day mostly \"smoking and talking metaphysics\".Robertson-Lorant writes that Melville was \"infatuated with Hawthorne's intellect, captivated by his artistry, and charmed by his elusive personality,\" but \"the friendship meant something different to each of them,\" with Hawthorne offering Melville \"the kind of intellectual stimulation he needed\".", "They may have been \"natural allies and friends,\" yet they were also \"fifteen years apart in age and temperamentally quite different\" and Hawthorne \"found Melville's manic intensity exhausting at times\".", "Bezanson identifies \"sexual excitement\" in all the ten letters Melville wrote to the older man.", "In the essay on Hawthorne's ''Mosses'', Melville wrote: \"I feel that this Hawthorne has dropped germinous seeds into my soul.", "He expands and deepens down, the more I contemplate him; and further, and further, shoots his strong New-England roots into the hot soil of my Southern soul.\"", "Melville dedicated his book to Hawthorne: \"In token of my admiration for his genius, this book is inscribed to Nathaniel Hawthorne\".On October 18, 1851, ''The Whale'' was published in Britain in three volumes, and on November 14 ''Moby-Dick'' appeared in the United States as a single volume.", "In between these dates, on October 22, 1851, the Melvilles' second child, Stanwix, was born.", "In December, Hawthorne told Duyckinck, \"What a book Melville has written!", "It gives me an idea of much greater power than his preceding ones.\"", "Unlike other contemporaneous reviewers of Melville, Hawthorne had seen the uniqueness of Melville's new novel and acknowledged it.", "In early December 1852, Melville visited the Hawthornes in Concord and discussed the idea of the \"Agatha\" story he had talked of with Hawthorne.", "This was the last contact between the two writers before Melville visited Hawthorne in Liverpool four years later when Hawthorne had relocated to England." ], [ "1852–1857: Unsuccessful writer", "After having borrowed three thousand dollars from his father-in-law in September 1850 to buy a 160-acre farm in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, Melville had high hopes that his next book would please the public and restore his finances.", "In April 1851 he told his British publisher, Richard Bentley, that his new book had \"unquestionable novelty\" and was calculated to have wide appeal with elements of romance and mystery.", "In fact, ''Pierre: or, The Ambiguities'' was heavily psychological, though drawing on the conventions of the romance, and difficult in style.", "It was not well received.", "The New York ''Day Book'' published a venomous attack on September 8, 1852, headlined \"HERMAN MELVILLE CRAZY\".", "The item, offered as a news story, reported, On May 22, 1853, Melville's third child and first daughter Elizabeth (Bessie) was born, and on or about that day Herman finished work on the Agatha story, ''Isle of the Cross''.", "Melville traveled to New York to discuss a book, presumably ''Isle of the Cross'', with his publisher, but later wrote that Harper & Brothers was \"prevented\" from publishing his manuscript because it was lost.After the commercial and critical failure of ''Pierre'', Melville had difficulty finding a publisher for his follow-up novel ''Israel Potter''.", "Instead, this narrative of a Revolutionary War veteran was serialized in ''Putnam's Monthly Magazine'' in 1853.From November 1853 to 1856, Melville published fourteen tales and sketches in ''Putnam's'' and ''Harper's'' magazines.", "In December 1855 he proposed to Dix & Edwards, the new owners of ''Putnam's'', that they publish a selective collection of the short fiction.", "The collection, titled ''The Piazza Tales'', was named after a new introductory story Melville wrote for it, \"The Piazza\".", "It also contained five previously published stories, including \"Bartleby, the Scrivener\" and \"Benito Cereno\".", "On March 2, 1855, the Melvilles' fourth child, Frances (Fanny), was born.", "In this period, his book ''Israel Potter'' was published.The writing of ''The Confidence-Man'' put great strain on Melville, leading Sam Shaw, a nephew of Lizzie, to write to his uncle Lemuel Shaw: \"Herman I hope has had no more of those ugly attacks\"—a reference to what Robertson-Lorant calls \"the bouts of rheumatism and sciatica that plagued Melville\".", "Melville's father-in-law apparently shared his daughter's \"great anxiety about him\" when he wrote a letter to a cousin, in which he described Melville's working habits: \"When he is deeply engaged in one of his literary works, he confines himself to hard study many hours in the day, with little or no exercise, and this specially in winter for a great many days together.", "He probably thus overworks himself and brings on severe nervous affections\".", "Shaw advanced Melville $1,500 from Lizzie's inheritance to travel four or five months in Europe and the Holy Land.From October 11, 1856, to May 20, 1857, Melville made a six-month Grand Tour of Europe and the Mediterranean.", "While in England, in November 1856, he briefly reunited for three days with Hawthorne, who had taken the position of United States Consul at Liverpool, at that time the hub of Britain's Atlantic trade.", "At the nearby coast resort of Southport, amid the sand dunes where they had stopped to smoke cigars, they had a conversation that Hawthorne later described in his journal: \"Melville, as he always does, began to reason of Providence and futurity, and of everything that lies beyond human ken, and informed me that he 'pretty much made up his mind to be annihilated' ...", "If he were a religious man, he would be one of the most truly religious and reverential; he has a very high and noble nature, and better worth immortality than most of us.", "\"The Mediterranean part of the tour took in the Holy Land, which inspired his epic poem ''Clarel.''", "During the tour he visited Mount Hope, a Christian farm near Jaffa.", "On April 1, 1857, Melville published his last full-length novel, ''The Confidence-Man''.", "This novel, subtitled ''His Masquerade'', has won general acclaim in modern times as a complex and mysterious exploration of issues of fraud and honesty, identity and masquerade.", "However, when it was published, it received reviews ranging from the bewildered to the denunciatory." ], [ "1857–1876: Poet", "Melville in 1861To repair his faltering finances, Melville took up public lecturing from late 1857 to 1860.He embarked upon three lecture tours and spoke at lyceums, chiefly on Roman statuary and sightseeing in Rome.", "Melville's lectures, which mocked the pseudo-intellectualism of lyceum culture, were panned by contemporary audiences.", "On May 30, 1860, Melville boarded the clipper ''Meteor'' for California, with his brother Thomas at the helm.", "After a shaky trip around Cape Horn, Melville returned to New York alone via Panama in November.", "Later that year, he submitted a poetry collection to a publisher but it was not accepted, and is now lost.", "In 1863, he bought his brother's house at 104 East 26th Street in New York City and moved there.In 1864, Melville visited the Virginia battlefields of the American Civil War.", "After the war, he published ''Battle Pieces and Aspects of the War'' (1866), a collection of 72 poems that has been described as \"a polyphonic verse journal of the conflict\".", "The work did not do well commercially—of the print run of 1,260 copies, 300 were sent as review copies, and 551 copies were sold—and reviewers did not realize that Melville had purposely avoided the ostentatious diction and fine writing that were in fashion, choosing to be concise and spare.In 1866, Melville became a customs inspector for New York City.", "He held the post for 19 years and had a reputation for honesty in a notoriously corrupt institution.", "(Unbeknownst to Melville, his position was sometimes protected by future American president Chester A. Arthur, then a customs official who admired Melville's writing but never spoke to him.)", "During these years, Melville suffered from nervous exhaustion, physical pain, and frustration, and would sometimes, in the words of Robertson-Lorant, behave like the \"tyrannical captains he had portrayed in his novels\", perhaps even beating his wife Lizzie when he came home after drinking.", "In 1867 Malcolm, the Melvilles' older son, died in his bedroom at home at the age of 18 from a self-inflicted gun shot, perhaps intentional, perhaps accidental.", "In May 1867, Lizzie's brother Sam, who shared his family's fear for Melville's sanity, tried to arrange for her to leave Melville.", "Lizzie was to visit her family in Boston and assert to a court that her husband was insane.", "But Lizzie, whether to avoid the social shame divorce carried at the time or because she still loved her husband, refused to go along with the plan.Though Melville's professional writing career had ended, he remained dedicated to his writing.", "He spent years on what Milder called \"his autumnal masterpiece\" ''Clarel: A Poem and a Pilgrimage'' (1876), an 18,000-line epic poem inspired by his 1856 trip to the Holy Land.", "It is among the longest single poems in American literature.", "The title character is a young American student of divinity who travels to Jerusalem to renew his faith.", "One of the central characters, Rolfe, is similar to Melville in his younger days, a seeker and adventurer, while the reclusive Vine is loosely based on Hawthorne, who had died twelve years before.", "Publication of 350 copies was funded with a bequest from his uncle in 1876, but sales failed miserably and the unsold copies were burned when Melville was unable to buy them at cost.", "Critic Lewis Mumford found an unread copy in the New York Public Library in 1925 \"with its pages uncut\"." ], [ "1877–1891: Final years", "The last known image of Melville, a cabinet card by George G. Rockwood in 1885''The New York Times'' September 29, 1891 obituary notice, which misspelled Melville's masterpiece as ''Mobie Dick''Woodlawn Cemetery in Bronx, New York CityMelville's own income remained limited.", "But in 1884, Lizzie received a legacy that enabled him to buy a steady stream of books and prints each month.", "Melville retired on December 31, 1885, after several of his wife's relatives further supported the couple with supplementary legacies and inheritances.", "On February 22, 1886, Stanwix, their younger son, died in San Francisco at age 36, from tuberculosis.", "In 1889, Melville became a member of the New York Society Library.Melville had a modest revival of popularity in England when readers rediscovered his novels.", "He published two collections of poems inspired by his early experiences at sea, with prose head notes.", "Intended for his relatives and friends, each had a print run of 25 copies.", "The first, ''John Marr and Other Sailors'', was published in 1888, followed by ''Timoleon'' in 1891.Melville died on the morning of September 28, 1891.His death certificate shows \"cardiac dilation\" as the cause.", "He was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in Bronx, New York City.", "''The New York Times'' initial death notice called his masterpiece \"''Mobie Dick''\", the misspelling of which was later erroneously taken to mean that he was unappreciated at his time of death.", "But there were some appreciations.", "The ''Times'', for instance, published a substantial article of appreciation on October 2.The author said that thinking back to Melville's books that were so much read forty years earlier, there is \"no difficulty determining why they were then read and talked about,\" but the difficulty is \"to discover why they are read and talked about no longer.", "\"Melville left a volume of poetry, ''Weeds and Wildings'', and a sketch, \"Daniel Orme\", unpublished at the time of his death.", "His wife also found pages for an unfinished novella, titled ''Billy Budd''.", "Melville had revised and rearranged the manuscript in several stages, leaving the pages in disarray.", "Lizzie could not decide her husband's intentions (or even read his handwriting in some places) and abandoned attempts to edit the manuscript for publication.", "The pages were stored in a family breadbox until 1919 when Melville's granddaughter gave them to Raymond Weaver.", "Weaver, who initially dismissed the work's importance, published a quick transcription in 1924.This version, however, contained many misreadings, some of which affected interpretation.", "It was an immediate critical success in England, then in the United States.", "In 1962, the Melville scholars Harrison Hayford and Merton M. Sealts published a critical reading text that was widely accepted.", "It was adapted as a stage play on Broadway in 1951, then an opera, and in 1961 as a film." ], [ "Writing style", "===General narrative style===Melville's writing style shows both consistencies and enormous changes throughout the years.", "His development \"had been abnormally postponed, and when it came, it came with a rush and a force that had the menace of quick exhaustion in it\".", "As early as \"Fragments from a Writing Desk\", written when Melville was 20, scholar Sealts sees \"a number of elements that anticipate Melville's later writing, especially his characteristic habit of abundant literary allusion\".", "''Typee'' and ''Omoo'' were documentary adventures that called for a division of the narrative in short chapters.", "Such compact organization bears the risk of fragmentation when applied to a lengthy work such as ''Mardi'', but with ''Redburn'' and ''White Jacket,'' Melville turned the short chapter into a concentrated narrative.Some chapters of ''Moby-Dick'' are no more than two pages in standard editions, and an extreme example is Chapter 122, consisting of a single paragraph of 36 words.", "The skillful handling of chapters in ''Moby-Dick'' is one of the most fully developed Melvillean signatures, and is a measure of his masterly writing style (something that would lend lasting significance to the opening lines \"Call me Ishmael\").", "Individual chapters have become \"a touchstone for appreciation of Melville's art and for explanation\" of his themes.", "In contrast, the chapters in ''Pierre'', called Books, are divided into short-numbered sections, seemingly an \"odd formal compromise\" between Melville's natural length and his purpose to write a regular romance that called for longer chapters.", "As satirical elements were introduced, the chapter arrangement restores \"some degree of organization and pace from the chaos\".", "The usual chapter unit then reappears for ''Israel Potter'', ''The Confidence-Man'' and even ''Clarel'', but only becomes \"a vital part in the whole creative achievement\" again in the juxtaposition of accents and of topics in ''Billy Budd''.Newton Arvin points out that only superficially the books after ''Mardi'' seem as if Melville's writing went back to the vein of his first two books.", "In reality, his movement \"was not a retrograde but a spiral one\", and while ''Redburn'' and ''White Jacket'' may lack the spontaneous, youthful charm of his first two books, they are \"denser in substance, richer in feeling, tauter, more complex, more connotative in texture and imagery\".", "The rhythm of the prose in ''Omoo'' \"achieves little more than easiness; the language is almost neutral and without idiosyncrasy\", while ''Redburn'' shows an improved ability in narrative, which fuses imagery and emotion.Melville's early works were \"increasingly baroque\" in style, and with ''Moby-Dick'' Melville's vocabulary had grown superabundant.", "Walter Bezanson calls it an \"immensely varied style\".", "According to critic Warner Berthoff, three characteristic uses of language can be recognized.", "First, the exaggerated repetition of words, as in the series \"pitiable\", \"pity\", \"pitied\", and \"piteous\" (Ch.", "81, \"The Pequod Meets the Virgin\").", "A second typical device is the use of unusual adjective-noun combinations, as in \"concentrating brow\" and \"immaculate manliness\" (Ch.", "26, \"Knights and Squires\").", "A third characteristic is the presence of a participial modifier to emphasize and to reinforce the already established expectations of the reader, as the words \"preluding\" and \"foreshadowing\" (\"so still and subdued and yet somehow preluding was all the scene ...\" \"In this foreshadowing interval ...\").After his use of hyphenated compounds in ''Pierre'', Melville's writing gives Berthoff the impression of becoming less exploratory and less provocative in his choices of words and phrases.", "Instead of providing a lead \"into possible meanings and openings-out of the material in hand,\" the vocabulary now served \"to crystallize governing impressions,\" the diction no longer attracted attention to itself, except as an effort at exact definition.", "The language, Berthoff continues, reflects a \"controlling intelligence, of right judgment and completed understanding\".", "The sense of free inquiry and exploration that infused his earlier writing and accounted for its \"rare force and expansiveness,\" tended to give way to \"static enumeration\".", "By comparison to the verbal music and kinetic energy of ''Moby-Dick'', Melville's subsequent writings seem \"relatively muted, even withheld\" in his later works.Melville's paragraphing in his best work Berthoff considers to be the virtuous result of \"compactness of form and free assembling of unanticipated further data\", such as when the mysterious sperm whale is compared with Exodus's invisibility of God's face in the final paragraph of Chapter 86 (\"The Tail\").", "Over time Melville's paragraphs became shorter as his sentences grew longer, until he arrived at the \"one-sentence paragraphing characteristic of his later prose\".", "Berthoff points to the opening chapter of ''The Confidence-Man'' for an example, as it counts fifteen paragraphs, seven of which consist of only one elaborate sentence, and four that have only two sentences.", "The use of similar technique in ''Billy Budd'' contributes in large part, Berthoff says, to its \"remarkable narrative economy\".===Style and literary allusion===In Nathalia Wright's view, Melville's sentences generally have a looseness of structure, easy to use for devices as catalogue and allusion, parallel and refrain, proverb and allegory.", "The length of his clauses may vary greatly, but the narrative style of writing in ''Pierre'' and ''The Confidence-Man'' is there to convey feeling, not thought.", "Unlike Henry James, who was an innovator of sentence ordering to render the subtlest nuances in thought, Melville made few such innovations.", "His domain is the mainstream of English prose, with its rhythm and simplicity influenced by the King James Bible.", "Another important characteristic of Melville's writing style is in its echoes and overtones.", "Melville's imitation of certain distinct styles is responsible for this.", "His three most important sources, in order, are the Bible, Shakespeare, and Milton.", "Direct quotation from any of the sources is slight; only one sixth of his Biblical allusions can be qualified as such because Melville adapts Biblical usage to his own narrated textual requirements of clarifying his plot.The Biblical elements in Melville's style can be divided into three categories.", "In the first, allusion is more within the narrative rather than formal quotation.", "Several preferred Biblical allusions appear repeatedly throughout his body of work, taking on the nature of refrains.", "Examples are the injunctions to be 'as wise as serpents and as harmless as doves,' 'death on a pale horse,' 'the man of sorrows', the 'many mansions of heaven;' proverbs 'as the hairs on our heads are numbered,' 'pride goes before a fall,' 'the wages of sin is death;' adverbs and pronouns as 'verily, whoso, forasmuch as; phrases as come to pass, children's children, the fat of the land, vanity of vanities, outer darkness, the apple of his eye, Ancient of Days, the rose of Sharon.'", "Second, there are paraphrases of individual and combined verses.", "Redburn's \"Thou shalt not lay stripes upon these Roman citizens\" makes use of language of the Ten Commandments in Ex.20 and Pierre's inquiry of Lucy: \"Loveth she me with the love past all understanding?\"", "combines John 21:15–17, and Philippians 4:7.Third, certain Hebraisms are used, such as a succession of genitives (\"all the waves of the billows of the seas of the boisterous mob\"), the cognate accusative (\"I dreamed a dream\", \"Liverpool was created with the Creation\"), and the parallel (\"Closer home does it go than a rammer; and fighting with steel is a play without ever an interlude\").", "This passage from ''Redburn'' shows how these ways of alluding interlock and result in a texture of Biblical language though there is very little direct quotation:In addition to this, Melville successfully imitates three Biblical strains: the apocalyptic, the prophetic and the sermonic narrative tone of writing.", "Melville sustains the apocalyptic tone of anxiety and foreboding for a whole chapter of ''Mardi.''", "The prophetic strain is expressed by Melville in ''Moby-Dick'', most notably in Father Mapple's sermon.", "The tradition of the Psalms is imitated at length by Melville in ''The Confidence-Man''.In 1849, Melville acquired an edition of Shakespeare's works printed in a font large enough for his tired eyes, which led to a deeper study of Shakespeare that greatly influenced the style of his next book, ''Moby-Dick'' (1851).", "The critic F. O. Matthiessen found that the language of Shakespeare far surpasses other influences upon the book, in that it inspired Melville to discover his own full strength.", "On almost every page, debts to Shakespeare can be discovered.", "The \"mere sounds, full of Leviathanism, but signifying nothing\" at the end of \"Cetology\" (Ch.", "32) echo the famous phrase in ''Macbeth:'' \"Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury/ Signifying nothing\".", "Ahab's first extended speech to the crew, in the \"Quarter-Deck\" (Ch.", "36) is practically blank verse and so is Ahab's soliloquy at the beginning of \"Sunset\" (Ch.", "37):'I leave a white and turbid wake;/ Pale waters, paler cheeks, where'er I sail./ The envious billows sidelong swell to whelm/ My track; let them; but first I pass.'", "Through Shakespeare, Melville infused ''Moby-Dick'' with a power of expression he had not previously expressed.", "Reading Shakespeare had been \"a catalytic agent\" for Melville, one that transformed his writing from merely reporting to \"the expression of profound natural forces\".", "The extent to which Melville assimilated Shakespeare is evident in the description of Ahab, Matthiessen continues, which ends in language that seems Shakespearean yet is no imitation: 'Oh, Ahab!", "what shall be grand in thee, it must needs be plucked from the skies and dived for in the deep, and featured in the unbodied air!'", "The imaginative richness of the final phrase seems particularly Shakespearean, \"but its two key words appear only once each in the plays...and to neither of these usages is Melville indebted for his fresh combination\".", "Melville's diction depended upon no source, and his prose is not based on anybody else's verse but on an awareness of \"speech rhythm\".Melville's mastering of Shakespeare, Matthiessen finds, supplied him with verbal resources that enabled him to create dramatic language through three essential techniques.", "First, the use of verbs of action creates a sense of movement and meaning.", "The effective tension caused by the contrast of \"thou launchest navies of full-freighted worlds\" and \"there's that in here that still remains indifferent\" in \"The Candles\" (Ch.", "119) makes the last clause lead to a \"compulsion to strike the breast,\" which suggests \"how thoroughly the drama has come to inhere in the words;\" Second, Melville took advantage of the Shakespearean energy of verbal compounds, as in \"full-freighted\".", "Third, Melville employed the device of making one part of speech act as another, for example, 'earthquake' as an adjective, or turning an adjective into a noun, as in \"placeless\".Melville's style, in Nathalia Wright's analysis, seamlessly flows over into theme, because all these borrowings have an artistic purpose, which is to suggest an appearance \"larger and more significant than life\" for characters and themes that are in fact unremarkable.", "The allusions suggest that beyond the world of appearances another world exists, one that influences this world, and where ultimate truth can be found.", "Moreover, the ancient background thus suggested for Melville's narratives – ancient allusions being next in number to the Biblical ones – invests them with a sense of timelessness." ], [ "Critical reception", "Melville's financial success as a writer during his lifetime was not great, relative to his posthumous success; over his entire lifetime Melville's writings earned him just over $10,000 ().", "Melville's travelogues based on voyages to the South Seas and stories based on his time in the merchant marine and navy led to some initial success, but his popularity declined dramatically afterwards.", "By 1876, all of his books were out of print.", "He was viewed as a minor figure in American literature in the later years of his life and during the years immediately after his death.===Poetry===Melville did not publish poetry until his late thirties, with ''Battle-Pieces'' (1866), and did not receive recognition as a poet until well into the 20th century.", "But he wrote predominantly poetry for about 25 years, twice as long as his prose career.", "The three novels of the 1850s that Melville worked on most seriously to present his philosophical explorations, ''Moby-Dick'', ''Pierre'', and ''The Confidence Man'', seem to make the step to philosophical poetry a natural one rather than simply a consequence of commercial failure.", "Since he turned to poetry as a meditative practice, his poetic style, even more than most Victorian poets, was not marked by linguistic play or melodic considerations.Early critics were not sympathetic.", "Henry Chapin, in his introduction to ''John Marr and Other Poems'' (1922), one of the earlier selections of Melville's poetry, said Melville's verse is \"of an amateurish and uneven quality\" but in it \"that loveable freshness of personality, which his philosophical dejection never quenched, is everywhere in evidence,\" in \"the voice of a true poet\".", "The poet and novelist Robert Penn Warren became a champion of Melville as a great American poet and issued a selection of Melville's poetry in 1971 prefaced by an admiring critical essay.", "In the 1990s critic Lawrence Buell argued that Melville \"is justly said to be nineteenth-century America's leading poet after Whitman and Dickinson\" and Helen Vendler remarked of ''Clarel'': \"What it cost Melville to write this poem makes us pause, reading it.", "Alone, it is enough to win him, as a poet, what he called 'the belated funeral flower of fame'.\"", "Some critics now place him as the first modernist poet in the United States while others assert that his work more strongly suggests what today would be a postmodern view.===Melville revival and Melville studies===Melville in 1860Melville in 1868The centennial of Melville's birth in 1919 coincided with a renewed interest in his writings known as the \"Melville revival\", during which his work experienced a significant critical reassessment.", "The renewed appreciation began in 1917 with Carl Van Doren's article on Melville in a standard history of American literature.", "Van Doren also encouraged Raymond Weaver, who wrote the author's first full-length biography, ''Herman Melville: Mariner and Mystic'' (1921).", "Discovering the unfinished manuscript of ''Billy Budd'', among papers shown to him by Melville's granddaughter, Weaver edited it and published it in a new collected edition of Melville's works.", "Other works that helped fan the flames for Melville were Carl Van Doren's ''The American Novel'' (1921), D. H. Lawrence's ''Studies in Classic American Literature'' (1923), Carl Van Vechten's essay in ''The Double Dealer'' (1922), and Lewis Mumford's biography ''Herman Melville'' (1929).Starting in the mid-1930s, the Yale University scholar Stanley Thomas Williams supervised more than a dozen dissertations on Melville that were eventually published as books.", "Where the first wave of Melville scholars focused on psychology, Williams' students were prominent in establishing Melville Studies as an academic field concerned with texts and manuscripts, tracing Melville's influences and borrowings (even plagiarism), and exploring archives and local publications.", "To provide historical evidence, the independent scholar Jay Leyda searched libraries, family papers, local archives and newspapers across New England and New York to document Melville's life day by day for his two-volume ''The Melville Log'' (1951).", "Sparked by Leyda and post-war scholars, the second phase of the Melville Revival emphasized research into the biography of Melville rather than accepting Melville's early books as reliable accounts.In 1945, The Melville Society was founded, a non-profit organisation dedicated to the study of Melville's life and works.", "Between 1969 and 2003, the society published 125 issues of ''Melville Society Extracts'', which are now freely available on the society's website.", "Since 1999 it has published ''Leviathan: A Journal of Melville Studies'', currently three issues a year, published by Johns Hopkins University Press.The postwar scholars tended to think that Weaver, Harvard psychologist Henry Murray, and Mumford favored Freudian interpretations that read Melville's fiction as autobiography; exaggerated his suffering in the family; and inferred a homosexual attachment to Hawthorne.", "They saw a different arc to Melville's writing career.", "The first biographers saw a tragic withdrawal after the cold critical reception for his prose works and largely dismissed his poetry.", "A new view emerged of Melville's turn to poetry as a conscious choice that placed him among the most important American poets.", "Other post-war studies, however, continued the broad imaginative and interpretive style; Charles Olson's ''Call Me Ishmael'' (1947) presented Ahab as a Shakespearean tragic hero, and Newton Arvin's critical biography, ''Herman Melville'' (1950), won the National Book Award for non-fiction in 1951.In the 1960s, Harrison Hayford organized an alliance between Northwestern University Press and the Newberry Library, with backing from the Modern Language Association and funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities, to edit and publish reliable critical texts of Melville's complete works, including unpublished poems, journals, and correspondence.", "The first volume of the Northwestern-Newberry Edition of ''The Writings of Herman Melville'' was published in 1968 and the last in the fall of 2017.The aim of the editors was to present a text \"as close as possible to the author's intention as surviving evidence permits\".", "The volumes have extensive appendices, including textual variants from each of the editions published in Melville's lifetime, an historical note on the publishing history and critical reception, and related documents.", "Because the texts were prepared with financial support from the United States Department of Education, no royalties are charged, and they have been widely reprinted.", "Hershel Parker published his two-volume ''Herman Melville: A Biography'', in 1996 and 2002, based on extensive original research and his involvement as editor of the Northwestern-Newberry Melville edition.===Gender studies===Melville only gradually attracted the pioneering scholars of women's studies, gender, and sexuality in the 1970s and 1980s.", "Though some held that he hardly portrayed women at all, others saw the few women in his works as traditional figures representing, or even attacking, nineteenth-century gentility, sentimentality, and conventional morality.", "Melville's preference for sea-going tales that involved almost only males has been of interest to scholars in men's studies and especially gay and queer studies.", "Melville was remarkably open in his exploration of sexuality of all sorts.", "Alvin Sandberg said that the short story \"The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids\" offers \"an exploration of impotency, a portrayal of a man retreating to an all-male childhood to avoid confrontation with sexual manhood,\" from which the narrator engages in \"congenial\" digressions in heterogeneity.", "In line with this view, Warren Rosenberg argues the homosocial \"Paradise of Bachelors\" is \"blind to what is real and painful in the world, and thus are sic superficial and sterile\".David Harley Serlin observes in the second half of Melville's diptych, \"The Tartarus of Maids\", the narrator gives voice to the oppressed women he observes:In the end Serlin says that the narrator is never fully able to come to terms with the contrasting masculine and feminine modalities.Issues of sexuality have been observed in other works as well.", "Rosenberg notes Taji, in ''Mardi'', and the protagonist in ''Pierre'' \"think they are saving young 'maidens in distress' (Yillah and Isabel) out of the purest of reasons but both are also conscious of a lurking sexual motive\".", "When Taji kills the old priest holding Yillah captive, he says,In ''Pierre'', the motive of the protagonist's sacrifice for Isabel is admitted: \"womanly beauty and not womanly ugliness invited him to champion the right\".", "Rosenberg argues,Rosenberg says that Melville fully explores the theme of sexuality in his major epic poem, ''Clarel''.", "When the narrator is separated from Ruth, with whom he has fallen in love, he is free to explore other sexual (and religious) possibilities before deciding at the end of the poem to participate in the ritualistic order represented by marriage.", "In the course of the poem, \"he considers every form of sexual orientation – celibacy, homosexuality, hedonism, and heterosexuality – raising the same kinds of questions as when he considers Islam or Democracy\".Some passages and sections of Melville's works demonstrate his willingness to address all forms of sexuality, including the homoerotic, in his works.", "Commonly noted examples from ''Moby-Dick'' are the \"marriage bed\" episode involving Ishmael and Queequeg, who sleep with their arms wrapped around each other (Chapter 4, \"The Counterpane\" and Chapter 10, \"A Bosom Friend\"); and the \"Squeeze of the Hand\" (Chapter 94) describing the camaraderie of sailors' extracting spermaceti from a dead whale.", "''Clarel'' recognizes the homoerotic potential of its eponymous protagonist, including, in a fairly explicit passage, an erection provoked by the figure of a male interlocutor, Lyonesse.", "In addition, Rosenberg notes that Billy Budd's physical attractiveness is described in quasi-feminine terms: \"As the Handsome Sailor, Billy Budd's position aboard the seventy-four was something analogous to that of a rustic beauty transplanted from the provinces and brought into competition with the highborn dames of the court\".===Law and literature===Melville has been useful in the field of law and literature.", "The chapter \"Fast-Fish and Loose-Fish\" in ''Moby-Dick'', for instance, challenges concepts of property rights.", "In ''Billy Budd'', a handsome and popular young sailor strikes and inadvertently kills the ship's master-at-arms.", "The ship's captain immediately convenes a court-martial at which he urges the court to convict and sentence Billy to death.", "Critics debate Melville's intention.", "Some see the contradiction between unbending legalism and malleable moral principles.", "Other critics have argued that the captain manipulated and misrepresented the applicable laws." ], [ "Themes", "Melville's work often touched on themes of communicative expression and the pursuit of the absolute among illusions.", "As early as 1839, in the juvenile sketch \"Fragments from a Writing Desk\", Melville explores a problem that would reappear in the short stories \"Bartleby\" (1853) and \"Benito Cereno\" (1855): the impossibility to find common ground for mutual communication.", "The sketch centers on the protagonist and a mute lady, leading scholar Sealts to observe: \"Melville's deep concern with expression and communication evidently began early in his career\".According to scholar Nathalia Wright, Melville's characters are all preoccupied by the same intense, superhuman and eternal quest for \"the absolute amidst its relative manifestations,\" an enterprise central to the Melville canon: \"All Melville's plots describe this pursuit, and all his themes represent the delicate and shifting relationship between its truth and its illusion\".", "It is not clear, however, what the moral and metaphysical implications of this quest are, because Melville did not distinguish between these two aspects.", "Throughout his life Melville struggled with and gave shape to the same set of epistemological doubts and the metaphysical issues these doubts engendered.", "An obsession for the limits of knowledge led to the question of God's existence and nature, the indifference of the universe, and the problem of evil." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "A plaque commemorating Melville at 104 East 26th Street in Manhattan, where Melville lived from 1863 to 1891In 1854, three years following publication of ''Moby-Dick'', Melville, New York, on Long Island, was named in Melville's honor.In 1982, the Library of America (LOA) began publishing works in honor of Melville's central place in American culture; the first volume contained ''Typee'', ''Omoo'', and ''Mardi''.", "Subsequent volumes included Melville's ''Redburn'', ''White-Jacket'', and ''Moby-Dick'', published in 1983, and ''Pierre'', ''Israel Potter'', ''The Confidence-Man'', ''Tales'', and ''Billy Budd'', published in 1985.LOA did not publish his complete poetry until 2019.On August 1, 1984, as part of the Literary Arts Series of stamps, the U.S.", "Postal Service issued a 20-cent commemorative stamp to honor Melville.", "The setting for the first day of issue was the Whaling Museum in New Bedford, Massachusetts.In 1985, the New York City Herman Melville Society gathered at 104 East 26th Street to dedicate the intersection of Park Avenue South and 26th Street as Herman Melville Square, where Melville lived from 1863 to 1891 and where he authored ''Billy Budd'' and other works.", "Melville's house in Lansingburgh, New York, houses the Lansingburgh Historical Society.In 2010, a species of extinct sperm whale, ''Livyatan melvillei'', was named in honor of Melville.", "The paleontologists who discovered the fossil were fans of ''Moby-Dick'', and dedicated their discovery to the author.Agha Shahid Ali, a Kashmiri-American poet ends his famous English ghazal \"Tonight\" with the line \"call me Ishmael tonight\"." ], [ "Selected bibliography", "* ''Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life'' (1846)* ''Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas'' (1847)* ''Mardi: and a Voyage Thither'' (1849)* ''Redburn: His First Voyage'' (1849)* ''White-Jacket; or, The World in a Man-of-War'' (1850)* ''Moby-Dick; or, The Whale'' (1851)* ''Pierre; or, The Ambiguities'' (1852)* ''Isle of the Cross'' (1853 unpublished, and now lost)* \"Bartleby, the Scrivener\" (1853) (short story)* \"The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles\" (1854) (novella)* \"Benito Cereno\" (1855) (novella)* ''Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile'' (1855)* ''The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade'' (1857)* ''Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War'' (1866) (poetry collection)* ''Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land'' (1876) (epic poem)* ''John Marr and Other Sailors'' (1888) (poetry collection)* ''Timoleon'' (1891) (poetry collection)* ''Billy Budd, Sailor (An Inside Narrative)'' (1891 unfinished, published posthumously in 1924; authoritative edition in 1962)" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* May be borrowed at Internet Archive here* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \"Wallace explores the stylistic and aesthetic affinities of English landscape painter J. M. W. Turner (1775-1851) and American novelist Herman Melville, establishing Turner as a decisive influence on the creation of Melville's ''Moby-Dick''\".", "(Quotation from dust jacket)* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Extensive annotated bibliography of Melville scholarship.", "* 2 vols.", "Volume I: ''Eternal Ifs: Infant, Boy, and Man (1819-1840)''.", "Volume II: ''Melville at Sea (1840-1846)''.", "* * * * * Article about the life and works of Herman Melville on the bicentennial of his birth in 1819.", "* * * * * \"Wallace explores the stylistic and aesthetic affinities of English landscape painter J. M. W. Turner (1775-1851) and American novelist Herman Melville, establishing Turner as a decisive influence on the creation of Melville's ''Moby-Dick''\".", "(Quotation from dust jacket)" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * The Melville Society* Melville Society Extracts, Archives 1969–2005 Online access to all 125 issues of the magazine.", "* Melville Electronic Library: a critical archive Scholarly site hosted at Hofstra University: Editions, Manuscripts, Sources, Melville's Print Collection, Adaptation, biography, Criticism.", "* Melville's Marginalia Online A digital archive of books that survive from Herman Melville's library with his annotations and markings.", "* Melvilliana:the world and writings of Herman Melville.", "A scholarly blog about all things Melville.", "* Arrowhead—The Home of Herman Melville* Obituary Notices* Physical description of Melville from his 1856 passport application* Melville's page at Literary Journal.com: research articles on Melville's works* Antiquarian Booksellers' Association of America: Collecting Herman Melville* Guide to Herman Melville collection at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University* The Herman Melville Collection at the Newberry Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "High fidelity" ], [ "Introduction", "speakers are a key component of quality audio reproduction.", "'''High fidelity''' (often shortened to '''Hi-Fi''' or '''HiFi''') is the high-quality reproduction of sound.", "It is popular with audiophiles and home audio enthusiasts.", "Ideally, high-fidelity equipment has inaudible noise and distortion, and a flat (neutral, uncolored) frequency response within the human hearing range.High fidelity contrasts with the lower-quality \"lo-fi\" sound produced by inexpensive audio equipment, AM radio, or the inferior quality of sound reproduction that can be heard in recordings made until the late 1940s." ], [ "History", "Bell Laboratories began experimenting with a range of recording techniques in the early 1930s.", "Performances by Leopold Stokowski and the Philadelphia Orchestra were recorded in 1931 and 1932 using telephone lines between the Academy of Music in Philadelphia and the Bell labs in New Jersey.", "Some multitrack recordings were made on optical sound film, which led to new advances used primarily by MGM (as early as 1937) and Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation (as early as 1941).", "RCA Victor began recording performances by several orchestras using optical sound around 1941, resulting in higher-fidelity masters for 78-rpm discs.", "During the 1930s, Avery Fisher, an amateur violinist, began experimenting with audio design and acoustics.", "He wanted to make a radio that would sound like he was listening to a live orchestra—that would achieve high fidelity to the original sound.", "After World War II, Harry F. Olson conducted an experiment whereby test subjects listened to a live orchestra through a hidden variable acoustic filter.", "The results proved that listeners preferred high-fidelity reproduction, once the noise and distortion introduced by early sound equipment was removed.Beginning in 1948, several innovations created the conditions that made major improvements of home-audio quality possible:* Reel-to-reel audio tape recording, based on technology taken from Germany after WWII, helped musical artists such as Bing Crosby make and distribute recordings with better fidelity.", "* The advent of the 33⅓ rpm Long Play (LP) microgroove vinyl record, with lower surface noise and quantitatively specified equalization curves as well as noise-reduction and dynamic range systems.", "Classical music fans, who were opinion leaders in the audio market, quickly adopted LPs because, unlike with older records, most classical works would fit on a single LP.", "* Higher quality turntables, with more responsive needles* FM radio, with wider audio bandwidth and less susceptibility to signal interference and fading than AM radio.", "* Better amplifier designs, with more attention to frequency response and much higher power output capability, reproducing audio without perceptible distortion.", "* New loudspeaker designs, including acoustic suspension, developed by Edgar Villchur and Henry Kloss with improved bass frequency response.In the 1950s, audio manufacturers employed the phrase ''high fidelity'' as a marketing term to describe records and equipment intended to provide faithful sound reproduction.", "Many consumers found the difference in quality compared to the then-standard AM radios and 78-rpm records readily apparent and bought high-fidelity phonographs and 33⅓ LPs such as RCA's New Orthophonics and London's FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording, a UK Decca system).", "Audiophiles focused on technical characteristics and bought individual components, such as separate turntables, radio tuners, preamplifiers, power amplifiers and loudspeakers.", "Some enthusiasts even assembled their own loudspeaker systems.", "With the advent of integrated multi-speaker console systems in the 1950s, ''hi-fi'' became a generic term for home sound equipment, to some extent displacing ''phonograph'' and ''record player''.In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the development of stereophonic equipment and recordings led to the next wave of home-audio improvement, and in common parlance ''stereo'' displaced ''hi-fi''.", "Records were now played on ''a stereo''.", "In the world of the audiophile, however, the concept of ''high fidelity'' continued to refer to the goal of highly accurate sound reproduction and to the technological resources available for approaching that goal.", "This period is regarded as the \"Golden Age of Hi-Fi\", when vacuum tube equipment manufacturers of the time produced many models considered superior by modern audiophiles, and just before solid state (transistorized) equipment was introduced to the market, subsequently replacing tube equipment as the mainstream technology.A Hi-Fi system from Swiss company Revox from 1977 with amplifier, tuner (middle) and a reel-to-reel tape recorder (top).", "At that time, the audio quality of Hi-Fi cassette decks was inferior to that of such machines, which were however expensive and the handling of the media cumbersome.", "In the 1960s, the FTC with the help of the audio manufacturers came up with a definition to identify high-fidelity equipment so that the manufacturers could clearly state if they meet the requirements and reduce misleading advertisements.The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) was adapted into a power MOSFET for audio by Jun-ichi Nishizawa at Tohoku University in 1974.Power MOSFETs were soon manufactured by Yamaha for their hi-fi audio amplifiers.", "JVC, Pioneer Corporation, Sony and Toshiba also began manufacturing amplifiers with power MOSFETs in 1974.In 1977, Hitachi introduced the LDMOS (lateral diffused MOS), a type of power MOSFET.", "Hitachi was the only LDMOS manufacturer between 1977 and 1983, during which time LDMOS was used in audio power amplifiers from manufacturers such as HH Electronics (V-series) and Ashly Audio, and were used for music and public address systems.", "Class-D amplifiers became successful in the mid-1980s when low-cost, fast-switching MOSFETs were made available.", "Many transistor amps use MOSFET devices in their power sections, because their distortion curve is more tube-like.A popular type of system for reproducing music beginning in the 1970s was the integrated music centre—which combined a phonograph turntable, AM-FM radio tuner, tape player, preamplifier, and power amplifier in one package, often sold with its own separate, detachable or integrated speakers.", "These systems advertised their simplicity.", "The consumer did not have to select and assemble individual components or be familiar with impedance and power ratings.", "Purists generally avoid referring to these systems as high fidelity, though some are capable of very good quality sound reproduction.Audiophiles in the 1970s and 1980s preferred to buy each component separately.", "That way, they could choose models of each component with the specifications that they desired.", "In the 1980s, a number of audiophile magazines became available, offering reviews of components and articles on how to choose and test speakers, amplifiers, and other components." ], [ "Listening tests", "Listening tests are used by hi-fi manufacturers, audiophile magazines, and audio engineering researchers and scientists.", "If a listening test is done in such a way that the listener who is assessing the sound quality of a component or recording can see the components that are being used for the test (e.g., the same musical piece listened to through a tube power amplifier and a solid-state amplifier), then it is possible that the listener's pre-existing biases towards or against certain components or brands could affect their judgment.", "To respond to this issue, researchers began to use blind tests, in which listeners cannot see the components being tested.", "A commonly used variant of this test is the ABX test.", "A subject is presented with two known samples (sample ''A'', the reference, and sample ''B'', an alternative), and one unknown sample ''X,'' for three samples total.", "''X'' is randomly selected from ''A'' and ''B'', and the subject identifies ''X'' as being either ''A'' or ''B''.", "Although there is no way to prove that a certain methodology is transparent, a properly conducted double-blind test can prove that a method is ''not'' transparent.Blind tests are sometimes used as part of attempts to ascertain whether certain audio components (such as expensive, exotic cables) have any subjectively perceivable effect on sound quality.", "Data gleaned from these blind tests is not accepted by some audiophile magazines such as ''Stereophile'' and ''The Absolute Sound'' in their evaluations of audio equipment.", "John Atkinson, current editor of ''Stereophile'', stated that he once purchased a solid-state amplifier, the Quad 405, in 1978 after seeing the results from blind tests, but came to realize months later that \"the magic was gone\" until he replaced it with a tube amp.", "Robert Harley of ''The Absolute Sound'' wrote, in 2008, that: \"...blind listening tests fundamentally distort the listening process and are worthless in determining the audibility of a certain phenomenon.", "\"Doug Schneider, editor of the online Soundstage network, refuted this position with two editorials in 2009.He stated: \"Blind tests are at the core of the decades' worth of research into loudspeaker design done at Canada's National Research Council (NRC).", "The NRC researchers knew that for their result to be credible within the scientific community and to have the most meaningful results, they had to eliminate bias, and blind testing was the only way to do so.\"", "Many Canadian companies such as Axiom, Energy, Mirage, Paradigm, PSB, and Revel use blind testing extensively in designing their loudspeakers.", "Audio professional Dr. Sean Olive of Harman International shares this view." ], [ "Semblance of realism", "Stereophonic sound provided a partial solution to the problem of reproducing the sound of live orchestral performers by creating separation among instruments, the illusion of space, and a phantom central channel.", "An attempt to enhance reverberation was tried in the 1970s through quadraphonic sound.", "Consumers did not want to pay the additional costs and space required for the marginal improvements in realism.", "With the rise in popularity of home theater, however, multi-channel playback systems became popular, and many consumers were willing to tolerate the six to eight channels required in a home theater.In addition to spatial realism, the playback of music must be subjectively free from noise, such as hiss or hum, to achieve realism.", "The compact disc (CD) provides about 90 decibels of dynamic range, which exceeds the 80 dB dynamic range of music as normally perceived in a concert hall.", "Audio equipment must be able to reproduce frequencies high enough and low enough to be realistic.", "The human hearing range, for healthy young persons, is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.", "Most adults can't hear higher than 15,000 Hz.", "CDs are capable of reproducing frequencies as low as 0 Hz and as high as 22,050 Hz, making them adequate for reproducing the frequency range that most humans can hear.", "The equipment must also provide no noticeable distortion of the signal or emphasis or de-emphasis of any frequency in this frequency range." ], [ "Modularity {{anchor\|integrated\|mini\|lifestyle\|midi}}", "Samsung and Harman KardonA Sony \"midi\" hifi from the late 1980s.", "Despite its appearance mimicking separate components, this is an all-in-one unit featuring a record player, dual cassette decks, a digital tuner and an amplifier.", "Other midi systems integrating a CD player were also increasingly common by this point.", "''Integrated'', ''mini'', or ''lifestyle'' systems (also known by the older terms ''music centre'' or ''midi system'') contain one or more sources such as a CD player, a tuner, or a cassette tape deck together with a preamplifier and a power amplifier in one box.", "Although some High-end audio manufacturers do produce integrated systems, such products are generally disparaged by audiophiles, who prefer to build a system from ''separates'' (or ''components''), often with each item from a different manufacturer specialising in a particular component.", "This provides the most flexibility for piece-by-piece upgrades and repairs.For slightly less flexibility in upgrades, a preamplifier and a power amplifier in one box is called an ''integrated amplifier''; with a tuner added, it is a ''receiver''.", "A monophonic power amplifier is called a ''monoblock'' and is often used for powering a subwoofer.", "Other modules in the system may include components like cartridges, tonearms, hi-fi turntables, digital media players, DVD players that play a wide variety of discs including CDs, CD recorders, MiniDisc recorders, hi-fi videocassette recorders (VCRs) and reel-to-reel tape recorders.", "Signal modification equipment can include equalizers and noise-reduction systems.This modularity allows the enthusiast to spend as little or as much as they want on a component to suit their specific needs, and add components as desired.", "Also, failure of any component of an integrated system can render it unusable, while the unaffected components of a modular system may continue to function.", "A modular system introduces the complexity of cabling multiple components and often having different remote controls for each unit." ], [ "Modern equipment", "Some modern hi-fi equipment can be digitally connected using fibre optic TOSLINK cables, USB ports (including one to play digital audio files), or Wi-Fi support.Another modern component is the ''music server'' consisting of one or more computer hard drives that hold music in the form of computer files.", "When the music is stored in an audio file format that is lossless such as FLAC, Monkey's Audio or WMA Lossless, the computer playback of recorded audio can serve as an audiophile-quality source for a hi-fi system.", "There is now a push from certain streaming services to offer hi-fi services.Streaming services typically have a modified dynamic range and possibly bit rates lower than audiophile standards.", "Tidal and others have launched a hi-fi tier that includes access to FLAC and Master Quality Authenticated studio masters for many tracks through the desktop version of the player.", "This integration is also available for high-end audio systems." ], [ "See also", " * Audio system measurements* Comparison of analog and digital recording* DIY audio* Edwin Howard Armstrong * Entertainment center * Lo-fi music* * Wife acceptance factor* Wi-Fi, a wireless term derived from hi-fi" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " A Dictionary of Home Entertainment Terms" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Holden" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Holden''', formerly known as '''General Motors-Holden''', was an Australian subsidiary company of General Motors.", "Founded in Adelaide, South Australia, it was an automobile manufacturer, importer, and exporter that sold cars under its own marque in Australia.", "In its last three years, it switched entirely to importing cars.", "It was headquartered in Port Melbourne, with major industrial operations in the states of South Australia and Victoria.", "The 164-year-old company ceased trading at the end of 2020.Holden's primary products were its own models developed in-house, such as the Holden Commodore, Holden Caprice, and the Holden Ute.", "However, Holden had also offered badge-engineered models under sharing arrangements with Nissan, Suzuki, Toyota, Isuzu, and then GM subsidiaries Opel, Vauxhall Motors, and Chevrolet.", "The vehicle lineup had included models from GM Korea, GM Thailand, and GM North America.", "Holden had also distributed GM's German Opel marque in Australia in 2012 and 2013.Holden was founded in 1856 as a saddlery manufacturer in South Australia.", "In 1898, it moved into the automotive field.", "It became a subsidiary of the United States–based General Motors (GM) in 1931, when the company was renamed '''General Motors-Holden's Ltd'''.", "It was renamed '''Holden Ltd''' in 1998 and adopted the name '''GM Holden Ltd''' in 2005.Holden briefly owned assembly plants in New Zealand during the early 1990s.", "The plants had belonged to General Motors from 1926 until 1990 in an earlier and quite separate operation from GM's Holden operations in Australia.", "Holden's production became increasingly concentrated in South Australia and Victoria after the Second World War.", "However, Holden had factories in all the mainland states of Australia when GM took over in 1931, due to the combining of Holden and GM factories around the country under Holden management.", "In the postwar period, this decentralisation was slowly reduced and, by 1989, the consolidation of final assembly at Elizabeth, South Australia was largely completed, except for some operations that continued at Dandenong, Victoria until 1994.Engine manufacturing was consolidated at Fishermans Bend, Victoria, which was expanded to supply markets overseas.Although Holden's involvement in exports had fluctuated from the 1950s, the declining sales of large sedan cars in Australia led the company to look to international markets to increase profitability.", "In 2013, Holden revealed it received A$2.17 billion in Federal Government assistance in the past 12 years, the amount was much larger than expected.", "Holden blamed a strong Australian currency, high manufacturing costs and a small domestic market among the reasons for exit of local manufacturing.", "This led to the announcement, on 11 December 2013, that Holden would cease vehicle and engine production by the end of 2017.On 29 November 2016, engine production at the Fishermans Bend plant was shut down.", "On 20 October 2017, production of the last Holden designed Commodore ceased and the vehicle assembly plant at Elizabeth was shut down.", "Holden produced nearly 7.7 million vehicles.", "On 17 February 2020, General Motors announced that the Holden marque would be retired by 2021.On 30 October 2020, the GM Australia Design Studio at Fishermans Bend was shut down.", "Holden has been replaced by GM Specialty Vehicles (GMSV), which imports the Chevrolet Silverado and the Chevrolet Corvette.", "The parts supplier known as the Holden Trade Club was renamed GM Trade Parts.", "An extensive Holden service network continues to help maintain the many Holdens that remain in operation in Australia." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Holden & Frost premises on Grenfell StreetIn 1852 James Alexander Holden emigrated to South Australia from Walsall, Staffordshire, U.K, and in 1856 established '''J.", "A. Holden & Co.''', a saddlery business in Adelaide.", "In 1879 J.", "A. Holden's eldest son Henry James (H.", "J.)", "Holden, became a partner and effectively managed the company.", "In 1885, German-born H. A.", "Frost joined the business as a junior partner and J.", "A. Holden & Co became '''Holden & Frost Ltd.''' Edward Holden, James' grandson, joined the firm in 1905 with an interest in automobiles.", "From there, the firm evolved through various partnerships, and in 1908, Holden & Frost moved into the business of minor repairs to car upholstery.", "The company began to re-body older chassis using motor bodies produced by F. T. Hack and Co from 1914.Holden & Frost mounted the body, and painted and trimmed it.", "The company began to produce complete motorcycle sidecar bodies after 1913.After 1917, wartime trade restrictions led the company to start full-scale production of vehicle body shells.", "H. J. Holden founded a new company in late 1917, and registered '''Holden's Motor Body Builders Ltd''' (HMBB) on 25 February 1919, specialising in car bodies and using the former F. T. Hack & Co facility at 400 King William Street in Adelaide before erecting a large four-storey factory on the site.Holden Body badge on a 1928 Chevrolet TourerBy 1923, HMBB were producing 12,000 units per year.", "During this time, HMBB assembled bodies for Ford Motor Company of Australia until its Geelong plant was completed.", "From 1924, HMBB became the exclusive supplier of car bodies for GM in Australia, with manufacturing taking place at the new Holden Woodville Plant (which was actually in the adjacent suburb of Cheltenham).", "These bodies were made to suit a number of chassis imported from manufacturers including Austin, Buick, Chevrolet, Cleveland, Dodge, Essex, Fiat, Hudson, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Overland, Reo, Studebaker, and Willys-Knight.In 1926, '''General Motors (Australia) Limited''' was established with assembly plants at Newstead, Queensland; Marrickville, New South Wales; City Road, Melbourne, Victoria; Birkenhead, South Australia; and Cottesloe, Western Australia using bodies produced by HMBB and imported complete knock down chassis.", "In 1930 alone, the still independent Woodville plant built bodies for Austin, Chrysler, DeSoto, Morris, Hillman, Humber, Hupmobile, and Willys-Overland, as well as GM cars.", "The last of this line of business was the assembly of Hillman Minx sedans in 1948.The Great Depression led to a substantial downturn in production by Holden, from 34,000 units annually in 1930 to just 1,651 units one year later.", "In 1931, GM purchased HMBB and merged it with General Motors (Australia) Pty Ltd to form General Motors-Holden's Ltd (GM-H).", "Its acquisition of Holden allowed General Motors to inherit an Australian identity, which it used to cultivate nationalist appeal for the firm, largely through the use of public relations, a then novel form of business communication which was imported to Australia through the formation of General Motors (Australia) Limited.", "Throughout the 1920s, Holden also supplied 60 W-class tramcar bodies to the Melbourne & Metropolitan Tramways Board, of which several examples have been preserved in both Australia and New Zealand.=== 1940s ===Labor PM Ben Chifley at the launching of the Holden 48-215 on 29 November 1948Holden 48–215 was the company's first wholly domestically produced model, when introduced in 1948.Holden's second full-scale car factory, located in Fishermans Bend (Port Melbourne), was opened on 5 November 1936 by Prime Minister Joseph Lyons, with construction beginning in 1939 on a new plant in Pagewood, New South Wales.", "However, World War II delayed car production with efforts shifted to the construction of vehicle bodies, field guns, aircraft, and engines.", "Before the war ended, the Australian government took steps to encourage an Australian automotive industry.", "Both GM and Ford provided studies to the Australian government outlining the production of the first Australian-designed car.", "Ford's proposal was the government's first choice, but required substantial financial assistance.", "GM's study was ultimately chosen because of its low level of government intervention.", "After the war, Holden returned to producing vehicle bodies, this time for Buick, Chevrolet, Pontiac, and Vauxhall.", "The Oldsmobile Ace was also produced from 1946 to 1948.From here, Holden continued to pursue the goal of producing an Australian car.", "This involved compromise with GM, as Holden's managing director, Laurence Hartnett, favoured development of a local design, while GM preferred to see an American design as the basis for \"Australia's Own Car\".", "In the end, the design was based on a previously rejected postwar Chevrolet proposal.", "The Holden was launched in 1948, creating long waiting lists extending through 1949 and beyond.", "The name \"Holden\" was chosen in honour of Sir Edward Holden, the company's first chairman and grandson of J.", "A. Holden.", "Other names considered were \"GeM\", \"Austral\", \"Melba\", \"Woomerah\", \"Boomerang\", \"Emu\", and \"Canbra\", a phonetic spelling of Canberra.", "Although officially designated \"48–215\", the car was marketed simply as the \"Holden\".", "The unofficial usage of the name \"FX\" originated within Holden, referring to the updated suspension on the 48–215 of 1953.=== 1950s ===FC series was the first to be tested at the Lang Lang proving ground.During the 1950s, Holden dominated the Australian car market.", "GM invested heavily in production capacity, which allowed the company to meet increased postwar demand for motor cars.", "Less expensive, four-cylinder cars did not offer Holdens the ability to deal with rugged rural areas.", "Holden 48–215 sedans were produced in parallel with the 50-2106 coupé utility from 1951; the latter was known colloquially as the \"ute\" and became ubiquitous in Australian rural areas as the workhorse of choice.", "Production of both the utility and sedan continued with minor changes until 1953, when they were replaced by the facelifted FJ model, introducing a third panel van body style.", "The FJ was the first major change to the Holden since its 1948 introduction.", "Over time, it gained iconic status and remains one of Australia's most recognisable automotive symbols.", "A new horizontally slatted grille dominated the front end of the FJ, which received various other trim and minor mechanical revisions.", "In 1954, Holden began exporting the FJ to New Zealand.", "Although little changed from the 48–215, marketing campaigns and price cuts kept FJ sales steady until a completely redesigned model was launched.", "At the 2005 Australian International Motor Show in Sydney, Holden paid homage to the FJ with the Efijy concept car.", "Commercial success underpinned the rise of Holden as a cultural icon, as the Holden car became synonymous with the 'Australian way of life', coming to symbolise the stability of post-war Australian capitalism.Holden's next model, the FE, launched in 1956, offered in a new station wagon body style dubbed \"Station Sedan\" in the company's sales literature.", "In the same year, Holden commenced exports to Malaya, Thailand, and North Borneo.", "Strong sales continued in Australia, and Holden achieved a market share of more than 50% in 1958 with the revised FC model.", "This was the first Holden to be tested on the new ''Holden Proving Ground'' based in Lang Lang, Victoria.", "In 1957, Holden's export markets grew to 17 countries, with new additions including Indonesia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Fiji, Sudan, the East Africa region, and South Africa.", "Indonesian market cars were assembled locally by P.T.", "Udatin.", "The opening of the Dandenong, Melbourne, production facility in 1956 brought further jobs; by 1959, Holden employed 19,000 workers country-wide.", "In 1959, complete knock-down assembly began in South Africa and Indonesia.=== 1960s ===In 1960, Holden introduced its third major new model, the FB.", "The car's style was inspired by 1950s Chevrolets, with tailfins and a wrap-around windscreen with \"dog leg\" A-pillars.", "By the time it was introduced, many considered the appearance dated.", "Much of the motoring industry at the time noted that the adopted style did not translate well to the more compact Holden.", "The FB became the first Holden that was adapted for left-hand drive markets, enhancing its export potential, and as such was exported to New Caledonia, New Hebrides, the Philippines, and Hawaii.EJ series, produced on 26 October 1962.In 1960, Ford unveiled the new Falcon in Australia, only months after its introduction in the United States.", "To Holden's advantage, the Falcon was not durable, particularly in the front suspension, making it ill-suited for Australian conditions.", "In response to the Falcon, Holden introduced the facelifted EK series in 1961; the new model featured two-tone paintwork and optional Hydramatic automatic transmission.", "A restyled EJ series came in 1962, debuting the new luxury oriented Premier model.", "The EH update came a year later, bringing the new Red motor, providing better performance than the previous Grey motor.", "The HD series of 1965 had the introduction of the Powerglide automatic transmission.", "At the same time, an \"X2\" performance option with a more powerful version of the six-cylinder engine was made available.", "In 1966, the HR was introduced, including changes in the form of new front and rear styling and higher-capacity engines.", "More significantly, the HR fitted standard front seat belts; Holden thus became the first Australian automaker to provide the safety device as standard equipment across all models.", "This coincided with the completion of the production plant in Acacia Ridge, Queensland.", "By 1963, Holden was exporting cars to Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, and the Caribbean.Holden began assembling the compact HA series Vauxhall Viva in 1964.This was superseded by the Holden Torana in 1967, a development of the Viva ending Vauxhall production in Australia.", "Holden offered the LC, a Torana with new styling, in 1969 with the availability of Holden's six-cylinder engine.", "In the development days, the six-cylinder Torana was reserved for motor racing, but research had shown a business case existed for such a model.", "The LC Torana was the first application of Holden's new three-speed Tri-Matic automatic transmission.", "This was the result of Holden's A$16.5 million transformation of the Woodville, South Australia, factory for its production.The celebrated Holden Monaro coupé, introduced in 1968 and based on the mainstream Kingswood, has since gained a cult following.Holden's association with the manufacture of Chevrolets and Pontiacs ended in 1968, coinciding with the year of Holden's next major new model, the HK .", "This included Holden's first V8 engine, a Chevrolet engine imported from Canada.", "Models based on the HK series included an extended-length prestige model, the Brougham; and a two-door coupé, the Monaro.", "The mainstream Holden Special was rebranded the Kingswood, and the basic fleet model, the Standard, became the Belmont.", "On 3 March 1969, Alexander Rhea, managing director of General Motors-Holden's at the time, was joined by press photographers and the Federal Minister of Shipping and Transport, Ian Sinclair as the two men drove the two-millionth Holden, an HK Brougham, off the production line.", "This came just over half a decade since the one-millionth car, an EJ Premier sedan, rolled off the Dandenong line on 25 October 1962.Following the Chevrolet V8 fitted to the HK, the first Australian-designed and mass-produced V8, the Holden V8 engine debuted in the Hurricane concept of 1969 before fitment to facelifted HT model.", "This was available in two capacities: and .", "Late in HT production, use of the new Tri-Matic automatic transmission, first seen in the LC Torana was phased in as Powerglide stock was exhausted, but Holden's official line was that the HG of 1971 was the first full-sized Holden to receive it.Monaro GTS 350).", "\"Despite the arrival of serious competitors—namely, the Ford Falcon, Chrysler Valiant, and Japanese cars—in the 1960s, Holden's locally produced large six- and eight-cylinder cars remained Australia's top-selling vehicles.", "Sales were boosted by exporting the Kingswood sedan, station wagon, and utility body styles to Indonesia, Trinidad and Tobago, Pakistan, the Philippines, and South Africa in complete knock-down form.=== 1970s ===Holden launched the new HQ series in 1971.At this time, the company was producing all of its passenger cars in Australia, and every model was of Australian design; however, by the end of the decade, Holden was producing cars based on overseas designs.", "The HQ was thoroughly re-engineered, featuring a perimeter frame and semi-monocoque (unibody) construction.", "Other firsts included an all-coil suspension and an extended wheelbase for station wagons, while the utilities and panel vans retained the traditional coil/leaf suspension configuration.", "The series included the new prestige Statesman brand, which also had a longer wheelbase, replacing the Brougham.", "The Statesman remains noteworthy because it was not marketed as a \"Holden\", but rather a \"Statesman\".HX ''(pictured)'' was an evolution of the record-selling HQ, with more than 480,000 units shifted throughout the car's lifetime.The HQ framework led to a new generation of two-door Monaros, and despite the introduction of the similar-sized competitors, the HQ range became the top-selling Holden of all time, with 485,650 units sold in three years; 14,558 units were exported and 72,290 CKD kits were constructed.", "The HQ series was facelifted in 1974 with the introduction of the HJ, heralding new front-panel styling and a revised rear fascia.", "This new bodywork was to remain, albeit with minor upgrades, through the HX and HZ series.", "Detuned engines adhering to government emission standards were brought in with the HX series, whilst the HZ brought considerably improved road handling and comfort with the introduction of radial-tuned suspension.", "As a result of GM's toying with the Wankel rotary engine, as used by Mazda of Japan, an export agreement was initiated in 1975.This involved Holden exporting with powertrains, HJ, and later, HX series Premiers as the Mazda Roadpacer AP.", "Mazda then fitted these cars with the 13B rotary engine and three-speed automatic transmission.", "Production ended in 1977, after just 840 units sold.Development of the Torana continued in with the larger mid-sized LH series released in 1974, offered only as a four-door sedan.", "The LH Torana was one of the few cars worldwide engineered to accommodate four-, six-, and eight-cylinder engines.", "This trend continued until Holden introduced the Sunbird in 1976, essentially the four-cylinder Torana with a new name.", "Designated LX, both the Sunbird and Torana introduced a three-door hatchback variant.", "A final UC update appeared in 1978.During its production run, the Torana achieved legendary racing success in Australia, achieving victories at the Mount Panorama Circuit in Bathurst, New South Wales.Torana, was replaced by an interim four-cylinder version of the Commodore until the Camira was launched in 1982.In 1975, Holden introduced the compact Gemini, the Australian version of the \"T-car\", based on the Opel Kadett C. The Gemini was an overseas design developed jointly with Isuzu, GM's Japanese affiliate; and was powered by a 1.6-litre four-cylinder engine.", "Fast becoming a popular car, the Gemini rapidly attained sales leadership in its class, and the nameplate lived on until 1987.Commodore was introduced in 1978, following the success of its Kingswood forebear.", "It would become Holden's bestselling vehicle to date.Holden's most popular car to date, the Commodore, was introduced in 1978 as the VB.", "The new family car was loosely based on the Opel Rekord E body shell, but with the front from the Opel Senator grafted to accommodate the larger Holden six-cylinder and V8 engines.", "Initially, the Commodore maintained Holden's sales leadership in Australia.", "However, some of the compromises resulting from the adoption of a design intended for another market hampered the car's acceptance.", "In particular, it was narrower than its predecessor and its Falcon rival, making it less comfortable for three rear-seat passengers.", "With the abandonment of left-hand drive markets, Holden exported almost 100,000 Commodores to markets such as New Zealand, Thailand, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Indonesia, Malta and Singapore.During the 1970s, Holden ran an advertising jingle \"Football, Meat Pies, Kangaroos, and Holden cars\", a localised version of the \"Baseball, Hot Dogs, Apple Pies, and Chevrolet\" jingle used by GM's Chevrolet division in the United States.Holden discontinued the Torana in 1979 and the Sunbird in 1980.After the 1978 introduction of the Commodore, the Torana became the \"in-between\" car, surrounded by the smaller and more economical Gemini and the larger, more sophisticated Commodore.", "The closest successor to the Torana was the Camira, released in 1982 as Australia's version of GM's medium-sized \"J-car\".=== 1980s ===Camira, Holden's version of the global \"J-car\" platform slumped significantly.", "This placed a huge financial burden on the Australian subsidiary, which was already operating at a loss at this time.The 1980s were challenging for Holden and the Australian automotive industry.", "The Australian Government tried to revive the industry with the Button car plan, which encouraged car makers to focus on producing fewer models at higher, more economical volumes, and to export cars.", "The decade opened with the shut-down of the Pagewood, New South Wales production plant and introduction of the light commercial Rodeo, sourced from Isuzu in Japan.", "The Rodeo was available in both two- and four-wheel drive chassis cab models with a choice of petrol and diesel powerplants.", "The range was updated in 1988 with the TF series, based on the Isuzu TF.", "Other cars sourced from Isuzu during the 1980s were the four-wheel drive Jackaroo (1981), the Shuttle (1982) van and the Piazza (1986) three-door sports hatchback.", "The second generation Holden Gemini from 1985 was also based on an Isuzu design, although, its manufacture was undertaken in Australia.In 1981, the Fishermans Bend engine plant began production of the Family II - part of a global engine programme for GM's compact vehicles.", "The plant supplied the engine locally for the Camira model, and to export markets - primarily to GM's plants in Europe for installation in Opel/Vauxhall vehicles.While GM Australia's commercial vehicle range had originally been mostly based on Bedford products, these had gradually been replaced by Isuzu products.", "This process began in the 1970s and by 1982 Holden's commercial vehicle arm no longer offered any Bedford products.The new Holden WB commercial vehicles and the Statesman WB limousines were introduced in 1980.However, the designs, based on the HQ and updated HJ, HX and HZ models from the 1970s were less competitive than similar models in Ford's lineup.", "Thus, Holden abandoned those vehicle classes altogether in 1984.Sales of the Commodore also fell, with the effects of the 1979 energy crisis lessening, and for the first time the Commodore lost ground to the Ford Falcon.", "Sales in other segments also suffered when competition from Ford intensified, and other Australian manufacturers: Mitsubishi, Nissan and Toyota gained market share.", "When released in 1982, the Camira initially generated good sales, which later declined because buyers considered the 1.6-litre engine underpowered, and the car's build and ride quality below-average.", "The Camira lasted just seven years, and contributed to Holden's accumulated losses of over A$500 million by the mid-1980s.VN Calais pictured)'' overcame the previous generation's width problems.In 1984, Holden introduced the VK Commodore, with significant styling changes from the previous VH.", "The Commodore was next updated in 1986 as the VL, which had new front and rear styling.", "Controversially, the VL was powered by the 3.0-litre Nissan ''RB30'' six-cylinder engine and had a Nissan-built, electronically controlled four-speed automatic transmission.", "Holden even went to court in 1984 to stop local motoring magazine ''Wheels'' from reporting on the matter.", "The engine change was necessitated by the legal requirement that all new cars sold in Australia after 1986 had to consume unleaded petrol.", "Because it was unfeasible to convert the existing six-cylinder engine to run on unleaded fuel, the Nissan engine was chosen as the best engine available.", "However, changing currency exchange rates doubled the cost of the engine and transmission over the life of the VL.", "The decision to opt for a Japanese-made transmission led to the closure of the Woodville, South Australia assembly plant.", "Confident by the apparent sign of turnaround, GM paid off Holden's mounted losses of A$780 million on 19 December 1986.At GM headquarters' request, Holden was then reorganised and recapitalised, separating the engine and car manufacturing divisions in the process.", "This involved the splitting of Holden into ''Holden's Motor Company'' (HMC) and ''Holden's Engine Company'' (HEC).", "For the most part, car bodies were now manufactured at Elizabeth, South Australia, with engines as before, confined to the Fishermans Bend plant in Port Melbourne, Victoria.", "The engine manufacturing business was successful, building four-cylinder ''Family II'' engines for use in cars built overseas.", "The final phase of the Commodore's recovery strategy involved the 1988 VN, a significantly wider model powered by the American-designed, Australian-assembled 3.8-litre Buick V6 engine.Holden began to sell the subcompact Suzuki Swift-based Barina in 1985.The Barina was launched concurrently with the Suzuki-sourced Holden Drover, followed by the Scurry later on in 1985.In the previous year, Nissan Pulsar hatchbacks were rebadged as the Holden Astra, as a result of a deal with Nissan.", "This arrangement ceased in 1989 when Holden entered a new alliance with Toyota, forming a new company: United Australian Automobile Industries (UAAI).", "UAAI resulted in Holden selling rebadged versions of Toyota's Corolla and Camry, as the Holden Nova and Apollo respectively, with Toyota re-branding the Commodore as the Lexcen.=== 1990s ===VS Statesman/Caprice of 1995 represented a mild facelift of the VR, which in turn was an update of the 1990 VQ—Holden's long-wheelbase version of the VN Commodore series.The company changed throughout the 1990s, increasing its Australian market share from 21 percent in 1991 to 28.2 percent in 1999.Besides manufacturing Australia's best selling car, which was exported in significant numbers, Holden continued to export many locally produced engines to power cars made elsewhere.", "In this decade, Holden adopted a strategy of importing cars it needed to offer a full range of competitive vehicles.", "During 1998, General Motors-Holden's Ltd name was shortened to \"Holden Ltd\".On 26 April 1990, GM's New Zealand subsidiary Holden New Zealand announced that production at the assembly plant based in Trentham would be phased out and vehicles would be imported duty-free—this came after the 1984 closure of the Petone assembly line due to low output volumes.", "During the 1990s, Holden, other Australian automakers and trade unions pressured the Australian Government to halt the lowering of car import tariffs.", "By 1997, the federal government had already cut tariffs to 22.5 percent, from 57.5 percent ten years earlier; by 2000, a plan was formulated to reduce the tariffs to 15 percent.", "Holden was critical, saying that Australia's population was not large enough, and that the changes could tarnish the local industry.Commodore VT, introduced in 1997, marked the Commodore's global expansion.Holden reintroduced its defunct Statesman title in 1990—this time under the Holden marque, as the Statesman and Caprice.", "For 1991, Holden updated the Statesman and Caprice with a range of improvements, including the introduction of four-wheel anti-lock brakes (ABS); although, a rear-wheel system had been standard on the Statesman Caprice from March 1976.ABS was added to the short-wheelbase Commodore range in 1992.Another returning variant was the full-size utility, and on this occasion it was based on the Commodore.", "The VN Commodore received a major facelift in 1993 with the VR—compared to the VN, approximately 80 percent of the car model was new.", "Exterior changes resulted in a smoother overall body and a \"twin-kidney\" grille—a Commodore styling trait that remained until the 2002 VY model and, as of 2013, remains a permanent staple on HSV variants.Holden introduced the all-new VT Commodore in 1997, the outcome of a A$600 million development programme that spanned more than five years.", "The new model featured a rounded exterior body shell, improved handling and many firsts for an Australian-built car.", "Also, a stronger body structure increased crash safety.", "The locally produced Buick-sourced V6 engine powered the Commodore range, as did the 5.0-litre Holden V8 engine, and was replaced in 1999 by the 5.7-litre ''LS'' unit.The 1998 Holden Astra continued Holden's trend of sourcing its mid-size and smaller model lines from Opel in Europe.The UAAI badge-engineered cars first introduced in 1989 sold in far fewer numbers than anticipated, but the Holden Commodore, Toyota Camry, and Corolla were all successful when sold under their original nameplates.", "The first generation Nova and the donor Corolla were produced at Holden's Dandenong, Victoria facility until 1994.UAAI was dissolved in 1996, and Holden returned to selling only GM products.", "The Holden Astra and Vectra, both designed by Opel in Germany, replaced the Toyota-sourced Holden Nova and Apollo.", "This came after the 1994 introduction of the Opel Corsa replacing the already available Suzuki Swift as the source for the Holden Barina.", "Sales of the full-size Holden Suburban SUV sourced from Chevrolet commenced in 1998—lasting until 2001.Also in 1998, local assembly of the Vectra began at Elizabeth, South Australia.", "These cars were exported to Japan and Southeast Asia with Opel badges.", "However, the Vectra did not achieve sufficient sales in Australia to justify local assembly, and reverted to being fully imported in 2000.=== 2000s ===In the 1990s, Holden's share of the Australian market surged and peaked at 27.5 percent in 2000 before declining to 15.2 percent in 2006.From March 2003, Holden no longer held the number one sales position in Australia, losing ground to Toyota.", "Commodore sales had peaked in 1998 at 94 642 vehicles and were relatively stable up to 2004 before going into a steady decline.Total Holden sales peaked in 2002 at 178 392 vehicles and were stable up to 2005 before declining for the rest of the decade and the next.This downturn affected Holden's profits; the company recorded a combined gain of A$842.9 million from 2002 to 2004, and a combined loss of A$290 million from 2005 to 2006.Factors contributing to the loss included the development of an all-new model, the strong Australian dollar and the cost of reducing the workforce at the Elizabeth plant, including the loss of 1,400 jobs after the closure of the third-shift assembly line in 2005, after two years in operation.", "Holden fared better in 2007, posting an A$6 million loss.", "This was followed by an A$70.2 million loss in the 2008, an A$210.6 million loss in 2009, and a profit of A$112 million in 2010.On 18 May 2005, \"Holden Ltd\" became \"GM Holden Ltd\", coinciding with the resettling to the new Holden headquarters on 191 Salmon Street, Port Melbourne, Victoria.Monaro coupé was resurrected in 2001 as a low-volume niche model.", "Unanticipated overseas demand proved otherwise, with the Monaro selling in the UK as a Vauxhall Monaro and throughout the United States as the Pontiac GTO.Holden caused controversy in 2005 with their Holden Employee Pricing television advertisement, which ran from October to December 2005.The campaign publicised, \"for the first time ever, all Australians can enjoy the financial benefit of Holden Employee Pricing\".", "However, this did not include a discounted dealer delivery fee and savings on factory fitted options and accessories that employees received.", "At the same time, employees were given a further discount of 25 to 29 percent on selected models.Holden revived the Monaro coupe in 2001.Based on the Commodore VX architecture, the coupe attracted worldwide attention after being shown as a concept car at Australian auto shows.", "The VX Commodore received its first major update in 2002 with the VY series.", "A mildly facelifted VZ model launched in 2004, introducing the ''High Feature'' engine.", "This was built at the Fishermans Bend facility completed in 2003, with a maximum output of 900 engines per day.", "This has reportedly added A$5.2 billion to the Australian economy; exports account for about A$450 million alone.", "After the VZ, the ''High Feature'' engine powered the all-new Holden Commodore (VE).", "In contrast to previous models, the VE no longer used an Opel-sourced platform adapted both mechanically and in size, but was based on the Holden developed GM Zeta platform, that was earmarked to become a \"Global RWD Architecture\", until plans were cancelled due to the 2007/08 global financial crisis.Commodore with the VE series in 2006, Holden's first \"clean-sheet\" design since 1971.Throughout the 1990s, Opel had also been the source of many Holden models.", "To increase profitability, Holden looked to the South Korean Daewoo brand for replacements after acquiring a 44.6 percent stake—worth US$251 million—in the company in 2002 as a representative of GM.", "This was increased to 50.9 percent in 2005, but when GM further increased its stake to 70.1 percent around the time of its 2009 Chapter 11 reorganisation, Holden's interest was relinquished and transferred to another (undisclosed) part of GM.The commencement of the Holden-branded Daewoo models began with the 2005 Holden Barina, which based on the Daewoo Kalos, replaced the Opel Corsa as the source of the Barina.", "In the same year, the Viva, based on the Daewoo Lacetti, replaced the entry-level Holden Astra Classic, although the new-generation Astra introduced in 2004 continued on.", "The Captiva crossover SUV came next in 2006.After discontinuing the Frontera and Jackaroo models in 2003, Holden was only left with one all-wheel drive model: the Adventra, a Commodore-based station wagon.", "The fourth model to be replaced with a South Korean alternative was the Vectra by the mid-size Epica in 2007.As a result of the split between GM and Isuzu, Holden lost the rights to use the \"Rodeo\" nameplate.", "Consequently, the Holden Rodeo was facelifted and relaunched as the Colorado in 2008.Following Holden's successful application for a A$149 million government grant to build a localised version of the Chevrolet Cruze in Australia from 2011, Holden in 2009 announced that it would initially import the small car unchanged from South Korea as the Holden Cruze.", "Following the government grant announcement, Kevin Rudd, Australia's Prime Minister at the time, stated that production would support 600 new jobs at the Elizabeth facility; however, this failed to take into account Holden's previous announcement, whereby 600 jobs would be shed when production of the ''Family II'' engine ceased in late 2009.The VF Commodore; the last locally produced model in Holden's lineup=== 2010s ===In March 2012, Holden was given a $270 million lifeline by the Australian Federal Government (Labor Party of Australia) along with the South Australian and Victorian state governments.", "In return, Holden planned to inject over $1 billion into car manufacturing in Australia.", "They estimated the new investment package would return around $4 billion to the Australian economy and see GM Holden continue making cars in Australia until at least 2022.In mid-2013, Holden sought a further A$265 million, in addition to the A$275 million that was already committed by the governments of Canberra, South Australia and Victoria, to remain viable as a car manufacturer in Australia.", "A source close to Holden informed the ''Australian'' news publication that the car company is losing money on every vehicle that it produces and consequently initiated negotiations to reduce employee wages by up to A$200 per week to cut costs, following the announcement of 400 job cuts and an assembly line reduction of 65 (400 to 335) cars per day.", "From 2001 to 2012, Holden received over A$150 million a year in subsidy from Australian government.", "The subsidy from 2007 was more than Holden's capital investment of the same period.", "From 2004, Holden was only able to make a profit in 2010 and 2011.Industry Minister Kim Carr confirmed on 10 July 2013 that talks had been scheduled between the Australian government and Holden.", "On 13 August 2013, 1,700 employees at the Elizabeth plant in South Australia voted to accept a three-year wage freeze to decrease the chances of the production line's closure in 2016.Holden's ultimate survival, though, depended on continued negotiations with the Federal Government—to secure funding for the period from 2016 to 2022—and the final decision of the global headquarters in Detroit, US.Following an unsuccessful attempt to secure the extra funding required from the new Liberal/National coalition government, on 11 December 2013, General Motors announced that Holden would cease engine and vehicle manufacturing operations in Australia by the end of 2017.As a result, 2,900 jobs would be lost over four years.", "Beyond 2017 Holden's Australian presence would consist of a national sales company, a parts distribution centre and a global design studio.In May 2014, GM reversed their decision to abandon the Lang Lang Proving Ground and decided to keep it as part of their engineering capability in Australia.In 2015, Holden again began selling a range of Opel-derived cars comprising the Astra VXR and Insignia VXR (both based on the OPC models sold by Vauxhall) and Cascada.", "Later that year, Holden also announced plans to sell the European Astra and the South Korean Cruze alongside each other from 2017.In December 2015, Belgian entrepreneur Guido Dumarey commenced negotiations to buy the Commodore manufacturing plant in Elizabeth, with a view to continue producing a rebadged Zeta-based premium range of rear and all-wheel drive vehicles for local and export sales.", "The proposal was met with doubt in South Australia, and it later came to nothing.", "On 20 October 2017, Holden ceased manufacturing vehicles in Australia with the closure of the Elizabeth plant.", "Afterwards, Holden became an importer of rebadged cars from various GM subsidiaries located in the United States, Canada, Germany, Thailand, and South Korea.=== 2020s ===The Holden Commodore (ZB); a re-badged Opel, was the last Commodore model before the discontinuation of the Holden marqueOn 17 February 2020, General Motors announced that the Holden brand would be retired by 2021, after GM stated it would no longer make right-hand drive vehicles globally, leaving the Australia and New Zealand market altogether.", "Holden produced nearly 7.7 million vehicles." ], [ "Vehicles", ";Holden-designed models* Holden Standard (1948–1968)* Holden Utility (1948–2017)* Holden 48-125-FJ (1948–1956)* Holden Panel Van (1953–1969)* Holden FE-FC (1956–1960)* Holden FE-FC (1956–1960)* Holden FB-EK (1960–1962)* Holden Premier (1962–1968)* Holden Special (1953–1968)* Holden Brougham (1968–1971)* Holden Sandman (1974–1980)* Holden Camira (1982–1989)* Holden Statesman/Caprice (1990–2017)* Holden Commodore/Berlina/Calais (1978–2017)* Holden Belmont/Kingswood/Premier (1968–1984)* Holden Monaro (1968–1977; 2001–2005)* Holden Sunbird/Torana (1967–1980)* Holden Sunbird/Torana (1967–1980)* Statesman (1971–1984);Chevrolet-based models* Holden Astra Sedan (2017–2019)* Holden Barina (2011–2018)* Holden Colorado (2008–2020)* Holden Colorado 7/Trailblazer (2012–2020)* Holden Cruze (2009–2016)* Holden Malibu (2013–2016)* Holden Spark (2009–2020)* Holden Suburban (1998–2001)* Holden Trax (2013–2020)* Holden Volt (2012–2015)* Holden Equinox (2018–2020);Daewoo-based models* Holden Barina (2005–2011)* Holden Captiva (2006–2018)* Holden Epica (2007–2011)* Holden Viva (2005–2009);GMC-based models* Holden Acadia (2018–2020);Isuzu-based models* Holden Camira (1984–1987), only in New Zealand* Holden Frontera (1995–2004)* Holden Gemini (1975–1986)* Holden Jackaroo/Monterey (1981–2002)* Holden Piazza (1986–1988)* Holden Rodeo (1981–2008)* Holden Shuttle (1982–1990);Nissan-based models* Holden Astra (1984–1989);Opel/Vauxhall-based models* Holden Astra (1996–2009, 2015–2020)* Holden Barina (1994–2005)* Holden Calibra (1991–1998)* Holden Cascada (2015–2017)* Holden Combo (1996–2012)* Holden Commodore (2018–2020)* Holden Insignia (2015–2017)* Holden Tigra (2005–2007)* Holden Vectra (1997–2006)* Holden Zafira (2001–2005);Suzuki-based models* Holden Barina (1985–1994)* Holden Cruze (2002–2006)* Holden Drover* Holden Scurry;Toyota-based models* Holden Apollo (1989–1996)* Holden Nova (1989–1996)" ], [ "Driveline components", ";Inline-4 engines* Holden Starfire motor (1978–1986)* GM Family II engine (for Opel) (1981–2009);Inline-6 engines* Holden straight-six motor (1948–1986);V6 engines * Holden 3800 (1988–2006)* Holden AlloyTec (2004–2016);V8 engines* Holden V8 engine (1968–2000);Transmissions* Holden TriMatic (1970–1988)* Holden manual transmission (1948–1986);Differentials* Holden Banjo differential (1948–1984)* Holden Salisbury differential (1968–1988)" ], [ "Corporate affairs and identity", "+2007 sales and production Vehicle sales Units Passenger vehicles 104,848 Light commercial vehicles 33,554 Sport utility vehicles 11,091 '''Total''' '''146,680''' Vehicle production Units '''Total''' 107,795 Engine production Units ''Family II'' 136,699 ''High Feature'' 132,722 '''Total''' '''269,421''' Exports Units Engines 173,463 Vehicles 36,534 '''Total''' '''209,997'''Holden's logo, of a lion holding a stone, was introduced in 1928.Holden's Motor Body Builders appointed Rayner Hoff to design the emblem, which refers to a fable in which observations of lions rolling stones led to the invention of the wheel.", "With the 1948 launch of the 48–215, Holden revised its logo.", "It commissioned another redesign in 1972 to better represent the company.", "The emblem was reworked once more in 1995.File:Holden logo 1928-1969.jpg\|1928–1969File:Holden logo 1969-1994.jpg\|1969–1995File:Holden logo 1994-2014.png\|1995–2014File:Holden logo 2014-2016.png\|2014–2016In 1987, Holden established Holden Special Vehicles (HSV) in partnership with Tom Walkinshaw, who primarily manufactured modified, high-performance Commodore variants.", "To further reinforce the brand, HSV introduced the HSV Dealer Team into the V8 Supercar fold in 2005 under the naming rights of Toll HSV Dealer Team.In 2010, Holden sold vehicles across Australia through the Holden Dealer Network (310 authorised stores and 12 service centres), which employed more than 13,500 people.", "On 8 May 2015, Jeff Rolfs, Holden's CFO, became interim chairman and managing director.", "Holden announced on 6 February 2015 that Mark Bernhard would return to Holden as chairman and managing director, the first Australian to hold the post in 25 years.=== Exports ===Holden began to export vehicles in 1954, sending the FJ to New Zealand.", "Exports to New Zealand continued, but to broaden their export potential, Holden began to cater their Commodore, Monaro and Statesman/Caprice models for both right- and left-hand drive markets.", "The Middle East was Holden's largest export market, with the Commodore sold as the Chevrolet Lumina from 1998, and the Statesman from 1999 as the Chevrolet Caprice.", "Commodores were also sold as the Chevrolet Lumina in Brunei, Fiji and South Africa, and as the Chevrolet Omega in Brazil.", "Pontiac in North America also imported Commodore sedans from 2008 through to 2009 as the G8.The G8's cessation was a consequence of GM's Chapter 11 bankruptcy resulting in the demise of the Pontiac brand.Sales of the Monaro began in 2003 to the Middle East as the Chevrolet Lumina Coupe.", "Later that year a modified version of the Monaro began selling in the United States (but not in Canada) as the Pontiac GTO, and under the Monaro name through Vauxhall dealerships in the United Kingdom.", "This arrangement continued through to 2006 when the car was discontinued.", "The long-wheelbase Statesman sales in the Chinese market as the Buick Royaum began in 2005, before being replaced in 2007 by the Statesman-based Buick Park Avenue.", "Statesman/Caprice exports to South Korea also began in 2005.These Korean models were sold as the Daewoo Statesman, and later as the Daewoo Veritas from 2008.Holden's move into international markets proved profitable; export revenue increased from A$973 million in 1999 to just under $1.3 billion in 2006.From 2011, the WM Caprice was exported to North America as the Chevrolet Caprice PPV, a version of the Caprice built exclusively for law enforcement in North America and sold only to police.", "From 2007, the HSV-based Commodore was exported to the United Kingdom as the Vauxhall VXR8.In 2013, Chevrolet announced that exports of the Commodore would resume to North America in the form of the VF Commodore as the Chevrolet SS sedan for the 2014 model year.", "The Chevrolet SS Sedan was also imported to the United States (but again, not to Canada) for 2015 with only minor changes, notably the addition of Magnetic Ride Control suspension and a Tremec TR-6060 manual transmission.", "For the 2016 model year the SS sedan received a facelift based on the VF Series II Commodore unveiled in September 2015.In 2017, production of Holden's last two American exports, the SS and the Caprice PPV was discontinued.=== Leadership ===Edward Holden (1917–1934)Laurence Hartnett (1934–1946)Harold E. Bettle (1946–1953)Earl C. Daum (1953–1959)Harlow C. Gage (1959–1962)David L. Heglund (1962–1966)Max C. Wilson (1966–1968)Alexander D. Rhea (1968–1970)A. C. \"Bill\" Gibbs (1970–1973)Damon Martin (1973–1976)Charles S. \"Chuck\" Chapman (1976–1987)John G. Bagshaw (1987–1990)William J. Hamel (1990–1997)James R. Wiemels (1997–1999)Peter Hanenberger (1999–2003)Denny Mooney (2003–2007)Chris Gubbey (2007–2008)Mark Reuss (2008–2009)Alan Batey (2009–2010)Michael Devereux (2010–2014)Gerry Dorizas (2014–2014)Jeff Rolfs (Interim chairman and managing director) (2014–2015)Mark Bernhard (2015–2018)Dave Buttner (2018–2019)Kristian Aquilina (2019–2020) Acting Chairman and Managing Director" ], [ "Sales", "Sales in the Australian market from 1991 to 2006Whilst previously holding the number one position in Australian vehicle sales, Holden has sold progressively fewer cars during most of the 21st century, in part due to a large drop in Commodore sales.+ '''Sales in Australia''' Year Annual sales Position Best selling model 2002 178,392 1 Commodore 2003 175,412 2 Commodore 2004 178,027 2 Commodore 2005 174,464 2 Commodore 2006 146,511 2 Commodore 2007 146,680 2 Commodore 2008 130,338 2 Commodore 2009 119,568 2 Commodore 2010 132,923 2 Commodore 2011 126,095 2 Commodore 2012 114,665 2 Commodore 2013 112,059 2 Commodore 2014 106,092 2 Commodore 2015 102,951 3 Commodore 2016 94,308 4 Commodore 2017 90,306 4 Commodore 2018 60,754 6 Colorado2019 43,176 10 Colorado2020 16,688 Colorado+ '''Sales in New Zealand''' Year Annual sales Position Best selling model 2002 Commodore 2003 Commodore 2004 Commodore 2005 Commodore 2006 Commodore 2007 Commodore 2008 Commodore 2009 Commodore 2010 Commodore 2011 Commodore 2012 3 Captiva 2013 11,722 3 Commodore 2014 13,422 3 Commodore 2015 2 Colorado 2016 3 Colorado 2017 3 Colorado 2018 13,046 3 Colorado" ], [ "Motorsport", "Garth Tander driving a Holden VF Commodore for the Holden Racing Team in 2015Holden has been involved with factory backed teams in Australian touring car racing since 1968.The main factory-backed teams have been the Holden Dealer Team (1969–1987), the Holden Racing Team (1990–2016) and Triple Eight Race Engineering (2017–2020).", "Holden won the Bathurst 1000 30 times, more than any other manufacturer, and has won the Australian Touring Car and Supercars Championship title 21 times.", "Brad Jones Racing, Team 18, Erebus Motorsport, Matt Stone Racing, Tekno Autosports and Walkinshaw Andretti United also run Holden Commodores in the series." ], [ "See also", "''The Death of Holden'', a 2016 bookHolden Dealer TeamHolden Elizabeth PlantHolden Fishermans Bend PlantHolden Special VehiclesHolden Woodville PlantList of Holden vehicles by nameplateWalkinshaw Performance" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Internet* :* Part One, Part Two, Part Three (PDF).", "* * Wagner, David Paul, Canowindra Motors Holden Museum.", "australiaforvisitors.com.", "Photographic record of this Holden museum that closed in 2016.;Magazines* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Early history of Holden* Trafalgar Holden Museum, Gippsland, Victoria" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hank Greenberg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Benjamin Greenberg''' (January 1, 1911 – September 4, 1986), nicknamed \"'''Hammerin' Hank'''\", \"'''Hankus Pankus'''\", and \"'''the Hebrew Hammer'''\", was an American professional baseball player and team executive.", "He played in Major League Baseball (MLB), primarily for the Detroit Tigers as a first baseman in the 1930s and 1940s.", "A member of the Baseball Hall of Fame and a two-time Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award winner, he was one of the premier power hitters of his generation and is widely considered one of the greatest sluggers in baseball history.Greenberg played the first twelve of his 13 major league seasons for Detroit; with the Tigers, he was an All-Star for four seasons and was named the American League (AL) Most Valuable Player in 1935 and 1940.He had a batting average over .300 in eight seasons, and won two World Series championships with the Tigers ( and ).", "He was the AL home run leader four times and his 58 home runs for the Tigers in 1938 equaled Jimmie Foxx's 1932 mark for the most in one season by anyone other than Babe Ruth, and tied Foxx for the most home runs between Ruth's record 60 in 1927 and Roger Maris' record 61 in 1961.Greenberg was the first major league player to hit 25 or more home runs in a season in each league, and remains the AL record-holder for most runs batted in in a single season by a right-handed batter.When the United States joined World War II, Greenberg was the first major leaguer to join the armed forces; he spent 47 months in military service, more than any other major league player, all of which took place during what would have been prime years in his major league career.", "Like many players who served in WWII, his career statistics suffered because of the war and would have certainly been higher had he not served in the armed services during wartime.", "In 1947, Greenberg signed a contract for a record $85,000 salary before being sold to the Pittsburgh Pirates, where he played his final MLB season that year.", "After retiring from playing, Greenberg continued to work in baseball as a team executive for the Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox.Greenberg was the first Jewish superstar in American team sports.", "He attracted national attention in 1934 in the middle of a pennant race when he grappled with the decision of whether or not to play baseball on the Jewish High Holy Days; after consultation with his rabbi, he decided to play on Rosh Hashanah, but refused to play on Yom Kippur, instead spending the day at the synagogue.", "Having endured his share of antisemitic abuse in his career, Greenberg was one of the few opposing players to publicly welcome African-American player Jackie Robinson to the major leagues in 1947." ], [ "Early life", "Greenberg was born on January 1, 1911, in Greenwich Village, New York City, to Romanian Jewish immigrant parents from Bucharest, Sarah (née Schwartz) (1881–1951) and David Greenberg (1883–1969).", "He was the third of four children and had two brothers, Ben (1906–1994) and Joe (1915–2001), and a sister, Lillian (1907–1989).", "His parents had originally named him \"Hyman\"; however, the name on his birth certificate was erroneously listed as \"Henry\".The family owned a successful cloth-shrinking plant in New York.", "Eventually, they moved from Greenwich Village to the Bronx where Greenberg attended James Monroe High School.", "There, Greenberg was an outstanding all-around athlete and was bestowed with the long-standing nickname of \"Bruggy\" by his basketball coach.", "His preferred sport was baseball, and his preferred position was first base.", "However, his best sport was basketball and he helped the high school basketball team win the city championship.", "Greenberg also excelled at soccer and track and field.In 1929, the 18-year-old Greenberg was recruited by the New York Yankees, who already had Lou Gehrig at first base.", "As first base was already taken on the Yankee team, Greenberg turned down the Yankees' offer and instead attended New York University on an athletic scholarship; there, he was a member of Sigma Alpha Mu.", "During this time, he also had a tryout with the New York Giants; Giants manager John McGraw, however, was not impressed by the first baseman.", "Hence, after his freshman year ended, Greenberg signed with the Detroit Tigers for $9,000 ($ today)." ], [ "Professional career", "===Minor leagues===Greenberg played minor league baseball for three years.", "He played 17 games in 1930 for the Hartford Senators of the Eastern League before playing the remainder of the year with the Raleigh Capitals of the Piedmont League, hitting .314 with 19 home runs.", "In 1931, he played for the Evansville Hubs in the Illinois–Indiana–Iowa League, hitting .318 with 15 home runs and 85 runs batted in.", "In 1932, the Beaumont Exporters in the Texas League, he hit 39 homers with 131 RBIs, winning the league's Most Valuable Player award, and leading Beaumont to the Texas League title.===Major leagues=======Early years====On September 14, 1930, Greenberg made his major league debut as a pinch hitter against the New York Yankees.", "It was the only game he appeared in that year but, as a result, made him the youngest player (19) to appear in the major leagues in 1930.It was another three years before he rejoined the majors.", "In 1933, for the Tigers, Greenberg hit .301 with 87 runs batted in.", "At the same time, he was third in the league in strikeouts (78).In 1934, his second season in the majors, Greenberg hit .339 and helped the Tigers reach their first World Series in 25 years.", "He led the league in doubles, with 63 (the fourth-highest all-time in a single season), and extra-base hits (96).", "Additionally, he was third in the AL in slugging percentage (.600) – behind Jimmie Foxx and Lou Gehrig, but ahead of Babe Ruth – and in RBIs (139), sixth in batting average (.339), seventh in home runs (26), and ninth in on-base percentage (.404).Greenberg and heavyweight boxer Joe Louis in 1935Late in the 1934 season, he announced that he would not play on September 10, which was Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, or on September 19, the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur.", "Detroit fans grumbled at the decision, however, with one reportedly saying, \"Rosh Hashanah comes every year but the Tigers haven't won the pennant since 1909.\"", "As a result, Greenberg did considerable soul-searching, and discussed the matter with his rabbi and his father; finally he relented and agreed to play on Rosh Hashanah, but stuck with his decision not to play on Yom Kippur.", "Dramatically, Greenberg hit two home runs in a 2–1 Tigers victory over the Red Sox on Rosh Hashanah.", "The next day, the ''Detroit Free Press'' ran the Hebrew lettering for \"Happy New Year\" across its front page.Columnist and poet Edgar A.", "Guest expressed the general opinion in a poem titled \"Speaking of Greenberg\", in which he used the Irish (and thus Catholic) names Murphy and Mulroney.", "The poem ends with the lines: \"''We shall miss him on the infield and shall miss him at the bat.", "But he's true to his religion — and I honor him for that.''\"", "The Detroit press was not so kind regarding the Yom Kippur decision, nor were many fans, but Greenberg in his autobiography recalled that he received a standing ovation from congregants at Congregation Shaarey Zedek when he arrived.", "With Greenberg absent from the lineup, the Tigers lost to the New York Yankees 5–2.They went on to face the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1934 World Series, losing in seven games against the \"Gashouse Gang\".In 1935, Greenberg led the league in RBIs (168), total bases (389), and extra base hits (98), tied Foxx for the AL title in home runs (36), was 2nd in the league in doubles (46), slugging percentage (.628), was 3rd in the league in triples (16), and in runs scored (121), 6th in on-base percentage (.411) and walks (87), and was 7th in batting average (.328).", "He was unanimously voted as the Most Valuable Player in the American League.", "By the All-Star break that season, Greenberg had hit 25 home runs and set an MLB record (still standing) of 103 RBIs, but was not selected to the AL All-Star roster; one reason was that AL manager Mickey Cochrane had put himself on the All-Star roster despite eventually not playing in the game.That season, Greenberg led the Tigers to another pennant.", "However, during Game 2, he sprained his wrist and was sidelined for the remainder of the series as the Tigers won their first World Series title.In April 1936, Greenberg re-injured his wrist in a collision with Jake Powell of the Washington Senators and did not play the remainder of the season.", "He finished the season with 16 hits, 1 home run, and 15 RBIs in 12 games.In 1937, Greenberg recovered from his injury and was voted to the AL All-Star roster, but did not play.", "On September 19, 1937, he hit the first home run into the center-field bleachers at Yankee Stadium.", "He led the AL by driving in 184 runs (third all-time, behind Hack Wilson in 1930 and Lou Gehrig in 1931), and in extra-base hits (103), while batting .337 with 200 hits.", "He was second in the league in home runs (40), doubles (49), total bases (397), slugging percentage (.668), and walks (102), third in on-base percentage (.436), and seventh in batting average (.337).", "Greenberg came in third in the vote for MVP, behind teammate Charlie Gehringer and Joe DiMaggio.Seven of the American League's 1937 All-Star players, from left to right: Lou Gehrig, Joe Cronin, Bill Dickey, Joe DiMaggio, Charlie Gehringer, Jimmie Foxx, and Greenberg.", "All seven would be elected to the Hall of Fame.A prodigious home run hitter, Greenberg narrowly missed breaking Babe Ruth's single-season home run record in 1938, when he hit 58 home runs, leading the league for the second time.", "That year, he had 11 games with multiple home runs, a new major league record.", "Greenberg matched what was then the single-season home run record by a right-handed batter, (Jimmie Foxx, 1932); the mark stood for 66 years until it was broken by Sammy Sosa and Mark McGwire in 1998.Greenberg also had a 59th home run washed away in a rainout.", "It has been long speculated that Greenberg was intentionally walked late in the season to prevent him from breaking Ruth's record, but Greenberg dismissed this speculation, calling it \"crazy stories\".", "Howard Megdal has calculated that in September 1938, Greenberg was walked in over 20% of his plate appearances, above his average for the season.", "Baseball historian Ron Kaplan, while not dismissing antisemitism's role in Greenberg's decreased home run rate, states that there was nothing different in the way Greenberg was pitched to in the final days of the 1938 season.Greenberg was again voted to the AL All-Star roster in 1938, but because he was not named to the 1935 AL All-Star roster and was benched in the 1937 game, he declined to accept a starting position on the 1938 AL team and did not play (the NL won 4–1).", "He led the league in runs scored (144) and at-bats per home run (9.6), tied for the AL lead in walks (119), was second in RBIs (146), slugging percentage (.683), and total bases (380), and third in OBP (.438) and set a still-standing major league record of 39 homers in his home park, the newly re-configured Briggs Stadium.", "He also set a major-league record with 11 multiple-home run games and came in third in the vote for MVP, behind Jimmie Foxx and Bill Dickey.In 1939, Greenberg was voted to the AL All-Star roster for the third year in a row and was a starter at first base, and singled and walked in four at-bats (AL won 3–1).", "He finished second in the AL in home runs (33) and strikeouts (95), third in doubles (42) and slugging percentage (.622), fourth in RBIs (112), sixth in walks (91), and ninth in on-base percentage (.420).After the 1939 season ended, Greenberg was asked by general manager Jack Zeller to take a salary cut of $5,000 ($ today) as a result of his off-year in power and run production.", "He was asked to move from first base to the outfield to accommodate Rudy York, who was one of the best young hitters of his generation; York was tried at catcher, third baseman, and outfielder and proved to be a defensive liability at each position.", "Greenberg in turn, demanded a $10,000 bonus if he mastered the outfield, insisting ''he'' was the one taking the risk in learning a new position.", "Greenberg received his bonus at the end of spring training.Hank Greenberg in action for the Detroit Tigers in 1940In 1940, Greenberg switched from playing the first base position to the left field position.", "For the fourth consecutive time, he was voted by the season's American All-Star team manager Joe McCarthy to the AL All-Star team.", "In the bottom of the sixth inning, Greenberg and Lou Finney were sent into the game to replace right fielder Charlie Keller and left fielder Ted Williams, with Greenberg playing in left field and Finney in right field.", "Greenberg batted twice in the game and fouled out to the catcher twice.", "The NL won the game 4–0, the first All-Star Game shutout.That season, Greenberg led the AL in home runs for the third time in six years with 41; in RBIs (150), doubles (50), total bases (384), extra-base hits (99), at-bats per home run (14.0), and slugging percentage (.670; 44 points ahead of Joe DiMaggio).", "Greenberg finished second in the league to Williams in runs scored (129) and OBP (.433), all while batting .340 (fifth-best in the AL).", "He also led the Tigers to the AL pennant, and won his second AL MVP award, becoming the first player in major-league history to win an MVP award at two different playing positions.", "However, the Tigers subsequently lost the 1940 World Series against the Cincinnati Reds in seven games.Greenberg admitted in his autobiography after his career ended that he had taken part in sign stealing in September 1940 season, which was inspired by teammates Tommy Bridges and Pinky Higgins, who noticed that the new rifle they used for their hunt had a telescopic lens that could read signs when in the stands in the outfield.", "He also said that sign stealing was going on in the 1948 Cleveland Indians and the 1959 Chicago White Sox teams.====World War II service====Greenberg's military ID photoOn October 16, 1940, Greenberg became the first American League player to register for the nation's first peacetime draft.", "In the spring of 1941, the Detroit draft board initially classified Greenberg as 4F for \"flat feet\" after his first physical for military service and was recommended for light duty.", "The rumors that he had bribed the board, and concern that he would be likened to Jack Dempsey who had received negative publicity for failure to serve in World War I, led Greenberg to request to be reexamined.", "On April 18, he was found fit for regular military service and was reclassified.On May 7, 1941, he was inducted into the U.S. Army after playing left field in 19 games and reported to Fort Custer at Battle Creek, Michigan.", "His salary was cut from $55,000 ($ today) a year to $21 ($ today) a month.", "In November, while serving as an anti-tank gunner, he was promoted to sergeant, but was honorably discharged on December 5 (the United States Congress released men aged 28 years and older from service), two days before Japan bombed Pearl Harbor.After the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the United States officially joining the war effort, Greenberg re-enlisted as a sergeant on February 1, 1942, and volunteered for service in the Army Air Forces, becoming the first major league player to do so.", "He graduated from Officer Candidate School and was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the Air Corps (the new \"Air Force\" service retained the old name for its own logistics and training elements) and was assigned to the Physical Education Program.In February 1944, he was sent to the U.S. Army Special Services school.", "Promoted to captain, he requested overseas duty later that year and served in the China-Burma-India Theater for over six months, scouting locations for B-29 bomber bases and was a physical training officer with the 58th Bomber Wing.", "He was a Special Services officer of the 20th Bomber Command, 20th Air Force in China when it began bombing Japan on June 15.He was ordered to New York, and in late 1944, to Richmond, Virginia.", "Greenberg served 47 months, the longest of any major league player.====Return to baseball====Greenberg remained in military uniform until he was placed on the military inactive list and discharged from the U.S. Army on June 14, 1945.He was the first major league player to return to the majors after the war.", "In his first game back on July 1, he hit a home run.", "The 1945 All-Star Game, scheduled for July 10, had been officially cancelled on April 24 and Major League Baseball did not name All-Stars that season due to strict travel restrictions in place during the last days of the war.", "In place of the All-Star Game, seven interleague games were played on July 9 and 10 to benefit the American Red Cross and the War Relief fund.", "An Associated Press All-Star roster was named for the AL and NL by a group of their sportswriters that included Greenberg as one of the All-Stars.Greenberg, who played left field in 72 games and batted .311 in 1945, helped lead the Tigers to a come-from-behind American League pennant, clinching it with a dramatic grand slam home run in the ninth inning on the final day of the season against the St. Louis Browns, avoiding a one-game playoff against the now-second-place Washington Senators.", "The Tigers went on to beat the Cubs in the 1945 World Series in seven games.", "Greenberg hit two of the only three home runs hit in that World Series, with Phil Cavarretta hitting one for the Cubs in Game 1.Greenberg homered in Game 2, where he batted in three runs in a 4–1 Tigers win, and hit a two-run homer in in the eighth inning of Game 6 that tied the score 8–8; the Cubs went on to win that game with a run in the bottom of the 12th.In 1946, he returned to peak form and playing at first base.", "He led the AL in home runs (44) and RBIs (127), both for the fourth time.", "He was second in slugging percentage (.604) and total bases (316) behind Ted Williams.Greenberg with the Pirates in 1947In 1947, Greenberg and the Tigers had a lengthy salary dispute.", "When Greenberg decided to retire rather than play for less, Detroit sold his contract to the Pittsburgh Pirates.", "To persuade him not to retire, Pittsburgh made Greenberg the first baseball player to make $100,000 in a season as pure salary.", "Team co-owner Bing Crosby recorded a song, \"Goodbye, Mr. Ball, Goodbye\" with Groucho Marx and Greenberg to celebrate Greenberg's arrival.", "The Pirates also reduced the size of Forbes Field's cavernous left field, renaming the section \"Greenberg Gardens\" to accommodate Greenberg's pull-hitting style.Greenberg played first base for the Pirates in 1947 and his time there coincided with the arrival of Jackie Robinson in the Major Leagues.", "He was one of the few opposing players to publicly welcome Robinson to the majors at a time when most opposing players were openly hostile.", "Greenberg himself had faced hostilities from opposing players and spectators who often shouted antisemitic slurs at him during games and, hence, knew what Robinson was going through.", "During a game against the Brooklyn Dodgers, he collided with Robinson while covering first base.", "Afterwards, Greenberg asked if Robinson was alright and encouraged him to \"Stick in there.", "You’re doing fine.", "Keep your chin up.\"", "Robinson later praised Greenberg, saying, \"Class tells.", "It sticks out all over Mr.", "Greenberg.", "\"That year he also had a chance to mentor a young future Hall-of-Famer, the 24-year-old Ralph Kiner.", "Greenberg was impressed by the rookie, later saying of him, \"Ralph had a natural home run swing.", "All he needed was somebody to teach him the value of hard work and self-discipline.", "Early in the morning on off-days, every chance we got, we worked on hitting.\"", "Kiner would go on to hit 51 home runs that year to lead the National League.In his final season of 1947, Greenberg tied for the league lead in walks with 104, with a .408 on-base percentage and finished eighth in the league in home runs and tenth in slugging percentage.", "Greenberg became the first major league player to hit 25 or more home runs in a season in each league.", "Despite still being productive, Greenberg decided to retire as a player to take a front-office post with the Cleveland Indians.", "No player had ever retired after a final season in which they hit so many home runs.", "Since then, only Ted Williams (1960; 29), Dave Kingman (1986; 35), Mark McGwire (2001; 29), Barry Bonds (2007; 28) and David Ortiz (2016; 38) have hit as many or more homers in their final season." ], [ "Player profile", "===Career overall===It is speculated that, had it not been for his service in World War II, Greenberg would likely have approached 500 home runs and 1,800 RBIs; he missed all but 19 games of the 1941 season, the three full seasons that followed, and most of 1945 to World War II military service.Starring as a first baseman and outfielder with the Tigers (1930, 1933–46) and doing duty only briefly with the Pirates (1947), Greenberg played nine full seasons.", "He compiled 331 home runs, 1,046 runs and 1,276 RBI in 1,394 games.", "Greenberg was also an excellent contact hitter, earning a lifetime batting average of .313.During his career, he was named to the All-Star Team four times, and won the AL Most Valuable Player Award twice, in 1935 and 1940.As a fielder, the Greenberg was awkward and unsure of himself early in his career, but mastered first base through countless hours of practice.", "Over the course of his career he demonstrated a higher-than-average fielding percentage and range at first base.", "When asked by the Tigers' front office to move to left field in 1940 to make room for Rudy York, he worked tirelessly to master that position as well, reducing his errors in the outfield from 15 in 1940 to 0 in 1945.Category G AB R H 2B 3B HR RBI SB CS BB SO BA OBP SLG OPS PO A E DP FLD% Total 1,394 5,193 1,046 1,628 379 71 331 1,276 58 30 852 844 .313 .412 .605 1.017 11,023 741 122 974 .990===Antisemitism===During his career, Greenberg faced a number of incidents of antisemitism, including having players stare at him because they had never before seen a Jew and having racial slurs thrown at him by both spectators and opposing players.", "Greenberg sometimes retaliated against the racial attacks, once going into the Chicago White Sox clubhouse and challenging manager Jimmy Dykes to a fight.", "On another occasion he called out the entire Yankees team, daring the perpetrator to reveal himself.In the 1935 World Series, umpire George Moriarty warned three Chicago Cubs players to stop yelling antisemitic slurs at Greenberg and eventually cleared the players from the Cubs bench.", "Moriarty was disciplined for this action by then-commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis.Greenberg initially resented being singled out as a Jewish ballplayer and, unlike his parents, was not a particularly observant Jew.", "However, he later accepted his place in baseball, saying:At and towering above his contemporaries, he disproved the commonly-held stereotype that Jews were not athletic and did not belong in sports.", "His decision to not play on Yom Kippur at a time of rampant antisemitism in the United States, and around the world, was significant and made him a hero in the American Jewish community.", "Sandy Koufax, who did not play in Game 1 of the 1965 World Series because it fell on Yom Kippur, has often pointed out that his decision to not play was not unprecedented: \"Hank Greenberg did it first.\"" ], [ "Post-playing career", "=== Management and ownership ===After the 1947 season, Greenberg retired as a player, and Cleveland Indians owner Bill Veeck hired him as the Indians' farm director.", "When Veeck was forced to sell the Indians due to a divorce settlement, new owner Ellis Ryan retained Greenberg, promoting him to general manager.During his tenure, he sponsored more African American players than any other major league executive.", "Greenberg's contributions to the Cleveland farm system led to the team's successes throughout the 1950s, although Bill James once wrote that the Indians' late 1950s collapse should also be attributed to him.", "In 1949, Larry Doby also recommended Greenberg scout three players Doby used to play with in the Negro leagues: Hank Aaron, Ernie Banks, and Willie Mays.", "The next offseason Doby asked what Indians' scouts said about his recommendations.", "Greenberg replied: \"Our guys checked 'em out and their reports were not good.", "They said that Aaron has a hitch in his swing and will never hit good pitching.", "Banks is too slow and didn't have enough range at shortstop, and Mays can't hit a curveball.", "\"Greenberg as general manager of the Cleveland Indians in 1957While Ryan had initially been content to leave baseball matters to Greenberg, he tried to seize greater control after the 1952 season, when the Indians suffered a drop in attendance despite coming within two games of the pennant.", "The Indians board sided with Greenberg, prompting Ryan to sell out to a group headed by Myron H. Wilson, who voiced full confidence in Greenberg.", "Under Wilson, Greenberg's role as operating head of the franchise was cemented to the point that he represented the Indians at owners meetings alongside vice president and board member George Medinger.", "During this time, he and Pirates owner John W. Galbreath helped negotiate an amended player pension plan in which the players got 60% of television revenues from the All-Star Game and World Series.In 1953, he was partly responsible for an important change to baseball's waivers rule.", "In previous seasons, once a player passed through waivers in his team's league (AL or NL), any team from the other league could acquire him, a detail the Yankees used to often outbid other AL teams for NL players.", "Greenberg successfully campaigned for a new rule that, after June 15, required players to pass through waivers in both leagues before teams in the other league could attempt to obtain them.Greenberg's influence grew even more in 1956 when he joined a syndicate headed by Bill Daley that bought the Indians from Wilson.", "Although Greenberg had been operating head of the franchise since 1950, this was the first time that he had been a part-owner.", "However, in 1957, he was forced to resign as general manager, as he put it, \"in order to satisfy a hostile press.\"", "He remained a part-owner, however, and in 1958 tried to buy out Daley and become principal owner.", "He intended to serve as his own general manager if successful.", "However, Daley and several other directors bought him out.In 1959, Greenberg and Veeck teamed up for a second time when they led a syndicate that purchased the Chicago White Sox; Veeck served as team president with Greenberg as vice president and general manager.", "During Veeck and Greenberg's first season, the White Sox won their first AL pennant since 1919.Veeck would sell his shares in the White Sox in 1961, and Greenberg stepped down as general manager on August 26 of that season.After the 1960 season, the American League announced plans to put a team in Los Angeles.", "Greenberg immediately became the favorite to become the new team's first owner and persuaded Veeck to join him as his partner.", "However, when Los Angeles Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley got wind of these developments, he threatened to scuttle the whole deal by invoking his exclusive rights to operate a major league team in southern California.", "In truth, O'Malley wanted no part of competing against an expansion team owned by a master promoter such as Veeck, even if he was only a minority partner.", "Greenberg wouldn't budge and pulled out of the running for what became the Los Angeles Angels.", "Greenberg later became a successful investment banker, briefly returning to baseball as a minority partner with Veeck when the latter repurchased the White Sox in 1975.In 1970, when St. Louis Cardinals outfielder Curt Flood challenged Major League Baseball’s reserve clause, Greenberg was amongst the few baseball players to openly support him, and testified on his behalf." ], [ "Personal life", "Greenberg with his first wife Caral Gimbel in Lakeland, FloridaWhile he grew up in an Orthodox Jewish household, Greenberg himself was not an observant Jew and later raised his children in a secular household.In 1946, Greenberg married Caral Gimbel, daughter of Bernard Gimbel of the Gimbels department store family.", "The couple had three children: sons Glenn and Stephen, and daughter Alva.", "The marriage was not a happy one, however, and they eventually divorced in 1958.In 1966, Greenberg married actress Mary Jo Tarola, who appeared on-screen under the stage name \"Linda Douglas\", and remained with her until his death.", "They had no children.Greenberg died of metastatic kidney cancer in Beverly Hills, California, on September 4, 1986.His remains were entombed at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery, in Culver City, California.His son, Stephen played baseball at Yale University.", "He was drafted by and played five years in the Washington Senators/Texas Rangers organization.", "He later served as deputy commissioner of Major League Baseball, having been offered the job by MLB Commissioner Bart Giamatti just before the latter's death in 1989.In 1995, Stephen co-founded Classic Sports Network with Brian Bedol, which was later purchased by ESPN and became ESPN Classic.", "He also was the chairman of College Sports Television (CSTV), the first cable network devoted exclusively to college sports." ], [ "Honors", "Greenberg was elected to National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1956 on his eighth ballot, garnering 85% of the votes.", "He was the first player of Jewish descent elected to the Hall of Fame.On June 12, 1983, the Detroit Tigers retired Greenberg's number 5 during \"Greenberg-Gehringer Day\" at Tiger Stadium, along with former teammate Charlie Gehringer's number 2.Both Greenberg and Gehringer attended the ceremony.", "In 1999, he was ranked No.", "37 by ''The Sporting News'' on its list of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\", and was a nominee for the Major League Baseball All-Century Team the same year.", "In 2020, Greenberg was ranked by ''The Athletic'' at No.", "67 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, complied by sportswriter Joe Posnanski.Greenberg was elected to the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame in 1958.Additionally, he was elected to the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 1979, and to the National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 1995.In 2013, the Bob Feller Act of Valor Award honored Greenberg as one of 37 Baseball Hall of Fame members for his service in the United States Army Air Force during World War II.In an article in 1976 in ''Esquire'' magazine, sportswriter Harry Stein published an \"All Time All-Star Argument Starter\", consisting of five ethnic baseball teams.", "Greenberg was the first baseman on Stein's Jewish team.In 2006, Greenberg was featured on a United States postage stamp.", "The stamp is one of a block of four honoring \"baseball sluggers\", the others being Mickey Mantle, Mel Ott, and Roy Campanella.In 1998, Greenberg was the subject of a documentary which was directed and written by Aviva Kempner entitled ''The Life and Times of Hank Greenberg''.", "In 2010, he was again one of the main subjects of the film ''Jews and Baseball: An American Love Story'', alongside Hall of Famer Sandy Koufax of the Los Angeles Dodgers.", "The film was directed by Peter Miller and written by Ira Berkow." ], [ "See also", "Major League Baseball titles leadersList of Major League Baseball home run recordsList of Major League Baseball doubles recordsList of Major League Baseball career batting average leadersList of Major League Baseball career home run leadersList of Major League Baseball career runs scored leadersList of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leadersList of Major League Baseball career on-base percentage leadersList of Major League Baseball career slugging percentage leadersList of Major League Baseball annual home run leadersList of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leadersList of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leadersList of Major League Baseball annual doubles leadersList of select Jewish baseball players" ], [ "References", "===Book sources===**" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heinrich Schliemann" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann Ludwig Heinrich Julius Schliemann''' (; 6 January 1822 – 26 December 1890) was a German businessman and an influential amateur archaeologist.", "He was an advocate of the historicity of places mentioned in the works of Homer and an archaeological excavator of Hisarlik, now presumed to be the site of Troy, along with the Mycenaean sites Mycenae and Tiryns.", "His work lent weight to the idea that Homer's ''Iliad'' reflects historical events.", "Schliemann's excavation of nine levels of archaeological remains has been criticized as destructive of significant historical artifacts, including the level that is believed to be the historical Troy." ], [ "Early life and education", "Schliemann was born January 6, 1822, in Neubukow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin (part of the German Confederation) to Luise Therese Sophie Schliemann and Ernst Schliemann, a Lutheran minister.", "He was the fifth of nine children.", "The family moved to Ankershagen in summer 1823.Their second home houses the Heinrich Schliemann Museum today.Heinrich's father was a poor pastor.", "His mother died in 1831, when Heinrich was nine years old, and his father sent Heinrich to live with his uncle Friedrich Schliemann, also a pastor.", "When he was eleven years old, his father paid for his enrollment in the Gymnasium (grammar school) at Neustrelitz, but he had to leave it after three months.", "Heinrich's interest in history was initially encouraged by his father, who had schooled him in the tales of the Iliad and the Odyssey and had given him a copy of Ludwig Jerrer's ''Illustrated History of the World'' for Christmas in 1829.Schliemann claimed that at the age of 7 he had declared he would one day excavate the city of Troy.Heinrich had to transfer to the Realschule (vocational school) after his father was accused of embezzling church funds and made his exams in 1836.His family's poverty made a university education impossible.", "In his archaeological career, there was often a division between Schliemann and the educated professionals.At age 14, after leaving Realschule, Heinrich became an apprentice at Herr Holtz's grocery in Fürstenberg.", "He later told that his passion for Homer was born when he heard a drunken miller reciting it at the grocer's.", "He laboured for five years, until he was forced to leave because he hurt his chest, lifting a heavy barrel and coughing up blood.", "In 1841, Schliemann moved to Hamburg and became a cabin boy on the ''Dorothea,'' a brig bound for Venezuela.", "After twelve days at sea, the ship foundered in a gale.", "The survivors washed up on the shores of the Netherlands.", "Schliemann became a messenger, office attendant, and later, a bookkeeper in Amsterdam." ], [ "Career", "Schliemann as a young manOn March 1, 1844, 22-year-old Schliemann took a position with B. H. Schröder & Co., an import/export firm.", "In 1846, the firm sent him as a General Agent to St. Petersburg.In time, Schliemann represented a number of companies.", "He learned Russian and Greek, employing a system that he used his entire life to learn languages; Schliemann claimed that it took him six weeks to learn a language and wrote his diary in the language of whatever country he happened to be in.", "By the end of his life, he could converse in English, French, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Swedish, Polish, Greek, Latin, and Arabic, besides his native German.Schliemann's ability with languages was an important part of his career as a businessman in the importing trade.", "In 1850, he learned of the death of his brother, Ludwig, who had become wealthy as a speculator in the California gold fields.Schliemann went to California in early 1851 and started a bank in Sacramento buying and reselling over a million dollars' worth of gold dust in just six months.", "When the local Rothschild agent complained about short-weight consignments, he left California, pretending it was because of illness.", "While he was there, California became the 31st state in September 1850, and Schliemann acquired United States citizenship.", "Schliemann propounded this story in his autobiography of 1881, though he clearly was in St Petersburg that day, and \"in actual fact, ...obtained his American citizenship only in 1869.", "\"According to his memoirs, before arriving in California he dined in Washington, D.C., with President Millard Fillmore and his family, but W. Calder III says that Schliemann didn't attend but simply read about a similar gathering in the papers.Schliemann also published what he said was an eyewitness account of the San Francisco Fire of 1851, which he said was in June although it took place in May.", "At the time he was in Sacramento and used the report of the fire in the ''Sacramento Daily Journal'' to write his report.On April 7, 1852, he sold his business and returned to Russia.", "There he attempted to live the life of a gentleman, which brought him into contact with Ekaterina Petrovna Lyschin (1826–1896), the niece of one of his wealthy friends, whom he married on October 12, 1852.Schliemann next made a good profit trading in indigo dye.By 1858, Schliemann was 36 years old and wealthy enough to retire.", "In his memoirs, he claimed that he wished to dedicate himself to the pursuit of Troy." ], [ "Amateur archaeologist", "The 'Mask of Agamemnon', discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 at Mycenae now exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.Heinrich Schliemann was an amateur archaeologist.", "He was obsessed with the stories of Homer and ancient Mediterranean civilizations.", "He dedicated the second part of his life to unveiling the actual physical remains of the cities of Homer's epic tales.", "Many refer to him as the \"father of pre-Hellenistic archaeology\".In 1868, Schliemann visited sites in the Greek world, published his second book ''Ithaka, der Peloponnesus und Troja'' in which he described ancient sites in Greece and the Ottoman Empire and asserted that Hissarlik was the site of Troy.", "He submitted this book as a dissertation to the University of Rostock.", "In 1869, he was awarded a PhD ''in absentia'' from the university for that submission.", "David Traill wrote that the examiners gave him his PhD on the basis of his topographical analyses of Ithaca, which were in part simply translations of another author's work or drawn from poetic descriptions by the same author.Schliemann was honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries of London and elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1880.===Troy and Mycenae===Sophia Schliemann (''née'' Engastromenos) wearing treasures recovered at HisarlikSchliemann's first interest of a classical nature seems to have been the location of Troy.", "At the time he began excavating in Turkey, the site commonly believed to be Troy was at Pınarbaşı, a hilltop at the south end of the Trojan Plain.", "The site had been previously excavated by English amateur archaeologist and local expert Frank Calvert.", "Schliemann performed soundings at Pınarbaşı but was disappointed by his findings.", "It was Calvert who identified Hissarlik as Troy and suggested Schliemann dig there on land owned by Calvert's family.Schliemann was at first skeptical about the identification of Hissarlik with Troy but was persuaded by Calvert.", "In 1870, Schliemann began digging a trench at Hissarlik, and by 1873 had discovered nine buried cities.Schliemann found pure copper and metal molds as well as a lot of other metal tools, cutlery, shields, and vases which were found at around 28 to feet deep at the site.The day before digging was to stop on 15 June 1873, was the day he discovered gold, which he took to be Priam's Treasure trove.", "Recent research has confirmed several settlements on the site spanning 3,600 years.", "The layer that Schliemann referred to as \"the Burnt City\" and believed to be Troy is now thought to be from 3,000 to 2,000 BCE, too early to be the location of the Trojan War as Homer describes it.He later wrote that he had seen the gold glinting in the dirt and dismissed the workmen so that he and Sophia could excavate it themselves; they removed it in her shawl.", "However, Schliemann's oft-repeated story of the treasure's being carried by Sophia in her shawl was untrue.", "Schliemann later admitted fabricating it; at the time of the discovery Sophia was in fact with her family in Athens, following the death of her father.", "Sophia later wore \"the Jewels of Helen\" for the public.Schliemann smuggled the treasure out of the Ottoman Empire into Greece.", "The Ottoman Empire sued Schliemann in a Greek court, and Schliemann was forced to pay a 10,000 gold franc indemnity.", "Schliemann ended up sending 50,000 gold francs to the Constantinople Imperial Museum, and got the permission for further excavations at Hissarlik.", "In 1874 Schliemann published ''Troy and Its Remains''.", "Schliemann at first offered his collections, which included Priam's Gold, to the Greek government, then the French, and finally the Russians.", "In 1881, his collections ended up in Berlin, housed first in the Ethnographic Museum, and then the Museum for Pre- and Early History, until the start of WWII.", "In 1939, all exhibits were packed and stored in the museum basement, then moved to the Prussian State Bank vault in January 1941.In 1941, the treasure was moved to the Flakturm located at the Berlin Zoological Garden, called the Zoo Tower.", "Dr. Wilhelm Unverzagt protected the three crates containing the Trojan gold when the Battle for Berlin commenced, right up until SMERSH forces took control of the tower on 1 May.", "On 26 May 1945, Soviet forces, led by Lt. Gen. Nikolai Antipenko, Andre Konstantinov, deputy head of the Arts Committee, Viktor Lazarev, and Serafim Druzhinin, took the three crates away on trucks.", "The crates were then flown to Moscow on 30 June 1945, and taken to the Pushkin Museum ten days later.", "In 1994, the museum admitted the collection was in their possession.In 1876, he began digging at Mycenae, under the supervision of Panagiotis Stamatakis, a Greek archaeologist attached to the excavation as a condition of Schliemann's permit.", "There, he discovered the Shaft Graves, with their skeletons and more regal gold, including the so-called Mask of Agamemnon.", "These findings were published in ''Mycenae'' in 1878.Although he had received permission in 1876 to continue excavation, Schliemann did not reopen the dig site at Troy until 1878–1879, after another excavation in Ithaca designed to locate a site mentioned in the ''Odyssey''.", "Emile Burnouf and Rudolf Virchow joined him there in 1879.In 1880 Schliemann began excavation of the Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenus (Boeotia).From 1882 to 1883 Schliemann made a sixth excavation at Troy, in 1884 an excavation of Tiryns with Wilhelm Dörpfeld, and from 1889 to 1890 a seventh and eighth excavation at Troy, also with Dörpfeld." ], [ "Personal life", "After learning that his childhood sweetheart Minna had married, Schliemann married Ekaterina Petrovna Lyschin (1826–1896) on October 12, 1852.She was the niece of one of his wealthy friends in St Petersburg and they had three children; a son, Sergey (1855–1941), and two daughters, Natalya (1859–1869) and Nadezhda (1861–1935).", "As a consequence of his many travels, Schliemann was often separated from his wife and children.", "He spent a month studying at the Sorbonne in 1866, while moving his assets from St. Petersburg to Paris to invest in real estate.", "He asked his wife to join him, but she refused.Schliemann threatened to divorce Ekaterina twice before doing so.", "In 1869, he bought property and settled in Indianapolis for about three months to take advantage of Indiana's liberal divorce laws, although he obtained the divorce by lying about his residency in the U.S. and his intention to remain in the state.", "He moved to Athens as soon as an Indiana court granted him the divorce and married again two months later.A former teacher and Athenian friend, Theokletos Vimpos, the Archbishop of Mantineia and Kynouria, helped Schliemann find someone \"enthusiastic about Homer and about a rebirth of my beloved Greece...with a Greek name and a soul impassioned for learning.\"", "The archbishop suggested the 17 years old Sophia Engastromenos, daughter of his cousin.", "They were married by the archbishop on 23 September 1869.They later had two children, Andromache and Agamemnon Schliemann." ], [ "Death", "Schliemann's grave in the First Cemetery of AthensOn August 1, 1890, Schliemann returned reluctantly to Athens, and in November travelled to Halle, where his chronic ear infection was operated upon, on November 13.The doctors deemed the operation a success, but his inner ear became painfully inflamed.", "Ignoring his doctors' advice, he left the hospital and travelled to Leipzig, Berlin and Paris.", "From the last, he planned to return to Athens in time for Christmas, but his ear condition became even worse.", "Too sick to make the boat ride from Naples to Greece, Schliemann remained in Naples but managed to make a journey to the ruins of Pompeii.", "On Christmas Day 1890, he collapsed into a coma; he died in a Naples hotel room the following day; the cause of death was cholesteatoma.His corpse was then transported by friends to the First Cemetery in Athens.", "It was interred in a mausoleum shaped like a temple erected in ancient Greek style, designed by Ernst Ziller in the form of an amphiprostyle temple on top of a tall base.", "The frieze circling the outside of the mausoleum shows Schliemann conducting the excavations at Mycenae and other sites." ], [ "Legacy and criticism", "The Schliemann mansion in Athens, ca.", "1910, now housing the Numismatic Museum of AthensSchliemann's magnificent residence in the city centre of Athens, the ''Iliou Melathron'' (Ιλίου Μέλαθρον, \"Palace of Ilium\") houses today the Numismatic Museum of Athens.Along with Arthur Evans, Schliemann was a pioneer in the study of the Aegean civilization in the Bronze Age.", "The two men knew of each other, Evans having visited Schliemann's sites.", "Schliemann had planned to excavate at Knossos but died before fulfilling that dream.", "Evans bought the site and stepped in to take charge of the project, which was then still in its infancy.Further excavation of the Troy site by others indicated that the level Schliemann named the Troy of the ''Iliad'' was inaccurate, although they retain the names given by Schliemann.", "In a 1998 article for ''The Classical World,'' D.F.", "Easton wrote that Schliemann \"was not very good at separating fact from interpretation\" and claimed that, \"Even in 1872 Frank Calvert could see from the pottery that Troy II had to be hundreds of years too early to be the Troy of the Trojan War, a point finally proven by the discovery of Mycenaean pottery in Troy VI in 1890.", "\"\"King Priam's Treasure\" was found in the Troy II level, that of the Early Bronze Age, long before Priam's city of Troy VI or Troy VIIa in the prosperous and elaborate Mycenaean Age.", "Moreover, the finds were unique.", "The elaborate gold artifacts do not appear to belong to the Early Bronze Age.His excavations were condemned by later archaeologists as having destroyed the main layers of the real Troy.", "Kenneth W. Harl, in the Teaching Company's ''Great Ancient Civilizations of Asia Minor'' lecture series, sarcastically claimed that Schliemann's excavations were carried out with such rough methods that he did to Troy what the Greeks could not do in their times, destroying and levelling down the entire city walls to the ground.In 1972, Professor William Calder of the University of Colorado, speaking at a commemoration of Schliemann's birthday, claimed that he had uncovered several possible problems in Schliemann's work.", "Other investigators followed, such as Professor David Traill of the University of California.A 2004 article of the National Geographic Society called into question Schliemann's qualifications, his motives, and his methods:A 2005 article presented similar criticisms, when reporting on a speech by University of Pennsylvania scholar C. Brian Rose:Schliemann's methods have been described as \"savage and brutal.", "He plowed through layers of soil and everything in them without proper record keeping—no mapping of finds, few descriptions of discoveries.\"", "Carl Blegen forgave his recklessness, saying \"Although there were some regrettable blunders, those criticisms are largely colored by a comparison with modern techniques of digging; but it is only fair to remember that before 1876 very few persons, if anyone, yet really knew how excavations should properly be conducted.", "There was no science of archaeological investigation, and there was probably no other digger who was better than Schliemann in actual field work.", "\"In 1874, Schliemann also initiated and sponsored the removal of medieval edifices from the Acropolis of Athens, including the great Frankish Tower.", "Despite considerable opposition, including from King George I of Greece, Schliemann saw the project through.", "The eminent historian of Frankish Greece William Miller later denounced this as \"an act of vandalism unworthy of any people imbued with a sense of the continuity of history\", and \"pedantic barbarism\".In his excavations at Troy, Schliemann found many swastikas adorned on pottery and consulted with Aryan nationalist Émile-Louis Burnouf to identify the symbol.", "Claiming that the symbol was connected with the Aryans, Burnouf adopted and popularised the swastika as a symbol of Aryan nationalism.", "Schliemann's decision to consult Burnouf can thus be seen as having triggered the use of the swastika as an Aryan nationalist symbol." ], [ "Publications", "Bust of Schliemann in Neues Museum, Berlin* ''La Chine et le Japon au temps présent'' (1867)* ''Ithaka, der Peloponnesus und Troja'' (1868) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.", ")* ''Trojanische Altertümer: Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Troja'' (1874) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.", ")* ''Troja und seine Ruinen'' (1875).", "Translated into English as ''Troy and its Remains'' (1875) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.", ")* ''Mykena'' (1878).", "Translated into English as ''Mycenae: A Narrative of Researches and Discoveries at Mycenae and Tiryns'' (1878) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.", ")''Ilios, City and Country of the Trojans'' (1880) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.", ")''Orchomenos: Bericht über meine Ausgrabungen in Böotischen Orchomenos'' (1881) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.", ")''Tiryns: Der prähistorische Palast der Könige von Tiryns'' (1885) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.).", "Translated into English ''Tiryns: The Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of Tiryns'' (1885)''Bericht über de Ausgrabungen in Troja im Jahre 1890'' (1891) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.).", "* Heinrich Schliemann; Sophia Schliemann (ed.", "): ''Heinrich Schliemann's Autobiography''.", "Leipzig, 1892.", "( Online version in German)" ], [ "See also", "List of archaeologistsList of polyglots" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* " ], [ "Bibliography", "*.", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* * * American School of Classical Studies at Athens.", ".", "* * * Schliemann's porky pies (lies) about excavating Troy - Curator's Corner S5 Ep11 from the British Museum* ''Original Skizzen Heinrich Schliemann's zu dessen Werk Ilios'' – photographic and drawing documentation of Schliemann's excavations prepared most probably for his publication ''Atlas trojanischer Alterthümer'' (1874)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hypnos" ], [ "Introduction", "In Greek mythology, '''Hypnos''' (; Ancient Greek: , 'sleep'), also spelled '''Hypnus''', is the personification of sleep; the Roman equivalent is known as Somnus.", "His name is the origin of the word hypnosis.", "Pausanias wrote that Hypnos was the dearest friend of the Muses." ], [ "Description", "Hypnos is usually the fatherless son of Nyx (\"The Night\"), although sometimes Nyx's consort Erebus (\"The Darkness\") is named as his father.", "His twin brother is Thanatos (\"Death\").", "Both siblings live in the underworld (Hades).", "According to rumors, Hypnos lived in a big cave, which the river Lethe (\"Forgetfulness\") comes from and where night and day meet.", "His bed is made of ebony, and on the entrance of the cave grow several poppies and other soporific plants.", "No light and no sound would ever enter his grotto.", "According to Homer, he lives on the island Lemnos, which later on has been claimed to be his very own dream island.", "He is said to be a calm and gentle god, as he helps humans in need and, due to their sleep, owns half of their lives." ], [ "Family", "Hypnos lived next to his twin brother, Thanatos (Θάνατος, \"death\"), in the Underworld, where the rays of the sun never reach them.Hypnos' mother was Nyx (Νύξ, \"Night\"), the goddess of Night, without a father.", "However, sometimes he was the son of Nyx and Erebus, the god of Darkness.", "Nyx was a dreadful and powerful goddess, and even Zeus feared to enter her realm.His wife, Pasithea, was one of the youngest of the Charites and was promised to him by Hera, who is the goddess of marriage and birth." ], [ "Mythology", "=== Hypnos in the ''Iliad'' ===Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, ca.", "440 BC.Hypnos used his powers to trick Zeus.", "Hypnos was able to trick him and help the Danaans win the Trojan War.", "During the war, Hera loathed her brother and husband, Zeus, so she devised a plot to trick him.", "She decided that to trick him she needed to make him so enamored with her that he would fall for the trick.", "So she washed herself with ambrosia and anointed herself with oil, made especially for her to make herself impossible for Zeus to resist.", "She wove flowers through her hair, put on three brilliant pendants for earrings, and donned a wondrous robe.", "She then called for Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and asked her for a charm that would ensure that her trick would not fail.", "To procure the charm, however, she lied to Aphrodite because they sided on opposite sides of the war.", "She told Aphrodite that she wanted the charm to help herself and Zeus stop fighting.", "Aphrodite willingly agreed.", "Hera was almost ready to trick Zeus, but she needed the help of Hypnos, who had tricked Zeus once before.Hera called on Hypnos and asked him to help her by putting Zeus to sleep.", "Hypnos was reluctant because the last time he had put the god to sleep, he was furious when he awoke.", "It was Hera who had asked him to trick Zeus the first time as well.", "She was furious that Heracles, Zeus' son, sacked the city of the Trojans.", "So she had Hypnos put Zeus to sleep, and set blasts of angry winds upon the sea while Heracles was still sailing home.", "When Zeus awoke he was furious and went on a rampage looking for Hypnos.", "Hypnos managed to avoid Zeus by hiding with his mother, Nyx.", "This made Hypnos reluctant to accept Hera's proposal and help her trick Zeus again.", "Hera first offered him a beautiful golden seat that can never fall apart and a footstool to go with it.", "He refused this first offer, remembering the last time he tricked Zeus.", "Hera finally got him to agree by promising that he would be married to Pasithea, one of the youngest Graces, whom he had always wanted to marry.", "Hypnos made her swear by the river Styx and call on the gods of the underworld to be witnesses so that he would be ensured that he would marry Pasithea.Hera went to see Zeus on Gargarus, the topmost peak of Mount Ida.", "Zeus was extremely taken by her and suspected nothing as Hypnos was shrouded in a thick mist and hidden upon a pine tree that was close to where Hera and Zeus were talking.", "Zeus asked Hera what she was doing there and why she had come from Olympus, and she told him the same lie she told Aphrodite.", "She told him that she wanted to go help her parent stop quarreling and she stopped there to consult him because she didn't want to go without his knowledge and have him be angry with her when he found out.", "Zeus said that she could go any time and that she should postpone her visit and stay there with him so they could enjoy each other's company.", "He told her that he was never in love with anyone as much as he loved her at that moment.", "He took her in his embrace and Hypnos went to work putting him to sleep, with Hera in his arms.", "While this went on, Hypnos traveled to the ships of the Achaeans to tell Poseidon, God of the Sea, that he could now help the Danaans and give them a victory while Zeus was sleeping.", "This is where Hypnos leaves the story, leaving Poseidon eager to help the Danaans.", "Thanks to Hypnos helping to trick Zeus, the war changed its course in Hera's favor, and Zeus never found out that Hypnos had tricked him one more time.=== Hypnos and Endymion ===According to a passage in ''Deipnosophistae'', the sophist and dithyrambic poet Licymnius of Chios tells a different tale about the Endymion myth, in which Hypnos loves Endymion and does not close the eyes of his beloved even while he is asleep, but lulls him to rest with eyes wide open so that he may without interruption enjoy the pleasure of gazing at them." ], [ "Hypnos in art", "Ariadne asleep at Hypnos's side.", "Detail of ancient fresco in PompeiiSarpedon's body carried by Hypnos and Thanatos (Sleep and Death), while Hermes watches, Attic red-figured calyx-krater signed by Euxitheos (potter) and Euphronios (painter)Hypnos appears in numerous works of art, most of which are vases.", "An example of one vase that Hypnos is featured on is called \"Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus,\" which is part of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston's collection.", "In this vase, Hypnos is shown as a winged god dripping Lethean water upon the head of Ariadne as she sleeps.One of the most famous works of art featuring Hypnos is a bronze head of Hypnos himself, now kept in the British Museum in London.", "This bronze head has wings sprouting from his temples and the hair is elaborately arranged, some tying in knots and some hanging freely from his head." ], [ "Words derived from Hypnos", "The English word \"hypnosis\" is derived from his name, referring to the fact that when hypnotized, a person is put into a sleep-like state (hypnosis \"sleep\" + -osis \"condition\").", "The class of medicines known as \"hypnotics\" which induce sleep also take their name from Hypnos." ], [ "See also", "* Aergia, a goddess of sloth and attendant of Hypnos* Morpheus" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Athenaeus, ''The Learned Banqueters, Volume V: Books 10.420e-11'', edited and translated by S. Douglas Olson, Loeb Classical Library No.", "274, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2009.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Cicero, Marcus Tullius, ''De Natura Deorum'' in ''Cicero: On the Nature of the Gods.", "Academics'', translated by H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library No.", "268, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, first published 1933, revised 1951.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "Internet Archive.", "* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer, ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''Fabulae'' in ''Apollodorus' ''Library'' and Hyginus' ''Fabulae'': Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, Translated, with Introductions by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma'', Hackett Publishing, 2007.. Google Books." ], [ "External links", "* HYPNOS from The Theoi Project* HYPNOS from Greek Mythology Link* 3D model of ''Bronze head of Hypnos'' via laser scan of a cast of British Museum's bronze." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Holy orders" ], [ "Introduction", "Ordination of John of MathaIn certain Christian denominations, '''holy orders''' are the ordained ministries of bishop, priest (presbyter), and deacon, and the sacrament or rite by which candidates are ordained to those orders.", "Churches recognizing these orders include the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox (ιερωσύνη ''hierōsynē'', ιεράτευμα ''hierateuma'', Священство ''Svyashchenstvo''), Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, Assyrian, Old Catholic, Independent Catholic and some Lutheran churches.", "Except for Lutherans and some Anglicans, these churches regard ordination as a sacrament (the ''sacramentum ordinis'').Denominations have varied conceptions of holy orders.", "In Anglican and some Lutheran churches the traditional orders of bishop, priest and deacon are bestowed using ordination rites contained within ordinals.", "The extent to which ordination is considered sacramental in these traditions has, however, been a matter of some internal dispute.", "Baptists are among the denominations that do not consider ministry as being sacramental in nature and would not think of it in terms of \"holy orders\" as such.", "Historically, the word \"order\" (Latin ''ordo'') designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ''ordinatio'' meant legal incorporation into an ''ordo''.", "The word \"holy\" refers to the church.", "In context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the church.", "Other positions, such as pope, patriarch, cardinal, monsignor, archbishop, archimandrite, archpriest, protopresbyter, hieromonk, protodeacon and archdeacon, are not sacramental orders but specialized ministries." ], [ "Anglicanism", "The Anglican churches hold their bishops to be in apostolic succession, although there is some difference of opinion with regard to whether ordination is to be regarded as a sacrament.", "The Anglican Articles of Religion hold that only Baptism and the Lord's Supper are to be counted as sacraments of the gospel, and assert that other rites 'commonly called Sacraments' by other denominations (e.g.", "Roman Catholicism), were not ordained by Christ in the Gospel.", "They do not have the nature of a sacrament of the Gospel in the absence of any physical matter such as the water in Baptism and the bread and wine in the Eucharist.", "Various editions of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' and other Anglican liturgical texts provide rites for ordination of bishops, priests and deacons.", "Only bishops may ordain people.", "Within Anglicanism, three bishops are normally required for ordination to the episcopate, while one bishop is sufficient for performing ordinations to the priesthood and diaconate." ], [ "Catholicism", "Ordination to the Catholic priesthood in the Latin Church.", "Devotional card, 1925.The ministerial orders of the Catholic Church include the orders of bishops, deacons and presbyters, which in Latin is ''sacerdos''.", "The ordained priesthood and common priesthood (or priesthood of all the baptized) are different in function and essence.A distinction is made between \"priest\" and \"presbyter\".", "In the 1983 Code of Canon Law, \"The Latin words ''sacerdos'' and ''sacerdotium'' are used to refer in general to the ministerial priesthood shared by bishops and presbyters.", "The words ''presbyter, presbyterium and presbyteratus'' refer to priests in the English use of the word and presbyters\".While the consecrated life is neither clerical nor lay by definition, clerics can be members of institutes of consecrated or secular (diocesan) life." ], [ "Eastern Christianity", "Metropolitan Hilarion (Kapral) performs the laying on of hands (''Cheirotonia''), conferring the holy order of presbyter (priest) upon an Orthodox deacon.After the transmutation of the Holy Gifts, the bishop presents to the newly ordained priest a portion of the Lamb (i.e., the Body of Christ).Cheirotonia''), conferring the holy order of deacon upon an Orthodox subdeacon.The Eastern Orthodox Church considers ordination (known as ''cheirotonia'', \"laying on of hands\") to be a sacred mystery (μυστήριο, what in the West is called a sacrament).", "Although all other mysteries may be performed by a presbyter, ordination may only be conferred by a bishop, and the ordination of a bishop may only be performed by several bishops together.", "''Cheirotonia'' always takes place during the Divine Liturgy.It was the mission of the Apostles to go forth into all the world and preach the Gospel, baptizing those who believed in the name of the Holy Trinity.", "In the Early Church those who presided over congregations were referred to variously as ''episcopos'' (bishop) or ''presbyteros'' (priest).", "These successors of the Apostles were ordained to their office by the laying on of hands, and according to Eastern Orthodox theology formed a living, organic link with the Apostles, and through them with Jesus Christ himself.The Eastern Orthodox Church also has ordination to minor orders (known as ''cheirothesia'', \"imposition of hands\") which is performed outside of the Divine Liturgy, typically by a bishop, although certain archimandrites of stavropegial monasteries may bestow cheirothesia on members of their communities.A bishop is the collector of the money of the diocese and the living Vessel of Grace through whom the ''energeia'' (divine grace) of the Holy Spirit flows into the rest of the church.", "A bishop is consecrated through the laying on of hands by several bishops.", "(With the consent of several other bishops, a single bishop has performed the ordination of another bishop in emergency situations, such as times of persecution.)", "The consecration of a bishop takes place near the beginning of the Liturgy, since a bishop can, in addition to performing the Mystery of the Eucharist, also ordain priests and deacons.", "Before the commencement of the Holy Liturgy, the bishop-elect professes, in the middle of the church before the seated bishops who will consecrate him, in detail the doctrines of the Orthodox Christian Faith and pledges to observe the canons of the Apostles and Councils, the Typikon and customs of the Orthodox Church and to obey ecclesiastical authority.", "After the Little Entrance, the arch-priest and arch-deacon conduct the bishop-elect before the Royal Gates where he is met by the bishops and kneels before the altar on both knees.", "The Gospel Book is laid over his head and the consecrating bishops lay their hands upon the Gospel Book, while the prayers of ordination are read by the eldest bishop.", "After this, the newly consecrated bishop ascends the ''synthranon'' (bishop's throne in the sanctuary) for the first time.", "Customarily, the newly consecrated bishop ordains a priest and a deacon at the Liturgy during which he is consecrated.A priest may serve only at the pleasure of his bishop.", "A bishop bestows faculties (permission to minister within his diocese) giving a priest chrism and an antimins; he may withdraw faculties and demand the return of these items.", "The ordination of a priest occurs before the Anaphora (Eucharistic Prayer) in order that he may on the same day take part in the celebration of the Eucharist: During the Great Entrance, the candidate for ordination carries the Aër (chalice veil) over his head (rather than on his shoulder, as a deacon otherwise carries it then) as a symbol of giving up his diaconate, and comes last in the procession and stands at the end of the pair of lines of the priests.", "After the Aër is taken from the candidate to cover the chalice and diskos, a chair is brought for the bishop to sit on by the northeast corner of the Holy Table (altar).", "Two deacons go to priest-elect who, at that point, had been standing alone in the middle of the church, and bow him down to the west (to the people) and to the east (to the clergy), asking their consent by saying \"Command ye!\"", "and then lead him through the holy doors of the altar where the archdeacon asks the bishop's consent, saying, \"Command, most sacred master!\"", "after which a priest escorts the candidate three times around the Holy Table, during which he kisses each corner of the Holy Table as well as the bishop's epigonation and right hand and prostrates himself before the holy table at each circuit.", "The candidate is then taken to the southeast corner of the Holy Table and kneels on both knees, resting his forehead on the edge of the Holy Table.", "The ordaining bishop then places his omophor and right hand over the ordinand's head and recites aloud the first ''Prayer of Cheirotonia'' and then prays silently the other two prayers of cheirotonia while a deacon quietly recites a litany and the clergy, then the congregation, chant \"Lord, have mercy\".", "Afterwards, the bishop brings the newly ordained priest to stand in the Holy Doors and presents him to the faithful.", "He then clothes the priest in each of his sacerdotal vestments, at each of which the people sing, ''Worthy!''.", "Later, after the Epiklesis of the Liturgy, the bishop hands him a portion of the Lamb (Host) saying:A deacon may not perform any sacrament and performs no liturgical services on his own but serves only as an assistant to a priest and may not even vest without the blessing of a priest.", "The ordination of a deacon occurs after the Anaphora (Eucharistic Prayer) since his role is not in performing the Holy Mystery but consists only in serving; the ceremony is much the same as at the ordination of a priest, but the deacon-elect is presented to the people and escorted to the holy doors by two sub-deacons (his peers, analogous to the two deacons who so present a priest-elect), is escorted three times around the Holy Table by a deacon, and he kneels on only one knee during the ''Prayer of Cheirotonia''.", "After being vested as a deacon and given a liturgical fan ''(ripidion or hexapterygion)'', he is led to the side of the Holy Table where he uses the ripidion to gently fan the Holy Gifts (consecrated Body and Blood of Christ)." ], [ "Lutheranism", "Lutherans reject the Roman Catholic understanding of holy orders because they do not think sacerdotalism is supported by the Bible.", "Martin Luther taught that each individual was expected to fulfill his God-appointed task in everyday life.", "The modern usage of the term vocation as a life-task was first employed by Martin Luther.", "In Luther's Small Catechism, the holy orders include but are not limited to the following: bishops, pastors, preachers, governmental offices, citizens, husbands, wives, children, employees, employers, young people, and widows.", "However, also according to the Book of Concord: \"But if ordination be understood as applying to the ministry of the Word, we are not unwilling to call ordination a sacrament.", "For the ministry of the Word has God's command and glorious promises, Rom.", "1:16: The Gospel is the power of God unto salvation to every one that believeth.", "Likewise, Isa.", "55:11: So shall My Word be that goeth forth out of My mouth; it shall not return unto Me void, but it shall accomplish that which I please.", "...If ordination be understood in this way, neither will we refuse to call the imposition of hands a sacrament.", "For the Church has the command to appoint ministers, which should be most pleasing to us, because we know that God approves this ministry, and is present in the ministry that God will preach and work through men and those who have been chosen by men.\"" ], [ "Process and sequence", "At priestly ordination the bishop imposes hands upon the deacon who is by that matter and the form of the consecratory preface ordained to the priesthood.", "Pictured is the third imposition of hands as in the pre-1968 Roman Pontifical, in 1999, Fontgombault Abbey, France.The sequence in which holy orders are received are: minor orders, deacon, priest, bishop.For Catholics, it is typical in the years of seminary training that a man will be ordained to the diaconate, which Catholics since the Second Vatican Council sometimes call the \"transitional diaconate\" to distinguish men bound for priesthood from permanent deacons.", "They are licensed to preach sermons (under certain circumstances a permanent deacon may not receive faculties to preach), to perform baptisms, and to witness Catholic marriages, but to perform no other sacraments.", "They assist at the Eucharist or the Mass, but are not able to consecrate the bread and wine.", "Normally, after six months or more as a transitional deacon, a man will be ordained to the priesthood.", "Priests are able to preach, perform baptisms, confirm (with special dispensation from their ordinary), witness marriages, hear confessions and give absolutions, anoint the sick, and celebrate the Eucharist or the Mass.Orthodox seminarians are typically tonsured as readers before entering the seminary, and may later be made subdeacons or deacons; customs vary between seminaries and between Orthodox jurisdictions.", "Some deacons remain permanently in the diaconate while most subsequently are ordained as priests.", "Orthodox clergy are typically either married or monastic.", "Monastic deacons are called hierodeacons, monastic priests are called hieromonks.", "Orthodox clergy who marry must do so prior to ordination to the subdiaconate (or diaconate, according to local custom) and typically one is either tonsured a monk or married before ordination.", "A deacon or priest may not marry, or remarry if widowed, without abandoning his clerical office.", "Often, widowed priests take monastic vows.", "Orthodox bishops are always monks; a single or widowed man may be elected a bishop but he must be tonsured a monk before consecration as a bishop.For Anglicans, a person is usually ordained a deacon once he (or she) has completed training at a theological college.", "The historic practice of a bishop tutoring a candidate himself (\"reading for orders\") is still to be found.", "The candidate then typically serves as an assistant curate and may later be ordained as a priest at the discretion of the bishop.", "Other deacons may choose to remain in this order.", "Anglican deacons can preach sermons, perform baptisms and conduct funerals, but, unlike priests, cannot celebrate the Eucharist.", "In most branches of the Anglican church, women can be ordained as priests, and in some of them, can also be ordained bishops.Anointment of the hands of a newly ordained priest.Bishops are chosen from among priests in churches that adhere to Catholic usage.In the Roman Catholic Church, bishops, like priests, are celibate and thus unmarried; further, a bishop is said to possess the fullness of the sacrament of holy orders, empowering him to ordain deacons, priests, and – with papal consent – other bishops.", "If a bishop, especially one acting as an ordinary – a head of a diocese or archdiocese – is to be ordained, three bishops must usually co-consecrate him with one bishop, usually an archbishop or the bishop of the place, being the chief consecrating prelate.Among Eastern Rite Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, which permit married priests, bishops must either be unmarried or agree to abstain from contact with their wives.", "It is a common misconception that all such bishops come from religious orders; while this is generally true, it is not an absolute rule.", "In the case of both Catholics – (Western and) Eastern Catholic, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox, they are usually leaders of territorial units called dioceses (or its equivalent in the east, an eparchy).", "Only bishops can validly administer the sacrament of holy orders.===Recognition of other churches' orders===The Roman Catholic Church unconditionally recognizes the validity of ordinations in the Eastern churches.", "Some Eastern Orthodox churches reordain Catholic priests who convert while others accept their Roman Catholic ordination using the concept of economia (church economy).Anglican churches claim to have maintained apostolic succession.", "The succession of Anglican bishops is not universally recognized, however.", "The Roman Catholic Church judged Anglican orders invalid when Pope Leo XIII in 1896 wrote in ''Apostolicae curae'' that Anglican orders lack validity because the rite by which priests were ordained was not correctly worded from 1547 to 1553 and from 1559 to the time of Archbishop William Laud (Archbishop of Canterbury 1633–1645).", "The papacy claimed the form and matter was inadequate to make a Catholic bishop.", "The actual \"mechanical\" succession, prayer and laying on hands, was not disputed.", "Two of the four consecrators of Matthew Parker in 1559 had been consecrated using the Edwardine Ordinals and two using the Roman Pontifical.", "Nonetheless, they believed that this caused a break of continuity in apostolic succession, making all further ordinations null and void.Eastern Orthodox bishops have, on occasion, granted \"economy\" when Anglican priests convert to Orthodoxy.", "Various Orthodox churches have also declared Anglican orders valid subject to a finding that the bishops in question did indeed maintain the true faith, the Orthodox concept of apostolic succession being one in which the faith must be properly adhered to and transmitted, not simply that the ceremony by which a man is made a bishop is conducted correctly.", "Changes in the Anglican ordinals since King Edward VI, and a fuller appreciation of the pre-Reformation ordinals, suggest that the correctness of the enduring dismissal of Anglican orders is questionable.", "To reduce doubt concerning Anglican apostolic succession, especially since the 1930 Bonn agreement between the Anglican and Old Catholic churches, some Anglican bishops have included among their consecrators bishops of the Old Catholic Church, whose holy orders are recognised as valid and regular by the Roman Catholic Church.Neither Roman Catholics nor Anglicans recognize the validity of ordinations of ministers in Protestant churches that do not maintain apostolic succession; but some Anglicans, especially Low Church or Evangelical ones, commonly treat Protestant ministers and their sacraments as valid.", "Rome also does not recognize the apostolic succession of those Lutheran bodies which retained apostolic succession.Officially, the Anglican Communion accepts the ordinations of those denominations which are in full communion with their own churches, such as the Lutheran state churches of Scandinavia.", "Those clergy may preside at services requiring a priest if one is not otherwise available.===Marriage and holy orders===Married men may be ordained to the diaconate as permanent deacons, but in the Latin Church of the Catholic Church generally may not be ordained to the priesthood.", "In the Eastern Catholic Churches and in the Eastern Orthodox Church, married deacons may be ordained priests but may not become bishops.", "Bishops in the Eastern Rites and the Eastern Orthodox churches are almost always drawn from among monks, who have taken a vow of celibacy.", "They may be widowers, though; it is not required of them never to have been married.In some cases, widowed permanent deacons have been ordained to the priesthood.", "There have been some situations in which men previously married and ordained to the priesthood in an Anglican church or in a Lutheran church have been ordained to the Catholic priesthood and allowed to function much as an Eastern Rite priest but in a Latin Church setting.", "This is never ''sub conditione'' (conditionally), as there is in Catholic canon law no true priesthood in Protestant denominations.", "Such ordination may only happen with the approval of the priest's Bishop and a special permission by the Pope.Anglican clergy may be married or may marry after ordination.", "In the Old Catholic Church and the Independent Catholic Churches there are no ordination restrictions related to marriage." ], [ "Other concepts of ordination", "Ordination ritual and procedures vary by denomination.", "Different churches and denominations specify more or less rigorous requirements for entering into office, and the process of ordination is likewise given more or less ceremonial pomp depending on the group.", "Many Protestants still communicate authority and ordain to office by having the existing overseers physically lay hands on the candidates for office.=== Methodist churches ===The American Methodist model is an episcopal system loosely based on the Anglican model, as the Methodist Church arose from the Anglican Church.", "It was first devised under the leadership of Bishops Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the late 18th century.", "In this approach, an elder (or 'presbyter') is ordained to word (preaching and teaching), sacrament (administering Baptism and the Lord's Supper), order (administering the life of the church and, in the case of bishops, ordaining others for mission and ministry), and service.", "A deacon is a person ordained only to word and service.In the United Methodist Church, for instance, seminary graduates are examined and approved by the Conference Board of Ordained Ministry and then the Clergy Session.", "They are accepted as \"probationary (provisional) members of the conference.\"", "The resident bishop may commission them to full-time ministry as \"provisional\" ministers.", "(Before 1996, the graduate was ordained as a transitional deacon at this point, a provisional role since eliminated.", "The order of deacon is now a separate and distinct clergy order in the United Methodist Church.)", "After serving the probationary period, of a minimum of two years, the probationer is then examined again and either continued on probation, discontinued altogether, or approved for ordination.", "Upon final approval by the Clergy Session of the Conference, the probationer becomes a full member of the Conference and is then ordained as an elder or deacon by the resident bishop.", "Those ordained as elders are members of the Order of Elders, and those ordained deacons are members of the Order of Deacons.John Wesley appointed Thomas Coke (above mentioned as bishop) as 'Superintendent', his translation of the Greek ''episcopos'' (\"overseer\") – which is normally translated 'bishop' in English.", "The British Methodist Conference has two distinct orders of presbyter and deacon.", "It does not have bishops as a separate order of ministry.", "The British Methodist Church has more than 500 superintendents, who are not a separate order of ministry but a role within the order of presbyters.", "The roles normally undertaken by bishops are expressed in ordaining presbyters and deacons by the annual Conference through its president (or a past president); in confirmation by all presbyters; in local oversight by superintendents; in regional oversight by chairs of Districts.=== Presbyterian churches ===Presbyterian churches, following their Scottish forebears, reject the traditions surrounding overseers and instead identify the offices of bishop (''episkopos'' in Greek) and elder (''presbuteros'' in Greek, from which the term \"presbyterian\" comes).", "The two terms seem to be used interchangeably in the Bible (compare Titus 1.5–9 and I Tim.", "3.2–7).", "Their form of church governance is known as presbyterian polity.", "While there is increasing authority with each level of gathering of elders ('Session' over a congregation or parish, then presbytery, then possibly a synod, then the General Assembly), there is no hierarchy of elders.", "Each elder has an equal vote at the court on which they stand.Elders are usually chosen at their local level, either elected by the congregation and approved by the Session, or appointed directly by the Session.", "Some churches place limits on the term that the elders serve, while others ordain elders for life.Presbyterians also ordain (by laying on of hands) ministers of Word and Sacrament (sometimes known as 'teaching elders').", "These ministers are regarded simply as Presbyters ordained to a different function, but in practice they provide the leadership for the local Session.Some Presbyterians identify those appointed (by the laying on of hands) to serve in practical ways ( Acts 6.1–7) as deacons (''diakonos'' in Greek, meaning 'servant').", "In many congregations, a group of men or women is thus set aside to deal with matters such as congregational fabric and finance, releasing elders for more 'spiritual' work.", "These persons may be known as 'deacons', 'board members' or 'managers', depending on the local tradition.", "Unlike elders and ministers, they are not usually 'ordained', and are often elected by the congregation for a set period of time.Other Presbyterians have used an 'order of deacons' as full-time servants of the wider Church.", "Unlike ministers, they do not administer sacraments or routinely preach.", "The Church of Scotland has recently begun ordaining deacons to this role.Unlike the Episcopalian system, but similar to the United Methodist system described above, the two Presbyterian offices are different in ''kind'' rather than in ''degree'', since one need not be a deacon before becoming an elder.", "Since there is no hierarchy, the two offices do not make up an 'order' in the technical sense, but the terminology of holy orders is sometimes still developed.=== Congregationalist churches ===Congregationalist churches implement different schemes, but the officers usually have less authority than in the presbyterian or episcopalian forms.", "Some ordain only ministers and rotate members on an advisory board (sometimes called a board of elders or a board of deacons).", "Because the positions are by comparison less powerful, there is usually less rigor or fanfare in how officers are ordained.=== Irvingian churches ===Irvingian churches teach a fourfold ministry of \"apostles, prophets, evangelists, and pastors.", "\"===Latter Day Saint Movement======= The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) accepts the legal authority of clergy to perform marriages but does not recognize any other sacraments performed by ministers not ordained to the Latter-day Saint priesthood.", "Although the Latter-day Saints do claim a doctrine of a certain spiritual \"apostolic succession,\" it is significantly different from that claimed by Catholics and Protestants since there is no succession or continuity between the first century and the lifetime of Joseph Smith, the founder of the LDS church.", "Mormons teach that the priesthood was lost in ancient times not to be restored by Christ until the nineteenth century when it was given to Joseph Smith directly.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a relatively open priesthood, ordaining nearly all worthy adult males and boys of the age of twelve and older.", "Latter-day Saint priesthood consists of two divisions: the Melchizedek Priesthood and Aaronic Priesthood.", "The Melchizedek Priesthood because Melchizedek was such a great high priest.", "Before his day it was called the Holy Priesthood, after the Order of the Son of God.", "But out of respect or reverence to the name of the Supreme Being, to avoid the too frequent repetition of his name, the church, in ancient days, called that priesthood after Melchizedek.", "The lesser priesthood is an appendage to the Melchizedek Priesthood.", "It is called the Aaronic Priesthood because it was conferred on Aaron and his sons throughout all their generations.The offices, or ranks, of the Melchizedek order (in roughly descending order) include apostle, seventy, patriarch, high priest, and elder.", "The offices of the Aaronic order are bishop, priest, teacher, and deacon.", "The manner of ordination consists of the laying on of hands by two or more men holding at least the office being conferred while one acts as voice in conferring the priesthood or office and usually pronounces a blessing upon the recipient.", "Teachers and deacons do not have the authority to ordain others to the priesthood.", "All church members are authorized to teach and preach regardless of priesthood ordination so long as they maintain good standing within the church.", "The church does not use the term \"holy orders.", "\"====Community of Christ====Community of Christ has a largely volunteer priesthood, and all members of the priesthood are free to marry (as traditionally defined by the Christian community).", "The priesthood is divided into two orders, the Aaronic priesthood and the Melchisedec priesthood.", "The Aaronic order consists of the offices of deacon, teacher and priest.", "The Melchisedec Order consists of the offices of elder (including the specialized office of seventy) and high priest (including the specialized offices of evangelist, bishop, apostle, and prophet).", "Paid ministers include \"appointees\" and the general officers of the church, which include some specialized priesthood offices (such as the office of president, reserved for the three top members of the church leadership team).", "As of 1984, women have been eligible for priesthood, which is conferred through the sacrament of ordination by the laying-on-of-hands.", "While there is technically no age requirement for any office of priesthood, there is no automatic ordination or progression as in the LDS Church.", "Young people are occasionally ordained as deacon, and sometimes teacher or priest, but generally most priesthood members are called following completion of post secondary school education.", "In March 2007 a woman was ordained for the first time to the office of president." ], [ "Ordination of women", "The Roman Catholic Church, in accordance with its understanding of the theological tradition on the issue, and the definitive clarification found in the encyclical letter ''Ordinatio sacerdotalis'' (1994) written by Pope John Paul II, officially teaches that it has no authority to ordain women as priests and thus there is no possibility of women becoming priests at any time in the future.", "\"Ordaining\" women as deaconesses is not a possibility in any sacramental sense of the diaconate, for a deaconess is not simply a female who is a deacon but instead holds a position of lay service.", "As such, she does not receive the sacrament of holy orders.", "Many Lutheran, Anglican and other Protestant churches ordain women, but in many cases, only to the office of deacon.Various branches of the Eastern Orthodox churches, including the Greek Orthodox, currently set aside vows of deaconesses.", "Some churches are internally divided on whether the Scriptures permit the ordination of women.", "When one considers the relative size of the traditions (1.1 billion Roman Catholics, 300 million Orthodox, 590 million Protestants), it is a minority of Christian churches that ordain women.", "Protestants constitute about 27 percent of Christians worldwide, and most of their churches that do ordain women have only done so within the past century; moreover, denominations within the same tradition may differ with respect to women's ordination.", "For example, in Methodism, the Primitive Methodist Church does not ordain women, while the Free Methodist Church does ordain women.In some traditions women may be ordained to the same orders as men.", "In others women are restricted from certain offices.", "Women may be ordained bishop in the Old Catholic churches and in the Anglican/Episcopal churches in Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cuba, Brazil, South Africa, Canada, US, Australia, Aotearoa New Zealand and Polynesia.", "The Church of Ireland had installed Pat Storey in 2013.On 19 September 2013, Storey was chosen by the House of Bishops to succeed Richard Clarke as Bishop of Meath and Kildare.", "She was consecrated to the episcopate at Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, on 30 November 2013.She is the first woman to be elected as a bishop in the Church of Ireland and the first woman to be an Anglican Communion bishop in Ireland and Great Britain.", "The Church of England's General Synod voted in 2014 to allow women to be ordained to the episcopate, with Libby Lane being the first woman to be ordained bishop.", "Continuing Anglican churches of the world do not permit women to be ordained.", "In some Protestant denominations, women may serve as assistant pastors but not as pastors in charge of congregations.", "In some denominations, women can be ordained to be an elder or deacon.", "Some denominations allow for the ordination of women for certain religious orders.", "Within certain traditions, such as the Anglican and Lutheran, there is a diversity of theology and practice regarding ordination of women." ], [ "Ordination of LGBT clergy", "The ordination of lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender clergy who are sexually active, and open about it, represents a fiercely contested subject within many mainline Protestant communities.", "The majority of churches are opposed to such ordinations because they view homosexuality as a sin and incompatible with Biblical teaching and traditional Christian practice.", "Yet there are an increasing number of Christian congregations and communities that are open to ordaining people who are gay or lesbian.", "These are liberal Protestant denominations, such as the Episcopal Church, the United Church of Christ, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, plus the small Metropolitan Community Church, founded as a church intending to minister primarily to LGBT people, and the Church of Sweden where such clergy may serve in senior clerical positions.", "The Church of Norway has for many years had both gay and lesbian priests, even bishops, and in 2006 the first woman who was appointed a bishop in Norway came out as an active homosexual herself, and that she had been a homosexual since before she joined the church.The issue of ordination has caused particular controversy in the worldwide Anglican Communion, following the approval of Gene Robinson to be Bishop of New Hampshire in the US Episcopal Church." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Print resources", "* Campbell, Dennis.", "''Yoke of Obedience'', 1988.", "* Oden, Thomas.", "''Pastoral Theology: Essentials of Ministry'', 1983.", "* Willimon, William.", "''Calling & Character: Virtues of the Ordained Life'', 2000.", "* Willimon, William.", "''Pastor: The Theology and Practice of Ordained Ministry'', 2002." ], [ "Further reading", "** Bray, Gerald L. ''Sacraments & Ministry in Ecumenical Perspective'', in series, ''Latimer Studies'', 18.Oxford, Eng.", ": Latimer House, 1984." ], [ "External links", "* * The Steps to Orders in The United Methodist Church (PDF)* Elder's Orders in the UMC: The Disciplinary Questions and Sample Answers by Gregory S. Neal* VISION Vocation Guide Information on Roman Catholic priesthood and religious life* .", "Located in the United States, Europe and Brazil.", "A Regular Third Order Roman Catholic congregation." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Homer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Homer''' (; , ; born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature.", "Homer is considered one of the most revered and influential authors in history.Homer's ''Iliad'' centers on a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles during the last year of the Trojan War.", "The ''Odyssey'' chronicles the ten-year journey of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, back to his home after the fall of Troy.", "The poems are in Homeric Greek, also known as Epic Greek, a literary language which shows a mixture of features of the Ionic and Aeolic dialects from different centuries; the predominant influence is Eastern Ionic.", "Most researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally.", "Despite being predominantly known for its tragic and serious themes, the Homeric poems also contain instances of comedy and laughter.Homer's epic poems shaped aspects of ancient Greek culture and education, fostering ideals of heroism, glory, and honor.", "To Plato, Homer was simply the one who \"has taught Greece\" (, ).In Dante Alighieri's ''Divine Comedy'', Virgil refers to Homer as \"Poet sovereign\", king of all poets; in the preface to his translation of the ''Iliad'', Alexander Pope acknowledges that Homer has always been considered the \"greatest of poets\".", "\"Homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest invention of any writer whatever.", "The praise of judgment Virgil has justly contested with him, and others may have their pretensions as to particular excellencies; but his invention remains yet unrivalled.", "Nor is it a wonder if he has ever been acknowledged the greatest of poets, who most excelled in that which is the very foundation of poetry.\"", "From antiquity to the present day, Homeric epics have inspired many famous works of literature, music, art, and film.The question of by whom, when, where and under what circumstances the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' were composed continues to be debated.", "Scholars remain divided as to whether the two works are the product of a single author.", "It is thought that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century BC.Many accounts of Homer's life circulated in classical antiquity; the most widespread account was that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey.", "Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary." ], [ "Works attributed to Homer", "''Homer and His Guide'' (1874) by William-Adolphe BouguereauToday, only the ''Iliad'' and ''the'' ''Odyssey'' are associated with the name 'Homer'.", "In antiquity, a large number of other works were sometimes attributed to him, including the ''Homeric Hymns'', the ''Contest of Homer and Hesiod'', several epigrams, the ''Little Iliad'', the ''Nostoi'', the ''Thebaid'', the ''Cypria'', the ''Epigoni'', the comic mini-epic ''Batrachomyomachia'' (\"The Frog–Mouse War\"), the ''Margites'', the ''Capture of Oechalia'', and the ''Phocais''.", "These claims are not considered authentic today and were by no means universally accepted in the ancient world.", "As with the multitude of legends surrounding Homer's life, they indicate little more than the centrality of Homer to ancient Greek culture." ], [ "Ancient biographical traditions", "Some ancient claims about Homer were established early and repeated often.", "They include that Homer was blind (taking as self-referential a passage describing the blind bard Demodocus), that he resided at Chios, that he was the son of the river Meles and the nymph Critheïs, that he was a wandering bard, that he composed a varying list of other works (the \"Homerica\"), that he died either in Ios or after failing to solve a riddle set by fishermen, and various explanations for the name \"Homer\" (, ).", "Another tradition from the days of the Roman emperor Hadrian says Epicaste (daughter of Nestor) and Telemachus (son of Odysseus) were the parents of Homer.The two best known ancient biographies of Homer are the ''Life of Homer'' by the Pseudo-Herodotus and the ''Contest of Homer and Hesiod''.In the early fourth century BC Alcidamas composed a fictional account of a poetry contest at Chalcis with both Homer and Hesiod.", "Homer was expected to win, and answered all of Hesiod's questions and puzzles with ease.", "Then, each of the poets was invited to recite the best passage from their work.", "Hesiod selected the beginning of ''Works and Days'': \"When the Pleiades born of Atlas ... all in due season\".", "Homer chose a description of Greek warriors in formation, facing the foe, taken from the ''Iliad''.", "Though the crowd acclaimed Homer victor, the judge awarded Hesiod the prize; the poet who praised husbandry, he said, was greater than the one who told tales of battles and slaughter." ], [ "History of Homeric scholarship", "===Ancient===Part of an eleventh-century manuscript, \"the Townley Homer\".", "The writings on the top and right side are scholia.The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity.", "Nonetheless, the aims of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia.", "The earliest preserved comments on Homer concern his treatment of the gods, which hostile critics such as the poet Xenophanes of Colophon denounced as immoral.", "The allegorist Theagenes of Rhegium is said to have defended Homer by arguing that the Homeric poems are allegories.", "The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' were widely used as school texts in ancient Greek and Hellenistic cultures.", "They were the first literary works taught to all students.", "The ''Iliad'', particularly its first few books, was far more intently studied than the ''Odyssey'' during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.As a result of the poems' prominence in classical Greek education, extensive commentaries on them developed to explain parts that were culturally or linguistically difficult.", "During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many interpreters, especially the Stoics, who believed that Homeric poems conveyed Stoic doctrines, regarded them as allegories, containing hidden wisdom.", "Perhaps partially because of the Homeric poems' extensive use in education, many authors believed that Homer's original purpose had been to educate.", "Homer's wisdom became so widely praised that he began to acquire the image of almost a prototypical philosopher.", "Byzantine scholars such as Eustathius of Thessalonica and John Tzetzes produced commentaries, extensions and scholia to Homer, especially in the twelfth century.", "Eustathius's commentary on the ''Iliad'' alone is massive, sprawling over nearly 4,000 oversized pages in a twenty-first century printed version and his commentary on the ''Odyssey'' an additional nearly 2,000.===Modern===Page from the first printed edition (editio princeps) of collected works by Homer edited by Demetrios Chalkokondyles.", "Florence, 1489.Bibliothèque Nationale de FranceIn 1488, the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles published the ''editio princeps'' of the Homeric poems.", "The earliest modern Homeric scholars started with the same basic approaches towards the Homeric poems as scholars in antiquity.", "The allegorical interpretation of the Homeric poems that had been so prevalent in antiquity returned to become the prevailing view of the Renaissance.", "Renaissance humanists praised Homer as the archetypically wise poet, whose writings contain hidden wisdom, disguised through allegory.", "In western Europe during the Renaissance, Virgil was more widely read than Homer and Homer was often seen through a Virgilian lens.In 1664, contradicting the widespread praise of Homer as the epitome of wisdom, François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac wrote a scathing attack on the Homeric poems, declaring that they were incoherent, immoral, tasteless, and without style, that Homer never existed, and that the poems were hastily cobbled together by incompetent editors from unrelated oral songs.", "Fifty years later, the English scholar Richard Bentley concluded that Homer did exist, but that he was an obscure, prehistoric oral poet whose compositions bear little relation to the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' as they have been passed down.", "According to Bentley, Homer \"wrote a Sequel of Songs and Rhapsodies, to be sung by himself for small Earnings and good Cheer at Festivals and other Days of Merriment; the ''Ilias'' he wrote for men, and the ''Odysseis'' for the other Sex.", "These loose songs were not collected together in the Form of an epic Poem till Pisistratus' time, about 500 Years after.", "\"Friedrich August Wolf's ''Prolegomena ad Homerum'', published in 1795, argued that much of the material later incorporated into the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' was originally composed in the tenth century BC in the form of short, separate oral songs, which passed through oral tradition for roughly four hundred years before being assembled into prototypical versions of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' in the sixth century BC by literate authors.", "After being written down, Wolf maintained that the two poems were extensively edited, modernized, and eventually shaped into their present state as artistic unities.", "Wolf and the \"Analyst\" school, which led the field in the nineteenth century, sought to recover the original, authentic poems which were thought to be concealed by later excrescences.Within the Analyst school were two camps: proponents of the \"lay theory\", which held that the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' were put together from a large number of short, independent songs, and proponents of the \"nucleus theory\", which held that Homer had originally composed shorter versions of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', which later poets expanded and revised.", "A small group of scholars opposed to the Analysts, dubbed \"Unitarians\", saw the later additions as superior, the work of a single inspired poet.", "By around 1830, the central preoccupations of Homeric scholars, dealing with whether or not \"Homer\" actually existed, when and how the Homeric poems originated, how they were transmitted, when and how they were finally written down, and their overall unity, had been dubbed \"the Homeric Question\".Following World War I, the Analyst school began to fall out of favor among Homeric scholars.", "It did not die out entirely, but it came to be increasingly seen as a discredited dead end.", "Starting in around 1928, Milman Parry and Albert Lord, after their studies of folk bards in the Balkans, developed the \"Oral-Formulaic Theory\" that the Homeric poems were originally composed through improvised oral performances, which relied on traditional epithets and poetic formulas.", "This theory found very wide scholarly acceptance and explained many previously puzzling features of the Homeric poems, including their unusually archaic language, their extensive use of stock epithets, and their other \"repetitive\" features.", "Many scholars concluded that the \"Homeric Question\" had finally been answered.Meanwhile, the 'Neoanalysts' sought to bridge the gap between the 'Analysts' and 'Unitarians'.", "The Neoanalysts sought to trace the relationships between the Homeric poems and other epic poems, which have now been lost, but of which modern scholars do possess some patchy knowledge.", "Neoanalysts hold that knowledge of earlier versions of the epics can be derived from anomalies of structure and detail in the surviving versions of the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''.", "These anomalies point to earlier versions of the ''Iliad'' in which Ajax played a more prominent role, in which the Achaean embassy to Achilles comprised different characters, and in which Patroclus was actually mistaken for Achilles by the Trojans.", "They point to earlier versions of the ''Odyssey'' in which Telemachus went in search of news of his father not to Menelaus in Sparta but to Idomeneus in Crete, in which Telemachus met up with his father in Crete and conspired with him to return to Ithaca disguised as the soothsayer Theoclymenus, and in which Penelope recognized Odysseus much earlier in the narrative and conspired with him in the destruction of the suitors.===Contemporary===Most contemporary scholars, although they disagree on other questions about the genesis of the poems, agree that the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' were not produced by the same author, based on \"the many differences of narrative manner, theology, ethics, vocabulary, and geographical perspective, and by the apparently imitative character of certain passages of the ''Odyssey'' in relation to the ''Iliad''.\"", "Nearly all scholars agree that the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are unified poems, in that each poem shows a clear overall design, and that they are not merely strung together from unrelated songs.", "It is also generally agreed that each poem was composed mostly by a single author, who probably relied heavily on older oral traditions.", "Nearly all scholars agree that the ''Doloneia'' in Book X of the ''Iliad'' is not part of the original poem, but rather a later insertion by a different poet.Some ancient scholars believed Homer to have been an eyewitness to the Trojan War; others thought he had lived up to 500 years afterwards.", "Contemporary scholars continue to debate the date of the poems.", "A long history of oral transmission lies behind the composition of the poems, complicating the search for a precise date.", "At one extreme, Richard Janko has proposed a date for both poems to the eighth century BC based on linguistic analysis and statistics.", "Barry B. Powell dates the composition of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' to sometime between 800 and 750 BC, based on the statement from Herodotus, who lived in the late fifth century BC, that Homer lived four hundred years before his own time \"and not more\" (), and on the fact that the poems do not mention hoplite battle tactics, inhumation, or literacy.Martin Litchfield West has argued that the ''Iliad'' echoes the poetry of Hesiod, and that it must have been composed around 660–650 BC at the earliest, with the ''Odyssey'' up to a generation later.", "He also interprets passages in the ''Iliad'' as showing knowledge of historical events that occurred in the ancient Near East during the middle of the seventh century BC, including the destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib in 689 BC and the Sack of Thebes by Ashurbanipal in 663/4 BC.", "At the other extreme, a few American scholars such as Gregory Nagy see \"Homer\" as a continually evolving tradition, which grew much more stable as the tradition progressed, but which did not fully cease to continue changing and evolving until as late as the middle of the second century BC.", "\"'Homer\" is a name of unknown etymological origin, around which many theories were erected in antiquity.", "One such linkage was to the Greek ( or ).", "The explanations suggested by modern scholars tend to mirror their position on the overall Homeric Question.", "Nagy interprets it as \"he who fits (the song) together\".", "West has advanced both possible Greek and Phoenician etymologies." ], [ "Historicity of the Homeric epics and Homeric society", "Greece according to the ''Iliad''Scholars continue to debate questions such as whether the Trojan War actually took place – and if so when and where – and to what extent the society depicted by Homer is based on his own or one which was, even at the time of the poems' composition, known only as legends.", "The Homeric epics are largely set in the east and center of the Mediterranean, with some scattered references to Egypt, Ethiopia and other distant lands, in a warlike society that resembles that of the Greek world slightly before the hypothesized date of the poems' composition.In ancient Greek chronology, the sack of Troy was dated to 1184 BC.", "By the nineteenth century, there was widespread scholarly skepticism that the Trojan War had ever happened and that Troy had even existed, but in 1873 Heinrich Schliemann announced to the world that he had discovered the ruins of Homer's Troy at Hisarlik in modern Turkey.", "Some contemporary scholars think the destruction of Troy VIIa 1220 BC was the origin of the myth of the Trojan War, others that the poem was inspired by multiple similar sieges that took place over the centuries.Most scholars now agree that the Homeric poems depict customs and elements of the material world that are derived from different periods of Greek history.", "For instance, the heroes in the poems use bronze weapons, characteristic of the Bronze Age in which the poems are set, rather than the later Iron Age during which they were composed; yet the same heroes are cremated (an Iron Age practice) rather than buried (as they were in the Bronze Age).", "In some parts of the Homeric poems, heroes are described as carrying large shields like those used by warriors during the Mycenaean period, but, in other places, they are instead described carrying the smaller shields that were commonly used during the time when the poems were written in the early Iron Age.In the ''Iliad'' 10.260–265, Odysseus is described as wearing a helmet made of boar's tusks.", "Such helmets were not worn in Homer's time, but were commonly worn by aristocratic warriors between 1600 and 1150 BC.The decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris and continued archaeological investigation has increased modern scholars' understanding of Aegean civilisation, which in many ways resembles the ancient Near East more than the society described by Homer.", "Some aspects of the Homeric world are simply made up; for instance, the ''Iliad'' 22.145–56 describes there being two springs that run near the city of Troy, one that runs steaming hot and the other that runs icy cold.", "It is here that Hector takes his final stand against Achilles.", "Archaeologists, however, have uncovered no evidence that springs of this description ever actually existed." ], [ "Style and language", "Detail of ''The Parnassus'' (painted 1509–1510) by Raphael, depicting Homer wearing a crown of laurels atop Mount Parnassus, with Dante Alighieri on his right and Virgil on his leftThe Homeric epics are written in an artificial literary language or 'Kunstsprache' only used in epic hexameter poetry.", "Homeric Greek shows features of multiple regional Greek dialects and periods, but is fundamentally based on Ionic Greek, in keeping with the tradition that Homer was from Ionia.", "Linguistic analysis suggests that the ''Iliad'' was composed slightly before the ''Odyssey'', and that Homeric formulae preserve features older than other parts of the poems.The poems were composed in unrhymed dactylic hexameter; ancient Greek metre was quantity-based rather than stress-based.", "Homer frequently uses set phrases such as epithets ('crafty Odysseus', 'rosy-fingered Dawn', 'owl-eyed Athena', etc.", "), Homeric formulae ('and then answered him/her, Agamemnon, king of men', 'when the early-born rose-fingered Dawn came to light', 'thus he/she spoke'), simile, type scenes, ring composition and repetition.", "These habits aid the extemporizing bard, and are characteristic of oral poetry.", "For instance, the main words of a Homeric sentence are generally placed towards the beginning, whereas literate poets like Virgil or Milton use longer and more complicated syntactical structures.", "Homer then expands on these ideas in subsequent clauses; this technique is called parataxis.The so-called 'type scenes' (), were named by Walter Arend in 1933.He noted that Homer often, when describing frequently recurring activities such as eating, praying, fighting and dressing, used blocks of set phrases in sequence that were then elaborated by the poet.", "The 'Analyst' school had considered these repetitions as un-Homeric, whereas Arend interpreted them philosophically.", "Parry and Lord noted that these conventions are found in many other cultures.", "'Ring composition' or chiastic structure (when a phrase or idea is repeated at both the beginning and end of a story, or a series of such ideas first appears in the order A, B, C ... before being reversed as ... C, B, A) has been observed in the Homeric epics.", "Opinion differs as to whether these occurrences are a conscious artistic device, a mnemonic aid or a spontaneous feature of human storytelling.Both of the Homeric poems begin with an invocation to the Muse.", "In the ''Iliad'', the poet beseeches her to sing of \"the anger of Achilles\", and, in the ''Odyssey'', he asks her to tell of \"the man of many ways\".", "A similar opening was later employed by Virgil in his ''Aeneid''." ], [ "Textual transmission", "''A Reading from Homer'' (1885) by Lawrence Alma-TademaThe orally transmitted Homeric poems were put into written form at some point between the eighth and sixth centuries BC.", "Some scholars believe that they were dictated to a scribe by the poet and that our inherited versions of the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' were in origin orally-dictated texts.", "Albert Lord noted that the Balkan bards that he was studying revised and expanded their songs in their process of dictating.", "Some scholars hypothesize that a similar process of revision and expansion occurred when the Homeric poems were first written down.Other scholars hold that, after the poems were created in the eighth century, they continued to be orally transmitted with considerable revision until they were written down in the sixth century.", "After textualisation, the poems were each divided into 24 rhapsodes, today referred to as books, and labelled by the letters of the Greek alphabet.", "Most scholars attribute the book divisions to the Hellenistic scholars of Alexandria, in Egypt.", "Some trace the divisions back further to the Classical period.", "Very few credit Homer himself with the divisions.In antiquity, it was widely held that the Homeric poems were collected and organised in Athens in the late sixth century BC by Pisistratus (died 528/7 BC), in what subsequent scholars have dubbed the \"Peisistratean recension\".", "The idea that the Homeric poems were originally transmitted orally and first written down during the reign of Pisistratus is referenced by the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero and is also referenced in a number of other surviving sources, including two ancient ''Lives of Homer''.", "From around 150 BC, the texts of the Homeric poems seem to have become relatively established.", "After the establishment of the Library of Alexandria, Homeric scholars such as Zenodotus of Ephesus, Aristophanes of Byzantium and in particular Aristarchus of Samothrace helped establish a canonical text.The first printed edition of Homer was produced in 1488 in Milan, Italy.", "Today scholars use medieval manuscripts, papyri and other sources; some argue for a \"multi-text\" view, rather than seeking a single definitive text.", "The nineteenth-century edition of Arthur Ludwich mainly follows Aristarchus's work, whereas van Thiel's (1991, 1996) follows the medieval vulgate.", "Others, such as Martin West (1998–2000) or T. W. Allen, fall somewhere between these two extremes." ], [ "See also", "* Achaeans (Homer)* Bibliomancy* Catalogue of Ships* Creophylus of Samos* Cyclic Poets* Deception of Zeus* Geography of the ''Odyssey''* Greek mythology* Homeric psychology* Homer's Ithaca* List of Homeric characters* ''Sortes Homericae''* ''Tabulae Iliacae''* ''Telemachy''* The Golden Bough* Trojan Battle Order* Trojan War in literature and the arts* Venetus A manuscript" ], [ "Notes", "===Sources===* * " ], [ "Selected bibliography", "=== Editions ===;Texts in Homeric Greek Demetrius Chalcondyles ''editio princeps'', Florence, 1488* the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517)* 1st ed.", "with comments, Micyllus and Camerarius, Basel, 1535, 1541 (improved text), 1551 (incl.", "the Batrachomyomachia)* Th.", "Ridel, Strasbourg, c. 1572, 1588 and 1592.", "* Wolf (Halle, 1794–1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807)* Spitzner (Gotha, 1832–1836)* Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858)* La Roche (''Odyssey'', 1867–1868; ''Iliad'', 1873–1876, both at Leipzig)* Ludwich (''Odyssey'', Leipzig, 1889–1891; ''Iliad'', 2 vols., 1901 and 1907)* W. Leaf (''Iliad'', London, 1886–1888; 2nd ed.", "1900–1902)* William Walter Merry and James Riddell (''Odyssey'' i–xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886)* Monro, D. B.", "(''Odyssey'' xiii–xxiv.", "with appendices, Oxford, 1901)* Monro, D. B. and Allen, T. W. (''Iliad''), and Allen (''Odyssey'', 1908, Oxford).", "* D. B. Monro and T. W. Allen 1917–1920, ''Homeri Opera'' (5 volumes: ''Iliad''=3rd edition, ''Odyssey''=2nd edition), Oxford.", "* H. van Thiel 1991, ''Homeri Odyssea'', Hildesheim.", ", 1996, ''Homeri Ilias'', Hildesheim.", "* P. von der Mühll 1993, ''Homeri Odyssea'', Munich/Leipzig.", "* M. L. West 1998–2000, ''Homeri Ilias'' (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig.", "* M. L. West 2017, ''Homerus Odyssea'', Berlin/Boston.", "=== Interlinear translations ===* ''The Iliad of Homer a Parsed Interlinear'', Handheldclassics.com (2008) Text === English translations ===This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''.", "* Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985) ''The Iliad'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ''The Odyssey'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) * Robert Fagles (1933–2008) ''The Iliad'', Penguin Classics (1998) ''The Odyssey'', Penguin Classics (1999) * Stanley Lombardo (b.", "1943) ''Iliad'', Hackett Publishing Company (1997) ''Odyssey'', Hackett Publishing Company (2000) ''Iliad'', (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ''Odyssey'', (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ''The Essential Homer'', (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ''The Essential Iliad'', (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) * Barry B. Powell (b.", "1942) ''Iliad'', Oxford University Press (2013) ''Odyssey'', Oxford University PressI (2014) ** ''Homer's Iliad and Odyssey: The Essential Books'', Oxford University Press (2014) * Samuel Butler (1835–1902) ''The Iliad'', Red and Black Publishers (2008) ''The Odyssey'', Red and Black Publishers (2008) * Emily Wilson (b.", "1971) ''The Odyssey'', W. W. Norton (2017) ''The Iliad'', W. W. Norton (2023) === General works on Homer ===* * * * In German, 5th updated and expanded edition, Leipzig, 2005.In Spanish, 2003, .", "In modern Greek, 2005, .", "* * * * === Influential readings and interpretations ===* (orig.", "publ.", "in German, 1946, Bern)* * * * * * * Reece, Steve.", "''The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene.''", "Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993.=== Commentaries ===* ''Iliad'': P.V.", "Jones (ed.)", "2003, ''Homer's Iliad.", "A Commentary on Three Translations'', London.", " G. S. Kirk (gen.", "ed.)", "1985–1993, ''The Iliad: A Commentary'' (6 volumes), Cambridge.", " J. Latacz (gen.", "ed.)", "2002 ''Homers Ilias.", "Gesamtkommentar.", "Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868–1913)'' (6 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig.", ", N. Postlethwaite (ed.)", "2000, ''Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore'', Exeter.", "** M. W. Willcock (ed.)", "1976, ''A Companion to the Iliad'', Chicago.", "* ''Odyssey'': A. Heubeck (gen.", "ed.)", "1990–1993, ''A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey'' (3 volumes; orig.", "publ.", "1981–1987 in Italian), Oxford.", ", , P. Jones (ed.)", "1988, ''Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore'', Bristol.", "** I. J. F. de Jong (ed.)", "2001, ''A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey'', Cambridge.", "=== Dating the Homeric poems ===" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Works by Homer at Perseus Digital Library* * * * * * The Chicago Homer* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hugo Gernsback" ], [ "Introduction", "Gernsback demonstrating his television goggles in 1963 for ''Life'' magazineWRNY on the cover of his ''Radio News'' (Nov 1928)'''Hugo Gernsback''' (; born '''Hugo Gernsbacher''', August 16, 1884 – August 19, 1967) was an American editor and magazine publisher whose publications included the first science fiction magazine, ''Amazing Stories''.", "His contributions to the genre as publisher were so significant that, along with the novelists Jules Verne and H. G. Wells, he is sometimes called \"The Father of Science Fiction\".", "In his honor, annual awards presented at the World Science Fiction Convention are named the \"Hugos\".Gernsback emigrated to the U.S. in 1904 and later became a citizen.", "He was also a significant figure in the electronics and radio industries, even starting a radio station, WRNY, and the world's first magazine about electronics and radio, ''Modern Electrics''.", "Gernsback died in New York City in 1967." ], [ "Personal life", "Gernsback was born in 1884 in Luxembourg City, to Berta (Dürlacher), a housewife, and Moritz Gernsbacher, a winemaker.", "His family was Jewish.", "Gernsback emigrated to the United States in 1904 and later became a naturalized citizen.", "He married three times: to Rose Harvey in 1906, Dorothy Kantrowitz in 1921, and Mary Hancher in 1951.In 1925, he founded radio station WRNY, which was broadcast from the 18th floor of the Roosevelt Hotel in New York City.", "In 1928, WRNY aired some of the first television broadcasts.", "During the show, audio stopped and each artist waved or bowed onscreen.", "When audio resumed, they performed.", "Gernsback is also considered a pioneer in amateur radio.Before helping to create science fiction, Gernsback was an entrepreneur in the electronics industry, importing radio parts from Europe to the United States and helping to popularize amateur \"wireless\".", "In April 1908 he founded ''Modern Electrics'', the world's first magazine about both electronics and radio, called \"wireless\" at the time.", "While the cover of the magazine itself states it was a catalog, most historians note that it contained articles, features, and plotlines, qualifying it as a magazine.Under its auspices, in January 1909, he founded the Wireless Association of America, which had 10,000 members within a year.", "In 1912, Gernsback said that he estimated 400,000 people in the U.S. were involved in amateur radio.", "In 1913, he founded a similar magazine, ''The Electrical Experimenter'', which became ''Science and Invention'' in 1920.It was in these magazines that he began including scientific fiction stories alongside science journalism, including his novel ''Ralph 124C 41+'', which he ran for 12 months from April 1911 in ''Modern Electrics''.Hugo Gernsback started the ''Radio News'' magazine for amateur radio enthusiasts in 1919.He died at Roosevelt Hospital (Mount Sinai West as of 2020) in New York City on August 19, 1967, at age 83." ], [ "Science fiction", "Gernsback's second novel, ''Baron Münchausen's Scientific Adventures'', was serialized in ''Amazing'' in 1928, with the opening installment taking the February cover.Gernsback's short story \"The Cosmatomic Flyer\", under the byline \"Greno Gashbuck,\" was cover-featured in the debut issue of Gernsback's ''Science-Fiction Plus'' in 1953.Gernsback provided a forum for the modern genre of science fiction in 1926 by founding the first magazine dedicated to it, ''Amazing Stories''.", "The inaugural April issue comprised a one-page editorial and reissues of six stories, three less than ten years old and three by Poe, Verne, and Wells.", "He said he became interested in the concept after reading a translation of the work of Percival Lowell as a child.", "His idea of a perfect science fiction story was \"75 percent literature interwoven with 25 percent science\".", "He also played an important role in starting science fiction fandom, by organizing the Science Fiction League and by publishing the addresses of people who wrote letters to his magazines.", "Fans began to organize, and became aware of themselves as a movement, a social force; this was probably decisive for the subsequent history of the genre.Gernsback created his preferred term for the emerging genre, \"scientifiction\", in 1916.He is sometimes also credited with coining \"science fiction\" in 1929 in the preface of the first ''Science Wonder Stories'', although instances of \"science-fiction\" (mostly, but not always, hyphenated) have been found as far back as 1851, and the preface itself makes no mention of it being a new term.In 1929, he lost ownership of his first magazines after a bankruptcy lawsuit.", "There is some debate about whether this process was genuine, manipulation by publisher Bernarr Macfadden, or a Gernsback scheme to begin another company.", "After losing control of ''Amazing Stories'', Gernsback founded two new science fiction magazines, ''Science Wonder Stories'' and ''Air Wonder Stories''.", "A year later, due to Depression-era financial troubles, the two were merged into ''Wonder Stories'', which Gernsback continued to publish until 1936, when it was sold to Thrilling Publications and renamed ''Thrilling Wonder Stories''.", "Gernsback returned in 1952–53 with ''Science-Fiction Plus''.Gernsback was noted for sharp, sometimes shady, business practices, and for paying his writers extremely low fees or not paying them at all.", "H. P. Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith referred to him as \"Hugo the Rat\".Barry Malzberg has said:Gernsback's venality and corruption, his sleaziness and his utter disregard for the financial rights of authors, have been well documented and discussed in critical and fan literature.", "That the founder of genre science fiction who gave his name to the field's most prestigious award and who was the Guest of Honor at the 1952 Worldcon was pretty much a crook (and a contemptuous crook who stiffed his writers but paid himself $100K a year as President of Gernsback Publications) has been clearly established.", "Jack Williamson, who had to hire an attorney associated with the American Fiction Guild to force Gernsback to pay him, summed up his importance for the genre:At any rate, his main influence in the field was simply to start Amazing and Wonder Stories and get SF out to the public newsstands—and to name the genre he had earlier called \"scientifiction.\"" ], [ "Fiction", "Frederik Pohl said in 1965 that Gernsback's ''Amazing Stories'' published \"the kind of stories Gernsback himself used to write: a sort of animated catalogue of gadgets\".", "Gernsback's fiction includes the novel ''Ralph 124C 41+''; the title is a pun on the phrase \"one to foresee for many\" (\"one plus\").", "Even though ''Ralph 124C 41+'' has been described as pioneering many ideas and themes found in later SF work, it has often been neglected due to what most critics deem poor artistic quality.", "Author Brian Aldiss called the story a \"tawdry illiterate tale\" and a \"sorry concoction\", while author and editor Lester del Rey called it \"simply dreadful.\"", "While most other modern critics have little positive to say about the story's writing, ''Ralph 124C 41+'' is considered by science fiction critic Gary Westfahl as \"essential text for all studies of science fiction.", "\"Gernsback's second novel, ''Baron Münchausen's Scientific Adventures'', was serialized in ''Amazing Stories'' in 1928.Gernsback's third (and final) novel, ''Ultimate World'', written , was not published until 1971.Lester del Rey described it simply as \"a bad book\", marked more by routine social commentary than by scientific insight or extrapolation.", "James Blish, in a caustic review, described the novel as \"incompetent, pedantic, graceless, incredible, unpopulated and boring\" and concluded that its publication \"accomplishes nothing but the placing of a blot on the memory of a justly honored man.", "\"Gernsback combined his fiction and science into ''Everyday Science and Mechanics'' magazine, serving as the editor in the 1930s." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1954, Gernsback was awarded an Officer of Luxembourg's Order of the Oak Crown, an honor equivalent to being knighted.", "The Hugo Awards or \"Hugos\" are the annual achievement awards presented at the World Science Fiction Convention, selected in a process that ends with vote by current Convention members.", "They originated and acquired the \"Hugo\" nickname during the 1950s and were formally defined as a convention responsibility under the name \"Science Fiction Achievement Awards\" early in the 1960s.", "The nickname soon became almost universal and its use legally protected; \"Hugo Award(s)\" replaced the longer name in all official uses after the 1991 cycle.In 1960 Gernsback received a special Hugo Award as \"The Father of Magazine Science Fiction\".The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 1996, its inaugural class of two deceased and two living persons.Science fiction author Brian W. Aldiss held a contrary view about Gernsback's contributions: \"It is easy to argue that Hugo Gernsback ... was one of the worst disasters to hit the science fiction field ... Gernsback himself was utterly without any literary understanding.", "He created dangerous precedents which many later editors in the field followed.", "\"Gernsback made significant contributions to the growth of early broadcasting, mostly through his efforts as a publisher.", "He originated the industry of specialized publications for radio with ''Modern Electrics'' and ''Electrical Experimenter''.", "Later on, and more influentially, he published ''Radio News'', which would have the largest readership among radio magazines in radio broadcasting's formative years.", "He edited ''Radio News'' until 1929.For a short time he hired John F. Rider to be editor.", "Rider was a former engineer working with the US Army Signal Corps and a radio engineer for Alfred H. Grebe, a radio manufacturer.", "However, Rider would soon leave Gernsback and form his own publishing company, John F. Rider Publisher, New York around 1931.Gernsback made use of the magazine to promote his interests, including having his radio station's call letters on the cover starting in 1925.WRNY and ''Radio News'' were used to cross-promote each other, with programs on his station often used to discuss articles he had published, and articles in the magazine often covering program activities at WRNY.", "He also advocated for future directions in innovation and regulation of radio.", "The magazine contained many drawings and diagrams, encouraging radio listeners of the 1920s to experiment themselves to improve the technology.", "WRNY was often used as a laboratory to see if various radio inventions were worthwhile.Articles that were published about television were also tested in this manner when the radio station was used to send pictures to experimental television receivers in August 1928.The technology, however, required sending sight and sound one after the other rather than sending both at the same time, as WRNY only broadcast on one channel.", "Such experiments were expensive, eventually contributing to Gernsback's Experimenter Publishing Company going into bankruptcy in 1929.WRNY was sold to Aviation Radio, who maintained the channel part-time to broadcast aviation weather reports and related feature programs.", "Along with other stations sharing the same frequency, it was acquired by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and consolidated into that company's WHN in 1934." ], [ "Patents and inventions", "Gernsback held 80 patents by the time of his death in New York City on August 19, 1967.His first patent was a new method for manufacturing dry cell batteries, a patent applied for on June 28, 1906, and granted February 5, 1907.Among his inventions are a combined electric hair brush and comb (), 1912; an ear cushion () in 1927; and a hydraulic fishery (), in 1955.Gernsback published a work entitled ''Music for the Deaf'' in ''The Electrical Experimenter'' describing the Physiophone, a device which converted audio into electrical impulses that could be detected by humans.", "He advocated this device as a method for allowing the deaf to experience music.Other patents held by Gernsback are related to: Incandescent Lamp, Electrorheostat Regulator, Electro Adjustable Condenser, Detectorium, Relay, Potentiometer, Electrolytic Interrupter, Rotary Variable Condenser, Luminous Electric Mirror, Transmitter, Postal Card, Telephone Headband, Electromagnetic Sounding Device, Submersible Amusement Device, The Isolator, Apparatus for Landing Flying Machines, Tuned Telephone Receiver, Electric Valve, Detector, Acoustic Apparatus, Electrically Operated Fountain, Cord Terminal, Coil Mounting, Radio Horn, Variable Condenser, Switch, Telephone Receiver, Crystal Detector, Process for Mounting Inductances, Depilator, Code Learner's Instrument." ], [ "Bibliography", "November 1931 issue of ''Everyday Science and Mechanics''Gernsback's decade of publishing SF magazines came to a close with the final issue of ''Wonder Stories'' in 1936.Aside from the short-lived ''Science-Fiction Plus'' in the 1950s, he never returned to that business.Novels:''Ralph 124C 41+'' (1911)''Baron Münchausen's Scientific Adventures'' (1928)''Ultimate World'' (1971)Short stories:\"The Electric Duel\" (1927)\"The Killing Flash (fr)\" (1929)\"The Cosmatomic Flyer\" Science-Fiction Plus (March 1953)Magazines edited or published:* ''Air Wonder Stories'' – July 1929 to May 1930, merged with ''Science Wonder Stories'' to form ''Wonder Stories''* ''Amazing Detective Stories''* ''Amazing Stories''* ''Aviation Mechanics''* ''Electrical Experimenter'' – 1913 to 1920; became ''Science and Invention''* ''Everyday Mechanics'' – from 1929; changed to ''Everyday Science and Mechanics'' as of October 1931 issue* ''Everyday Science and Mechanics'' – see ''Science and Mechanics''* ''The Experimenter'' – originally ''Practical Electrics'', the first issue under this title was November 1924; merged into ''Science and Invention'' in 1926* ''Facts of Life''* ''Flight''* ''Fotocraft''* ''French Humor'' – became ''Tidbits''* ''Gadgets''* ''High Seas Adventures''* ''Know Yourself''* ''Life Guide''* ''Light''* ''Luz''* ''Milady''* ''Modern Electrics'' – 1908 to 1914 (sold in 1913; new owners merged it with ''Electrician and Mechanic'')* ''Moneymaking''* ''Motor Camper & Tourist''* ''New Ideas for Everybody''* ''Pirate Stories''* ''Popular Medicine''* ''Popular Microscopy'' – at least thru May–June 1935 (vol 1 #6)* ''Practical Electrics'' – Dec. 1921 to Oct. 1924, became ''The Experimenter''* ''Radio Amateur News'' – July 1919 to July 1920, dropped the word \"amateur\" and became just ''Radio News''* ''Radio and Television''* ''Radio-Craft'' — July 1929 to June 1948, became ''Radio-Electronics''* ''Radio-Electronics'' — July 1948 to January 2003* ''Radio Electronics Weekly Business Letter''* ''Radio Listeners Guide and Call Book'' title varies* ''Radio News'' — July 1919 (as ''Radio Amateur News'') to July 1948* ''Radio Program Weekly''* ''Radio Review''* ''Science and Invention'' – formerly ''Electrical Experimenter''; published August 1920 to August 1931* ''Science and Mechanics'' – originally ''Everyday Mechanics''; changed to ''Everyday Science and Mechanics'' in 1931.", "\"Everyday\" dropped as March 1937 issue, and published as ''Science and Mechanics'' until 1976* ''Science Fiction Plus'' – March to Dec. 1953* ''Science Wonder Stories'' – June 1929 to May 1930, merged with ''Air Wonder Stories'' to form ''Wonder Stories''* ''Science Wonder Quarterly'' – Fall 1929 to Spring 1930, renamed ''Wonder Stories Quarterly'' and continuing to Winter 1933* ''Scientific Detective Monthly''* ''Sexologia''* ''Sexology''* ''Short-Wave and Television''* ''Short-Wave Craft'' – merged into ''Radio-Craft''* ''Short-Wave Listener''* ''Superworld Comics''* ''Technocracy Review''* ''Television'' – 1928* ''Television News'' – March 1931 to October 1932; merged into ''Radio Review'', then into ''Radio News'' as of March 1933* ''Tidbits'', originally ''French Humor''* ''Woman's Digest''* ''Wonder Stories'' – June 1930 to April 1936* ''Your Body''* ''Your Dreams''" ], [ "See also", "* List of science fiction editors* Pulp magazine" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Radio Before Radio at the web site of the American Radio Relay League* Gernsback interviewed on ''Horizon'', 1965* Hugo Gernsback Library & Publications, AmericanRadioHistory.Com* * \"Boys of Wireless\" at American Experience (PBS)—Contains information about Gernsback's role in early amateur radio* Hugo Gernsback, Publisher – discussion of Gernsback as a magazine publisher, with links to cover images of most of his technical and other non-fiction magazines* * * Hugo Gernsback Papers – description of his papers in the Special Collections Research Center of the Syracuse University Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of computing hardware" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of computing hardware''' covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day computers.The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary arithmetic operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result.", "Later, computers represented numbers in a continuous form (e.g.", "distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a voltage).", "Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism.", "Although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision of results.", "The development of transistor technology and then the integrated circuit chip led to a series of breakthroughs, starting with transistor computers and then integrated circuit computers, causing digital computers to largely replace analog computers.", "Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) then enabled semiconductor memory and the microprocessor, leading to another key breakthrough, the miniaturized personal computer (PC), in the 1970s.", "The cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the 1990s, and then mobile computers (smartphones and tablets) in the 2000s, became ubiquitous." ], [ "Early devices", "===Ancient and medieval===The Ishango bone is thought to be a Paleolithic tally stick.", "Suanpan (The number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408.", ")Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers.", "The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick.", "The Lebombo bone from the mountains between Eswatini and South Africa may be the oldest known mathematical artifact.", "It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a baboon's fibula.", "Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.)", "which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.", "The use of counting rods is one example.", "The abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks.", "What we now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as c. 2700–2300 BC.", "Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented.", "In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.Several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations.", "These included the astrolabe and Antikythera mechanism from the Hellenistic world (c. 150–100 BC).", "In Roman Egypt, Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart.", "Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by Al-Biruni (c. AD 1000); the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Al-Zarqali (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers; and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song (1094) during the Song dynasty.", "The castle clock, a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Ismail al-Jazari in 1206, was the first programmable analog computer.", "Ramon Llull invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics.", "This idea was taken up by Leibniz centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and information science.===Renaissance calculating tools===Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the logarithms of those numbers.", "While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications.", "It was at this point that he designed his 'Napier's bones', an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division.A modern slide ruleSince real numbers can be represented as distances or intervals on a line, the slide rule was invented in the 1620s, shortly after Napier's work, to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible.", "Edmund Gunter built a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale at the University of Oxford.", "His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division.", "William Oughtred greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule.", "He followed this up with the modern slide rule in 1632, essentially a combination of two Gunter rules, held together with the hands.", "Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, until the invention of the pocket calculator.===Mechanical calculators===In 1609 Guidobaldo del Monte made a mechanical multiplier to calculate fractions of a degree.", "Based on a system of four gears, the rotation of an index on one quadrant corresponds to 60 rotations of another index on an opposite quadrant.", "Thanks to this machine, errors in the calculation of first, second, third and quarter degrees can be avoided.", "Guidobaldo is the first to document the use of gears for mechanical calculation.Wilhelm Schickard, a German polymath, designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanized form of Napier's rods with the world's first mechanical adding machine built into the base.", "Because it made use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam.", "A fire destroyed at least one of the machines in 1624 and it is believed Schickard was too disheartened to build another.View through the back of Pascal's calculator.", "Pascal invented his machine in 1642.In 1642, while still a teenager, Blaise Pascal started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes he invented a mechanical calculator.", "He built twenty of these machines (called Pascal's calculator or Pascaline) in the following ten years.", "Nine Pascalines have survived, most of which are on display in European museums.", "A continuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal should be regarded as the \"inventor of the mechanical calculator\" and the range of issues to be considered is discussed elsewhere.A set of John Napier's calculating tables from around 1680Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the stepped reckoner and his famous stepped drum mechanism around 1672.He attempted to create a machine that could be used not only for addition and subtraction but would use a moveable carriage to enable multiplication and division.", "Leibniz once said \"It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used.\"", "However, Leibniz did not incorporate a fully successful carry mechanism.", "Leibniz also described the binary numeral system, a central ingredient of all modern computers.", "However, up to the 1940s, many subsequent designs (including Charles Babbage's machines of 1822 and even ENIAC of 1945) were based on the decimal system.Detail of an arithmometer built before 1851.The one-digit multiplier cursor (ivory top) is the leftmost cursor.Around 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer.", "It could be used to add and subtract, and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division.", "It utilised a stepped drum similar in conception to that invented by Leibniz.", "Mechanical calculators remained in use until the 1970s.===Punched-card data processing===In 1804, French weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a loom in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from punched cards.", "The paper tape could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom.", "This was a landmark achievement in programmability.", "His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms.", "Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in the machine proposed by Basile Bouchon.", "These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently numerical control machine tools.IBM punched-card accounting machines, 1936In the late 1880s, the American Herman Hollerith invented data storage on punched cards that could then be read by a machine.", "To process these punched cards, he invented the tabulator and the keypunch machine.", "His machines used electromechanical relays and counters.", "Hollerith's method was used in the 1890 United States Census.", "That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been.", "Hollerith's company eventually became the core of IBM.By 1920, electromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals.", "Machine functions were directed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable control panels.", "When the United States instituted Social Security in 1935, IBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers.", "Punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration.Leslie Comrie's articles on punched-card methods and W. J. Eckert's publication of ''Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation'' in 1940, described punched-card techniques sufficiently advanced to solve some differential equations or perform multiplication and division using floating-point representations, all on punched cards and unit record machines.", "Such machines were used during World War II for cryptographic statistical processing, as well as a vast number of administrative uses.", "The Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University, performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in computing.===Calculators===The Curta calculator could also do multiplication and division.By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable.", "The word \"computer\" was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations.", "By the 1920s, British scientist Lewis Fry Richardson's interest in weather prediction led him to propose human computers and numerical analysis to model the weather; to this day, the most powerful computers on Earth are needed to adequately model its weather using the Navier–Stokes equations.Companies like Friden, Marchant Calculator and Monroe made desktop mechanical calculators from the 1930s that could add, subtract, multiply and divide.", "In 1948, the Curta was introduced by Austrian inventor Curt Herzstark.", "It was a small, hand-cranked mechanical calculator and as such, a descendant of Gottfried Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner and Thomas' Arithmometer.The world's first ''all-electronic desktop'' calculator was the British Bell Punch ANITA, released in 1961.It used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode \"Nixie\" tubes for its display.", "The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick.", "The tube technology was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a CRT, and introduced reverse Polish notation (RPN)." ], [ "First general-purpose computing device", "Babbage's Difference EngineCharles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer.", "Often regarded as the \"father of the computer\", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century.", "After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible.", "The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom.", "For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell.", "The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later.", "It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic.The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.There was to be a store, or memory, capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each (ca.", "16.7 kB).", "An arithmetical unit, called the \"mill\", would be able to perform all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons and optionally square roots.", "Initially it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a generally circular layout, with the long store exiting off to one side.", "(Later drawings depict a regularized grid layout.)", "Like the central processing unit (CPU) in a modern computer, the mill would rely on its own internal procedures, roughly equivalent to microcode in modern CPUs, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted into rotating drums called \"barrels\", to carry out some of the more complex instructions the user's program might specify.Trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, built by Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum, LondonThe programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assembly languages.", "Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as conceived would have been Turing-complete as later defined by Alan Turing.", "Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back.", "There were three separate readers for the three types of cards.The machine was about a century ahead of its time.", "However, the project was slowed by various problems including disputes with the chief machinist building parts for it.", "All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand—this was a major problem for a machine with thousands of parts.", "Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding.", "Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.", "Ada Lovelace translated and added notes to the \"''Sketch of the Analytical Engine''\" by Luigi Federico Menabrea.", "This appears to be the first published description of programming, so Ada Lovelace is widely regarded as the first computer programmer.Following Babbage, although at first unaware of his earlier work, was Percy Ludgate, a clerk to a corn merchant in Dublin, Ireland.", "He independently designed a programmable mechanical computer, which he described in a work that was published in 1909.Two other inventors, Leonardo Torres Quevedo and Vannevar Bush, also did follow on research based on Babbage's work.", "In 1914, Torres published ''Essays on Automatics'', where he wrote about Babbage's efforts at constructing a mechanical Analytical Engine and designed an electromechanical analytical machine which was to be controlled by a read-only program.", "The paper also introduced the idea of floating-point arithmetic.", "In 1920, he presented in a Paris conference the Electromechanical Arithmometer, an arithmetic unit that could perform operations automatically.", "Bush's paper ''Instrumental Analysis'' (1936) discussed using existing IBM punch card machines to implement Babbage's design.", "In the same year he started the Rapid Arithmetical Machine project to investigate the problems of constructing an electronic digital computer." ], [ "Analog computers", "Sir William Thomson's third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81In the first half of the 20th century, analog computers were considered by many to be the future of computing.", "These devices used the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved, in contrast to digital computers that represented varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change.", "As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines.The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, in 1872.It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location and was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters.", "His device was the foundation for further developments in analog computing.The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.", "He explored the possible construction of such calculators, but was stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.", "In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output.", "A notable series of analog calculating machines were developed by Leonardo Torres Quevedo since 1895, including one that was able to compute the roots of arbitrary polynomials of order eight, including the complex ones, with a precision down to thousandths.A Mk.", "I Drift Sight.", "The lever just in front of the bomb aimer's fingertips sets the altitude, the wheels near his knuckles set the wind and airspeed.An important advance in analog computing was the development of the first fire-control systems for long range ship gunlaying.", "When gunnery ranges increased dramatically in the late 19th century it was no longer a simple matter of calculating the proper aim point, given the flight times of the shells.", "Various spotters on board the ship would relay distance measures and observations to a central plotting station.", "There the fire direction teams fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and its target, as well as various adjustments for Coriolis effect, weather effects on the air, and other adjustments; the computer would then output a firing solution, which would be fed to the turrets for laying.", "In 1912, British engineer Arthur Pollen developed the first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (called at the time the Argo Clock).", "It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I.", "The alternative Dreyer Table fire control system was fitted to British capital ships by mid-1916.Mechanical devices were also used to aid the accuracy of aerial bombing.", "Drift Sight was the first such aid, developed by Harry Wimperis in 1916 for the Royal Naval Air Service; it measured the wind speed from the air, and used that measurement to calculate the wind's effects on the trajectory of the bombs.", "The system was later improved with the Course Setting Bomb Sight, and reached a climax with World War II bomb sights, Mark XIV bomb sight (RAF Bomber Command) and the Norden (United States Army Air Forces).The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927, which built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman.", "A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious; the most powerful was constructed at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, where the ENIAC was built.A fully electronic analog computer was built by Helmut Hölzer in 1942 at Peenemünde Army Research Center.By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but hybrid analog computers, controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950s and 1960s, and later in some specialized applications." ], [ "Advent of the digital computer", "Parts from four early computers, 1962.From left to right: ENIAC board, EDVAC board, ORDVAC board, and BRLESC-I board, showing the trend toward miniaturization.The principle of the modern computer was first described by computer scientist Alan Turing, who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper, ''On Computable Numbers''.", "Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines.", "He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm.", "He went on to prove that there was no solution to the ''Entscheidungsproblem'' by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt.He also introduced the notion of a \"universal machine\" (now known as a universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable.", "Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper.", "Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation.", "Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.===Electromechanical computers===The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II.", "Most digital computers built in this period were electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation.", "These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes.The Z2 was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer, and was created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1940.It was an improvement on his earlier Z1; although it used the same mechanical memory, it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with electrical relay circuits.In the same year, electro-mechanical devices called bombes were built by British cryptologists to help decipher German Enigma-machine-encrypted secret messages during World War II.", "The bombe's initial design was created in 1939 at the UK Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park by Alan Turing, with an important refinement devised in 1940 by Gordon Welchman.", "The engineering design and construction was the work of Harold Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company.", "It was a substantial development from a device that had been designed in 1938 by Polish Cipher Bureau cryptologist Marian Rejewski, and known as the \"cryptologic bomb\" (Polish: ''\"bomba kryptologiczna\"'').Zuse's Z3, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computerIn 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer.", "The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22-bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz.", "Program code and data were stored on punched film.", "It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers.", "Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage's earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.", "The Z3 was proven to have been a Turing-complete machine in 1998 by Raúl Rojas.", "In two 1936 patent applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data—the key insight of what became known as the von Neumann architecture, first implemented in 1948 in America in the electromechanical IBM SSEC and in Britain in the fully electronic Manchester Baby.Zuse suffered setbacks during World War II when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of Allied bombing campaigns.", "Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on Zuse's patents.In 1944, the Harvard Mark I was constructed at IBM's Endicott laboratories.", "It was a similar general purpose electro-mechanical computer to the Z3, but was not quite Turing-complete.===Digital computation===The term digital was first suggested by George Robert Stibitz and refers to where a signal, such as a voltage, is not used to directly represent a value (as it would be in an analog computer), but to encode it.", "In November 1937, Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs (1930–1941), completed a relay-based calculator he later dubbed the \"Model K\" (for \"'''k'''itchen table\", on which he had assembled it), which became the first binary adder.", "Typically signals have two states – low (usually representing 0) and high (usually representing 1), but sometimes three-valued logic is used, especially in high-density memory.", "Modern computers generally use binary logic, but many early machines were decimal computers.", "In these machines, the basic unit of data was the decimal digit, encoded in one of several schemes, including binary-coded decimal or BCD, bi-quinary, excess-3, and two-out-of-five code.The mathematical basis of digital computing is Boolean algebra, developed by the British mathematician George Boole in his work ''The Laws of Thought'', published in 1854.His Boolean algebra was further refined in the 1860s by William Jevons and Charles Sanders Peirce, and was first presented systematically by Ernst Schröder and A. N. Whitehead.", "In 1879 Gottlob Frege develops the formal approach to logic and proposes the first logic language for logical equations.In the 1930s and working independently, American electronic engineer Claude Shannon and Soviet logician Victor Shestakov both showed a one-to-one correspondence between the concepts of Boolean logic and certain electrical circuits, now called logic gates, which are now ubiquitous in digital computers.", "They showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the expressions of Boolean algebra.", "This thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design.", "In addition Shannon's paper gives a correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder.===Electronic data processing===Atanasoff–Berry Computer replica at first floor of Durham Center, Iowa State UniversityPurely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog.", "Machines such as the Z3, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, the Colossus computers, and the ENIAC were built by hand, using circuits containing relays or valves (vacuum tubes), and often used punched cards or punched paper tape for input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium.Engineer Tommy Flowers joined the telecommunications branch of the General Post Office in 1926.While working at the research station in Dollis Hill in the 1930s, he began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange.", "Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.In the US, in 1940 Arthur Dickinson (IBM) invented the first digital electronic computer.", "This calculating device was fully electronic – control, calculations and output (the first electronic display).", "John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942, the first binary electronic digital calculating device.", "This design was semi-electronic (electro-mechanical control and electronic calculations), and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.", "However, its paper card writer/reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical.", "The machine's special-purpose nature and lack of changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers.Computers whose logic was primarily built using vacuum tubes are now known as first generation computers.===The electronic programmable computer===electronic digital programmable computing device, and was used to break German ciphers during World War II.", "It remained unknown, as a military secret, well into the 1970s.During World War II, British codebreakers at Bletchley Park, north of London, achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted enemy military communications.", "The German encryption machine, Enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes.", "They ruled out possible Enigma settings by performing chains of logical deductions implemented electrically.", "Most possibilities led to a contradiction, and the few remaining could be tested by hand.The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite different from Enigma.", "The Lorenz SZ 40/42 machine was used for high-level Army communications, code-named \"Tunny\" by the British.", "The first intercepts of Lorenz messages began in 1941.As part of an attack on Tunny, Max Newman and his colleagues developed the Heath Robinson, a fixed-function machine to aid in code breaking.", "Tommy Flowers, a senior engineer at the Post Office Research Station was recommended to Max Newman by Alan Turing and spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the more flexible Colossus computer (which superseded the Heath Robinson).", "After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 February.", "By the time Germany surrendered in May 1945, there were ten Colossi working at Bletchley Park.Wartime photo of Colossus No.", "10Colossus was the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.", "It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes).", "It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of Boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete.", "Data input to Colossus was by photoelectric reading of a paper tape transcription of the enciphered intercepted message.", "This was arranged in a continuous loop so that it could be read and re-read multiple times – there being no internal store for the data.", "The reading mechanism ran at 5,000 characters per second with the paper tape moving at .", "Colossus Mark 1 contained 1500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark 2 with 2400 valves and five processors in parallel, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark 1, greatly speeding the decoding process.", "Mark 2 was designed while Mark 1 was being constructed.", "Allen Coombs took over leadership of the Colossus Mark 2 project when Tommy Flowers moved on to other projects.", "The first Mark 2 Colossus became operational on 1 June 1944, just in time for the Allied Invasion of Normandy on D-Day.Most of the use of Colossus was in determining the start positions of the Tunny rotors for a message, which was called \"wheel setting\".", "Colossus included the first-ever use of shift registers and systolic arrays, enabling five simultaneous tests, each involving up to 100 Boolean calculations.", "This enabled five different possible start positions to be examined for one transit of the paper tape.", "As well as wheel setting some later Colossi included mechanisms intended to help determine pin patterns known as \"wheel breaking\".", "Both models were programmable using switches and plug panels in a way their predecessors had not been.", "ENIAC was the first Turing-complete electronic device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the United States Army.Without the use of these machines, the Allies would have been deprived of the very valuable intelligence that was obtained from reading the vast quantity of enciphered high-level telegraphic messages between the German High Command (OKW) and their army commands throughout occupied Europe.", "Details of their existence, design, and use were kept secret well into the 1970s.", "Winston Churchill personally issued an order for their destruction into pieces no larger than a man's hand, to keep secret that the British were capable of cracking Lorenz SZ cyphers (from German rotor stream cipher machines) during the oncoming Cold War.", "Two of the machines were transferred to the newly formed GCHQ and the others were destroyed.", "As a result, the machines were not included in many histories of computing.", "A reconstructed working copy of one of the Colossus machines is now on display at Bletchley Park.The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US.", "Although the ENIAC used similar technology to the Colossi, it was much faster and more flexible and was Turing-complete.", "Like the Colossi, a \"program\" on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later.", "Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.", "The programmers of the ENIAC were women who had been trained as mathematicians.It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems.", "It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine.", "It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root.", "High-speed memory was limited to 20 words (equivalent to about 80 bytes).", "Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945.The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.", "One of its major engineering feats was to minimize the effects of tube burnout, which was a common problem in machine reliability at that time.", "The machine was in almost constant use for the next ten years." ], [ "Stored-program computer", "Design of the von Neumann architecture, 1947The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper ''On Computable Numbers''.", "Whilst Turing was a Princeton working on his PhD, John von Neumann got to know him and became intrigued by his concept of a universal computing machine.Early computing machines executed the set sequence of steps, known as a 'program', that could be altered by changing electrical connections using switches or a patch panel (or plugboard).", "However, this process of 'reprogramming' was often difficult and time-consuming, requiring engineers to create flowcharts and physically re-wire the machines.", "Stored-program computers, by contrast, were designed to store a set of instructions (a program), in memory – typically the same memory as stored data.ENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert proposed, in August 1944, the construction of a machine called the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) and design work for it commenced at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, before the ENIAC was fully operational.", "The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed serial-access memory.", "However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.In 1945 von Neumann visited the Moore School and wrote notes on what he saw, which he sent to the project.", "The U.S. Army liaison there had them typed and circulated as the ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''.", "The draft did not mention Eckert and Mauchly and, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas, the computer architecture it outlined became known as the 'von Neumann architecture'.In 1945 Turing joined the UK National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer.", "His late-1945 report 'Proposed Electronic Calculator' was the first reasonably detailed specification for such a device.", "Turing presented a more detailed paper to the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) Executive Committee in March 1946, giving the first substantially complete design of a stored-program computer, a device that was called the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE).Turing considered that the speed and the size of computer memory were crucial elements, so he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25 KB, accessed at a speed of 1 MHz.", "The ACE implemented subroutine calls, whereas the EDVAC did not, and the ACE also used ''Abbreviated Computer Instructions,'' an early form of programming language.===Manchester Baby===A section of the rebuilt Manchester Baby, the first electronic stored-program computerThe Manchester Baby (Small Scale Experimental Machine, SSEM) was the world's first electronic stored-program computer.", "It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.The machine was not intended to be a practical computer but was instead designed as a testbed for the Williams tube, the first random-access digital storage device.", "Invented by Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn at the University of Manchester in 1946 and 1947, it was a cathode-ray tube that used an effect called secondary emission to temporarily store electronic binary data, and was used successfully in several early computers.Described as small and primitive in a 1998 retrospective, the Baby was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.", "As soon as it had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop the design into a more usable computer, the Manchester Mark 1.The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.The Baby had a 32-bit word length and a memory of 32 words.", "As it was designed to be the simplest possible stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations implemented in hardware were subtraction and negation; other arithmetic operations were implemented in software.", "The first of three programs written for the machine found the highest proper divisor of 218 (262,144), a calculation that was known would take a long time to run—and so prove the computer's reliability—by testing every integer from 218 − 1 downwards, as division was implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor.", "The program consisted of 17 instructions and ran for 52 minutes before reaching the correct answer of 131,072, after the Baby had performed 3.5 million operations (for an effective CPU speed of 1.1 kIPS).", "The successive approximations to the answer were displayed as a pattern of dots on the output CRT which mirrored the pattern held on the Williams tube used for storage.===Manchester Mark 1===The SSEM led to the development of the Manchester Mark 1 at the University of Manchester.", "Work began in August 1948, and the first version was operational by April 1949; a program written to search for Mersenne primes ran error-free for nine hours on the night of 16/17 June 1949.The machine's successful operation was widely reported in the British press, which used the phrase \"electronic brain\" in describing it to their readers.The computer is especially historically significant because of its pioneering inclusion of index registers, an innovation which made it easier for a program to read sequentially through an array of words in memory.", "Thirty-four patents resulted from the machine's development, and many of the ideas behind its design were incorporated in subsequent commercial products such as the and 702 as well as the Ferranti Mark 1.The chief designers, Frederic C. Williams and Tom Kilburn, concluded from their experiences with the Mark 1 that computers would be used more in scientific roles than in pure mathematics.", "In 1951 they started development work on Meg, the Mark 1's successor, which would include a floating-point unit.===EDSAC===EDSACThe other contender for being the first recognizably modern digital stored-program computer was the EDSAC, designed and constructed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England at the University of Cambridge in 1949.The machine was inspired by John von Neumann's seminal ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC'' and was one of the first usefully operational electronic digital stored-program computer.EDSAC ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculated a table of squares and a list of prime numbers.The EDSAC also served as the basis for the first commercially applied computer, the LEO I, used by food manufacturing company J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. EDSAC 1 was finally shut down on 11 July 1958, having been superseded by EDSAC 2 which stayed in use until 1965.===EDVAC===EDVACENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert proposed the EDVAC's construction in August 1944, and design work for the EDVAC commenced at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, before the ENIAC was fully operational.", "The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed serial-access memory.", "However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.It was finally delivered to the U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in August 1949, but due to a number of problems, the computer only began operation in 1951, and then only on a limited basis.===Commercial computers===The first commercial computer was the Ferranti Mark 1, built by Ferranti and delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951.It was based on the Manchester Mark 1.The main improvements over the Manchester Mark 1 were in the size of the primary storage (using random access Williams tubes), secondary storage (using a magnetic drum), a faster multiplier, and additional instructions.", "The basic cycle time was 1.2 milliseconds, and a multiplication could be completed in about 2.16 milliseconds.", "The multiplier used almost a quarter of the machine's 4,050 vacuum tubes (valves).", "A second machine was purchased by the University of Toronto, before the design was revised into the Mark 1 Star.", "At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam.In October 1947, the directors of J. Lyons & Company, a British catering company famous for its teashops but with strong interests in new office management techniques, decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers.", "The LEO I computer (Lyons Electronic Office) became operational in April 1951 and ran the world's first regular routine office computer job.", "On 17 November 1951, the J. Lyons company began weekly operation of a bakery valuations job on the LEO – the first business application to go live on a stored program computer.In June 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau.", "Remington Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than each ($ as of ).", "UNIVAC was the first \"mass produced\" computer.", "It used 5,200 vacuum tubes and consumed of power.", "Its primary storage was serial-access mercury delay lines capable of storing 1,000 words of 11 decimal digits plus sign (72-bit words).In 1952, Compagnie des Machines Bull released the Gamma 3 computer, which became a large success in Europe, eventually selling more than 1,200 units, and the first computer produced in more than 1,000 units.", "The Gamma 3 had innovative features for its time including a dual-mode, software switchable, BCD and binary ALU, as well as a hardwired floating-point library for scientific computing.", "In its E.T configuration, the Gamma 3 drum memory could fit about 50,000 instructions for a capacity of 16,384 words (around 100 kB), a large amount for the time.", "Front panel of the IBM 650Compared to the UNIVAC, IBM introduced a smaller, more affordable computer in 1954 that proved very popular.", "The IBM 650 weighed over , the attached power supply weighed around and both were held in separate cabinets of roughly 1.50.9.The system cost ($ as of ) or could be leased for a month ($ as of ).", "Its drum memory was originally 2,000 ten-digit words, later expanded to 4,000 words.", "Memory limitations such as this were to dominate programming for decades afterward.", "The program instructions were fetched from the spinning drum as the code ran.", "Efficient execution using drum memory was provided by a combination of hardware architecture – the instruction format included the address of the next instruction – and software: the Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program, SOAP, assigned instructions to the optimal addresses (to the extent possible by static analysis of the source program).", "Thus many instructions were, when needed, located in the next row of the drum to be read and additional wait time for drum rotation was reduced.===Microprogramming===In 1951, British scientist Maurice Wilkes developed the concept of microprogramming from the realisation that the central processing unit of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialized computer program in high-speed ROM.", "Microprogramming allows the base instruction set to be defined or extended by built-in programs (now called firmware or microcode).", "This concept greatly simplified CPU development.", "He first described this at the University of Manchester Computer Inaugural Conference in 1951, then published in expanded form in ''IEEE Spectrum'' in 1955.It was widely used in the CPUs and floating-point units of mainframe and other computers; it was implemented for the first time in EDSAC 2, which also used multiple identical \"bit slices\" to simplify design.", "Interchangeable, replaceable tube assemblies were used for each bit of the processor." ], [ "Magnetic memory", "Diagram of a 4×4 plane of magnetic core memory in an X/Y line coincident-current setup.", "X and Y are drive lines, S is sense, Z is inhibit.", "Arrows indicate the direction of current for writing.Magnetic drum memories were developed for the US Navy during WW II with the work continuing at Engineering Research Associates (ERA) in 1946 and 1947.ERA, then a part of Univac included a drum memory in its 1103, announced in February 1953.The first mass-produced computer, the IBM 650, also announced in 1953 had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory.Magnetic core memory patented in 1949 with its first usage demonstrated for the Whirlwind computer in August 1953.Commercialization followed quickly.", "Magnetic core was used in peripherals of the IBM 702 delivered in July 1955, and later in the 702 itself.", "The IBM 704 (1955) and the Ferranti Mercury (1957) used magnetic-core memory.", "It went on to dominate the field into the 1970s, when it was replaced with semiconductor memory.", "Magnetic core peaked in volume about 1975 and declined in usage and market share thereafter.As late as 1980, PDP-11/45 machines using magnetic-core main memory and drums for swapping were still in use at many of the original UNIX sites." ], [ "Early digital computer characteristics", "+Defining characteristics of some early digital computers of the 1940s Name First operational Numeral system Computing mechanism Programming Turing-complete Arthur H. Dickinson IBM Jan 1940 Decimal Electronic programmable Joseph Desch NCR March 1940 Decimal Electronic programmable Zuse Z3 May 1941 Binary floating point Electro-mechanical Program-controlled by punched film stock (but no conditional branch) In theory Atanasoff–Berry Computer 1942 Binary Electronic programmable — single purpose Colossus Mark 1 Feb 1944 Binary Electronic Program-controlled by patch cables and switches Harvard Mark I – IBM ASCC May 1944 Decimal Electro-mechanical Program-controlled by 24-channel punched paper tape (but no conditional branch) Debatable Colossus Mark 2 June 1944 Binary Electronic Program-controlled by patch cables and switches Conjectured Zuse Z4 March 1945 Binary floating point Electro-mechanical Program-controlled by punched film stock In 1950 ENIAC Feb 1946 Decimal Electronic Program-controlled by patch cables and switches Modified ENIAC April 1948 Decimal Electronic Read-only stored programming mechanism using the Function Tables as program ROM ARC2 (SEC) May 1948 Binary Electronic Stored-program in rotating drum memory Manchester Baby June 1948 Binary Electronic Stored-program in Williams cathode-ray tube memory Manchester Mark 1 April 1949 Binary Electronic Stored-program in Williams cathode-ray tube memory and magnetic drum memory EDSAC May 1949 Binary Electronic Stored-program in mercury delay-line memory CSIRAC Nov 1949 Binary Electronic Stored-program in mercury delay-line memory" ], [ "Transistor computers", "A bipolar junction transistorThe bipolar transistor was invented in 1947.From 1955 onward transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the \"second generation\" of computers.", "Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat.", "Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer service life.", "Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.", "Transistors greatly reduced computers' size, initial cost, and operating cost.", "Typically, second-generation computers were composed of large numbers of printed circuit boards such as the IBM Standard Modular System, each carrying one to four logic gates or flip-flops.At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.", "Initially the only devices available were germanium point-contact transistors, less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power.", "Their first transistorized computer, and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in April 1955.The 1955 version used 200 transistors, 1,300 solid-state diodes, and had a power consumption of 150 watts.", "However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer.That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955, built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell.", "The design featured a 64-kilobyte magnetic drum memory store with multiple moving heads that had been designed at the National Physical Laboratory, UK.", "By 1953 this team had transistor circuits operating to read and write on a smaller magnetic drum from the Royal Radar Establishment.", "The machine used a low clock speed of only 58 kHz to avoid having to use any valves to generate the clock waveforms.CADET used 324-point-contact transistors provided by the UK company Standard Telephones and Cables; 76 junction transistors were used for the first stage amplifiers for data read from the drum, since point-contact transistors were too noisy.", "From August 1956 CADET was offering a regular computing service, during which it often executed continuous computing runs of 80 hours or more.", "Problems with the reliability of early batches of point contact and alloyed junction transistors meant that the machine's mean time between failures was about 90 minutes, but this improved once the more reliable bipolar junction transistors became available.The Manchester University Transistor Computer's design was adopted by the local engineering firm of Metropolitan-Vickers in their Metrovick 950, the first commercial transistor computer anywhere.", "Six Metrovick 950s were built, the first completed in 1956.They were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years.", "A second generation computer, the IBM 1401, captured about one third of the world market.", "IBM installed more than ten thousand 1401s between 1960 and 1964.===Transistor peripherals===Transistorized electronics improved not only the CPU (Central Processing Unit), but also the peripheral devices.", "The second generation disk data storage units were able to store tens of millions of letters and digits.", "Next to the fixed disk storage units, connected to the CPU via high-speed data transmission, were removable disk data storage units.", "A removable disk pack can be easily exchanged with another pack in a few seconds.", "Even if the removable disks' capacity is smaller than fixed disks, their interchangeability guarantees a nearly unlimited quantity of data close at hand.", "Magnetic tape provided archival capability for this data, at a lower cost than disk.Many second-generation CPUs delegated peripheral device communications to a secondary processor.", "For example, while the communication processor controlled card reading and punching, the main CPU executed calculations and binary branch instructions.", "One databus would bear data between the main CPU and core memory at the CPU's fetch-execute cycle rate, and other databusses would typically serve the peripheral devices.", "On the PDP-1, the core memory's cycle time was 5 microseconds; consequently most arithmetic instructions took 10 microseconds (100,000 operations per second) because most operations took at least two memory cycles; one for the instruction, one for the operand data fetch.During the second generation remote terminal units (often in the form of Teleprinters like a Friden Flexowriter) saw greatly increased use.", "Telephone connections provided sufficient speed for early remote terminals and allowed hundreds of kilometers separation between remote-terminals and the computing center.", "Eventually these stand-alone computer networks would be generalized into an interconnected ''network of networks''—the Internet.===Transistor supercomputers===The University of Manchester Atlas in January 1963The early 1960s saw the advent of supercomputing.", "The Atlas was a joint development between the University of Manchester, Ferranti, and Plessey, and was first installed at Manchester University and officially commissioned in 1962 as one of the world's first supercomputers – considered to be the most powerful computer in the world at that time.", "It was said that whenever Atlas went offline half of the United Kingdom's computer capacity was lost.", "It was a second-generation machine, using discrete germanium transistors.", "Atlas also pioneered the Atlas Supervisor, \"considered by many to be the first recognisable modern operating system\".In the US, a series of computers at Control Data Corporation (CDC) were designed by Seymour Cray to use innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance.", "The CDC 6600, released in 1964, is generally considered the first supercomputer.", "The CDC 6600 outperformed its predecessor, the IBM 7030 Stretch, by about a factor of 3.With performance of about 1 megaFLOPS, the CDC 6600 was the world's fastest computer from 1964 to 1969, when it relinquished that status to its successor, the CDC 7600." ], [ "Integrated circuit computers", "The \"third-generation\" of digital electronic computers used integrated circuit (IC) chips as the basis of their logic.The idea of an integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A.", "Dummer.The first working integrated circuits were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor.", "Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958.Kilby's invention was a hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC).", "It had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce.Noyce came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year after Kilby.", "Noyce's invention was a monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip.", "His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not.", "Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium.", "The basis for Noyce's monolithic IC was Fairchild's planar process, which allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of printed circuits.", "The planar process was developed by Noyce's colleague Jean Hoerni in early 1959, based on Mohamed M. Atalla's work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide at Bell Labs in the late 1950s.Third generation (integrated circuit) computers first appeared in the early 1960s in computers developed for government purposes, and then in commercial computers beginning in the mid-1960s.", "The first silicon IC computer was the Apollo Guidance Computer or AGC.", "Although not the most powerful computer of its time, the extreme constraints on size, mass, and power of the Apollo spacecraft required the AGC to be much smaller and denser than any prior computer, weighing in at only .", "Each lunar landing mission carried two AGCs, one each in the command and lunar ascent modules." ], [ "Semiconductor memory", "The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.In addition to data processing, the MOSFET enabled the practical use of MOS transistors as memory cell storage elements, a function previously served by magnetic cores.", "Semiconductor memory, also known as MOS memory, was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic-core memory.", "MOS random-access memory (RAM), in the form of static RAM (SRAM), was developed by John Schmidt at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1964.In 1966, Robert Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center developed MOS dynamic RAM (DRAM).", "In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze at Bell Labs developed the floating-gate MOSFET, the basis for MOS non-volatile memory such as EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory." ], [ "Microprocessor computers", "The \"fourth-generation\" of digital electronic computers used microprocessors as the basis of their logic.", "The microprocessor has origins in the MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) chip.", "Due to rapid MOSFET scaling, MOS IC chips rapidly increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s.", "The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip.The subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term \"microprocessor\".", "The earliest multi-chip microprocessors were the Four-Phase Systems AL-1 in 1969 and Garrett AiResearch MP944 in 1970, developed with multiple MOS LSI chips.", "The first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, developed on a single PMOS LSI chip.", "It was designed and realized by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel, and released in 1971.Tadashi Sasaki and Masatoshi Shima at Busicom, a calculator manufacturer, had the initial insight that the CPU could be a single MOS LSI chip, supplied by Intel.die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, RAM, EPROM, and I/OWhile the earliest microprocessor ICs literally contained only the processor, i.e.", "the central processing unit, of a computer, their progressive development naturally led to chips containing most or all of the internal electronic parts of a computer.", "The integrated circuit in the image on the right, for example, an Intel 8742, is an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.During the 1960s there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies.", "IBM implemented its IBM Solid Logic Technology modules in hybrid circuits for the IBM System/360 in 1964.As late as 1975, Sperry Univac continued the manufacture of second-generation machines such as the UNIVAC 494.The Burroughs large systems such as the B5000 were stack machines, which allowed for simpler programming.", "These pushdown automatons were also implemented in minicomputers and microprocessors later, which influenced programming language design.", "Minicomputers served as low-cost computer centers for industry, business and universities.", "It became possible to simulate analog circuits with the ''simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis'', or SPICE (1971) on minicomputers, one of the programs for electronic design automation (EDA).", "The microprocessor led to the development of microcomputers, small, low-cost computers that could be owned by individuals and small businesses.", "Microcomputers, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond.Altair 8800While which specific product is considered the first microcomputer system is a matter of debate, one of the earliest is R2E's Micral N (François Gernelle, André Truong) launched \"early 1973\" using the Intel 8008.The first commercially available microcomputer kit was the Intel 8080-based Altair 8800, which was announced in the January 1975 cover article of ''Popular Electronics''.", "However, the Altair 8800 was an extremely limited system in its initial stages, having only 256 bytes of DRAM in its initial package and no input-output except its toggle switches and LED register display.", "Despite this, it was initially surprisingly popular, with several hundred sales in the first year, and demand rapidly outstripped supply.", "Several early third-party vendors such as Cromemco and Processor Technology soon began supplying additional S-100 bus hardware for the Altair 8800.In April 1975 at the Hannover Fair, Olivetti presented the P6060, the world's first complete, pre-assembled personal computer system.", "The central processing unit consisted of two cards, code named PUCE1 and PUCE2, and unlike most other personal computers was built with TTL components rather than a microprocessor.", "It had one or two 8\" floppy disk drives, a 32-character plasma display, 80-column graphical thermal printer, 48 Kbytes of RAM, and BASIC language.", "It weighed .", "As a complete system, this was a significant step from the Altair, though it never achieved the same success.", "It was in competition with a similar product by IBM that had an external floppy disk drive.From 1975 to 1977, most microcomputers, such as the MOS Technology KIM-1, the Altair 8800, and some versions of the Apple I, were sold as kits for do-it-yourselfers.", "Pre-assembled systems did not gain much ground until 1977, with the introduction of the Apple II, the Tandy TRS-80, the first SWTPC computers, and the Commodore PET.", "Computing has evolved with microcomputer architectures, with features added from their larger brethren, now dominant in most market segments.A NeXT Computer and its object-oriented development tools and libraries were used by Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau at CERN to develop the world's first web server software, CERN httpd, and also used to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb.Systems as complicated as computers require very high reliability.", "ENIAC remained on, in continuous operation from 1947 to 1955, for eight years before being shut down.", "Although a vacuum tube might fail, it would be replaced without bringing down the system.", "By the simple strategy of never shutting down ENIAC, the failures were dramatically reduced.", "The vacuum-tube SAGE air-defense computers became remarkably reliable – installed in pairs, one off-line, tubes likely to fail did so when the computer was intentionally run at reduced power to find them.", "Hot-pluggable hard disks, like the hot-pluggable vacuum tubes of yesteryear, continue the tradition of repair during continuous operation.", "Semiconductor memories routinely have no errors when they operate, although operating systems like Unix have employed memory tests on start-up to detect failing hardware.", "Today, the requirement of reliable performance is made even more stringent when server farms are the delivery platform.", "Google has managed this by using fault-tolerant software to recover from hardware failures, and is even working on the concept of replacing entire server farms on-the-fly, during a service event.In the 21st century, multi-core CPUs became commercially available.", "Content-addressable memory (CAM) has become inexpensive enough to be used in networking, and is frequently used for on-chip cache memory in modern microprocessors, although no computer system has yet implemented hardware CAMs for use in programming languages.", "Currently, CAMs (or associative arrays) in software are programming-language-specific.", "Semiconductor memory cell arrays are very regular structures, and manufacturers prove their processes on them; this allows price reductions on memory products.", "During the 1980s, CMOS logic gates developed into devices that could be made as fast as other circuit types; computer power consumption could therefore be decreased dramatically.", "Unlike the continuous current draw of a gate based on other logic types, a CMOS gate only draws significant current, except for leakage, during the 'transition' between logic states.CMOS circuits have allowed computing to become a commodity which is now ubiquitous, embedded in many forms, from greeting cards and telephones to satellites.", "The thermal design power which is dissipated during operation has become as essential as computing speed of operation.", "In 2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total energy budget of the U.S.", "The energy consumption of computer data centers was expected to double to 3% of world consumption by 2011.The SoC (system on a chip) has compressed even more of the integrated circuitry into a single chip; SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single hand-held wireless mobile devices.Quantum computing is an emerging technology in the field of computing.", "''MIT Technology Review'' reported 10 November 2017 that IBM has created a 50-qubit computer; currently its quantum state lasts 50 microseconds.", "Google researchers have been able to extend the 50 microsecond time limit, as reported 14 July 2021 in ''Nature''; stability has been extended 100-fold by spreading a single logical qubit over chains of data qubits for quantum error correction.", "''Physical Review X'' reported a technique for 'single-gate sensing as a viable readout method for spin qubits' (a singlet-triplet spin state in silicon) on 26 November 2018.A Google team has succeeded in operating their RF pulse modulator chip at 3 Kelvin, simplifying the cryogenics of their 72-qubit computer, which is set up to operate at 0.3 Kelvin; but the readout circuitry and another driver remain to be brought into the cryogenics.", "''See: Quantum supremacy'' Silicon qubit systems have demonstrated entanglement at non-local distances.Computing hardware and its software have even become a metaphor for the operation of the universe." ], [ "Epilogue", "An indication of the rapidity of development of this field can be inferred from the history of the seminal 1947 article by Burks, Goldstine and von Neumann.", "By the time that anyone had time to write anything down, it was obsolete.", "After 1945, others read John von Neumann's ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC'', and immediately started implementing their own systems.", "To this day, the rapid pace of development has continued, worldwide." ], [ "See also", "* Antikythera mechanism* History of computing* History of computing hardware (1960s–present)* History of laptops* History of personal computers* History of software* Information Age* IT History Society* Retrocomputing* Timeline of computing* List of pioneers in computer science* Vacuum-tube computer" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * With notes upon the Memoir by the Translator.", "* German to English translation, M.I.T., 1969.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Pages 220–226 are annotated references and guide for further reading.", "* * * Stibitz, George * * Other online sources: * * * * * * * * * Translated from: ''Der Computer.", "Mein Lebenswerk'' (1984)." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Computers and Automation Magazine – Pictorial Report on the Computer Field: ''A PICTORIAL INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS'' – 06/1957 ''A PICTORIAL MANUAL ON COMPUTERS'' – 12/1957 ''A PICTORIAL MANUAL ON COMPUTERS, Part 2'' – 01/1958 1958–1967 Pictorial Report on the Computer Field – December issues ( 195812.pdf, ..., 196712.pdf)* ''Bit by Bit: An Illustrated History of Computers'', Stan Augarten, 1984.OCR with permission of the author" ], [ "External links", " Obsolete Technology – Old Computers* ''Things That Count''* Historic Computers in Japan* The History of Japanese Mechanical Calculating Machines* Computer History — a collection of articles by Bob Bemer* 25 Microchips that shook the world (archived) – a collection of articles by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers* Columbia University Computing History* Computer Histories – An introductory course on the history of computing* Revolution – The First 2000 Years Of Computing, Computer History Museum" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hausdorff space" ], [ "Introduction", "In topology and related branches of mathematics, a '''Hausdorff space''' ( , ), '''separated space''' or '''T2 space''' is a topological space where, for any two distinct points, there exist neighbourhoods of each that are disjoint from each other.", "Of the many separation axioms that can be imposed on a topological space, the \"Hausdorff condition\" (T2) is the most frequently used and discussed.", "It implies the uniqueness of limits of sequences, nets, and filters.Hausdorff spaces are named after Felix Hausdorff, one of the founders of topology.", "Hausdorff's original definition of a topological space (in 1914) included the Hausdorff condition as an axiom." ], [ "Definitions", "The points x and y, separated by their respective neighbourhoods U and V.Points and in a topological space can be ''separated by neighbourhoods'' if there exists a neighbourhood of and a neighbourhood of such that and are disjoint .", "is a '''Hausdorff space''' if any two distinct points in are separated by neighbourhoods.", "This condition is the third separation axiom (after T0 and T1), which is why Hausdorff spaces are also called '''T2 spaces'''.", "The name ''separated space'' is also used.A related, but weaker, notion is that of a '''preregular space'''.", "is a preregular space if any two topologically distinguishable points can be separated by disjoint neighbourhoods.", "A preregular space is also called an '''R1 space'''.The relationship between these two conditions is as follows.", "A topological space is Hausdorff if and only if it is both preregular (i.e.", "topologically distinguishable points are separated by neighbourhoods) and Kolmogorov (i.e.", "distinct points are topologically distinguishable).", "A topological space is preregular if and only if its Kolmogorov quotient is Hausdorff." ], [ "Equivalences", "For a topological space '''', the following are equivalent:* is a Hausdorff space.", "* Limits of nets in '''' are unique.", "* Limits of filters on '''' are unique.", "* Any singleton set is equal to the intersection of all closed neighbourhoods of ''''.", "(A closed neighbourhood of is a closed set that contains an open set containing .", ")* The diagonal '''' is closed as a subset of the product space ''''.", "* Any injection from the discrete space with two points to '''' has the lifting property with respect to the map from the finite topological space with two open points and one closed point to a single point." ], [ "Examples of Hausdorff and non-Hausdorff spaces", "Almost all spaces encountered in analysis are Hausdorff; most importantly, the real numbers (under the standard metric topology on real numbers) are a Hausdorff space.", "More generally, all metric spaces are Hausdorff.", "In fact, many spaces of use in analysis, such as topological groups and topological manifolds, have the Hausdorff condition explicitly stated in their definitions.A simple example of a topology that is T1 but is not Hausdorff is the cofinite topology defined on an infinite set, as is the cocountable topology defined on an uncountable setPseudometric spaces typically are not Hausdorff, but they are preregular, and their use in analysis is usually only in the construction of Hausdorff gauge spaces.", "Indeed, when analysts run across a non-Hausdorff space, it is still probably at least preregular, and then they simply replace it with its Kolmogorov quotient, which is Hausdorff.In contrast, non-preregular spaces are encountered much more frequently in abstract algebra and algebraic geometry, in particular as the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or the spectrum of a ring.", "They also arise in the model theory of intuitionistic logic: every complete Heyting algebra is the algebra of open sets of some topological space, but this space need not be preregular, much less Hausdorff, and in fact usually is neither.", "The related concept of Scott domain also consists of non-preregular spaces.While the existence of unique limits for convergent nets and filters implies that a space is Hausdorff, there are non-Hausdorff T1 spaces in which every convergent sequence has a unique limit.", "Such spaces are called ''US spaces''.", "For sequential spaces, this notion is equivalent to being weakly hausdorff." ], [ "Properties", "Subspaces and products of Hausdorff spaces are Hausdorff, but quotient spaces of Hausdorff spaces need not be Hausdorff.", "In fact, ''every'' topological space can be realized as the quotient of some Hausdorff space.Hausdorff spaces are T1, meaning that each singleton is a closed set.", "Similarly, preregular spaces are R0.Every Hausdorff space is a Sober space although the converse is in general not true.", "Another property of Hausdorff spaces is that each compact set is a closed set.", "For non-Hausdorff spaces, it can be that each compact set is a closed set (for example, the cocountable topology on an uncountable set) or not (for example, the cofinite topology on an infinite set and the Sierpiński space).", "The definition of a Hausdorff space says that points can be separated by neighborhoods.", "It turns out that this implies something which is seemingly stronger: in a Hausdorff space every pair of disjoint compact sets can also be separated by neighborhoods, in other words there is a neighborhood of one set and a neighborhood of the other, such that the two neighborhoods are disjoint.", "This is an example of the general rule that compact sets often behave like points.Compactness conditions together with preregularity often imply stronger separation axioms.", "For example, any locally compact preregular space is completely regular.", "Compact preregular spaces are normal, meaning that they satisfy Urysohn's lemma and the Tietze extension theorem and have partitions of unity subordinate to locally finite open covers.", "The Hausdorff versions of these statements are: every locally compact Hausdorff space is Tychonoff, and every compact Hausdorff space is normal Hausdorff.The following results are some technical properties regarding maps (continuous and otherwise) to and from Hausdorff spaces.Let '''' be a continuous function and suppose is Hausdorff.", "Then the graph of '''', , is a closed subset of ''''.Let '''' be a function and let be its kernel regarded as a subspace of ''''.", "If '''' is continuous and '''' is Hausdorff then '''' is a closed set.", "If '''' is an open surjection and '''' is a closed set then '''' is Hausdorff.", "If '''' is a continuous, open surjection (i.e.", "an open quotient map) then '''' is Hausdorff if and only if '''' is a closed set.If '''' are continuous maps and '''' is Hausdorff then the equalizer is a closed set in ''''.", "It follows that if '''' is Hausdorff and '''' and '''' agree on a dense subset of '''' then ''''.", "In other words, continuous functions into Hausdorff spaces are determined by their values on dense subsets.Let '''' be a closed surjection such that '''' is compact for all ''''.", "Then if '''' is Hausdorff so is ''''.Let '''' be a quotient map with '''' a compact Hausdorff space.", "Then the following are equivalent:'''' is Hausdorff.", "'''' is a closed map.", "'''' is a closed set." ], [ "Preregularity versus regularity", "All regular spaces are preregular, as are all Hausdorff spaces.", "There are many results for topological spaces that hold for both regular and Hausdorff spaces.Most of the time, these results hold for all preregular spaces; they were listed for regular and Hausdorff spaces separately because the idea of preregular spaces came later.On the other hand, those results that are truly about regularity generally do not also apply to nonregular Hausdorff spaces.There are many situations where another condition of topological spaces (such as paracompactness or local compactness) will imply regularity if preregularity is satisfied.", "Such conditions often come in two versions: a regular version and a Hausdorff version.", "Although Hausdorff spaces are not, in general, regular, a Hausdorff space that is also (say) locally compact will be regular, because any Hausdorff space is preregular.", "Thus from a certain point of view, it is really preregularity, rather than regularity, that matters in these situations.", "However, definitions are usually still phrased in terms of regularity, since this condition is better known than preregularity.See History of the separation axioms for more on this issue." ], [ "Variants", "The terms \"Hausdorff\", \"separated\", and \"preregular\" can also be applied to such variants on topological spaces as uniform spaces, Cauchy spaces, and convergence spaces.", "The characteristic that unites the concept in all of these examples is that limits of nets and filters (when they exist) are unique (for separated spaces) or unique up to topological indistinguishability (for preregular spaces).As it turns out, uniform spaces, and more generally Cauchy spaces, are always preregular, so the Hausdorff condition in these cases reduces to the T0 condition.", "These are also the spaces in which completeness makes sense, and Hausdorffness is a natural companion to completeness in these cases.", "Specifically, a space is complete if and only if every Cauchy net has at ''least'' one limit, while a space is Hausdorff if and only if every Cauchy net has at ''most'' one limit (since only Cauchy nets can have limits in the first place)." ], [ "Algebra of functions", "The algebra of continuous (real or complex) functions on a compact Hausdorff space is a commutative C-algebra, and conversely by the Banach–Stone theorem one can recover the topology of the space from the algebraic properties of its algebra of continuous functions.", "This leads to noncommutative geometry, where one considers noncommutative C-algebras as representing algebras of functions on a noncommutative space." ], [ "Academic humour", "* Hausdorff condition is illustrated by the pun that in Hausdorff spaces any two points can be \"housed off\" from each other by open sets.", "* In the Mathematics Institute of the University of Bonn, in which Felix Hausdorff researched and lectured, there is a certain room designated the '''Hausdorff-Raum'''.", "This is a pun, as ''Raum'' means both ''room'' and ''space'' in German." ], [ "See also", "* , a Hausdorff space ''X'' such that every continuous function has a fixed point.", "* * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hawkwind" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hawkwind''' are an English rock band known as one of the earliest space rock groups.", "Since their formation in November 1969, Hawkwind have gone through many incarnations and have incorporated many different styles into their music, including hard rock, progressive rock and psychedelic rock.", "They are regarded as an influential proto-punk band.", "Their lyrics often cover themes of urban life and science fiction.Many musicians, dancers and writers have worked with the band since their inception.", "Notable musicians who have performed in Hawkwind include Lemmy, Ginger Baker, Robert Calvert, Nik Turner and Huw Lloyd-Langton, but the band are most closely associated with their singer, songwriter and guitarist Dave Brock, who founded the band and is the only remaining original member.Hawkwind are best known for the song \"Silver Machine\", which became a number-three UK hit single in 1972, and they had further chart singles with \"Urban Guerrilla\" (another Top 40 hit) and \"Shot Down in the Night\".", "The band had a run of twenty-two of their albums charting in the UK from 1971 to 1993, and another eight between 2012 and 2023." ], [ "History", "===1969: formation===Dave BrockDave Brock and Mick Slattery had been in the London-based psychedelic band Famous Cure, and a meeting with bassist John Harrison revealed a mutual interest in electronic music, which led the trio to embark upon a new musical venture together.", "Seventeen-year-old drummer Terry Ollis replied to an advert in a music weekly; Nik Turner and Michael \"Dik Mik\" Davies, old acquaintances of Brock, offered help with transport and gear, but were soon pulled into the band.Gatecrashing a local talent night at the All Saints Hall, Notting Hill, they were so disorganised as to not even have a name, opting for \"Group X\" at the last minute, nor any songs, choosing to play an extended 20-minute jam on the Byrds' \"Eight Miles High\".", "BBC Radio 1 DJ John Peel was in the audience, and was impressed enough to tell event organiser Douglas Smith to keep an eye on them.", "Smith signed them up and got them a deal with Liberty Records on the back of a deal he was setting up for Cochise.The band settled on the name \"Hawkwind\" after briefly being billed as \"Group X\" and \"Hawkwind Zoo\".A session took place at Abbey Road Studios to record demos of \"Hurry on Sundown\" and other tracks (which were eventually included on the remastered version of the group's debut album ''Hawkwind''), after which Slattery left.", "He was replaced by Huw Lloyd-Langton who, during his former employment in a musical instrument shop, had known Brock (who at the time was a busker) and sold guitar strings to him.===1970–1975: United Artists era===Pretty Things guitarist Dick Taylor was brought in to produce the 1970 debut album ''Hawkwind''.", "Although it was not a commercial success, it did bring them to the attention of the UK underground scene, which found them playing free concerts, benefit gigs, and festivals.", "Playing free outside the Bath Festival, they encountered another Ladbroke Grove–based band, the Pink Fairies, who shared similar interests in music and recreational substances; a friendship developed which led to the two bands becoming running partners and performing as \"Pinkwind\".", "Their use of drugs, however, led to the departure of Harrison, who did not partake, to be replaced briefly by Thomas Crimble (about July 1970 – March 1971).", "Crimble played on a few BBC sessions (which were eventually collected on the album ''The Text of Festival'') before leaving to help organise the Glastonbury Free Festival 1971; he sat in during the band's performance there.", "Lloyd-Langton also quit, after a bad LSD trip at the Isle of Wight Festival led to a nervous breakdown.Their follow-up album, 1971's ''In Search of Space'', brought greater commercial success, reaching number 18 on the UK album charts.", "This album offered a refinement of the band's image and philosophy courtesy of graphic artist Barney Bubbles and underground press writer Robert Calvert, as depicted in the accompanying ''Hawklog'' booklet, which would be further developed into the ''Space Ritual'' stage show.", "Science fiction author Michael Moorcock and dancer Stacia also started contributing to the band.", "Dik Mik had left the band, replaced by sound engineer Del Dettmar, but chose to return for this album, thus giving the band two electronics players.", "Bass player Dave Anderson, who had been in the German band Amon Düül II, had also joined and played on the album, but departed before its release because of personal tensions with some other members of the band.", "Anderson and Lloyd-Langton then formed the short-lived band Amon Din.", "Meanwhile, Ollis quit, unhappy with the commercial direction in which the band were heading.The addition of bassist Ian \"Lemmy\" Kilmister and drummer Simon King propelled the band to greater heights.", "One of the early gigs the band played was a benefit for the Greasy Truckers at The Roundhouse on 13 February 1972.A live album of the concert, ''Greasy Truckers Party'', was released; from this, a single (with overdubbed vocal), \"Silver Machine\", was also released, reaching number three in the UK charts.", "This generated sufficient funds for the subsequent album ''Doremi Fasol Latido'' Space Ritual tour.", "The show featured costumes, dancers Stacia and Miss Renee – typically performing either topless or wearing only body paint – mime artist Tony Carrera, and a light show by Liquid Len.", "The songs in the show were connected by electronic and spoken word segues and the show was recorded on the elaborate package ''Space Ritual''.", "At the height of their success, in 1973, the band released the single \"Urban Guerrilla\", which coincided with an IRA bombing campaign in London, so the BBC refused to play it and the band's management reluctantly decided to withdraw it fearing accusations of opportunism, despite the disc having already climbed to number 39 in the UK chart.Hawkwind in St. Louis, USA, in 1974Hawkwind in St. Louis, USA, in 1974 with Planets and CloudsHawkwind Hall of the Mountain Grill Tree and Progress(?", ")-EarlyHawkwind Hall of the Mountain Grill Tree and Progress(?", ")-FutureDik Mik departed during 1973, and Calvert ended his association with the band to concentrate on solo projects.", "Dettmar also indicated that he was to leave the band, so Simon House was recruited as keyboardist and violinist playing live shows, a North America tour and recording the 1974 album ''Hall of the Mountain Grill''.", "Dettmar left after a European tour and emigrated to Canada, whilst Alan Powell deputised for an incapacitated King on that European tour, but remained, giving the band two drummers.At the beginning of 1975, the band recorded the album ''Warrior on the Edge of Time'' in collaboration with Michael Moorcock, loosely based on his Eternal Champion figure.", "However, during a North American tour in May, Lemmy was caught in possession of amphetamine crossing the border from the US into Canada.", "The border police mistook the powder for cocaine and he was jailed, forcing the band to cancel some shows.", "Fed up with his erratic behaviour, the band dismissed the bass player replacing him with their long-standing friend and former Pink Fairies guitarist Paul Rudolph.", "Lemmy then teamed up with another Pink Fairies guitarist, Larry Wallis, to form Motörhead, named after the last song he had written for Hawkwind.===1976–1978: Charisma era===Calvert made a guest appearance with the band for their headline set at the Reading Festival in August 1975, after which he chose to rejoin the band as a full-time lead vocalist.", "Stacia chose to relinquish her dancing duties and settle down to family life.", "The band changed record company to Tony Stratton-Smith's Charisma Records and, on Stratton-Smith's suggestion, band management from Douglas Smith to Tony Howard.", "''Astounding Sounds, Amazing Music'' is the first album of this era.", "On the eve of recording the follow-up \"Back on the Streets\" single, Turner was dismissed for his erratic live playing and Powell was deemed surplus to requirements.", "After a tour to promote the single and during the recording of the next album, Rudolph was also dismissed, for allegedly trying to steer the band into a musical direction at odds with Calvert and Brock's vision.Adrian \"Ade\" Shaw, who, as bass player for Magic Muscle, had supported Hawkwind on the ''Space Ritual'' tour, came in for the 1977 album ''Quark, Strangeness and Charm''.", "The band continued to enjoy moderate commercial success, but Calvert's mental illness often caused problems.", "A manic phase saw the band abandon a European tour in France, while a depression phase during a 1978 North American tour convinced Brock to disband the group.", "In between these two tours, the band had recorded the album ''PXR5'' in January 1978, but its release was delayed until 1979.On 23 December 1977 in Barnstaple, Brock and Calvert had performed a one-off gig with Devon band Ark as the Sonic Assassins, and looking for a new project in 1978, bassist Harvey Bainbridge and drummer Martin Griffin were recruited from this event.", "Steve Swindells was recruited as keyboard player.", "The band was named Hawklords, (probably for legal reasons, the band having recently split from their management), and recording took place on a farm in Devon using a mobile studio, resulting in the album ''25 Years On''.", "King had originally been the drummer for the project but quit during recording sessions to return to London, while House, who had temporarily left the band to join a David Bowie tour, elected to remain with Bowie full-time, but nevertheless contributed violin to these sessions.", "At the end of the band's UK tour, Calvert, wanting King back in the band, dismissed Griffin, then promptly resigned himself, choosing to pursue a career in literature.", "Swindells left to record a solo album after an offer had been made to him by the record company ATCO.===1979–1986: Bronze, RCA and independents===Hawkwind playing at the Monsters of Rock festival in Donington Park in 1982In late 1979, Hawkwind reformed with Brock, Bainbridge and King being joined by Huw Lloyd-Langton (who had played on the debut album) and Tim Blake (formerly of Gong), debuting at the first Futurama (The World's First Science Fiction Music Festival) on 9 September in Leeds, and then embarking upon a UK tour despite not having a record deal or any product to promote.", "Some shows were recorded and a deal was made with Bronze Records, resulting in the ''Live Seventy Nine'' album, quickly followed by the studio album ''Levitation''.", "However, during the recording of ''Levitation'' King quit and Ginger Baker was drafted in for the sessions, but he chose to stay with the band for the tour, during which Blake left to be replaced by Keith Hale.In 1981 Baker and Hale left after their insistence that Bainbridge should be dismissed was ignored, and Brock and Bainbridge elected to handle synthesisers and sequencers themselves, with drummer Griffin from the Hawklords rejoining.", "Three albums, which again saw Moorcock contributing lyrics and vocals, were recorded for RCA/Active: ''Sonic Attack'', the electronic ''Church of Hawkwind'' and ''Choose Your Masques''.", "This band headlined the 1981 Glastonbury Festival and made an appearance at the 1982 Donington Monsters of Rock Festival, as well as continuing to play the summer solstice at Stonehenge Free Festival.In the early 1980s, Brock had started using drum machines for his home demos and became increasingly frustrated at the inability of drummers to keep perfect time, leading to a succession of drummers coming and going.", "First, Griffin was ousted and the band tried King again, but, unhappy with his playing at that time, he was rejected.", "Andy Anderson briefly joined while he was also playing for the Cure, and Robert Heaton also filled the spot briefly prior to the rise of New Model Army.", "Lloyd Langton Group drummer John Clark did some recording sessions, and in late 1983 Rick Martinez joined the band to play drums on the ''Earth Ritual'' tour in February and March 1984, later replaced by Clive Deamer.Turner had returned as a guest for the 1982 ''Choose Your Masques'' tour and was invited back permanently.", "Further tours ensued with Phil \"Dead Fred\" Reeves augmenting the line-up on keyboards and violin, but neither Turner nor Reeves would appear on the only recording of 1983–84, ''The Earth Ritual Preview''; however, there was a guest spot for Lemmy.", "The ''Earth Ritual'' tour was filmed for Hawkwind's first video release, ''Night of the Hawk''.Alan Davey was a young fan of the band who had sent a tape of his playing to Brock, and Brock chose to oust Reeves moving Bainbridge from bass to keyboards to accommodate Davey.", "This experimental line-up played at the Stonehenge Free Festival in 1984, which was filmed and release as ''Stonehenge 84''.", "Subsequent personal and professional tensions between Brock and Turner led to the latter's expulsion at the beginning of 1985.Clive Deamer, who was deemed \"too professional\" for the band, was eventually replaced in 1985 by Danny Thompson Jr (son of folk-rock bassist Danny Thompson), a friend of Alan Davey, and remained almost to the end of the decade.Hawkwind's association with Moorcock climaxed in their most ambitious project, ''The Chronicle of the Black Sword'', based loosely around the Elric series of books and theatrically staged with Tony Crerar as the central character.", "Moorcock contributed lyrics, but only performed some spoken pieces on some live dates.", "The tour was recorded and issued as an album ''Live Chronicles'' and video ''The Chronicle of the Black Sword''.", "The band also performed at the Worldcon (World Science Fiction Convention) in Brighton.Vera Lynn, Hawkwind, and others at Crystal Palace Bowl, 24 August 1985In August 1985, The band performed at Crystal Palace Bowl, with several other rock bands, for a benefit concert for Pete Townshend's Double-O anti-heroin charity.", "Lemmy and Stacia were reunited with the band for this event.", "Vera Lynn closed the show.===1986–1999: GWR through to EBS===A headline appearance at the 1986 Reading Festival was followed by a UK tour to promote the ''Live Chronicles'' album which was filmed and released as ''Chaos''.", "In 1988 the band recorded the album ''The Xenon Codex'' with Guy Bidmead, but all was not well in the band and soon after, both Lloyd-Langton and Thompson departed.Drummer Richard Chadwick, who joined in the summer of 1988, had been playing in small alternative free festival bands, most notably Bath's Smart Pils, for a decade and had frequently crossed paths with Hawkwind and Brock.", "He was initially invited simply to play with the band, but eventually replaced stand in drummer Mick Kirton to become the band's drummer to the present day.To fill in the gap of lead sound, lost when Lloyd-Langton left, violinist House was re-instated into the line-up in 1989 (having previously been a member from 1974 until 1978), and, notably, Hawkwind embarked on their first North American visit in eleven years (since the somewhat disastrous 1978 tour), in which House did not partake.", "The successfully received tour was the first of several over the coming years, in an effort by the band to re-introduce themselves to the American market.Bridget Wishart, an associate of Chadwick's from the festival circuit, also joined to become the band's one and only singing front-woman, the band had been fronted in earlier days by Stacia but only as a dancer.", "This band produced two albums, 1990's ''Space Bandits'' and 1991's ''Palace Springs'' and also filmed a one-hour appearance for the ''Bedrock TV'' series with dancer Julie Murray-Anderson, who performed with Hawkwind between 1988 and 1991.1990 saw Hawkwind tour North America again, the second instalment in a series of American visits made at around this time in an effort to re-establish the Hawkwind brand in America.", "The original business plan was to hold three consecutive US tours, annually, from 1989 to 1991, with the first losing money, the second breaking even, and the third turning a profit, ultimately bringing Hawkwind back into recognition across the Atlantic.", "Progress, however, was somewhat stunted, due to ex-member Nik Turner touring the United States with his own band at the time, in which the shows were often marketed as Hawkwind.Still supporting Space Bandits, 1991 commenced with perhaps the most surprising Hawkwind tour in the band's history, without Dave Brock.", "Brock's temporary replacement was former Smart Pils guitarist Steve Bemand (who had played with Chadwick and Wishart in the Demented Stoats).", "The tour began in Amsterdam on 12 March and took in Germany, Greece, Italy and France before wrapping up in Belgium on 10 April after 24 dates.In 1991 Bainbridge, House and Wishart departed and the band continued as a three piece relying heavily on synthesisers and sequencers to create a wall-of-sound.", "The 1992 album ''Electric Tepee'' combined hard rock and light ambient pieces, while ''It is the Business of the Future to be Dangerous'' is almost devoid of the rock leanings.", "''The Business Trip'' is a record of the previous album's tour, but rockier as would be expected from a live outing.", "The ''White Zone'' album was released under the alias Psychedelic Warriors to distance itself entirely from the rock expectancy of Hawkwind.A general criticism of techno music at that time was its facelessness and lack of personality, which the band were coming to feel also plagued them.", "Ron Tree had known the band on the festival circuit and offered his services as a front-man, and the band duly employed him for the album ''Alien 4'' and its accompanying tour which resulted in the album ''Love in Space'' and ''video''.In 1996, unhappy with the musical direction of the band, bassist Davey left, forming his own Middle-Eastern flavoured hard-rock group Bedouin and a Motörhead tribute act named Ace of Spades.", "His bass playing role was reluctantly picked up by singer Tree and the band were joined full-time by lead guitarist Jerry Richards (another stalwart of the festival scene, playing for Tubilah Dog who had merged with Brock's Agents of Chaos during 1988) for the albums ''Distant Horizons'' and ''In Your Area''.", "Rasta chanter Captain Rizz also joined the band for guest spots during live shows.===1999–2007: Anniversaries, disputes and Voiceprint===Hawkestra—a re-union event featuring appearances from past and present members—had originally been intended to coincide with the band's 30th anniversary and the release of the career spanning ''Epocheclipse – 30 Year Anthology'' set, but logistical problems delayed it until 21 October 2000.It took place at the Brixton Academy with about 20 members taking part in a more than 3-hour set, which was filmed and recorded.", "Guests included Samantha Fox who sang \"Master of the Universe\".", "However, arguments and disputes over financial recompense and musical input resulted in the prospect of the event being re-staged unlikely, and any album or DVD release being indefinitely shelved.The Hawkestra had set a template for Brock to assemble a core band of Tree, Brock, Richards, Davey, Chadwick and for the use of former members as guests on live shows and studio recordings.", "The 2000 Christmas Astoria show was recorded with contributions from House, Blake, Rizz, Moorcock, Jez Huggett and Keith Kniveton and released as ''Yule Ritual'' the following year.", "In 2001, Davey agreed to rejoin the band permanently, but only after the departure of Tree and Richards.Meanwhile, having rekindled relationships with old friends at the Hawkestra, Turner organised further Hawkestra gigs resulting in the formation of xhawkwind.com, a band consisting mainly of ex-Hawkwind members and playing old Hawkwind songs.", "An appearance at Guilfest in 2002 led to confusion as to whether this actually was Hawkwind, sufficiently irking Brock into taking legal action to prohibit Turner from trading under the name Hawkwind.", "Turner lost the case and the band began performing as Space Ritual.An appearance at the Canterbury Sound Festival in August 2001, resulting in another live album ''Canterbury Fayre 2001'', saw guest appearances from Lloyd-Langton, House, Kniveton with Arthur Brown on \"Silver Machine\".", "The band organised the first of their own weekend festivals, named Hawkfest, in Devon in the summer of 2002.Brown joined the band in 2002 for a winter tour which featured some Kingdom Come songs and saw appearances from Blake and Lloyd-Langton, the Newcastle show being released on DVD as ''Out of the Shadows'' and the London show on CD as ''Spaced Out in London''.A new album, ''Take Me to Your Leader'', was released in 2005.Recorded by the core band of Brock/Davey/Chadwick, contributors included new keyboardist Jason Stuart, Arthur Brown, tabloid writer and TV personality Matthew Wright, 1970s New Wave singer Lene Lovich, Simon House and Jez Huggett.", "This was followed in 2006 by the CD/DVD ''Take Me to Your Future''.The band were the subject of an hour-long television documentary titled ''Hawkwind: Do Not Panic'' that aired on BBC Four as part of the ''Originals'' series.", "It was broadcast on 30 March 2007 and repeated on 10 August 2007.Although Brock participated in its making, he did not appear in the programme; it is alleged that he requested all footage of himself be removed after he was denied any artistic control over the documentary.", "One of the documentary's opening narratives states that Brock declined to be interviewed for the programme because of Nik Turner's involvement, thus indicating that the two men had still not reconciled over the xhawkwind.com incident.December 2006 saw the official departure of Alan Davey, who left to perform and record with two new bands: Gunslinger and Thunor.", "He was replaced by Mr Dibs, a long-standing member of the road crew.", "The band performed at their annual Hawkfest festival and headlined the US festival Nearfest and played gigs in PA and NY.", "At the end of 2007, Tim Blake once again joined the band filling the lead role playing keyboards and theremin.", "The band played five Christmas dates, the London show being released as an audio CD and video DVD under the title ''Knights of Space''.===2008–2016: Atomhenge and Eastworld===In January 2008 the band reversed its anti-taping policy – which had long been a sore point with many fans – announcing that it would allow audio recording and non-commercial distribution of such recordings, provided there was no competing official release.", "At the end of 2008, Atomhenge Records (a subsidiary of Cherry Red Records) commenced the re-issuing of Hawkwind's back catalogue from the years 1976 through to 1997 with the release of two triple CD anthologies ''Spirit of the Age (anthology 1976–84)'' and ''The Dream Goes On (anthology 1985–97)''.On 8 September 2008 keyboard player Jason Stuart died due to a brain haemorrhage.", "In October 2008, Niall Hone (former Tribe of Cro) joined Hawkwind for their winter 2008 tour playing guitar, along with returning synth/theremin player Tim Blake.", "In this period, Hone also occasionally played bass guitar alongside Mr Dibs and used laptops for live electronic improvisation.In 2009, the band began occasionally featuring Jon Sevink from The Levellers as guest violinist at some shows.", "Later that year, Hawkwind embarked on a winter tour to celebrate the band's 40th anniversary, including two gigs on 28 and 29 August marking the anniversary of their first live performances.", "In 2010, Hawkwind held their annual Hawkfest at the site of the original Isle of Wight Festival, marking the 40th anniversary of their appearance there.On 21 June 2010, Hawkwind released a studio album entitled ''Blood of the Earth'' on Eastworld Records.", "During and since the ''Blood of the Earth'' support tours, Hone's primary on-stage responsibility shifted to bass, while Mr. Dibs moved to a more traditional lead singer/front man role.In 2011, Hawkwind toured Australia for the second time.April 2012 saw the release of a new album, ''Onward'', again on Eastworld.", "Keyboardist Dead Fred rejoined Hawkwind for the 2012 tour in support of ''Onward'' and has since remained with the band.", "In November 2012, Brock, Chadwick and Hone—credited as \"Hawkwind Light Orchestra\"—released ''Stellar Variations'' on Esoteric Recordings.2013 marked the first Hawkeaster, a two-day festival held in Seaton, Devon during the Easter weekend.", "A US tour was booked for October 2013, but due to health issues, was postponed and later cancelled.In February 2014, as part of a one-off Space Ritual performance, Hawkwind performed at the O2 Shepherd's Bush Empire featuring an appearance by Brian Blessed for the spoken word element of Sonic Attack; a studio recording of this performance was released as a single in September 2014.Later in the year, former Soft Machine guitarist John Etheridge joined the live line-up of the band, though he had departed again prior to early 2015 dates.Following Hawkeaster 2015, Hawkwind made their debut visit to Japan, playing two sold-out shows in Tokyo.", "Hawkwind performed two Solstice Ritual shows in December 2015, with Steve Hillage guesting, and Haz Wheaton joining Hawkwind on bass guitar.", "Wheaton is a former member of the band's road crew who had previously appeared with Technicians of Spaceship Hawkwind, a \"skeleton crew\" spin off live band.", "Additionally, he had guested on bass for Dave Brock's solo album ''Brockworld'' released earlier in the year.===2016-onwards: Cherry Red projects===The band released ''The Machine Stops'' on 15 April 2016, a concept album based on E.M. Forster's short story of the same name.", "Brock and Chadwick were joined on the recording by Hone, Dibs and Wheaton sharing bass duties, while Hone and Dead Fred contributed one solo piece each.", "The album entered the UK album chart at number 29.Dead Fred's last live appearance was at Eastbourne Winter Gardens on 1 April; Hone took on keyboard and synth duties until Blake returned for the summer shows.The trio of Brock, Chadwick and Wheaton recorded the album ''Into the Woods'', released on 5 May 2017, with additional contributions from Dibs, Magnus Martin (whose band Tarantism had supported Hawkwind on many occasions) and Big Bill Barry.", "Martin and saxophonist Michał Sosna (from Polish group hipiersoniK) joined the band for a 16-date UK promotional tour in the same month, and festival appearances at Hellfest, Clisson, France in June and Bluedot Festival at Jodrell Bank Observatory, Cheshire in July.", "The Roundhouse gig, with a guest appearance from Phil Campbell, was released as ''Hawkwind At The Roundhouse'' on 8 December in 2CD/DVD and 3LP formats.For the ''Into The Woods'' tour the group had performed an opening acoustic set before the main set, and they decided to capture some acoustic performances of their 1970s repertoire in the studio.", "A chance meeting with Mike Batt by Brock at the US Embassy brought him into the project contributing production, arrangement and additional orchestrations.", "The album ''Road to Utopia'' was released on 14 September 2018.There was a guest appearance from Eric Clapton, who Brock had performed with as a duo in the 1960s prior to his rise to fame in The Yardbirds.", "Batt conducted a series of concerts titled ''In Search of Utopia – Infinity and Beyond'' featuring the band and Docklands Sinfonia Orchestra in October and November, with Arthur Brown guesting.", "After the recording of the album but before the shows, both Wheaton and Dibs left, while Hone rejoined on bass.", "Wheaton went on to join Electric Wizard, and Dibs stated \"irreconcilable differences\" on the Hawkwind fans Facebook page, Brock claiming \"we propped the fella up and kept him in the band longer than he should have been, because we were genuinely concerned... about his state of mind.", "\"In October 2019 the group released ''All Aboard the Skylark'', marketed as a return to their space rock roots.", "This was the first album with the line-up of Brock, Chadwick, Hone and Martin.", "Accompanying the CD version, and sold as a separate vinyl LP, was ''Acoustic Daze'' which included tracks from the ''Road to Utopia'' minus the additions of Batt and Clapton.", "The album was promoted with a 15 date tour of Britain in November, culminating in a final show at London's Royal Albert Hall.", "The group were augmented by keyboard player Blake, with guest appearances from Phil Campbell and Clapton.", "A record of the live show titled ''50th Anniversary Live'', with the guest appearance from Campbell, is released on 4 December 2020 by Cherry Red in 3LP and 2CD formats.Brock had started work on new material in his home studio with some contributions from Chadwick and Martin when the COVID-19 pandemic spread curtailing any further band activity.", "Brock would continue work with remote contributions from Martin, and the album ''Carnivorous'' (an anagram of coronavirus) was released in October 2020 under the name Hawkwind Light Orchestra to reflect the reduced personnel.When the group returned to live performances post-COVID in late 2021, the line-up featured Brock, Chadwick, Martin and new members Thighpaulsandra on keyboards and Doug MacKinnon on bass, replacing Blake and Hone respectively.", "A new Hawkwind album, ''Somnia'', was released in 2021, followed in 2023 by ''The Future Never Waits''." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Hawkwind have been cited as an influence by artists such as Al Jourgensen of Ministry, Monster Magnet, the Sex Pistols (who covered \"Silver Machine\"), Henry Rollins and Dez Cadena of Black Flag, Siobhan Fahey, Ty Segall, The Mekano Set, and Ozric Tentacles.Hard rock musician Lemmy of the band Motörhead gained a lot from his tenure in Hawkwind.", "He said, \"I really found myself as an instrumentalist in Hawkwind.", "Before that I was just a guitar player who was pretending to be good, when actually I was no good at all.", "In Hawkwind I became a good bass player.", "It was where I learned I was good at something.", "\"King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard told ''Total Guitar'' that they were \"...were listening to Hawkwind a lot\" (while making their space rock album ''Nonagon Infinity)''.In an interview with The Guardian in 2016, the band was cited as being an influence to the American avant-garde metal group Neurosis." ], [ "Members", "'''Current members'''* Dave Brock – vocals, guitars, keyboards, synthesisers (1969–present)* Richard Chadwick – drums, vocals (1988–present)* Magnus Martin – guitars, vocals, keyboards (2016–present)* Thighpaulsandra – keyboards, synthesizers (2021–present)* Doug MacKinnon – bass (2021–present)" ], [ "Discography", "* ''Hawkwind'' (1970)* ''In Search of Space'' (1971)* ''Doremi Fasol Latido'' (1972)* ''Hall of the Mountain Grill'' (1974)* ''Warrior on the Edge of Time'' (1975)* ''Astounding Sounds, Amazing Music'' (1976)* ''Quark, Strangeness and Charm'' (1977)* ''25 Years On'' – Released as Hawklords (1978)* ''PXR5'' (1979)* ''Levitation'' (1980)* ''Sonic Attack'' (1981)* ''Church of Hawkwind'' – Released as Church of Hawkwind (1982)* ''Choose Your Masques'' (1982)* ''The Chronicle of the Black Sword'' (1985)* ''The Xenon Codex'' (1988)* ''Space Bandits'' (1990)* ''Electric Tepee'' (1992)* ''It Is the Business of the Future to Be Dangerous'' (1993)* ''White Zone'' – Released as Psychedelic Warriors (1995)* ''Alien 4'' (1995)* ''Distant Horizons'' (1997)* ''In Your Area'' (1999)* ''Spacebrock'' (2000)* ''Take Me to Your Leader'' (2005)* ''Take Me to Your Future'' (2006) * ''Blood of the Earth'' (2010)* ''Onward'' (2012)* ''Stellar Variations'' – Released as Hawkwind Light Orchestra (2012)* ''The Machine Stops'' (2016)* ''Into the Woods'' (2017)* ''The Road to Utopia'' (2018)* ''All Aboard the Skylark'' (2019)* ''Carnivorous'' – Released as Hawkwind Light Orchestra (2020)* ''Somnia'' (2021)* ''The Future Never Waits'' (2023)* ''Stories from Time and Space'' (2024)" ], [ "Videography", "* 1984 – ''Night of the Hawks'' – 60 min concert* 1984 – ''Stonehenge'' – 60 min concert with The Enid and Roy Harper* 1984 – ''Stonehenge'' – 60 min concert* 1985 – ''The Chronicle of the Black Sword'' – 60 min concert* 1986 – ''Bristol Custom Bike Show'' – 15 min concert with Voodoo Child* 1986 – ''Chaos'' – 60 min concert* 1989 – ''Treworgey Tree Fayre'' – 90 min concert* 1990 – ''Nottingham'' – 60 min TV concert* 1990 – ''Bournemouth Academy'' – 90 min concert* 1992 – ''Brixton Academy'' – 123 min concert* 1995 – ''Love in Space'' – 90 min concert* 2002 – ''Out of the Shadows'' – 90 min concert* 2008 – ''Knights of Space'' – 90 min concert* 2014 – ''Space Ritual Live'' – 140 min concert" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Kris Tait – ''This is Hawkwind: Do Not Panic'' (1984, published by the band and now only available second hand)* Ian Abrahams – ''Sonic Assassins'' (Published by SAF publishing; )* Carol Clerk – ''The Saga of Hawkwind'' (Publisher: Music Sales Limited, 2004, )* Nik Turner, Dave Thompson – ''The Spirit of Hawkwind 1969–1976'' (2015, Cleopatra Records, )* Joe Banks – '' Hawkwind: Days Of The Underground (''Strange Attractor Press, 2020'', '''')" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Horse" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''horse''' ('''''Equus caballus''''') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal.", "It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''.", "The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, close to ''Eohippus'', into the large, single-toed animal of today.", "Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BCE, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE.", "Horses in the subspecies ''caballus'' are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses.", "These feral populations are not true wild horses, which are horses that never have been domesticated and historically linked to the megafauna category of species.", "There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.Horses are adapted to run, allowing them to quickly escape predators, and possess an excellent sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response.", "Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep significantly more than adults.", "Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth.", "Most domesticated horses begin training under a saddle or in a harness between the ages of two and four.", "They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited \"hot bloods\" with speed and endurance; \"cold bloods\", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and \"warmbloods\", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe.", "There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy.", "Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control.", "Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares.", "Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers." ], [ "Biology", "alt=Diagram of a horse with some parts labeled.Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors, and breeds.===Lifespan and life stages===Depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years.", "Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond.", "The oldest verifiable record was \"Old Billy\", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62.In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in ''Guinness World Records'' as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere.", "The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age.The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:; Foal: A horse of either sex less than one year old.", "A nursing foal is sometimes called a ''suckling'', and a foal that has been weaned is called a ''weanling''.", "Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.", "; Yearling: A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.", "; Colt: A male horse under the age of four.", "A common terminology error is to call any young horse a \"colt\", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.", "; Filly: A female horse under the age of four.", "; Mare: A female horse four years old and older.", "; Stallion: A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.", "The term \"horse\" is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.", "; Gelding: A castrated male horse of any age.In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old.", "However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old.===Size and measurement===The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back.", "This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.alt=A large brown horse is chasing a small horse in a pasture.In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches: one hand is equal to .", "The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a point, then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation \"h\" or \"hh\" (for \"hands high\").", "Thus, a horse described as \"15.2 h\" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of in height.The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition.", "Light-riding horses usually range in height from and can weigh from .", "Larger-riding horses usually start at about and often are as tall as , weighing from .", "Heavy or draft horses are usually at least high and can be as tall as high.", "They can weigh from about .The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848.He stood high and his peak weight was estimated at .", "The record holder for the smallest horse ever is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism.", "She was tall and weighed .====Ponies====Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses.", "The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes.", "However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype, including conformation and temperament.The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is .", "An animal or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than a pony, but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard.", "In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under .", "For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is .", "The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, the world governing body for horse sport, uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than at the withers without shoes, which is just over , and , with shoes.Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies.", "Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height.", "Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over , but are still considered to be ponies.Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat.", "They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads.", "They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers.", "Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant.", "For example, the Shetland pony which averages , is considered a pony.", "Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than , are classified by their registries as very small horses, not ponies.===Genetics===Horses have 64 chromosomes.", "The horse genome was sequenced in 2007.It contains 2.7 billion DNA base pairs, which is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome.", "The map is available to researchers.===Colors and markings===Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called \"sorrel\") are two of the most common coat colors, seen in almost all breeds.\|alt=Two horses in a field.", "The one on the left is a dark brown with a black mane and tail.", "The one on the right is a light red all over.Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described by a specialized vocabulary.", "Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex.", "Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings, which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified.", "Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color, and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits.", "The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor, also known as the \"extension gene\" or \"red factor\", as its recessive form is \"red\" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black.", "Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay, spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, as well as greying, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.Horses that have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks \"white\" is usually a middle-aged or older gray.", "Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings).", "The only horses properly called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.", "Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino-1 gene.", "However, there are no \"albino\" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.===Reproduction and development===Mare with a foalGestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320–370 days, and usually results in one foal; twins are rare.", "Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth.", "Foals are usually born in the spring.", "The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn.", "Most mares enter an ''anestrus'' period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period.", "Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age.Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.", "Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care.", "Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone.", "These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four.", "Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries, horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.", "For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years) old.===Anatomy=======Skeletal system====alt=Diagram of a horse skeleton with major parts labeled.The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.", "A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso.", "The horse's four legs and hooves are also unique structures.", "Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human.", "For example, the body part that is called a horse's \"knee\" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist.", "Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel.", "The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the \"ankle\") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the \"knuckles\" of a human.", "A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.====Hooves====The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, \"no foot, no horse\".", "The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae.", "The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin, the same material as a human fingernail.", "The result is that a horse, weighing on average , travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe.", "For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier.", "The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks, though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.====Teeth====Horses are adapted to grazing.", "In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation.", "There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth.", "Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth called \"tushes\".", "Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as \"wolf\" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit.", "There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or \"bars\" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth.", "The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing.", "Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet.", "This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.====Digestion====Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day.", "Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients.", "A horse will eat of food per day and, under normal use, drink of water.", "Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can digest cellulose, a major component of grass.", "Horses are hindgut fermenters.", "Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or \"water gut\", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine.", "Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death.", "Horses do not have a gallbladder; however, they seem to tolerate high amounts of fat in their diet despite lack of a gallbladder.====Senses====alt=Close up of a horse eye, which is dark brown with lashes on the top eyelidThe horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.", "They have the largest eyes of any land mammal, and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads.", "This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision.", "Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green.Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog.", "It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment.", "Horses have two olfactory centers.", "The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors.", "The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the vomeronasal organs, also called Jacobson's organs.", "These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones.A horse's hearing is good, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head.", "Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: a 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music.", "This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels.", "An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception—the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times.", "A horse's sense of touch is well-developed.", "The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose.", "Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat, and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains.", "Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.===Movement===File:Muybridge horse walking animated.gif\|''Walk'' File:Trot animated.gif\|''Trot'' File:Muybridge_horse_pacing_animated.gif\|''Pace'' File:Canter animated.gif\|''Canter'' File:Muybridge race horse animated.gif\|''Gallop'' , record: All horses move naturally with four basic gaits:the four-beat walk, which averages ; the two-beat trot or jog at (faster for harness racing horses);the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is ; the gallop, which averages , but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is .", "Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot.", "There also are several four-beat 'ambling' gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride.", "These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot.", "Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses.", "These horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.===Behavior===Horse neighHorses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response.", "Their first reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened.", "They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening.", "Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors.", "However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.Horses fighting as part of herd dominance behaviourHorses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare.", "They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans.", "They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language.", "Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.", "However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, \"weaving\" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.====Intelligence and learning====Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system.", "They also have good spatial discrimination abilities.", "They are naturally curious and apt to investigate things they have not seen before.", "Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving, speed of learning, and memory.", "Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning.", "They can learn using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement.", "One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between \"more or less\" if the quantity involved is less than four.Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural.", "Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently.", "One trainer believes that \"intelligent\" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations.====Temperament====Horses are mammals.", "As such, they are warm-blooded, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or poikilothermic animals.", "However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature.", "For example, the \"hot-bloods\", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy, while the \"cold-bloods\", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer.", "Sometimes \"hot-bloods\" are classified as \"light horses\" or \"riding horses\", with the \"cold-bloods\" classified as \"draft horses\" or \"work horses\".alt=a sepia-toned engraving from an old book, showing 11 horses of different breeds and sizes in nine different illustrations\"Hot blooded\" breeds include \"oriental horses\" such as the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb, and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds.", "Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly.", "They are bred for agility and speed.", "They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.", "The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as \"cold bloods\", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.", "They are sometimes nicknamed \"gentle giants\".", "Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.", "Some, like the Percheron, are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.", "Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.", "The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.", "\"Warmblood\" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.", "Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.", "Warmbloods are considered a \"light horse\" or \"riding horse\".Today, the term \"Warmblood\" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping.", "Strictly speaking, the term \"warm blood\" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.", "Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay.", "The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.====Sleep patterns====alt=Two horses in a pasture, one is standing beside the other that is laying down.Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down.", "In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a \"stay apparatus\" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing.", "Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators.", "A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger.Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest.", "Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down.", "Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours, mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each.", "The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep.", "They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements.", "However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.", "This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from that disorder." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "Diagram of evolution in horses showing size development, biometrical changes in the cranium and reduction of toes (left forefoot)The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not.", "Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order ''Perissodactyla'', a group of mammals dominant during the Tertiary period.", "In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae (the horse and related species), Tapiridae (the tapir), and Rhinocerotidae (the rhinoceroses)—have survived to the present day.The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the ''Hyracotherium'', which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period.", "It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot.", "The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the ''Mesohippus'', which lived 32 to 37 million years ago.", "Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished.", "All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee, known informally as splint bones.", "Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed.", "By about 5 million years ago, the modern ''Equus'' had evolved.", "Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses.", "Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.By about 15,000 years ago, ''Equus ferus'' was a widespread holarctic species.", "Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America.", "Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America.", "The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival.", "Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.===Wild species surviving into modern times===alt=Three tan-colored horses with upright manes.", "Two horses nip and paw at each other, while the third moves towards the camera.", "They stand in an open, rocky grassland, with forests in the distance.A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever successfully domesticated.", "Therefore, most \"wild\" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals.", "Only two wild subspecies, the tarpan and the Przewalski's horse, survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today.The Przewalski's horse (''Equus ferus przewalskii''), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal.", "It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse; Mongolian people know it as the ''taki'', and the Kyrgyz people call it a ''kirtag''.", "The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world.", "In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild by the conservation efforts of numerous zoos.", "Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia.", "There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.The question of whether the Przewalski's horse was ever domesticated was challenged in 2018 when DNA studies of horses found at Botai culture sites revealed captured animals with DNA markers of an ancestor to the Przewalski's horse.", "The study concluded that the Botai animals appear to have been an independent domestication attempt and apparently unsuccessful, as these genetic markers do not appear in modern domesticated horses.", "However, the question of whether all Przewalski's horses descend from this population is also unresolved, as only one of seven modern Przewalski's horses in the study shared this ancestry.The tarpan or European wild horse (''Equus ferus ferus'') was found in Europe and much of Asia.", "It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.", "Thus, the genetic line was lost.", "Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan, which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic.", "For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such, but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses.", "Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan on the basis of shared characteristics, but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds, and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.===Other modern equids===Besides the horse, there are six other species of genus ''Equus'' in the Equidae family.", "These are the ass or donkey, ''Equus asinus''; the mountain zebra, ''Equus zebra''; plains zebra, ''Equus quagga''; Grévy's Zebra, ''Equus grevyi''; the kiang, ''Equus kiang''; and the onager, ''Equus hemionus''.Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus.", "The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a \"jack\" (male donkey) and a mare.", "A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a \"jenny\" (female donkey).", "Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse.", "With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce." ], [ "Domestication and history", "Bhimbetka rock painting showing a man riding on a horse, IndiaDomestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BCE.", "Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world.", "The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 4000–3500 BCE.", "By 3000 BCE, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BCE there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent.", "The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures 2100 BCE.A 2021 genetic study suggested that most modern domestic horses descend from the lower Volga-Don region.", "Ancient horse genomes indicate that these populations influenced almost all local populations as they expanded rapidly throughout Eurasia, beginning about 4,200 years ago.", "It also shows that certain adaptations were strongly selected due to riding, and that equestrian material culture, including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots spread with the horse itself.Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present-day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations.", "The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse, while many mares were part of early domesticated herds.", "This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA).", "There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability, but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA.", "There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds.", "Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation.", "In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BCE.Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed.", "One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication.", "Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.", "However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.===Feral populations===Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals.", "Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world.", "Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses, as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in \"wild\" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands.", "Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.===Breeds===The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times.", "Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called \"thoroughbreds\".", "Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a \"purebred\" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.", "Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition.", "These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods.", "Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication.", "An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.", "These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition.", "In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.Breeds developed due to a need for \"form to function\", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work.", "Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage.", "Heavy draft horses were developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.", "Other horse breeds had been developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets.", "Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock.", "One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed.", "There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today." ], [ "Interaction with humans", "Finnhorse pulling a heavy wagon.Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia.", "Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes.", "The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania.", "There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone.", "The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion.", "In a 2004 \"poll\" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.", "Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle, and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear.", "Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.===Sport===A horse and rider in dressage competition at the Olympics\|alt=A chestnut (reddish-brown) horse being ridden by a rider in a black coat and top hat.", "They are stopped in a riding arena with the rider tipping his hat.Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races.", "Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle.", "Many sports, such as dressage, eventing, and show jumping, have origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider.", "Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations.", "Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques.", "Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers.", "All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport.", "The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions.", "Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting.", "Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world.", "They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as \"In-hand\" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation.", "The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider.Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game.", "Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.", "Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other, and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world.", "There are three types: \"flat\" racing; steeplechasing, i.e.", "racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky.", "A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.===Work=== There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them.", "For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control.", "Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.", "Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance.", "Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves.", "They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas.", "Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles.", "Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas.", "This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone.", "Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses.", "In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses.", "Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.===Warfare===Ottoman cavalry, 1917\|alt=Black-and-white photo of mounted soldiers with middle eastern headwraps, carrying rifles, walking down a road away from the cameraHorses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history.", "The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BCE, and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age.", "Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective.", "Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.===Entertainment and culture===The horse-headed deity in Hinduism, HayagrivaModern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes.", "Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles.", "Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes.", "Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events.", "Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.Horses are frequently used in television, films and literature.", "They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories.", "Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products.", "The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and equipment.", "The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Germanic, include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun.", "The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.Horses serve as the inspiration for many modern automobile names and logos, including the Ford Pinto, Ford Bronco, Ford Mustang, Hyundai Equus, Hyundai Pony, Mitsubishi Starion, Subaru Brumby, Mitsubishi Colt/Dodge Colt, Pinzgauer, Steyr-Puch Haflinger, Pegaso, Porsche, Rolls-Royce Camargue, Ferrari, Carlsson, Kamaz, Corre La Licorne, Iran Khodro, Eicher, and Baojun.", "Indian TVS Motor Company also uses a horse on their motorcycles & scooters.===Therapeutic use===People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from an association with horses.", "Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence.", "The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI).", "Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that use equine movement.", "In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not.", "\"Equine-assisted\" or \"equine-facilitated\" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes.", "There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings.", "Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.===Products===Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis.", "Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling.", "Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.", "The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares ('''pre'''gnant '''mar'''es' ur'''in'''e), and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy.", "The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages.", "Approximately 5 million horses are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.", "It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures, and a subject of political controversy in others.", "Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets, baseballs, and baseball gloves.", "Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue.", "Horse bones can be used to make implements.", "Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a ''spinto'', which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.", "In Asia, the ''saba'' is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.===Care===alt=A young man in US military clothing examines the teeth of a bay (dark brown) horse, while another person in military work clothing, partially obscured, holds the horse.", "Several other people are partially visible in the background.Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture.", "They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day.", "Therefore, a adult horse could eat up to of food.", "Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active.", "When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of per day.", "Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist.", "If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.", "When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained.", "Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.===Climate change===" ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of equestrian terms* Lists of horse-related topics* List of historical horses* Dülmener* The horse in Nordic mythology* Equus gallicus* Solutré horse" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* \"Ancient horse bone yields oldest DNA sequence\"* * * Genome of ''Equus caballus'', via Ensembl* Genome of ''Equus caballus'' (version EquCab3.0/equCab3), via UCSC Genome Browser* Data of the genome of ''Equus caballus'', via NCBI* Data of the genome assembly of ''Equus caballus'' (versión EquCab3.0/equCab3), via NCBI" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hermann Ebbinghaus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hermann Ebbinghaus''' (24 January 1850 – 26 February 1909) was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect.", "He was also the first person to describe the learning curve.", "He was the father of the neo-Kantian philosopher Julius Ebbinghaus." ], [ "Early life", "Ebbinghaus was born in Barmen, in the Rhine Province of the Kingdom of Prussia, as the son of a wealthy merchant, Carl Ebbinghaus.", "Little is known about his infancy except that he was brought up in the Lutheran faith and was a pupil at the town Gymnasium.", "At the age of 17 (1867), he began attending the University of Bonn, where he had planned to study history and philology.", "However, during his time there he developed an interest in philosophy.", "In 1870, his studies were interrupted when he served with the Prussian Army in the Franco-Prussian War.", "Following this short stint in the military, Ebbinghaus finished his dissertation on Eduard von Hartmann's '''' (philosophy of the unconscious) and received his doctorate on 16 August 1873, when he was 23 years old.", "During the next three years, he spent time at Halle and Berlin." ], [ "Professional career", "After acquiring his PhD, Ebbinghaus moved around England and France, tutoring students to support himself.", "In England, he may have taught in two small schools in the south of the country (Gorfein, 1885).", "In London, in a used bookstore, he came across Gustav Fechner's book ''Elemente der Psychophysik'' (''Elements of Psychophysics''), which spurred him to conduct his famous memory experiments.", "After beginning his studies at the University of Berlin, he founded the third psychological testing lab in Germany (third to Wilhelm Wundt and Georg Elias Müller).", "He began his memory studies here in 1879.In 1885 — the same year that he published his monumental work, ''Über das Gedächtnis.", "Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie'', later published in English under the title ''Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology'' — he was made a professor at the University of Berlin, most likely in recognition of this publication.", "In 1890, along with Arthur König, he founded the psychological journal ''Zeitschrift für Physiologie und Psychologie der Sinnesorgane'' (\"The Psychology and Physiology of the Sense Organs'\").In 1894, he was passed over for promotion to head of the philosophy department at Berlin, most likely due to his lack of publications.", "Instead, Carl Stumpf received the promotion.", "As a result of this, Ebbinghaus left to join the University of Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), in a chair left open by Theodor Lipps (who took over Stumpf's position when he moved to Berlin).", "While in Breslau, he worked on a commission that studied how children's mental ability declined during the school day.", "While the specifics on how these mental abilities were measured have been lost, the successes achieved by the commission laid the groundwork for future intelligence testing.", "At Breslau, he again founded a psychological testing laboratory.In 1902, Ebbinghaus published his next piece of writing entitled ''Die Grundzüge der Psychologie'' (''Fundamentals of Psychology'').", "It was an instant success and continued to be long after his death.", "In 1904, he moved to Halle where he spent the last few years of his life.", "His last published work, ''Abriss der Psychologie'' (''Outline of Psychology'') was published six years later, in 1908.This, too, continued to be a success, being re-released in eight different editions.", "Shortly after this publication, on 26 February 1909, Ebbinghaus died from pneumonia at the age of 59." ], [ "Research on memory", "Figure 2 from Ebbinghaus' ''Über das Gedächtnis''.", "Ebbinghaus ran a series of 92 tests.", "In each test, he gave the subject 8 blocks of 13 random syllables each, and plotted the average time taken for the subject to memorize the block.Figure 4 from ''Über das Gedächtnis''.", "The same test with 9 blocks of 12 syllables each.", "This shows an oscillating pattern.Ebbinghaus was determined to show that higher mental processes could actually be studied using experimentation, which was in opposition to the popularly held thought of the time.", "To control for most potentially confounding variables, Ebbinghaus wanted to use simple acoustic encoding and maintenance rehearsal for which a list of words could have been used.", "As learning would be affected by prior knowledge and understanding, he needed something that could be easily memorized but which had no prior cognitive associations.", "Easily formable associations with regular words would interfere with his results, so he used items that would later be called \"nonsense syllables\" (also known as the CVC trigram).", "A nonsense syllable is a consonant-vowel-consonant combination, where the consonant does not repeat and the syllable does not have prior meaning.", "BOL (sounds like \"Ball\") and DOT (already a word) would then not be allowed.", "However, syllables such as DAX, BOK, and YAT would all be acceptable (though Ebbinghaus left no examples).", "After eliminating the meaning-laden syllables, Ebbinghaus ended up with 2,300 resultant syllables.", "Once he had created his collection of syllables, he would pull out a number of random syllables from a box and then write them down in a notebook.", "Then, to the regular sound of a metronome, and with the same voice inflection, he would read out the syllables, and attempt to recall them at the end of the procedure.", "One investigation alone required 15,000 recitations.Figure 6 from ''Über das Gedächtnis.''", "Ebbinghaus found that he could recite 6-8 random syllables correctly after only one reading, but not more than 8.So he studied how many repetitive readings it takes for a subject to memorize more syllables.", "This is plotted in the graph.", "The x-axis is number of syllables and the y-axis is the number of required repetitive readings for memorizing.It was later determined that humans impose meaning even on nonsense syllables to make them more meaningful.", "The nonsense syllable PED (which is the first three letters of the word \"pedal\") turns out to be less nonsensical than a syllable such as KOJ; the syllables are said to differ in association value.", "It appears that Ebbinghaus recognized this, and only referred to the strings of syllables as \"nonsense\" in that the syllables might be less likely to have a specific meaning and he should make no attempt to make associations with them for easier retrieval.===Limitations===There are several limitations to his work on memory.", "The most important one was that Ebbinghaus was the only subject in his study.", "This limited the study's generalizability to the population.", "Although he attempted to regulate his daily routine to maintain more control over his results, his decision to avoid the use of participants sacrificed the external validity of the study despite sound internal validity.", "In addition, although he tried to account for his personal influences, there is an inherent bias when someone serves as researcher as well as participant.", "Also, Ebbinghaus's memory research halted research in other, more complex matters of memory such as semantic and procedural memory and mnemonics.===Contributions===In 1885, he published his groundbreaking ''Über das Gedächtnis'' (\"On Memory\", later translated to English as ''Memory.", "A Contribution to Experimental Psychology'') in which he described experiments he conducted on himself to describe the processes of learning and forgetting.Ebbinghaus made several findings that are still relevant and supported to this day.", "First, Ebbinghaus made a set of 2,300 three letter syllables to measure mental associations that helped him find that memory is orderly.", "Second, and arguably his most famous finding, was the forgetting curve.", "The forgetting curve describes the exponential loss of information that one has learned.", "The sharpest decline occurs in the first twenty minutes and the decay is significant through the first hour.", "The curve levels off after about one day.A typical representation of the forgetting curveThe learning curve described by Ebbinghaus refers to how fast one learns information.", "The sharpest increase occurs after the first try and then gradually evens out, meaning that less and less new information is retained after each repetition.", "Like the forgetting curve, the learning curve is exponential.", "Ebbinghaus had also documented the serial position effect, which describes how the position of an item affects recall.", "The two main concepts in the serial position effect are recency and primacy.", "The recency effect describes the increased recall of the most recent information because it is still in the short-term memory.", "The primacy effect causes better memory of the first items in a list due to increased rehearsal and commitment to long-term memory.Another important discovery is that of savings.", "This refers to the amount of information retained in the subconscious even after this information cannot be consciously accessed.", "Ebbinghaus would memorize a list of items until perfect recall and then would not access the list until he could no longer recall any of its items.", "He then would relearn the list, and compare the new learning curve to the learning curve of his previous memorization of the list.", "The second list was generally memorized faster, and this difference between the two learning curves is what Ebbinghaus called \"savings\".", "Ebbinghaus also described the difference between involuntary and voluntary memory, the former occurring \"with apparent spontaneity and without any act of the will\" and the latter being brought \"into consciousness by an exertion of the will\".Prior to Ebbinghaus, most contributions to the study of memory were undertaken by philosophers and centered on observational description and speculation.", "For example, Immanuel Kant used pure description to discuss recognition and its components and Sir Francis Bacon claimed that the simple observation of the rote recollection of a previously learned list was \"no use to the art\" of memory.", "This dichotomy between descriptive and experimental study of memory would resonate later in Ebbinghaus's life, particularly in his public argument with former colleague Wilhelm Dilthey.", "However, more than a century before Ebbinghaus, Johann Andreas Segner invented the \"Segner-wheel\" to see the length of after-images by seeing how fast a wheel with a hot coal attached had to move for the red ember circle from the coal to appear complete (see iconic memory).Ebbinghaus's effect on memory research was almost immediate.", "With very few works published on memory in the previous two millennia, Ebbinghaus's works spurred memory research in the United States in the 1890s, with 32 papers published in 1894 alone.", "This research was coupled with the growing development of mechanized mnemometers (an outdated mechanical device used for presenting a series of stimuli to be memorized).The reaction to his work in his day was mostly positive.", "Noted psychologist William James called the studies \"heroic\" and said that they were \"the single most brilliant investigation in the history of psychology\".", "Edward B. Titchener also mentioned that the studies were the greatest undertaking in the topic of memory since Aristotle." ], [ "Sentence completion, illusion and research report standardization", "Ebbinghaus pioneered sentence completion exercises, which he developed in studying the abilities of schoolchildren.", "Alfred Binet borrowed and incorporated them into the Binet-Simon intelligence scale.", "Sentence completion was used extensively in memory research, especially in measuring implicit memory, and in psychotherapy to help find patients' motivations.", "He influenced Charlotte Bühler, who studied language meaning and society.The Ebbinghaus Illusion.", "Note that the orange circles appear of different sizes, despite their being equal.Ebbinghaus discovered an optical illusion now known as the Ebbinghaus illusion, based on relative size perception.", "In it, two circles of identical size are placed near to each other.", "One is surrounded by large circles while the other is surrounded by small circles, making the first appear smaller.", "This illusion is now used extensively in cognitive psychology research, to help map perception pathways in the human brain.Ebbinghaus drafted the first standard research report.", "He arranged his paper on memory into four sections: the introduction, the methods, the results, and the discussion.", "The clear organization of this format so impressed his contemporaries that it became standard in the discipline." ], [ "Discourse on the nature of psychology", "In addition to pioneering experimental psychology, Ebbinghaus was also a strong defender of this direction of the new science, as is illustrated by his public dispute with University of Berlin colleague, Wilhelm Dilthey.", "Shortly after Ebbinghaus left Berlin in 1893, Dilthey published a paper extolling the virtues of descriptive psychology, and condemning experimental psychology as boring, claiming that the mind was too complex, and that introspection was the desired method of studying the mind.", "The debate at the time had been primarily whether psychology should aim to explain or understand the mind and whether it belonged to the natural or human sciences.", "Many had seen Dilthey's work as an outright attack on experimental psychology, Ebbinghaus included, and he responded to Dilthey with a personal letter and also a long scathing public article.", "Amongst his counterarguments against Dilthey he mentioned that it is inevitable for psychology to do hypothetical work and that the kind of psychology that Dilthey was attacking was the one that existed before Ebbinghaus's \"experimental revolution\".", "Charlotte Bühler echoed his words some forty years later, stating that people like Ebbinghaus \"buried the old psychology in the 1890s\".", "Ebbinghaus explained his scathing review by saying that he could not believe that Dilthey was advocating the status quo of structuralists like Wilhelm Wundt and Titchener and attempting to stifle psychology's progress." ], [ "Influences", "There has been some speculation as to what influenced Ebbinghaus in his undertakings.", "None of his professors seem to have influenced him, nor are there suggestions that his colleagues affected him.", "Von Hartmann's work, on which Ebbinghaus based his doctorate, did suggest that higher mental processes were hidden from view, which may have spurred Ebbinghaus to attempt to prove otherwise.", "The one influence that has always been cited as having inspired Ebbinghaus was Gustav Fechner's two-volume ''Elemente der Psychophysik.''", "(\"Elements of Psychophysics\", 1860), a book which he purchased second-hand in England.", "It is said that the meticulous mathematical procedures impressed Ebbinghaus so much that he wanted to do for psychology what Fechner had done for psychophysics.", "This inspiration is also evident in that Ebbinghaus dedicated his second work ''Principles of Psychology'' to Fechner, signing it \"I owe everything to you.\"" ], [ "Selected publications", "* Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). ''", "Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology.''", "New York: Dover.", "* Ebbinghaus, H. (1902).", "''Grundzüge der Psychologie''.", "Leipzig: Veit & Co.* Ebbinghaus, H. (1908). ''", "Psychology: An elementary textbook.''", "New York: Arno Press." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Introduction to ''Memory.''", "by Robert H. Wozniak* Hermann Ebbinghaus at the Human Intelligence website* Short biography, bibliography, and links on digitized sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hilbert (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Hilbert''' (1862–1943) was a German mathematician.", "'''Hilbert''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* 12022 Hilbert, an asteroid* Hilbert (crater), on the Moon* Hilbert, West Virginia, an unincorporated community* Hilbert, Wisconsin, a village* Hilbert Wildlife Management Area, West Virginia" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hilbert (name), listing people with Hilbert as a given or family name* USS ''Hilbert'' (DE-742), a US Navy destroyer escort of World War II* Hilbert College, Hamburg, New York* Hilbert High School, Hilbert, Wisconsin" ], [ "See also", "* Hibbert, a surname" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hindi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Modern Standard Hindi''' (Hindi: , ), commonly referred to as '''Hindi''' (Hindi: , ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in North India, and serves as the ''lingua franca'' of the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India.", "Hindi has been described as a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language, which itself is based primarily on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas of North India.", "Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, is one of the two official languages of the Government of India, along with English.", "It is an official language in nine states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other states.", "Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India.Hindi is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi).", "Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as \"Hindi\" but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other nearby languages, such as Awadhi language and Bhojpuri language.", "Such languages include Fiji Hindi, which has an official status in Fiji, and Caribbean Hindustani, which is spoken in Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana.", "Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, standard Hindi is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu, another recognised register of Hindustani as both share a common colloquial base.Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English.", "If counted together with the mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.", "According to reports of ''Ethnologue'' (2022, 25th edition) Hindi is the third most-spoken language in the world including first and second language speakers.Hindi is the fastest growing language of India, followed by Kashmiri in the second place, with Meitei (officially called Manipuri) as well as Gujarati, in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India.———" ], [ "Terminology", "The term ''Hindī'' originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.", "It was borrowed from Classical Persian ''Hindī'' (Iranian Persian pronunciation: ''Hendi''), meaning \"of or belonging to ''Hind'' (India)\" (hence, \"Indian\").Another name ''Hindavī'' () or ''Hinduī'' () (from \"of or belonging to the Hindu/Indian people\") was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrau in his poetry.The terms ''\"Hindi\"'' and ''\"Hindu\"'' trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name ''Sindhu'' (), referring to the Indus River.", "The Greek cognates of the same terms are \"''Indus''\" (for the river) and \"''India''\" (for the land of the river).The term ''Modern Standard Hindi'' is commonly used to specifically refer the modern literary Hindi language, as opposed to colloquial and regional varieties that are also referred to as ''Hindi'' in a wider sense." ], [ "History", "===Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi===Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, through Shauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit ''apabhraṃśa'' \"corrupt\"), which emerged in the 7th century CE.The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are:* Compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding geminate consonants, sometimes with spontaneous nasalisation: Skt.", "''hasta'' \"hand\" > Pkt.", "''hattha'' > ''hāth''* Loss of all word-final vowels: ''rātri'' \"night\" > ''rattī'' > ''rāt''* Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants (-VNC- > -V̄̃C-): ''bandha'' \"bond\" > ''bā̃dh''* Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels (reflected in schwa deletion): ''susthira'' \"firm\" > ''sutthira'' > ''suthrā''* Collapsing of adjacent vowels (including separated by a hiatus: ''apara'' \"other\" > ''avara'' > ''aur''* Final ''-m'' to ''-ṽ'': ''grāma'' \"village\" > ''gāma'' > ''gāṽ''* Intervocalic ''-ḍ-'' to ''-ṛ-'' or ''-l-'': ''taḍāga'' \"pond\" > ''talāv'', ''naḍa'' \"reed\" > ''nal''.", "* ''v'' > ''b'': ''vivāha'' \"marriage\" > ''byāh''===Hindustani===During the period of Delhi Sultanate, which covered most of today's north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani.", "The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement, and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent, which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs.Standard Hindi is based on the Delhi dialect, the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region, which came to replace earlier prestige languages such as Awadhi and Braj.", "It has come out from the extraction of Persian and Arabic words from Khariboli.", "Earliest examples could be found as ''Prēm Sāgar'' by Lallu Lal, ''Batiyāl Pachīsī'' of Sadal Misra and ''Rānī Kētakī Kī Kahānī'' of Insha Allah Khan which were published in Devanagari script during early of the 19th centuries.Major Hindustani writers continued to refer to their tongue as '''Hindi''' or '''Hindavi''' till the early of 19th century.As Mirza Galib says in his Qādir Nāma written in Nastaliq script:John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language, which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India (including what is now present-day Pakistan) by British colonists and indigenous people.", "He compiled and authored ''An English-Hindustani Dictionary'', ''A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language'', ''The Oriental Linguist'', and many more.", "His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script, Nāgarī script, and in Roman transliteration.In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form.", "In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi.", "However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state.===Independent India===After independence, the Government of India instituted the following conventions:* Standardisation of grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in 1958 as ''A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi''.", "* Standardisation of the orthography, using the Devanagari script, by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing, to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters, and introducing diacritics to express sounds from other languages.On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing Urdu's previous usage in the British Indian Empire.", "To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue.", "As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language.", "Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day." ], [ "Official status", "===India===Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth.", "Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script.", "The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.", "(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.Article 351 of the Indian constitution states:It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351), with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice.", "However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.Article 344 (2b) stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government.", "In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.", "Hindi is an official language of Gujarat, along with Gujarati.", "It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi.", "Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories: Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India.", "This is often a source of friction and contentious debate.", "In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.", "In 2021, in a Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act case involving Gangam Sudhir Kumar Reddy, the Bombay High Court claimed Hindi is the national language while refusing Reddy bail, after he argued against his statutory rights being read in Hindi, despite being a native Telugu speaker.", "Reddy has filed a Special Leave Petition before the Supreme Court, challenging the Bombay High Court's observation, and contended that it failed to appreciate that Hindi is not the national language in India.", "In 2018, The Supreme Court has stayed a judgment of Madhya Pradesh High Court that held that the Hindi version of enactment will prevail if there is a variation in its Hindi version and English version.", "The prominence thus attached to English over Hindi in the judgement underlines the social significance of English over Hindi.===Fiji===Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji.", "It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji, where it referred to it as \"Hindustani\"; however, in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called \"Fiji Hindi\" as the official language.", "It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.===Nepal===Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census, and further by 1,225,950 people as a second language.", "A Hindi proponent, Indian-born Paramananda Jha, was elected vice-president of Nepal.", "He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008.This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies; there was general strike in 22 districts.", "Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept \"inactive\" as vice-president.", "An \"angry\" Jha said, \"I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali.", "I might rather take it in English.", "\"===South Africa===Hindi is a protected language in South Africa.", "According to the Constitution of South Africa, the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages.", "According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them – of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline.===United Arab Emirates===Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.", "As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue." ], [ "Geographical distribution", "Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains the Hindi Belt), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English.In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a ''lingua franca'' for the people living in Haflong, Assam who speak other languages natively.", "In Arunachal Pradesh, Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan.A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films, songs and actors in the region.Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal.", "Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the \"Hindi Belt\" of India.", "A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities.", "Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal; 863,077 in the United States of America; 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji; 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname; 100,000 in Uganda; 45,800 in the United Kingdom; 20,000 in New Zealand; 20,000 in Germany; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago; 3,000 in Singapore." ], [ "Comparison with Standard Urdu", "Linguistically, Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible.", "Both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words.", "However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more Sanskrit-derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi.", "Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar, a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu.", "Hindi is the most commonly used scheduled language in India and is one of the two official languages of the union, the other being English.", "Urdu is the national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan and is one of 22 scheduled languages of India, also having official status in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar." ], [ "Script", "Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida.", "Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right.", "Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi.===Romanization===The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script.", "Various other systems also exist, such as IAST, ITRANS and ISO 15919.Romanized Hindi, also called Hinglish, is the dominant form of Hindi online.", "In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanized Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi." ], [ "Phonology", " Consonants IPA Examples Devangari representation English approximation Hindi Urdu ISO 15919 ब् ca'''bb'''ie भ् clu'''bh'''ouse द् wi'''d'''th, Spanish an'''d'''ar ध् a'''dh'''ere (but dental) ज् bu'''dg'''ing झ् he'''dgeh'''og ड् American bir'''d''' ढ् American bir'''dh'''ouse ख़् '''f'''uss ग् a'''g'''o घ् lo'''gh'''ouseThe pause in ''\"uh-oh!", "\"'', bu'''tt'''er (glottal stop) ग़्Similar to the French R ह् a'''h'''ead ह् य् '''y'''uck क् s'''c'''ab ख् '''c'''ab ल् '''l'''eaf म् '''m'''uch न् pa'''n'''ther ण् American bur'''n''' ङ् or ba'''ng''' प् s'''p'''ot फ् '''p'''ot ‌‌‌क़् somewhat like '''c'''aught र् Trilled '''r'''ing र् र् American a'''t'''om ड़ American ga'''rt'''er ढ़ no English equivalent स् '''s'''un ष् '''shr'''ew श् '''sh'''oe त् similar to ou'''t'''think, Spanish '''t'''omarलतीफ़ा''la'''t̤'''īfa'' थ् '''t'''ub (but dental) च् ca'''tch''' छ् a'''ch'''oo ‌‌‌ट् s'''t'''ub (but retroflex) ठ् '''t'''ub (but retroflex) व् '''v'''at व् '''w'''ell ख़् Scottish lo'''ch''' ज़् '''z'''oo झ़् plea'''s'''ure Vowels IPA Examples Devanagari representation English approximation Hindi Urdu ISO 15919 आ or ा f'''a'''ther ए or े Scottish s'''ay''' ऐ or ै p'''e'''n ऐ or ै f'''ai'''ry अ '''a'''bout इ or ि s'''i'''t ई or ी s'''ea'''t ओ or ो Scottish s'''o''' औ or ौ American s'''aw''' उ or ु b'''oo'''k ऊ or ू m'''oo'''n ँ nasal vowel fa'''un'''(, etc.)", "Suprasegmentals IPA Example Notes stress(placed before stressed syllable) doubled consonant(placed after doubled consonant)" ], [ "Vocabulary", "Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:* '''Tatsam''' ( ) words: These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit (except for the absence of final case inflections).", "They include words inherited from Sanskrit via Prakrit which have survived without modification (e.g.", "Hindi ''nām'' / Sanskrit ''nāma'', \"name\", as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times (e.g.", "''prārthanā'', \"prayer\").", "Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit.", "Amongst nouns, the ''tatsam'' word could be the Sanskrit non-inflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.", "* '''Ardhatatsam''' ( ) words: Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed.", "(e.g.", "Hindi ''sūraj'' from Sanskrit ''sūrya'')* '''Tadbhav''' ( ) words: These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules (e.g.", "Sanskrit ''karma'', \"deed\" becomes Shauraseni Prakrit ''kamma'', and eventually Hindi ''kām'', \"work\") and are spelled differently from Sanskrit.", "* '''Deshaj''' ( ) words: These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either.", "Belonging to this category are onomatopoetic words or ones borrowed from local non-Indo-Aryan languages.", "* '''Videshī''' ( ) words: These include all loanwords from non-indigenous languages.", "The most frequent source languages in this category are Persian, Arabic, English and Portuguese.", "Examples are ''qila'' \"fort\" from Persian, ''kameṭī'' from English ''committee''.Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation (calqueing) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English.===Prakrit===Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit, in the form of ''tadbhava'' words.", "This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g.", "Sanskrit ''tīkṣṇa'' > Prakrit ''tikkha'' > Hindi ''tīkhā''.===Sanskrit===Much of Standard Hindi's vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as ''tatsam'' borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields.", "The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding ''tatsam'' words, is called ''Śuddh Hindi'' (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.Excessive use of ''tatsam'' words sometimes creates problems for native speakers.", "They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in Hindustani, causing difficulties in pronunciation.As a part of the process of Sanskritization, new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary.", "Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi.", "Some terms such as ''dūrbhāṣ'' \"telephone\", literally \"far-speech\" and ''dūrdarśan'' \"television\", literally \"far-sight\" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings ''(ṭeli)fon'' and ''ṭīvī''.===Persian===Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani.", "Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to Islam (e.g.", "''Muhammad'', ''Islām'') and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic.", "Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland.", "Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life.", "Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat, were assimilated into Hindi.The status of Persian language then and thus its influence, is also visible in Hindi proverbs:The emergence of Modern Standard Hindi in the 19th century went along with the Sanskritisation of its vocabulary, leading to a marginalisation of Persian vocabulary in Hindi, which continued after Partition when the Indian government co-opted the policy of Sanskritisation.", "However, many Persian words (e.g.", "''bas'' \"enough\", ''khud'' \"self\") have remained entrenched in Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script.", "Many words borrowed from Persian in turn were loanwords from Arabic (e.g.", "''muśkil'' \"difficult\", ''havā'' \"air\", ''x(a)yāl'' \"thought\", ''kitāb'' \"book\").+ Loanwords from Persian derived from Arabic Perso-Arabic word Hindi word Gloss time shirt book destiny chair calculation law news worldक़ानून ultimately comes from the Greek κανών (kanōn).", "क़मीज़ ultimately comes from the Latin \"camisia\" pronunciation reinforced by Portuguese \"camisa\".===Portuguese===Many Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries: Hindi Meaning Portuguese ''anānās'' (अनानास) pineapple ananás ''pādrī'' (पाद्री) priest padre ''bālṭī'' (बाल्टी) bucket balde ''čābī'' (चाबी) key chave ''girjā'' (गिर्जा) church igreja ''almārī'' (अलमारी) cupboard armário ''botal'' (बोतल) bottle botelha ''aspatāl'' (अस्पताल) hospital Hospital ''olandez'' (ओलंदेज़) Dutch holandês" ], [ "Media", "===Literature===Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being ''Bhakti'' (devotional – Kabir, Raskhan); ''Śṛṇgār'' (beauty – Keshav, Bihari); ''Vīgāthā'' (epic); and ''Ādhunik'' (modern).Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long, epic poems.", "It was primarily written in other varieties of Hindi, particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, but to a degree also in Delhavi, the basis for Standard Hindi.", "During the British Raj, Hindustani became the prestige dialect.", "''Chandrakanta'', written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.", "The person who brought realism in Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement.", "Literary, or ''Sāhityik'', Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others.", "The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people.The ''Dvivedī Yug'' (\"Age of Dwivedi\") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918.It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge.", "This is known as ''Chāyāvād'' (''shadow-ism'') and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as ''Chāyāvādī''.", "Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major ''Chāyāvādī'' poets.", "''Uttar Ādhunik'' is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the ''Chāyāvādī'' movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.===Internet===Hindi literature, music, and film have all been disseminated via the internet.", "In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi.", "Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions." ], [ "Sample text", "The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):;Hindi in Devanagari Script::;;Transliteration (ISO)::;Transcription (IPA)::;Gloss (word-to-word)::Article 1 (one) ''–'' All humans birth from independent and dignity and rights in equal are.", "They logic and conscience from endowed are and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should.", ";Translation (grammatical)::Article 1 ''–'' All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with logic and conscience and they should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity." ], [ "See also", "Hindi BeltBengali Language Movement (Manbhum)Hindi Divas – the official day to celebrate Hindi as a language.", "Languages of IndiaLanguages with official status in India Indian states by most spoken scheduled languagesList of English words of Hindi or Urdu originList of Hindi channels in Europe (by type)List of languages by number of native speakers in IndiaList of Sanskrit and Persian roots in HindiWorld Hindi Secretariat" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography=== * Grierson, G. A.", "''Linguistic Survey of India'' Vol I-XI, Calcutta, 1928, (searchable database).", "* * * * * * * * * * * * ===Dictionaries===* .", "* * * Academic Room Hindi Dictionary Mobile App developed in the Harvard Innovation Lab (iOS, Android and Blackberry)* ===Further reading===* * Bhatia, Tej K. ''A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition''.", "Leiden, Netherlands & New York, NY: E.J.", "Brill, 1987." ], [ "External links", "* * The Union: Official Language* Official Unicode Chart for Devanagari (PDF)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Huginn and Muninn" ], [ "Introduction", "Huginn and Muninn sit on Odin's shoulders in an illustration from an 18th-century Icelandic manuscriptIn Norse mythology, '''Huginn''' (Old Norse: \"thought\") and '''Muninn''' (Old Norse \"memory\" or \"mind\") are a pair of ravens that fly all over the world, Midgard, and bring information to the god Odin.", "Huginn and Muninn are attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources: the ''Prose Edda'' and ''Heimskringla''; in the ''Third Grammatical Treatise'', compiled in the 13th century by Óláfr Þórðarson; and in the poetry of skalds.", "The names of the ravens are sometimes anglicized as '''Hugin''' and '''Munin''', the same spelling as used in modern Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish.In the ''Poetic Edda'', a disguised Odin expresses that he fears that they may not return from their daily flights.", "The ''Prose Edda'' explains that Odin is referred to as ''Hrafnaguð'' (O.N.", ": ; \"raven-god\") due to his association with Huginn and Muninn.", "In the ''Prose Edda'' and the ''Third Grammatical Treatise'', the two ravens are described as perching on Odin's shoulders.", "''Heimskringla'' details that Odin gave Huginn and Muninn the ability to speak.Examples of artifacts that may depict Odin with one of the ravens include Migration Period golden bracteates, Vendel era helmet plates, a pair of identical Germanic Iron Age bird-shaped brooches, Viking Age objects depicting a moustached man wearing a helmet, and a portion of the 10th or 11th century Thorwald's Cross.", "Huginn and Muninn's role as Odin's messengers has been linked to shamanic practices, the Norse raven banner, general raven symbolism among the Germanic peoples, and the Norse concepts of the fylgja and the hamingja.", "\"Huginn\" and \"Muninn\" are the names for the missions of European Space Agency astronauts – respectively of Andreas Mogensen of Denmark, and Marcus Wandt of Sweden – which are set to coincide aboard the International Space Station in January 2024." ], [ "Attestations", "Odin enthroned and holding his spear Gungnir, flanked by his ravens Huginn and Muninn and wolves Geri and Freki (1882) by Carl Emil DoeplerIn the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Grímnismál'', the god Odin (disguised as ''Grímnir'') provides the young Agnarr with information about Odin's companions.", "He tells the prince about Odin's wolves Geri and Freki, and, in the next stanza of the poem, states that Huginn and Muninn fly daily across the entire world, Midgard.", "Grímnir says that he worries Huginn may not come back, yet more does he fear for Muninn::Benjamin Thorpe translation::Hugin and Munin fly each day:over the spacious earth.", ":I fear for Hugin, that he come not back,:yet more anxious am I for Munin.", ":Henry Adams Bellows translation::O'er Mithgarth Hugin and Munin both:Each day set forth to fly;:For Hugin I fear lest he come not home,:But for Munin my care is more.In the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Gylfaginning'' (chapter 38), the enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri (king Gylfi in disguise) that two ravens named Huginn and Muninn sit on Odin's shoulders.", "The ravens tell Odin everything they see and hear.", "Odin sends Huginn and Muninn out at dawn, and the birds fly all over the world before returning at dinner-time.", "As a result, Odin is kept informed of many events.", "High adds that it is from this association that Odin is referred to as \"raven-god\".", "The above-mentioned stanza from ''Grímnismál'' is then quoted.In the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Skáldskaparmál'' (chapter 60), Huginn and Muninn appear in a list of poetic names for ravens.", "In the same chapter, excerpts from a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason are provided.", "In these excerpts Muninn is referenced in a common noun for 'raven' and Huginn is referenced in a kenning for 'carrion'.In the ''Heimskringla'' book ''Ynglinga saga'', a euhemerized account of the life of Odin is provided.", "Chapter 7 describes that Odin had two ravens, and upon these ravens he bestowed the gift of speech.", "These ravens flew all over the land and brought him information, causing Odin to become \"very wise in his lore.", "\"In the ''Third Grammatical Treatise'' an anonymous verse is recorded that mentions the ravens flying from Odin's shoulders; Huginn seeking hanged men, and Muninn slain bodies.", "The verse reads::Two ravens flew from Hnikar’s Óðinn’s:shoulders; Huginn to the hanged and:Muninn to the slain lit.", "corpses." ], [ "Archaeological record", "C-type bracteate (DR BR42) featuring a figure above a horse flanked by a bird.A plate from a Vendel era helmet featuring a figure riding a horse, holding a spear and shield, and confronted by a serpent.", "The rider is accompanied by two birds.Migration Period (5th and 6th centuries CE) gold bracteates (types A, B, and C) feature a depiction of a human figure above a horse, holding a spear and flanked by one or more often two birds.", "The presence of the birds has led to the iconographic identification of the human figure as the god Odin, flanked by Huginn and Muninn.", "Like Snorri's ''Prose Edda'' description of the ravens, a bird is sometimes depicted at the ear of the human, or at the ear of the horse.", "Bracteates have been found in Denmark, Sweden, Norway and, in smaller numbers, England and areas south of Denmark.", "Austrian Germanist Rudolf Simek states that these bracteates may depict Odin and his ravens healing a horse and may indicate that the birds were originally not simply his battlefield companions but also \"Odin's helpers in his veterinary function.", "\"Vendel era helmet plates (from the 6th or 7th century) found in a grave in Sweden depict a helmeted figure holding a spear and a shield while riding a horse, flanked by two birds.", "The plate has been interpreted as Odin accompanied by two birds: his ravens.A pair of identical Germanic Iron Age bird-shaped brooches from Bejsebakke in northern Denmark may be depictions of Huginn and Muninn.", "The back of each bird features a mask motif, and the feet of the birds are shaped like the heads of animals.", "The feathers of the birds are also composed of animal heads.", "Together, the animal heads on the feathers form a mask on the back of the bird.", "The birds have powerful beaks and fan-shaped tails, indicating that they are ravens.", "The brooches were intended to be worn on each shoulder, after Germanic Iron Age fashion.", "Archaeologist Peter Vang Petersen comments that while the symbolism of the brooches is open to debate, the shape of the beaks and tail feathers confirm that the brooch depictions are ravens.", "Petersen notes that \"raven-shaped ornaments worn as a pair, after the fashion of the day, one on each shoulder, makes one's thoughts turn towards Odin's ravens and the cult of Odin in the Germanic Iron Age.\"", "Petersen says that Odin is associated with disguise and that the masks on the ravens may be portraits of Odin.The Oseberg tapestry fragments, discovered within the Viking Age Oseberg ship burial in Norway, feature a scene containing two black birds hovering over a horse, possibly originally leading a wagon (as a part of a procession of horse-led wagons on the tapestry).", "In her examination of the tapestry, scholar Anne Stine Ingstad interprets these birds as Huginn and Muninn flying over a covered cart containing an image of Odin, drawing comparison with the images of Nerthus attested by Tacitus in 1 CE.Excavations in Ribe in Denmark have recovered a Viking Age lead metal-caster's mould and 11 identical casting-moulds.", "These objects depict a moustached man wearing a helmet that features two head-ornaments.", "Archaeologist Stig Jensen proposes that these ornaments should be interpreted as Huginn and Muninn, and the wearer as Odin.", "He notes that \"similar depictions occur everywhere the Vikings went—from eastern England to Russia and naturally also in the rest of Scandinavia.", "\"A portion of Thorwald's Cross (a partly surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man) depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, and a large bird on his shoulder.", "Andy Orchard comments that this bird may be either Huginn or Muninn.", "Rundata dates the cross to 940, while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century.", "This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with a raven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by the monstrous wolf Fenrir during the events of Ragnarök.In November 2009, the Roskilde Museum announced the discovery and subsequent display of a niello-inlaid silver figurine found in Lejre, Denmark, which they dubbed \"Odin from Lejre\".", "The silver object depicts a person sitting on a throne.", "The throne features the heads of animals and is flanked by two birds.", "The Roskilde Museum identifies the figure as Odin sitting on his throne Hliðskjálf, flanked by the ravens Huginn and Muninn." ], [ "Interpretations", "Scholars have linked Odin's relation to Huginn and Muninn to shamanic practice.", "John Lindow relates Odin's ability to send his \"thought\" (Huginn) and \"mind\" (Muninn) to the trance-state journey of shamans.", "Lindow says the ''Grímnismál'' stanza where Odin worries about the return of Huginn and Muninn \"would be consistent with the danger that the shaman faces on the trance-state journey.", "\"Rudolf Simek is critical of the approach, stating that \"attempts have been made to interpret Odin's ravens as a personification of the god's intellectual powers, but this can only be assumed from the names Huginn and Muninn themselves which were unlikely to have been invented much before the 9th or 10th centuries\" yet that the two ravens, as Odin's companions, appear to derive from much earlier times.", "Instead, Simek connects Huginn and Muninn with wider raven symbolism in the Germanic world, including the raven banner (described in English chronicles and Scandinavian sagas), a banner which was woven in a method that allowed it, when fluttering in the wind, to appear as if the raven depicted upon it was beating its wings.Anthony Winterbourne connects Huginn and Muninn to the Norse concepts of the fylgja—a concept with three characteristics; shape-shifting abilities, good fortune, and the guardian spirit—and the hamingja—the ghostly double of a person that may appear in the form of an animal.", "Winterbourne states that \"The shaman's journey through the different parts of the cosmos is symbolized by the ''hamingja'' concept of the shape-shifting soul, and gains another symbolic dimension for the Norse soul in the account of Oðin's ravens, Huginn and Muninn.\"", "In response to Simek's criticism of attempts to interpret the ravens \"philosophically\", Winterbourne says that \"such speculations ... simply strengthen the conceptual significance made plausible by other features of the mythology\" and that the names ''Huginn'' and ''Muninn'' \"demand more explanation than is usually provided.", "\"The ''Heliand'', an Old Saxon adaptation of the New Testament from the 9th century, differs from the New Testament in that an explicit reference is made to a dove sitting on the shoulder of Christ.", "Regarding this, G. Ronald Murphy says \"In placing the powerful white dove not just above Christ, but right on his shoulder, the ''Heliand'' author has portrayed Christ, not only as the Son of the All-Ruler, but also as a new Woden.", "This deliberate image of Christ triumphantly astride the land with the magnificent bird on his shoulders (the author is perhaps a bit embarrassed that the bird is an unwarlike dove!)", "is an image intended to calm the fears and longings of those who mourn the loss of Woden and who want to return to the old religion's symbols and ways.", "With this image, Christ becomes a Germanic god, one into whose ears the Spirit of the Almighty whispers\".Bernd Heinrich theorizes that Huginn and Muninn, along with Odin and his wolves Geri and Freki, reflect a symbiosis observed in the natural world among ravens, wolves, and humans on the hunt::In a biological symbiosis one organism typically shores up some weakness or deficiency of the other(s).", "As in such a symbiosis, Odin the father of all humans and gods, though in human form was imperfect by himself.", "As a separate entity he lacked depth perception (being one-eyed) and he was apparently also uninformed and forgetful.", "But his weaknesses were compensated by his ravens, Hugin (mind) and Munin (memory) who were part of him.", "They perched on his shoulders and reconnoitered to the ends of the earth each day to return in the evening and tell him the news.", "He also had two wolves at his side, and the man/god-raven-wolf association was like one single organism in which the ravens were the eyes, mind, and memory, and the wolves the providers of meat and nourishment.", "As god, Odin was the ethereal part—he only drank wine and spoke only in poetry.", "I wondered if the Odin myth was a metaphor that playfully and poetically encapsulates ancient knowledge of our prehistoric past as hunters in association with two allies to produce a powerful hunting alliance.", "It would reflect a past that we have long forgotten and whose meaning has been obscured and badly frayed as we abandoned our hunting cultures to become herders and agriculturists, to whom ravens act as competitors." ], [ "See also", "* ''Hrafnsmál'', a 9th-century Old Norse poem consisting of a conversation between a valkyrie and a raven* List of names of Odin, which include ''Hrafnaguð'' and ''Hrafnáss'' (both meaning 'raven god')* Valravn, a supernatural \"raven of the slain\" appearing in 19th-century Danish folk songs* Hugin and Munin (Marvel Comics), Marvel Comics characters based on the Norse originals* Yatagarasu, the 3-legged Crow familiar of the Shinto Kami, Amaterasu.", "* Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown, a game with 2 final bosses of the same name as the ravens." ], [ "References", "===Sources===Bellows, Henry Adams (1923).", "''The Poetic Edda''.", "American-Scandinavian Foundation.", "Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.)", "(1995).", "''Edda''.", "Everyman.", "Hollander, Lee Milton.", "(Trans.)", "(2007). ''", "Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway''.", "University of Texas Press.", "Ingstad, Anne Stine (1995).", "\"The Interpretation of the Oseberg-find\" as published in Crumlin-Pedersen, Ole and Thye, Birgitte Munch (Editors).", "''The Ship as Symbol in Prehistoric and Medieval Scandinavia: Papers from an International Research Seminar at the Danish National Museum, Copenhagen, 5–7 May 1994''.", "Nationalmuseet.", "Jansson, Sven B.", "(1987).", "''Runes in Sweden''.", "Stockholm, Gidlund.", "Jensen, Stig (1990).", "\"Odin from Ribe\" as collected in ''Oldtidens Ansigt: Faces of the Past''.", "Det kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab.", "Lindow, John (2001). ''", "Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs''.", "Oxford University Press.", "Heinrich, Bernd (2006 1999).", "''The Mind of the Raven''.", "Harper Perennial.", "Murphy, G. Ronald.", "1989.", "''The Saxon Savior''.", "Oxford University Press.", "Orchard, Andy (1997).", "''Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend''.", "Cassell.", "Petersen, Peter Vang (1990).", "\"Odin's Ravens\" as collected in ''Oldtidens Ansigt: Faces of the Past''.", "Det kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab.", "Rundata 2.0 for Windows.", "Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall.", "''Dictionary of Northern Mythology''.", "D.S.", "Brewer.", "Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans) (1907).", "''Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða The Edda of Sæmund the Learned''.", "Part I. London Trübner & CoWills, Tarrin (2006).", "\"The Anonymous Verse in the Third Grammatical Treatise\" As published in McKinnell, John, Ashurst, David.", "Donata, Kick.", "(Editors).", "''The Fantastic in Old Norse/Icelandic Literature, Sagas, and the British Isles: Preprint Papers of The 13th International Saga Conference Durham and York, 6–12 August 2006''.", "Durham : The Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Studies.", "Online.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heat engine" ], [ "Introduction", "Figure 1: Heat engine diagramIn thermodynamics and engineering, a '''heat engine''' is a system that converts heat to usable energy, particularly mechanical energy, which can then be used to do mechanical work.", "While originally conceived in the context of mechanical energy, the concept of the heat engine has been applied to various other kinds of energy, particularly electrical, since at least the late 19th century.", "The heat engine does this by bringing a working substance from a higher state temperature to a lower state temperature.", "A heat source generates thermal energy that brings the working substance to the higher temperature state.", "The working substance generates work in the working body of the engine while transferring heat to the colder sink until it reaches a lower temperature state.", "During this process some of the thermal energy is converted into work by exploiting the properties of the working substance.", "The working substance can be any system with a non-zero heat capacity, but it usually is a gas or liquid.", "During this process, some heat is normally lost to the surroundings and is not converted to work.", "Also, some energy is unusable because of friction and drag.In general, an engine is any machine that converts energy to mechanical work.", "Heat engines distinguish themselves from other types of engines by the fact that their efficiency is fundamentally limited by Carnot's theorem.", "Although this efficiency limitation can be a drawback, an advantage of heat engines is that most forms of energy can be easily converted to heat by processes like exothermic reactions (such as combustion), nuclear fission, absorption of light or energetic particles, friction, dissipation and resistance.", "Since the heat source that supplies thermal energy to the engine can thus be powered by virtually any kind of energy, heat engines cover a wide range of applications.Heat engines are often confused with the cycles they attempt to implement.", "Typically, the term \"engine\" is used for a physical device and \"cycle\" for the models." ], [ "Overview", "In thermodynamics, heat engines are often modeled using a standard engineering model such as the Otto cycle.", "The theoretical model can be refined and augmented with actual data from an operating engine, using tools such as an indicator diagram.", "Since very few actual implementations of heat engines exactly match their underlying thermodynamic cycles, one could say that a thermodynamic cycle is an ideal case of a mechanical engine.", "In any case, fully understanding an engine and its efficiency requires a good understanding of the (possibly simplified or idealised) theoretical model, the practical nuances of an actual mechanical engine and the discrepancies between the two.In general terms, the larger the difference in temperature between the hot source and the cold sink, the larger is the potential thermal efficiency of the cycle.", "On Earth, the cold side of any heat engine is limited to being close to the ambient temperature of the environment, or not much lower than 300 kelvin, so most efforts to improve the thermodynamic efficiencies of various heat engines focus on increasing the temperature of the source, within material limits.", "The maximum theoretical efficiency of a heat engine (which no engine ever attains) is equal to the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends divided by the temperature at the hot end, each expressed in absolute temperature.The efficiency of various heat engines proposed or used today has a large range:3% (97 percent waste heat using low quality heat) for the ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) ocean power proposal25% for most automotive gasoline engines49% for a supercritical coal-fired power station such as the Avedøre Power Station60% for a combined cycle gas turbineThe efficiency of these processes is roughly proportional to the temperature drop across them.", "Significant energy may be consumed by auxiliary equipment, such as pumps, which effectively reduces efficiency." ], [ "Examples", "It is important to note that although some cycles have a typical combustion location (internal or external), they often can be implemented with the other.", "For example, John Ericsson developed an external heated engine running on a cycle very much like the earlier Diesel cycle.", "In addition, externally heated engines can often be implemented in open or closed cycles.", "In a closed cycle the working fluid is retained within the engine at the completion of the cycle whereas is an open cycle the working fluid is either exchanged with the environment together with the products of combustion in the case of the internal combustion engine or simply vented to the environment in the case of external combustion engines like steam engines and turbines.===Everyday examples===Everyday examples of heat engines include the thermal power station, internal combustion engine, firearms, refrigerators and heat pumps.", "Power stations are examples of heat engines run in a forward direction in which heat flows from a hot reservoir and flows into a cool reservoir to produce work as the desired product.", "Refrigerators, air conditioners and heat pumps are examples of heat engines that are run in reverse, i.e.", "they use work to take heat energy at a low temperature and raise its temperature in a more efficient way than the simple conversion of work into heat (either through friction or electrical resistance).", "Refrigerators remove heat from within a thermally sealed chamber at low temperature and vent waste heat at a higher temperature to the environment and heat pumps take heat from the low temperature environment and 'vent' it into a thermally sealed chamber (a house) at higher temperature.In general heat engines exploit the thermal properties associated with the expansion and compression of gases according to the gas laws or the properties associated with phase changes between gas and liquid states.===Earth's heat engine===Earth's atmosphere and hydrosphere—Earth's heat engine—are coupled processes that constantly even out solar heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds and ocean circulation, when distributing heat around the globe.A Hadley cell is an example of a heat engine.", "It involves the rising of warm and moist air in the earth's equatorial region and the descent of colder air in the subtropics creating a thermally driven direct circulation, with consequent net production of kinetic energy.===Phase-change cycles===In these cycles and engines, the working fluids are gases and liquids.", "The engine converts the working fluid from a gas to a liquid, from liquid to gas, or both, generating work from the fluid expansion or compression.", "Rankine cycle (classical steam engine)Regenerative cycle (steam engine more efficient than Rankine cycle)Organic Rankine cycle (Coolant changing phase in temperature ranges of ice and hot liquid water)Vapor to liquid cycle (Drinking bird, Injector, Minto wheel)Liquid to solid cycle (Frost heaving – water changing from ice to liquid and back again can lift rock up to 60 cm.", ")Solid to gas cycle (firearms – solid propellants combust to hot gases.", ")===Gas-only cycles===In these cycles and engines the working fluid is always a gas (i.e., there is no phase change):Carnot cycle (Carnot heat engine)Ericsson cycle (Caloric Ship John Ericsson)Stirling cycle (Stirling engine, thermoacoustic devices)Internal combustion engine (ICE):Otto cycle (e.g.", "Gasoline/Petrol engine)Diesel cycle (e.g.", "Diesel engine)Atkinson cycle (Atkinson engine)Brayton cycle or Joule cycle originally Ericsson cycle (gas turbine)Lenoir cycle (e.g., pulse jet engine)Miller cycle (Miller engine)===Liquid-only cycles===In these cycles and engines the working fluid are always like liquid:Stirling cycle (Malone engine)Heat Regenerative Cyclone===Electron cycles===Johnson thermoelectric energy converterThermoelectric (Peltier–Seebeck effect)Thermogalvanic cellThermionic emissionThermotunnel cooling===Magnetic cycles===Thermo-magnetic motor (Tesla)===Cycles used for refrigeration=== A domestic refrigerator is an example of a heat pump: a heat engine in reverse.", "Work is used to create a heat differential.", "Many cycles can run in reverse to move heat from the cold side to the hot side, making the cold side cooler and the hot side hotter.", "Internal combustion engine versions of these cycles are, by their nature, not reversible.Refrigeration cycles include:Air cycle machineGas-absorption refrigeratorMagnetic refrigerationStirling cryocoolerVapor-compression refrigerationVuilleumier cycle===Evaporative heat engines===The Barton evaporation engine is a heat engine based on a cycle producing power and cooled moist air from the evaporation of water into hot dry air.===Mesoscopic heat engines===Mesoscopic heat engines are nanoscale devices that may serve the goal of processing heat fluxes and perform useful work at small scales.", "Potential applications include e.g.", "electric cooling devices.", "In such mesoscopic heat engines, work per cycle of operation fluctuates due to thermal noise.", "There is exact equality that relates average of exponents of work performed by any heat engine and the heat transfer from the hotter heat bath.", "This relation transforms the Carnot's inequality into exact equality.", "This relation is also a Carnot cycle equality" ], [ "Efficiency", "The efficiency of a heat engine relates how much useful work is output for a given amount of heat energy input.From the laws of thermodynamics, after a completed cycle:::and therefore::where: is the net work extracted from the engine in one cycle.", "(It is negative, in the IUPAC convention, since work is ''done by'' the engine.", "): is the heat energy taken from the high temperature heat source in the surroundings in one cycle.", "(It is positive since heat energy is ''added'' to the engine.", "): is the waste heat given off by the engine to the cold temperature heat sink.", "(It is negative since heat is ''lost'' by the engine to the sink.", ")In other words, a heat engine absorbs heat energy from the high temperature heat source, converting part of it to useful work and giving off the rest as waste heat to the cold temperature heat sink.In general, the efficiency of a given heat transfer process is defined by the ratio of \"what is taken out\" to \"what is put in\".", "(For a refrigerator or heat pump, which can be considered as a heat engine run in reverse, this is the coefficient of performance and it is ≥ 1.)", "In the case of an engine, one desires to extract work and has to put in heat , for instance from combustion of a fuel, so the engine efficiency is reasonably defined as:The efficiency is less than 100% because of the waste heat unavoidably lost to the cold sink (and corresponding compression work put in) during the required recompression at the cold temperature before the power stroke of the engine can occur again.The ''theoretical'' maximum efficiency of any heat engine depends only on the temperatures it operates between.", "This efficiency is usually derived using an ideal imaginary heat engine such as the Carnot heat engine, although other engines using different cycles can also attain maximum efficiency.", "Mathematically, after a full cycle, the overall change of entropy is zero:Note that is positive because isothermal expansion in the power stroke increases the multiplicity of the working fluid while is negative since recompression decreases the multiplicity.", "If the engine is ideal and runs reversibly, and , and thus,which gives and thus the Carnot limit for heat-engine efficiency,:where is the absolute temperature of the hot source and that of the cold sink, usually measured in kelvins.The reasoning behind this being the '''maximal''' efficiency goes as follows.", "It is first assumed that if a more efficient heat engine than a Carnot engine is possible, then it could be driven in reverse as a heat pump.", "Mathematical analysis can be used to show that this assumed combination would result in a net decrease in entropy.", "Since, by the second law of thermodynamics, this is statistically improbable to the point of exclusion, the Carnot efficiency is a theoretical upper bound on the reliable efficiency of ''any'' thermodynamic cycle.Empirically, no heat engine has ever been shown to run at a greater efficiency than a Carnot cycle heat engine.Figure 2 and Figure 3 show variations on Carnot cycle efficiency with temperature.", "Figure 2 indicates how efficiency changes with an increase in the heat addition temperature for a constant compressor inlet temperature.", "Figure 3 indicates how the efficiency changes with an increase in the heat rejection temperature for a constant turbine inlet temperature.Figure 2: Carnot cycle efficiency with changing heat addition temperature.Figure 3: Carnot cycle efficiency with changing heat rejection temperature.===Endo-reversible heat-engines===By its nature, any maximally efficient Carnot cycle must operate at an infinitesimal temperature gradient; this is because any transfer of heat between two bodies of differing temperatures is irreversible, therefore the Carnot efficiency expression applies only to the infinitesimal limit.", "The major problem is that the objective of most heat-engines is to output power, and infinitesimal power is seldom desired.A different measure of ideal heat-engine efficiency is given by considerations of endoreversible thermodynamics, where the system is broken into reversible subsystems, but with non reversible interactions between them.", "A classical example is the Curzon–Ahlborn engine, very similar to a Carnot engine, but where the thermal reservoirs at temperature and are allowed to be different from the temperatures of the substance going through the reversible Carnot cycle: and .", "The heat transfers between the reservoirs and the substance are considered as conductive (and irreversible) in the form .", "In this case, a tradeoff has to be made between power output and efficiency.", "If the engine is operated very slowly, the heat flux is low, and the classical Carnot result is found :,but at the price of a vanishing power output.", "If instead one chooses to operate the engine at its maximum output power, the efficiency becomes: (Note: ''T'' in units of K or °R)This model does a better job of predicting how well real-world heat-engines can do (Callen 1985, see also endoreversible thermodynamics):+'''Efficiencies of power stations''' ''Power station'' (°C) (°C) (Carnot) (Endoreversible) (Observed) West Thurrock (UK) coal-fired power station 25 565 0.64 0.40 0.36 CANDU (Canada) nuclear power station 25 300 0.48 0.28 0.30 Larderello (Italy) geothermal power station 80 250 0.33 0.178 0.16As shown, the Curzon–Ahlborn efficiency much more closely models that observed." ], [ "History", "Heat engines have been known since antiquity but were only made into useful devices at the time of the industrial revolution in the 18th century.", "They continue to be developed today." ], [ "Enhancements", "Engineers have studied the various heat-engine cycles to improve the amount of usable work they could extract from a given power source.", "The Carnot cycle limit cannot be reached with any gas-based cycle, but engineers have found at least two ways to bypass that limit and one way to get better efficiency without bending any rules:#Increase the temperature difference in the heat engine.", "The simplest way to do this is to increase the hot side temperature, which is the approach used in modern combined-cycle gas turbines.", "Unfortunately, physical limits (such as the melting point of the materials used to build the engine) and environmental concerns regarding NOx production (if the heat source is combustion with ambient air) restrict the maximum temperature on workable heat-engines.", "Modern gas turbines run at temperatures as high as possible within the range of temperatures necessary to maintain acceptable NOx output .", "Another way of increasing efficiency is to lower the output temperature.", "One new method of doing so is to use mixed chemical working fluids, then exploit the changing behavior of the mixtures.", "One of the most famous is the so-called Kalina cycle, which uses a 70/30 mix of ammonia and water as its working fluid.", "This mixture allows the cycle to generate useful power at considerably lower temperatures than most other processes.#Exploit the physical properties of the working fluid.", "The most common such exploitation is the use of water above the critical point (supercritical water).", "The behavior of fluids above their critical point changes radically, and with materials such as water and carbon dioxide it is possible to exploit those changes in behavior to extract greater thermodynamic efficiency from the heat engine, even if it is using a fairly conventional Brayton or Rankine cycle.", "A newer and very promising material for such applications is supercritical CO2.SO2 and xenon have also been considered for such applications.", "Downsides include issues of corrosion and erosion, the different chemical behavior above and below the critical point, the needed high pressures and – in the case of sulfur dioxide and to a lesser extent carbon dioxide – toxicity.", "Among the mentioned compounds xenon is least suitable for use in a nuclear reactor due to the high neutron absorption cross section of almost all isotopes of xenon, whereas carbon dioxide and water can also double as a neutron moderator for a thermal spectrum reactor.#Exploit the chemical properties of the working fluid.", "A fairly new and novel exploit is to use exotic working fluids with advantageous chemical properties.", "One such is nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a toxic component of smog, which has a natural dimer as di-nitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4).", "At low temperature, the N2O4 is compressed and then heated.", "The increasing temperature causes each N2O4 to break apart into two NO2 molecules.", "This lowers the molecular weight of the working fluid, which drastically increases the efficiency of the cycle.", "Once the NO2 has expanded through the turbine, it is cooled by the heat sink, which makes it recombine into N2O4.This is then fed back by the compressor for another cycle.", "Such species as aluminium bromide (Al2Br6), NOCl, and Ga2I6 have all been investigated for such uses.", "To date, their drawbacks have not warranted their use, despite the efficiency gains that can be realized." ], [ "Heat engine processes", "Each process is one of the following:isothermal (at constant temperature, maintained with heat added or removed from a heat source or sink)isobaric (at constant pressure)isometric/isochoric (at constant volume), also referred to as iso-volumetricadiabatic (no heat is added or removed from the system during adiabatic process)isentropic (reversible adiabatic process, no heat is added or removed during isentropic process)" ], [ "See also", "Carnot heat engineCogenerationEinstein refrigeratorHeat pumpReciprocating engine for a general description of the mechanics of piston enginesStirling engineThermosynthesisTimeline of heat engine technology" ], [ "References", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heimdall" ], [ "Introduction", "''Heimdallr brings forth the gift of the gods to humanity'' (1907) by Nils AsplundIn Norse mythology, '''Heimdall''' (from Old Norse '''Heimdallr''') is a god.", "He is the son of Odin and nine mothers.", "Heimdall keeps watch for invaders and the onset of Ragnarök from his dwelling Himinbjörg, where the burning rainbow bridge Bifröst meets the sky.", "He is attested as possessing foreknowledge and keen senses, particularly eyesight and hearing.", "The god and his possessions are described in enigmatic manners.", "For example, Heimdall is emerald-toothed, \"the head is called his sword,\" and he is \"the whitest of the gods.", "\"Heimdall possesses the resounding horn Gjallarhorn and the golden-maned horse Gulltoppr, along with a store of mead at his dwelling.", "He is the son of Nine Mothers, and he is said to be the originator of social classes among humanity.", "Other notable stories include the recovery of Freyja's treasured possession Brísingamen while doing battle in the shape of a seal with Loki.", "The antagonistic relationship between Heimdall and Loki is notable, as they are foretold to kill one another during the events of Ragnarök.", "Heimdallr is also known as '''Rig''', '''Hallinskiði''', '''Gullintanni''', and '''Vindlér''' or '''Vindhlér'''.Heimdall is attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional material; in the ''Prose Edda'' and ''Heimskringla'', both written in the 13th century; in the poetry of skalds; and on an Old Norse runic inscription found in England.", "Two lines of an otherwise lost poem about the god, ''Heimdalargaldr'', survive.", "Due to the enigmatic nature of these attestations, scholars have produced various theories about the nature of the god, including his relation to sheep, borders, and waves." ], [ "Names and etymology", "The etymology of the name is obscure, but 'the one who illuminates the world' has been proposed.", "''Heimdallr'' may be connected to ''Mardöll'', one of Freyja's names.", "''Heimdallr'' and its variants are usually anglicized as ''Heimdall'' (; with the nominative ''-r'' dropped).Heimdall is attested as having three other names; ''Hallinskiði'', ''Gullintanni'', and ''Vindlér'' or ''Vindhlér''.", "The name ''Hallinskiði'' is obscure, but has resulted in a series of attempts at deciphering it.", "''Gullintanni'' literally means 'the one with the golden teeth'.", "''Vindlér'' (or ''Vindhlér'') translates as either 'the one protecting against the wind' or 'wind-sea'.", "All three have resulted in numerous theories about the god." ], [ "Attestations", "===Saltfleetby spindle whorl inscription===A lead spindle whorl bearing an Old Norse Younger Futhark inscription that mentions Heimdall was discovered in Saltfleetby, England on September 1, 2010.The spindle whorl itself is dated from the year 1000 to 1100 AD.", "On the inscription, the god Heimdallr is mentioned alongside the god Odin and Þjálfi, a name of one of the god Thor's servants.", "Regarding the inscription reading, John Hines of Cardiff University comments that there is \"quite an essay to be written over the uncertainties of translation and identification here; what are clear, and very important, are the names of two of the Norse gods on the side, Odin and Heimdallr, while Þjalfi (masculine, not the feminine in -a) is the recorded name of a servant of the god Thor.", "\"===''Poetic Edda''===In the ''Poetic Edda'', Heimdall is attested in six poems; ''Völuspá'', ''Grímnismál'', ''Lokasenna'', ''Þrymskviða'', ''Rígsþula'', and ''Hrafnagaldr Óðins''.Heimdall is mentioned three times in ''Völuspá''.", "In the first stanza of the poem, the undead völva reciting the poem calls out for listeners to be silent and refers to the Norse god:Benjamin Thorpe translation::For silence I pray all sacred children,:great and small, sons of Heimdall.", ":they will that I Valfather's deeds recount,:men's ancient saws, those that I best remember.Henry Adams Bellows translation::Hearing I ask from the holy races,:From Heimdall's sons, both high and low;:Thou wilt, Valfather, that well I relate.", ":Old tales I remember of men long ago.This stanza has led to various scholarly interpretations.", "The \"holy races\" have been considered variously as either humanity or the gods.", "The notion of humanity as \"Heimdall's sons\" is otherwise unattested and has also resulted in various interpretations.", "Some scholars have pointed to the prose introduction to the poem ''Rígsþula'', where Heimdall is said to have once gone about people, slept between couples, and so doled out classes among them (see ''Rígsthula'' section below).Heimdall blows Gjallarhorn in an 1895 illustration by Lorenz Frølich.Later in ''Völuspá'', the völva foresees the events of Ragnarök and the role in which Heimdall and Gjallarhorn will play at its onset; Heimdall will raise his horn and blow loudly.", "Due to manuscript differences, translations of the stanza vary:Benjamin Thorpe translation::Mim's sons dance,:but the central tree takes fire,:at the resounding Giallar-horn.", ":Loud blows Heimdall,:his horn is raised; Odin speaks with Mim's head.Henry Adams Bellows translation::Fast move the sons of Mim and fate:Is heard in the note of the Gjallarhorn;:Loud blows Heimdall, the horn is aloft,:In fear quake all who on Hel-roads are.Regarding this stanza, scholar Andy Orchard comments that the name ''Gjallarhorn'' may here mean \"horn of the river Gjöll\" as \"Gjöll is the name of one of the rivers of the Underworld, whence much wisdom is held to derive\", but notes that in the poem ''Grímnismál'' Heimdall is said to drink fine mead in his heavenly home Himinbjörg.Earlier in the same poem, the völva mentions a scenario involving the hearing or horn (depending on translation of the Old Norse noun ''hljóð''—translations bolded below for the purpose of illustration) of the god Heimdall::Benjamin Thorpe translation::She knows that '''Heimdall's horn''' is hidden:under the heaven-bright holy tree.", ":A river she sees flow, with foamy fall,:from Valfather's pledge.", ":Understand ye yet, or what?", ":Henry Adams Bellows translation::I know of the '''horn of Heimdall''', hidden:Under the high-reaching holy tree;:On it there pours from Valfather's pledge:A mighty stream: would you know yet more?", ":Carolyne Larrington translation::She knows that '''Heimdall's hearing''' is hidden:under the radiant, sacred tree;:she sees, pouring down, the muddy torrent:from the wager of Father of the Slain; do you:understand yet, or what more?Scholar Paul Schach comments that the stanzas in this section of '' Völuspá'' are \"all very mysterious and obscure, as it was perhaps meant to be\".", "Schach details that \"''Heimdallar hljóð'' has aroused much speculation.", "Snorri in the ''Prose Edda'' seems to have confused this word with ''gjallarhorn'', but there is otherwise no attestation of the use of ''hljóð'' in the sense of 'horn' in Icelandic.", "Various scholars have read this as \"hearing\" rather than \"horn\".Scholar Carolyne Larrington comments that if \"hearing\" rather than \"horn\" is understood to appear in this stanza, the stanza indicates that Heimdall, like Odin, has left a body part in the well; his ear.", "Larrington says that \"Odin exchanged one of his eyes for wisdom from Mimir, guardian of the well, while Heimdall seems to have forfeited his ear.", "\"In the poem ''Grímnismál'', Odin (disguised as ''Grímnir''), tortured, starved and thirsty, tells the young Agnar of a number of mythological locations.", "The eighth location he mentions is Himinbjörg, where he says that Heimdall drinks fine mead:Benjamin Thorpe translation::Himinbiörg is the eighth, where Heimdall,:it is said, rules o'er the holy fanes::there the gods' watchman, in his tranquil home,:drinks joyful the good mead.Henry Adams Bellows translation::Himingbjorg is the eighth, and Heimdall there:O'er men holds sway, it is said;:In his well-built house does the warder of heaven:The good mead gladly drink.Regarding the above stanza, Henry Adams Bellows comments that \"in this stanza the two functions of Heimdall—as father of humanity .", ".", ".", "and as warder of the gods—seem both to be mentioned, but the second line in the manuscripts is apparently in bad shape, and in the editions it is more or less conjecture\".In the poem ''Lokasenna'', Loki flyts with various gods who have met together to feast.", "At one point during the exchanges, the god Heimdall says that Loki is drunk and witless, and asks Loki why he won't stop speaking.", "Loki tells Heimdall to be silent, that he was fated a \"hateful life\", that Heimdall must always have a muddy back, and that he must serve as watchman of the gods.", "The goddess Skaði interjects and the flyting continues in turn.The poem ''Þrymskviða'' tells of Thor's loss of his hammer, Mjöllnir, to the jötnar and quest to get it back.", "At one point in the tale, the gods gather at the thing and debate how to get Thor's hammer back from the jötnar, who demand the beautiful goddess Freyja in return for it.", "Heimdall advises that they simply dress Thor up as Freyja, during which he is described as ''hvítastr ása'' (translations of the phrase vary below) and is said to have foresight like the Vanir, a group of gods:Benjamin Thorpe translation::Then said Heimdall, of Æsir brightest—:he well foresaw, like other Vanir—:Let us clothe Thor with bridal raiment,:let him have the famed Brîsinga necklace.", ":\"Let by his side keys jingle,:and woman's weeds fall around his knees,:but on his breast place precious stones,:and a neat coif set on his head.", "\"Henry Adams Bellows translation::Then Heimdall spake, whitest of the gods,:Like the Wanes he knew the future well::\"Bind we on Thor the bridal veil,:Let him bear the mighty Brisings' necklace;:\"Keys around him let there rattle,:And down to his knees hang woman's dress;:With gems full broad upon his breast,:And a pretty cap to crown his head.", "\"Jeramy Dodds translation::The most glittering of gods, Heimdall, who,:like the Vanir, is gifted with the gift of foresight,:said: 'Let's strap a bridal veil over Thor's face:and let him don the Brising necklace.", ":'Let the wedlock keys jingle around his waist,:and dress him in a woman's dress to his knees:and loop giant gems across his chest:and top him off with a stylish headdress.", "'Regarding Heimdall's status as ''hvítastr ása'' (variously translated above as \"brightest\" (Thorpe), \"whitest\" (Bellows), and \"most glittering\" (Dodds)) and the comparison to the Vanir, scholar John Lindow comments that there are no other indications of Heimdall being considered among the Vanir (on Heimdall's status as \"''hvítastr ása ''\", see \"scholarly reception\" below).", "''Rig in Great-grandfather's Cottage'' (1908) by W. G. CollingwoodThe introductory prose to the poem ''Rígsþula'' says that \"people say in the old stories\" that Heimdall, described as a god among the Æsir, once fared on a journey.", "Heimdall wandered along a seashore, and referred to himself as ''Rígr''.", "In the poem, Rígr, who is described as a wise and powerful god, walks in the middle of roads on his way to steads, where he meets a variety of couples and dines with them, giving them advice and spending three nights at a time between them in their bed.", "The wives of the couples become pregnant, and from them come the various classes of humanity.Eventually a warrior home produces a promising boy, and as the boy grows older, Rígr comes out of a thicket, teaches the boy runes, gives him a name, and proclaims him to be his son.", "Rígr tells him to strike out and get land for himself.", "The boy does so, and so becomes a great war leader with many estates.", "He marries a beautiful woman and the two have many children and are happy.", "One of the children eventually becomes so skilled that he is able to share in runic knowledge with Heimdall, and so earns the title of ''Rígr'' himself.", "The poem breaks off without further mention of the god.===''Prose Edda''===The cock Gullinkambi atop his head and the burning rainbow bridge Bifröst in the background, Heimdall blows into Gjallarhorn while holding a sword with a man's face on it (a reference to the \"man's head\" kenning).", "Illustration (1907) by J. T. Lundbye.In the ''Prose Edda'', Heimdall is mentioned in the books ''Gylfaginning'', ''Skáldskaparmál'', and ''Háttatal''.", "In ''Gylfaginning'', the enthroned figure of High tells the disguised mythical king Gangleri of various gods, and, in chapter 25, mentions Heimdall.", "High says that Heimdall is known as \"the white As\", is \"great and holy\", and that nine maidens, all sisters, gave birth to him.", "Heimdall is called ''Hallinskiði'' and ''Gullintanni'', and he has gold teeth.", "High continues that Heimdall lives in \"a place\" called Himinbjörg and that it is near Bifröst.", "Heimdall is the watchman of the gods, and he sits on the edge of heaven to guard the Bifröst bridge from the berg jötnar.", "Heimdall requires less sleep than a bird, can see at night just as well as if it were day, and for over a hundred leagues.", "Heimdall's hearing is also quite keen; he can hear grass as it grows on the earth, wool as it grows on sheep, and anything louder.", "Heimdall possesses a trumpet, Gjallarhorn, that, when blown, can be heard in all worlds, and \"the head is referred to as Heimdall's sword\".", "High then quotes the above-mentioned ''Grímnismál'' stanza about Himinbjörg and provides two lines from the otherwise lost poem about Heimdall, ''Heimdalargaldr'', in which he proclaims himself to be the son of Nine Mothers.In chapter 49, High tells of the god Baldr's funeral procession.", "Various deities are mentioned as having attended, including Heimdall, who there rode his horse Gulltopr.In chapter 51, High foretells the events of Ragnarök.", "After the enemies of the gods will gather at the plain Vígríðr, Heimdall will stand and mightily blow into Gjallarhorn.", "The gods will awake and assemble together at the thing.", "At the end of the battle between various gods and their enemies, Heimdall will face Loki and they will kill one another.", "After, the world will be engulfed in flames.", "High then quotes the above-mentioned stanza regarding Heimdall raising his horn in ''Völuspá''.At the beginning of ''Skáldskaparmál'', Heimdall is mentioned as having attended a banquet in Asgard with various other deities.", "Later in the book, ''Húsdrápa'', a poem by 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason, is cited, during which Heimdall is described as having ridden to Baldr's funeral pyre.In chapter 8, means of referring to Heimdall are provided; \"son of nine mothers\", \"guardian of the gods\", \"the white As\" (see ''Poetic Edda'' discussion regarding ''hvítastr ása'' above), \"Loki's enemy\", and \"recoverer of Freyja's necklace\".", "The section adds that the poem ''Heimdalargaldr'' is about him, and that, since the poem, \"the head has been called Heimdall's doom: man's doom is an expression for sword\".", "Hiemdallr is the owner of Gulltoppr, is also known as Vindhlér, and is a son of Odin.", "Heimdall visits Vágasker and Singasteinn and there vied with Loki for Brísingamen.", "According to the chapter, the skald Úlfr Uggason composed a large section of his ''Húsdrápa'' about these events and that ''Húsdrápa'' says that the two were in the shape of seals.", "A few chapters later, ways of referring to Loki are provided, including \"wrangler with Heimdall and Skadi\", and section of Úlfr Uggason's ''Húsdrápa'' is then provided in reference:Renowned defender Heimdall of the powers' way Bifrost, kind of counsel, competes with Farbauti's terribly sly son at Singastein.", "Son of eight mothers plus one, might of mood, is first to get hold of the beautiful sea-kidney jewel, Brisingamen.", "I announce it in strands of praise.The chapter points out that in the above ''Húsdrápa'' section Heimdall is said to be the son of nine mothers.Heimdall is mentioned once in ''Háttatal''.", "There, in a composition by Snorri Sturluson, a sword is referred to as \"Vindhlér's helmet-filler\", meaning \"Heimdall's head\".===''Heimskringla''===In ''Ynglinga saga'' compiled in ''Heimskringla'', Snorri presents a euhemerized origin of the Norse gods and rulers descending from them.", "In chapter 5, Snorri asserts that the Æsir settled in what is now Sweden and built various temples.", "Snorri writes that Odin settled in Lake Logrin \"at a place which formerly was called Sigtúnir.", "There he erected a large temple and made sacrifices according to the custom of the Æsir.", "He took possession of the land as far as he had called it Sigtúnir.", "He gave dwelling places to the temple priests.\"", "Snorri adds that, after this, Njörðr dwelt in Nóatún, Freyr dwelt in Uppsala, Heimdall at Himinbjörg, Thor at Þrúðvangr, Baldr at Breiðablik and that to everyone Odin gave fine estates." ], [ "Visual depictions", "The Gosforth Cross panel often held to depict Heimdall with GjallarhornA figure holding a large horn to his lips and clasping a sword on his hip appears on a stone cross from the Isle of Man.", "Some scholars have theorized that this figure is a depiction of Heimdall with Gjallarhorn.A 9th or 10th century Gosforth Cross in Cumbria, England depicts a figure holding a horn and a sword standing defiantly before two open-mouthed beasts.", "This figure has been often theorized as depicting Heimdall with Gjallarhorn." ], [ "Scholarly reception", "Heimdall's attestations have proven troublesome and enigmatic to interpret for scholars.", "A variety of sources describe the god as born from Nine Mothers, a puzzling description (for more in-depth discussion, see Nine Mothers of Heimdallr).", "Various scholars have interpreted this as a reference to the Nine Daughters of Ægir and Rán, personifications of waves.", "This would therefore mean Heimdall is born from the waves, an example of a deity born from the sea.In the textual corpus, Heimdall is frequently described as maintaining a particular association with boundaries, borders, and liminal spaces, both spatial and temporal.", "For example, ''Gylfaginning'' describes the god as guarding the border of the land of the gods, Heimdall meets humankind at a coast, and, if accepted as describing Heimdall, ''Völuspá hin skamma'' describes him as born 'at the edge of the world' in 'days of yore' by the Nine Daughters of Ægir and Rán, and it is Heimdall's horn that signals the transition to the events of Ragnarök.Additionally, Heimdall has a particular association with male sheep, rams.", "A form of the deity's name, ''Heimdali'', occurs twice as a name for 'ram' in ''Skáldskaparmál'', as does Heimdall's name ''Hallinskíði''.", "Heimdall's unusual physical description has also been seen by various scholars as fitting this association: As mentioned above, Heimdall is described as gold-toothed (by way of his name ''Gullintanni''), as having the ability to hear grass grow and the growth of wool on sheep, and as owning a sword called 'head' (rams have horns on their heads).", "This may mean that Heimdall was associated with the ram perhaps as a sacred and/or sacrificial animal or that the ancient Scandinavians may have conceived of him as having been a ram in appearance.All of these topics—Heimdall's birth, his association with borders and boundaries, and his connection to sheep—have led to significant discussion among scholars.", "For example, influential philologist and folklorist Georges Dumézil, comparing motifs and clusters of motifs in western Europe, proposes the following explanation for Heimdall's birth and association with rams (italics are Dumézil's own):" ], [ "In popular culture", "As with many aspects of Norse mythology, Heimdall has appeared in many modern works.", "Heimdall appears as a character in Marvel Comics and is portrayed in the film versions by English actor Idris Elba.Heimdall is the namesake of a crater on Callisto, a moon of Jupiter.Heimdall is the protagonist of an eponymous video game released in 1991 and its 1994 sequel, ''Heimdall 2''.", "In the 2002 Ensemble Studios game ''Age of Mythology'', Heimdall is one of 12 gods the Norse can choose to worship.", "Heimdallr is one of the playable gods in the multiplayer online battle arena game ''Smite''.", "Heimdall also appears as an antagonist in the 2022 action-adventure video game ''God of War Ragnarök'' and is played by the American actor Scott Porter." ], [ "See also", "* Heimdall (comics)* List of Germanic deities* Germanic mythology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Bellows, Henry Adams (1923).", "''The Poetic Edda''.", "American-Scandinavian Foundation.", "* Cöllen, Sebastian (2015).", "''Heimdallr – der rätselhafte Gott.", "Eine philologische und religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung''.", "Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde 94.Berlin & Boston: Walter de Gruyter.", "* Daubney, A.", "(2010).", "''LIN-D92A22: Early Medieval Spindle Whorl''.", "Accessed: Jun 9, 2011 10:42:37 AM.", "* Dodds, Jeramy.", "Trans.", "2014.", "''The Poetic Edda''.", "Coach House Books.", "* Dumézil, Georges (1973).", "\"Comparative Remarks on the Scandinavian God Heimdall\".", "Trans.", "Francis Charat.", "In: ''Gods of the Ancient Northmen'' ed.", "Einar Haugen.", "University of California Press.", "* Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.)", "(1995).", "''Edda''.", "Everyman.", "* Hollander, Lee M.", "(Trans.)", "(2007). ''", "Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway''.", "University of Texas Press.", "* Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.)", "(1999).", "''The Poetic Edda''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Lindow, John (2002).", "''Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Much, Rudolf 1930.", "\"Der nordische Widdergott\".", "''Deutsche Islandforschung 1930'', Vol.", "1: ''Kultur'', ed.", "Walther Heinrich Vogt, Veröffentlichungen der Schleswig- Holsteinischen Universitätsgesellschaft, 1928:1 (Breslau: F. Hirt, 1930), p.", "63–67.", "* Schach, Paul (1985).", "\"Some Thoughts on ''Völuspá''\" as collected in Glendinning, R. J. Bessason, Heraldur (Editors). ''", "Edda: a Collection of Essays.''", "University of Manitoba Press.", "* Simek, Rudolf (2007).", "Translated by Angela Hall. ''", "Dictionary of Northern Mythology''.", "D.S.", "Brewer * Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.)", "(1866) ''The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson''.", "Norrœna Society." ], [ "External links", "* MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Heimdall from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "House of Lords" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''House of Lords''' is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.", "Like the lower house, the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England.", "One of the oldest institutions in the world, its origins lie in the early 11th century and the emergence of bicameralism in the 13th century.In contrast to the House of Commons, membership of the Lords is not generally acquired by election.", "Most members are appointed for life, on either a political or non-political basis.", "Hereditary membership was abolished in 1999, save for 92 excepted hereditary peers: 90 elected through internal by-elections, plus the Earl Marshal and Lord Great Chamberlain as members ''ex officio''.", "No members directly inherit their seats any longer.", "The House of Lords also includes up to 26 archbishops and bishops of the Church of England, known as Lords Spiritual.", "Since 2014, membership may be voluntarily relinquished or terminated upon expulsion.As the upper house of Parliament, the House of Lords has many similar functions to the House of Commons.", "It scrutinises legislation, holds the government to account, and considers and reports upon public policy.", "Peers may also seek to introduce legislation or propose amendments to bills.", "While it is unable to prevent bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it may delay the enactment of bills for up to one year.", "In this capacity, as a body independent from the pressures of the political process, the House of Lords is said to act as a \"revising chamber\" focusing on legislative detail, while occasionally asking the House of Commons to reconsider its plans.", "While peers may also serve as government ministers, they are typically only selected to serve as junior ministers.", "The House of Lords does not control the term of the prime minister or of the government; only the Commons may vote to require the prime minister to resign or call an election.", "Unlike the House of Commons, which has a defined number of seats, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed.", "Currently, it has sitting members.", "The House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament in the world to be larger than its lower house, and is the second-largest legislative chamber in the world, behind the National People's Congress of China.The King's Speech is delivered in the House of Lords chamber during the State Opening of Parliament.", "In addition to its role as the upper house, the House of Lords, through the Law Lords, acted as the final court of appeal in the United Kingdom judicial system until the establishment of the Supreme Court in 2009.The House of Lords also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual." ], [ "History", "Today's Parliament of the United Kingdom largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, through the Treaty of Union of 1706 and the Acts of Union that implemented and executed the Treaty in 1707 and created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland.", "This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 Members of Parliament (MPs) and 16 Peers to represent Scotland.The House of Lords developed from the \"Great Council\" (''Magnum Concilium'') that advised the king during medieval times, dating back to the early 11th century.", "This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the counties of England and Wales (afterwards, representatives of the boroughs as well).", "The first English Parliament is often considered to be either Simon de Montfort's Parliament (held in 1265) or the \"Model Parliament\" (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs.The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined.", "For example, during much of the reign of Edward II (1307–1327), the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless.During the reign of King Edward II's successor, Edward III, Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the archbishops, bishops, abbots and nobility).", "The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and during the early 15th century both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before.", "The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons because of the great influence of the great landowners and the prelates of the realm.The power of the nobility declined during the civil wars of the late 15th century, known as the Wars of the Roses.", "Much of the nobility was killed on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown.", "Moreover, feudalism was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete.", "Henry VII (1485–1509) clearly established the supremacy of the monarch, symbolised by the \"Crown Imperial\".", "The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the Tudor monarchs in the 16th century.", "The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of Henry VIII (1509–1547).The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House continued to grow in influence, reaching a zenith in relation to the House of Lords during the middle 17th century.", "Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the English Civil War during the 1640s.", "In 1649, after the defeat and execution of King Charles I, the Commonwealth of England was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.The House of Lords was reduced to a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government.", "On 19 March 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that \"The Commons of England find by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England.\"", "The House of Lords did not assemble again until the Convention Parliament met in 1660 and the monarchy was restored.", "It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament—a position it would occupy until the 19th century.Queen Anne addressing the House of Lords, c. 1708–1714, by Peter Tillemans An early 19th-century illustration showing the east wall of the House of Lords in the centre.The rejection of the People's Budget, proposed by David Lloyd George (above), precipitated a political crisis in 1909.The House of Lords voting for the Parliament Act 1911 ===19th century===The 19th century was marked by several changes to the House of Lords.", "The House, once a body of only about 50 members, had been greatly enlarged by the liberality of George III and his successors in creating peerages.", "The individual influence of a Lord of Parliament was thus diminished.Moreover, the power of the House as a whole decreased, whilst that of the House of Commons grew.", "Particularly notable in the development of the Lower House's superiority was the Reform Act of 1832.The electoral system of the House of Commons was far from democratic: property qualifications greatly restricted the size of the electorate, and the boundaries of many constituencies had not been changed for centuries.", "Entire cities such as Manchester had not even one representative in the House of Commons, while the 11 voters of Old Sarum retained their ancient right to elect two MPs despite living elsewhere.", "A small borough was susceptible to bribery, and was often under the control of a patron, whose nominee was guaranteed to win an election.", "Some aristocrats were patrons of numerous \"pocket boroughs\", and therefore controlled a considerable part of the membership of the House of Commons.When the House of Commons passed a Reform Bill to correct some of these anomalies in 1831, the House of Lords rejected the proposal.", "The popular cause of reform, however, was not abandoned by the ministry, despite a second rejection of the bill in 1832.Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey advised the King to overwhelm opposition to the bill in the House of Lords by creating about 80 new pro-Reform peers.", "William IV originally balked at the proposal, which effectively threatened the opposition of the House of Lords, but at length relented.Before the new peers were created, however, the Lords who opposed the bill admitted defeat and abstained from the vote, allowing the passage of the bill.", "The crisis damaged the political influence of the House of Lords but did not altogether end it.", "A vital reform was effected by the Lords themselves in 1868, when they changed their standing orders to abolish proxy voting, preventing Lords from voting without taking the trouble to attend.", "Over the course of the century the powers of the upper house were further reduced stepwise, culminating in the 20th century with the Parliament Act 1911; the Commons gradually became the stronger House of Parliament.===20th century===''Punch'' 1911 cartoon shows Asquith and Lloyd George preparing coronets for 500 new peers to threaten takeover of the House of LordsThe status of the House of Lords returned to the forefront of debate after the election of a Liberal Government in 1906.In 1909 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced into the House of Commons the \"People's Budget\", which proposed a land tax targeting wealthy landowners.", "The popular measure, however, was defeated in the heavily Conservative House of Lords.Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were narrowly re-elected in January 1910.The Liberals had lost most of their support in the Lords, which was routinely rejecting Liberals' bills.", "Prime Minister H. H. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed.", "After a further general election in December 1910, and with a reluctant promise by King George V to create sufficient new Liberal peers to overcome the Lords' opposition to the measure if necessary, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords.", "The Parliament Act 1911 effectively abolished the power of the House of Lords to reject legislation, or to amend it in a way unacceptable to the House of Commons; and most bills could be delayed for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years.", "It was not meant to be a permanent solution; more comprehensive reforms were planned.", "Neither party, however, pursued reforms with much enthusiasm, and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary.", "The Parliament Act 1949 reduced the delaying power of the House of Lords further to two sessions or one year.", "In 1958, the predominantly hereditary nature of the House of Lords was changed by the Life Peerages Act 1958, which authorised the creation of life baronies, with no numerical limits.", "The number of life peers then gradually increased, though not at a constant rate.The Labour Party had, for most of the 20th century, a commitment, based on the party's historic opposition to class privilege, to abolish the House of Lords, or at least expel the hereditary element.", "In 1968 the Labour Government of Harold Wilson attempted to reform the House of Lords by introducing a system under which hereditary peers would be allowed to remain in the House and take part in debate, but would be unable to vote.", "This plan, however, was defeated in the House of Commons by a coalition of traditionalist Conservatives (such as Enoch Powell), and Labour members who continued to advocate the outright abolition of the Upper House (such as Michael Foot).When Foot became leader of the Labour Party in 1980, abolition of the House of Lords became a part of the party's agenda; under his successor, Neil Kinnock, however, a reformed Upper House was proposed instead.", "In the meantime, the creation of new hereditary peerages (except for members of the Royal Family) has been arrested, with the exception of three that were created during the administration of Conservative PM Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s.Whilst some hereditary peers were at best apathetic, the Labour Party's clear commitments were not lost on Merlin Hanbury-Tracy, 7th Baron Sudeley, who for decades was considered an expert on the House of Lords.", "In December 1979 the Conservative Monday Club published his extensive paper entitled ''Lords Reform – Why tamper with the House of Lords?''", "and in July 1980 ''The Monarchist'' carried another article by Sudeley entitled \"Why Reform or Abolish the House of Lords?\".", "In 1990 he wrote a further booklet for the Monday Club entitled \"The Preservation of the House of Lords\".===21st century===In 2019, a seven-month enquiry by Naomi Ellenbogen QC found that one in five staff of the House had experienced bullying or harassment which they did not report for fear of reprisals.", "This was preceded by several cases, including Liberal Democrat Anthony Lester, Lord Lester of Herne Hill, of Lords using their position to sexually harass or abuse women.==== Proposed move ====On 19 January 2020, it was announced that the House of Lords may be moved from London to a city in Northern England, likely York, or Birmingham, in the Midlands, in an attempt to \"reconnect\" the area.", "It is unclear how the King's Speech would be conducted in the event of a move.", "The idea was received negatively by many peers.===Lords reform=======First admission of women====There were no women sitting in the House of Lords until 1958, when a small number came into the chamber as a result of the Life Peerages Act 1958.One of these was Irene Curzon, 2nd Baroness Ravensdale, who had inherited her father's peerage in 1925 and was made a life peer to enable her to sit.", "After a campaign stretching back in some cases to the 1920s, another twelve women who held hereditary peerages in their own right were admitted with the passage of the Peerage Act 1963.====New Labour era====The Labour Party included in its 1997 general election manifesto a commitment to remove the hereditary peerage from the House of Lords.", "Their subsequent election victory in 1997 under Tony Blair led to the denouement of the traditional House of Lords.", "The Labour government introduced legislation to expel all hereditary peers from the Upper House as a first step in Lords reform.", "As a part of a compromise, however, it agreed to permit 92 hereditary peers to remain until the reforms were complete.", "Thus, all but 92 hereditary peers were expelled under the House of Lords Act 1999 (see below for its provisions), making the House of Lords predominantly an appointed house.Since 1999, however, no further reform has taken place.", "In 2000, the Wakeham Commission proposed introducing a 20% elected element to the Lords, but this plan was widely criticised.", "A parliamentary Joint Committee was established in 2001 to resolve the issue, but it reached no conclusion and instead gave Parliament seven options to choose from (fully appointed, 20% elected, 40% elected, 50% elected, 60% elected, 80% elected, and fully elected).", "In a confusing series of votes in February 2003, all of these options were defeated, although the 80% elected option fell by just three votes in the Commons.", "Socialist MPs favouring outright abolition voted against all the options.In 2005, a cross-party group of senior MPs (Kenneth Clarke, Paul Tyler, Tony Wright, George Young, and Robin Cook) published a report proposing that 70% of members of the House of Lords should be elected – each member for a single long term – by the single transferable vote system.", "Most of the remainder were to be appointed by a Commission to ensure a mix of \"skills, knowledge and experience\".", "This proposal was also not implemented.", "A cross-party campaign initiative called \"Elect the Lords\" was set up to make the case for a predominantly elected Upper Chamber in the run up to the 2005 general election.At the 2005 election, the Labour Party proposed further reform of the Lords, but without specific details.", "The Conservative Party, which had, prior to 1997, opposed any tampering with the House of Lords, favoured an 80% elected Lords, while the Liberal Democrats called for a fully elected Senate.", "During 2006, a cross-party committee discussed Lords reform, with the aim of reaching a consensus: its findings were published in early 2007.On 7 March 2007, members of the House of Commons voted ten times on a variety of alternative compositions for the Upper Chamber.", "Outright abolition, a wholly appointed, a 20% elected, a 40% elected, a 50% elected, and a 60% elected House of Lords were all defeated in turn.", "Finally, the vote for an 80% elected Lords was won by 305 votes to 267, and the vote for a wholly elected Lords was won by an even greater margin, 337 to 224.Significantly, this last vote represented an overall majority of MPs.Furthermore, examination of the names of MPs voting at each division shows that, of the 305 who voted for the 80% elected option, 211 went on to vote for the 100% elected option.", "Given that this vote took place after the vote on 80% – whose result was already known when the vote on 100% took place – this showed a clear preference for a fully elected Upper House among those who voted for the only other option that passed.", "But this was nevertheless only an indicative vote, and many political and legislative hurdles remained to be overcome for supporters of an elected House of Lords.", "Lords, soon after, rejected this proposal and voted for an entirely appointed House of Lords.In July 2008, Jack Straw, the Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor, introduced a white paper to the House of Commons proposing to replace the House of Lords with an 80–100% elected chamber, with one third being elected at each general election, to serve a term of approximately 12–15 years.", "The white paper stated that, as the peerage would be totally separated from membership of the Upper House, the name \"House of Lords\" would no longer be appropriate.", "It went on to explain that there was cross-party consensus for the Chamber to be re-titled the \"Senate of the United Kingdom\"; however, to ensure the debate remained on the role of the Upper House rather than its title, the white paper was neutral on the title issue.On 30 November 2009, a ''Code of Conduct for Members of the House of Lords'' was agreed by them.", "Certain amendments were agreed by them on 30 March 2010 and on 12 June 2014.The scandal over expenses in the Commons was at its highest pitch only six months before, and the Labourite leadership under Janet Royall, Baroness Royall of Blaisdon determined that something sympathetic should be done.Meg Russell stated in an article, \"Is the House of Lords already reformed?", "\", three essential features of a legitimate House of Lords:The first was that it must have adequate powers over legislation to make the government think twice before making a decision.", "The House of Lords, she argued, had enough power to make it relevant.", "(In his first year, Tony Blair was defeated 38 times in the Lords—but that was before the major reform with the House of Lords Act 1999.", ")Second, as to the composition of the Lords, Meg Russell suggested that the composition must be distinct from the Commons, otherwise it would render the Lords useless.Third was the perceived legitimacy of the Lords.", "She stated, \"In general legitimacy comes with election.", "\"====2010–present====The House of Lords paid tribute to Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, 12 April 2021The Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreed, after the 2010 general election, to outline clearly a provision for a wholly or mainly elected second chamber, elected by proportional representation.", "These proposals sparked a debate on 29 June 2010.As an interim measure, appointment of new peers would reflect the shares of the vote secured by the political parties in the last general election.Detailed proposals for Lords reform, including a draft House of Lords Reform Bill, were published on 17 May 2011.These included a 300-member hybrid house, of whom 80% would be elected.", "A further 20% would be appointed, and reserve space would be included for some Church of England archbishops and bishops.", "Under the proposals, members would also serve single non-renewable terms of 15 years.", "Former MPs would be allowed to stand for election to the Upper House, but members of the Upper House would not be immediately allowed to become MPs.The details of the proposal were:* The upper chamber shall continue to be known as the House of Lords for legislative purposes.", "* The reformed House of Lords should have 300 members of whom 240 are \"Elected Members\" and 60 appointed \"Independent Members\".", "Up to 12 Church of England archbishops and bishops may sit in the house as ''ex officio'' \"Lords Spiritual\".", "* Elected Members will serve a single, non-renewable term of 15 years.", "* Elections to the reformed Lords should take place at the same time as elections to the House of Commons.", "* Elected Members should be elected using the Single Transferable Vote system of proportional representation.", "* Twenty Independent Members (a third) shall take their seats within the reformed house at the same time as elected members do so, and for the same 15-year term.", "* Independent Members will be appointed by the King after being proposed by the Prime Minister acting on advice of an Appointments Commission.", "* There will no longer be a link between the peerage system and membership of the upper house.", "* The current powers of the House of Lords would not change and the House of Commons shall retain its status as the primary House of Parliament.The proposals were considered by a Joint Committee on House of Lords Reform made up of both MPs and Peers, which issued its final report on 23 April 2012, making the following suggestions:* The reformed House of Lords should have 450 members.", "* Party groupings, including the Crossbenchers, should choose which of their members are retained in the transition period, with the percentage of members allotted to each group based on their share of the peers with high attendance during a given period.", "* Up to 12 Lords Spiritual should be retained in a reformed House of Lords.Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg introduced the House of Lords Reform Bill 2012 on 27 June 2012 which built on proposals published on 17 May 2011.However, this Bill was abandoned by the Government on 6 August 2012, following opposition from within the Conservative Party.=====House of Lords Reform Act 2014=====A private member's bill to introduce some reforms was introduced by Dan Byles in 2013.The House of Lords Reform Act 2014 received Royal Assent in 2014.Under the new law:All peers can retire or resign from the chamber (prior to this only hereditary peers could disclaim their peerages).", "Peers can be disqualified for non-attendance.", "Peers can be removed for receiving prison sentences of a year or more.=====House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015=====The House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 authorised the House to expel or suspend members.=====Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015=====This Act made provision to preferentially admit female bishops of the Church of England to the Lords Spiritual over male ones in the 10 years following its commencement (2015 to 2025).", "This came as a consequence of the Church of England deciding in 2014 to begin to ordain women as bishops.In 2015, Rachel Treweek, Bishop of Gloucester, became the first woman to sit as a Lord Spiritual in the House of Lords due to the Act.", "As of 2023, six women bishops sit as Lords Spiritual, five of them having been accelerated due to this Act.===Size===The size of the House of Lords has varied greatly throughout its history.", "The English House of Lords—then comprising 168 members—was joined at Westminster by 16 Scottish peers to represent the peerage of Scotland—a total of 184 nobles—in 1707's first Parliament of Great Britain.", "A further 28 Irish members to represent the peerage of Ireland were added in 1801 to the first Parliament of the United Kingdom.", "From about 220 peers in the eighteenth century, the house saw continued expansion.", "From about 850 peers in 1951/52, the numbers rose further with more life peers after the Life Peerages Act 1958 and the inclusion of all Scottish peers and the first female peers in the Peerage Act 1963.It reached a record size of 1,330 in October 1999, immediately before the major Lords reform (House of Lords Act 1999) reduced it to 669, mostly life peers, by March 2000.The number of members of the House of Lords since 1998The chamber's membership again expanded in the following decades, increasing to above eight hundred active members in 2014 and prompting further reforms in the House of Lords Reform Act that year.In April 2011, a cross-party group of former leading politicians, including many senior members of the House of Lords, called on the Prime Minister David Cameron to stop creating new peers.", "He had created 117 new peers between entering office in May 2010 and leaving in July 2016, a faster rate of elevation than any PM in British history; at the same time his government had tried (in vain) to reduce the House of Commons by 50, from 650 to 600 MPs.In August 2014, despite there being a seating capacity for only around 230 to 400 on the benches in the Lords chamber, the House had 774 active members (plus 54 who were not entitled to attend or vote, having been suspended or granted leave of absence).", "This made the House of Lords the largest parliamentary chamber in any democracy.", "In August 2014, former Speaker of the House of Commons Betty Boothroyd requested that \"older peers should retire gracefully\" to ease the overcrowding in the House of Lords.", "She also criticised successive prime ministers for filling the second chamber with \"lobby fodder\" in an attempt to help their policies become law.", "She made her remarks days before a new batch of peers were due to be created and several months after the passage of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014, enabling life peers to retire or resign their seats in the House, which had previously only been possible for hereditary peers and bishops.In August 2015, when 45 more peers were created in the Dissolution Honours, the total number of eligible members of the Lords increased to 826.In a report entitled \"Does size matter?\"", "the BBC said: \"Increasingly, yes.", "Critics argue the House of Lords is the second largest legislature after the Chinese National People's Congress and dwarfs upper houses in other bicameral democracies such as the United States (100 senators), France (348 senators), Australia (76 senators), Canada (105 appointed senators) and India (250 members).", "The Lords is also larger than the Supreme People's Assembly of North Korea (687 members).", "... Peers grumble that there is not enough room to accommodate all of their colleagues in the Chamber, where there are only about 400 seats, and say they are constantly jostling for space – particularly during high-profile sittings\", but added, \"On the other hand, defenders of the Lords say that it does a vital job scrutinising legislation, a lot of which has come its way from the Commons in recent years\".In late 2016, a Lord Speaker's committee was formed to examine the issue of overcrowding, with fears membership could swell to above 1,000, and in October 2017 the committee presented its findings.", "In December 2017, the Lords debated and broadly approved its report, which proposed a cap on membership at 600 peers, with a fifteen-year term limit for new peers and a \"two-out, one-in\" limit on new appointments.", "By October 2018, the Lord Speaker's committee commended the reduction in peers' numbers, noting that the rate of departures had been greater than expected, with the House of Commons Public Administration and Constitutional Affairs Select Committee approving the progress achieved without legislation.By April 2019, with the retirement of nearly one hundred peers since the passage of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014, the number of active peers had been reduced to a total of 782, of whom 665 were life peers.", "This total, however, remains greater than the membership of 669 peers in March 2000, after implementation of the House of Lords Act 1999 removed the bulk of the hereditary peers from their seats; it is well above the proposed 600-member cap, and is still larger than the House of Commons's 650 members." ], [ "Functions", "Brief introduction of the House of Lords===Legislative functions===Most legislation, with the exception of money bills, may be introduced in either the House of Lords or House of Commons.The House of Lords debates legislation, and has the power to amend or reject bills.", "However, the power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts.", "Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords (i.e.", "the Commons can override the Lords' veto).", "The House of Lords cannot delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month.Other public bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year.", "These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and cannot have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years.", "A further restriction is a constitutional convention known as the Salisbury Convention, which means that the House of Lords does not oppose legislation promised in the Government's election manifesto.By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the House of Lords is further restrained insofar as financial bills are concerned.", "The House of Lords may neither originate a bill concerning taxation or Supply (supply of treasury or exchequer funds), nor amend a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision.", "(The House of Commons, however, often waives its privileges and allows the Upper House to make amendments with financial implications.)", "Moreover, the Upper House may not amend any Supply Bill.", "The House of Lords formerly maintained the absolute power to reject a bill relating to revenue or Supply, but this power was curtailed by the Parliament Acts.===Relationship with the government===The House of Lords does not control the term of the prime minister or of the government.", "Only the lower house may force the prime minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no-confidence or by withdrawing supply.", "Thus, the House of Lords' oversight of the government is limited.Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons rather than the House of Lords.", "In particular, all prime ministers since 1902 have been members of the lower house (Alec Douglas-Home, who became prime minister in 1963 whilst still an earl, disclaimed his peerage and was elected to the Commons soon after his term began).", "In recent history, it has been very rare for major cabinet positions (except Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) to have been filled by peers.Exceptions include:Lord Carrington, who was the Secretary of State for Defence from 1970 to 1974, Secretary of State for Energy briefly for two months in early 1974 and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs between 1979 and 1982Lord Cockfield, who served as Secretary of State for Trade and President of the Board of TradeLord Young of Graffham, who was Minister without Portfolio, then Secretary of State for Employment and then Secretary of State for Trade and Industry and President of the Board of Trade from 1984 to 1989)Baroness Amos, who served as Secretary of State for International DevelopmentLord Adonis, who served as Secretary of State for TransportLord Mandelson, who served as First Secretary of State, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills and President of the Board of TradeGeorge Robertson was briefly a peer whilst serving as Secretary of State for Defence before resigning to take up the post of Secretary General of NATO.", "Baroness Morgan of Cotes was appointed as Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport as an MP, but retained the office when she was appointed to the House of Lords.", "Lord Cameron of Chipping Norton, former Prime Minister, was appointed Foreign Secretary and a member of the House of Lords in 2023.From 1999 to 2010 the Attorney General for England and Wales was a member of the House of Lords; the most recent was Patricia Scotland.The House of Lords remains a source for junior ministers and members of government.", "Like the House of Commons, the Lords also has a Government Chief Whip as well as several Junior Whips.", "Where a government department is not represented by a minister in the Lords or one is not available, government whips will act as spokesmen for them.===Former judicial role===Historically, the House of Lords held several judicial functions.", "Most notably, until 2009 the House of Lords served as the court of last resort for most instances of UK law.", "Since 1 October 2009 this role is now held by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.The Lords' judicial functions originated from the ancient role of the Curia Regis as a body that addressed the petitions of the King's subjects.", "The functions were exercised not by the whole House, but by a committee of \"Law Lords\".", "The bulk of the House's judicial business was conducted by the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who were specifically appointed for this purpose under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876.The judicial functions could also be exercised by Lords of Appeal (other members of the House who happened to have held high judicial office).", "No Lord of Appeal in Ordinary or Lord of Appeal could sit judicially beyond the age of seventy-five.", "The judicial business of the Lords was supervised by the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and their deputy, the Second Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary.The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extended, in civil and in criminal cases, to appeals from the courts of England and Wales, and of Northern Ireland.", "From Scotland, appeals were possible only in civil cases; Scotland's High Court of Justiciary is the highest court in criminal matters.", "The House of Lords was not the United Kingdom's only court of last resort; in some cases, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council performs such a function.", "The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, however, is relatively restricted; it encompasses appeals from ecclesiastical courts, disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975, and a few other minor matters.", "Issues related to devolution were transferred from the Privy Council to the Supreme Court in 2009.The twelve Law Lords did not all hear every case; rather, after World War II cases were heard by panels known as Appellate Committees, each of which normally consisted of five members (selected by the Senior Lord).", "An Appellate Committee hearing an important case could consist of more than five members.", "Though Appellate Committees met in separate committee rooms, judgement was given in the Lords Chamber itself.", "No further appeal lay from the House of Lords, although the House of Lords could refer a \"preliminary question\" to the European Court of Justice in cases involving an element of European Union law, and a case could be brought at the European Court of Human Rights if the House of Lords did not provide a satisfactory remedy in cases where the European Convention on Human Rights was relevant.A distinct judicial function—one in which the whole House used to participate—is that of trying impeachments.", "Impeachments were brought by the House of Commons, and tried in the House of Lords; a conviction required only a majority of the Lords voting.", "Impeachments, however, are to all intents and purposes obsolete; the last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, in 1806.Similarly, the House of Lords was once the court that tried peers charged with high treason or felony.", "The House would be presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the Lord High Steward, an official especially appointed for the occasion of the trial.", "If Parliament was not in session, then peers could be tried in a separate court, known as the Lord High Steward's Court.", "Only peers, their wives, and their widows (unless remarried) were entitled to such trials; the Lords Spiritual were tried in ecclesiastical courts.", "In 1948, the right of peers to be tried in such special courts was abolished; now, they are tried in the regular courts.", "The last such trial in the House was of Edward Russell, 26th Baron de Clifford, in 1935.An illustrative dramatisation circa 1928 of a trial of a peer (the fictional Duke of Denver) on a charge of murder (a felony) is portrayed in the 1972 BBC Television adaption of Dorothy L. Sayers' Lord Peter Wimsey mystery ''Clouds of Witness''.The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 resulted in the creation of a separate Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, to which the judicial function of the House of Lords, and some of the judicial functions of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, were transferred.", "In addition, the office of Lord Chancellor was reformed by the act, removing his ability to act as both a government minister and a judge.", "This was motivated in part by concerns about the historical admixture of legislative, judicial, and executive power.", "The new Supreme Court is located at Middlesex Guildhall." ], [ "Membership", "===Lords Spiritual===Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual.", "Formerly, the Lords Spiritual were the majority in the English House of Lords, comprising the church's archbishops, (diocesan) bishops, abbots, and those priors who were entitled to wear a mitre.", "After the English Reformation's high point in 1539, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, as the Dissolution of the Monasteries had just disposed of and suppressed the positions of abbot and prior.", "In 1642, during the few gatherings of the Lords convened during English Interregnum which saw periodic war, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the Clergy Act 1661.The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and by later Acts.", "The Lords Spiritual can now number no more than 26: these are the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester (who sit by right regardless of seniority), and the 21 longest-serving archbishops and bishops from other dioceses in the Church of England (excluding the dioceses of Sodor and Man and Gibraltar in Europe, as these lie entirely outside the United Kingdom).", "Following a change to the law in 2014 to allow women to be ordained archbishops and bishops, the Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015 was passed, which provides that whenever a vacancy arises among the Lords Spiritual during the ten years following the Act coming into force, the vacancy has to be filled by a woman, if one is eligible.", "This does not apply to the five archbishops and bishops who sit by right.The current Lords Spiritual represent only the Church of England.", "Archbishops and bishops of the Church of Scotland historically sat in the Parliament of Scotland but were finally excluded in 1689 (after a number of previous exclusions) when the Church of Scotland became permanently Presbyterian.", "There are no longer archbishops and bishops in the Church of Scotland in the traditional sense of the word, and that Church has never sent members to sit in the Westminster House of Lords.", "The Church of Ireland did obtain representation in the House of Lords after the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801.Of the Church of Ireland's ecclesiastics, four (one archbishop and three bishops) were to sit at any one time, with the members rotating at the end of every parliamentary session (which normally lasted about one year).", "The Church of Ireland, however, was disestablished in 1871, and thereafter ceased to be represented by Lords Spiritual.", "Archbishops and bishops of Welsh sees in the Church of England originally sat in the House of Lords (after 1847, only if their seniority within the church entitled them to), but the Church in Wales ceased to be a part of the Church of England in 1920 and was simultaneously disestablished in Wales.", "Accordingly, archbishops and bishops of the Church in Wales were no longer eligible to be appointed to the House as archbishops and bishops of the Church of England, but those already appointed remained.Other ecclesiastics have sat in the House of Lords as Lords Temporal in recent times: Immanuel Jakobovits, Chief Rabbi of the United Synagogue (the largest organisation of Orthodox Jewish congregations in Britain) was appointed to the House of Lords (with the consent of Queen Elizabeth II, who acted on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher), as was his successor Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks.", "Julia Neuberger is the senior rabbi to the West London Synagogue.", "In recognition of his work at reconciliation and in the peace process in Northern Ireland, the Archbishop of Armagh (the senior Anglican archbishop in Ireland), Robin Eames, was appointed to the Lords by John Major.", "Other clergy appointed include Donald Soper, Timothy Beaumont, and some Scottish clerics.There have been no Roman Catholic clergy appointed, though it was rumoured that Cardinal Basil Hume and his successor Cardinal Cormac Murphy O'Connor were offered peerages by James Callaghan, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair respectively, but declined.", "Cardinal Hume later accepted the Order of Merit, a personal appointment of Queen Elizabeth II, shortly before his death.", "Cardinal Murphy O'Connor for his part said he had his maiden speech ready, but ultimately did not accept a peerage.", "Future appointments of Catholic clergy to the Lords is unlikely, as since the promulgation of the 1983 ''Code of Canon Law'', all Catholic clergy of the Latin Church have been discouraged from holding secular public office, and all diocesan priests and bishops have been completely prohibited from it (excepting only political offices of the Vatican City State).Former Archbishops of Canterbury, having reverted to the status of a regular bishop but no longer diocesans, are invariably given life peerages and sit as Lords Temporal.By custom at least one of the archbishops or bishops reads prayers in each legislative day (a role taken by the chaplain in the Commons).", "They often speak in debates; in 2004 Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, opened a debate into sentencing legislation.", "Measures (proposed laws of the Church of England) must be put before the Lords, and the Lords Spiritual have a role in ensuring that this takes place.===Lords Temporal=======Hereditary peers====Since the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords.", "Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan, aligning themselves with one or another of the political parties that dominate the House of Commons.", "Publicly non-partisan Lords are called crossbenchers.", "Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hundred hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons (as well as Scottish Lords of Parliament).", "Such hereditary dignities can be created by the Crown; in modern times this is done on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day (except in the case of members of the Royal Family).Holders of Scottish and Irish peerages were not always permitted to sit in the Lords.", "When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 representative peers to sit in the House of Lords; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election.", "A similar provision was enacted when Ireland merged with Great Britain in 1801 to form the United Kingdom; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 representatives, who were to retain office for life.", "Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922, when most of Ireland became an independent state known as the Irish Free State; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the Peerage Act 1963, under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House.In 1999, the Labour government brought forward the House of Lords Act removing the right of several hundred hereditary peers to sit in the House.", "The Act provided, as a measure intended to be temporary, that 92 people would continue to sit in the Lords by virtue of hereditary peerages, and this is still in effect.Of the 92, two remain in the House of Lords because they hold royal offices connected with Parliament: the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain.", "Of the remaining ninety peers sitting in the Lords by virtue of a hereditary peerage, 15 are elected by the whole House and 75 are chosen by fellow hereditary peers in the House of Lords, grouped by party.", "(A holder of a hereditary peerage who is given a life peerage becomes a member of the House of Lords without a need for a by-election.)", "The exclusion of other hereditary peers removed Charles, then Prince of Wales (who was also Earl of Chester) and all other royal peers, including Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh; Prince Andrew, Duke of York; Prince Edward, then Earl of Wessex; Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester; and Prince Edward, Duke of Kent.The number of hereditary peers to be chosen by a political group reflects the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that group (see current composition below) in 1999.When an elected hereditary peer dies, a by-election is held, with a variant of the Alternative Vote system being used.", "If the recently deceased hereditary peer had been elected by the whole House, then so are their replacement; a hereditary peer elected by a specific political group (including the non-aligned crossbenchers) is replaced by a vote of the hereditary peers already elected to the Lords belonging to that political group (whether elected by that group or by the whole house).====Lords of Appeal in Ordinary====Until 2009, the Lords Temporal also included the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they could exercise its judicial functions.", "Lords of Appeal in Ordinary were first appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876.They were selected by the Prime Minister of the day, but were formally appointed by the Sovereign.", "A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary had to retire at the age of 70, or, if his term was extended by the government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord could not hear any further cases in the House of Lords.The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who were no longer able to hear cases because of age restrictions) was limited to twelve, but could be changed by statutory instrument.", "By a convention of the House, Lords of Appeal in Ordinary did not take part in debates on new legislation, so as to maintain judicial independence.", "Lords of Appeal in Ordinary held their seats in the House of Lords for life, remaining as members even after reaching the judicial retirement age of 70 or 75.Former Lord Chancellors and holders of other high judicial office could also sit as Law Lords under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, although in practice this right was only rarely exercised.Under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary when the Act came into effect in 2009 became judges of the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and were then barred from sitting or voting in the House of Lords until they had retired as judges.", "One of the main justifications for the new Supreme Court was to establish a separation of powers between the judiciary and the legislature.", "It is therefore unlikely that future appointees to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom will be made Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.====Life peers====The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are life peers.", "there are 682 life peers eligible to vote in the House.", "Life peers rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the Life Peerages Act 1958.Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister or the House of Lords Appointments Commission.", "By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to nominate some life peers, so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords.", "Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by the independent House of Lords Appointments Commission.In 2000 the government announced that it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under Dennis Stevenson, Lord Stevenson of Coddenham, to select fifteen so-called \"people's peers\" for life peerages.", "However, when the choices were announced in April 2001, from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were \"ordinary people\" as some had originally hoped.===Qualifications===Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords.", "No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21.Furthermore, only United Kingdom, Irish and Commonwealth citizens may sit in the House of Lords.", "The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, and prior to the British Nationality Act 1948, only natural-born subjects qualified.Additionally, some bankruptcy-related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House.", "Subjects of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or a sequestered estate (in Scotland) are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords.", "Individuals convicted of high treason are prohibited from sitting in the House of Lords until completion of their full term of imprisonment.", "An exception applies, however, if the individual convicted of high treason receives a full pardon.", "An individual serving a prison sentence for an offence other than high treason is ''not'' automatically disqualified.Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act 1958, passed to address the declining number of active members, made possible the creation of peerages for life.", "Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed.", "However, female hereditary peers continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963.Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999, female hereditary peers remain eligible for election to the Upper House; until her resignation on 1 May 2020, there was one (Margaret of Mar, 31st Countess of Mar) among the 90 hereditary peers who continue to sit.", "After Barbara Wootton became one of the first four life peers appointed under the Life Peerages Act 1958, she requested that she not be referred to as \"peeress\", believing that the term failed to distinguish female peers from the mere wives of peers.====Cash for peerages====The Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925 made it illegal for a peerage, or other honour, to be bought or sold.", "Nonetheless, there have been repeated allegations that life peerages (and thus membership of the House of Lords) have been made available to major political donors in exchange for donations.", "The most prominent example, the Cash for Honours scandal in 2006, saw a police investigation, with no charges being brought.", "A 2015 study found that of 303 people nominated for peerages in the period 2005–2014, a total of 211 were former senior figures within politics (including former MPs), or were non-political appointments.", "Of the remaining 92 political appointments from outside public life, 27 had made significant donations to political parties.", "The authors concluded firstly that nominees from outside public life were much more likely to have made large gifts than peers nominated after prior political or public service.", "They also found that significant donors to parties were far more likely to be nominated for peerages than other party members.===Removal from House membership===Traditionally there was no mechanism by which members could resign or be removed from the House of Lords (compare the situation as regards resignation from the House of Commons).", "The Peerage Act 1963 permitted a person to disclaim their newly inherited peerage (within certain time limits); this meant that such a person could effectively renounce their membership of the Lords.", "This might be done in order to remain or become qualified to sit in the House of Commons, as in the case of Tony Benn (formerly the second Viscount Stansgate), who had campaigned for such a change.The House of Lords Reform Act 2014 made provision for members' resignation from the House, removal for non-attendance, and automatic expulsion upon conviction for a serious criminal offence (if resulting in a jail sentence of at least one year).", "In June 2015, under the House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015, the House's Standing Orders may provide for the expulsion or suspension of a member upon a resolution of the House.In November 2020, Nazir Ahmed, Lord Ahmed retired from the House of Lords, having seen a Lords Conduct Committee report recommending he be expelled.", "In December the same year, Lord Maginnis was suspended from the House for 18 months." ], [ "Officers", "Traditionally the House of Lords did not elect its own speaker, unlike the House of Commons; rather, the ''ex officio'' presiding officer was the Lord Chancellor.", "With the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the post of Lord Speaker was created, a position to which a peer is elected by the House and subsequently appointed by the Crown.", "The first Lord Speaker, elected on 4 May 2006, was Helene Hayman, Baroness Hayman, a former Labour peer.", "As the Speaker is expected to be an impartial presiding officer, Hayman resigned from the Labour Party.", "In 2011, Frances D'Souza, Baroness D'Souza was elected as the second Lord Speaker, replacing Hayman in September 2011.D'Souza was in turn succeeded by Norman Fowler, Lord Fowler in September 2016, who served as Lord Speaker until his resignation in April 2021.He was succeeded as Lord Speaker by John McFall, Lord McFall of Alcluith, who is the incumbent Lord Speaker.This reform of the post of Lord Chancellor was made due to the perceived constitutional anomalies inherent in the role.", "The Lord Chancellor was not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department, is now called the Ministry of Justice.", "The Lord Chancellor is no longer the head of the judiciary of England and Wales.", "Hitherto, the Lord Chancellor was part of all three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial.The overlap of the legislative and executive roles is a characteristic of the Westminster system, as the entire cabinet consists of members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords; however, in June 2003, the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor because of the office's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities.", "The abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 was thus amended to preserve the office of Lord Chancellor.", "The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords, and therefore allows the House of Lords to elect a speaker of their own.Charles Pepys as Lord Chancellor.", "The lord chancellor wore black-and-gold robes whilst presiding over the House of Lords.The lord speaker may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies.", "The chairman of committees, the principal deputy chairman of committees, and several chairmen are all deputies to the lord speaker, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself at the beginning of each session.", "By custom, the Crown appoints each chairman, principal deputy chairman and deputy chairman to the additional office of Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords.", "There was previously no legal requirement that the lord chancellor or a deputy speaker be a member of the House of Lords (though the same has long been customary).Whilst presiding over the House of Lords, the lord chancellor traditionally wore ceremonial black and gold robes.", "Robes of black and gold are now worn by the lord chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice in the House of Commons, on ceremonial occasions.", "This is no longer a requirement for the lord speaker except for state occasions outside of the chamber.", "The speaker or deputy speaker sits on the Woolsack, a large red seat stuffed with wool, at the front of the Lords Chamber.When the House of Lords resolves itself into committee (see below), the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees presides, not from the Woolsack, but from a chair at the Table of the House.", "The presiding officer has little power compared to the Speaker of the House of Commons.", "The presiding officer only acts as the mouthpiece of the House, performing duties such as announcing the results of votes.", "This is because, unlike in the House of Commons where all statements are directed to \"Mr/Madam Speaker\", in the House of Lords they are directed to \"My Lords\"; i.e., the entire body of the House.The Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker cannot determine which members may speak, or discipline members for violating the rules of the House; these measures may be taken only by the House itself.", "Unlike the politically neutral Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor and Deputy Speakers originally remained members of their respective parties, and were permitted to participate in debate; however, this is no longer true of the new role of Lord Speaker.Another officer of the body is the Leader of the House of Lords, a peer selected by the Prime Minister.", "The Leader of the House is responsible for steering Government bills through the House of Lords, and is a member of the Cabinet.", "The Leader also advises the House on proper procedure when necessary, but such advice is merely informal, rather than official and binding.", "A Deputy Leader is also appointed by the Prime Minister, and takes the place of an absent or unavailable leader.The Clerk of the Parliaments is the chief clerk and officer of the House of Lords (but is not a member of the House itself).", "The Clerk, who is appointed by the Crown, advises the presiding officer on the rules of the House, signs orders and official communications, endorses bills, and is the keeper of the official records of both Houses of Parliament.", "Moreover, the Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for arranging by-elections of hereditary peers when necessary.", "The deputies of the Clerk of the Parliaments (the Clerk Assistant and the Reading Clerk) are appointed by the Lord Speaker, subject to the House's approval.The Gentleman or Lady Usher of the Black Rod is also an officer of the House; they take their title from the symbol of their office, a black rod.", "Black Rod (as the Gentleman/Lady Usher is normally known) is responsible for ceremonial arrangements, is in charge of the House's doorkeepers, and may (upon the order of the House) take action to end disorder or disturbance in the Chamber.", "Black Rod also holds the office of Serjeant-at-Arms of the House of Lords, and in this capacity attends upon the Lord Speaker.", "The Gentleman or Lady Usher of the Black Rod's duties may be delegated to the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod or to the Assistant Serjeant-at-Arms." ], [ "Procedure", "Benches in the chamber are coloured red.", "In contrast, the benches in the House of Commons are green.The royal thrones, c. 1902.The Sovereign's throne (on left) is raised slightly higher than the consort's.The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster.", "The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber.", "Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red.", "The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left.", "Crossbenchers sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack.The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the State Opening of Parliament, held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session.", "During the State Opening, the Sovereign, seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session.In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons.", "If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion.", "Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed.", "Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole (\"My Lords\") rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House).", "Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as \"you\"), but rather use third person forms such as \"the noble Duke\", \"the noble Earl\", \"the noble Lord\", \"my noble friend\", \"The most Reverend Primate\", etc.Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end.", "Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion \"that the noble Lord be no longer heard\".", "It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion \"that the Question be now put\".", "This procedure is known as Closure, and is extremely rare.", "Six closure motions were passed on 4 April 2019 to significant media attention as part of consideration of a private member's bill concerning the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union.Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote.", "The House first votes by voice vote; the Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either \"content\" (in favour of the motion) or \"not content\" (against the motion).", "The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a division follows.Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the ''content'' lobby or the ''not-content'' lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks.", "At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords.", "The Lord Speaker may not take part in the vote.", "Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House.If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it.", "The quorum of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation.", "If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid.Special arrangements were made during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic to allow some duties to be carried out online.===Disciplinary powers===By contrast with the House of Commons, the House of Lords has not until recently had an established procedure for imposing sanctions on its members.", "When a cash for influence scandal was referred to the Committee of Privileges in January 2009, the Leader of the House of Lords also asked the Privileges Committee to report on what sanctions the House had against its members.", "After seeking advice from the Attorney General for England and Wales and the former Lord Chancellor James Mackay, Lord Mackay of Clashfern, the committee decided that the House \"possessed an inherent power\" to suspend errant members, although not to withhold a writ of summons nor to expel a member permanently.", "When the House subsequently suspended Peter Truscott, Lord Truscott and Tom Taylor, Lord Taylor of Blackburn for their role in the scandal, they were the first to meet this fate since 1642.Recent changes have expanded the disciplinary powers of the House.", "Section 3 of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014 now provides that any member of the House of Lords convicted of a crime and sentenced to imprisonment for more than one year loses their seat.", "The House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 allows the House to set up procedures to suspend, and to expel, its members.====Regulation of behaviour in the chamber====There are two motions which have grown up through custom and practice and which govern questionable conduct within the House.", "They are brought into play by a member standing up, possibly intervening on another member, and moving the motion without notice.", "When the debate is getting excessively heated, it is open to a member to move \"that the Standing Order on Asperity of Speech be read by the Clerk\".", "The motion can be debated, but if agreed by the House, the Clerk of the Parliaments will read Standing Order 32 which provides \"That all personal, sharp, or taxing speeches be forborn\".", "The Journals of the House of Lords record only four instances on which the House has ordered the Standing Order to be read since the procedure was invented in 1871.For more serious problems with an individual Lord, the option is available to move \"That the noble Lord be no longer heard\".", "This motion also is debatable, and the debate which ensues has sometimes offered a chance for the member whose conduct has brought it about to come to order so that the motion can be withdrawn.", "If the motion is passed, its effect is to prevent the member from continuing their speech on the motion then under debate.", "The Journals identify eleven occasions on which this motion has been moved since 1884; four were eventually withdrawn, one was voted down, and six were passed.===Leave of absence===In 1958, to counter criticism that some peers only appeared at major decisions in the House and thereby particular votes were swayed, the Standing Orders of the House of Lords were enhanced.", "Peers who did not wish to attend meetings regularly or were prevented by ill health, age or further reasons, were now able to request leave of absence.", "During the granted time a peer is expected not to visit the House's meetings until either its expiration or termination, announced at least a month prior to their return.===Attendance allowance===Via a new financial support system introduced in 2010, members of the House of Lords can opt to receive an attendance allowance per sitting day of currently £342 (as of 2023; initially it was £300 in 2010), plus limited travel expenses.", "Peers can choose to receive a reduced attendance allowance of £171 per day instead, or none at all.", "Prior to 2010, peers from outside London could claim an overnight allowance of £174." ], [ "Committees", "Unlike in the House of Commons, when the term committee is used to describe a stage of a bill, this committee does not take the form of a public bill committee, but what is described as Committee of the Whole House.", "It is made up of all members of the House of Lords, where any member is allowed to contribute to debates and provides for flexible rules of procedure.", "It is presided over by the Chairman of Committees.The term committee is also used to describe Grand Committee, where the same rules of procedure apply as in the main chamber, except that no divisions may take place.", "For this reason, business that is discussed in Grand Committee is usually uncontroversial and likely to be agreed unanimously.Public bills may also be committed to pre-legislative committees.", "A pre-legislative Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill.", "These committees are established in advance of the bill being laid before either the House of Lords or the House of Commons and can take evidence from the public.", "Such committees are rare and do not replace any of the usual stages of a bill, including committee stage.The House of Lords also has 15 Select committees.", "Typically, these are ''sessional committees'', meaning that their members are appointed by the House at the beginning of each session, and continue to serve until the next parliamentary session begins.", "In practice, these are often permanent committees, which are re-established during every session.", "These committees are typically empowered to make reports to the House \"from time to time\", that is, whenever they wish.", "Other committees are ''ad-hoc committees'', which are set up to investigate a specific issue.", "When they are set up by a motion in the House, the motion will set a deadline by which the Committee must report.", "After this date, the Committee will cease to exist unless it is granted an extension.", "One example of this is the Committee on Public Service and Demographic Change.", "The House of Lords may appoint a chairman for a committee; if it does not do so, the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees may preside instead.", "Most of the Select Committees are also granted the power to co-opt members, such as the European Union Committee.", "The primary function of Select Committees is to scrutinise and investigate Government activities; to fulfil these aims, they are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence.", "Bills may be referred to Select Committees, but are more often sent to the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees.The committee system of the House of Lords also includes several Domestic Committees, which supervise or consider the House's procedures and administration.", "One of the Domestic Committees is the Committee of Selection, which is responsible for assigning members to many of the House's other committees." ], [ "Current composition", "rightThere are currently sitting members of the House of Lords, of which 667 are life peers (as of 2 October 2023) and 228 are women (see:Women in the House of Lords).", "An additional Lords are ineligible to participate, including two peers who are constitutionally disqualified as members of the Judiciary.The House of Lords Act 1999 allocated 75 of the 92 hereditary peers to the parties based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that party in 1999:* Conservative Party: 42 peers* Labour Party: 2 peers* Liberal Democrats: 3 peers* Crossbenchers: 28 peersOf the initial 42 hereditary peers elected as Conservatives, one, David Verney, 21st Lord Willoughby de Broke, defected to UKIP, though he left the party in 2018.Fifteen hereditary peers are elected by the whole House, and the remaining hereditary peers are the two royal office-holders, the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain.A report in 2007 stated that many members of the Lords (particularly the life peers) do not attend regularly; the average daily attendance was around 408.While the number of hereditary peers is limited to 92, and that of Lords spiritual to 26, there is no maximum limit to the number of life peers who may be members of the House of Lords at any time." ], [ "Government leaders and ministers in the Lords", "===Leaders and chief whips===* '''The Lord True''' – Leader of the House of Lords and Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal (Cabinet member)* '''The Earl Howe''' – Deputy Leader of the House of Lords (unpaid)* '''The Baroness Williams of Trafford''' – Chief Whip of the House of Lords and Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms* '''The Earl of Courtown''' – Deputy Chief Whip of the House of Lords and Captain of the King's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard===Other ministers===* '''Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office''':* '''The Lord Cameron of Chipping Norton''' - Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs:* '''The Lord Ahmad of Wimbledon''' – Minister of State for the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and the United Nations:* '''The Lord Benyon''' – Minister of State for Climate, Environment and Energy * '''Ministry of Defence''':* '''The Earl of Minto''' – Minister of State for Defence* '''Cabinet Office''':* '''The Baroness Neville-Rolfe''' – Minister of State at the Cabinet Office* '''Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs''':* '''The Lord Benyon''' – Minister of State for Climate, Environment and Energy :* '''The Lord Douglas-Miller''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Biosecurity, Animal Health and Welfare * '''Department for Business and Trade''':* '''The Lord Johnson of Lainston''' – Minister of State for Investment:* '''The Lord Offord of Garvel''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Exports* '''Department for Culture, Media and Sport''':* '''The Lord Parkinson of Whitley Bay''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Arts and Heritage* '''Law Officers''':* '''The Lord Stewart of Dirleton''' – Advocate General for Scotland* '''Home Office''':* '''The Lord Sharpe of Epsom''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department* '''Department of Health and Social Care:* '''The Lord Markham''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Health and Social Care* '''Department for Education''':* '''The Baroness Barran''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the School System and Student Finance* '''Department for Transport''':* '''The Lord Davies of Gower''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Aviation, Maritime and Security* '''Scotland Office''':* '''The Lord Offord of Garvel''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Scotland* '''Treasury''':* '''The Baroness Vere of Norbiton''' – Parliamentary Secretary at the Treasury * '''Department for Work and Pensions''':* '''The Viscount Younger of Leckie''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Work and Pensions * '''Department for Energy Security and Net Zero''':* '''The Lord Callanan''' – Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Energy Efficiency and Green Finance* '''Ministry of Justice''':* '''The Lord Bellamy''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Justice* '''Northern Ireland Office''':* '''The Lord Caine''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland* '''Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities''':* '''The Baroness Scott of Bybrook''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Faith and Communities:* '''The Baroness Penn''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State in the Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities* '''Department for Science, Innovation and Technology''':* '''The Viscount Camrose''' – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Artificial Intelligence and Intellectual Property===Other whips (Lords and Baronesses-in-Waiting)===* '''The Lord Caine'''* '''The Lord Evans of Rainow'''* '''The Lord Gascoigne'''* '''The Lord Harlech'''* '''The Baroness Swinburne'''* '''The Lord Roborough'''" ], [ "See also", "* Gunpowder Plot* Constitution Committee* History of reform of the House of Lords* History of the constitution of the United Kingdom* House of Lords Library* Introduction (House of Lords) ceremony* Lord-in-waiting* List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted without the House of Lords' consent* Parliament in the Making* Parliamentary Archives* Reform of the House of Lords* Relocation of the Parliament of the United Kingdom===Overseas counterparts=======Extant====* House of Ariki of the Cook Islands* House of Elders (Somaliland)* Dewan Negara (Malaysia)* Senate (Lesotho), composed of 22 hereditary tribal chiefs and 11 King's nominees* Senate of Zimbabwe, with 18 of 80 seats reserved for tribal chiefs====Defunct====* Irish House of Lords (existed 1297–1800)* New Zealand Legislative Council* Chamber of Peers (France)* Chamber of Most Worthy Peers (Portugal)* Chamber of Peers (Spain)Chamber of Princes (British India) House of Peers (Japan)*Genrōin (Japan) Prussian House of Lords* House of Lords (Austria)* Senate of the Kingdom of Italy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Ballinger, Chris.", "''The House of Lords 1911–2011: a century of non-reform'' (Bloomsbury, 2014).", "* * Close, David H. \"The Collapse of Resistance to Democracy: Conservatives, Adult Suffrage, and Second Chamber Reform, 1911–1928.\"", "''Historical Journal'' 20.4 (1977): 893–918.online* Dorey, Peter, and Alexandra Kelso.", "''House of Lords reform since 1911: Must the Lords go?''", "(Springer, 2011).", "* * Jones, Clyve, and David L. Jones, eds.", "''Peers, Politics and Power: House of Lords, 1603–1911'' (A&C Black, 1986).", "* * * * Mell, Andrew; Radford, Simon; Thevoz, Seth Alexander (2015).", "''Is there a market for peerages?''", "Oxford University Department of Economics discussion paper, No.744* Norton, Philip.", "''Reform of the House of Lords'' (Manchester UP, 2020).", "* Radford, Simon; Mell, Andrew; Thevoz, Seth Alexander (2019).", "\"‘Lordy Me!’ Can donations buy you a British peerage?", "A study in the link between party political funding and peerage nominations, 2005–2014\", ''British Politics'' – * Russell, Meg.", "''The contemporary House of Lords: Westminster bicameralism revived'' (Oxford UP, 2013).", "* * Smith, Ernest Anthony.", "''The House of Lords in British politics and society, 1815–1911'' (Longman, 1992).", "" ], [ "External links", "* Official House of Lords publications website * Archives of the House of Lords* British House of Lords people from C-SPAN" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Homeomorphism" ], [ "Introduction", "An often-repeated mathematical joke is that topologists cannot tell the difference between a coffee mug and a donut, since a sufficiently pliable donut could be reshaped to the form of a coffee mug by creating a dimple and progressively enlarging it, while preserving the donut hole in the mug's handle.", "This illustrates that a coffee mug and a donut (torus) are homeomorphic.In mathematics and more specifically in topology, a '''homeomorphism''' (from Greek roots meaning \"similar shape\", named by Henri Poincaré), also called '''topological isomorphism''', or '''bicontinuous function''', is a bijective and continuous function between topological spaces that has a continuous inverse function.", "Homeomorphisms are the isomorphisms in the category of topological spaces—that is, they are the mappings that preserve all the topological properties of a given space.", "Two spaces with a homeomorphism between them are called '''homeomorphic''', and from a topological viewpoint they are the same.Very roughly speaking, a topological space is a geometric object, and a homeomorphism results from a continuous deformation of the object into a new shape.", "Thus, a square and a circle are homeomorphic to each other, but a sphere and a torus are not.", "However, this description can be misleading.", "Some continuous deformations do not result into homeomorphisms, such as the deformation of a line into a point.", "Some homeomorphisms do not result from continuous deformations, such as the homeomorphism between a trefoil knot and a circle.", "Homotopy and isotopy are precise definitions for the informal concept of ''continuous deformation''." ], [ "Definition", "A function between two topological spaces is a '''homeomorphism''' if it has the following properties:* is a bijection (one-to-one and onto),* is continuous,* the inverse function is continuous ( is an open mapping).A homeomorphism is sometimes called a ''bicontinuous'' function.", "If such a function exists, and are '''homeomorphic'''.", "A '''self-homeomorphism''' is a homeomorphism from a topological space onto itself.", "Being \"homeomorphic\" is an equivalence relation on topological spaces.", "Its equivalence classes are called '''homeomorphism classes'''.The third requirement, that be continuous, is essential.", "Consider for instance the function (the unit circle in ) defined by This function is bijective and continuous, but not a homeomorphism ( is compact but is not).", "The function is not continuous at the point because although maps to any neighbourhood of this point also includes points that the function maps close to but the points it maps to numbers in between lie outside the neighbourhood.Homeomorphisms are the isomorphisms in the category of topological spaces.", "As such, the composition of two homeomorphisms is again a homeomorphism, and the set of all self-homeomorphisms forms a group, called the '''homeomorphism group''' of ''X'', often denoted This group can be given a topology, such as the compact-open topology, which under certain assumptions makes it a topological group.In some contexts, there are homeomorphic objects that cannot be continuously deformed from one to the other.", "Homotopy and isotopy are equivalence relations that have been introduced for dealing with such situations.Similarly, as usual in category theory, given two spaces that are homeomorphic, the space of homeomorphisms between them, is a torsor for the homeomorphism groups and and, given a specific homeomorphism between and all three sets are identified." ], [ "Examples", "A thickened trefoil knot is homeomorphic to a solid torus, but not isotopic in Continuous mappings are not always realizable as deformations.", "* The open interval is homeomorphic to the real numbers for any (In this case, a bicontinuous forward mapping is given by while other such mappings are given by scaled and translated versions of the or functions).", "* The unit 2-disc and the unit square in are homeomorphic; since the unit disc can be deformed into the unit square.", "An example of a bicontinuous mapping from the square to the disc is, in polar coordinates, * The graph of a differentiable function is homeomorphic to the domain of the function.", "* A differentiable parametrization of a curve is a homeomorphism between the domain of the parametrization and the curve.", "* A chart of a manifold is a homeomorphism between an open subset of the manifold and an open subset of a Euclidean space.", "* The stereographic projection is a homeomorphism between the unit sphere in with a single point removed and the set of all points in (a 2-dimensional plane).", "* If is a topological group, its inversion map is a homeomorphism.", "Also, for any the left translation the right translation and the inner automorphism are homeomorphisms.===Counter-examples===* and are not homeomorphic for * The Euclidean real line is not homeomorphic to the unit circle as a subspace of , since the unit circle is compact as a subspace of Euclidean but the real line is not compact.", "The one-dimensional intervals and are not homeomorphic because one is compact while the other is not." ], [ "Properties", " Two homeomorphic spaces share the same topological properties.", "For example, if one of them is compact, then the other is as well; if one of them is connected, then the other is as well; if one of them is Hausdorff, then the other is as well; their homotopy and homology groups will coincide.", "Note however that this does not extend to properties defined via a metric; there are metric spaces that are homeomorphic even though one of them is complete and the other is not.", "* A homeomorphism is simultaneously an open mapping and a closed mapping; that is, it maps open sets to open sets and closed sets to closed sets.", "* Every self-homeomorphism in can be extended to a self-homeomorphism of the whole disk (Alexander's trick)." ], [ "Informal discussion", "The intuitive criterion of stretching, bending, cutting and gluing back together takes a certain amount of practice to apply correctly—it may not be obvious from the description above that deforming a line segment to a point is impermissible, for instance.", "It is thus important to realize that it is the formal definition given above that counts.", "In this case, for example, the line segment possesses infinitely many points, and therefore cannot be put into a bijection with a set containing only a finite number of points, including a single point.This characterization of a homeomorphism often leads to a confusion with the concept of homotopy, which is actually ''defined'' as a continuous deformation, but from one ''function'' to another, rather than one space to another.", "In the case of a homeomorphism, envisioning a continuous deformation is a mental tool for keeping track of which points on space ''X'' correspond to which points on ''Y''—one just follows them as ''X'' deforms.", "In the case of homotopy, the continuous deformation from one map to the other is of the essence, and it is also less restrictive, since none of the maps involved need to be one-to-one or onto.", "Homotopy does lead to a relation on spaces: homotopy equivalence.There is a name for the kind of deformation involved in visualizing a homeomorphism.", "It is (except when cutting and regluing are required) an isotopy between the identity map on ''X'' and the homeomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y''." ], [ "See also", "* * * is an isomorphism between uniform spaces* is an isomorphism between metric spaces* * * (closely related to graph subdivision)* * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hvergelmir" ], [ "Introduction", "In Norse mythology, '''Hvergelmir''' (Old Norse: ; \"bubbling boiling spring\") is a major spring.", "Hvergelmir is attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the ''Prose Edda'', written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson.", "In the ''Poetic Edda'', Hvergelmir is mentioned in a single stanza, which details that it is the location where liquid from the antlers of the stag Eikþyrnir flow, and that the spring, \"whence all waters rise\", is the source of numerous rivers.", "The ''Prose Edda'' repeats this information and adds that the spring is located in Niflheim, that it is one of the three major springs at the primary roots of the cosmic tree Yggdrasil (the other two are Urðarbrunnr and Mímisbrunnr), and that within the spring are a vast amount of snakes and the dragon Níðhöggr." ], [ "Attestations", "Hvergelmir is attested in the following works:===''Poetic Edda''===Hvergelmir receives a single mention in the ''Poetic Edda'', found in the poem ''Grímnismál''::Eikthyrnir the hart is called,:that stands o'er Odin's hall,:and bites from Lærad's branches;:from his horns fall drops into Hvergelmir,:whence all waters rise:This stanza is followed by three stanzas consisting mainly of the names of 42 rivers.", "Some of these rivers lead to the dwelling of the gods (such as Gömul and Geirvimul), while at least two (Gjöll and Leipt), reach to Hel.===''Prose Edda''===Hvergelmir is mentioned several times in the ''Prose Edda''.", "In ''Gylfaginning'', Just-as-High explains that the spring Hvergelmir is located in the foggy realm of Niflheim: \"It was many ages before the earth was created that Niflheim was made, and in its midst lies a spring called Hvergelmir, and from it flows the rivers called Svol, Gunnthra, Fiorm, Fimbulthul, Slidr and Hrid, Sylg and Ylg, Vid, Leiptr; Gioll is next to Hell-gates.", "\"Later in ''Gylfaginning'', Just-as-High describes the central tree Yggdrasil.", "Just-as-High says that three roots of the tree support it and \"extend very, very far\" and that the third of these three roots extends over Niflheim.", "Beneath this root, says Just-as-High, is the spring Hvergelmir, and that the base of the root is gnawed on by the dragon Níðhöggr.", "Additionally, High says that Hvergelmir contains not only Níðhöggr but also so many snakes that \"no tongue can enumerate them\".The spring is mentioned a third time in ''Gylfaginning'' where High recounts its source: the stag Eikþyrnir stands on top of the afterlife hall Valhalla feeding branches of Yggdrasil, and from the stag's antlers drips great amounts of liquid down into Hvergelmir.", "High tallies 26 rivers here.Hvergelmir is mentioned a final time in the ''Prose Edda'' where Third discusses the unpleasantries of Náströnd.", "Third notes that Hvergelmir yet worse than the venom-filled Náströnd because—by way of quoting a portion of a stanza from the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Völuspá''—\"There Nidhogg torments the bodies of the dead\"." ], [ "See also", "UrðarbrunnrMímisbrunnr" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Faulkes, Anthony (trans.)", "(1995).", "''Edda''.", "Everyman.", "* Orchard, Andy (1997).", "''Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend''.", "Cassell.", "* Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.)", "(1866). ''", "Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða: The Edda of Sæmund the Learned.''", "Part I. London: Trübner & Co." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hausdorff maximal principle" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, the '''Hausdorff maximal principle''' is an alternate and earlier formulation of Zorn's lemma proved by Felix Hausdorff in 1914 (Moore 1982:168).", "It states that in any partially ordered set, every totally ordered subset is contained in a maximal totally ordered subset.The Hausdorff maximal principle is one of many statements equivalent to the axiom of choice over ZF (Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice).", "The principle is also called the '''Hausdorff maximality theorem''' or the '''Kuratowski lemma''' (Kelley 1955:33)." ], [ "Statement", "The Hausdorff maximal principle states that, in any partially ordered set, every totally ordered subset is contained in a maximal totally ordered subset (a totally ordered subset that, if enlarged in any way, does not remain totally ordered).", "In general, there may be many maximal totally ordered subsets containing a given totally ordered subset.An equivalent form of the Hausdorff maximal principle is that in every partially ordered set there exists a maximal totally ordered subset.", "To prove that this statement follows from the original form, let ''A'' be a partially ordered set.", "Then is a totally ordered subset of ''A'', hence there exists a maximal totally ordered subset containing , hence in particular ''A'' contains a maximal totally ordered subset.", "For the converse direction, let ''A'' be a partially ordered set and ''T'' a totally ordered subset of ''A''.", "Then:is partially ordered by set inclusion , therefore it contains a maximal totally ordered subset ''P''.", "Then the set satisfies the desired properties.The proof that the Hausdorff maximal principle is equivalent to Zorn's lemma is very similar to this proof." ], [ "Examples", "If ''A'' is any collection of sets, the relation \"is a proper subset of\" is a strict partial order on ''A''.", "Suppose that ''A'' is the collection of all circular regions (interiors of circles) in the plane.", "One maximal totally ordered sub-collection of ''A'' consists of all circular regions with centers at the origin.", "Another maximal totally ordered sub-collection consists of all circular regions bounded by circles tangent from the right to the y-axis at the origin.If (x0, y0) and (x1, y1) are two points of the plane ℝ2, define (x0, y0) 1, y1) if y0 = y1 and x0 1.This is a partial ordering of ℝ2 under which two points are comparable only if they lie on the same horizontal line.", "The maximal totally ordered sets are horizontal lines in ℝ2." ], [ "References", "* John Kelley (1955), ''General topology'', Von Nostrand.", "* Gregory Moore (1982), ''Zermelo's axiom of choice'', Springer.", "* James Munkres (2000), ''Topology'', Pearson." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hel (mythological being)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Hel''''' (1889) by Johannes Gehrts, pictured here with her hound Garmr.", "'''Hel''' (from ) is a female being in Norse mythology who is said to preside over an underworld realm of the same name, where she receives a portion of the dead.", "Hel is attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the ''Prose Edda'', written in the 13th century.", "In addition, she is mentioned in poems recorded in ''Heimskringla'' and ''Egils saga'' that date from the 9th and 10th centuries, respectively.", "An episode in the Latin work ''Gesta Danorum'', written in the 12th century by Saxo Grammaticus, is generally considered to refer to Hel, and Hel may appear on various Migration Period bracteates.In the ''Poetic Edda'', ''Prose Edda'', and ''Heimskringla'', Hel is referred to as a daughter of Loki.", "In the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Gylfaginning'', Hel is described as having been appointed by the god Odin as ruler of a realm of the same name, located in Niflheim.", "In the same source, her appearance is described as half blue and half flesh-coloured and further as having a gloomy, downcast appearance.", "The ''Prose Edda'' details that Hel rules over vast mansions with many servants in her underworld realm and plays a key role in the attempted resurrection of the god Baldr.Scholarly theories have been proposed about Hel's potential connections to figures appearing in the 11th-century ''Old English Gospel of Nicodemus'' and Old Norse ''Bartholomeus saga postola'', that she may have been considered a goddess with potential Indo-European parallels in Bhavani, Kali, and Mahakali or that Hel may have become a being only as a late personification of the location of the same name." ], [ "Etymology", "The Old Norse name ''Hel'' is identical to the name of the location over which she rules.", "It stems from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun ''haljō-'' 'concealed place, the underworld' (compare with Gothic ''halja'', Old English ''hel'' or ''hell'', Old Frisian ''helle'', Old Saxon ''hellia'', Old High German ''hella''), itself a derivative of ''helan-'' 'to cover > conceal, hide' (compare with OE ''helan'', OF ''hela'', OS ''helan'', OHG ''helan'').", "It derives, ultimately, from the Proto-Indo-European verbal root ''ḱel-'' 'to conceal, cover, protect' (compare with Latin ''cēlō'', Old Irish ''ceilid'', Greek ''kalúptō'').", "The Old Irish masculine noun ''cel'' 'dissolution, extinction, death' is also related.Other related early Germanic terms and concepts include the compounds ''halja-rūnō(n)'' and ''halja-wītjan''.''''", "The feminine noun ''halja-rūnō(n)'' is formed with ''haljō-'' 'hell' attached to ''rūno'' 'mystery, secret' > runes.", "It has descendant cognates in the Old English ''helle-rúne'' 'possessed woman, sorceress, diviner', the Old High German ''helli-rūna'' 'magic', and perhaps in the Latinized Gothic form ''haliurunnae'','''' although its second element may derive instead from ''rinnan'' 'to run, go', leading to Gothic ''haljurunna'' as the 'one who travels to the netherworld'.", "The neutral noun ''halja-wītjan'' is composed of the same root ''haljō-'' attached to ''wītjan'' (compare with Goth.", "''un-witi'' 'foolishness, understanding', OE ''witt'' 'right mind, wits', OHG ''wizzi'' 'understanding'), with descendant cognates in Old Norse ''hel-víti'' 'hell', Old English ''helle-wíte'' 'hell-torment, hell', Old Saxon helli-wīti 'hell', or Middle High German ''helle-wīzi'' 'hell'.", "''''''Hel'' is also etymologically related—although distantly in this case—to the Old Norse word ''Valhöll'' 'Valhalla', literally 'hall of the slain', and to the English word ''hall'', both likewise deriving from Proto-Indo-European ''ḱel-'' via the Proto-Germanic root ''hallō-'' 'covered place, hall'." ], [ "Attestations", "===''Poetic Edda''===The ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, features various poems that mention Hel.", "In the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Völuspá'', Hel's realm is referred to as the \"Halls of Hel.\"", "In stanza 31 of ''Grímnismál'', Hel is listed as living beneath one of three roots growing from the world tree Yggdrasil.", "In ''Fáfnismál'', the hero Sigurd stands before the mortally wounded body of the dragon Fáfnir, and states that Fáfnir lies in pieces, where \"Hel can take\" him.", "In ''Atlamál'', the phrases \"Hel has half of us\" and \"sent off to Hel\" are used in reference to death, though it could be a reference to the location and not the being, if not both.", "In stanza 4 of ''Baldrs draumar'', Odin rides towards the \"high hall of Hel.", "\"Hel may also be alluded to in ''Hamðismál''.", "Death is paraphrased as \"joy of the troll-woman\" (or \"ogress\") and ostensibly it is Hel being referred to as the troll-woman or the ogre (''flagð''), although it may otherwise be some unspecified ''dís''.===''Prose Edda''===A depiction of a young Hel (center) being led to the assignment of her realm, while her brother Fenrir is led forward (left) and Jörmungandr (right) is about to be cast by Odin (1906) by Lorenz Frølich.Hermod before Hela\" (1909) by John Charles Dollman.", "\"The children of Loki\" (1920) by Willy Pogany.", "\"Loki's Brood\" (1905) by Emil Doepler.Hel receives notable mention in the ''Prose Edda''.", "In chapter 34 of the book ''Gylfaginning'', Hel is listed by High as one of the three children of Loki and Angrboða; the wolf Fenrir, the serpent Jörmungandr, and Hel.", "High continues that, once the gods found that these three children are being brought up in the land of Jötunheimr, and when the gods \"traced prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them\" then the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three children, partially due to the nature of the mother of the children, yet worse so due to the nature of their father.High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them to him.", "Upon their arrival, Odin threw Jörmungandr into \"that deep sea that lies round all lands,\" Odin threw Hel into Niflheim, and bestowed upon her authority over nine worlds, in that she must \"administer board and lodging to those sent to her, and that is those who die of sickness or old age.\"", "High details that in this realm Hel has \"great Mansions\" with extremely high walls and immense gates, a hall called Éljúðnir, a dish called \"Hunger,\" a knife called \"Famine,\" the servant Ganglati (Old Norse \"lazy walker\"), the serving-maid Ganglöt (also \"lazy walker\"), the entrance threshold \"Stumbling-block,\" the bed \"Sick-bed,\" and the curtains \"Gleaming-bale.\"", "High describes Hel as \"half black and half flesh-coloured,\" adding that this makes her easily recognizable, and furthermore that Hel is \"rather downcast and fierce-looking.", "\"In chapter 49, High describes the events surrounding the death of the god Baldr.", "The goddess Frigg asks who among the Æsir will earn \"all her love and favour\" by riding to Hel, the location, to try to find Baldr, and offer Hel herself a ransom.", "The god Hermóðr volunteers and sets off upon the eight-legged horse Sleipnir to Hel.", "Hermóðr arrives in Hel's hall, finds his brother Baldr there, and stays the night.", "The next morning, Hermóðr begs Hel to allow Baldr to ride home with him, and tells her about the great weeping the Æsir have done upon Baldr's death.", "Hel says the love people have for Baldr that Hermóðr has claimed must be tested, stating:If all things in the world, alive or dead, weep for him, then he will be allowed to return to the Æsir.", "If anyone speaks against him or refuses to cry, then he will remain with Hel.Later in the chapter, after the female jötunn Þökk refuses to weep for the dead Baldr, she responds in verse, ending with \"let Hel hold what she has.\"", "In chapter 51, High describes the events of Ragnarök, and details that when Loki arrives at the field Vígríðr \"all of Hel's people\" will arrive with him.In chapter 12 of the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Skáldskaparmál'', Hel is mentioned in a kenning for Baldr (\"Hel's companion\").", "In chapter 23, \"Hel's ... relative or father\" is given as a kenning for Loki.", "In chapter 50, Hel is referenced (\"to join the company of the quite monstrous wolf's sister\") in the skaldic poem ''Ragnarsdrápa''.===''Heimskringla''===In the ''Heimskringla'' book ''Ynglinga saga'', written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, Hel is referred to, though never by name.", "In chapter 17, the king Dyggvi dies of sickness.", "A poem from the 9th-century ''Ynglingatal'' that forms the basis of ''Ynglinga saga'' is then quoted that describes Hel's taking of Dyggvi:In chapter 45, a section from ''Ynglingatal'' is given which refers to Hel as \"howes'-warder\" (meaning \"guardian of the graves\") and as taking King Halfdan Hvitbeinn from life.", "In chapter 46, King Eystein Halfdansson dies by being knocked overboard by a sail yard.", "A section from ''Ynglingatal'' follows, describing that Eystein \"fared to\" Hel (referred to as \"Býleistr's-brother's-daughter\").", "In chapter 47, the deceased Eystein's son King Halfdan dies of an illness, and the excerpt provided in the chapter describes his fate thereafter, a portion of which references Hel:In a stanza from ''Ynglingatal'' recorded in chapter 72 of the ''Heimskringla'' book ''Saga of Harald Sigurdsson'', \"given to Hel\" is again used as a phrase to referring to death.===''Egils saga''===The Icelanders' saga ''Egils saga'' contains the poem ''Sonatorrek''.", "The saga attributes the poem to 10th-century skald Egill Skallagrímsson, and writes that it was composed by Egill after the death of his son Gunnar.", "The final stanza of the poem contains a mention of Hel, though not by name:===''Gesta Danorum''===In the account of Baldr's death in Saxo Grammaticus' early 13th century work ''Gesta Danorum'', the dying Baldr has a dream visitation from Proserpina (here translated as \"the goddess of death\"):The following night the goddess of death appeared to him in a dream standing at his side, and declared that in three days time she would clasp him in her arms.", "It was no idle vision, for after three days the acute pain of his injury brought his end.Scholars have assumed that Saxo used Proserpina as a goddess equivalent to the Norse Hel." ], [ "Archaeological record", "It has been suggested that several imitation medallions and bracteates of the Migration Period (ca.", "first centuries AD) feature depictions of Hel.", "In particular the bracteates IK 14 and IK 124 depict a rider traveling down a slope and coming upon a female being holding a scepter or a staff.", "The downward slope may indicate that the rider is traveling towards the realm of the dead and the woman with the scepter may be a female ruler of that realm, corresponding to Hel.Some B-class bracteates showing three godly figures have been interpreted as depicting Baldr's death, the best known of these is the Fakse bracteate.", "Two of the figures are understood to be Baldr and Odin while both Loki and Hel have been proposed as candidates for the third figure.", "If it is Hel she is presumably greeting the dying Baldr as he comes to her realm." ], [ "Scholarly reception", "An 18th-century ''Prose Edda'' manuscript illustration featuring Hermóðr upon Sleipnir (left), Baldr (upper right), and Hel (lower right).", "Details include but are not limited to Hel's dish \"hunger\" and the knife \"famine\".", "\"Heimdallr desires Iðunn's return from the Underworld\" (1881) by Carl Emil Doepler.===Seo Hell===The ''Old English Gospel of Nicodemus'', preserved in two manuscripts from the 11th century, contains a female figure referred to as ''Seo hell'' who engages in flyting with Satan and tells him to leave her dwelling (Old English ''ut of mynre onwununge'').", "Regarding Seo Hell in the ''Old English Gospel of Nicodemus'', Michael Bell states that \"her vivid personification in a dramatically excellent scene suggests that her gender is more than grammatical, and invites comparison with the Old Norse underworld goddess Hel and the Frau Holle of German folklore, to say nothing of underworld goddesses in other cultures\" yet adds that \"the possibility that these genders ''are'' merely grammatical is strengthened by the fact that an Old Norse version of Nicodemus, possibly translated under English influence, personifies Hell in the neutral (Old Norse ''þat helvíti'').", "\"===''Bartholomeus saga postola''===The Old Norse ''Bartholomeus saga postola'', an account of the life of Saint Bartholomew dating from the 13th century, mentions a \"Queen Hel.\"", "In the story, a devil is hiding within a pagan idol, and bound by Bartholomew's spiritual powers to acknowledge himself and confess, the devil refers to Jesus as the one which \"made war on Hel our queen\" (Old Norse ''heriaði a Hel drottning vara'').", "\"Queen Hel\" is not mentioned elsewhere in the saga.Michael Bell says that while Hel \"might at first appear to be identical with the well-known pagan goddess of the Norse underworld\" as described in chapter 34 of ''Gylfaginning'', \"in the combined light of the Old English and Old Norse versions of ''Nicodemus'' she casts quite a different a shadow,\" and that in ''Bartholomeus saga postola'' \"she is clearly the queen of the Christian, not pagan, underworld.", "\"===Origins and development===Jacob Grimm described Hel as an example of a \"half-goddess\": \"one who cannot be shown to be either wife or daughter of a god, and who stands in a dependent relation to higher divinities\", and argued that \"half-goddesses\" stand higher than \"half-gods\" in Germanic mythology.", "Grimm regarded Hel (whom he refers to here as ''Halja'', the theorized Proto-Germanic form of the term) as essentially an \"image of a greedy, unrestoring, female deity\" and theorized that \"the higher we are allowed to penetrate into our antiquities, the less hellish and more godlike may ''Halja'' appear\".", "He compared her role, her black color, and her name to \"the Indian Bhavani, who travels about and bathes like Nerthus and Holda, but is likewise called ''Kali'' or ''Mahakali'', the great ''black'' goddess\" and concluded that \"''Halja'' is one of the oldest and commonest conceptions of our heathenism\".", "He theorized that the Helhest, a three-legged horse that in Danish folklore roams the countryside \"as a harbinger of plague and pestilence\", was originally the steed of the goddess Hel, and that on this steed Hel roamed the land \"picking up the dead that were her due\".", "He also says that a wagon was once ascribed to Hel.", "In her 1948 work on death in Norse mythology and religion, ''The Road to Hel'', Hilda Ellis Davidson argued that the description of Hel as a goddess in surviving sources appeared to be literary personification, the word ''hel'' generally being \"used simply to signify death or the grave\", which she states \"naturally lends itself to personification by poets\".", "While noting that \"whether this personification has originally been based on a belief in a goddess of death called Hel was another question\", she stated that she did not believe the surviving sources gave any reason to believe so, while they included various other examples of \"supernatural women\" who \"seem to have been closely connected with the world of death, and were pictured as welcoming dead warriors\".", "She suggested that the depiction of Hel \"as a goddess\" in ''Gylfaginning'' \"might well owe something to these\".In a later work (1998), Davidson wrote that the description of Hel found in chapter 33 of ''Gylfaginning'' \"hardly suggests a goddess\", but that \"in the account of Hermod's ride to Hel later in ''Gylfaginning'' (49)\", Hel \"speaks with authority as ruler of the underworld\" and that from her realm \"gifts are sent back to Frigg and Fulla by Balder's wife Nanna as from a friendly kingdom\".", "She posited that Snorri may have \"earlier turned the goddess of death into an allegorical figure, just as he made Hel, the underworld of shades, a place 'where wicked men go,' like the Christian Hell (''Gylfaginning'' 3)\".", "She then, like Grimm, compared Hel to Kali:On the other hand, a goddess of death who represents the horrors of slaughter and decay is something well known elsewhere; the figure of Kali in India is an outstanding example.", "Like Snorri's Hel, she is terrifying to in appearance, black or dark in colour, usually naked, adorned with severed heads or arms or the corpses of children, her lips smeared with blood.", "She haunts the battlefield or cremation ground and squats on corpses.", "Yet for all this she is \"the recipient of ardent devotion from countless devotees who approach her as their mother\" ....Davidson further compared Hel to early attestations of the Irish goddesses Badb (described in ''The Destruction of Da Choca's Hostel'' as dark in color, with a large mouth, wearing a dusky mantle, and with gray hair falling over her shoulders, or, alternatively, \"as a red figure on the edge of the ford, washing the chariot of a king doomed to die\") and the Morrígan.", "She concluded that, in these examples, \"here we have the fierce destructive side of death, with a strong emphasis on its physical horrors, so perhaps we should not assume that the gruesome figure of Hel is wholly Snorri's literary invention.", "\"John Lindow stated that most details about Hel, as a figure, are not found outside of Snorri's writing in ''Gylfaginning'', and that when older skaldic poetry \"says that people are 'in' rather than 'with' Hel, we are clearly dealing with a place rather than a person, and this is assumed to be the older conception\".", "He theorizes that the noun and place ''Hel'' likely originally simply meant \"grave\", and that \"the personification came later\".", "Lindow also drew a parallel between the personified Hel's banishment to the underworld and the binding of Fenrir as part of a recurring theme of the bound monster, where an enemy of the gods is bound but destined to break free at Ragnarok.", "Rudolf Simek similarly stated that the figure of Hel is \"probably a very late personification of the underworld Hel\", that \"on the whole nothing speaks in favour of there being a belief in Hel in pre-Christian times\", and noted that \"the first scriptures using the goddess Hel are found at the end of the 10th and in the 11th centuries\".", "He characterized the allegorical description of Hel's house in ''Gylfaginning'' as \"clearly ... in the Christian tradition\".", "However, elsewhere in the same work, Simek cites an argument made by that one of three figures appearing together on Migration Period B-bracteates is to be interpreted as Hel." ], [ "As a given name", "In January 2017, the Icelandic Naming Committee ruled that parents could not name their child ''Hel'' \"on the grounds that the name would cause the child significant distress and trouble as it grows up\"." ], [ "In popular culture", "Hel is one of the playable gods in the third-person multiplayer online battle arena game ''Smite'' and was one of the original 17 gods.", "Hel is also featured in Ensemble Studios' 2002 real-time strategy game ''Age of Mythology'', where she is one of 12 gods Norse players can choose to worship." ], [ "See also", "* Death (personification)* Hela (comics), a Marvel comics supervillain based on the Norse being Hel* Rán, a Norse goddess who oversees those who have drowned* Gefjon, a Norse goddess who oversees those who die as virgins* Freyja, a Norse goddess who oversees a portion of the dead in her afterlife field, Fólkvangr* Odin, a Norse god who oversees a portion of the dead in his afterlife hall, Valhalla* Helreginn, a jötunn whose name means \"ruler over Hel\"* Helen of Troy, a Greek figure of divine heritage, eventually worshipped as goddess * Hell, abode of the dead in various cultures" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bell, Michael (1983).", "\"Hel Our Queen: An Old Norse Analogue to an Old English Female Hell\" as collected in ''The Harvard Theological Review'', Vol.", "76, No.", "2 (April 1983), pages 263–268.Cambridge University Press.", "* Bonnetain, Yvonne S. (2006). \"", "Potentialities of Loki\" in ''Old Norse Religion in Long Term Perspectives'' edited by A. Andren, pp.", "326–330.Nordic Academic Press.", "* Byock, Jesse (Trans.)", "(2005).", "''The Prose Edda''.", "Penguin Classics.", "* Davidson, Hilda Ellis (commentary), Peter Fisher (Trans.)", "1999.''", "Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX: I. English Text; II.", "Commentary''.", "D. S. Brewer.", "* Davidson, Hilda Ellis (2002 1998). ''", "Roles of the Northern Goddess''.", "Routledge.", "* Dronke, Ursula (1969). ''", "The Poetic Edda 1: Heroic poems''.", "Clarendon Press* Ellis, Hilda Roderick (1968).", "''The Road to Hel: A Study of the Conception of the Dead in Old Norse Literature''.", "Greenwood Press Publishers.", "* * Grimm, Jacob (James Steven Stallybrass Trans.)", "(1882).", "''Teutonic Mythology: Translated from the Fourth Edition with Notes and Appendix'' Vol.", "I. London: George Bell and Sons.", "* Grimm, Jacob (2004).", "''Teutonic Mythology'', vol.", "IV.", "Courier Dover Publications.", "* Hollander, Lee Milton.", "(Trans.)", "(2007). ''", "Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway ''.", "University of Texas Press * Kinsley, D. (1989). ''", "The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East to West ''.", "State University of New York Press.", "* * Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.)", "(1999).", "''The Poetic Edda''.", "Oxford World's Classics.", "* * * * Scudder, Bernard (Trans.)", "(2001).", "''Egils saga''.", "Penguin Group.", "* * Watkins, Calvert (2000).", "''The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots''.", "Houghton Mifflin Company." ], [ "External links", "* MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Hel from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hawar Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hawar Islands''' (; transliterated: ''Juzur Ḥawār'') are an archipelago of desert islands; all but one are owned by Bahrain, while the southern, small, and uninhabited Jinan Island (Arabic: جزيرة جينان; transliterated: ''Jazirat Jinan'') is administered by Qatar as part of its Al-Shahaniya municipality.", "The archipelago is situated off the west coast of Qatar in the Gulf of Bahrain of the Persian Gulf." ], [ "Description", "North village of Hawar in 1938.The islands used to be one of the settlements of the Bahraini branch of the Dawasir who settled there in the early 19th century.", "The islands were first surveyed in 1820, when they were called the Warden's Islands, and two villages were recorded.", "They are now uninhabited, other than a police garrison and a hotel on the main island; access to all but Hawar island itself is severely restricted.", "Local fishermen are allowed to fish in adjacent waters and there is some recreational fishing and tourism on and around the islands.", "Fresh water has always been scarce; historically it was obtained by surface collection and even today, with the desalination plant, additional supplies have to be brought in." ], [ "Geography", "Despite their proximity to Qatar (they are only about from the Qatari mainland whilst being about from the main islands of Bahrain), most of the islands belong to Bahrain, having been a part of a dispute between Bahrain and Qatar which was resolved in 2001.The islands were formerly coincident with the district or ''Minṭaqat'' Juzur Ḥawār (مِنْطَقَة جُزُر حَوَار) and are now administered as part of the Southern Governorate of Bahrain.", "The land area of the islands is approximately 52 km2 (20 sq.", "mi.", ").Although there are 36 islands in the group, many of the smaller islands are little more than sand or shingle accumulations on areas of exposed bedrock molded by the ongoing processes of sedimentation and accretion.The World Heritage Site application named 8 major islands (see table hereafter), which conforms to the description of the islands when first surveyed as consisting of 8 or 9 islands.", "It has often been described as an archipelago of 16 islands.", "Janan Island, to the south of Hawar island, is not legally considered to be a part of the group and is owned by Qatar.===Separatist movement===Hawari separatists have a representative in France, who advocates the creation of an independent Emirate of Hawar islands.", "The source, however, does not say what real support the separatist movement has in Hawar Islands.The flag of the separatist movement was seen in Paris on 1 May 2002.The flag is a dark red rectangle with a white triangle at hoist.", "The triangle is separated from the red field by a green border, and there are two thin green stripes in the upper and lower parts of the flag.", "A 14-ray yellow sun outlined in brown is placed inside the white triangle.Dark red stands for the national pride and the fatherland, green for spring, and white for purity.Socotra cormorant" ], [ "Flora and fauna", "The islands are home to many bird species, notably Socotra cormorants.", "There are small herds of Arabian oryx and sand gazelle on Hawar island, and the seas around support a large population of dugong.===Conservation===The islands were listed as a Ramsar site in 1997.In 2002, the Bahraini government applied to have the islands recognised as a World Heritage Site due to their unique environment and habitat for endangered species; the application was ultimately unsuccessful." ], [ "Administration", "The islands were formerly coincident with the region or ''Minṭaqat'' Juzur Ḥawār (مِنْطَقَة جُزُر حَوَار) and are now administered as part of the Southern Governorate of Bahrain.Jinan Island is administered as part of Al-Shahaniya Municipality of Qatar.Separatist flag of the Hawar Islands, made by Ivan SacheHawar Islands Resort" ], [ "Tourism", "The islands' ecology draws numerous birds, oryx, gazelles, and Socotra cormorants.", "The islands are connected through a short 25 km ferry ride from Manama and are reported to have a potential to be developed as a beach tourism destination." ], [ "List of islands", "=== Hawar archipelago ===By far the largest island is Hawar, which accounts for more than 41 km2 (15 sq.", "mi.)", "of the 54.5 km2 (21 sq.", "mi.)", "land area.", "Following in size are Suwād al Janūbīyah, Suwād ash Shamālīyah, Rubud Al Sharqiyah, Rubud Al Gharbiyah, and Muhazwarah (Umm Hazwarah).", "Name Arabic Coordinates Max height (meters) CommentsHawar جَزِيرَة حَوَار 22.0 The island is 18 km (11 miles) long and varies in width from 5.2 to 0.9 km (3 miles to mile).", "Continuous beach ridge complex west coast, sloping bedrock rising west to east.", "Complex bay and cliff formations east coast fronted in places by subqa, jebel and terminals of east lower headlands aeolian formations calcified reef structures and algal mats.Suwād al Janūbīyah سُوَاد اَلْجَنُوبِيَّة 4.0 South Suwad.", "Sand and shingle accumulations, subqa and salt-encrusted flats with areas of exposed surface rock, beach rock to the north.", "Mud, shoals and shallow to south, blown sand beaches.", "Host to a large Socotra cormorant colony, representing over 10% of the world population.Suwād ash Shamālīyah سُوَاد اَلشَّمَالِيَّة 3.0 North Suwad.", "Sand and shingle accumulations, subqa and salt-encrusted flats, areas of beach rock to north, shoals and shallow to south and southeast, wind blown sand, beaches.Rubud Al Sharqiyah رَبَض اَلشَّرْقِيَّة 0.8 East Rubud.", "Sand and shingle accumulations, subqa and salt-encrusted flats, storm beach north and northeast, mudflats, shoals and shallow lagoons south and east large areas of beach rock and reef.", "Islands off exposed beach rocks & vegetated islets.", "Significant western reef heron colony.Rubud Al Gharbiyah رَبَض اَلْغَرْبِيَّة 1.0 West Rubud.", "Sand and shingle accumulations, subqa and encrusted flats, storm beach north and west, mudflats, shoals and shallow lagoons south and east.", "Islands off exposed beach rocks & vegetated islets.", "Significant western reef heron colony.Muhazwarah (Umm Hazwarah) 12.5 Rock (exposed strata), undercut cliffs, small sand or shingle beaches, raised marine terraces with sand spit southern aspect sand accumulations behind.", "Centre open wadi with rim rocks.Umm Jinni 0.5 Sand and shingle accumulations with areas of beach rock shoals and shallow lagoons surrounding.Ajirah جَزِيرَة عَجِيرَة 7.0 Rock (exposed strata), undercut cliffs and areas of beach rock and reefs.", "Single marine terrace with sand spit southwest sand and shingle accumulations behind.Bū Sadād (Bu Sa’adad) (''group'') جُزُر بُو سَدَاد 2.0 Sand and shingle accumulations with areas of beach rock, shoals and shallow lagoons surrounding.", "Storm beaches northern aspects.", "Islands off ‑ various with mud sand and exposed rocky vegetated islets.Al Hajiyat (''group'') 7.5 Group of 3 islands.", "Rock (exposed strata), undercut cliffs terraced, small sand or shingle beaches, reefs.Al Wukūr (Al Wakur) (''group'') جُزُراَلْوُكُور 10.0 Isolated sea stacks with shingle beaches with surrounding shallow lagoon.Bu Tammur (''group'') 1.5 Isolated undercut heavily fossilized rock platforms.The following were not considered as part of the Hawar islands in the International Court of Justice (ICJ) judgment, being located between Hawar and the Bahrain Islands and not disputed by Qatar, but have been included in the Hawar archipelago by the Bahrain government as part of the 2002 World Heritage Site application.", "Name Arabic Coordinates Max height (meters) CommentsJazīrat Mashtān (Mashtan) جَزِيرَة مَشْتَان Northernmost island and the closest to Bahrain Island.", "Roughly equidistant between there and the northernmost of the Hawar islands, Rubud Al Gharbiyah.", "Although very small at high tide, at low tide Mashtan is considerably larger.Al Mu`tariḑ اَلْمُعْتَرِض A reef south-east of Mashtan.", "Location of the largest sighting of dugong in the area.Fasht Bū Thawr (Bu Thur) فَشْت بُو ثَوْر A low-tide elevation coral reef approximately 100 metres (100 yards) long.=== Janan Island ===Hawar Pier in 1938.Janan (or Jinan) Island, a small island south of Hawar island, was also considered in the 2001 judgment.", "Based on a previous agreement when both Qatar and Bahrain were under British protection, it was judged to be separate from the Hawar islands and so considered by the court separately.", "It was awarded to Qatar.", "Name Arabic Coordinates Max height (meters) CommentsJazīrat Jinān (Janan) جَزِيرَة جَنَان A small island (or islands, if the low tide elevation of Hadd Janan is counted separately), south of Hawar Island.", "It measures approximately 700 metres by 175 metres (800 yards by 190 yards) and with a total surface area of around 0.115 km2 (28 acres)." ], [ "See also", "* List of islands of Bahrain" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Decision of the International Court of Justice on the Hawar dispute (2001)=== Maps ===* Basic map with island names and features, p. 3* Topographical map * Geological map* Navigation chart, Bahrain & Hawar * Aerial photograph=== Media ===* ''Bahrain Desert Birds'', ''BBC Planet Earth''.", "Taken from ''\"Shallow Seas\"'' (2006)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hans-Dietrich Genscher" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hans-Dietrich Genscher''' (21 March 1927 – 31 March 2016) was a German statesman and a member of the liberal Free Democratic Party (FDP), who served as Federal Minister of the Interior from 1969 to 1974, and as Federal Minister for Foreign Affairs and Vice Chancellor of Germany from 1974 to 1992 (except for a two-week break in 1982, after the FDP had left the Third Schmidt cabinet), making him the longest-serving occupant of either post and the only person to have held one of these positions under two different Chancellors of the Federal Republic of Germany.", "In 1991 he was chairman of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).A proponent of Realpolitik, Genscher has been called \"a master of diplomacy\".", "He is widely regarded as having been a principal \"architect of German reunification\".", "In 1991, he played a pivotal role in international diplomacy surrounding the breakup of Yugoslavia by successfully pushing for international recognition of Croatia, Slovenia and other republics declaring independence, in an effort to halt \"a trend towards a Greater Serbia\".", "After leaving office, he worked as a lawyer and international consultant.", "He was President of the German Council on Foreign Relations and was involved with several international organisations, and with former Czech President Václav Havel, he called for a Cold War museum to be built in Berlin." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life ===Genscher was born on 21 March 1927 in Reideburg (Province of Saxony), now a part of Halle, in what later became East Germany.", "He was the son of Hilda Kreime and Kurt Genscher.", "His father, a lawyer, died when Genscher was nine years old.", "In 1943, he was drafted to serve as a member of the Air Force Support Personnel (''Luftwaffenhelfer'') at the age of 16.At age 17, close to the end of the war, he and his fellow soldiers became members of the Nazi Party due to a collective application (''Sammelantrag'') by his Wehrmacht unit.", "He later said he was unaware of it at the time.Late in the war, Genscher was deployed as a soldier in General Walther Wenck's 12th Army, which ostensibly was directed to relieve the siege of Berlin.", "After the German surrender he was an American and British prisoner of war, but was released after two months.", "Following World War II, he studied law and economics at the universities of Halle and Leipzig (1946–1949) and joined the East German Liberal Democratic Party (LDPD) in 1946.=== Political career ===In 1952, Genscher fled to West Germany, where he joined the Free Democratic Party (FDP).", "He passed his second state examination in law in Hamburg in 1954 and became a solicitor in Bremen.", "During these early years after the war, Genscher continuously struggled with illness.", "From 1956 to 1959 he was a research assistant of the FDP parliamentary group in Bonn.", "From 1959 to 1965 he was the FDP group managing director, while from 1962 to 1964 he was National Secretary of the FDP.In 1965 Genscher was elected on the North Rhine-Westphalian FDP list to the West German parliament and remained a member of parliament until his retirement in 1998.He was elected deputy national chairman in 1968.From 1969 he served as minister of the interior in the SPD-FDP coalition government led by Chancellor Willy Brandt.In 1974 he became foreign minister and vice chancellor, both posts he would hold for 18 years.", "From 1 October 1974 to 23 February 1985 he was Chairman of the FDP.", "It was during his tenure as party chairman that the FDP switched from being the junior member of social-liberal coalition to being the junior member of the 1982 coalition with the CDU/CSU.", "In 1985 he gave up the post of national chairman.", "After his resignation as Foreign Minister, Genscher was appointed honorary chairman of the FDP in 1992." ], [ "Federal Minister of the Interior", "After the federal election of 1969 Genscher was instrumental in the formation of the social-liberal coalition of chancellor Willy Brandt and was on 22 October 1969 appointed as federal minister of the interior.", "In 1972, while minister for the interior, Genscher rejected Israel's offer to send an Israeli special forces unit to Germany to deal with the Munich Olympics hostage crisis.", "A flawed rescue attempt by German police forces at Fürstenfeldbruck air base resulted in a bloody shootout, which left all eleven hostages, five terrorists, and one German policeman dead.", "Genscher's popularity with Israel declined further when he endorsed the release of the three captured attackers following the hijacking of a Lufthansa aircraft on 29 October 1972.In the SPD–FDP coalition, Genscher helped shape Brandt's policy of deescalation with the communist East, commonly known as ''Ostpolitik'', which was continued under chancellor Helmut Schmidt after Brandt's resignation in 1974.He would later be a driving factor in continuing this policy in the new conservative-liberal coalition under Helmut Kohl." ], [ "Vice Chancellor and Federal Foreign Minister", "In the negotiations on a coalition government of SPD and FDP following the 1976 elections, it took Genscher 73 days to reach agreement with Chancellor Helmut Schmidt.As Foreign Minister, Genscher stood for a policy of compromise between East and West, and developed strategies for an active policy of détente and the continuation of the East–West dialogue with the USSR.", "He was widely regarded a strong advocate of negotiated settlements to international problems.", "As a popular story on Genscher's preferred method of shuttle diplomacy has it, \"two Lufthansa jets crossed over the Atlantic, and Genscher was on both\".George H. W. Bush and Genscher (21 November 1989)Genscher was a major player in the negotiations on the text of the Helsinki Accords.", "In December 1976, the General Assembly of the United Nations in New York City accepted Genscher's proposal of an anti-terrorism convention in New York, which was set among other things, to respond to demands from hostage-takers under any circumstances.Genscher was one of the FDP's driving forces when, in 1982, the party switched sides from its coalition with the SPD to support the CDU/CSU in their Constructive vote of no confidence to have incumbent Helmut Schmidt replaced with opposition leader Helmut Kohl as Chancellor.", "The reason for this was the increase in the differences between the coalition partners, particularly in economic and social policy.", "The switch was controversial, not least in his own party.At several points in his tenure, he irritated the governments of the United States and other allies of Germany by appearing not to support Western initiatives fully.", "\"During the Cold War, his penchant to seek the middle ground at times exasperated United States policy-makers who wanted a more decisive, less equivocal Germany\", according to Tyler Marshall.", "Genscher's perceived quasi-neutralism was dubbed ''Genscherism''.", "\"Fundamental to ''Genscherism'' was said to be the belief that Germany could play a role as a bridge between East and West without losing its status as a reliable NATO ally.\"", "In the 1980s, Genscher opposed the deployment of new short-range NATO missiles in Germany.", "At the time, the Reagan Administration questioned whether Germany was straying from the Western alliance and following a program of its own.In 1984, Genscher became the first Western foreign minister to visit Tehran since the Iranian Revolution of 1979.In 1988, he appointed Jürgen Hellner as West Germany's new ambassador to Libya, a post that had been vacant since the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing, a tragedy which U.S. officials blamed on the government of Muammar Gaddafi.Genscher's proposals frequently set the tone and direction of foreign affairs among Western Europe's democracies.", "He was also an active participant in the further development of the European Union, taking an active part in the Single European Act Treaty negotiations in the mid-1980s, as well as the joint publication of the Genscher-Colombo plan with Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs Emilio Colombo which advocated further integration and deepening of relations in the European Union towards a more federal Europe.", "He later was among the politicians who pushed hard for monetary union alongside Edouard Balladur, France's finance minister, and Giuliano Amato, circulating a memorandum to that effect.Genscher retained his posts as foreign minister and vice chancellor through German reunification and until 1992 when he stepped down for health reasons.=== Reunification efforts ===Genscher in the GDR, 1990Genscher is most respected for his efforts that helped spell the end of the Cold War, in the late 1980s when Communist eastern European governments toppled, and which led to German reunification.", "During his time in office, he focused on maintaining stability and balance between the West and the Soviet bloc.", "From the beginning, he argued that the West should seek cooperation with Communist governments rather than treat them as implacably hostile; this policy was embraced by many Germans and other Europeans.Genscher had great interest in European integration and the success of German reunification.", "He soon pushed for effective support of political reform processes in Poland and Hungary.", "For this purpose, he visited Poland to meet the chairman of Solidarity Lech Wałęsa as early as January 1980.Especially from 1987 he campaigned for an \"active relaxation\" policy response by the West to the Soviet efforts.", "In the years before German reunification, he made a point of maintaining strong ties with his birthplace Halle, which was regarded as significant by admirers and critics alike.When thousands of East Germans sought refuge in West German embassies in Czechoslovakia and Poland, Genscher held discussions on the refugee crisis at the United Nations in New York with the foreign ministers of Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany and the Soviet Union in September 1989.Genscher's 30 September 1989 speech from the balcony of the German embassy in Prague was an important milestone on the road to the end of the GDR.", "In the embassy courtyard thousands of East German citizens had assembled.", "They were trying to travel to West Germany, but were being denied permission to travel by the Czechoslovak government at the request of East Germany.", "He announced that he had reached an agreement with the Communist Czechoslovak government that the refugees could leave: \"We have come to you to tell you that today, your departure ...\" (German: \"Wir sind zu Ihnen gekommen, um Ihnen mitzuteilen, dass heute Ihre Ausreise ...\").", "After these words, the speech was drowned in cheers.With his fellow foreign ministers James Baker of the United States and Eduard Shevardnadze of the Soviet Union, Genscher is widely credited with securing Germany's subsequent peaceful unification and the withdrawal of Soviet forces.", "He negotiated the German reunification in 1990 with his counterpart from the GDR, Markus Meckel.", "On 12 September 1990 he signed the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany on behalf of West Germany.", "In November 1990, Genscher and his Polish counterpart Krzysztof Skubiszewski signed the German-Polish Border Treaty on the establishment of the Oder–Neisse line as Poland's western border.", "Meanwhile, he strongly endorsed the plans of the Bush Administration to assure continued U.S. influence in a post-Cold War Europe.=== Post-reunification ===In 1991, Genscher successfully pushed for Germany's recognition of the Republic of Croatia in the Croatian War of Independence shortly after JNA entered Vukovar.", "After Croatia and Slovenia had declared independence, Genscher concluded that Yugoslavia could not be held together, and that republics that wanted to break from the Serbian-dominated federation deserved quick diplomatic recognition.", "He hoped that such recognition would stop the fighting.", "The rest of the European Union was subsequently pressured to follow suit soon afterward.", "The UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar had warned the German Government, that a recognition of Slovenia and Croatia would lead to an increase in aggression in the former Yugoslavia.At a meeting of the European Community's foreign ministers in 1991, Genscher proposed to press for a war crimes trial for President Saddam Hussein of Iraq, accusing him of aggression against Kuwait, using chemical weapons against civilians and condoning genocide against the Kurds.During the Gulf War, Genscher sought to deal with Iraq after other Western leaders had decided to go to war to force it out of Kuwait.", "Germany made a substantial financial contribution to the allied cause but, citing constitutional restrictions on the use of its armed forces, provided almost no military assistance.", "In January 1991, Germany sent Genscher on a state visit to Israel and followed up with an agreement to provide the Jewish state with $670 million in military aid, including financing for two submarines long coveted by Israel, a battery of Patriot missiles to defend against Iraqi missiles, 58 armored vehicles specially fitted to detect chemical and biological attacks, and a shipment of gas masks.", "When, in the aftermath of the war, a far-reaching political debate broke out over how Germany should fulfill its global responsibilities, Genscher responded that if foreign powers expect Germany to assume greater responsibility in the world, they should give it a chance to express its views \"more strongly\" in the United Nations Security Council.", "He also famously held that \"whatever floats is fine, whatever rolls is not\" to sum up Germany's military export policy for restless countries – based on a navy's unsuitability for use against a country's own people.In 1992, Genscher, together with his Danish colleague Uffe Ellemann-Jensen, took the initiative to create the Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) and the EuroFaculty.More than half a century after Nazi leaders assembled their infamous exhibition \"Degenerate Art\", a sweeping condemnation of the work of the avant-garde, Genscher opened a re-creation of the show at the Altes Museum in March 1992, describing Nazi attempts to restrict artistic expression as \"a step toward the catastrophe that produced the mass murder of European Jews and the war of extermination against Germany's neighbors.\"", "\"The paintings in this exhibition have survived oppression and censorship\", he asserted in his opening remarks.", "\"They are not only a monument but also a sign of hope.", "They stand for the triumph of creative freedom over barbarism.", "\"On 18 May 1992, Genscher retired at his own request from the federal government, which he had been member of for a total of 23 years.", "At the time, he was the world's longest-serving foreign minister and Germany's most popular politician.", "He had announced his decision three weeks earlier, on 27 April 1992.Genscher did not specify his reasons for quitting; however, he had suffered two heart attacks by that time.", "His resignation took effect in May, but he remained a member of parliament and continued to be influential in the Free Democratic Party.Following Genscher's resignation, Chancellor Helmut Kohl and FDP chairman Otto Graf Lambsdorff named Irmgard Schwaetzer, a former aide to Genscher, to be the new Foreign Minister.", "In a surprise decision, however, a majority of the FDP parliamentary group rejected her nomination and voted instead to name Justice Minister Klaus Kinkel to head the Foreign Ministry." ], [ "Activities after politics", "Genscher in 2013Ahead of the German presidential election in 1994, Genscher proclaimed his lack of interest in the position, but was nonetheless widely considered a leading contender.", "After a poll taken for ''Stern'' magazine showed him to be the favored candidate of 48 percent of German voters, he reiterated in 1993 that he would \"in no case\" accept the presidency.Having finished his political career, Genscher remained active as a lawyer and in international organizations.", "In late 1992, Genscher was appointed chairman of a newly established donors' board of the Berlin State Opera.", "Between 1997 and 2010, Genscher was affiliated with the law firm Büsing, Müffelmann & Theye.", "He founded his own consulting firm, Hans-Dietrich Genscher Consult GmbH, in 2000.Between 2001 and 2003, he served as president of the German Council on Foreign Relations.", "In 2001, Genscher headed an arbitration that ended a monthlong battle between German airline Lufthansa and its pilots' union and resulted in an agreement on increasing wages by more than 15 percent by the end of the following year.In 2008, Genscher joined former Czech President Václav Havel, former United States Ambassador to Germany John Kornblum and several other well-known political figures in calling for a Cold War museum to be built at Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin.", "In 2009 Genscher expressed public concern at Pope Benedict XVI's lifting of excommunication of the bishops of the Society of Saint Pius X. Genscher wrote in the ''Mitteldeutsche Zeitung'': \"Poles can be proud of Pope John Paul II.", "At the last papal election, we said We are the pope!", "But please—not like this.\"", "He argued that Pope Benedict XVI was making a habit of offending non-Catholics.", "\"This is a deep moral and political question.", "It is about respect for the victims of crimes against humanity\", Genscher said.On 20 December 2013, it was revealed that Genscher played a key role in coordinating the release and flight to Germany of Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the former head of Yukos.", "Genscher had first met Khodorkovsky in 2002 and had chaired a conference at which Khodorkovsky blasted Russian President Vladimir Putin's pursuit of his oil company.", "Khodorkovsky asked his lawyers during a 2011 prison visit to let Genscher help mediate early release.", "Once Putin was re-elected in 2012, German Chancellor Angela Merkel instructed her officials to lobby for the president to meet Genscher.", "The subsequent negotiations involved two meetings between Genscher and Putin – one at Berlin Tegel Airport at the end of Putin's first visit to Germany after he was re-elected in 2012, the other in Moscow.", "While keeping the chancellor informed, Khodorkovsky's attorneys and Genscher spent the ensuing months developing a variety of legal avenues that could allow Putin to release his former rival early, ranging from amendments to existing laws to clemency.", "When Khodorkovsky's mother was in a Berlin hospital with cancer in November 2013, Genscher passed a message to Khodorkovsky suggesting the prisoner should write a pardon letter to Putin emphasizing his mother's ill health.", "Following Putin's pardoning of Khodorkovsky \"for humanitarian reasons\" in December 2013, a private plane provided by Genscher brought Khodorkovsky to Berlin for a family reunion at the Hotel Adlon.Genscher signed on in 2014 to be a member of the Southern Corridor Advisory Panel, a BP-led consortium which includes former British Prime Minister Tony Blair and Peter Sutherland, chairman of Goldman Sachs International.", "The panel's purpose is to facilitate the expansion of a vast natural-gas field in the Caspian Sea and the building of two pipelines across Europe.", "The $45 billion enterprise, championed by the Azerbaijani president, Ilham Aliyev, has been called by critics \"the Blair Rich Project\"." ], [ "Death", "Genscher died at his home outside Bonn in Wachtberg on 31 March 2016 from heart failure, 10 days after his 89th birthday." ], [ "Other activities (selection)", "* CARE Deutschland-Luxemburg, Chairman of the Board of Trustees* Club of Budapest, Honorary Member* German-Azerbaijani Forum, Honorary Chairman* German-Polish Society (DPG), Deputy Chairman of the Board of Trustees* Baltic Development Forum, Member of the Honorary Board* Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinten Nationen, Member of the Board of Trustees* Dimitris Tsatsos Institute for European Constitutional Law at the FernUniversität Hagen, Member of the Board of Trustees* EastWest Institute, Chairman Emeritus* ELSA Deutschland, Member of the Advisory Board (1993–2008)* Foundation Wittenberg-Center for Global Ethics, Member of the Board of Trustees* Bonner Akademie für Forschung und Lehre praktischer Politik (BAPP), Member of the Board of Trustees* Ilsenburg Abbey, Patron* Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, Honorary Chairman of the Board of Trustees* University of Bonn, Member of the Board of Trustees* ''A Soul for Europe'' initiative, Member of the Board of Trustees* ''Gedächtnis der Nation'' project, Member of the Board of Trustees" ], [ "Recognition (selection)", "Genscher has been awarded honorary citizenship by his birthplace Halle (Saale) (in 1991) and the city of Berlin (in 1993).", "* 1973 and 1975 – Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany* 1986 – Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour* 1987 – Grand Cross of the Ordem do Mérito* 1987 – Honorary Citizen of Costa Rica* 1990 – Prince of Asturias Award* 1992 – Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland* 1992 – Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary* 1996 – Order of Duke Trpimir (Croatia)* 1998 – Honorary doctorate of Tbilisi State University* 2002 – Honorary doctorate of the University of Szczecin* 2003 – Honorary doctorate of Leipzig University* 2004 – Erich-Kästner-Preis* 2006 – Peace Prize of the Friedrich Naumann Foundation* 2007 – Order of Merit of North Rhine-Westphalia* 2008 – Walther Rathenau-Preis* 2010 – Order of Merit of Saxony-Anhalt* 2010 – Millennium Bambi Award* 2015 – Henry A. Kissinger Prize of the American Academy in Berlin (along with Giorgio Napolitano)* 2015 – The National German Sustainability Award* 2020 – The 20th Hanno R. Ellenbogen Citizenship Award along with Markus Meckel, Ivan Havel and Ivan Chvatik commemorating the 30th Anniversary of the fall of the Iron Curtain (jointly awarded by The Prague Society and Global Panel Foundation)" ], [ "Selected works", "''Die Rolle Europas im Kontext der Globalisierung'', in: Robertson-von Trotha, Caroline Y.", "(ed.", "): Herausforderung Demokratie.", "Demokratisch, parlamentarisch, gut?", "(= Kulturwissenschaft interdisziplinär/Interdisciplinary Studies on Culture and Society, Vol.", "6), Baden-Baden 2011, (Hrsg.", "): ''Nach vorn gedacht … Perspektiven deutscher Aussenpolitik.''", "Bonn Aktuell, Stuttgart 1987, .", "* ''Zukunftsverantwortung.", "Reden.''", "Buchverlag Der Morgen, Berlin 1990, .", "* ''Unterwegs zur Einheit.", "Reden und Dokumente aus bewegter Zeit.''", "Siedler, Berlin 1991, .", "* ''Wir wollen ein europäisches Deutschland.''", "Siedler, Berlin 1991, Goldmann 1992 .", "* ''Politik aus erster Hand.", "Kolumnen des Bundesaußenministers a. D. Hans-Dietrich Genscher in der Nordsee-Zeitung Bremerhaven.''", "Nordwestdeutsche Verlags-Gesellschaft, Bremerhaven 1992, .", "* ''Kommentare.''", "ECON-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Düsseldorf/Wien 1994, .", "* ''Erinnerungen.''", "Siedler, Berlin 1995, ; Goldmann, München 1997, .", "* ''Sternstunde der Deutschen.", "Hans-Dietrich Genscher im Gespräch mit Ulrich Wickert.", "Mit sechs Beiträgen.''", "Hohenheim, Stuttgart/Leipzig 2000, .", "* ''Die Chance der Deutschen.", "Ein Gesprächsbuch.", "Hans-Dietrich Genscher im Gespräch mit Guido Knopp.''", "Pendo, München 2008, .", "* ''Die Rolle Europas im Kontext der Globalisierung'', in: Caroline Y. Robertson-von Trotha (Hrsg.", "): Herausforderung Demokratie.", "Demokratisch, , gut?", "(= Kulturwissenschaft interdisziplinär/Interdisciplinary Studies on Culture and Society, Bd.", "6), Baden-Baden 2011, .", "* ''Zündfunke aus Prag.", "Wie 1989 der Mut zur Freiheit die Geschichte veränderte, mit Karel Vodička.''", "dtv, München 2014, .", "* ''Meine Sicht der Dinge.", "Im Gespräch mit Hans-Dieter Heumann.''", "Propyläen, Berlin, 2015, ." ], [ "See also", "* Politics of Germany* History of Germany since 1945" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Wilsford, David, ed.", "''Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary'' (Greenwood, 1995) pp.", "155–64." ], [ "Literature", "* Bresselau von Bressensdorf, Agnes: ''Frieden durch Kommunikation.", "Das System Genscher und die Entspannungspolitik im Zweiten Kalten Krieg 1979–1982/83.''", "Berlin, De Gruyter Oldenbourg 2015, .", "* Brauckhoff, Kerstin, Schwaetzer, Ingrid (Hrsg.", "): ''Hans-Dietrich Genschers Außenpolitik.''", "Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2015, .", "* Heumann, Hans-Dieter: ''Hans-Dietrich Genscher.", "Die Biografie.''", "Schöningh, Paderborn 2012, .", "* Lucas, Hans-Dieter (Hrsg.", "): ''Genscher, Deutschland und Europa.''", "Nomos-Verlag, Baden-Baden 2002, .", "* Mittag, Jürgen: In: ''60 Jahre Europäische Bewegung Deutschland'', Berlin 2009, S.", "12–28.", "* Gerhard A. Ritter: ''Hans-Dietrich Genscher, das Auswärtige Amt und die deutsche Vereinigung.''", "Beck, München 2013, ." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Ainsworth" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Henry Ainsworth''' (1571–1622) was an English Nonconformist clergyman and scholar.", "He led the Ancient Church, a Brownist or English Separatist congregation in Amsterdam alongside Francis Johnson from 1597, and after their split led his own congregation.", "His translations of and commentaries on the Hebrew scriptures were influential for centuries." ], [ "Separatist career", "A page from Ainsworth's ''Annotations'' using the divine name Iehovah.Ainsworth was born of a farming family of Swanton Morley, Norfolk.", "He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, later moving to Caius College, but left without a degree.", "After associating with the Puritan party in the Church, he joined the Brownists, but submitted to the Church of England after being arrested in London, and again when he was arrested in Ireland.By 1597, Ainsworth moved to Amsterdam and found a home in \"a blind lane at Amsterdam\", working as porter to a bookseller, and lived in severe poverty.", "According to Roger Williams, Ainsworth ‘lived on 9d a week with roots boiled’.", "When the pastor Francis Johnson came to the church from London, where he had been in prison, Ainsworth was elected as teacher (or doctor), thanks to his knowledge of Hebrew.Ainsworth attempted to arbitrate the quarrel between Francis and Thomasine Johnson on the one side and his brother George Johnson on the other, where George accused Thomasine of dressing immodestly and Francis of ruling the church tyrannically.", "Though he may initially have sympathised with George, on 15 January 1598, Ainsworth chaired a church meeting which censured him.", "Francis and Ainsworth also ex-communicated their elder Matthew Slade for refusing to stop going to services in the Dutch Reformed Church.", "Ainsworth himself caused some scandal when it emerged that he had twice submitted to the Church of England, but he was not disciplined.Though often involved in controversy, Ainsworth was not arrogant, but was a steadfast and cultured champion of the principles represented by the early Congregationalists.", "Amid all the controversy, he steadily pursued his studies.", "The combination was so unique that some have mistaken him for two different individuals.", "Confusion has also been occasioned through his friendly controversy with one John Ainsworth, who left the Anglican for the Roman Catholic church.In 1604, Johnson and Ainsworth wrote a petition for toleration of their church and took it to England in the hope of delivering it to James I.", "In their attempts to get it to the king, they rewrote it twice, and on their return to Amsterdam published all three versions under the title In 1610, Johnson changed his mind about the democratic Congregational structure of the Ancient Church, arguing that authority lay with the ministers, not the people.", "After nearly a year of debate, on 15 December, Ainsworth and his followers split from Johnson, and successfully sued them for possession of the church building.", "John Robinson tried to mediate between the two factions, but ended up taking Ainsworth's side.In 1620, after Johnson's church had departed for North America, but before Robinson's had left on the ''Mayflower'', Ainsworth's church considered joining the latter in their journey and put some money into the project.", "Robert Cushman criticised the proposal, saying 'Our liberty is to them as ratsbane, and their rigour as bad to us as the Spanish Inquisition.'", "Though nothing came of the plan, the Ainsworth church still waved the pilgrims off from Leiden." ], [ "Personal life", "On 29 April 1607, Ainsworth married Marjory Appelbey, a widow from Ipswich with one daughter.", "In 1612, the elder in the Ancient Church, Daniel Studley, was accused of ‘many lascivious attempts’ the girl, and confessed to having 'clapped' her.Henry Ainsworth died in 1622, leaving unfinished work on works on Hosea, Matthew and Hebrews." ], [ "Works", "Ainsworth was one of the most able apologists of the so-called Brownist movement.", "His first solo work ''The communion of saincts'' (1607) is summarised by the historian of Separatism Stephen Tomkins as arguing 'that the true church is a holy community while a church that incorporates the entire population is neither holy nor a community'.", "Tomkins describes his second book ''Covnterpoyson'' (1608) as 'the most compelling apologia that the Separatist movement ever produced'.", "It was written in reply to the puritan minister John Sprint and to Richard Bernard's ''The Separatist Schisme''.Ainsworth also wrote reply to John Smyth, who has been called \"the first Baptist\", entitled ''Defence of Holy Scripture, Worship and Ministry used in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against the Challenges, Cavils and Contradictions of Mr Smyth'' (1609).", "Of Smyth's progression to becoming a Baptist, Ainsworth said he 'had gone ‘from error to error, and now at last to the abomination of Anabaptism’, which ‘in him was the worship … of the devil’.His scholarly works include his ''Annotations''—on ''Genesis'' (1616); ''Exodus'' (1617); ''Leviticus'' (1618); ''Numbers'' (1619); ''Deuteronomy'' (1619); ''Psalms'' (including a metrical version, 1612); and the ''Song of Solomon'' (1623).", "These were collected in folio in 1627.From the outset the ''Annotations'' took a commanding place, especially among continental scholars, establishing a scholarly tradition for English nonconformity.", "Tomkins notes that 'as late as 1866, W.S.", "Plumer’s commentary on Psalms cited Ainsworth as an authority more than a hundred times and the 1885 (English) Revised Version of the Bible drew on his work.", "'His publication of Psalms, ''The Book of Psalmes: Englished both in Prose and Metre with Annotations'' (Amsterdam, 1612), which includes thirty-nine separate monophonic psalm tunes, constituted the Ainsworth Psalter, the only book of music brought to New England in 1620 by the Pilgrim settlers.", "Although its content was later reworked into the Bay Psalm Book, it had an important influence on the early development of American psalmody.", "An early critic of the Brownists said that ‘by the uncouth and strange translation and metre used in them, the congregation was made a laughing stock’, while the 1885 ''Dictionary of National Biography'' said that Ainsworth ‘had not the faintest breath of poetical inspiration’.Ainsworth died in 1622, or early in 1623, for in that year was published his ''Seasonable Discourse, or a Censure upon a Dialogue of the Anabaptists'', in which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy." ], [ "Bibliography", "* * ** " ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hindus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hindus''' (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.", "Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent.The term ''\"Hindu\"'' traces back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name ''Sindhu'' (), referring to the river Indus.", "The Greek cognates of the same terms are \"''Indus''\" (for the river) and \"''India''\" (for the land of the river).", "The term \"''Hindu''\" also implied a geographic, ethnic or cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent around or beyond the Sindhu (Indus) River.", "By the 16th century CE, the term began to refer to residents of the subcontinent who were not Turkic or Muslims.", "'''Hindoo''' is an archaic spelling variant, whose use today is considered derogatory.", ";;.The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the local Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear.", "Competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it may have developed post-8th century CE after the Muslim invasions and medieval Hindu–Muslim wars.", "A sense of Hindu identity and the term ''Hindu'' appears in some texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and Bengali.", "The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir, Tulsidas and Eknath used the phrase ''Hindu dharma'' (Hinduism) and contrasted it with ''Turaka dharma'' (Islam).", "The Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term 'Hindu' in a religious context in 1649.In the 18th century, European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as ''Hindus'', in contrast to ''Mohamedans'' for groups such as Turks, Mughals and Arabs, who were adherents of Islam.", "By the mid-19th century, colonial orientalist texts further distinguished Hindus from Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains, but the colonial laws continued to consider all of them to be within the scope of the term ''Hindu'' until about mid-20th century.", "Scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon.At approximately 1.2 billion, Hindus are the world's third-largest religious group after Christians and Muslims.", "The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million (94.3% of the global Hindu population), live in India, according to the 2011 Indian census.", "After India, the next nine countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order: Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the United States, Malaysia, the United Arab Emirates and the United Kingdom.", "These together accounted for 99% of the world's Hindu population, and the remaining nations of the world combined had about 6 million Hindus ." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''Hindu'' is an exonym.", "This word ''Hindu'' is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word ''Sindhu'', which means \"a large body of water\", covering \"river, ocean\".", "It was used as the name of the Indus River and also referred to its tributaries.", "The actual term '' first occurs, states Gavin Flood, as \"a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''Sindhu'')\", more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I The Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhu in the Vedas, is called ''Hapta Hindu'' in Zend Avesta.", "The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of ''Hindush'', referring to northwestern India.", "The people of India were referred to as ''Hinduvān'' and ''hindavī'' was used as the adjective for Indian language in the 8th century text ''Chachnama''.", "According to D. N. Jha, the term 'Hindu' in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term and did not refer to a religion.Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text ''Records on the Western Regions'' by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang.", "Xuanzang uses the transliterated term ''In-tu'' whose \"connotation overflows in the religious\" according to Arvind Sharma.", "While Xuanzang suggested that the term refers to the country named after the moon, another Buddhist scholar I-tsing contradicted the conclusion saying that ''In-tu'' was not a common name for the country.Al-Biruni's 11th-century text ''Tarikh Al-Hind'', and the texts of the Delhi Sultanate period use the term 'Hindu', where it includes all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists, and retains the ambiguity of being \"a region or a religion\".", "The 'Hindu' community occurs as the amorphous 'Other' of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, according to the Indian historian Romila Thapar.", "The comparative religion scholar Wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that the term 'Hindu' retained its geographical reference initially: 'Indian', 'indigenous, local', virtually 'native'.", "Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves and their \"traditional ways\" from those of the invaders.The text ''Prithviraj Raso'', by Chand Bardai, about the 1192 CE defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan at the hands of Muhammad Ghori, is full of references to \"Hindus\" and \"Turks\", and at one stage, says \"both the religions have drawn their curved swords;\" however, the date of this text is unclear and considered by most scholars to be more recent.", "In Islamic literature, 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, ''Futuhu's-salatin'', composed in the Deccan under Bahmani rule in 1350, uses the word ''' '' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word ''' '' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion\".", "The poet Vidyapati's ''Kirtilata'' (1380) uses the term ''Hindu'' in the sense of a religion, it contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks (Muslims) in a city and concludes \"The Hindus and the Turks live close together; Each makes fun of the other's religion (''dhamme'').", "\"One of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in a religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastio Manrique.", "In the Indian historian DN Jha's essay ''\"Looking for a Hindu identity\"'', he writes: \"No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century\" and that \"The British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, and reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism.\"", "In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus.Other prominent mentions of 'Hindu' include the epigraphical inscriptions from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.", "The term ''Hindu'' was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, ) and some 16th- to 18th-century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts, including ''Chaitanya Charitamrita'' and ''Chaitanya Bhagavata''.", "These texts used it to contrast Hindus from Muslims who are called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th-century ''Chaitanya Charitamrita'' text and the 17th-century ''Bhakta Mala'' text using the phrase \"Hindu dharma\"." ], [ "Terminology", "Hindus at Har Ki Pauri, Haridwar near river Ganges in Uttarakhand state of India.=== Medieval-era usage (8th to 18th century) ===Scholar Arvind Sharma notes that the term \"Hindus\" was used in the 'Brahmanabad settlement' which Muhammad ibn Qasim made with non-Muslims after the Arab invasion of northwestern Sindh region of India, in 712 CE.", "The term 'Hindu' meant people who were non-Muslims, and it included Buddhists of the region.", "In the 11th-century text of Al Biruni, Hindus are referred to as \"religious antagonists\" to Islam, as those who believe in rebirth, presents them to hold a diversity of beliefs, and seems to oscillate between Hindus holding a centralist and pluralist religious views.", "In the texts of Delhi Sultanate era, states Sharma, the term Hindu remains ambiguous on whether it means people of a region or religion, giving the example of Ibn Battuta's explanation of the name \"Hindu Kush\" for a mountain range in Afghanistan.", "It was so called, wrote Ibn Battuta, because many Indian slaves died there of snow cold, as they were marched across that mountain range.", "The term ''Hindu'' there is ambivalent and could mean geographical region or religion.The term Hindu appears in the texts from the Mughal Empire era.", "Jahangir, for example, called the Sikh Guru Arjan a Hindu:Sikh scholar Pashaura Singh states, \"in Persian writings, Sikhs were regarded as Hindu in the sense of non-Muslim Indians\".", "However, scholars like Robert Fraser and Mary Hammond opine that Sikhism began initially as a militant sect of Hinduism and it got formally separated from Hinduism only in the 20th century.=== Colonial-era usage (18th to 20th century) ===A Hindu wedding ritual in IndiaDuring the colonial era, the term Hindu had connotations of native religions of India, that is religions other than Christianity and Islam.", "In the 18th century, ''Gentoo term'' was also used along with '''Hindu''' term.", "In early colonial era Anglo-Hindu laws and British India court system, the term Hindu referred to people of all Indian religions as well as two non-Indian religions: Judaism and Zoroastrianism.", "In the 20th century, personal laws were formulated for Hindus, and the term 'Hindu' in these colonial 'Hindu laws' applied to Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs in addition to denominational Hindus.Beyond the stipulations of British colonial law, European orientalists and particularly the influential Asiatick Researches founded in the 18th century, later called The Asiatic Society, initially identified just two religions in India – Islam, and Hinduism.", "These orientalists included all Indian religions such as Buddhism as a subgroup of Hinduism in the 18th century.", "These texts called followers of Islam as ''Mohamedans'', and all others as ''Hindus''.", "The text, by the early 19th century, began dividing Hindus into separate groups, for chronology studies of the various beliefs.", "Among the earliest terms to emerge were ''Seeks and their College'' (later spelled Sikhs by Charles Wilkins), ''Boudhism'' (later spelled Buddhism), and in the 9th volume of Asiatick Researches report on religions in India, the term ''Jainism'' received notice.According to Pennington, the terms Hindu and Hinduism were thus constructed for colonial studies of India.", "The various sub-divisions and separation of subgroup terms were assumed to be result of \"communal conflict\", and Hindu was constructed by these orientalists to imply people who adhered to \"ancient default oppressive religious substratum of India\", states Pennington.", "Followers of other Indian religions so identified were later referred Buddhists, Sikhs or Jains and distinguished from Hindus, in an antagonistic two-dimensional manner, with Hindus and Hinduism stereotyped as irrational traditional and others as rational reform religions.", "However, these mid-19th-century reports offered no indication of doctrinal or ritual differences between Hindu and Buddhist, or other newly constructed religious identities.", "These colonial studies, states Pennigton, \"puzzled endlessly about the Hindus and intensely scrutinized them, but did not interrogate and avoided reporting the practices and religion of Mughal and Arabs in South Asia\", and often relied on Muslim scholars to characterise Hindus.=== Contemporary usage ===A young Nepali Hindu devotee during a traditional prayer ceremony at Kathmandu's Durbar Square.In contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practising or non-practicing or ''Laissez-faire''.", "The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as Sarnaism.", "The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism.", "One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states Julius Lipner, to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, nor a single founding prophet; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.", "Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.", "The religion \"defies our desire to define and categorize it\".", "A Hindu may, by his or her choice, draw upon ideas of other Indian or non-Indian religious thought as a resource, follow or evolve his or her personal beliefs, and still identify as a Hindu.In 1995, Chief Justice P. B. Gajendragadkar was quoted in an Indian Supreme Court ruling::When we think of the Hindu religion, unlike other religions in the world, the Hindu religion does not claim any one prophet; it does not worship any one god; it does not subscribe to any one dogma; it does not believe in any one philosophic concept; it does not follow any one set of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not appear to satisfy the narrow traditional features of any religion or creed.", "It may broadly be described as a way of life and nothing more.Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, Hindus share philosophical concepts, such as but not limiting to dharma, karma, kama, artha, moksha and samsara, even if each subscribes to a diversity of views.", "Hindus also have shared texts such as the Vedas with embedded Upanishads, and common ritual grammar (Sanskara (rite of passage)) such as rituals during a wedding or when a baby is born or cremation rituals.", "Some Hindus go on pilgrimage to shared sites they consider spiritually significant, practice one or more forms of bhakti or puja, celebrate mythology and epics, major festivals, love and respect for guru and family, and other cultural traditions.", "A Hindu could:* follow any of the Hindu schools of philosophy, such as Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (non-dualism of the qualified whole), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualism with non-dualism), etc.", "* follow a tradition centred on any particular form of the Divine, such as Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, etc.", "* practice any one of the various forms of yoga systems in order to achieve moksha – that is freedom in current life (''jivanmukti'') or salvation in after-life (''videhamukti'');* practice bhakti or puja for spiritual reasons, which may be directed to one's guru or to a divine image.", "A visible public form of this practice is worship before an idol or statue.", "Jeaneane Fowler states that non-Hindu observers often confuse this practice as \"stone or idol-worship and nothing beyond it\", while for many Hindus, it is an image which represents or is symbolic manifestation of a spiritual Absolute (Brahman).", "This practice may focus on a metal or stone statue, or a photographic image, or a linga, or any object or tree (pipal) or animal (cow) or tools of one's profession, or sunrise or expression of nature or to nothing at all, and the practice may involve meditation, japa, offerings or songs.", "Inden states that this practice means different things to different Hindus, and has been misunderstood, misrepresented as idolatry, and various rationalisations have been constructed by both Western and native Indologists.=== Disputes ===In the Constitution of India, the word \"Hindu\" has been used in some places to denote persons professing any of these religions: Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism or Sikhism.", "This however has been challenged by the Sikhs and by neo-Buddhists who were formerly Hindus.", "According to Sheen and Boyle, Jains have not objected to being covered by personal laws termed under 'Hindu', but Indian courts have acknowledged that Jainism is a distinct religion.The Republic of India is in the peculiar situation that the Supreme Court of India has repeatedly been called upon to define \"Hinduism\" because the Constitution of India, while it prohibits \"discrimination of any citizen\" on grounds of religion in article 15, article 30 foresees special rights for \"All minorities, whether based on religion or language\".", "As a consequence, religious groups have an interest in being recognised as distinct from the Hindu majority in order to qualify as a \"religious minority\".", "Thus, the Supreme Court was forced to consider the question whether Jainism is part of Hinduism in 2005 and 2006." ], [ "History of Hindu identity", "Starting after the 10th century and particularly after the 12th century Islamic invasion, states Sheldon Pollock, the political response fused with the Indic religious culture and doctrines.", "Temples dedicated to deity Rama were built from north to south India, and textual records as well as hagiographic inscriptions began comparing the Hindu epic of Ramayana to regional kings and their response to Islamic attacks.", "The Yadava king of Devagiri named ''Ramacandra'', for example states Pollock, is described in a 13th-century record as, \"How is this Rama to be described.. who freed Varanasi from the ''mleccha'' (barbarian, Turk Muslim) horde, and built there a golden temple of Sarngadhara\".", "Pollock notes that the Yadava king ''Ramacandra'' is described as a devotee of deity Shiva (Shaivism), yet his political achievements and temple construction sponsorship in Varanasi, far from his kingdom's location in the Deccan region, is described in the historical records in Vaishnavism terms of Rama, a deity Vishnu avatar.", "Pollock presents many such examples and suggests an emerging Hindu political identity that was grounded in the Hindu religious text of Ramayana, one that has continued into the modern times, and suggests that this historic process began with the arrival of Islam in India.Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya has questioned the Pollock theory and presented textual and inscriptional evidence.", "According to Chattopadhyaya, the Hindu identity and religious response to Islamic invasion and wars developed in different kingdoms, such as wars between Islamic Sultanates and the Vijayanagara kingdom, and Islamic raids on the kingdoms in Tamil Nadu.", "These wars were described not just using the mythical story of Rama from Ramayana, states Chattopadhyaya, the medieval records used a wide range of religious symbolism and myths that are now considered as part of Hindu literature.", "This emergence of religious with political terminology began with the first Muslim invasion of Sindh in the 8th century CE, and intensified 13th century onwards.", "The 14th-century Sanskrit text, ''Madhuravijayam'', a memoir written by ''Gangadevi'', the wife of Vijayanagara prince, for example describes the consequences of war using religious terms,The historiographic writings in Telugu language from the 13th- and 14th-century Kakatiya dynasty period presents a similar \"alien other (Turk)\" and \"self-identity (Hindu)\" contrast.", "Chattopadhyaya, and other scholars, state that the military and political campaign during the medieval era wars in Deccan peninsula of India, and in the north India, were no longer a quest for sovereignty, they embodied a political and religious animosity against the \"otherness of Islam\", and this began the historical process of Hindu identity formation.Andrew Nicholson, in his review of scholarship on Hindu identity history, states that the vernacular literature of Bhakti movement sants from 15th to 17th century, such as Kabir, Anantadas, Eknath, Vidyapati, suggests that distinct religious identities, between Hindus and Turks (Muslims), had formed during these centuries.", "The poetry of this period contrasts Hindu and Islamic identities, states Nicholson, and the literature vilifies the Muslims coupled with a \"distinct sense of a Hindu religious identity\".=== Hindu identity amidst other Indian religions ===Scholars state that Hindu, Buddhist and Jain identities are retrospectively-introduced modern constructions.", "Inscriptional evidence from the 8th century onwards, in regions such as South India, suggests that medieval era India, at both elite and folk religious practices level, likely had a \"shared religious culture\", and their collective identities were \"multiple, layered and fuzzy\".", "Even among Hinduism denominations such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism, the Hindu identities, states Leslie Orr, lacked \"firm definitions and clear boundaries\".Overlaps in Jain-Hindu identities have included Jains worshipping Hindu deities, intermarriages between Jains and Hindus, and medieval era Jain temples featuring Hindu religious icons and sculpture.", "Beyond India, on Java island of Indonesia, historical records attest to marriages between Hindus and Buddhists, medieval era temple architecture and sculptures that simultaneously incorporate Hindu and Buddhist themes, where Hinduism and Buddhism merged and functioned as \"two separate paths within one overall system\", according to Ann Kenney and other scholars.", "Similarly, there is an organic relation of Sikhs to Hindus, states Zaehner, both in religious thought and their communities, and virtually all Sikhs' ancestors were Hindus.", "Marriages between Sikhs and Hindus, particularly among ''Khatris'', were frequent.", "Some Hindu families brought up a son as a Sikh, and some Hindus view Sikhism as a tradition within Hinduism, even though the Sikh faith is a distinct religion.Julius Lipner states that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs is a modern phenomena, but one that is a convenient abstraction.", "Distinguishing Indian traditions is a fairly recent practice, states Lipner, and is the result of \"not only Western preconceptions about the nature of religion in general and of religion in India in particular, but also with the political awareness that has arisen in India\" in its people and a result of Western influence during its colonial history.=== Sacred geography ===Scholars such as Fleming and Eck state that the post-Epic era literature from the 1st millennium CE amply demonstrate that there was a historic concept of the Indian subcontinent as a sacred geography, where the sacredness was a shared set of religious ideas.", "For example, the twelve ''Jyotirlingas'' of Shaivism and fifty-one ''Shaktipithas'' of Shaktism are described in the early medieval era Puranas as pilgrimage sites around a theme.", "This sacred geography and Shaiva temples with same iconography, shared themes, motifs and embedded legends are found across India, from the Himalayas to hills of South India, from Ellora Caves to Varanasi by about the middle of 1st millennium.", "Shakti temples, dated to a few centuries later, are verifiable across the subcontinent.", "Varanasi as a sacred pilgrimage site is documented in the ''Varanasimahatmya'' text embedded inside the ''Skanda Purana'', and the oldest versions of this text are dated to 6th to 8th-century CE.The idea of twelve sacred sites in Shiva Hindu tradition spread across the Indian subcontinent appears not only in the medieval era temples but also in copper plate inscriptions and temple seals discovered in different sites.", "According to Bhardwaj, non-Hindu texts such as the memoirs of Chinese Buddhist and Persian Muslim travellers attest to the existence and significance of the pilgrimage to sacred geography among Hindus by later 1st millennium CE.According to Fleming, those who question whether the term Hindu and Hinduism are a modern construction in a religious context present their arguments based on some texts that have survived into the modern era, either of Islamic courts or of literature published by Western missionaries or colonial-era Indologists aiming for a reasonable construction of history.", "However, the existence of non-textual evidence such as cave temples separated by thousands of kilometers, as well as lists of medieval era pilgrimage sites, is evidence of a shared sacred geography and existence of a community that was self-aware of shared religious premises and landscape.", "Further, it is a norm in evolving cultures that there is a gap between the \"lived and historical realities\" of a religious tradition and the emergence of related \"textual authorities\".", "The tradition and temples likely existed well before the medieval era Hindu manuscripts appeared that describe them and the sacred geography.", "This, states Fleming, is apparent given the sophistication of the architecture and the sacred sites along with the variance in the versions of the Puranic literature.", "According to Diana L. Eck and other Indologists such as André Wink, Muslim invaders were aware of Hindu sacred geography such as Mathura, Ujjain, and Varanasi by the 11th century.", "These sites became a target of their serial attacks in the centuries that followed.=== Hindu persecution ===The Hindus have been persecuted during the medieval and modern era.", "The medieval persecution included waves of plunder, killing, destruction of temples and enslavement by Turk-Mongol Muslim armies from central Asia.", "This is documented in Islamic literature such as those relating to 8th century Muhammad bin-Qasim, 11th century Mahmud of Ghazni, the Persian traveler Al Biruni, the 14th century Islamic army invasion led by Timur, and various Sunni Islamic rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.", "There were occasional exceptions such as Akbar who stopped the persecution of Hindus, and occasional severe persecution such as under Aurangzeb, who destroyed temples, forcibly converted non-Muslims to Islam and banned the celebration of Hindu festivals such as Holi and Diwali.Other recorded persecution of Hindus include those under the reign of 18th century Tipu Sultan in south India, and during the colonial era.", "In the modern era, religious persecution of Hindus have been reported outside India in Pakistan and Bangladesh.=== Hindu nationalism ===Christophe Jaffrelot states that modern Hindu nationalism was born in Maharashtra, in the 1920s, as a reaction to the Islamic Khilafat Movement wherein Indian Muslims championed and took the cause of the Turkish Ottoman sultan as the Caliph of all Muslims, at the end of the World War I. Hindus viewed this development as one of divided loyalties of Indian Muslim population, of pan-Islamic hegemony, and questioned whether Indian Muslims were a part of an inclusive anti-colonial Indian nationalism.", "The Hindu nationalism ideology that emerged, states Jeffrelot, was codified by Savarkar while he was a political prisoner of the British colonial authorities.Chris Bayly traces the roots of Hindu nationalism to the Hindu identity and political independence achieved by the Maratha confederacy, that overthrew the Islamic Mughal empire in large parts of India, allowing Hindus the freedom to pursue any of their diverse religious beliefs and restored Hindu holy places such as Varanasi.", "A few scholars view Hindu mobilisation and consequent nationalism to have emerged in the 19th century as a response to British colonialism by Indian nationalists and neo-Hinduism gurus.", "Jaffrelot states that the efforts of Christian missionaries and Islamic proselytizers, during the British colonial era, each of whom tried to gain new converts to their own religion, by stereotyping and stigmatising Hindus to an identity of being inferior and superstitious, contributed to Hindus re-asserting their spiritual heritage and counter cross examining Islam and Christianity, forming organisations such as the ''Hindu Sabhas'' (Hindu associations), and ultimately a Hindu-identity driven nationalism in the 1920s.The colonial era Hindu revivalism and mobilisation, along with Hindu nationalism, states Peter van der Veer, was primarily a reaction to and competition with Muslim separatism and Muslim nationalism.", "The successes of each side fed the fears of the other, leading to the growth of Hindu nationalism and Muslim nationalism in the Indian subcontinent.", "In the 20th century, the sense of religious nationalism grew in India, states van der Veer, but only Muslim nationalism succeeded with the formation of the West and East Pakistan (later split into Pakistan and Bangladesh), as \"an Islamic state\" upon independence.", "Religious riots and social trauma followed as millions of Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs moved out of the newly created Islamic states and resettled into the Hindu-majority post-British India.", "After the separation of India and Pakistan in 1947, the Hindu nationalism movement developed the concept of Hindutva in second half of the 20th century.The Hindu nationalism movement has sought to reform Indian laws, that critics say attempts to impose Hindu values on India's Islamic minority.", "Gerald Larson states, for example, that Hindu nationalists have sought a uniform civil code, where all citizens are subject to the same laws, everyone has equal civil rights, and individual rights do not depend on the individual's religion.", "In contrast, opponents of Hindu nationalists remark that eliminating religious law from India poses a threat to the cultural identity and religious rights of Muslims, and people of Islamic faith have a constitutional right to Islamic shariah-based personal laws.", "A specific law, contentious between Hindu nationalists and their opponents in India, relates to the legal age of marriage for girls.", "Hindu nationalists seek that the legal age for marriage be eighteen that is universally applied to all girls regardless of their religion and that marriages be registered with local government to verify the age of marriage.", "Muslim clerics consider this proposal as unacceptable because under the shariah-derived personal law, a Muslim girl can be married at any age after she reaches puberty.Hindu nationalism in India, states Katharine Adeney, is a controversial political subject, with no consensus about what it means or implies in terms of the form of government and religious rights of the minorities." ], [ "Demographics", "Hinduism by country, worldmap (estimate 2010).There are 1.2 billion Hindus worldwide (15% of world's population), with about 95% of them being concentrated in India alone.", "Along with Christians (31.5%), Muslims (23.2%) and Buddhists (7.1%), Hindus are one of the four major religious groups of the world.Most Hindus are found in Asian countries.", "The top twenty-five countries with the most Hindu residents and citizens (in decreasing order) are India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, Myanmar, United Kingdom, Mauritius, South Africa, United Arab Emirates, Canada, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Trinidad and Tobago, Singapore, Fiji, Qatar, Kuwait, Guyana, Bhutan, Oman and Yemen.The top fifteen countries with the highest percentage of Hindus (in decreasing order) are Nepal, India, Mauritius, Fiji, Guyana, Bhutan, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Qatar, Sri Lanka, Kuwait, Bangladesh, Réunion, Malaysia, and Singapore.The fertility rate, that is children per woman, for Hindus is 2.4, which is less than the world average of 2.5.Pew Research projects that there will be 1.4 billion Hindus by 2050.+Hinduism by continents (2017–18)ContinentsHindus population % of the Hindu % of the continent Follower dynamicsWorld dynamicsAsia1,074,728,90199.326.0 Growing GrowingEurope2,030,9040.20.3 Growing GrowingThe Americas2,806,3440.30.3 Growing GrowingAfrica2,013,7050.20.2 Growing GrowingOceania791,6150.12.1 Growing GrowingCumulative1,082,371,46910015.0 Growing GrowingIn more ancient times, Hindu kingdoms arose and spread the religion and traditions across Southeast Asia, particularly Thailand, Nepal, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Philippines, and what is now central Vietnam.Over 3 million Hindus are found in Bali Indonesia, a culture whose origins trace back to ideas brought by Hindu traders to Indonesian islands in the 1st millennium CE.", "Their sacred texts are also the Vedas and the Upanishads.", "The Puranas and the Itihasa (mainly ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata'') are enduring traditions among Indonesian Hindus, expressed in community dances and shadow puppet (''wayang'') performances.", "As in India, Indonesian Hindus recognise four paths of spirituality, calling it ''Catur Marga''.", "Similarly, like Hindus in India, Balinese Hindus believe that there are four proper goals of human life, calling it ''Catur Purusartha'' – dharma (pursuit of moral and ethical living), artha (pursuit of wealth and creative activity), kama (pursuit of joy and love) and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge and liberation)." ], [ "Culture", "Hindu culture is a term used to describe the culture and identity of Hindus and Hinduism, including the historic Vedic people.", "Hindu culture can be intensively seen in the form of art, architecture, history, diet, clothing, astrology and other forms.", "The culture of India and Hinduism is deeply influenced and assimilated with each other.", "With the Indianisation of southeast Asia and Greater India, the culture has also influenced a long region and other religions people of that area.", "All Indian religions, including Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism are deeply influenced and soft-powered by Hinduism." ], [ "See also", "* History of Hinduism* List of Hindu empires and dynasties* Hinduism by country* Hindu eschatology* List of Hindu festivals* Hindu calendar* Suratrana* Samskaram* Diksha* Sanātanī" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hernando de Alarcón" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hernando de Alarcón''' (born 1500) was a Spanish explorer and navigator of the 16th century, noted for having led a 1540 expedition to the Colorado River Delta, during which he became one of the first Europeans to ascend the Colorado River from its mouth and became the first European to see Alta California.Little is known about Alarcón's life outside of his exploits in New Spain.", "He was probably born in the town of Trujillo, in present-day Extremadura, Spain, in the first years of the 16th century and travelled to the Spanish colonies in the Americas as a young man." ], [ "1540 expedition", "By 1540, Mexico had been conquered and state-sponsored expeditions were being sent north in search of new wealth and the existence of a water passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.", "Viceroy of New Spain Antonio de Mendoza commissioned Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to undertake a massive overland expedition to find the Seven Cities of Cibola, which were rumoured to exist in the unexplored northern interior.", "The expedition was to be resupplied with stores and provisions delivered by ships traveling north up the Sea of Cortés (Gulf of California), the commander of which would be Alarcón.Alarcón set sail from the Pacific port of Acapulco with two ships, the ''San Pedro'' and the ''Santa Catalina'', on May 9, 1540, and was later joined by the ''San Gabriel'' at St. Jago de Buena Esperanza (modern-day Manzanillo, Colima).", "His orders from Mendoza were to await the arrival of Coronado's land expedition at a certain latitude along the coast.", "The meeting with Coronado was never effected, though Alarcón reached the appointed place and left letters, which were soon afterward discovered by Melchor Díaz, another explorer.Alarcón eventually sailed to the northern terminus of the Gulf of California and completed the explorations begun by Francisco de Ulloa the preceding year.", "During this voyage Alarcón proved to his satisfaction that no open-water passage existed between the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean (then called the \"South Sea\").", "Subsequently, on September 26, he entered the mouth of the Colorado River, which he named the ''Buena Guía'' (\"good guide\").", "He was the first European to ascend the river for a distance considerable enough to make important observations.", "On a second voyage, he probably proceeded past the present-day site of Yuma, Arizona.", "A map drawn by one of Alarcón's pilots is the earliest accurately detailed representation of the Gulf of California and the lower course of the Colorado River.Alarcón is unusual among 16th-century ''conquistadores'' for his reportedly humane treatment of the Indians he met, as opposed to the often reckless and cruel behavior known from accounts of his contemporaries.", "Bernard de Voto, in his 1953 ''Westward the Course of Empire'', observed: \"The Indians had an experience they were never to repeat: they were sorry to see these white men leave.\"", "Alarcón wrote of his contact with the Yuma-speaking Indians along Colorado.", "The information he compiled consisted of their practices in warfare, religion, curing, and even sexual customs.California Historical Landmark No.", "568, on the west bank of the Colorado River near Andrade in Imperial County, California, commemorates Alarcón's expedition had been the first non-Indians to sight land within the present-day state of California." ], [ "California Historical Landmark", "California Historical Landmark number 568 reads::''NO.", "568 HERNANDO DE ALARCÓN EXPEDITION - Alarcón's mission was to provide supplies for Francisco Coronado's expedition in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola.", "The Spaniards led by Hernando de Alarcón ascended the Colorado River by boat from the Gulf of California past this point, thereby becoming the first non-Indians to sight Alta California on September 5, 1540.''" ], [ "See also", "California Historical Landmarks in Imperial County Spanish missions in ArizonaSpanish missions in the Sonoran DesertSpanish missions in Baja CaliforniaCalifornia Historical Landmark" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Hammond, George P. & al., ed.", "''Narratives of the Coronado Expedition, 1540–1542''.", "University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque, New Mexico.", "1940." ], [ "External links", "* The Pirate King's Bio of Hernando de Alarcón*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hakka cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hakka cuisine''' is the cooking style of the Hakka people, and it may also be found in parts of Taiwan and in countries with significant overseas Hakka communities.", "There are numerous restaurants in Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, India, Thailand and the United States serving Hakka cuisine.", "Hakka cuisine was listed in 2014 on the first Hong Kong Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage." ], [ "Background", "The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home.", "It concentrates on the texture of food – the hallmark of Hakka cuisine.", "Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats – 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate – have a central place in their repertoire.", "Preserved vegetables () are commonly used for steamed and braised dishes such as steamed minced pork with preserved vegetables and braised pork with salted vegetables.", "In fact, the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine where what is cooked depends on what is available in the market.", "Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty.", "The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavor (umami taste) of meat.The Hakka who settled in the harbor and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine.", "Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats; instead, emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables.", "Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavoring.", "Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favors offal, an example being deep-fried intestines ().", "Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish, salt baked chicken ().", "Another specialty is the poon choi ().", "While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is at present a commonly accepted view.", "The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China, including Guangdong Province, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka population.Besides meat as source of protein, there is a unique vegan dish called lei cha ().", "It comprises combinations of vegetables and beans.", "Although not specifically unique for all Hakka people but are definitely famous among the Hakka-Hopo families.", "This vegetable-based rice tea dish is gaining momentum in some multicultural countries like Malaysia.", "Cooking of this dish requires the help from other family members to complete all eight combinations.", "It helps foster the relationship between family members in return.Steamed bun () is a popular snack for Hakka people.", "It is mainly made from glutinous rice and is available in sweet or salty options.", "Sweet version consists of sweetened black-eyed pea pastes or peanuts.", "Salty version consists of preserved radish." ], [ "Notable dishes", "Hakka food also includes other traditional Taiwanese dishes, just as other Taiwanese ethnic groups do.", "Some of the more notable dishes in Hakka cuisine are listed as follow: English Image Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Hakka Description Abacus seeds 100px 算盤子算盘子 suànpánzǐ Made of dough formed from tapioca and yam, cut into abacus bead shapes, which when cooked, are soft on the outside and chewy on the inside.", "The dish may be cooked with minced chicken or pork, dried shrimps, mushrooms and various other vegetables.", "The dish is stir-fried, seasoned with light soy sauce, salt, sugar and sometimes rice wine or vinegar.", "Beef meatball soup 牛肉丸湯牛肉丸汤 níuròuwán tāng A simple, clear broth with lettuce and beef meatballs.", "Dongjiang salt-baked chicken 100px 東江鹽焗雞东江盐焗鸡 dōngjiāng yánjú jī This dish was originally baked in a heap of hot salt, but many modern restaurants simply cook in brine, or cover it with a salty mixture before steaming it or baking it in an oven.", "The \"Dongjiang\" refers to the Dong River, which runs through eastern Guangdong Province.", "It is in the Hakka heartlands.", "Duck stuffed with glutinous rice 糯米鴨糯米鸭 nuòmǐ yā The bones are removed from a whole duck with the shape of the bird maintained, and the cavities filled with seasoned sticky rice.", "Fried pork with fermented tofu This is a popular Lunar New Year offering which involves two stages of preparation.", "Marinated pork is deep fried to remove moisture so as to preserve it.", "The pork is then stewed with water and wood's ear fungus.", "It is a Hakka equivalent to canned soup.", "Kiu nyuk 100px 扣肉扣肉 kòu ròu There are two versions of kiu nyuk, the most common consists of sliced pork with preserved mustard greens: thick slices of pork belly, with a layer of preserved mustard greens between each slice, are cooked and served in a dark sauce made up of soy sauce and sugar.", "The other version is cooked with yam or taro.", "Usually pork belly is used, for its layers of fat and meat.", "The yam and pork are shallow fried until browned before being steamed with five-spice powder and yellow rice wine.", "A variation of the recipe on Wikibooks Cookbook is available here.", "Lei cha 100px 擂茶擂茶 lèi chá An assortment of tea leaves (usually green tea), peanuts, mint leaves, sesame seeds, mung beans and other herbs) are pounded or ground into a fine powder and then mixed as a drink, or as a dietary brew to be taken with rice and other vegetarian side dishes such as greens, tofu and pickled radish.", "Yong Tau Foo 100px 釀豆腐酿豆腐 niàng dòufǔ One of the more popular dishes with deep Hakka origins, it consists of tofu cubes heaped with minced meat (usually pork), salted fish and herbs, and then fried until it produces a golden brown colour, or it can be braised.", "Variations include usage of various oddments, including eggplants, shiitake mushrooms, and bitter melon stuffed with the same meat paste.", "Traditionally, ngiong tew foo is served in a clear yellow bean stew along with the bitter melon and shiitake variants.", "Modern variations that are more commonly seen sold in food stalls are made by stuffing the tofu with solely fish paste.", "Usage of oddments to replace the tofu are more noticeable in this version, ranging from fried fish maw slices and okra to chili peppers.", "Steamed sticky rice pastry 粢粑粢粑 qĭ bá" ], [ "Hakka cuisine in South Asia", "In India, Pakistan and other regions with significant South Asian populations, the locally known \"Hakka cuisine\" is actually a local adaptation of original Hakka dishes.", "This variation of Hakka cuisine is in reality, mostly Indian Chinese cuisine and Pakistani Chinese cuisine.", "It is called \"Hakka cuisine\" because, in India and areas of Pakistan, many owners of restaurants who serve this cuisine are of Hakka origin.", "Typical dishes include 'chilli chicken' and 'Dongbei (northeastern) chow mein/hakka noodles' (an Indian version of real Northeastern Chinese cuisine), and these restaurants also serve traditional South Asian dishes such as pakora.", "Being very popular in these areas, this style of cuisine is often mistakenly credited as being representative of Hakka cuisine in general, whereas the authentic style of Hakka cuisine is rarely known in these regions.Outside of South Asia, the premier place to enjoy Indian-Pakistani-Chinese cuisine is in Toronto, Canada, due to the large number of Chinese from South Asia who have emigrated to the region and have chosen to open restaurants and most of it being halal.", "In Toronto, \"Hakka Chinese food\" almost universally refers to Indian-Chinese cuisine, not Hakka cuisine in general." ], [ "Hakka cuisine in Thailand", "In Thailand, Bangkok's Chinatown is Yaowarat and including neighboring areas such as Sampheng, Charoen Chai, Charoen Krung, Suan Mali, Phlapphla Chai or Wong Wian Yi Sip Song Karakadakhom (July 22 Circle).", "In the past, many Hakka restaurants are located in the Suan Mali near Bangkok Metropolitan Administration General Hospital.", "But now they had moved into many places, such as Talad Phlu, which is also one of the Chinatown as well." ], [ "See also", "* Taiwanese cuisine" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Hakka Cookbook (author website)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hunan cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hunan cuisine''', also known as '''Xiang cuisine''', consists of the cuisines of the Xiang River region, Dongting Lake and western Hunan Province in China.", "It is one of the Eight Great Traditions of Chinese cuisine and is well known for its hot and spicy flavours, fresh aroma and deep colours.", "Despite this, only about 20% of the cuisine uses capsicum to produce a strong spicy taste.", "Common cooking techniques include stewing, frying, pot-roasting, braising and smoking.", "Due to the high agricultural output of the region, ingredients for Hunan dishes are many and varied." ], [ "History", "The history of the cooking skills employed in Hunan cuisine dates back to the 17th century.", "The first mention of chili peppers in local gazettes in the province date to 1684, 21st year of the Kangxi Emperor.", "During the course of its history, Hunan cuisine assimilated a variety of local forms, eventually evolving into its own style.", "Some well-known dishes include fried chicken with Sichuan spicy sauce () and smoked pork with dried long green beans ().Hunan cuisine consists of three primary styles:* Xiang River style: Originating from Changsha, Xiangtan and Hengyang* Dongting Lake style: Originating from Yueyang, Yiyang and Changde* Western Hunan style: Originating from Zhangjiajie, Jishou and Huaihua" ], [ "Features", "A bowl of Changsha rice noodlesWith its liberal use of chili peppers, shallots and garlic, Hunan cuisine is known for being ''gan la'' () or purely hot, as opposed to Sichuan cuisine, to which it is often compared.", "Sichuan cuisine uses its distinctive ''ma la'' () seasoning and other complex flavour combinations, frequently employs Sichuan pepper along with chilies which are often dried.", "It also utilises more dried or preserved ingredients and condiments.", "Hunan cuisine, on the other hand, is often spicier by pure chili content and contains a larger variety of fresh ingredients.", "Both Hunan and Sichuan cuisine are perhaps significantly oilier than the other cuisines in China, but Sichuan dishes are generally oilier than Hunan dishes.", "Another characteristic distinguishing Hunan cuisine from Sichuan cuisine is that Hunan cuisine uses smoked and cured goods in its dishes much more frequently.", "Hunan cuisine's menu changes with the seasons.", "In a hot and humid summer, a meal will usually start with cold dishes or a platter holding a selection of cold meats with chilies for opening the pores and keeping cool in the summer.", "In winter, a popular choice is the hot pot, thought to heat the blood in the cold months.", "A special hot pot called ''yuanyang huoguo'' () is notable for splitting the pot into two sides – a spicy one and a mild one.", "One of the classic dishes in Hunan cuisine served in restaurants and at home is farmer pepper fried pork.", "It is made with several common ingredients: pork belly, green pepper, fermented black beans and other spices." ], [ "List of notable dishes", "Sautéed pork with chili pepper''Xueya'', sautéed duck with duck blood, originated from Yongzhou English Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes Changsha-style rice vermicelli Changde-style stewed beef with rice vermicelli Changsha stinky tofu Cured ham with cowpeas Dong'an chicken \"Dry-wok\" chicken Home-style tofu Lotus seeds in rock sugar syrup Mao's braised pork Mala chicken Mashed shrimp in lotus pod Pearly meatballs Pumpkin cake Sautéed pork with chili pepper Smoky flavours steamed together Spare ribs steamed in bamboo Spicy crawfish香辣口味蝦香辣口味虾''xiāng là kǒu wèi xiā'' Steamed fish head in chili sauce Stir fried duck blood Stir fried meat with douchi and chili peppers Yongfeng chili sauce A discussion of Hunan cuisine overall may list a number of piquant dishes, usually but not always very hot and spicy." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese cuisine* Sichuan cuisine* List of Chinese dishes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hyperinflation" ], [ "Introduction", "pengő, the largest denomination bill ever issued, Hungary, 1946.1 sextillion pengő notes were printed, but never issued.Hyperinflation in Venezuela represented by the time it would take for money to lose 90% of its value (301-day rolling average, inverted logarithmic scale).In economics, '''hyperinflation''' is a very high and typically accelerating inflation.", "It quickly erodes the real value of the local currency, as the prices of all goods increase.", "This causes people to minimize their holdings in that currency as they usually switch to more stable foreign currencies.", "When measured in stable foreign currencies, prices typically remain stable.", "Effective capital controls and currency substitution (“dollarization”) are the orthodox solutions to ending short-term hyperinflation; however there are significant social and economic costs to these policies.", "Ineffective implementations of these solutions often exacerbate the situation.", "Many governments choose to attempt to solve structural issues without resorting to those solutions, with the goal of bringing inflation down slowly while minimizing social costs of further economic shocks.Unlike low inflation, where the process of rising prices is protracted and not generally noticeable except by studying past market prices, hyperinflation sees a rapid and continuing increase in nominal prices, the nominal cost of goods, and in the supply of currency.", "Typically, however, the general price level rises even more rapidly than the money supply as people try ridding themselves of the devaluing currency as quickly as possible.", "As this happens, the real stock of money (i.e., the amount of circulating money divided by the price level) decreases considerably.Almost all hyperinflations have been caused by government budget deficits financed by currency creation.", "Hyperinflation is often associated with some stress to the government budget, such as wars or their aftermath, sociopolitical upheavals, a collapse in aggregate supply or one in export prices, or other crises that make it difficult for the government to collect tax revenue.", "A sharp decrease in real tax revenue coupled with a strong need to maintain government spending, together with an inability or unwillingness to borrow, can lead a country into hyperinflation." ], [ "Definition", "In 1956, Phillip Cagan wrote ''The Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation'', the book often regarded as the first serious study of hyperinflation and its effects (though ''The Economics of Inflation'' by C. Bresciani-Turroni on the German hyperinflation was published in Italian in 1931).", "In his book, Cagan defined a hyperinflationary episode as starting in the month that the monthly inflation rate exceeds 50%, and as ending when the monthly inflation rate drops below 50% and stays that way for at least a year.", "Economists usually follow Cagan's description that hyperinflation occurs when the monthly inflation rate exceeds 50% (this is equivalent to a yearly rate of 12,874.63%).The International Accounting Standards Board has issued guidance on accounting rules in a hyperinflationary environment.", "It does not establish an absolute rule on when hyperinflation arises, but instead lists factors that indicate the existence of hyperinflation:* The general population prefers to keep its wealth in non-monetary assets or in a relatively stable foreign currency.", "Amounts of local currency held are immediately invested to maintain purchasing power;* The general population regards monetary amounts not in terms of the local currency but in terms of a relatively stable foreign currency.", "Prices may be quoted in that currency;* Sales and purchases on credit take place at prices that compensate for the expected loss of purchasing power during the credit period, even if the period is short;* Interest rates, wages, and prices are linked to a price index; and* The cumulative inflation rate over three years approaches, or exceeds, 100%." ], [ "Causes", "While there can be a number of causes of high inflation, almost all hyperinflations have been caused by government budget deficits financed by currency creation.", "Peter Bernholz analysed 29 hyperinflations (following Cagan's definition) and concludes that at least 25 of them have been caused in this way.", "A necessary condition for hyperinflation is the use of paper money instead of gold or silver coins.", "Most hyperinflations in history, with some exceptions, such as the French hyperinflation of 1789–1796, occurred after the use of fiat currency became widespread in the late 19th century.", "The French hyperinflation took place after the introduction of a non-convertible paper currency, the assignat.===Money supply===Monetarist theories hold that hyperinflation occurs when there is a continuing (and often accelerating) rapid increase in the amount of money that is not supported by a corresponding growth in the output of goods and services.The increases in price that can result from rapid money creation can create a vicious circle, requiring ever growing amounts of new money creation to fund government deficits.", "Hence both monetary inflation and price inflation proceed at a rapid pace.", "Such rapidly increasing prices cause widespread unwillingness of the local population to hold the local currency as it rapidly loses its buying power.", "Instead, they quickly spend any money they receive, which increases the velocity of money flow; this in turn causes further acceleration in prices.", "This means that the increase in the price level is greater than that of the money supply.", "The real stock of money, M/P, decreases.", "Here M refers to the money stock and P to the price level.This results in an imbalance between the supply and demand for the money (including currency and bank deposits), causing rapid inflation.", "Very high inflation rates can result in a loss of confidence in the currency, similar to a bank run.", "Usually, the excessive money supply growth results from the government being either unable or unwilling to fully finance the government budget through taxation or borrowing, and instead it finances the government budget deficit through the printing of money.Governments have sometimes resorted to excessively loose monetary policy, as it allows a government to devalue its debts and reduce (or avoid) a tax increase.", "Monetary inflation is effectively a flat tax on creditors that also redistributes proportionally to private debtors.", "Distributional effects of monetary inflation are complex and vary based on the situation, with some models finding regressive effects but other empirical studies progressive effects.", "As a form of tax, it is less overt than levied taxes and is therefore harder to understand by ordinary citizens.", "Inflation can obscure quantitative assessments of the true cost of living, as published price indices only look at data in retrospect, so may increase only months later.", "Monetary inflation can become hyperinflation if monetary authorities fail to fund increasing government expenses from taxes, government debt, cost cutting, or by other means, because either* during the time between recording or levying taxable transactions and collecting the taxes due, the value of the taxes collected falls in real value to a small fraction of the original taxes receivable; or* government debt issues fail to find buyers except at very deep discounts; or* a combination of the above.Theories of hyperinflation generally look for a relationship between seigniorage and the inflation tax.", "In both Cagan's model and the neo-classical models, a tipping point occurs when the increase in money supply or the drop in the monetary base makes it impossible for a government to improve its financial position.", "Thus when fiat money is printed, government obligations that are not denominated in money increase in cost by more than the value of the money created.logarithmic).From this, it might be wondered why any rational government would engage in actions that cause or continue hyperinflation.", "One reason for such actions is that often the alternative to hyperinflation is either depression or military defeat.", "The root cause is a matter of more dispute.", "In both classical economics and monetarism, it is always the result of the monetary authority irresponsibly borrowing money to pay all its expenses.", "These models focus on the unrestrained seigniorage of the monetary authority, and the gains from the inflation tax.In neo-classical economic theory, hyperinflation is rooted in a deterioration of the monetary base, that is the confidence that there is a store of value that the currency will be able to command later.", "In this model, the perceived risk of holding currency rises dramatically, and sellers demand increasingly high premiums to accept the currency.", "This in turn leads to a greater fear that the currency will collapse, causing even higher premiums.", "One example of this is during periods of warfare, civil war, or intense internal conflict of other kinds: governments need to do whatever is necessary to continue fighting, since the alternative is defeat.", "Expenses cannot be cut significantly since the main outlay is armaments.", "Further, a civil war may make it difficult to raise taxes or to collect existing taxes.", "While in peacetime the deficit is financed by selling bonds, during a war it is typically difficult and expensive to borrow, especially if the war is going poorly for the government in question.", "The banking authorities, whether central or not, \"monetize\" the deficit, printing money to pay for the government's efforts to survive.", "The hyperinflation under the Chinese Nationalists from 1939 to 1945 is a classic example of a government printing money to pay civil war costs.", "By the end, currency was flown in over the Himalayas, and then old currency was flown out to be destroyed.Hyperinflation is a complex phenomenon and one explanation may not be applicable to all cases.", "In both of these models, however, whether loss of confidence comes first, or central bank seigniorage, the other phase is ignited.", "In the case of rapid expansion of the money supply, prices rise rapidly in response to the increased supply of money relative to the supply of goods and services, and in the case of loss of confidence, the monetary authority responds to the risk premiums it has to pay by \"running the printing presses\".===Supply shocks===A number of hyperinflations were caused by some sort of extreme negative supply shock, sometimes but not always associated with wars or natural disasters.===Models===Since hyperinflation is visible as a monetary effect, models of hyperinflation center on the demand for money.", "Economists see both a rapid increase in the money supply and an increase in the velocity of money if the (monetary) inflating is not stopped.", "Either one, or both of these together are the root causes of inflation and hyperinflation.", "A dramatic increase in the velocity of money as the cause of hyperinflation is central to the \"crisis of confidence\" model of hyperinflation, where the risk premium that sellers demand for the paper currency over the nominal value grows rapidly.", "The second theory is that there is first a radical increase in the amount of circulating medium, which can be called the \"monetary model\" of hyperinflation.", "In either model, the second effect then follows from the first—either too little confidence forcing an increase in the money supply, or too much money destroying confidence.In the ''confidence model'', some event, or series of events, such as defeats in battle, or a run on stocks of the specie that back a currency, removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent—whether a bank or a government.", "Because people do not want to hold notes that may become valueless, they want to spend them.", "Sellers, realizing that there is a higher risk for the currency, demand a greater and greater premium over the original value.", "Under this model, the method of ending hyperinflation is to change the backing of the currency, often by issuing a completely new one.", "War is one commonly cited cause of crisis of confidence, particularly losing in a war, as occurred during Napoleonic Vienna, and capital flight, sometimes because of \"contagion\" is another.", "In this view, the increase in the circulating medium is the result of the government attempting to buy time without coming to terms with the root cause of the lack of confidence itself.In the ''monetary model'', hyperinflation is a positive feedback cycle of rapid monetary expansion.", "It has the same cause as all other inflation: money-issuing bodies, central or otherwise, produce currency to pay spiraling costs, often from lax fiscal policy, or the mounting costs of warfare.", "When business people perceive that the issuer is committed to a policy of rapid currency expansion, they mark up prices to cover the expected decay in the currency's value.", "The issuer must then accelerate its expansion to cover these prices, which pushes the currency value down even faster than before.", "According to this model the issuer cannot \"win\" and the only solution is to abruptly stop expanding the currency.", "Unfortunately, the end of expansion can cause a severe financial shock to those using the currency as expectations are suddenly adjusted.", "This policy, combined with reductions of pensions, wages, and government outlays, formed part of the Washington consensus of the 1990s.Whatever the cause, hyperinflation involves both the supply and velocity of money.", "Which comes first is a matter of debate, and there may be no universal story that applies to all cases.", "But once the hyperinflation is established, the pattern of increasing the money stock, by whichever agencies are allowed to do so, is universal.", "Because this practice increases the supply of currency without any matching increase in demand for it, the price of the currency, that is the exchange rate, naturally falls relative to other currencies.", "Inflation becomes hyperinflation when the increase in money supply turns specific areas of pricing power into a general frenzy of spending quickly before money becomes worthless.", "The purchasing power of the currency drops so rapidly that holding cash for even a day is an unacceptable loss of purchasing power.", "As a result, no one holds currency, which increases the velocity of money, and worsens the crisis.Because rapidly rising prices undermine the role of money as a store of value, people try to spend it on real goods or services as quickly as possible.", "Thus, the monetary model predicts that the velocity of money will increase as a result of an excessive increase in the money supply.", "At the point when money velocity and prices rapidly accelerate in a vicious circle, hyperinflation is out of control, because ordinary policy mechanisms, such as increasing reserve requirements, raising interest rates, or cutting government spending will be ineffective and be responded to by shifting away from the rapidly devalued money and towards other means of exchange.During a period of hyperinflation, bank runs, loans for 24-hour periods, switching to alternate currencies, the return to use of gold or silver or even barter become common.", "Many of the people who hoard gold today expect hyperinflation, and are hedging against it by holding specie.", "There may also be extensive capital flight or flight to a \"hard\" currency such as the US dollar.", "This is sometimes met with capital controls, an idea that has swung from standard, to anathema, and back into semi-respectability.", "All of this constitutes an economy that is operating in an \"abnormal\" way, which may lead to decreases in real production.", "If so, that intensifies the hyperinflation, since it means that the amount of goods in \"too much money chasing too few goods\" formulation is also reduced.", "This is also part of the vicious circle of hyperinflation.Once the vicious circle of hyperinflation has been ignited, dramatic policy means are almost always required.", "Simply raising interest rates is insufficient.", "Bolivia, for example, underwent a period of hyperinflation in 1985, where prices increased 12,000% in the space of less than a year.", "The government raised the price of gasoline, which it had been selling at a huge loss to quiet popular discontent, and the hyperinflation came to a halt almost immediately, since it was able to bring in hard currency by selling its oil abroad.", "The crisis of confidence ended, and people returned deposits to banks.", "The German hyperinflation (1919 – November 1923) was ended by producing a currency based on assets loaned against by banks, called the Rentenmark.", "Hyperinflation often ends when a civil conflict ends with one side winning.Although wage and price controls are sometimes used to control or prevent inflation, no episode of hyperinflation has been ended by the use of price controls alone, because price controls that force merchants to sell at prices far below their restocking costs result in shortages that cause prices to rise still further.Nobel prize winner Milton Friedman said \"We economists don't know much, but we do know how to create a shortage.", "If you want to create a shortage of tomatoes, for example, just pass a law that retailers can't sell tomatoes for more than two cents per pound.", "Instantly you'll have a tomato shortage.", "It's the same with oil or gas.\"" ], [ "Effects", "Germany, 1923: banknotes had lost so much value that they were used as wallpaper.Hyperinflation increases stock market prices, wipes out the purchasing power of private and public savings, distorts the economy in favor of the hoarding of real assets, causes the monetary base (whether specie or hard currency) to flee the country, and makes the afflicted area anathema to investment.One of the most important characteristics of hyperinflation is the accelerating substitution of the inflating money by stable money—gold and silver in former times, then relatively stable foreign currencies after the breakdown of the gold or silver standards (Thiers' Law).", "If inflation is high enough, government regulations like heavy penalties and fines, often combined with exchange controls, cannot prevent this currency substitution.", "As a consequence, the inflating currency is usually heavily undervalued compared to stable foreign money in terms of purchasing power parity.", "So foreigners can live cheaply and buy at low prices in the countries hit by high inflation.", "It follows that governments that do not succeed in engineering a successful currency reform in time must finally legalize the stable foreign currencies (or, formerly, gold and silver) that threaten to fully substitute the inflating money.", "Otherwise, their tax revenues, including the inflation tax, will approach zero.", "The last episode of hyperinflation in which this process could be observed was in Zimbabwe in the first decade of the 21st century.", "In this case, the local money was mainly driven out by the US dollar and the South African rand.Enactment of price controls to prevent discounting the value of paper money relative to gold, silver, hard currency, or other commodities fail to force acceptance of a paper money that lacks intrinsic value.", "If the entity responsible for printing a currency promotes excessive money printing, with other factors contributing a reinforcing effect, hyperinflation usually continues.", "Hyperinflation is generally associated with paper money, which can easily be used to increase the money supply: add more zeros to the plates and print, or even stamp old notes with new numbers.", "Historically, there have been numerous episodes of hyperinflation in various countries followed by a return to \"hard money\".", "Older economies would revert to hard currency and barter when the circulating medium became excessively devalued, generally following a \"run\" on the store of value.Much attention on hyperinflation centers on the effect on savers whose investments become worthless.", "Interest rate changes often cannot keep up with hyperinflation or even high inflation, certainly with contractually fixed interest rates.", "For example, in the 1970s in the United Kingdom inflation reached 25% per annum, yet interest rates did not rise above 15%—and then only briefly—and many fixed interest rate loans existed.", "Contractually, there is often no bar to a debtor clearing his long term debt with \"hyperinflated cash\", nor could a lender simply somehow suspend the loan.", "Contractual \"early redemption penalties\" were (and still are) often based on a penalty of ''n'' months of interest/payment; again no real bar to paying off what had been a large loan.", "In interwar Germany, for example, much private and corporate debt was effectively wiped out—certainly for those holding fixed interest rate loans.Ludwig von Mises used the term \"crack-up boom\" (German: Katastrophenhausse) to describe the economic consequences of an unmitigated increasing in the base-money supply.", "As more and more money is provided, interest rates decline towards zero.", "Realizing that fiat money is losing value, investors will try to place money in assets such as real estate, stocks, even art; as these appear to represent \"real\" value.", "Asset prices are thus becoming inflated.", "This potentially spiraling process will ultimately lead to the collapse of the monetary system.", "The Cantillon effect says that those institutions that receive the new money first are the beneficiaries of the policy.===Aftermath===Hyperinflation is ended by drastic remedies, such as imposing the shock therapy of slashing government expenditures or altering the currency basis.", "One form this may take is dollarization, the use of a foreign currency (not necessarily the U.S. dollar) as a national unit of currency.", "An example was dollarization in Ecuador, initiated in September 2000 in response to a 75% loss of value of the Ecuadorian sucre in early 2000.Usually the \"dollarization\" takes place in spite of all efforts of the government to prevent it by exchange controls, heavy fines and penalties.", "The government has thus to try to engineer a successful currency reform stabilizing the value of the money.", "If it does not succeed with this reform the substitution of the inflating by stable money goes on.", "Thus it is not surprising that there have been at least seven historical cases in which the good (foreign) money did fully drive out the use of the inflating currency.", "In the end, the government had to legalize the former, for otherwise its revenues would have fallen to zero.Hyperinflation has always been a traumatic experience for the people who suffer it, and the next political regime almost always enacts policies to try to prevent its recurrence.", "Often this means making the central bank very aggressive about maintaining price stability, as was the case with the German Bundesbank, or moving to some hard basis of currency, such as a currency board.", "Many governments have enacted extremely stiff wage and price controls in the wake of hyperinflation, but this does not prevent further inflation of the money supply by the central bank, and always leads to widespread shortages of consumer goods if the controls are rigidly enforced.===Currency===In countries experiencing hyperinflation, the central bank often prints money in larger and larger denominations as the smaller denomination notes become worthless.", "This can result in the production of unusually large denominations of banknotes, including those denominated in amounts of 1,000,000,000 or more.", "* By late 1923, the Weimar Republic of Germany was issuing two-trillion mark banknotes and postage stamps with a face value of fifty billion marks.", "The highest value banknote issued by the Weimar government's Reichsbank had a face value of 100 trillion marks (1014; 100,000,000,000,000; 100 million million).", "At the height of the inflation, one US dollar was worth 4 trillion German marks.", "One of the firms printing these notes submitted an invoice for the work to the Reichsbank for 32,776,899,763,734,490,417.05 (3.28 × 1019, roughly 33 quintillion) marks.", "* The largest denomination banknote ever officially issued for circulation was in 1946 by the Hungarian National Bank for the amount of 100 quintillion pengő (1020; 100,000,000,000,000,000,000; 100 million million million) image.", "(A banknote worth 10 times as much, 1021 (1 sextillion) pengő, was printed but not issued image.)", "The banknotes did not show the numbers in full: \"hundred million b.-pengő\" (\"hundred million trillion pengő\") and \"one milliard b.-pengő\" were spelled out instead.", "This makes the 100,000,000,000,000 Zimbabwean dollar banknotes the note with the greatest number of zeros shown.", "* The Post-World War II hyperinflation of Hungary held the record for the most extreme monthly inflation rate ever – 41.9 quadrillion percent (4.19 × 1016%; 41,900,000,000,000,000%) for July 1946, amounting to prices doubling every 15.3 hours.", "By comparison, on 14 November 2008, Zimbabwe's annual inflation rate was estimated to be 89.7 sextillion (1021) percent.", "The highest monthly inflation rate of that period was 79.6 billion percent (7.96 × 1010%; 79,600,000,000%), and a doubling time of 24.7 hours.One way to avoid the use of large numbers is by declaring a new unit of currency.", "(As an example, instead of 10,000,000,000 dollars, a central bank might set 1 new dollar = 1,000,000,000 old dollars, so the new note would read \"10 new dollars\".)", "One example of this is Turkey's revaluation of the Lira on 1 January 2005, when the old Turkish lira (TRL) was converted to the New Turkish lira (TRY) at a rate of 1,000,000 old to 1 new Turkish Lira.", "While this does not lessen the actual value of a currency, it is called redenomination or revaluation and also occasionally happens in countries with lower inflation rates.", "During hyperinflation, currency inflation happens so quickly that bills reach large numbers before revaluation.Some banknotes were stamped to indicate changes of denomination, as it would have taken too long to print new notes.", "By the time new notes were printed, they would be obsolete (that is, they would be of too low a denomination to be useful).Metallic coins were rapid casualties of hyperinflation, as the scrap value of metal enormously exceeded its face value.", "Massive amounts of coinage were melted down, usually illicitly, and exported for hard currency.Governments will often try to disguise the true rate of inflation through a variety of techniques.", "None of these actions addresses the root causes of inflation; and if discovered, they tend to further undermine trust in the currency, causing further increases in inflation.", "Price controls will generally result in shortages and hoarding and extremely high demand for the controlled goods, causing disruptions of supply chains.", "Products available to consumers may diminish or disappear as businesses no longer find it economic to continue producing and/or distributing such goods at the legal prices, further exacerbating the shortages.There are also issues with computerized money-handling systems.", "In Zimbabwe, during the hyperinflation of the Zimbabwe dollar, many automated teller machines and payment card machines struggled with arithmetic overflow errors as customers required many billions and trillions of dollars at one time." ], [ "Notable hyperinflationary periods", "===Argentina===Argentina inflation 1994 - 2021 ===Austria===Hanke Krus Hyperinflation Table that lists 56 episodes of hyperinflation (following Cagan's definition)In 1922, inflation in Austria reached 1,426%, and from 1914 to January 1923, the consumer price index rose by a factor of 11,836, with the highest banknote in denominations of 500,000 Kronen.", "After World War I, essentially all State enterprises ran at a loss, and the number of state employees in the capital, Vienna, was greater than in the earlier monarchy, even though the new republic was nearly one-eighth of the size.Observing the Austrian response to developing hyperinflation, which included the hoarding of food and the speculation in foreign currencies, Owen S. Phillpotts, the Commercial Secretary at the British Legation in Vienna wrote: \"The Austrians are like men on a ship who cannot manage it, and are continually signalling for help.", "While waiting, however, most of them begin to cut rafts, each for himself, out of the sides and decks.", "The ship has not yet sunk despite the leaks so caused, and those who have acquired stores of wood in this way may use them to cook their food, while the more seamanlike look on cold and hungry.", "The population lack courage and energy as well as patriotism.", "\"* Start and end date: October 1921 – September 1923* Peak month and rate of inflation: August 1922, 129%=== Bolivia ===Increasing hyperinflation in Bolivia has plagued, and at times crippled, its economy and currency since the 1970s.", "At one time in 1985, the country experienced an annual inflation rate of more than 20,000%.", "Fiscal and monetary reform reduced the inflation rate to single digits by the 1990s, and in 2004 Bolivia experienced a manageable 4.9% rate of inflation.In 1987, the Bolivian peso was replaced by the new boliviano at a rate of one million to one (when 1 US dollar was worth 1.8–1.9 million pesos).", "At that time, 1 new boliviano was roughly equivalent to 1 U.S. dollar.=== Brazil ===Brazil Inflation 1981-1995Brazilian hyperinflation lasted from 1985 (the year when the military dictatorship ended) to 1994, with prices rising by 184,901,570,954.39% (or percent; equivalent to a tenfold increase on average a year) in that time due to the uncontrolled printing of money.", "There were many economic plans that tried to contain hyperinflation including zeroes cuts, price freezes and even confiscation of bank accounts.The highest value was in March 1990, when the government inflation index reached 82.39%.", "Hyperinflation ended in July 1994 with the Real Plan during the government of Itamar Franco.", "During the period of inflation Brazil adopted a total of six different currencies, as the government constantly changed due to rapid devaluation and increase in the number of zeros.", "* Start and End Date: Jan. 1985 – Mid-Jul.", "1994* Peak Month and Rate of Inflation: Mar.", "1990, 82.39%===China===Hyperinflation was a major factor in the collapse of the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek.After a brief decrease following the defeat of Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War, hyperinflation resumed in October 1945.From 1948 to 1949, near the end of the Chinese Civil War, the Republic of China went through a period of hyperinflation.", "In 1947, the highest denomination bill was 50,000 yuan.", "By mid-1948, the highest denomination was 180,000,000 yuan.", "In October 1948, the Nationalist government replaced its fabi currency with the gold yuan.", "The gold yuan deteriorated even faster than the fabi had.#First episode:#* Start and end date: July 1943 – August 1945#* Peak month and rate of inflation: June 1945, 302%#Second episode:#* Start and end date: October 1947 – mid May 1949#* Peak month and rate of inflation: April 5,070%The Communists gained significant legitimacy by defeating hyperinflation in the late 1940s and early 1950s.", "Their development of state trading agencies reintegrated markets and trading networks, ultimately stabilizing prices.===France===During the French Revolution and first Republic, the National Assembly issued bonds, some backed by seized church property, called assignats.", "Napoleon replaced them with the franc in 1803, at which time the assignats were basically worthless.", "Stephen D. Dillaye pointed out that one of the reasons for the failure was massive counterfeiting of the paper currency, largely through London.", "According to Dillaye: \"Seventeen manufacturing establishments were in full operation in London, with a force of four hundred men devoted to the production of false and forged Assignats.", "\"* Start and end date: May 1795 – November 1796* Peak month and rate of inflation: mid August 1796, 304%===Germany (Weimar Republic)===5 million marks would have been worth $714.29 in January 1923, but was only worth about one-thousandth of one cent by October 1923.By November 1922, the value in gold of money in circulation had fallen from £300 million before World War I to £20 million.", "The Reichsbank responded by the unlimited printing of notes, thereby accelerating the devaluation of the mark.", "In his report to London, Lord D'Abernon wrote: \"In the whole course of history, no dog has ever run after its own tail with the speed of the Reichsbank.\"", "Germany went through its worst inflation in 1923.In 1922, the highest denomination was 50,000ℳ.", "By 1923, the highest denomination was 100,000,000,000,000ℳ (1014 marks).", "In December 1923 the exchange rate was 4,200,000,000,000ℳ (4.2 × 1012 marks) to 1 US dollar.", "In 1923, the rate of inflation hit 3.25 × 106 percent per month (prices double every two days).", "Beginning on 20 November 1923, 1,000,000,000,000ℳ were exchanged for 1 Rentenmark, so that RM 4.2 was worth 1 US dollar, exactly the same rate the mark had in 1914.#First phase:#* Start and end date: January 1920 – January 1920#* Peak month and rate of inflation: January 1920, 56.9%#Second phase:#* Start and end date: August 1922 – December 1923#* Peak month and rate of inflation: November 1923, 29,525%===Greece (German–Italian occupation)===With the German invasion in April 1941, there was an abrupt increase in prices.", "This was due to psychological factors related to the fear of shortages and to the hoarding of goods.", "During the German and Italian Axis occupation of Greece (1941–1944), the agricultural, mineral, industrial etc.", "production of Greece were used to sustain the occupation forces, but also to secure provisions for the Afrika Korps.", "One part of these \"sales\" of provisions was settled with bilateral clearing through the German DEGRIGES and the Italian Sagic companies at very low prices.", "As the value of Greek exports in drachmas fell, the demand for drachmas followed suit and so did its forex rate.", "While shortages started due to naval blockades and hoarding, the prices of commodities soared.", "The other part of the \"purchases\" was settled with drachmas secured from the Bank of Greece and printed for this purpose by private printing presses.", "As prices soared, the Germans and Italians started requesting more and more drachmas from the Bank of Greece to offset price increases; each time prices increased, the note circulation followed suit soon afterwards.", "For the year starting November 1943, the inflation rate was 2.5 × 1010%, the circulation was 6.28 × 1018 drachmae and one gold sovereign cost 43,167 billion drachmas.", "The hyperinflation started subsiding immediately after the departure of the German occupation forces, but inflation rates took several years to fall below 50%.", "* Start and end date: June 1941 – January 1946* Peak month and rate of inflation: December 1944, %===Hungary===pengoes (1946).", "''B.-pengő'' was short for \"billió pengő\", i.e.", "1012P.The Treaty of Trianon and political instability between 1919 and 1924 led to a major inflation of Hungary's currency.", "In 1921, in an attempt to stop this inflation, the national assembly of Hungary passed the Hegedüs reforms, including a 20% levy on bank deposits, but this precipitated a mistrust of banks by the public, especially the peasants, and resulted in a reduction in savings, and thus an increase in the amount of currency in circulation.", "Due to the reduced tax base, the government resorted to printing money, and in 1923 inflation in Hungary reached 98% per month.Between the end of 1945 and July 1946, Hungary went through the highest inflation ever recorded.", "In 1944, the highest banknote value was 1,000 P. By the end of 1945, it was 10,000,000 P, and the highest value in mid-1946 was 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 P (1020 pengő).", "A special currency, the adópengő (or ''tax pengő'') was created for tax and postal payments.", "The inflation was such that the value of the adópengő was adjusted each day by radio announcement.", "On 1 January 1946, one adópengő equaled one pengő, but by late July, one adópengő equaled 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 P or 2×1021 P (2 sextillion pengő).When the pengő was replaced in August 1946 by the forint, the total value of all Hungarian banknotes in circulation amounted to of one US cent.", "Inflation had peaked at 1.3 × 1016% per month (i.e.", "prices doubled every 15.6 hours).", "On 18 August 1946, 400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 P (4 pengő, four hundred quadrilliard on the long scale used in Hungary, or four hundred octillion on short scale) became 1 Ft.* Start and end date: August 1945 – July 1946* Peak month and rate of inflation: July 1946, %===Malaya (Japanese occupation)===motifs of banana trees on the currency's 10-dollar banknote.Malaya and Singapore were under Japanese occupation from 1942 until 1945.The Japanese issued \"banana notes\" as the official currency to replace the Straits currency issued by the British.", "During that time, the cost of basic necessities increased drastically.", "As the occupation proceeded, the Japanese authorities printed more money to fund their wartime activities, which resulted in hyperinflation and a severe depreciation in value of the banana note.From February to December 1942, $100 of Straits currency was worth $100 in Japanese scrip, after which the value of Japanese scrip began to erode, reaching $385 in December 1943 and $1,850 one year later.", "By 1 August 1945, this had inflated to $10,500, and 11 days later it had reached $95,000.After 13 August 1945, Japanese scrip had become valueless.===North Korea===North Korea has most likely experienced hyperinflation from December 2009 to mid-January 2011.Based on the price of rice, North Korea's hyperinflation peaked in mid-January 2010, but according to black market exchange-rate data, and calculations based on purchasing power parity, North Korea experienced its peak month of inflation in early March 2010.These data points are unofficial, however, and therefore must be treated with a degree of caution.=== Peru ===In modern history, Peru underwent a period of hyperinflation in the 1980s to the early 1990s starting with President Fernando Belaúnde's second administration, heightened during Alan García's first administration, to the beginning of Alberto Fujimori's term.", "1 US dollar was worth over S/3,210,000,000.Garcia's term introduced the inti, which worsened inflation into hyperinflation.", "Peru's currency and economy were stabilized under Fujimori's Nuevo Sol program, which has remained Peru's currency since 1991.===Poland===Poland has gone through two episodes of hyperinflation since the country regained independence following the end of World War I, the first in 1923, the second in 1989–1990.Both events resulted in the introduction of new currencies.", "In 1924, the ''złoty'' replaced the original currency of post-war Poland, the mark.", "This currency was subsequently replaced by another of the same name in 1950.As a result of the second hyperinflation crisis, the current ''new złoty'' was introduced in 1995 (ISO code: PLN).", "See the article on Polish złoty for more information about the currency's history.The newly independent Poland had been struggling with a large budget deficit since its inception in 1918 but it was in 1923 when inflation reached its peak.", "The exchange rate of the Polish mark (Mp) to the US dollar dropped from Mp 9.- per dollar in 1918 to Mp 6,375,000.- per dollar at the end of 1923.A new personal 'inflation tax' was introduced.", "The resolution of the crisis is attributed to Władysław Grabski, who became prime minister of Poland in December 1923.Having nominated an all-new government and being granted extraordinary lawmaking powers by the Sejm for a period of six months, he introduced a new currency, the ''złoty'' (\"florin\" in Polish), established a new national bank and scrapped the inflation tax, which took place throughout 1924.The economic crisis in Poland in the 1980s was accompanied by rising inflation when new money was printed to cover a budget deficit.", "Although inflation was not as acute as in 1920s, it is estimated that its annual rate reached around 600% in a period of over a year spanning parts of 1989 and 1990.The economy was stabilised by the adoption of the Balcerowicz Plan in 1989, named after the main author of the reforms, minister of finance Leszek Balcerowicz.", "The plan was largely inspired by the previous Grabski's reforms.===Philippines===The Japanese government occupying the Philippines during World War II issued fiat currencies for general circulation.", "The Japanese-sponsored Second Philippine Republic government led by Jose P. Laurel at the same time outlawed possession of other currencies, most especially \"guerrilla money\".", "The fiat money's lack of value earned it the derisive nickname \"Mickey Mouse money\".", "Survivors of the war often tell tales of bringing suitcases or ''bayong'' (native bags made of woven coconut or buri leaf strips) overflowing with Japanese-issued notes.", "Early on, 75 JIM pesos could buy one duck egg.", "In 1944, a box of matches cost more than 100 JIM pesos.In 1942, the highest denomination available was ₱10.Before the end of the war, because of inflation, the Japanese government was forced to issue ₱100, ₱500, and ₱1,000 notes.", "* Start and end date: January 1944 – December 1944* Peak month and rate of inflation: January 1944, 60%===Soviet Union===A seven-year period of uncontrollable spiralling inflation occurred in the early Soviet Union, running from the earliest days of the Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917 to the reestablishment of the gold standard with the introduction of the chervonets as part of the New Economic Policy.", "The inflationary crisis effectively ended in March 1924 with the introduction of the so-called \"gold ruble\" as the country's standard currency.The early Soviet hyperinflationary period was marked by three successive redenominations of its currency, in which \"new rubles\" replaced old at the rates of 10,000:1 (1 January 1922), 100:1 (1 January 1923), and 50,000:1 (7 March 1924), respectively.Between 1921 and 1922, inflation in the Soviet Union reached 213%.===Turkey===Turkey inflation rate (Year over Year)Since the end of 2017 Turkey has had high inflation rates.", "It is speculated that the new elections took place frustrated because of the impending crisis to forestall.", "In October 2017, inflation was at 11.9%, the highest rate since July 2008.The lira fell from TL 1.503 = US$1 in 2010 to TL 23.1446 = US$1 in June 2023.In February 2022 inflation rose to 54.4%.", "In March 2022, inflation was above 60%.=== Venezuela ===The value of one US dollar in Venezuelan bolivares on the black market through time, according to DolarToday.com.", "Blue and red vertical lines represent every time the currency has lost 99% of its value.", "This has happened almost five times since 2012, meaning that the currency is worth, as of November 2020, almost 1 billion times less than in August 2012.Venezuela's hyperinflation began in November 2016.Inflation of Venezuela's bolivar fuerte (VEF) in 2014 reached 69% and was the highest in the world.", "In 2015, inflation was 181%, the highest in the world and the highest in the country's history at that time, 800% in 2016, over 4,000% in 2017, and 1,698,488% in 2018, with Venezuela spiraling into hyperinflation.", "While the Venezuelan government \"has essentially stopped\" producing official inflation estimates as of early 2018, one estimate of the rate at that time was 5,220%, according to inflation economist Steve Hanke of Johns Hopkins University.Inflation has affected Venezuelans so much that in 2017, some people became video game gold farmers and could be seen playing games such as ''RuneScape'' to sell in-game currency or characters for real currency.", "In many cases, these gamers made more money than salaried workers in Venezuela even though they were earning just a few dollars per day.", "During the Christmas season of 2017, some shops would no longer use price tags since prices would inflate so quickly, so customers were required to ask staff at stores how much each item was.The International Monetary Fund estimated in 2018 that Venezuela's inflation rate would reach 1,000,000% by the end of the year.", "This forecast was criticized by Steve H. Hanke, professor of applied economics at The Johns Hopkins University and senior fellow at the Cato Institute.", "According to Hanke, the IMF had released a \"bogus forecast\" because \"no one has ever been able to accurately forecast the course or the duration of an episode of hyperinflation.", "But that has not stopped the IMF from offering inflation forecasts for Venezuela that have proven to be wildly inaccurate\".In July 2018, hyperinflation in Venezuela was sitting at 33,151%, \"the 23rd most severe episode of hyperinflation in history\".In April 2019, the International Monetary Fund estimated that inflation would reach 10,000,000% by the end of 2019.In May 2019, the Central Bank of Venezuela released economic data for the first time since 2015.According to this release, the inflation of Venezuela was 274% in 2016, 863% in 2017 and 130,060% in 2018.The annualised inflation rate as of April 2019 was estimated to be 282,972.8% as of April 2019, and cumulative inflation from 2016 to April 2019 was estimated at 53,798,500%.The new reports imply a contraction of more than half of the economy in five years, according to the ''Financial Times'' \"one of the biggest contractions in Latin American history\".", "According to undisclosed sources from Reuters, the release of these numbers was due to pressure from China, a Maduro ally.", "One of these sources claims that the disclosure of economic numbers may bring Venezuela into compliance with the IMF, making it harder to support Juan Guaidó during the presidential crisis.", "At the time, the IMF was not able to support the validity of the data as they had not been able to contact the authorities.", "* Start and end date: November 2016 – present* Peak month and rate of inflation: April 2018, 234% (Hanke estimate); September 2018, 233% (National Assembly estimate)===Vietnam===Vietnam went through a period of chaos and high inflation in the late 1980s, with inflation peaking at 774% in 1988, after the country's \"price-wage-currency\" reform package, led by then-Deputy Prime Minister Trần Phương, had failed.", "High inflation also occurred in the early stages of the socialist-oriented market economic reforms commonly referred to as the Đổi Mới.===Yugoslavia===A 500 billion DIN banknote circa 1993, the largest nominal value ever officially printed in Yugoslavia, the final result of hyperinflation.Hyperinflation in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia happened before and during the period of breakup of Yugoslavia, from 1989 to 1991.In April 1992, one of its successor states, FR Yugoslavia, entered a period of hyperinflation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, that lasted until 1994.One of several regional conflicts accompanying the dissolution of Yugoslavia was the Bosnian War (1992–1995).", "The Belgrade government of Slobodan Milošević backed ethnic Serbian forces in the conflict, resulting in a United Nations boycott of Yugoslavia.", "The UN boycott collapsed an economy already weakened by regional war, with the projected monthly inflation rate accelerating to one million percent by December 1993 (prices double every 2.3 days).The highest denomination in 1988 was 50,000 DIN.", "By 1989, it was 2,000,000 DIN.", "In the 1990 currency reform, 1 new dinar was exchanged for 10,000 old dinars.", "After socialist Yugoslavia broke up, the 1992 currency reform in FR Yugoslavia led to 1 new dinar being exchanged for 10 old dinars.", "The highest denomination in 1992 was 50,000 DIN.", "By 1993, it was 10,000,000,000 DIN.", "In the 1993 currency reform, 1 new dinar was exchanged for 1,000,000 old dinars.", "Before the year was over, however, the highest denomination was 500,000,000,000 dinars.", "In the 1994 currency reform, 1 new dinar was exchanged for 1,000,000,000 old dinars.", "In another currency reform a month later, 1 novi dinar was exchanged for 13 million dinars (1 novi dinar = 1 Deutschmark at the time of exchange).", "The overall impact of hyperinflation was that 1 novi dinar was equal to 1 × 1027 – 1.3 × 1027 pre-1990 dinars.", "Yugoslavia's rate of inflation hit 5 × 1015% cumulative inflation over the time period 1 October 1993 and 24 January 1994.#SFR Yugoslavia:#* Start and End Date: Sept. 1989 – Dec. 1989#* Peak month and rate of inflation: December 1989, 59.7%#FR Yugoslavia:#* Start and end date: April 1992 – January 1994#* Peak month and rate of inflation: January 1994, %===Zimbabwe===Z$100 trillion banknote (Z$1014), equal to Z$1027 (1 octillion) pre-2006 dollars.Zimbabwe inflation of almost 25,000% in 2007Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe was one of the few instances that resulted in the abandonment of the local currency.", "At independence in 1980, the Zimbabwe dollar (ZWD) was worth about US$1.25.Afterwards, however, rampant inflation and the collapse of the economy severely devalued the currency.", "Inflation was relatively steady until the early 1990s when economic disruption caused by failed land reform agreements and rampant government corruption resulted in reductions in food production and the decline of foreign investment.", "Several multinational companies began hoarding retail goods in warehouses in Zimbabwe and just south of the border, preventing commodities from becoming available on the market.", "The result was that to pay its expenditures Mugabe's government and Gideon Gono's Reserve Bank printed more and more notes with higher face values.Hyperinflation began early in the 21st century, reaching 624% in 2004.It fell back to low triple digits before surging to a new high of 1,730% in 2006.The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe revalued on 1 August 2006 at a ratio of 1,000 ZWD to each second dollar (ZWN), but year-to-year inflation rose by June 2007 to 11,000% (versus an earlier estimate of 9,000%).", "Larger denominations were progressively issued in 2008:# 5 May: banknotes or \"bearer cheques\" for the value of Z$100 million and Z$250 million.# 15 May: new bearer cheques with a value of Z$500 million (then equivalent to about US$2.50).# 20 May: a new series of notes (\"agro cheques\") in denominations of Z$5 billion, Z$25 billion and Z$50 billion.# 21 July: a \"special agro-cheque\" for Z$100 billion.Inflation by 16 July officially surged to 2,200,000% with some analysts estimating figures surpassing 9,000,000%.", "As of 22 July 2008 the value of the Zimbabwe dollar fell to approximately Z$688 billion per US$1, or Z$688 trillion in pre-August 2006 Zimbabwean dollars.", "Date ofredenomination Currencycode Value 1 August 2006 ZWN$1,000 ZWD 1 August 2008 ZWR$ ZWN= $ ZWD 2 February 2009 ZWL$ ZWR= $ ZWN= $ ZWDOn 1 August 2008, the Zimbabwe dollar was redenominated at the ratio of ZWN to each third dollar (ZWR).", "On 19 August 2008, official figures announced for June estimated the inflation over 11,250,000%.", "Zimbabwe's annual inflation was 231,000,000% in July (prices doubling every 17.3 days).", "By October 2008 Zimbabwe was mired in hyperinflation with wages falling far behind inflation.", "In this dysfunctional economy hospitals and schools had chronic staffing problems, because many nurses and teachers could not afford bus fare to work.", "Most of the capital of Harare was without water because the authorities had stopped paying the bills to buy and transport the treatment chemicals.", "Desperate for foreign currency to keep the government functioning, Zimbabwe's central bank governor, Gideon Gono, sent runners into the streets with suitcases of Zimbabwean dollars to buy up American dollars and South African rand.For periods after July 2008, no official inflation statistics were released.", "Prof. Steve H. Hanke overcame the problem by estimating inflation rates after July 2008 and publishing the Hanke Hyperinflation Index for Zimbabwe.", "Prof. Hanke's HHIZ measure indicated that the inflation peaked at an annual rate of 89.7 sextillion percent (89,700,000,000,000,000,000,000%, or %) in mid-November 2008.The peak monthly rate was 79.6 billion percent, which is equivalent to a 98% daily rate, or around % yearly rate.", "At that rate, prices were doubling every 24.7 hours.", "Note that many of these figures should be considered mostly theoretical since hyperinflation did not proceed at this rate over a whole year.Selection of 16 original un-circulated Zimbabwe notes ranging in denomination from Z$1 to Z$100 trillion.", "They are all signed by Gideon Gono, the Governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe, in the period 2007 to 2008, who promises \"to pay the bearer on demand\".At its November 2008 peak, Zimbabwe's rate of inflation approached, but failed to surpass, Hungary's July 1946 world record.", "On 2 February 2009, the dollar was redenominated for the third time at the ratio of ZWR to 1 ZWL, only three weeks after the Z$100 trillion banknote was issued on 16 January, but hyperinflation waned by then as official inflation rates in USD were announced and foreign transactions were legalised, and on 12 April the Zimbabwe dollar was abandoned in favour of using only foreign currencies.", "The overall impact of hyperinflation was US$1 = Z$.", "* Start and end date: March 2007 – mid November 2008* Peak month and rate of inflation: mid November 2008, %Ironically, following the abandonment of the ZWR and subsequent use of reserve currencies, banknotes from the hyperinflation period of the old Zimbabwe dollar began attracting international attention as collectors items, having accrued numismatic value, selling for prices many orders of magnitude higher than their old purchasing power." ], [ "Examples of high inflation", "Countries have experienced periods of very high inflation, that did not reach hyperinflation, as defined as a ''monthly'' inflation rate exceeding 50% per month.===Imperial China===As the first user of fiat currency, China was also the first country to experience high inflation.", "Paper currency was introduced during the Tang dynasty, and was generally welcomed.", "It maintained its value, as successive Chinese governments put in place strict controls on issuance.", "The convenience of paper currency for trade purposes led to strong demand for paper currency.", "It was only when discipline on quantity supplied broke down that inflation emerged.", "The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) was the first to print large amounts of fiat paper money to fund its wars, resulting in very high inflation.===Ancient Rome===During the Crisis of the Third Century, Rome underwent high inflation caused by years of coinage devaluation.===Argentina===Argentina inflation 1980-1993Pesos Ley 18188 From June 1983 to May 1985: Peso Argentino From June 1985 to December 1991: AustralesArgentina has an economic history of very high inflation since World War II, mostly caused by excessive money supply increases.", "The Latin American debt crisis was caused by foreign debt held in other currencies, and exploded because the floating exchange rates depreciated the Argentinian currencies because of inflation, capital flight, and not enough foreign reserve currencies ratio.===Holy Roman Empire===Between 1620 and 1622 the Kreuzer fell from 1 Reichsthaler to 124 Kreuzer in end of 1619 to 1 Reichstaler to over 600 (regionally over 1000) Kreuzer in end of 1622, during the Thirty Years' War.", "This is a monthly inflation rate of over 20.6% (regionally over 34.4%).===Brazil===Brazil Inflation 1981-1995After the Military dictatorship in Brazil ended in 1985 and its transition to democracy.", "Tancredo Neves dies shortly after winning the 1985 Brazilian presidential election and his Vice President José Sarney becomes president.", "In 1986 inflation was already at 400% annually and Sarney tried to remedy inflation with a wage freeze, price controls, and reforming the currency by dropping three zeros from it, all while tripling the money supply to fund government expenditures and public sector that was consuming 50% of GDP at the time.", "Bank loans had an interest rate of around 25% a month to maintain a positive real yield during inflation.", "In February 1987 the government defaulted on $110 billion in foreign loans, that was part of the Latin American debt crisis.===Iraq===Between 1987 and 1995 the Iraqi Dinar went from an official value of 0.306 Dinars/USD (or US$3.26 per dinar, though the black market rate is thought to have been substantially lower) to 3,000 dinars/USD due to government printing of tens of trillions of dinars starting with a base of only tens of billions.", "That equates to approximately 315% inflation per year averaged over that eight-year period.===Mexico===Mexico inflation rate 1970-2022In spite of increased oil prices in the late 1970s (Mexico is a producer and exporter), Mexico defaulted on its external debt in 1982.As a result, the country suffered a severe case of capital flight and several years of acute inflation and peso devaluation.", "On 1 January 1993, Mexico created a new currency, the ''nuevo peso'' (\"new peso\", or MXN), which chopped three zeros off the old peso (One new peso was equal to 1,000 old MXP pesos).===Nicaragua===Nicaragua inflation rate 1980-1993After the Nicaraguan Revolution in 1979 where the communist Sandinista National Liberation Front ousted the Somoza dictatorship, the economy contracted by 34 percent during that time.", "The Sandinistas nationalized many industries and had expansive monetary policy that started to contribute to rising inflation.", "Fighting with the Contras and the United States embargo against Nicaragua in May 1985 also contributed to the problem.", "Inflation hit 10,000% in 1988.===Ecuador===Between 1998 and 1999, Ecuador faced a period of economic instability that resulted from a combined banking crisis, currency crisis, and sovereign debt crisis.", "Severe inflation and devaluation of the Ecuadorean Sucre lead to President Jamil Mahuad announcing on 9 January 2000 that the US dollar would be adopted as the national currency.Despite the government's efforts to curb inflation, the Sucre depreciated rapidly at the end of 1999, resulting in widespread informal use of U.S. dollars in the financial system.", "As a last resort to prevent hyperinflation, the government formally adopted the U.S. dollar in January 2000.The stability of the new currency was a necessary first step towards economic recovery, but the exchange rate was fixed at 25,000:1, which resulted in great losses of wealth.===Roman and Medieval Egypt===In Roman Egypt, where the best documentation on pricing has survived, the price of a measure of wheat was 200 drachmae in 276 AD, and increased to more than 2,000,000 drachmae in 334 AD, roughly 1,000,000% inflation in a span of 58 years.Although the price increased by a factor of 10,000 over 58 years, the annual rate of inflation was only 17.2% (1.4% monthly) compounded.In 1324, Malian king Mansa Musa single handedly caused massive inflation that lasted for more than 10 years when he gave out a huge amount of gold to people in all income classes in Egypt, ranging from beggars to the wealthiest Egyptians, when he was passing through Egypt on the way to his Hajj in Mecca.", "Effects of this inflation might have reached as far as Britain.", "===Romania===Romania experienced high inflation in the 1990s.", "The highest denomination in 1990 was 100 lei and in 1998 was 100,000 lei.", "By 2000 it was 500,000 lei.", "In early 2005 it was 1,000,000 lei.", "In July 2005 the lei was replaced by the new leu at 10,000 old lei = 1 new leu.", "Inflation in 2005 was 9%.", "In July 2005 the highest denomination became 500 lei (= 5,000,000 old lei).===Russian Federation===Russian inflation rate 1993-2022In the transition from the Soviet Union planned economy and price controls to a free market economy there were substantial imbalances in supply and demand.", "The Government increased the money supply by eighteen times by the end of 1992.A lot of corruption from Government enterprises taking up debt and getting bailed out from the government.", "The Federal budget deficit was 20 percent of GDP in 1992, mostly financed by increasing money supply.", "This resulted in an inflation rate of over 2,000% in 1992.===Transnistria===The Second Transnistrian ruble consisted solely of banknotes and suffered from high inflation, necessitating the issue of notes overstamped with higher denominations.", "1 and sometimes 10 rubles become 10,000 rubles, 5 rubles become 50,000 and 10 rubles become 100,000 rubles.", "In 2000, a new ruble was introduced at a rate of 1 new ruble = 1,000,000 old rubles.===United States===During the Revolutionary War, when the Continental Congress authorized the printing of paper called continental currency, the monthly inflation rate reached a peak of 47% in November 1779 (Bernholz 2003: 48).", "These notes depreciated rapidly, giving rise to the expression \"not worth a continental\".", "One cause of the inflation was counterfeiting by the British, who ran a press on HMS ''Phoenix'', moored in New York Harbor.", "The counterfeits were advertised and sold almost for the price of the paper they were printed on.During the U.S. Civil War between January 1861 and April 1865, the Confederate States decided to finance the war by printing money.", "The Lerner Commodity Price Index of leading cities in the eastern Confederacy states subsequently increased from 100 to 9,200 in that time.", "In the final months of the Civil War, the Confederate dollar was almost worthless.", "Similarly, the Union government inflated its greenbacks, with the monthly rate peaking at 40% in March 1864 (Bernholz 2003: 107)." ], [ "Ten most severe hyperinflations in world history", " Highest monthly inflation rates in history as of November 2020CountryCurrency nameMonthRate (%)Equivalent daily inflation rate (%)Time required for prices to doubleHighest denominationHungarian pengőJuly 1946207.1914.82 hours100 quintillion P ()Zimbabwe dollarNovember 200898.0124.35 hours$100 trillion ()Yugoslav dinarJanuary 199464.631.39 days500 billion DIN ()Republika Srpska dinarJanuary 199464.351.40 days50 billion DIN ()Sovereign bolívarJanuary 2019 40.482.09 daysBs.S 1 million (equivalent to Bs.", ")German PapiermarkOctober 192329,50020.893.65 days100 trillion ℳ ()Greek drachmaOctober 194413,80017.884.21 days₯100 billion ()Chinese yuanApril 19495,07014.065.27 days¥6 billionArmenian dram and Russian rubleNovember 19934385.7712.36 days50,000 RblsTurkmenistani manatNovember 19934295.7112.48 days500m" ], [ "Units of inflation", "Inflation rate is usually measured in percent per year.", "It can also be measured in percent per month or in price doubling time.+'''Example of inflation rates and units'''When first bought, an item cost 1 currency unit.", "Later, the price rose... Old price New price 1 year later New price 10 years later New price 100 years later (Annual) inflation % Monthlyinflation% Pricedoublingtimeyears Zero add time years1 1 .0001 1 .001 1 .01 '''0.01''' 0 .0008 6931 230281 1 .001 1 .01 1 .11 '''0.1''' 0 .00833 693 23001 1 .003 1 .03 1 .35 '''0.3''' 0 .0250 231 7691 1 .01 1 .10 2 .70 '''1''' 0 .0830 69 .72311 1 .03 1 .34 19 .2 '''3''' 0 .247 23 .477.91 1 .1 2 .59 13800 '''10''' 0 .797 7 .2724.11 2 1024 1.27 × 1030 '''100''' 5 .95 1 3.321 10 1010 10100 '''900''' 21 .2 0 .301 ''(3⅔ months)''11 31 8.20 × 1014 1.37 × 10149 '''3000''' 32 .8 0 .202 ''(2½ months)''0.671 ''(8 months)''1 129.7463 1.35 × 1021 2.04 × 10211 '''12874.63''' 50 0 .1424 ''(52 days)''0.4732 ''(5 ⅔ months)''1 1012 10120 101,200 '''1014''' 900 0 .0251 ''(9 days)''0.0833 ''(1 month)''1 1.67 × 1073 1.69 × 10732 1.87 × 107,322 '''1.67 × 1075''' 1.26 × 108 0 .00411 ''(36 hours)''0.0137 ''(5 days)''1 1.05 × 102,637 1.69 × 1026,370 1.89 × 10263,702 '''1.05 × 102,639''' 5.65 × 10221 0 .000114 ''(1 hour)''0.000379 ''(3.3 hours)''Often, at redenominations, three zeroes are cut from the bills.", "It can be read from the table that if the (annual) inflation is for example 100%, it takes 3.32 years to produce one more zero on the price tags, or 3 × 3.32 = 9.96 years to produce three zeroes.", "Thus can one expect a redenomination to take place about 9.96 years after the currency was introduced." ], [ "See also", "* Blockade* Chronic inflation* Currency crisis* Debt* Fiat money* The collection of precious metals for financial purposes, including as a hedge against inflation: Gold as an investment Silver as an investment Platinum as an investment Palladium as an investment* Hoarding (economics)* Hyperstagflation* Inflation accounting* Inflationism* Inflation hedge* Liberty dollar (private currency)* Negative interest rates* Outline of economics* Zero stroke" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Cagan, Phillip, \"The Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation.\"", "In Milton Friedman, ed., Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956.", "* Shun-Hsin Chou, ''The Chinese Inflation 1937–1949'', New York, Columbia University Press, 1963, Library of Congress Cat.", "62–18260.", "* a popular description of the 1789–1799 inflation* Wolfgang Chr.", "Fischer (Editor), \" German Hyperinflation 1922/23 – A Law and Economics Approach\", Eul Verlag, Köln, Germany 2010.", "" ], [ "External links", " Wheelbarrows of Money: 5 Times Currencies Crashed at Commodity.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Herbert Hoover" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herbert Clark Hoover''' (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was an American politician who served as the 31st president of the United States from 1929 to 1933.A member of the Republican Party, he held office during the onset of the Great Depression.", "A wealthy mining engineer before his presidency, Hoover led the wartime Commission for Relief in Belgium, served as the director of the U.S. Food Administration, and served as the U.S. secretary of commerce.Born to a Quaker family in West Branch, Iowa, Hoover grew up in Oregon.", "He was one of the first graduates of the new Stanford University in 1895.He took a position with a London-based mining company working in Australia and China.", "He rapidly became a wealthy mining engineer.", "In 1914, the outbreak of World War I, he organized and headed the Commission for Relief in Belgium, an international relief organization that provided food to occupied Belgium.", "When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, president Woodrow Wilson appointed Hoover to lead the Food Administration.", "He became famous as his country's \"food czar\".", "After the war, Hoover led the American Relief Administration, which provided food to the starving millions in Central and Eastern Europe, especially Russia.", "Hoover's wartime service made him a favorite of many progressives, and he unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination in the 1920 U.S. presidential election.Hoover served as the secretary of commerce under presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge.", "Hoover was an unusually active and visible Cabinet member, becoming known as \"Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments.\"", "He was influential in the development of air travel and radio.", "He led the federal response to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927.Hoover won the Republican nomination in the 1928 presidential election and defeated Democratic candidate Al Smith in a landslide.", "In 1929, Hoover assumed the presidency during a period of widespread economic stability.", "However, during his first year in office, the stock market crashed, signaling the onset of the Great Depression, which dominated Hoover's presidency.", "Hoover's response to the depression was widely seen as lackluster and he scapegoated Mexican Americans for the economic crisis.", "Approximately 1.5-2 million Mexican Americans were forcibly \"repatriated\" to Mexico in a forced migration campaign known as the Mexican Repatriation — a majority of them were born in the United States.In the midst of the Great Depression, Hoover was decisively defeated by Democratic nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election.", "Hoover's retirement was over 31 years long, one of the longest presidential retirements.", "He authored numerous works and became increasingly conservative in retirement.", "He strongly criticized Roosevelt's foreign policy and the New Deal.", "In the 1940s and 1950s, public opinion of Hoover improved largely due to his service in various assignments for presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, including chairing the influential Hoover Commission.", "Critical assessments of his presidency by historians and political scientists generally rank him as a significantly below-average president, although Hoover has received praise for his actions as a humanitarian and public official." ], [ "Early life and education", "Herbert Clark Hoover was born on August 10, 1874, in West Branch, Iowa.", "His father, Jesse Hoover, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner of German, Swiss, and English ancestry.", "Hoover's mother, Hulda Randall Minthorn, was raised in Norwich, Ontario, Canada, before moving to Iowa in 1859.Like most other citizens of West Branch, Jesse and Hulda were Quakers.", "Around age two \"Bertie\", as he was called during that time, contracted a serious bout of croup, and was momentarily thought to have died until resuscitated by his uncle, John Minthorn.", "As a young child he was often referred to by his father as \"my little stick in the mud\" when he repeatedly got trapped in the mud crossing the unpaved street.", "Herbert's family figured prominently in the town's public prayer life, due almost entirely to mother Hulda's role in the church.", "As a child, Hoover consistently attended schools, but he did little reading on his own aside from the Bible.", "Hoover's father, noted by the local paper for his \"pleasant, sunshiny disposition\", died in 1880 at the age of 34 of a sudden heart attack.", "Hoover's mother died in 1884 of typhoid, leaving Hoover, his older brother, Theodore, and his younger sister, May, as orphans.", "Hoover lived the next 18 months with his uncle Allen Hoover at a nearby farm.Hoover in 1877In November 1885, Hoover was sent to Newberg, Oregon, to live with his uncle John Minthorn, a Quaker physician and businessman whose own son had died the year before.", "The Minthorn household was considered cultured and educational, and imparted a strong work ethic.", "Much like West Branch, Newberg was a frontier town settled largely by Midwestern Quakers.", "Minthorn ensured that Hoover received an education, but Hoover disliked the many chores assigned to him and often resented Minthorn.", "One observer described Hoover as \"an orphan who seemed to be neglected in many ways\".", "Hoover attended Friends Pacific Academy (now George Fox University), but dropped out at the age of thirteen to become an office assistant for his uncle's real estate office (Oregon Land Company) in Salem, Oregon.", "Though he did not attend high school, Hoover learned bookkeeping, typing, and mathematics at a night school.Hoover was a member of the inaugural \"Pioneer Class\" of Stanford University, entering in 1891 despite failing all the entrance exams except mathematics.", "During his freshman year, he switched his major from mechanical engineering to geology after working for John Casper Branner, the chairman of Stanford's geology department.", "During his sophomore year, to reduce his costs, Hoover co-founded the first student housing cooperative at Stanford, \"Romero Hall\".", "Hoover was a mediocre student, and he spent much of his time working in various part-time jobs or participating in campus activities.", "Though he was initially shy among fellow students, Hoover won election as student treasurer and became known for his distaste for fraternities and sororities.", "He served as student manager of both the baseball and football teams, and helped organize the inaugural Big Game versus the University of California.", "During the summers before and after his senior year, Hoover interned under economic geologist Waldemar Lindgren of the United States Geological Survey; these experiences convinced Hoover to pursue a career as a mining geologist." ], [ "Mining engineer", "===Bewick, Moreing===Hoover, aged 23; taken in Perth, Western Australia, in 1898When Hoover graduated from Stanford in 1895, the country was in the midst of the Panic of 1893 and he initially struggled to find a job.", "He worked in various low-level mining jobs in the Sierra Nevada Mountains until persuading prominent mining engineer Louis Janin to hire him.", "After working as a mine scout for a year, Hoover was hired by Bewick, Moreing & Co. (\"Bewick\"), a London-based company that operated gold mines in Western Australia.", "He first went to Coolgardie, then the center of the Eastern Goldfields, which was actually in Western Australia, receiving a $5,000 salary ().", "Conditions were harsh in the goldfields; Hoover described the Coolgardie and Murchison rangelands on the edge of the Great Victoria Desert as a land of \"black flies, red dust and white heat\".Hoover traveled constantly across the Outback to evaluate and manage the company's mines.", "He convinced Bewick to purchase the Sons of Gwalia gold mine, which proved to be one of the most successful mines in the region.", "Partly due to Hoover's efforts, the company eventually controlled approximately 50 percent of gold production in Western Australia.", "Hoover brought in many Italian immigrants to cut costs and counter the labour movement of the Australian miners.", "During his time with the mining company, Hoover became opposed to measures such as a minimum wage and workers' compensation, feeling that they were unfair to owners.", "Hoover's work impressed his employers, and in 1898 he was promoted to junior partner.", "An open feud developed between Hoover and his boss, Ernest Williams, but Bewick's leaders defused the situation by offering Hoover a compelling position in China.Upon arriving in China, Hoover developed gold mines near Tianjin on behalf of Bewick and the Chinese-owned Chinese Engineering and Mining Company.", "He became deeply interested in Chinese history, but gave up on learning the language to a fluent level.", "He publicly warned that Chinese workers were inefficient and racially inferior.", "He made recommendations to improve the lot of the Chinese worker, seeking to end the practice of imposing long-term servitude contracts and to institute reforms for workers based on merit.", "The Boxer Rebellion broke out shortly after the Hoovers arrived in China, trapping them and numerous other foreign nationals until a multi-national military force defeated Boxer forces in the Battle of Tientsin.", "Fearing the imminent collapse of the Chinese government, the director of the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company agreed to establish a new Sino-British venture with Bewick.", "After they established effective control over the new Chinese mining company, Hoover became the operating partner in late 1901.In this role, Hoover continually traveled the world on behalf of Bewick, visiting mines operated by the company on different continents.", "Beginning in December 1902, the company faced mounting legal and financial issues after one of the partners admitted to having fraudulently sold stock in a mine.", "More issues arose in 1904 after the British government formed two separate royal commissions to investigate Bewick's labor practices and financial dealings in Western Australia.", "After the company lost a lawsuit Hoover began looking for a way to get out of the partnership, and he sold his shares in mid-1908.===Sole proprietor===Hoover in 1917 while a mining engineerAfter leaving Bewick, Moreing, Hoover worked as a London-based independent mining consultant and financier.", "Though he had risen to prominence as a geologist and mine operator, Hoover focused much of his attention on raising money, restructuring corporate organizations, and financing new ventures.", "He specialized in rejuvenating troubled mining operations, taking a share of the profits in exchange for his technical and financial expertise.", "Hoover thought of himself and his associates as \"engineering doctors to sick concerns\", and he earned a reputation as a \"doctor of sick mines\".", "He made investments on every continent and had offices in San Francisco; London; New York City; Paris; Petrograd; and Mandalay, British Burma.", "By 1914, Hoover was a very wealthy man, with an estimated personal fortune of $4 million (equivalent to $ million in ).Hoover co-founded the Zinc Corporation to extract zinc near the Australian city of Broken Hill, New South Wales.", "The Zinc Corporation developed the froth flotation process to extract zinc from lead-silver ore and operated the world's first selective ore differential flotation plant.", "Hoover worked with the Burma Corporation, a British firm that produced silver, lead, and zinc in large quantities at the Namtu Bawdwin Mine.", "He also helped increase copper production in Kyshtym, Russia, through the use of pyritic smelting.", "He also agreed to manage a separate mine in the Altai Mountains that, according to Hoover, \"developed probably the greatest and richest single body of ore known in the world\".In his spare time, Hoover wrote.", "His lectures at Columbia and Stanford universities were published in 1909 as ''Principles of Mining'', which became a standard textbook.", "The book reflects his move towards progressive ideals, as Hoover came to endorse eight-hour workdays and organized labor.", "Hoover became deeply interested in the history of science, and he was especially drawn to the ''De re metallica'', an influential 16th century work on mining and metallurgy by Georgius Agricola.", "In 1912, Hoover and his wife published the first English translation of ''De re metallica''.", "Hoover also joined the board of trustees at Stanford, and led a successful campaign to appoint John Branner as the university's president." ], [ "Marriage and family", "The Lou Henry Hoover House in Stanford, California, the couple's first and only permanent residenceDuring his senior year at Stanford, Hoover became smitten with a classmate named Lou Henry, though his financial situation precluded marriage at that time.", "The daughter of a banker from Monterey, California, Lou Henry decided to study geology at Stanford after attending a lecture delivered by John C. Branner.", "Immediately after earning a promotion in 1898, Hoover cabled Lou Henry, asking her to marry him.", "After she cabled back her acceptance of the proposal, Hoover briefly returned to the United States for their wedding.", "They would remain married until Lou Henry Hoover's death in 1944.Hoover was the first president to be a widower since Woodrow Wilson.Though his Quaker upbringing strongly influenced his career, Hoover rarely attended Quaker meetings during his adult life.", "Hoover and his wife had two children: Herbert Hoover Jr. (born in 1903) and Allan Henry Hoover (born in 1907).", "The Hoover family began living in London in 1902, though they frequently traveled as part of Hoover's career.", "After 1916, the Hoovers began living in the United States, maintaining homes in Stanford, California, and Washington, D.C.Hoover's elder brother Theodore also studied mining engineering at Stanford, and returned there to become dean of the engineering school.", "In retirement, Theodore bought a large property on the remote north coast of Santa Cruz County.", "The Theodore J. Hoover Natural Preserve is now part of Big Basin State Park." ], [ "World War I and aftermath", "===Relief in Europe===World War I broke out in August 1914, pitting Germany and its allies against France and its allies.", "The German Schlieffen plan was to achieve a quick victory by marching through neutral Belgium to envelop the French Army east of Paris.", "The maneuver failed to reach Paris but the Germans did control nearly all of Belgium for the entire war.", "Hoover and other London-based American businessmen established a committee to organize the return of the roughly 100,000 Americans stranded in Europe.", "Hoover was appointed as the committee's chairman and, with the assent of Congress and the Wilson administration, took charge of the distribution of relief to Americans in Europe.", "Hoover later stated, \"I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914, my career was over forever.", "I was on the slippery road of public life.\"", "By early October 1914, Hoover's organization had distributed relief to at least 40,000 Americans.The German invasion of Belgium in August 1914 set off a food crisis in Belgium, which relied heavily on food imports.", "The Germans refused to take responsibility for feeding Belgian citizens in captured territory, and the British refused to lift their blockade of German-occupied Belgium unless the U.S. government supervised Belgian food imports as a neutral party in the war.", "With the cooperation of the Wilson administration and the CNSA, a Belgian relief organization, Hoover established the Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB).", "The CRB obtained and imported millions of tons of foodstuffs for the CNSA to distribute, and helped ensure that the German army did not appropriate the food.", "Private donations and government grants supplied the majority of its $11-million-a-month budget, and the CRB became a veritable independent republic of relief, with its own flag, navy, factories, mills, and railroads.", "Hoover worked 14-hour days from London, administering the distribution of over two million tons of food to nine million war victims.", "In an early form of shuttle diplomacy, he crossed the North Sea forty times to meet with German authorities and persuade them to allow food shipments.", "He also convinced British Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George to allow individuals to send money to the people of Belgium, thereby lessening workload of the CRB.", "At the request of the French government, the CRB began delivering supplies to the people of German-occupied Northern France in 1915.American diplomat Walter Page described Hoover as \"probably the only man living who has privately (i.e., without holding office) negotiated understandings with the British, French, German, Dutch, and Belgian governments\".===U.S.", "Food Administration===U.S.", "Food Administration posterWar upon Germany was declared in April 1917, and American food was essential to Allied victory.", "With the U.S. mobilizing for war, President Wilson appointed Hoover to head the U.S. Food Administration, which was charged with ensuring the nation's food needs during the war.", "Hoover had hoped to join the administration in some capacity since at least 1916, and he obtained the position after lobbying several members of Congress and Wilson's confidant, Edward M. House.", "Earning the appellation of \"food czar\", Hoover recruited a volunteer force of hundreds of thousands of women and deployed propaganda in movie theaters, schools, and churches.", "He carefully selected men to assist in the agency leadership—Alonzo E. Taylor (technical abilities), Robert Taft (political associations), Gifford Pinchot (agricultural influence), and Julius Barnes (business acumen).World War I had created a global food crisis that dramatically increased food prices and caused food riots and starvation in the countries at war.", "Hoover's chief goal as food czar was to provide supplies to the Allied Powers, but he also sought to stabilize domestic prices and to prevent domestic shortages.", "Under the broad powers granted by the Food and Fuel Control Act, the Food Administration supervised food production throughout the United States, and the administration made use of its authority to buy, import, store, and sell food.", "Determined to avoid rationing, Hoover established set days for people to avoid eating specified foods and save them for soldiers' rations: meatless Mondays, wheatless Wednesdays, and \"when in doubt, eat potatoes\".", "These policies were dubbed \"Hooverizing\" by government publicists, in spite of Hoover's continual orders that publicity should not mention him by name.", "The Food Administration shipped 23 million metric tons of food to the Allied Powers, preventing their collapse and earning Hoover great acclaim.", "As head of the Food Administration, Hoover gained a following in the United States, especially among progressives who saw in Hoover an expert administrator and symbol of efficiency.", "He was elected to the American Philosophical Society during his tenure.===Post-war relief in Europe===World War I came to an end in November 1918, but Europe continued to face a critical food situation; Hoover estimated that as many as 400 million people faced the possibility of starvation.", "The United States Food Administration became the American Relief Administration (ARA), and Hoover was charged with providing food to Central and Eastern Europe.", "In addition to providing relief, the ARA rebuilt infrastructure in an effort to rejuvenate the economy of Europe.", "Throughout the Paris Peace Conference, Hoover served as a close adviser to President Wilson, and he largely shared Wilson's goals of establishing the League of Nations, settling borders on the basis of self-determination, and refraining from inflicting a harsh punishment on the defeated Central Powers.", "The following year, the famed British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote in The Economic Consequences of the Peace that if Hoover's realism, \"knowledge, magnanimity and disinterestedness\" had found wider play in the councils of Paris, the world would have had \"the Good Peace\".", "After U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in mid-1919, Hoover transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors.", "He also established the European Children's Fund, which provided relief to fifteen million children across fourteen countries.Despite the opposition of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and other Republicans, Hoover provided aid to the defeated German nation after the war, as well as relief to famine-stricken Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.", "Hoover condemned the Bolsheviks but warned President Wilson against an intervention in the Russian Civil War, as he viewed the White Russian forces as little better than the Bolsheviks and feared the possibility of a protracted U.S. involvement.", "The Russian famine of 1921–22 claimed six million people, but the intervention of the ARA likely saved millions of lives.", "When asked if he was not helping Bolshevism by providing relief, Hoover stated, \"twenty million people are starving.", "Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!\"", "Reflecting the gratitude of many Europeans, in July 1922, Soviet author Maxim Gorky told Hoover that \"your help will enter history as a unique, gigantic achievement, worthy of the greatest glory, which will long remain in the memory of millions of Russians whom you have saved from death\".In 1919, Hoover established the Hoover War Collection at Stanford University.", "He donated all the files of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, the U.S. Food Administration, and the American Relief Administration, and pledged $50,000 as an endowment ().", "Scholars were sent to Europe to collect pamphlets, society publications, government documents, newspapers, posters, proclamations, and other ephemeral materials related to the war and the revolutions that followed it.", "The collection was renamed the Hoover War Library in 1922 and is now known as the Hoover Institution Library and Archives.", "During the post-war period, Hoover also served as the president of the Federated American Engineering Societies.===1920 election===Hoover had been little known among the American public before 1914, but his service in the Wilson administration established him as a contender in the 1920 presidential election.", "Hoover's wartime push for higher taxes, criticism of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's actions during the First Red Scare, and his advocacy for measures such as the minimum wage, forty-eight-hour workweek, and elimination of child labor made him appealing to progressives of both parties.", "Despite his service in the Democratic administration of Woodrow Wilson, Hoover had never been closely affiliated with either the Democrats or the Republicans.", "He initially sought to avoid committing to any party in the 1920 election, hoping that either of the two major parties would draft him for president at their national conventions.", "In March 1920, he changed strategy and declared himself a Republican; he was motivated in large part by the belief that the Democrats had little chance of winning.", "Despite his national renown, Hoover's service in the Wilson administration had alienated farmers and the conservative Old Guard of the GOP, and his presidential candidacy fizzled out after his defeat in the California primary by favorite son Hiram Johnson.", "At the 1920 Republican National Convention, Warren G. Harding emerged as a compromise candidate after the convention became deadlocked between supporters of Johnson, Leonard Wood, and Frank Orren Lowden.", "Hoover backed Harding's successful campaign in the general election, and he began laying the groundwork for a future presidential run by building a base of strong supporters in the Republican Party." ], [ "Secretary of Commerce (1921–1928)", "Assistants William McCracken (left) and Walter Drake (right) with Secretary Hoover (center)After his election as president in 1920, Harding rewarded Hoover for his support, offering to appoint him as either Secretary of the Interior or Secretary of Commerce.", "Secretary of Commerce was considered a minor Cabinet post, with limited and vaguely defined responsibilities, but Hoover decided to accept the position.", "Hoover's progressive stances, continuing support for the League of Nations, and recent conversion to the Republican Party aroused opposition to his appointment from many Senate Republicans.", "To overcome this opposition, Harding paired Hoover's nomination with that of conservative favorite Andrew Mellon as Secretary of the Treasury, and the nominations of both Hoover and Mellon were confirmed by the Senate.", "Hoover would serve as Secretary of Commerce from 1921 to 1929, serving under Harding and, after Harding's death in 1923, President Calvin Coolidge.", "While some of the most prominent members of the Harding administration, including Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty and Secretary of Interior Albert B.", "Fall, were implicated in major scandals, Hoover emerged largely unscathed from investigations into the Harding administration.Hoover envisioned the Commerce Department as the hub of the nation's growth and stability.", "His experience mobilizing the war-time economy convinced him that the federal government could promote efficiency by eliminating waste, increasing production, encouraging the adoption of data-based practices, investing in infrastructure, and conserving natural resources.", "Contemporaries described Hoover's approach as a \"third alternative\" between \"unrestrained capitalism\" and socialism, which was becoming increasingly popular in Europe.", "Hoover sought to foster a balance among labor, capital, and the government, and for this, he has been variously labeled a corporatist or an associationalist.", "A high priority was economic diplomacy, including promoting the growth of exports, as well as protection against monopolistic practices of foreign governments, especially regarding rubber and coffee.Hoover demanded, and received, authority to coordinate economic affairs throughout the government.", "He created many sub-departments and committees, overseeing and regulating everything from manufacturing statistics to air travel.", "In some instances, he \"seized\" control of responsibilities from other Cabinet departments when he deemed that they were not carrying out their responsibilities well; some began referring to him as the \"Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments\".", "In response to the Depression of 1920–21, he convinced Harding to assemble a presidential commission on unemployment, which encouraged local governments to engage in countercyclical infrastructure spending.", "He endorsed much of Mellon's tax reduction program but favored a more progressive tax system and opposed the treasury secretary's efforts to eliminate the estate tax.===Radio regulation and air travel===Hoover listening to a radio receiver, 1925Between 1923 and 1929, the number of families with radios grew from 300,000 to 10 million, and Hoover's tenure as Secretary of Commerce heavily influenced radio use in the United States.", "In the early and mid-1920s, Hoover's radio conferences played a key role in the organization, development, and regulation of radio broadcasting.", "Hoover also helped pass the Radio Act of 1927, which allowed the government to intervene and abolish radio stations that were deemed \"non-useful\" to the public.", "Hoover's attempts at regulating radio were not supported by all congressmen, and he received much opposition from the Senate and from radio station owners.Hoover was also influential in the early development of air travel, and he sought to create a thriving private industry boosted by indirect government subsidies.", "He encouraged the development of emergency landing fields, required all runways to be equipped with lights and radio beams, and encouraged farmers to make use of planes for crop dusting.", "He also established the federal government's power to inspect planes and license pilots, setting a precedent for the later Federal Aviation Administration.As Commerce Secretary, Hoover hosted national conferences on street traffic collectively known as the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety.", "Hoover's chief objective was to address the growing casualty toll of traffic accidents, but the scope of the conferences grew and soon embraced motor vehicle standards, rules of the road, and urban traffic control.", "He left the invited interest groups to negotiate agreements among themselves, which were then presented for adoption by states and localities.", "Because automotive trade associations were the best organized, many of the positions taken by the conferences reflected their interests.", "The conferences issued a model Uniform Vehicle Code for adoption by the states and a Model Municipal Traffic Ordinance for adoption by cities.", "Both were widely influential, promoting greater uniformity between jurisdictions and tending to promote the automobile's priority in city streets.=== Hoover's image building ===Phillips Payson O'Brien argues that Hoover had a Britain problem.", "He had spent so many years living in Britain and Australia, as an employee of British companies, there was a risk that he would be labeled a British tool.", "There were three solutions, all of which he tried in close collaboration with the media, which greatly admired him.", "First came the image of the dispassionate scientist, emotionally uninvolved but always committed to finding and implementing the best possible solution.", "The second solution was to gain the reputation of a humanitarian, deeply concerned with the world's troubles, such as famine in Belgium, as well as specific American problems which he had solved as food commissioner during the world war.", "The third solution to was to fall back on that old tactic of twisting the British tail.", "He employed that solution in 1925–1926 in the worldwide rubber crisis.", "The American auto industry consumed 70% of the world's output, but British investors controlled much of the supply.", "Their plan was to drastically cut back on output from British Malaya, which had the effect of tripling rubber prices.", "Hoover energetically gave a series of speeches and interviews denouncing the monopolistic practice and demanding that it be ended.", "The American State Department wanted no such crisis and compromised the issue in 1926.By then Hoover had solved his image problem, and during his 1928 campaign he successfully squelched attacks that alleged he was too close to British interests.===Other initiatives===Hoover (left) with President Warren Harding at a baseball game, 1921With the goal of encouraging wise business investments, Hoover made the Commerce Department a clearinghouse of information.", "He recruited numerous academics from various fields and tasked them with publishing reports on different aspects of the economy, including steel production and films.", "To eliminate waste, he encouraged standardization of products like automobile tires and baby bottle nipples.", "Other efforts at eliminating waste included reducing labor losses from trade disputes and seasonal fluctuations, reducing industrial losses from accident and injury, and reducing the amount of crude oil spilled during extraction and shipping.", "He promoted international trade by opening overseas offices to advise businessmen.", "Hoover was especially eager to promote Hollywood films overseas.", "His \"Own Your Own Home\" campaign was a collaboration to promote ownership of single-family dwellings, with groups such as the Better Houses in America movement, the Architects' Small House Service Bureau, and the Home Modernizing Bureau.", "He worked with bankers and the savings and loan industry to promote the new long-term home mortgage, which dramatically stimulated home construction.", "Other accomplishments included winning the agreement of U.S. Steel to adopt an eight-hour workday, and the fostering of the Colorado River Compact, a water rights compact among Southwestern states.===Mississippi flood===The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 broke the banks and levees of the lower Mississippi River in early 1927, resulting in the flooding of millions of acres and leaving 1.5 million people displaced from their homes.", "Although disaster response did not fall under the duties of the Commerce Department, the governors of six states along the Mississippi River specifically asked President Coolidge to appoint Hoover to coordinate the response to the flood.", "Believing that disaster response was not the domain of the federal government, Coolidge initially refused to become involved, but he eventually acceded to political pressure and appointed Hoover to chair a special committee to help the region.", "Hoover established over one hundred tent cities and a fleet of more than six hundred vessels and raised $17 million (equivalent to $ million in ).", "In large part due to his leadership during the flood crisis, by 1928, Hoover had begun to overshadow President Coolidge himself.", "Though Hoover received wide acclaim for his role in the crisis, he ordered the suppression of reports of mistreatment of African Americans in refugee camps.", "He did so with the cooperation of black American leader Robert Russa Moton, who was promised unprecedented influence once Hoover became president.===Presidential election of 1928===Hoover quietly gathered support for a future presidential bid throughout the 1920s, but he carefully avoided alienating Coolidge, who possibly could have run for another term in the 1928 presidential election.", "Along with the rest of the nation, he was surprised when Coolidge announced in August 1927 that he would not seek another term.", "With the impending retirement of Coolidge, Hoover immediately emerged as the front-runner for the 1928 Republican nomination, and he quickly put together a strong campaign team led by Hubert Work, Will H. Hays, and Reed Smoot.", "Coolidge was unwilling to anoint Hoover as his successor; on one occasion he remarked that, \"for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice—all of it bad\".", "Despite his lukewarm feelings towards Hoover, Coolidge had no desire to split the party by publicly opposing the popular Commerce Secretary's candidacy.Many wary Republican leaders cast about for an alternative candidate, such as Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon or former secretary of state Charles Evans Hughes.", "However, Hughes and Mellon declined to run, and other potential contenders like Frank Orren Lowden and Vice President Charles G. Dawes failed to garner widespread support.", "Hoover won the presidential nomination on the first ballot of the 1928 Republican National Convention.", "Convention delegates considered re-nominating Vice President Charles Dawes to be Hoover's running mate, but Coolidge, who hated Dawes, remarked that this would be \"a personal affront\" to him.", "The convention instead selected Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas.", "Hoover accepted the nomination at Stanford Stadium, telling a huge crowd that he would continue the policies of the Harding and Coolidge administrations.", "The Democrats nominated New York governor Al Smith, who became the first Catholic major party nominee for president.1928 electoral vote resultsHoover centered his campaign around the Republican record of peace and prosperity, as well as his own reputation as a successful engineer and public official.", "Averse to giving political speeches, Hoover largely stayed out of the fray and left the campaigning to Curtis and other Republicans.", "Smith was more charismatic and gregarious than Hoover, but his campaign was damaged by anti-Catholicism and his overt opposition to Prohibition.", "Hoover had never been a strong proponent of Prohibition, but he accepted the Republican Party's plank in favor of it and issued an ambivalent statement calling Prohibition \"a great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far-reaching in purpose\".", "In the South, Hoover and the national party pursued a \"lily-white\" strategy, removing black Republicans from leadership positions in an attempt to curry favor with white Southerners.Hoover maintained polling leads throughout the 1928 campaign, and he decisively defeated Smith on election day, taking 58 percent of the popular vote and 444 of the 531 electoral votes.", "Historians agree that Hoover's national reputation and the booming economy, combined with deep splits in the Democratic Party over religion and Prohibition, guaranteed his landslide victory.", "Hoover's appeal to Southern white voters succeeded in cracking the \"Solid South\", and he won five Southern states.", "Hoover's victory was positively received by newspapers; one wrote that Hoover would \"drive so forcefully at the tasks now before the nation that the end of his eight years as president will find us looking back on an era of prodigious achievement\".Hoover's detractors wondered why he did not do anything to reapportion congress after the 1920 United States Census which saw an increase in urban and immigrant populations.", "The 1920 Census was the first and only Decennial Census where the results were not used to reapportion Congress, which ultimately influenced the 1928 Electoral College and impacted the Presidential Election." ], [ "Presidency (1929–1933)", "Hoover's inaugurationHoover saw the presidency as a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation—what he termed \"volunteerism\".", "He tended to oppose governmental coercion or intervention, as he thought they infringed on American ideals of individualism and self-reliance.", "The first major bill that he signed, the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, established the Federal Farm Board in order to stabilize farm prices.", "Hoover made extensive use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, and many of those commissions were sponsored by private donors rather than by the government.", "One of the commissions started by Hoover, the Research Committee on Social Trends, was tasked with surveying the entirety of American society.", "He appointed a Cabinet consisting largely of wealthy, business-oriented conservatives, including Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon.", "Lou Henry Hoover was an activist First Lady.", "She typified the new woman of the post–World War I era: intelligent, robust, and aware of multiple female possibilities.===Great Depression===On taking office, Hoover said that \"given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation\".", "Having seen the fruits of prosperity brought by technological progress, many shared Hoover's optimism, and the already bullish stock market climbed even higher on Hoover's accession.", "This optimism concealed several threats to sustained U.S. economic growth, including a persistent farm crisis, a saturation of consumer goods like automobiles, and growing income inequality.", "Most dangerous of all to the economy was excessive speculation that had raised stock prices far beyond their value.", "Some regulators and bankers had warned Coolidge and Hoover that a failure to curb speculation would lead to \"one of the greatest financial catastrophes that this country has ever seen,\" but both presidents were reluctant to become involved with the workings of the Federal Reserve System, which regulated banks.In late October 1929, the Stock Market Crash of 1929 occurred, and the worldwide economy began to spiral downward into the Great Depression.", "The causes of the Great Depression remain a matter of debate, but Hoover viewed a lack of confidence in the financial system as the fundamental economic problem facing the nation.", "He sought to avoid direct federal intervention, believing that the best way to bolster the economy was through the strengthening of businesses such as banks and railroads.", "He also feared that allowing individuals on the \"dole\" would permanently weaken the country.", "Instead, Hoover strongly believed that local governments and private giving should address the needs of individuals.====Early policies====Though he attempted to put a positive spin on Black Tuesday, Hoover moved quickly to address the stock market collapse.", "In the days following Black Tuesday, Hoover gathered business and labor leaders, asking them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages while the country faced what he believed would be a short recession similar to the Depression of 1920–21.Hoover also convinced railroads and public utilities to increase spending on construction and maintenance, and the Federal Reserve announced that it would cut interest rates.", "In early 1930, Hoover acquired from Congress an additional $100 million to continue the Federal Farm Board lending and purchasing policies.", "These actions were collectively designed to prevent a cycle of deflation and provide a fiscal stimulus.", "At the same time, Hoover opposed congressional proposals to provide federal relief to the unemployed, as he believed that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments and philanthropic organizations.Hoover had taken office hoping to raise agricultural tariffs in order to help farmers reeling from the farm crisis of the 1920s, but his attempt to raise agricultural tariffs became connected with a bill that broadly raised tariffs.", "Hoover refused to become closely involved in the congressional debate over the tariff, and Congress produced a tariff bill that raised rates for many goods.", "Despite the widespread unpopularity of the bill, Hoover felt that he could not reject the main legislative accomplishment of the Republican-controlled 71st Congress.", "Over the objection of many economists, Hoover signed the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act into law in June 1930.Canada, France, and other nations retaliated by raising tariffs, resulting in a contraction of international trade and a worsening of the economy.", "Progressive Republicans such as Senator William E. Borah of Idaho were outraged when Hoover signed the tariff act, and Hoover's relations with that wing of the party never recovered.====Later policies====Ted Joslin, 1932By the end of 1930, the national unemployment rate had reached 11.9 percent, but it was not yet clear to most Americans that the economic downturn would be worse than the Depression of 1920–21.A series of bank failures in late 1930 heralded a larger collapse of the economy in 1931.While other countries left the gold standard, Hoover refused to abandon it; he derided any other monetary system as \"collectivism\".", "Hoover viewed the weak European economy as a major cause of economic troubles in the United States.", "In response to the collapse of the German economy, Hoover marshaled congressional support behind a one-year moratorium on European war debts.", "The Hoover Moratorium was warmly received in Europe and the United States, but Germany remained on the brink of defaulting on its loans.", "As the worldwide economy worsened, democratic governments fell; in Germany, Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler assumed power and dismantled the Weimar Republic.By mid-1931, the unemployment rate had reached 15 percent, giving rise to growing fears that the country was experiencing a depression far worse than recent economic downturns.", "A reserved man with a fear of public speaking, Hoover allowed his opponents in the Democratic Party to define him as cold, incompetent, reactionary, and out-of-touch.", "Hoover's opponents developed defamatory epithets to discredit him, such as \"Hooverville\" (the shanty towns and homeless encampments), \"Hoover leather\" (cardboard used to cover holes in the soles of shoes), and \"Hoover blanket\" (old newspaper used to cover oneself from the cold).", "While Hoover continued to resist direct federal relief efforts, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt of New York launched the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to provide aid to the unemployed.", "Democrats positioned the program as a kinder alternative to Hoover's alleged apathy towards the unemployed, despite Hoover's belief that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments.The economy continued to worsen, with unemployment rates nearing 23 percent in early 1932, and Hoover finally heeded calls for more direct federal intervention.", "In January 1932, he convinced Congress to authorize the establishment of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), which would provide government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads, and local governments.", "The RFC saved numerous businesses from failure, but it failed to stimulate commercial lending as much as Hoover had hoped, partly because it was run by conservative bankers unwilling to make riskier loans.", "The same month the RFC was established, Hoover signed the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, establishing 12 district banks overseen by a Federal Home Loan Bank Board in a manner similar to the Federal Reserve System.", "He also helped arrange passage of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1932, emergency banking legislation designed to expand banking credit by expanding the collateral on which Federal Reserve banks were authorized to lend.", "As these measures failed to stem the economic crisis, Hoover signed the Emergency Relief and Construction Act, a $2 billion public works bill, in July 1932.===Budget policy===National debt as a fraction of GNP up from 20% to 40% under Hoover.", "From ''Historical Statistics US'' (1976).After a decade of budget surpluses, the federal government experienced a budget deficit in 1931.Though some economists, like William Trufant Foster, favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget.", "In late 1931, Hoover proposed a tax plan to increase tax revenue by 30 percent, resulting in the passage of the Revenue Act of 1932.The act increased taxes across the board, rolling back much of the tax cut reduction program Mellon had presided over during the 1920s.", "Top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, the highest rate since the early 1920s.", "The act also doubled the top estate tax rate, cut personal income tax exemptions, eliminated the corporate income tax exemption, and raised corporate tax rates.", "Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit.===Civil rights and Mexican Repatriation===Herbert and Lou Henry Hoover aboard a train in IllinoisHoover seldom mentioned civil rights while he was president.", "He believed that African Americans and other races could improve themselves with education and individual initiative.", "Hoover appointed more African Americans to federal positions than Harding and Coolidge combined, but many African American leaders condemned various aspects of the Hoover administration, including Hoover's unwillingness to push for a federal anti-lynching law.", "Hoover also continued to pursue the lily-white strategy, removing African Americans from positions of leadership in the Republican Party in an attempt to end the Democratic Party's dominance in the South.", "Though Robert Moton and some other black leaders accepted the lily-white strategy as a temporary measure, most African American leaders were outraged.", "Hoover further alienated black leaders by nominating conservative Southern judge John J. Parker to the Supreme Court; Parker's nomination ultimately failed in the Senate due to opposition from the NAACP and organized labor.", "Many black voters switched to the Democratic Party in the 1932 election, and African Americans would later become an important part of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal coalition.As part of his efforts to limit unemployment, Hoover sought to cut immigration to the United States, and in 1930 he promulgated an executive order requiring individuals to have employment before migrating to the United States.", "The Hoover Administration began a campaign to prosecute illegal immigrants in the United States, which most strongly affected Mexican Americans, especially those living in Southern California.", "Many of the deportations were overseen by state and local authorities who acted on the encouragement of the Hoover Administration.", "During the 1930s, approximately one million Mexican Americans were forcibly \"repatriated\" to Mexico; approximately sixty percent of those deported were birthright citizens.", "According to legal professor Kevin R. Johnson, the repatriation campaign meets the modern legal standards of ethnic cleansing, as it involved the forced removal of a racial minority by government actors.Hoover reorganized the Bureau of Indian Affairs to limit exploitation of Native Americans.===Prohibition===On taking office, Hoover urged Americans to obey the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act, which had established Prohibition across the United States.", "To make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition, he created the Wickersham Commission.", "Hoover had hoped that the commission's public report would buttress his stance in favor of Prohibition, but the report criticized the enforcement of the Volstead Act and noted the growing public opposition to Prohibition.", "After the Wickersham Report was published in 1931, Hoover rejected the advice of some of his closest allies and refused to endorse any revision of the Volstead Act or the Eighteenth Amendment, as he feared doing so would undermine his support among Prohibition advocates.", "As public opinion increasingly turned against Prohibition, more and more people flouted the law, and a grassroots movement began working in earnest for Prohibition's repeal.", "In January 1933, a constitutional amendment repealing the Eighteenth Amendment was approved by Congress and submitted to the states for ratification.", "By December 1933, it had been ratified by the requisite number of states to become the Twenty-first Amendment.===Foreign relations===According to Leuchtenburg, Hoover was \"the last American president to take office with no conspicuous need to pay attention to the rest of the world\".", "Nevertheless, during Hoover's term, the world order established in the immediate aftermath of World War I began to crumble.", "As president, Hoover largely made good on his pledge made prior to assuming office not to interfere in Latin America's internal affairs.", "In 1930, he released the Clark Memorandum, a rejection of the Roosevelt Corollary and a move towards non-interventionism in Latin America.", "Hoover did not completely refrain from the use of the military in Latin American affairs; he thrice threatened intervention in the Dominican Republic, and he sent warships to El Salvador to support the government against a left-wing revolution.", "Notwithstanding those actions, he wound down the Banana Wars, ending the occupation of Nicaragua and nearly bringing an end to the occupation of Haiti.Hoover placed a priority on disarmament, which he hoped would allow the United States to shift money from the military to domestic needs.", "Hoover and Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson focused on extending the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, which sought to prevent a naval arms race.", "As a result of Hoover's efforts, the United States and other major naval powers signed the 1930 London Naval Treaty.", "The treaty represented the first time that the naval powers had agreed to cap their tonnage of auxiliary vessels, as previous agreements had only affected capital ships.At the 1932 World Disarmament Conference, Hoover urged further cutbacks in armaments and the outlawing of tanks and bombers, but his proposals were not adopted.In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, defeating the Republic of China's National Revolutionary Army and establishing Manchukuo, a puppet state.", "The Hoover administration deplored the invasion, but also sought to avoid antagonizing the Japanese, fearing that taking too strong a stand would weaken the moderate forces in the Japanese government and alienate a potential ally against the Soviet Union, which he saw as a much greater threat.", "In response to the Japanese invasion, Hoover and Secretary of State Stimson outlined the Stimson Doctrine, which held that the United States would not recognize territories gained by force.===Bonus Army===Thousands of World War I veterans and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, DC, during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of bonuses that had been promised by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act in 1924; the terms of the act called for payment of the bonuses in 1945.Although offered money by Congress to return home, some members of the \"Bonus Army\" remained.", "Washington police attempted to disperse the demonstrators, but they were outnumbered and unsuccessful.", "Shots were fired by the police in a futile attempt to attain order, and two protesters were killed while many officers were injured.", "Hoover sent U.S. Army forces led by General Douglas MacArthur to the protests.", "MacArthur, believing he was fighting a Communist revolution, chose to clear out the camp with military force.", "Though Hoover had not ordered MacArthur's clearing out of the protesters, he endorsed it after the fact.", "The incident proved embarrassing for the Hoover administration and hurt his bid for re-election.===1932 re-election campaign===By mid-1931 few observers thought that Hoover had much hope of winning a second term in the midst of the ongoing economic crisis.", "The Republican expectations were so bleak that Hoover faced no serious opposition for re-nomination at the 1932 Republican National Convention.", "Coolidge and other prominent Republicans all passed on the opportunity to challenge Hoover.", "Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential nomination on the fourth ballot of the 1932 Democratic National Convention, defeating the 1928 Democratic nominee, Al Smith.", "The Democrats attacked Hoover as the cause of the Great Depression, and for being indifferent to the suffering of millions.", "As Governor of New York, Roosevelt had called on the New York legislature to provide aid for the needy, establishing Roosevelt's reputation for being more favorable toward government interventionism during the economic crisis.", "The Democratic Party, including Al Smith and other national leaders, coalesced behind Roosevelt, while progressive Republicans like George Norris and Robert La Follette Jr. deserted Hoover.", "Prohibition was increasingly unpopular and wets offered the argument that states and localities needed the tax money.", "Hoover proposed a new constitutional amendment that was vague on particulars.", "Roosevelt's platform promised repeal of the 18th Amendment.1932 electoral vote resultsHoover originally planned to make only one or two major speeches and to leave the rest of the campaigning to proxies, as sitting presidents had traditionally done.", "However, encouraged by Republican pleas and outraged by Democratic claims, Hoover entered the public fray.", "In his nine major radio addresses Hoover primarily defended his administration and his philosophy of government, urging voters to hold to the \"foundations of experience\" and reject the notion that government interventionism could save the country from the Depression.", "In his campaign trips around the country, Hoover was faced with perhaps the most hostile crowds ever seen by a sitting president.", "Besides having his train and motorcades pelted with eggs and rotten fruit, he was often heckled while speaking, and on several occasions, the Secret Service halted attempts to hurt Hoover, including capturing one man nearing Hoover carrying sticks of dynamite, and another already having removed several spikes from the rails in front of the president's train.", "Hoover's attempts to vindicate his administration fell on deaf ears, as much of the public blamed his administration for the depression.", "In the electoral vote, Hoover lost 59–472, carrying six states.", "Hoover won 39.6 percent of the popular vote, a plunge of 18.6 percentage points from his result in the 1928 election." ], [ "Post-presidency (1933–1964)", "===Roosevelt administration=======Opposition to New Deal====Hoover with Franklin D. Roosevelt, March 4, 1933Hoover departed from Washington in March 1933, bitter at his election loss and continuing unpopularity.", "As Coolidge, Harding, Wilson, and Taft had all died during the 1920s or early 1930s and Roosevelt died in office, Hoover was the sole living former president from 1933 to 1953.He and his wife lived in Palo Alto until her death in 1944, at which point Hoover began to live permanently at the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City.", "During the 1930s, Hoover increasingly self-identified as a conservative.", "He closely followed national events after leaving public office, becoming a constant critic of Franklin Roosevelt.", "In response to continued attacks on his character and presidency, Hoover wrote more than two dozen books, including ''The Challenge to Liberty'' (1934), which harshly criticized Roosevelt's New Deal.", "Hoover described the New Deal's National Recovery Administration and Agricultural Adjustment Administration as \"fascistic\", and he called the 1933 Banking Act a \"move to gigantic socialism\".Only 58 when he left office, Hoover held out hope for another term as president throughout the 1930s.", "At the 1936 Republican National Convention, Hoover's speech attacking the New Deal was well received, but the nomination went to Kansas governor Alf Landon.", "In the general election, Hoover delivered numerous well-publicized speeches on behalf of Landon, but Landon was defeated by Roosevelt.", "Though Hoover was eager to oppose Roosevelt at every turn, Senator Arthur Vandenberg and other Republicans urged the still-unpopular Hoover to remain out of the fray during the debate over Roosevelt's proposed Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937.At the 1940 Republican National Convention, he again hoped for the presidential nomination, but it went to the internationalist Wendell Willkie, who lost to Roosevelt in the general election.", "Hoover remained the latest president to run for re-election after leaving office until 2022 when Donald Trump, following his win in 2016 and loss in 2020, announced his bid for 2024 presidential election.====World War II====During a 1938 trip to Europe, Hoover met with Adolf Hitler and stayed at Hermann Göring's hunting lodge.", "He expressed dismay at the persecution of Jews in Germany and believed that Hitler was mad, but did not present a threat to the U.S.", "Instead, Hoover believed that Roosevelt posed the biggest threat to peace, holding that Roosevelt's policies provoked Japan and discouraged France and the United Kingdom from reaching an \"accommodation\" with Germany.", "After the September 1939 invasion of Poland by Germany, Hoover opposed U.S. involvement in World War II, including the Lend-Lease policy.", "He was active in the isolationist America First Committee.", "He rejected Roosevelt's offers to help coordinate relief in Europe, but, with the help of old friends from the CRB, helped establish the Commission for Polish Relief.", "After the beginning of the occupation of Belgium in 1940, Hoover provided aid for Belgian civilians, though this aid was described as unnecessary by German broadcasts.In December 1939, sympathetic Americans led by Hoover formed the Finnish Relief Fund to donate money to aid Finnish civilians and refugees after the Soviet Union had started the Winter War by attacking Finland, which had outraged Americans.", "By the end of January, it had already sent more than two million dollars to the Finns.During a radio broadcast on June 29, 1941, one week after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, Hoover disparaged any \"tacit alliance\" between the U.S. and the USSR, stating, \"if we join the war and Stalin wins, we have aided him to impose more communism on Europe and the world... War alongside Stalin to impose freedom is more than a travesty.", "It is a tragedy.\"", "Much to his frustration, Hoover was not called upon to serve after the United States entered World War II due to his differences with Roosevelt and his continuing unpopularity.", "He did not pursue the presidential nomination at the 1944 Republican National Convention, and, at the request of Republican nominee Thomas E. Dewey, refrained from campaigning during the general election.", "In 1945, Hoover advised President Harry S. Truman to drop the United States' demand for the unconditional surrender of Japan because of the high projected casualties of the planned invasion of Japan, although Hoover was unaware of the Manhattan Project and the atomic bomb.===Post-World War II===Allan (left) and his grandson Andrew (above), 1950Following World War II, Hoover befriended President Truman despite their ideological differences.", "Because of Hoover's experience with Germany at the end of World War I, in 1946 Truman selected the former president to tour Allied-occupied Germany and Rome, Italy to ascertain the food needs of the occupied nations.", "After touring Germany, Hoover produced a number of reports critical of U.S. occupation policy.", "He stated in one report that \"there is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a 'pastoral state.'", "It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it.\"", "On Hoover's initiative, a school meals program in the American and British occupation zones of Germany was begun on April 14, 1947; the program served 3,500,000 children.Even more important, in 1947 Truman appointed Hoover to lead the Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government a new high level study.", "Truman accepted some of the recommendations of the \"Hoover Commission\" for eliminating waste, fraud, and inefficiency, consolidating agencies, and strengthening White House control of policy.", "Though Hoover had opposed Roosevelt's concentration of power in the 1930s, he believed that a stronger presidency was required with the advent of the Atomic Age.", "During the 1948 presidential election, Hoover supported Republican nominee Thomas Dewey's unsuccessful campaign against Truman, but he remained on good terms with Truman.", "Hoover favored the United Nations in principle, but he opposed granting membership to the Soviet Union and other Communist states.", "He viewed the Soviet Union to be as morally repugnant as Nazi Germany and supported the efforts of Richard Nixon and others to expose Communists in the United States.In 1949, New York governor Thomas E. Dewey offered Hoover the Senate seat vacated by Robert F. Wagner.", "It was a matter of being senator for only two months and he declined.A photograph of Hoover in 1958Hoover backed conservative leader Robert A. Taft at the 1952 Republican National Convention, but the party's presidential nomination instead went to Dwight D. Eisenhower, who went on to win the 1952 election.", "Though Eisenhower appointed Hoover to another presidential commission, Hoover disliked Eisenhower, faulting the latter's failure to roll back the New Deal.", "Hoover's public work helped to rehabilitate his reputation, as did his use of self-deprecating humor; he occasionally remarked that \"I am the only person of distinction who's ever had a depression named after him.\"", "In 1958, Congress passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 yearly pension () to each former president.", "Hoover took the pension even though he did not need the money, possibly to avoid embarrassing Truman, whose allegedly precarious financial status played a role in the law's enactment.", "In the early 1960s, President John F. Kennedy offered Hoover various positions; Hoover declined the offers but defended Kennedy after the Bay of Pigs invasion and was personally distraught by Kennedy's assassination in 1963.Hoover wrote several books during his retirement, including ''The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson'', in which he strongly defended Wilson's actions at the Paris Peace Conference.", "In 1944, he began working on ''Freedom Betrayed'', which he often referred to as his \"magnum opus\".", "In ''Freedom Betrayed'', Hoover strongly critiques Roosevelt's foreign policy, especially Roosevelt's decision to recognize the Soviet Union in order to provide aid to that country during World War II.", "The book was published in 2012 after being edited by historian George H. Nash.===Death===Hoover faced three major illnesses during the last two years of his life, including an August 1962 operation in which a growth on his large intestine was removed.", "He died in New York City on October 20, 1964, following massive internal bleeding.", "Though Hoover's last spoken words are unknown, his last-known written words were a get-well message to his friend Harry Truman, six days before his death, after he heard that Truman had sustained injuries from slipping in a bathroom: \"Bathtubs are a menace to ex-presidents for as you may recall a bathtub rose up and fractured my vertebrae when I was in Venezuela on your world famine mission in 1946.My warmest sympathy and best wishes for your recovery.\"", "Two months earlier, on August 10, Hoover reached the age of 90, only the second U.S. president (after John Adams) to do so.", "When asked how he felt on reaching the milestone, Hoover replied, \"Too old.\"", "At the time of his death, Hoover had been out of office for over 31 years ( days all together).", "This was the longest retirement in presidential history until Jimmy Carter broke that record in September 2012.Hoover was honored with a state funeral in which he lay in state in the United States Capitol rotunda.", "President Lyndon Johnson and First Lady Lady Bird Johnson attended, along with former presidents Truman and Eisenhower.", "Then, on October 25, he was buried in West Branch, Iowa, near his presidential library and birthplace on the grounds of the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site.", "Afterwards, Hoover's wife, Lou Henry Hoover, who had been buried in Palo Alto, California, following her death in 1944, was re-interred beside him.", "Hoover was the last surviving member of the Harding and Coolidge cabinets.", "John Nance Garner (the speaker of the House during the second half of Hoover's term) was the only person in Hoover's United States presidential line of succession he did not outlive." ], [ "Legacy", "===Historical reputation===Hoover was extremely unpopular when he left office after the 1932 election, and his historical reputation would not begin to recover until the 1970s.", "According to Professor David E. Hamilton, historians have credited Hoover for his genuine belief in voluntarism and cooperation, as well as the innovation of some of his programs.", "However, Hamilton also notes that Hoover was politically inept and failed to recognize the severity of the Great Depression.", "Nicholas Lemann writes that Hoover has been remembered \"as the man who was too rigidly conservative to react adeptly to the Depression, as the hapless foil to the great Franklin Roosevelt, and as the politician who managed to turn a Republican country into a Democratic one\".", "Polls of historians and political scientists have generally ranked Hoover in the bottom third of presidents.", "A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Hoover as the 36th best president.", "A 2017 C-SPAN poll of historians also ranked Hoover as the 36th best president.Although Hoover is generally regarded as having had a failed presidency, he has also received praise for his actions as a humanitarian and public official.", "Biographer Glen Jeansonne writes that Hoover was \"one of the most extraordinary Americans of modern times,\" adding that Hoover \"led a life that was a prototypical Horatio Alger story, except that Horatio Alger stories stop at the pinnacle of success\".", "Biographer Kenneth Whyte writes that, \"the question of where Hoover belongs in the American political tradition remains a loaded one to this day.", "While he clearly played important roles in the development of both the progressive and conservative traditions, neither side will embrace him for fear of contamination with the other.", "\"Historian Richard Pipes, on his actions leading the American Relief Administration, said of him \"Many statesmen occupy a prominent place in history for having sent millions to their death; Herbert Hoover, maligned for his performance as President, and soon forgotten in Russia, has the rare distinction of having saved millions.", "\"===Views of race===Racist remarks and racial humor was common at the time, but Hoover never indulged in them while president and deliberate discrimination was anathema to him; he thought of himself as a friend to Black people and an advocate for their progress.", "However many of his Black contemporaries had a different view; W. E. B.", "Du Bois described him as an \"undemocratic racist who saw blacks as a species of 'sub-men.", "Some historians trace the disaffection of African Americans with the Republican party to his time in office especially due to his attempt to remove African Americans from leadership in the Republican party in the South.", "Like many of his peers Hoover considered white people to be inherently superior to Black people in most spheres and that interracial marriages were bad; however, he did think education and work would improve Black people's standing, hence his support for the Tuskegee Institute.", "His White House did break the color bar by inviting Jessie De Priest, wife of the first Black congressman elected in several decades, to a traditional tea for the wives of congressmen as well as later inviting the Tuskegee Institute choir (then under the direction of William Dawson).===Memorials===The Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum is located in West Branch, Iowa next to the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site.", "The library is one of thirteen presidential libraries run by the National Archives and Records Administration.", "The Hoover–Minthorn House, where Hoover lived from 1885 to 1891, is located in Newberg, Oregon.", "His Rapidan fishing camp in Virginia, which he donated to the government in 1933, is now a National Historic Landmark within the Shenandoah National Park.", "The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, built in 1919 in Stanford, California, is now the official residence of the president of Stanford University, and a National Historic Landmark.", "Also located at Stanford is the Hoover Institution, a think tank and research institution started by Hoover.Hoover has been memorialized in the names of several things, including the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River and numerous elementary, middle, and high schools across the United States.", "Two minor planets, 932 Hooveria and 1363 Herberta, are named in his honor.", "The Polish capital of Warsaw has a square named after Hoover, and the historic townsite of Gwalia, Western Australia contains the Hoover House Bed and Breakfast, where Hoover resided while managing and visiting the mine during the first decade of the twentieth century.", "A medicine ball game known as Hooverball is named for Hoover; it was invented by White House physician Admiral Joel T. Boone to help Hoover keep fit while serving as president.File:Herbert Hoover Presidential Library 003.jpg\|Hoover Presidential Library located in West Branch, IowaFile:Hoover Plaque Poznan.JPG\|A plaque in Poznań honoring HooverFile:Dupont KBS-FRB(2).jpg\|Medal depicting Hoover, by Devreese Godefroi===Other honors===Hoover was inducted into the National Mining Hall of Fame in 1988 (inaugural class).", "His wife was inducted into the hall in 1990.Hoover was inducted into the Australian Prospectors and Miners' Hall of Fame in the category Directors and Management.Hoover was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Charles University in Prague and University of Helsinki in March 1938.The ceremonial sword is today on display in the lobby of the Hoover tower." ], [ "See also", "* Progressive Era* Roaring Twenties" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======Works cited===* Originally published as * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Book 1 in The Life of Herbert Hoover Series.", "* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "===Biographical=== Best, Gary Dean.", "''The Politics of American Individualism: Herbert Hoover in Transition, 1918–1921'' (1975)* Best, Gary Dean.", "''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964.''", "Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.", "* Clements, Kendrick A.", "''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Imperfect Visionary, 1918–1928'' (2010).", "* Edwards, Barry C. \"Putting Hoover on the Map: Was the 31st President a Progressive?\"", "''Congress & the Presidency'' 41#1 (2014) pp 49–83* Hatfield, Mark.", "ed.", "''Herbert Hoover Reassessed'' (2002)* .", "* Jeansonne, Glen.", "''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Fighting Quaker, 1928–1933.''", "Palgrave Macmillan; 2012.", "* Lloyd, Craig.", "''Aggressive Introvert: A Study of Herbert Hoover and Public Relations Management, 1912–1932'' (1973).", "* Nash, George H. ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Engineer 1874–1914'' (1983); in-depth scholarly study .", " .", "* Nash, Lee, ed.", "''Understanding Herbert Hoover: Ten Perspectives'' (1987); essays by scholars* Smith, Richard Norton.", "''An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover'', (1987), biography concentrating on post 1932.", "* Walch, Timothy.", "ed.", "''Uncommon Americans: The Lives and Legacies of Herbert and Lou Henry Hoover'' Praeger, 2003.", "* West, Hal Elliott.", "''Hoover, the Fishing President: Portrait of the Man and his Life Outdoors'' (2005).===Scholarly studies===* Arnold, Peri E. \"The 'Great Engineer' as Administrator: Herbert Hoover and Modern Bureaucracy.\"", "''Review of Politics'' 42.3 (1980): 329–348..* Barber, William J.", "''From New Era to New Deal: Herbert Hoover, the Economists, and American Economic Policy, 1921–1933''.", "(1985)* * Brandes, Joseph.", "''Herbert Hoover and Economic Diplomacy: Department of Commerce Policy, 1921–1928.''", "(U of Pittsburgh Press, 1970).", "* Britten, Thomas A.", "\"Hoover and the Indians: the Case for Continuity in Federal Indian Policy, 1900–1933\" ''Historian'' 1999 '''61'''(3): 518–538..* Clements, Kendrick A.", "''Hoover, Conservation, and Consumerism: Engineering the Good Life''.", "University Press of Kansas, 2000* Dodge, Mark M., ed.", "''Herbert Hoover and the Historians''.", "(1989)* Fausold Martin L. and George Mazuzan, eds.", "''The Hoover Presidency: A Reappraisal'' (1974)* Goodman, Mark, and Mark Gring.", "\"The Radio Act of 1927: progressive ideology, epistemology, and praxis\".", "''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 3.3 (2000): 397–418.", "* Hawley, Ellis.", "\"Herbert Hoover and the Historians—Recent Developments: A Review Essay\" ''Annals of Iowa'' 78#1 (2018) pp.", "75–86 * Hawley, Ellis.", "\"Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an 'Associative State', 1921–1928\" .", "''Journal of American History'', (June 1974) 61#1: 116–140.", "* Jansky Jr, C. M. \"The contribution of Herbert Hoover to broadcasting.\"", "''Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media'' 1.3 (1957): 241–249.", "* Lee, David D. \"Herbert Hoover and the Development of Commercial Aviation, 1921–1926.\"", "''Business History Review'' 58.1 (1984): 78–102.", "* Lichtman, Allan J.", "''Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928'' (1979)* Lisio, Donald J.", "''The President and Protest: Hoover, MacArthur, and the Bonus Riot'', 2d ed.", "(1994)* Lisio, Donald J.", "''Hoover, Blacks, and Lily-whites: A Study of Southern Strategies'' (1985)* Parafianowicz, Halina.", "'Herbert C. Hoover and Poland: 1919–1933.Between Myth and Reality'* Polsky, Andrew J., and Olesya Tkacheva.", "\"Legacies Versus Politics: Herbert Hoover, Partisan Conflict, and the Symbolic Appeal of Associationalism in the 1920s.\"", "''International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society'' 16.2 (2002): 207–235.online* Short, Brant.", "\"The Rhetoric of the Post-Presidency: Herbert Hoover's Campaign against the New Deal, 1934–1936\" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (1991) 21#2 pp.", "333–350 online* Sibley, Katherine A.S., ed.", "''A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover'' (2014); 616pp; essays by scholars stressing historiography* Wueschner, Silvano A.", "''Charting Twentieth-Century Monetary Policy: Herbert Hoover and Benjamin Strong, 1917–1927''.", "Greenwood, 1999===Primary sources===* Myers, William Starr; Walter H. Newton, eds.", "(1936).", "''The Hoover Administration; a documented narrative''.", "* Hawley, Ellis, ed.", "(1974–1977).", "''Herbert Hoover: Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President'', 4 vols.", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* * * Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum* Herbert Hoover National Historic Site, National Park Service* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hildegard of Bingen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hildegard of Bingen''' (, ; ; 17 September 1179), also known as '''Saint Hildegard''' and the '''Sibyl of the Rhine''', was a German Benedictine abbess and polymath active as a writer, composer, philosopher, mystic, visionary, and as a medical writer and practitioner during the High Middle Ages.", "She is one of the best-known composers of sacred monophony, as well as the most recorded in modern history.", "She has been considered by a number of scholars to be the founder of scientific natural history in Germany.Hildegard's convent at Disibodenberg elected her as (mother superior) in 1136.She founded the monasteries of Rupertsberg in 1150 and Eibingen in 1165.Hildegard wrote theological, botanical, and medicinal works, as well as letters, hymns, and antiphons for the liturgy.", "She wrote poems, and supervised miniature illuminations in the Rupertsberg manuscript of her first work, .", "There are more surviving chants by Hildegard than by any other composer from the entire Middle Ages, and she is one of the few known composers to have written both the music and the words.", "One of her works, the , is an early example of liturgical drama and arguably the oldest surviving morality play.", "She is noted for the invention of a constructed language known as .Although the history of her formal canonization is complicated, regional calendars of the Roman Catholic Church have listed her as a saint for centuries.", "On 10 May 2012, Pope Benedict XVI extended the liturgical cult of Hildegard to the entire Catholic Church in a process known as \"equivalent canonization\".", "On 7 October 2012, he named her a Doctor of the Church, in recognition of \"her holiness of life and the originality of her teaching.\"" ], [ "Biography", "Hildegard was born around 1098.Her parents were Mechtild of Merxheim-Nahet and Hildebert of Bermersheim, a family of the free lower nobility in the service of the Count Meginhard of Sponheim.", "Sickly from birth, Hildegard is traditionally considered their youngest and tenth child, although there are records of only seven older siblings.", "In her , Hildegard states that from a very young age she experienced visions.===Spirituality===From early childhood, long before she undertook her public mission or even her monastic vows, Hildegard's spiritual awareness was grounded in what she called the , the reflection of the living Light.", "Her letter to Guibert of Gembloux, which she wrote at the age of 77, describes her experience of this light:===Monastic life===Perhaps because of Hildegard's visions or as a method of political positioning, or both, Hildegard's parents offered her as an oblate to the Benedictine monastery at Disibodenberg, which had been recently reformed in the Palatinate Forest.", "The date of Hildegard's enclosure at the monastery is the subject of debate.", "Her says she was eight years old when she was professed with Jutta, who was the daughter of Count Stephan II of Sponheim and about six years older than Hildegard.", "However, Jutta's date of enclosure is known to have been in 1112, when Hildegard would have been 14.Their vows were received by Bishop Otto of Bamberg on All Saints Day 1112.Some scholars speculate that Hildegard was placed in the care of Jutta at the age of eight, and that the two of them were then enclosed together six years later.In any case, Hildegard and Jutta were enclosed together at Disibodenberg and formed the core of a growing community of women attached to the monastery of monks, named a ''Frauenklause,'' a type of female hermitage.", "Jutta was also a visionary and thus attracted many followers who came to visit her at the monastery.", "Hildegard states that Jutta taught her to read and write, but that she was unlearned, and therefore incapable of teaching Hildegard sound Biblical interpretation.", "The written record of the ''Life of Jutta'' indicates that Hildegard probably assisted her in reciting the psalms, working in the garden, other handiwork, and tending to the sick.", "This might have been a time when Hildegard learned how to play the ten-stringed psaltery.", "Volmar, a frequent visitor, may have taught Hildegard simple psalm notation.", "The time she studied music could have been the beginning of the compositions she would later create.Upon Jutta's death in 1136, Hildegard was unanimously elected as of the community by her fellow nuns.", "Abbot Kuno of Disibodenberg asked Hildegard to be Prioress, which would be under his authority.", "Hildegard, however, wanted more independence for herself and her nuns and asked Abbot Kuno to allow them to move to Rupertsberg.", "This was to be a move toward poverty, from a stone complex that was well established to a temporary dwelling place.", "When the abbot declined Hildegard's proposition, Hildegard went over his head and received the approval of Archbishop Henry I of Mainz.", "Abbot Kuno did not relent, however, until Hildegard was stricken by an illness that rendered her paralyzed and unable to move from her bed, an event that she attributed to God's unhappiness at her not following his orders to move her nuns to Rupertsberg.", "It was only when the Abbot himself could not move Hildegard that he decided to grant the nuns their own monastery.", "Hildegard and approximately 20 nuns thus moved to the St. Rupertsberg monastery in 1150, where Volmar served as provost, as well as Hildegard's confessor and scribe.", "In 1165, Hildegard founded a second monastery for her nuns at Eibingen.Before Hildegard's death in 1179, a problem arose with the clergy of Mainz: a man buried in Rupertsberg had died after excommunication from the Catholic Church.", "Therefore, the clergy wanted to remove his body from the sacred ground.", "Hildegard did not accept this idea, replying that it was a sin and that the man had been reconciled to the church at the time of his death.===Visions===Hildegard said that she first saw \"The Shade of the Living Light\" at the age of three, and by the age of five, she began to understand that she was experiencing visions.", "She used the term (Latin for 'vision') to describe this feature of her experience and she recognized that it was a gift that she could not explain to others.", "Hildegard explained that she saw all things in the light of God through the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.", "Hildegard was hesitant to share her visions, confiding only to Jutta, who in turn told Volmar, Hildegard's tutor and, later, secretary.", "Throughout her life, she continued to have many visions, and in 1141, at the age of 42, Hildegard received a vision she believed to be an instruction from God, to \"write down that which you see and hear.\"", "Still hesitant to record her visions, Hildegard became physically ill.", "The illustrations recorded in the book of were visions that Hildegard experienced, causing her great suffering and tribulations.", "In her first theological text, (\"Know the Ways\"), Hildegard describes her struggle within:It was between November 1147 and February 1148 at the synod in Trier that Pope Eugenius heard about Hildegard's writings.", "It was from this that she received Papal approval to document her visions as revelations from the Holy Spirit, giving her instant credence.On 17 September 1179, when Hildegard died, her sisters claimed they saw two streams of light appear in the skies and cross over the room where she was dying.=== ===Hildegard's hagiography, , was compiled by the monk Theoderic of Echternach after Hildegard's death.", "He included the hagiographical work , or \"Little Book\", begun by Godfrey of Disibodenberg.", "Godfrey had died before he was able to complete his work.", "Guibert of Gembloux was invited to finish the work; however, he had to return to his monastery with the project unfinished.", "Theoderic utilized sources Guibert had left behind to complete the ." ], [ "Works", "''Scivias'' I.6: The Choirs of Angels.", "From the Rupertsberg manuscript, folio 38r.Hildegard's works include three great volumes of visionary theology; a variety of musical compositions for use in the liturgy, as well as the musical morality play ; one of the largest bodies of letters (nearly 400) to survive from the Middle Ages, addressed to correspondents ranging from popes to emperors to abbots and abbesses, and including records of many of the sermons she preached in the 1160s and 1170s; two volumes of material on natural medicine and cures; an invented language called the ('unknown language'); and various minor works, including a gospel commentary and two works of hagiography.Several manuscripts of her works were produced during her lifetime, including the illustrated Rupertsberg manuscript of her first major work, ; the Dendermonde Codex, which contains one version of her musical works; and the Ghent manuscript, which was the first fair-copy made for editing of her final theological work, the .", "At the end of her life, and probably under her initial guidance, all of her works were edited and gathered into the single Riesenkodex manuscript.===Visionary theology===Hildegard's most significant works were her three volumes of visionary theology: (\"Know the Ways\", composed 1142–1151), (\"Book of Life's Merits\" or \"Book of the Rewards of Life\", composed 1158–1163); and (\"Book of Divine Works\", also known as , \"On God's Activity\", begun around 1163 or 1164 and completed around 1172 or 1174).", "In these volumes, the last of which was completed when she was well into her seventies, Hildegard first describes each vision, whose details are often strange and enigmatic, and then interprets their theological contents in the words of the \"voice of the Living Light.", "\"========The Church, the Bride of Christ and Mother of the Faithful in Baptism.", "Illustration to II.3, fol.", "51r from the 20th-century facsimile of the Rupertsberg manuscript, –1180.With permission from Abbot Kuno of Disibodenberg, she began journaling visions she had (which is the basis for ).", "is a contraction of ('Know the Ways of the Lord'), and it was Hildegard's first major visionary work, and one of the biggest milestones in her life.", "Perceiving a divine command to \"write down what you see and hear,\" Hildegard began to record and interpret her visionary experiences.", "In total, 26 visionary experiences were captured in this compilation.", "is structured into three parts of unequal length.", "The first part (six visions) chronicles the order of God's creation: the Creation and Fall of Adam and Eve, the structure of the universe (described as the shape of an \"egg\"), the relationship between body and soul, God's relationship to his people through the Synagogue, and the choirs of angels.", "The second part (seven visions) describes the order of redemption: the coming of Christ the Redeemer, the Trinity, the church as the Bride of Christ and the Mother of the Faithful in baptism and confirmation, the orders of the church, Christ's sacrifice on the cross and the Eucharist, and the fight against the devil.", "Finally, the third part (thirteen visions) recapitulates the history of salvation told in the first two parts, symbolized as a building adorned with various allegorical figures and virtues.", "It concludes with the Symphony of Heaven, an early version of Hildegard's musical compositions.In early 1148, a commission was sent by the Pope to Disibodenberg to find out more about Hildegard and her writings.", "The commission found that the visions were authentic and returned to the Pope, with a portion of the .", "Portions of the uncompleted work were read aloud to Pope Eugenius III at the Synod of Trier in 1148, after which he sent Hildegard a letter with his blessing.", "This blessing was later construed as papal approval for all of Hildegard's wide-ranging theological activities.", "Towards the end of her life, Hildegard commissioned a richly decorated manuscript of (the Rupertsberg Codex); although the original has been lost since its evacuation to Dresden for safekeeping in 1945, its images are preserved in a hand-painted facsimile from the 1920s.========In her second volume of visionary theology, , composed between 1158 and 1163, after she had moved her community of nuns into independence at the Rupertsberg in Bingen, Hildegard tackled the moral life in the form of dramatic confrontations between the virtues and the vices.", "She had already explored this area in her musical morality play, , and the \"Book of the Rewards of Life\" takes up the play's characteristic themes.", "Each vice, although ultimately depicted as ugly and grotesque, nevertheless offers alluring, seductive speeches that attempt to entice the unwary soul into their clutches.", "Standing in humankind's defence, however, are the sober voices of the Virtues, powerfully confronting every vicious deception.Amongst the work's innovations is one of the earliest descriptions of purgatory as the place where each soul would have to work off its debts after death before entering heaven.", "Hildegard's descriptions of the possible punishments there are often gruesome and grotesque, which emphasize the work's moral and pastoral purpose as a practical guide to the life of true penance and proper virtue.========Hildegard's last and grandest visionary work, , had its genesis in one of the few times she experienced something like an ecstatic loss of consciousness.", "As she described it in an autobiographical passage included in her , sometime in about 1163, she received \"an extraordinary mystical vision\" in which was revealed the \"sprinkling drops of sweet rain\" that she stated John the Evangelist experienced when he wrote, \"In the beginning was the Word\" (John 1:1).", "Hildegard perceived that this Word was the key to the \"Work of God\", of which humankind is the pinnacle.", "The ''Book of Divine Works'', therefore, became in many ways an extended explication of the prologue to the Gospel of John.The ten visions of this work's three parts are cosmic in scale, to illustrate various ways of understanding the relationship between God and his creation.", "Often, that relationship is established by grand allegorical female figures representing Divine Love () or Wisdom ().", "The first vision opens the work with a salvo of poetic and visionary images, swirling about to characterize God's dynamic activity within the scope of his work within the history of salvation.", "The remaining three visions of the first part introduce the image of a human being standing astride the spheres that make up the universe and detail the intricate relationships between the human as microcosm and the universe as macrocosm.", "This culminates in the final chapter of Part One, Vision Four with Hildegard's commentary on the prologue to the Gospel of John (John 1:1–14), a direct rumination on the meaning of \"In the beginning was the Word\".", "The single vision that constitutes the whole of Part Two stretches that rumination back to the opening of Genesis, and forms an extended commentary on the seven days of the creation of the world told in Genesis 1–2:3.This commentary interprets each day of creation in three ways: literal or cosmological; allegorical or ecclesiological (i.e.", "related to the church's history); and moral or tropological (i.e.", "related to the soul's growth in virtue).", "Finally, the five visions of the third part take up again the building imagery of to describe the course of salvation history.", "The final vision (3.5) contains Hildegard's longest and most detailed prophetic program of the life of the church from her own days of \"womanish weakness\" through to the coming and ultimate downfall of the Antichrist.===Music===Attention in recent decades to women of the medieval Catholic Church has led to a great deal of popular interest in Hildegard's music.", "In addition to the , 69 musical compositions, each with its own original poetic text, survive, and at least four other texts are known, though their musical notation has been lost.", "This is one of the largest repertoires among medieval composers.One of her better-known works, (''Play of the Virtues''), is a morality play.", "It is uncertain when some of Hildegard's compositions were composed, though the is thought to have been composed as early as 1151.It is an independent Latin morality play with music (82 songs); it does not supplement or pay homage to the Mass or the Office of a certain feast.", "It is, in fact, the earliest known surviving musical drama that is not attached to a liturgy.The would have been performed within Hildegard's monastery by and for her select community of noblewomen and nuns.", "It was probably performed as a manifestation of the theology Hildegard delineated in the .", "The play serves as an allegory of the Christian story of sin, confession, repentance, and forgiveness.", "Notably, it is the female Virtues who restore the fallen to the community of the faithful, not the male Patriarchs or Prophets.", "This would have been a significant message to the nuns in Hildegard's convent.", "Scholars assert that the role of the Devil would have been played by Volmar, while Hildegard's nuns would have played the parts of Anima (the human souls) and the Virtues.", "The devil's part is entirely spoken or shouted, with no musical setting.", "All other characters sing in monophonic plainchant.", "This includes patriarchs, prophets, a happy soul, an unhappy soul, and a penitent soul along with 16 virtues (including mercy, innocence, chastity, obedience, hope, and faith).In addition to the , Hildegard composed many liturgical songs that were collected into a cycle called the .", "The songs from the Symphonia are set to Hildegard's own text and range from antiphons, hymns, and sequences (such as ''Columba Aspexit''), to responsories.", "Her music is monophonic, consisting of exactly one melodic line.", "Its style has been said to be characterized by soaring melodies that can push the boundaries of traditional Gregorian chant and to stand outside the normal practices of monophonic monastic chant.", "Researchers are also exploring ways in which it may be viewed in comparison with her contemporaries, such as Hermannus Contractus.", "Another feature of Hildegard's music that both reflects the 12th-century evolution of chant, and pushes that evolution further, is that it is highly melismatic, often with recurrent melodic units.", "Scholars such as Margot Fassler, Marianne Richert Pfau, and Beverly Lomer also note the intimate relationship between music and text in Hildegard's compositions, whose rhetorical features are often more distinct than is common in 12th-century chant.", "As with most medieval chant notation, Hildegard's music lacks any indication of tempo or rhythm; the surviving manuscripts employ late German style notation, which uses very ornamental neumes.", "The reverence for the Virgin Mary reflected in music shows how deeply influenced and inspired Hildegard of Bingen and her community were by the Virgin Mary and the saints.===Scientific and medicinal writings===Hildegard of Bingen and her nunsHildegard's medicinal and scientific writings, although thematically complementary to her ideas about nature expressed in her visionary works, are different in focus and scope.", "Neither claim to be rooted in her visionary experience and its divine authority.", "Rather, they spring from her experience helping in and then leading the monastery's herbal garden and infirmary, as well as the theoretical information she likely gained through her wide-ranging reading in the monastery's library.", "As she gained practical skills in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, she combined physical treatment of physical diseases with holistic methods centered on \"spiritual healing\".", "She became well known for her healing powers involving the practical application of tinctures, herbs, and precious stones.", "She combined these elements with a theological notion ultimately derived from Genesis: all things put on earth are for the use of humans.", "In addition to her hands-on experience, she also gained medical knowledge, including elements of her humoral theory, from traditional Latin texts.Hildegard catalogued both her theory and practice in two works.", "The first, , contains nine books that describe the scientific and medicinal properties of various plants, stones, fish, reptiles, and animals.", "This document is also thought to contain the first recorded reference of the use of hops in beer as a preservative.", "The second, , is an exploration of the human body, its connections to the rest of the natural world, and the causes and cures of various diseases.", "Hildegard documented various medical practices in these books, including the use of bleeding and home remedies for many common ailments.", "She also explains remedies for common agricultural injuries such as burns, fractures, dislocations, and cuts.", "Hildegard may have used the books to teach assistants at the monastery.", "These books are historically significant because they show areas of medieval medicine that were not well documented because their practitioners, mainly women, rarely wrote in Latin.", "Her writings were commentated on by Mélanie Lipinska, a Polish scientist.In addition to its wealth of practical evidence, is also noteworthy for its organizational scheme.", "Its first part sets the work within the context of the creation of the cosmos and then humanity as its summit, and the constant interplay of the human person as microcosm both physically and spiritually with the macrocosm of the universe informs all of Hildegard's approach.", "Her hallmark is to emphasize the vital connection between the \"green\" health of the natural world and the holistic health of the human person.", ", or greening power, was thought to sustain human beings and could be manipulated by adjusting the balance of elements within a person.", "Thus, when she approached medicine as a type of gardening, it was not just as an analogy.", "Rather, Hildegard understood the plants and elements of the garden as direct counterparts to the humors and elements within the human body, whose imbalance led to illness and disease.The nearly three hundred chapters of the second book of \"explore the etiology, or causes, of disease as well as human sexuality, psychology, and physiology.\"", "In this section, she gives specific instructions for bleeding based on various factors, including gender, the phase of the moon (bleeding is best done when the moon is waning), the place of disease (use veins near diseased organ or body part) or prevention (big veins in arms), and how much blood to take (described in imprecise measurements, like \"the amount that a thirsty person can swallow in one gulp\").", "She even includes bleeding instructions for animals to keep them healthy.", "In the third and fourth sections, Hildegard describes treatments for malignant and minor problems and diseases according to the humoral theory, again including information on animal health.", "The fifth section is about diagnosis and prognosis, which includes instructions to check the patient's blood, pulse, urine, and stool.", "Finally, the sixth section documents a lunar horoscope to provide an additional means of prognosis for both disease and other medical conditions, such as conception and the outcome of pregnancy.", "For example, she indicates that a waxing moon is good for human conception and is also good for sowing seeds for plants (sowing seeds is the plant equivalent of conception).", "Elsewhere, Hildegard is even said to have stressed the value of boiling drinking water in an attempt to prevent infection.As Hildegard elaborates the medical and scientific relationship between the human microcosm and the macrocosm of the universe, she often focuses on interrelated patterns of four: \"the four elements (fire, air, water, and earth), the four seasons, the four humors, the four zones of the earth, and the four major winds.\"", "Although she inherited the basic framework of humoral theory from ancient medicine, Hildegard's conception of the hierarchical inter-balance of the four humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) was unique, based on their correspondence to \"superior\" and \"inferior\" elements – blood and phlegm corresponding to the \"celestial\" elements of fire and air, and the two biles corresponding to the \"terrestrial\" elements of water and earth.", "Hildegard understood the disease-causing imbalance of these humors to result from the improper dominance of the subordinate humors.", "This disharmony reflects that introduced by Adam and Eve in the Fall, which for Hildegard marked the indelible entrance of disease and humoral imbalance into humankind.", "As she writes in c. 42:=== and ===Alphabet by Hildegard von Bingen, Litterae ignotae, which she used for her language Hildegard also invented an alternative alphabet.", "('Alternate Alphabet') was another work and was more or less a secret code, or even an intellectual code – much like a modern crossword puzzle today.Hildegard's ('unknown language') consisted of a series of invented words that corresponded to an eclectic list of nouns.", "The list is approximately 1,000 nouns; there are no other parts of speech.", "The two most important sources for the are the Wiesbaden, Hessische Landesbibliothek 2 (nicknamed the Riesenkodex) and the Berlin manuscript.", "In both manuscripts, medieval German and Latin glosses are written above Hildegard's invented words.", "The Berlin manuscript contains additional Latin and German glosses not found in the Riesenkodex.", "The first two words of the as copied in the Berlin manuscript are ''aigonz'' (German, ; Latin, ; English, ''god'') and ''aleganz'' (German, ; Latin, ; English, ''angel'').", "''Barbara Newman believes that Hildegard used her to increase solidarity among her nuns.", "Sarah Higley disagrees and notes that there is no evidence of Hildegard teaching the language to her nuns.", "She suggests that the language was not intended to remain a secret; rather, the presence of words for mundane things may indicate that the language was for the whole abbey and perhaps the larger monastic world.", "Higley believes that \"the Lingua is a linguistic distillation of the philosophy expressed in her three prophetic books: it represents the cosmos of divine and human creation and the sins that flesh is heir to.", "\"The text of her writing and compositions reveals Hildegard's use of this form of modified medieval Latin, encompassing many invented, conflated, and abridged words.", "Because of her inventions of words for her lyrics and use of a constructed script, many conlangers look upon her as a medieval precursor." ], [ "Significance", "===During her lifetime===Maddocks claims that it is likely Hildegard learned simple Latin and the tenets of the Christian faith, but was not instructed in the Seven Liberal Arts, which formed the basis of all education for the learned classes in the Middle Ages: the of grammar, dialectic, and rhetoric plus the of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.", "The correspondence she kept with the outside world, both spiritual and social, transcended the cloister as a space of spiritual confinement and served to document Hildegard's grand style and strict formatting of medieval letter writing.Contributing to Christian European rhetorical traditions, Hildegard \"authorized herself as a theologian\" through alternative rhetorical arts.", "Hildegard was creative in her interpretation of theology.", "She believed that her monastery should exclude novices who were not from the nobility because she did not want her community to be divided on the basis of social status.", "She also stated that \"woman may be made from man, but no man can be made without a woman.", "\"Hildegard's preaching toursBecause of church limitation on public, discursive rhetoric, the medieval rhetorical arts included preaching, letter writing, poetry, and the encyclopedic tradition.", "Hildegard's participation in these arts speaks to her significance as a female rhetorician, transcending bans on women's social participation and interpretation of scripture.", "The acceptance of public preaching by a woman, even a well-connected abbess and acknowledged prophet, does not fit the stereotype of this time.", "Her preaching was not limited to the monasteries; she preached publicly in 1160 in Germany.", "She conducted four preaching tours throughout Germany, speaking to both clergy and laity in chapter houses and in public, mainly denouncing clerical corruption and calling for reform.Many abbots and abbesses asked her for prayers and opinions on various matters.", "She traveled widely during her four preaching tours.", "She had several devoted followers, including Guibert of Gembloux, who wrote to her frequently and became her secretary after Volmar's death in 1173.Hildegard also influenced several monastic women, exchanging letters with Elisabeth of Schönau, a nearby visionary.Hildegard corresponded with popes such as Eugene III and Anastasius IV, statesmen such as Abbot Suger, German emperors such as Frederick I Barbarossa, and other notable figures such as Bernard of Clairvaux, who advanced her work, at the behest of her abbot, Kuno, at the Synod of Trier in 1147 and 1148.Hildegard of Bingen's correspondence is an important component of her literary output.===Veneration===Hildegard was one of the first persons for whom the Roman canonization process was officially applied, but the process took so long that four attempts at canonization were not completed and she remained at the level of her beatification.", "Her name was nonetheless included in the Roman Martyrology at the end of the 16th century up to the current 2004 edition, listing her as \"Saint Hildegard\" with her feast on 17 September, which would eventually be added to the General Roman Calendar as an optional memorial.", "Numerous popes have referred to Hildegard as a saint, including Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI.", "Hildegard's parish and pilgrimage church in Eibingen near Rüdesheim houses her relics.On 10 May 2012, Pope Benedict XVI extended the veneration of Saint Hildegard to the entire Catholic Church in a process known as \"equivalent canonization,\" thus laying the groundwork for naming her a Doctor of the Church.", "On 7 October 2012, the feast of the Holy Rosary, the pope named her a Doctor of the Church.", "He called Hildegard \"perennially relevant\" and \"an authentic teacher of theology and a profound scholar of natural science and music.", "\"Hildegard of Bingen also appears in the calendar of saints of various Anglican churches, such as that of the Church of England, in which she is commemorated on 17 September.===Modern interest===German coin by Carl Vezerfi-Clemm, commemorating the 900th anniversary of Hildegard's birthLine engraving by W. MarshallIn recent years, Hildegard has become of particular interest to feminist scholars.", "They note her reference to herself as a member of the weaker sex and her rather constant belittling of women.", "Hildegard frequently referred to herself as an unlearned woman, completely incapable of Biblical exegesis.", "Such a statement on her part, however, worked slyly to her advantage because it made her statements that all of her writings and music came from visions of the Divine more believable, therefore giving Hildegard the authority to speak in a time and place where few women were permitted a voice.", "Hildegard used her voice to amplify the church's condemnation of institutional corruption, in particular simony.Hildegard has also become a figure of reverence within the contemporary New Age movement, mostly because of her holistic and natural view of healing, as well as her status as a mystic.", "Although her medical writings were long neglected and then, studied without reference to their context, she was the inspiration for Dr. Gottfried Hertzka's \"Hildegard-Medicine\", and is the namesake for June Boyce-Tillman's Hildegard Network, a healing center that focuses on a holistic approach to wellness and brings together people interested in exploring the links between spirituality, the arts, and healing.", "Her reputation as a medicinal writer and healer was also used by early feminists to argue for women's rights to attend medical schools.Reincarnation of Hildegard has been debated since 1924 when Austrian mystic Rudolf Steiner lectured that a nun of her description was the past life of Russian poet-philosopher Vladimir Soloviev, whose visions of Holy Wisdom are often compared to Hildegard's.", "Sophiologist Robert Powell writes that hermetic astrology proves the match, while mystical communities in Hildegard's lineage include that of artist Carl Schroeder as studied by Columbia sociologist Courtney Bender and supported by reincarnation researchers Walter Semkiw and Kevin Ryerson.Recordings and performances of Hildegard's music have gained critical praise and popularity since 1979.There is an extensive discography of her musical works." ], [ "In culture", "The following modern musical works are directly linked to Hildegard and her music or texts:* : ''Hildegard von Bingen'', a liturgical play with texts and music by Hildegard of Bingen, 1998.", "* Azam Ali: ''O Vis Aeternitatis'' and ''O Euchari'' by Hildegard of Bingen, 2020* Cecilia McDowall: ''Alma Redemptoris Mater''.", "* Christopher Theofanidis: ''Rainbow Body'', for orchestra (2000)* David Lynch with Jocelyn Montgomery: ''Lux Vivens (Living Light): The Music of Hildegard Von Bingen'', 1998* Garmarna: \"Euchari\" (1999) and ''Hildegard von Bingen'' (2001)* Devendra Banhart: ''Für Hildegard von Bingen'', single from the 2013 album ''Mala''.", "* Gordon Hamilton: ''The Trillion Souls'' quotes Hildegard's ''O Ignee Spiritus''.", "* Ludger Stühlmeyer: ''O splendidissima gemma''.", "2012.For alto solo and organ, text: Hildegard of Bingen.", "Commissioned composition for the declaration of Hildegard of Bingen as Doctor of the Church.", "* Peter Janssens: ''Hildegard von Bingen'', a musical in ten scenes, text: Jutta Richter, 1997 * Richard Souther, Emily Van Evera, Sister Germaine Fritz OSB: ''Vision: The Music Of Hildegard Of Bingen''.", "1994.", " Sofia Gubaidulina: ''Aus den Visionen der Hildegard von Bingen'', for contra alto solo, after a text of Hildegard of Bingen, 1994 * Tilo Medek: ''Monatsbilder (nach Hildegard von Bingen)'', twelve songs for mezzo-soprano, clarinet and piano, 1997 * Wolfgang Sauseng: ''De visione secunda'' for double choir and percussion, 2011* John Zorn: ''The Holy Visions'' for five female voices, 2012* David Chalmin and Bryce Dessner: \"Electric Fields\" for soprano, two pianos, electronics, & multimedia, 2022The artwork ''The Dinner Party'' features a place setting for Hildegard.In space, the minor planet 898 Hildegard is named for her.Hildegard was the subject of a 2012 fictionalized biographic novel ''Illuminations'' by Mary Sharatt.The plant genus ''Hildegardia'' is named after her because of her contributions to herbal medicine.The off-Broadway musical ''In the Green'', written by Grace McLean, followed Hildegard's story.In his book, ''The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat'', neurologist Oliver Sacks devotes a chapter to Hildegard and concludes that in his opinion her visions were migrainous.In film, Hildegard has been portrayed by Patricia Routledge in a BBC documentary called ''Hildegard of Bingen'' (1994), by Ángela Molina in ''Barbarossa'' (2009) and by Barbara Sukowa in the film ''Vision'', directed by Margarethe von Trotta.A feature documentary film, ''The Unruly Mystic: Saint Hildegard,'' was released by American director Michael M. Conti in 2014.Hildegard makes an appearance in ''The Baby-Sitters Club #101: Claudia Kishi, Middle School Drop-Out'' by Ann M. Martin, when Anna Stevenson dresses as Hildegard for Halloween.Kristin Hayter, known professionally as Lingua Ignota, was inspired by Hildegard of Bingen" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Editions of Hildegard's works===* Beate Hildegardis Cause et cure, ed.", "L. Moulinier (Berlin, Akademie Verlag, 2003)* ''Epistolarium pars prima I–XC'' edited by L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 91A (Turnhout: Brepols, 1991)* ''Epistolarium pars secunda XCI–CCLr'' edited by L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 91A (Turnhout: Brepols, 1993)* ''Epistolarium pars tertia CCLI–CCCXC'' edited by L. Van Acker and M. Klaes-Hachmoller, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis XCIB (Turnhout: Brepols, 2001)* Hildegard of Bingen, ''Two Hagiographies: Vita sancti Rupperti confessoris, Vita sancti Dysibodi episcopi,'' ed.", "and trans.", "Hugh Feiss & Christopher P. Evans, Dallas Medieval Texts and Translations 11 (Leuven and Paris: Peeters, 2010)* ''Hildegard of Bingen's Unknown Language: An Edition, Translation, and Discussion'', ed.", "Sarah Higley (2007) (the entire Riesencodex glossary, with additions from the Berlin MS, translations into English, and extensive commentary)* Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Opera minora'' II.", "edited by C.P.", "Evans, J. Deploige, S. Moens, M. Embach, K. Gärtner, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 226A (Turnhout: Brepols, 2015), * Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Opera minora''.", "edited by H. Feiss, C. Evans, B.M.", "Kienzle, C. Muessig, B. Newman, P. Dronke, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 226 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2007), * Hildegardis Bingensis.", "''Werke Band IV.", "Lieder Symphoniae.''", "Edited by Barbara Stühlmeyer.", "Beuroner Kunstverlag 2012..* ''Liber divinorum operum''.", "A. Derolez and P. Dronke eds., Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 92 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1996)* ''Liber vitae meritorum''.", "A. Carlevaris ed.", "Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 90 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1995)* ''Lieder'' (Otto Müller Verlag Salzburg 1969: modern edition in adapted square notation)* Marianne Richert Pfau, ''Hildegard von Bingen: Symphonia'', 8 volumes.", "Complete edition of the Symphonia chants.", "(Bryn Mawr, Hildegard Publishing Company, 1990).", "* ''Scivias''.", "A. Führkötter, A. Carlevaris eds., Corpus Christianorum Scholars Version vols.", "43, 43A.", "(Turnhout: Brepols, 2003)===Early manuscripts of Hildegard's works===* Dendermonde, Belgium, St.-Pieters-&-Paulusabdij Cod.", "9 (Villarenser codex) ()* Leipzig, University Library, St. Thomas 371* Paris, Bibl.", "Nat.", "MS 1139* Wiesbaden, Hessische Landesbibliothek, MS 2 (Riesen Codex) or Wiesbaden Codex (–85)===Other sources===* ''Analecta Sanctae Hildegardis, in Analecta Sacra'' vol.", "8 edited by Jean-Baptiste Pitra (Monte Cassino, 1882).", "* ''Explanatio Regulae S. Benedicti''* ''Explanatio Symboli S. Athanasii''* ''Homeliae LVIII in Evangelia''* ''Hymnodia coelestis''* ''Ignota lingua, cum versione Latina''* ''Liber divinorum operum simplicis hominis'' (1163–73/74)* ''Liber vitae meritorum'' (1158–63)* ''Libri simplicis et compositae medicine''* ''Patrologia Latina'' vol.", "197 (1855)* ''Physica, sive Subtilitatum diversarum naturarum creaturarum libri novem''* ''Scivias seu Visiones'' (1141–51)* ''Solutiones triginta octo quaestionum''* ''Tractatus de sacramento altaris''===Translations===* ''Causae et Curae (Holistic Healing)''.", "Trans.", "by Manfred Pawlik and Patrick Madigan.", "Edited by Mary Palmquist and John Kulas.", "Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, Inc., 1994.", "* ''Causes and Cures of Hildegard of Bingen''.", "Trans.", "by Priscilla Throop.", "Charlotte, VT: MedievalMS, 2006, 2008.", "* ''Homilies on the Gospels''.", "Trans.", "by Beverly Mayne Kienzle.", "Trappist, KY: Cistercian Publications, 2011.", "* ''Physica''.", "Trans.", "Priscilla Throop.", "Rochester Vermont: Healing Arts Press, 1998.", "* ''Scivias''.", "Trans.", "by Columba Hart and Jane Bishop.", "Introduction by Barbara J. Newman.", "Preface by Caroline Walker Bynum.", "New York: Paulist Press, 1990.", "* ''Solutions to Thirty-Eight Questions.''", "Trans.", "Beverly Mayne Kienzle, with Jenny C. Bledsoe and Stephen H. Behnke.", "Collegeville, MN: Cistercian Publications / Liturgical Press, 2014.", "* ''Symphonia: A Critical Edition of the Symphonia Armonie Celestium Revelationum (Symphony of the Harmony of Celestial Revelations)'', ed.", "and trans.", "Barbara Newman.", "Cornell Univ.", "Press, 1988/1998.", "* ''The Book of the Rewards of Life.''", "Trans.", "Bruce Hozeski.", "New York : Oxford University Press, 1997.", "* ''The Letters of Hildegard of Bingen''.", "Trans.", "by Joseph L. Baird and Radd K. Ehrman.", "3 vols.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1994/1998/2004.", "* ''Three Lives and a Rule: the Lives of Hildegard, Disibod, Rupert, with Hildegard's Explanation of the Rule of St. Benedict''.", "Trans.", "by Priscilla Throop.", "Charlotte, VT: MedievalMS, 2010.", "* ''Two Hagiographies: Vita sancti Rupperti confessoris.", "Vita sancti Dysibodi episcopi.''", "Intro.", "and trans.", "Hugh Feiss, O.S.B.", "; ed.", "Christopher P. Evans.", "Paris, Leuven, Walpole, MA: Peeters, 2010.", "* Hildegard of Bingen.", "''The Book of Divine Works''.", "Trans.", "by Nathaniel M. Campbell.", "Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2018.", "* Sarah L. Higley.", "''Hildegard of Bingen's Unknown Language: An Edition, Translation, and Discussion'' New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.", "* Silvas, Anna.", "''Jutta and Hildegard: The Biographical Sources''.", "University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998." ], [ "See also", "* Discography of Hildegard of Bingen* Timeline of women in science" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* \"Un lexique trilingue du XIIe siècle : la lingua ignota de Hildegarde de Bingen\", dans ''Lexiques bilingues dans les domaines philosophique et scientifique (Moyen Âge-Renaissance), Actes du colloque international organisé par l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes-IVe Section et l'Institut Supérieur de Philosophie de l'Université Catholique de Louvain'', Paris, 12–14 juin 1997, éd.", "J. Hamesse, D. Jacquart, Turnhout, Brepols, 2001, p. 89–111.", "* \"'Sibyl of the Rhine': Hildegard's Life and Times.\"", "''Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World''.", "Edited by Barbara Newman.", "Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1998.", "* \"Hildegard of Bingen: Visions and Validation.\"", "''Church History'' 54 (1985): 163–75.", "* \"Un témoin supplémentaire du rayonnement de sainte Radegonde au Moyen Age ?", "La Vita domnae Juttae (XIIe siècle)\", ''Bulletin de la société des Antiquaires de l'Ouest'', 5e série, t. XV, 3e et 4e trimestres 2001, pp. 181–97.", "* ''Die Gesänge der Hildegard von Bingen.", "Eine musikologische, theologische und kulturhistorische Untersuchung.''", "Olms, Hildesheim 2003, .", "* ''Hildegard von Bingen.", "Leben – Werk – Verehrung.''", "Topos plus Verlagsgemeinschaft, Kevelaer 2014, .", "* ''Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine''.", "Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987.", "* ''Tugenden und Laster.", "Wegweisung im Dialog mit Hildegard von Bingen.''", "Beuroner Kunstverlag, Beuron 2012, .", "* ''Wege in sein Licht.", "Eine spirituelle Biografie über Hildegard von Bingen.''", "Beuroner Kunstverlag, Beuron 2013, .", "* Bennett, Judith M. and C. Warren Hollister.", "''Medieval Europe: A Short History''.", "New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.289, 317.", "* Boyce-Tillman, June.", "\"Hildegard of Bingen at 900: The Eye of a Woman.\"", "''The Musical Times'' 139, no.", "1865 (Winter, 1998): 31–36.", "* Butcher, Carmen Acevedo.", "''Hildegard of Bingen: A Spiritual Reader''.", "Massachusetts: Paraclete Press, 2007.", "* Davidson, Audrey Ekdahl.", "\"Music and Performance: Hildegard of Bingen's Ordo Virtutum.\"", "''The Ordo Virtutum of Hildegard of Bingen: Critical Studies''.", "Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University, 1992.", "* Dietrich, Julia.", "\"The Visionary Rhetoric of Hildegard of Bingen.\"", "''Listening to Their Voices: The Rhetorical Activities of Historic Women''.", "Ed.", "Molly Meijer Wertheimer.", "Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997.202–14.", "* Fassler, Margot.", "\"Composer and Dramatist: 'Melodious Singing and the Freshness of Remorse.'\"", "''Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World''.", "Edited by Barbara Newman.", "Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1998.", "* Flanagan, Sabina.", "''Hildegard of Bingen, 1098–1179: A Visionary Life''.", "London: Routledge, 1989.", "* Fox, Matthew.", "''Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen''.", "New Mexico: Bear and Company, 1985.", "* Friedrich Wilhelm Emil Roth, \"Glossae Hildigardis\", in: Elias Steinmeyer and Eduard Sievers eds., ''Die Althochdeutschen Glossen'', vol.", "III.", "Zürich: Wiedmann, 1895, 1965, pp. 390–404.", "* Furlong, Monica.", "''Visions and Longings: Medieval Women Mystics''.", "Massachusetts: Shambhala Publications, 1996.", "* Glaze, Florence Eliza.", "\"Medical Writer: 'Behold the Human Creature.'\"", "''Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World''.", "Edited by Barbara Newman.", "Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1998.", "* Holsinger, Bruce.", "''Music, Body, and Desire In Medieval Culture''.", "California: Stanford University Press, 2001.", "* Kienzle, Beverly, George Ferzoco, & Debra Stoudt.", "''A Companion to Hildegard of Bingen''.", "Brill's companions to the Christian tradition.", "Leiden: Brill, 2013.Notes on Hildegard's \"Unknown\" Language and Writing.", "* King-Lenzmeier, Anne.", "''Hildegard of Bingen: an integrated version''.", "Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 2001.", "* Maddocks, Fiona.", "''Hildegard of Bingen: The Woman of Her Age''.", "New York: Doubleday, 2001.", "* Madigan, Shawn.", "''Mystics, Visionaries and Prophets: A Historical Anthology of Women's Spiritual Writings''.", "Minnesota: Augsburg Fortress, 1998.", "* McGrade, Michael.", "\"Hildegard von Bingen.\"", "''Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: allgemeine Enzyklopaldie der Musik'', 2nd edition, T. 2, Volume 8.Edited by Ludwig Fischer.", "Kassel, New York: Bahrenreiter, 1994.", "* Moulinier, Laurence, ''Le manuscrit perdu à Strasbourg''.", "Enquête sur l'œuvre scientifique de Hildegarde, Paris/Saint-Denis, Publications de la Sorbonne-Presses Universitaires de Vincennes, 1995, 286 p.* Newman, Barbara.", "Voice of the Living Light.", "California: University of California Press, 1998.", "* Richert-Pfau, Marianne and Stefan Morent.", "''Hildegard von Bingen: Klang des Himmels''.", "Koeln: Boehlau Verlag, 2005.", "* Richert-Pfau, Marianne.", "\"Mode and Melody Types in Hildegard von Bingen's Symphonia.\"", "''Sonus'' 11 (1990): 53–71.", "* Salvadori, Sara.", "''Hildegard von Bingen.", "A Journey into the Images''.", "Milan: Skira, 2019.", "* Schipperges, Heinrich.", "Hildegard of Bingen: healing and the nature of the cosmos.", "New Jersey: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1997.", "* Stühlmeyer, Barbara.", "''Die Kompositionen der Hildegard von Bingen.", "Ein Forschungsbericht.''", "In: ''Beiträge zur Gregorianik.''", "22.ConBrio Verlagsgesellschaft, Regensburg 1996, , S.", "74–85.", "* ''The Life and Works of Hildegard von Bingen.''", "Internet.", "Available from Internet History Sourcebooks Project; accessed 14 November 2009.", "* Underhill, Evelyn.", "''Mystics of the Church.''", "Pennsylvania: Morehouse Publishing, 1925." ], [ "Further reading", "'''General commentary'''* Burnett, Charles and Peter Dronke, eds.", "''Hildegard of Bingen: The Context of Her Thought and Art''.", "The Warburg Colloquia.", "London: The University of London, 1998.", "* Cherewatuk, Karen and Ulrike Wiethaus, eds.", "''Dear Sister: Medieval Women and the Epistolary Genre''.", "Middle Ages Series.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993.", "* Davidson, Audrey Ekdahl.", "''The Ordo Virtutum of Hildegard of Bingen: Critical Studies''.", "Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1992.", "* Dronke, Peter.", "''Women Writers of the Middle Ages: A Critical Study of Texts from Perpetua to Marguerite Porete''.", "1984.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.", "* Flanagan, Sabina.", "''Hildegard of Bingen: A Visionary Life''.", "London: Routledge, 1998.", "* Gosselin, Carole & Micheline Latour.", "''Hildegarde von Bingen, une musicienne du XIIe siècle''.", "Montréal: Université du Québec à Montréal, Département de musique, 1990.", "* Grimm, Wilhelm.", "\"Wiesbader Glossen: Befasst sich mit den mittelhochdeutschen Übersetzungen der Unbekannten Sprache der Handschrift C.\" In ''Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum'', pp.", "321–40.Leipzig, 1848.", "* King-Lenzmeier, Anne H. ''Hildegard of Bingen: An Integrated Vision''.", "Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2001.", "* Newman, Barbara, ed.", "''Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World''.", "Berkeley: University of California, 1998.", "* Newman, Barbara.", "''Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.", "* Pernoud, Régine.", "''Hildegard of Bingen: Inspired Conscience of the Twelfth Century''.", "Translated by Paul Duggan.", "NY: Marlowe & Co., 1998.", "* Schipperges, Heinrich.", "''The World of Hildegard of Bingen: Her Life, Times, and Visions''.", "Trans.", "John Cumming.", "Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1999.", "* Wilson, Katharina.", "''Medieval Women Writers''.", "Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1984.", "'''On Hildegard's illuminations'''* Baillet, Louis.", "\"Les miniatures du \"Scivias\" de Sainte Hildegarde.\"", "''Monuments et mémoires publiés par l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres'' 19 (1911): 49–149.", "* Campbell, Nathaniel M. \"''Imago expandit splendorem suum:'' Hildegard of Bingen's Visio-Theological Designs in the Rupertsberg Scivias Manuscript.\"", "''Eikón / Imago'' 4 (2013, Vol.", "2, No.", "2), pp.", "1–68; accessible online here .", "* Caviness, Madeline.", "\"Gender Symbolism and Text Image Relationships: Hildegard of Bingen's Scivias.\"", "In ''Translation Theory and Practice in the Middle Ages,'' ed.", "Jeanette Beer, pp.", "71–111.Studies in Medieval Culture 38.Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1997.", "* Eadem.", "\"Artist: 'To See, Hear, and Know All at Once'.\"", "In ''Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World,'' ed.", "Barbara Newman, pp.", "110–24.Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.", "* Eadem.", "\"Calcare caput draconis.", "Prophetische Bildkonfiguration in Visionstext und Illustration: zur Vision \"Scivias\" II, 7.\"", "In ''Hildegard von Bingen.", "Prophetin durch die Zeiten,'' edited by Äbtissin Edeltraud Forster, 340–58.Freiburg im Breisgau: Verlag Herder, 1997.", "* Eadem.", "\"Hildegard as Designer of the Illustrations to Her Works.\"", "In ''Hildegard of Bingen: The Context of Her Thought and Art'', ed.", "Charles Burnett and Peter Dronke, pp.", "29–62.London: Warburg Institute, 1998.", "* Eadem.", "\"Hildegard of Bingen: German Author, Illustrator, and Musical Composer, 1098–1179.\"", "In ''Dictionary of Women Artists'', ed.", "Delia Gaze, pp.", "685–87.London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997.", "* Eadem.", "''Bildgewordene Visionen oder Visionserzählungen: Vergleichende Studie über die Visionsdarstellungen in der Rupertsberger Scivias-Handschrift und im Luccheser Liber divinorum operum-Codex der Hildegard von Bingen''.", "Neue Berner Schriften zur Kunst, 5.Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 1998.", "* Eadem.", "''Die Miniaturen im \"Liber Scivias\" der Hildegard von Bingen: die Wucht der Vision und die Ordnung der Bilder.''", "Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1998.", "* Führkötter, Adelgundis.", "''The Miniatures from the Book Scivias: Know the Ways – of St Hildegard of Bingen from the Illuminated Rupertsberg Codex.''", "Vol.", "1.Armaria patristica et mediaevalia.", "Turnhout: Brepols, 1977.", "* Harris, Anne Sutherland and Linda Nochlin, ''Women Artists: 1550–1950'', Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Knopf, New York, 1976.", "* Keller, Hiltgart L. ''Mittelrheinische Buchmalereien in Handschriften aus dem Kreise der Hiltgart von Bingen.''", "Stuttgart: Surkamp, 1933.", "* Kessler, Clemencia Hand.", "\"A Problematic Illumination of the Heidelberg \"Liber Scivias\".\"", "''Marsyas'' 8 (1957): 7–21.", "* Meier, Christel.", "\"Zum Verhältnis von Text und Illustration im überlieferten Werk Hildegards von Bingen.\"", "In ''Hildegard von Bingen, 1179–1979.Festschrift zum 800.Todestag der Heiligen,'' ed.", "Anton Ph.", "Brück, pp.", "159–69.Mainz: Selbstverlag der Gesellschaft für mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte, 1979.", "* Otto, Rita.", "\"Zu einigen Miniaturen einer \"Scivias\"-Handschrift des 12.Jahrhunderts.\"", "''Mainzer Zeitschrift.", "Mittelrheinisches Jahrbuch für Archäologie, Kunst und Geschichte'' 67/68 (1972): 128–37.", "* Saurma-Jeltsch, Lieselotte.", "\"Die Rupertsberger \"Scivias\"-Handschrift: Überlegungen zu ihrer Entstehung.\"", "In ''Hildegard von Bingen.", "Prophetin durch die Zeiten,'' ed.", "Äbtissin Edeltraud Forster, pp.", "340–58.Freiburg im Breisgau: Verlag Herder, 1997.", "* Schomer, Josef.", "''Die Illustrationen zu den Visionen der hl.", "Hildegard als künstlerische Neuschöpfung (das Verhältnis der Illustrationen zueinander und zum Texte).''", "Bonn: Stodieck, 1937.", "* Suzuki, Keiko.", "\"Zum Strukturproblem in den Visionsdarstellungen der Rupertsberger \"Scivias\" Handschrift.\"", "''Sacris Erudiri'' 35 (1995): 221–91.", "'''Background reading'''* Boyce-Tillman, June.", "''The Creative Spirit: Harmonious Living with Hildegard of Bingen'', Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing, 2000.", "* Butcher, Carmen Acevedo.", "''Man of Blessing: A Life of St. Benedict''.", "Brewster, MA: Paraclete Press, 2012.", "* Bynum, Caroline Walker.", "''Holy Feast and Holy Fast: the Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.", "* Bynum, Caroline Walker.", "''Resurrection of the Body in Western Christianity, 200–1336''.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.", "* Chadwick, Whitney.", "''Women, Art, and Society,'' Thames and Hudson, London, 1990.", "* Constable, Giles Constable.", "''The Reformation of the Twelfth Century''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.", "* Dronke, Peter, ed.", "''A History of Twelfth-Century Western Philosophy''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.", "* Eadem.", "''Rooted in the Earth, Rooted in the Sky: Hildegard of Bingen and Premodern Medicine.''", "New York: Routledge Press, 2006.", "* Holweck, the Rt.", "Reverend Frederick G. ''A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints, with a General Introduction on Hagiology''.", "1924.Detroit: Omnigraphics, 1990.", "* Lachman, Barbara.", "''Hildegard: The Last Year''.", "Boston: Shambhala, 1997.", "* McBrien, Richard.", "''Lives of the Saints: From Mary and St. Francis of Assisi to John XXIII and Mother Teresa''.", "San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2003.", "* McKnight, Scot.", "''The Real Mary: Why Evangelical Christians Can Embrace the Mother of Jesus''.", "Brewster, MA: Paraclete Press, 2006.", "* Newman, Barbara.", "''God and the Goddesses''.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.", "* Pelikan, Jaroslav.", "''Mary Through the Centuries: Her Place in the History of Culture''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.", "* Stevenson, Jane.", "''Women Latin Poets: Language, Gender, & Authority from Antiquity to the Eighteenth Century''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.", "* Sweet, Victoria.", "\"Hildegard of Bingen and the Greening of Medieval Medicine.\"", "''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'', 1999, 73:381–403.", "* Ulrich, Ingeborg.", "''Hildegard of Bingen: Mystic, Healer, Companion of the Angels''.", "Trans.", "Linda M. Maloney.", "Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1993.", "* Ward, Benedicta.", "''Miracles and the Medieval Mind''.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1987.", "* Weeks, Andrew.", "''German mysticism from Hildegard of Bingen to Ludwig Wittgenstein: a literary and intellectual history''.", "Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993." ], [ "External links", "* Abtei St. Hildegard / Abbey of St. Hildegard (Modern-day abbey in Eibingen, Germany)* Bibliographies: * English translations: \"An Explanation of the Athanasian Creed\" (''Explanatio Symboli Sancti Athanasii'') ''Book of Divine Works'' (''Liber Divinorum Operum'') I.1 ''Book of Divine Works'' (''Liber Divinorum Operum'') III.3 Poems and Prayers of Hildegard** Young, Abigail Ann.", "''Translations from Rupert, Hildegard, and Guibert of Gembloux''.", "1999.27 March 2006.", "* * Hildegard's page at the Medieval History Sourcebook* International Society of Hildegard von Bingen Studies (ISHBS)Musical work:* Complete Discography at medieval.org ** McGuire, K. Christian.", "''Symphonia Caritatis: The Cistercian Chants of Hildegard von Bingen'' (2007)* The Reconstruction of the monastery on the Rupertsberg" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hilversum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hilversum''' () is a city and municipality in the province of North Holland, Netherlands.", "Located in the heart of the Gooi, it is the largest urban centre in that area.", "It is surrounded by heathland, woods, meadows, lakes and smaller towns.", "Hilversum is part of the Randstad, one of the largest conurbations in Europe, and the Amsterdam metropolitan area; it is about 22 km southeast of Amsterdam's city centre and about 15 km north of Utrecht.The city is home to the headquarters, studios and broadcast stations of several major radio, television and newspaper companies such as ''Nederlandse Omroep Stichting''.", "Hilversum is thus known for being the ''mediastad'' (media city) of the Netherlands." ], [ "Town", "Hilversum lies south-east of Amsterdam and north of Utrecht.", "The town is known for its architecturally important Town Hall (Raadhuis Hilversum), designed by Willem Marinus Dudok and built in 1931.Hilversum has one public library, two swimming pools (Van Hellemond Sport and De Lieberg), a number of sporting halls, and several shopping centers (such as Hilvertshof, Winkelcentrum Kerkelanden, De Riebeeckgalerij, and Winkelcentrum Seinhorst).", "Locally, the town center is known as ''het dorp'', which means \"the village\"." ], [ "Geography", "Hilversum is located on the sandy, hilly parts of the Gooi, and has four hills: the closest to the centre of town in the Boomberg.", "Then the Trompenberg (now a luxury residential area where including the Brenninkmeijer family lives, of C&A-fame), and to the south the Hoorneboeg (25 m) and two kilometres easterly of that the Zwaluwenberg, where since 1950 the headquarters of the inspector-general of the armies is located.", "These hills date from the period of the Ice-age, when gletschers pushed walls of earth before them.", "Hilversum was the farthest southern edge the glaciers reached.Surrounding towns are Nieuw-Loosdrecht, Bussum, Kortenhoef, Blaricum, Hollandsche Rading, Lage Vuursche, Maartensdijk, 's-Graveland, Laren, Nederhorst den Berg and Ankeveen.Hilversum consists of the following districts and neighborhoods: Center (Langgewenstbuurt, Sint Vitusbuurt, Havenstraatbuurt and Centrum), Northwest (Nimrodpark, Trompenberg North, Trompenberg South, Media Park, Raadhuiskwartier and Boomberg), Northeast (North, Johannes Geradtswegbuurt, Erfgooiersbuurt and AZC Crailo), East (Geuzenbuurt, Electrobuurt, Astronomiebuurt, Science neighborhood, Kamrad, Kleine Driftbuurt and Liebergen), Southeast (Bloemkwartier Noord, Bloemenkwartier Zuid, Painterskwartier, 't Hoogt van' t Kruis, Arenaparkkwartier and West Indiëkwartier), Zuid (Writerskwartier, Staatsliedenkwartier and Zeeheldenkwartier), Southwest ( Kerkelanden, Havenkwartier, Zeverijn and Het Rode Dorp) and Hilversumse Meent.", "In 1767 Hilversum was still divided into 4 districts (quarters): the Neuquartier, Groestquartier, Kerkquartier and the Sandtbergerquartier.The Oude Haven in the southwest is at the end of the Gooische Vaart.", "The construction of the canal between 's-Graveland and Hilversum was done in stages, so that it took 240 years.", "The canal was completed in 1876.Later, a modern harbor was dug, surrounded by an industrial estate.", "There is also a sports harbor." ], [ "International", "Hilversum has a variety of international schools, such as the ''Violenschool'' and ''International School Hilversum \"Alberdingk Thijm\"''.", "Also, Nike's, Hunkemöller's and Converse's European headquarters are located in Hilversum." ], [ "History", "Earthenware found in Hilversum gives its name to the Hilversum culture, which is an early- to mid-Bronze Age, or 1800–1200 BC material culture.", "Artifacts from this prehistoric civilization bear similarities to the Wessex Culture of southern Britain and may indicate that the first Hilversum residents emigrated from that area.The first brick settlements formed around 900, but it was not until 1305 that the first official mention of Hilversum (\"Hilfersheem\" from \"Hilvertshem\" meaning \"houses between the hills\") is found.", "At that point it was a part of Naarden, the oldest town in the Gooi area.", "''Interior of a farm near Hilversum'', a 19th-century drawing by Johannes BosboomFarming, raising sheep and some wool manufacturing were the means of life for the Gooi in the Middle Ages.", "In 1424 Hilversum received its first official independent status.", "This made possible further growth in the village because permission from Naarden was no longer needed for new industrial development.The town grew further in the 17th century when the Dutch economy as a whole entered its age of prosperity, and several canals were built connecting it indirectly to Amsterdam.In 1725 and 1766 large fires destroyed most of the town, leveling parts of the old townhouse and the church next to it.", "The town overcame these setbacks and the textile industry continued to develop, among other ways by devising a way to weave cows' hair.In the 19th century a substantial textile and tapestry industry emerged, aided by a railway link to Amsterdam in 1874.From that time the town grew quickly with rich commuters from Amsterdam moving in, building themselves large villas in the wooded surroundings, and gradually starting to live in Hilversum permanently.", "Despite this growth, Hilversum was never granted city rights so it is still referred to by many locals as \"het dorp\", or \"the village.", "\"For the 1928 Summer Olympics in neighboring Amsterdam, it hosted all of the non-jumping equestrian and the running part of the modern pentathlon event.The ''Nederlandse Seintoestellen Fabriek'' (NSF) company established a professional transmitter and radio factory in Hilversum in the early 1920s, growing into the largest of its kind in the Netherlands.Following the defeat of Allied forces in the Netherlands in 1940, and its occupation by Nazi Germany, Hilversum became the headquarters of the German Army (''Heer'') in the Netherlands.", "On February 25 and 26, 1941, most of Hilversum's factories went on strike against the start of the Holocaust in the so-called February strike (Amsterdam Docker's Strike).", "Some 10,000 people took part.", "There is a yearly remembrance service since 2015.The Holocaust was the reason for 2,000 Hilversum Jews to lose their lives.", "The community has never recovered fully.", "Some 50 Hilversummers were awarded the title of Righteous among the nations from Yad Vashem.", "Victor Kugler, one of Anne Frank's helper, was one of them.In 1948, NSF was taken over by Philips.", "However, Dutch radio broadcasting organizations (followed by television broadcasters during the 1950s) centralised their operations in Hilversum, providing a source of continuing economic growth.", "The concentration of broadcasters in Hilversum has given it its enduring status as the media city for the Netherlands.In 1964, the population reached a record high – over 103,000 people called Hilversum home.", "However, the textile industry had started its decline; only one factory, Veneta, managed to continue into the 1960s, when it also had to close its doors.", "Another major industry, the chemical factory IFF, also closed by the end of the 1960s.After the 1960s, the population gradually declined, until stabilising at around 85,000.Several factors other than the slump in manufacturing have featured in this decline: one is the fact that the average family nowadays consists of fewer people, so fewer people live in each house; second, the town is virtually unable to expand because all the surrounding lands were sold by city architect W.M.", "Dudok to the Goois Natuurreservaat (''nl'').", "The third reason for this decline of the population was because the property values were increasing rapidly in that moment of time, and many people were forced to move to less expensive areas in the Netherlands.Some sources blame connections in the television world for attracting crime to Hilversum; the town has had to cope with mounting drug-related issues in a community with higher than average unemployment and ongoing housing shortage.Hilversum was one of the first towns to have a local party of the populist movement called ''Leefbaar'' (\"liveable\").", "Founded by former social-democrat party strongman Jan Nagel, it was initially held at bay for alderman positions.", "In 2001, Nagel from Leefbaar Hilversum teamed up with Leefbaar Utrecht leaders to found a national Leefbaar Nederland party.", "By strange coincidence, in 2002 the most vocal Leefbaar Rotterdam politician Pim Fortuyn was shot and killed by an animal rights activist at Hilversum Media Park just after finishing a radio interview.", "This happened, however, after a break between Fortuyn and Nagel during a Leefbaar Nederland board meeting in Hilversum on Fortuyn's anti-Islamic viewpoints.The town of Hilversum has put a great deal of effort into improvements, including a recent renovation to its central train station, thorough renovation of the main shopping centre (Hilvertshof), and development of new dining and retail districts downtown including the \"vintage\" district in the Leeuwenstraat.", "Several notable architectural accomplishments include the Institute for Sound and Vision, and Zanderij Crailoo (''nl''), the largest man-made wildlife crossing in the world.The nearby Media Park was the scene of the 2002 assassination of politician Pim Fortuyn; in 2015, a gunman carrying a false pistol stormed into Nederlandse Omroep Stichting's headquarters, demanding airtime on the evening news.The population declined from 103,000 in 1964 to 84,000 in 2006, but rose again to 90.000 in 2018.The decline is mostly due to the fact that families are smaller these days." ], [ "Culture", "St. Vitus Church (architect Pierre Cuypers, construction Karel de Bazel), in a watercolor by K.P.C.", "de BazelThere is the large Catholic neo-gothic St. Vitus church (P.J.H.", "Cuypers, 1892, bell tower 96 metres; 315').", "The city played host to many landscape artists during the 19th century, including Barend Cornelis Koekkoek.In the 1950s and 1960s the city played host to a major European Tennis tournament.The 1958 Eurovision Song Contest took place in Hilversum.", "In 2020 the international television event ''Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light'' was broadcast from Studio 21 in Hilversum's Media Park.", "This event was held in place of the Eurovision Song Contest 2020 which was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.=== Broadcasting ===Hilversum is often called \"media city\", since it is the principal centre for radio and television broadcasting in the Netherlands, and is home to an extensive complex of radio and television studios and to the administrative headquarters of the multiple broadcasting organizations which make up the Netherlands Public Broadcasting system.", "Hilversum is also home to many newer commercial TV production companies.", "Radio Netherlands, which had been broadcasting worldwide via shortwave radio since the 1920s, was also based in Hilversum until it was dissolved in 2013.The following is a list of organizations that have, or are continuing to, broadcast from studios in Hilversum:One result of the town's history as an important radio transmission centre is that many older radio sets throughout Europe featured ''Hilversum'' as a pre-marked dial position on their tuning scales.Dutch national voting in the Eurovision Song Contest is normally co-ordinated from Hilversum." ], [ "Transport", "The video of the opening of the bridge over the railway in 1930 by the mayor Lambooy===Airport===Hilversum Airport is located in the southwest of the municipality.", "Next to it is the former Marine Training Camp (MOK), now Corporal Van Oudheusden Barracks for the medical troops.", "In wartime the airfield was expanded significantly by the German military.", "They also set up an assembly line for training aircraft, produced by Fokker in Weesp.=== Railway ===Hilversum is well connected to the Dutch railway network, and has three stations.", "Station Notes Hilversum Opened on 10 June 1874.Served by regional, Intercity and international trains.", "Hilversum Media Park Opened on 26 May 1974.Previously named Hilversum NOS (1974-1989) and Hilversum Noord (1989-2013).", "Only served by regional trains.Hilversum Sportpark Opened on 1 June 1886.Previously named Amersfoortsche Straatweg (1886-1919) and Soestdijker Straatweg (1919-1965).", "Only served by regional trains.=== Public buses ===Most local and regional buses are operated by Connexxion, but two of the bus routes are operated by Syntus Utrecht and two others by U-OV and Pouw Vervoer.", "Regional bus route 320 is operated by both Connexxion and Pouw Vervoer.", "In 2018, major road works started to make room for a new BRT bus lane from Hilversum to Huizen, set to open in early 2021.====Local bus lines==== Line Route Operator Notes 1 Hilversum Station - Centrum (Downtown) - Kerkelanden Connexxion 2 Hilversum Station - Over 't Spoor - Erfgooiers Connexxion 3 Hilversum Station - Hilversum Sportpark Station - Tergooi Ziekenhuis (Hospital) Connexxion====Regional bus lines==== Line Route Operator Notes 58 Hilversum Station - Hollandsche Rading - Maartensdijk - Bilthoven - De Bilt - Zeist U-OV and Pouw Vervoer Mon-Sat during daytime hours only.", "U-OV operates this route during weekdays, Pouw Vervoer on Saturdays.", "59 Hilversum Station - Lage Vuursche - Den Dolder - Huis ter Heide - Zeist U-OV and Pouw Vervoer Mon-Sat during daytime hours only.", "U-OV operates this route during weekdays, Pouw Vervoer on Saturdays.", "70 Amersfoort Station - Soest Zuid - Soest Overhees - Soestdijk Noord - Hooge Vuursche - Hilversum Station Syntus Utrecht; a few runs are operated by Pouw Vervoer and Van Kooten 100 (Hilversum Station -) Blaricum Bijvanck - Huizen - Naarden-Bussum Station Connexxion The route between Hilversum and Blaricum is only served during weekday daytime hours.", "104 Hilversum Station - Hilversum-Zuid - Nieuw-Loosdrecht Connexxion 105 Hilversum Station - Kortenhoef - 's-Graveland - Hilversumse Meent - Naarden-Bussum Station Connexxion 106 (Hilversum Station - Kortenhoef -) Nederhorst den Berg - Weesp Station Connexxion Mon-Sat only.", "Only runs through from Nederhorst den Berg to Hilversum Mon-Fri during daytime hours.", "107 Hilversum Station - Hilversum Mediapark - Bussum - Blaricum Ziekenhuis (Hospital) Connexxion 108 Hilversum Station - Laren - Blaricum Dorp - Huizen Connexxion 109 Hilversum Station - Eemnes - Laren - Blaricum Ziekenhuis (Hospital) - Naarden-Bussum Station Connexxion 121 Hilversum Station - Oud-Loosdrecht - Loenen aan de Vecht - Vinkeveen - Wilnis - Mijdrecht Syntus Utrecht Mon-Sat during daytime hours only.", "Only runs between Hilversum and Vinkeveen, Groenlandsekade on Saturdays.", "320 Hilversum Station - Hilversum Arenapark - Blaricum Bijvanck - Huizen - Blaricum Ziekenhuis (Hospital) - Naarden Gooimeer - Muiden P+R - Amsterdam Amstel Station Connexxion and Pouw Vervoer During weekday daytime hours, Saturday mornings and Sunday evenings, some buses only run between Hilversum and Huizen.", "During morning rush hours, 4 extra buses run between Hilversum Station and Hilversum Arenapark.", "N32 Hilversum Station → Eemnes → Blaricum Bijvanck → Huizen Pouw Vervoer Only runs during Saturday late nights (between midnight and 5 AM)." ], [ "Local government", "Dutch Topographic map of the city of Hilversum, March 2014The municipal council of Hilversum consists of 37 seats, which are divided as follows since the last local election of 2018:* Hart voor Hilversum - 8 seats* D66 – 7 seats* VVD – 6 seats* GroenLinks – 5 seats* CDA – 4 seats* SP – 2 seats* PvdA – 2 seats* ChristenUnie – 2 seats* Leefbaar Hilversum – 1 seat'''Government'''After the 2018 elections, the municipal government was made up of aldermen from the political parties Hart voor Hilversum, D66 and VVD.The mayor of Hilversum is Gerhard van den Top.It was the first city with a \"Leefbaar\" party (which was intended as just a local party).", "Today, Leefbaar Hilversum has been reduced to only 1 seat, but some other parties have their origins in Leefbaar Hilversum:* Hart voor Hilversum.", "Originated from a Leefbaar Hilversum separation party called DLPH, which won 1 seat in the 2006 elections.", "Leadership was taken over in 2006 by Leonie Sazias, a TV celebrity.", "Leonie Sazias later changed the party name to Hart voor Hilversum.", "She won 3 seats in the 2010 elections and increased her influence to 6 seats in 2014.They won the 2018 elections and have 8 seats now.", "* Hilversum 1.Was founded by Hans Roos, originally a council member for Hart voor Hilversum, but due to disagreements with the party on the list of candidates for the elections in 2014, decided to split and start his own party in 2013." ], [ "Notable residents", "Joop den Uyl, 1975Olga Fischer, 2016Emmy Lopes Dias, 1970Linda de Mol, 1989Notable people born in Hilversum:=== Public service & public thinking ===* H. A. Sinclair de Rochemont (1901–1942) a Dutch fascist and later a Nazi collaborator * Jan van den Brink (1915–2006) a Dutch politician and businessman* Joop den Uyl (1919–1987) Prime Minister of the Netherlands 1973 to 1977* Wilhelmus Luijpen (1922–1980) a Dutch philosopher, Catholic priest of the Order of St. Augustine and an existential phenomenologist* Ineke van Wetering (1934-2011) a Dutch anthropologist who studied witchcraft in Suriname* Hubert van Es (1941-2009), war journalist in Vietnam* John Gerretsen (born 1942), politician in Ontario, Canada* Ernst Bakker (1946–2014) a Dutch politician, Mayor of Hilversum 1998 to 2011* Olga Fischer (born 1951) a Dutch linguist and academic * Bartha Knoppers (born 1951), a Canadian lawyer * André Rouvoet (born 1962), a retired Dutch politician* Janneke Raaijmakers (born 1973) a Dutch historian of the Middle Ages, focus on the Fulda monastery=== The arts ===* Jan Teulings (1905–1989) a Dutch actor* Emmy Lopes Dias (1919–2005) a Dutch stage, radio, and TV actress and advocate for the right to die* Pim Jacobs (1934–1996) a Dutch jazz pianist, composer and TV presenter* Chris Hinze (born 1938) a Dutch former pianist, now jazz and New Age flautist* Harry van Hoof (born 1943) a Dutch conductor, composer and music arranger* Harmke Pijpers (born 1946) a Dutch journalist and radio and TV presenter* Dick Diamonde (born 1947) a retired Dutch Australian bass guitar player* Ton Scherpenzeel (born 1952), keyboardist and founder of the Dutch rock band Kayak* Pim Koopman (1953–2009), drummer of the Dutch progressive rock band, Kayak* Max Werner (born 1953), former lead singer and drummer of the rock band Kayak* Erland Van Lidth de Jeude (1953–1987), a Dutch-American actor, opera singer and amateur wrestler* Arjan Ederveen (born 1956) a Dutch actor, comedian, TV scriptwriter and TV director* Luc Leestemaker (1957–2012) an American abstract expressionist artist* Arjen Anthony Lucassen (born 1960), a Dutch singer, songwriter, musician and record producer* Bert Boeren (born 1962) a Dutch jazz trombonist and educator* Ruud de Wild (born 1969) a Dutch radio host* Dave Luza (born 1974), an improvisational comedian* Liza Ferschtman (born 1979) a Dutch classical violinist* Marieke Blaauw (born 1979) a Dutch animator* Nicolette Kluijver (born 1984) a Dutch TV presenter and former model* Rami Ismail (born 1988) a Dutch-Egyptian video games developer* Lucas & Arthur Jussen, Lucas (born 1993) and Arthur (born 1996) are brothers and form a piano duo.", "* Sick Individuals (founded 2010) a Dutch electronic dance music act* Christina Mahler, Canadian chellist=== Science & business ===* J. W. B. Gunning (1860–1913), Dutch physician and museum director in South Africa* Joop van Oosterom (1937–2016), Dutch billionaire and chess and billiards sponsor* Bessel Kok (born 1941), Dutch businessman and chess organiser * Wim van den Brink (born 1952), Professor of Psychiatry and Addiction at the University of Amsterdam* Henkjan Honing (born 1959), Professor of Music Cognition at the University of Amsterdam* John de Mol (born 1955), media tycoon and TV producer * Pieter Geelen (born 1964), Dutch entrepreneur, co-developed the Mapcode* Olaf Swantee (born 1966), Dutch businessman, former CEO of EE Limited=== Sport ===Geertje Wielema, 1955Mary Kok, 1961* de Looper brothers, Henk (1912–2006) and Jan (1914–1987) Dutch field hockey players and bronze medallists at the 1936 Summer Olympics* Nel van Vliet (1926–2006) a breaststroke swimmer, gold medallist at the 1948 Summer Olympics* Roel Wiersma (1932–1995) a Dutch footballer, 316 club caps with PSV Eindhoven* Geertje Wielema (1934–2009) a freestyle and backstroke swimmer, silver medallist at the 1952 Summer Olympics* Hermsen brothers, Henk (born 1937), André (born 1942) and Wim (born 1947), water polo players* Mary Kok (born 1940) a renowned Dutch swimmer* Adrie Lasterie (1943–1991) a Dutch swimmer, silver medallist at the 1964 Summer Olympics * Evert Kroon (born 1946), water polo goalkeeper, bronze medallist at the 1976 Summer Olympics* :nl:John van Altena (born 1947) 107 caps, Dutch National Rugby XV* Ton van Klooster (born 1954), freestyle swimmer and swimming coach, competed at the 1972 Summer Olympics* Nico Landeweerd (born 1954), water polo player, bronze medallist at the 1976 Summer Olympics * Andy Hoepelman (born 1955), water polo player, bronze medallist at the 1976 Summer Olympics * Albert Voorn (born 1956) a Dutch equestrian and silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics * Alex Boegschoten (born 1956) a former water polo player, bronze medallist at the 1976 Summer Olympics * Hansje Bunschoten (born 1958–2017), swimmer and TV presenter, competed at the 1972 Summer Olympics* Ellen Bontje (born 1958), equestrian, team medallist at the 1992 and 2000 Summer Olympics * Reggie de Jong (born 1964), freestyle swimmer, bronze medallist at the 1980 Summer Olympics* Jelle Goes (born 1970) a Dutch football manager* Pieta van Dishoeck (born 1972) a retired rower, won two medals at the 2000 Summer Olympics* Davy Klaassen (born 1993) a Dutch professional footballer with 180 club caps" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Hilversum centrum A.jpg\|Hilversum city centreFile:Beeld-en-Geluid-Hay-Kranen-09.JPG\|Sound and Vision (''Nederlands Instituut voor Beeld en Geluid'')File:Hilversum Noordse Bosje A.jpg\|Shopping district Noordse BosjeFile:DJI00501.jpg\|Media Park, HilversumFile:City Hall, Media Park, Hilversum, North Holland.jpg\|2020-08-19 Drone Shot Raadhuis and Media Park, Hilversum" ], [ "See also", "Gemeentelijk Gymnasium Hilversum" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "The Hound of Heaven" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''The Hound of Heaven'''\" is a 182-line poem written by English poet Francis Thompson (1859–1907).", "The poem became famous and was the source of much of Thompson's posthumous reputation.", "It was first printed in 1890 in the periodical ''Merry England'', later to appear in Thompson's first volume of poems in 1893.It was included in the ''Oxford Book of English Mystical Verse'' (1917)." ], [ "Form and theme", "The poem is an ode, and its subject is the pursuit of the human soul by God's love - a theme also found in the devotional poetry of George Herbert and Henry Vaughan.", "Moody and Lovett point out that Thompson's use of free and varied line lengths and irregular rhythms reflect the panicked retreat of the soul, while the structured, often recurring refrain suggests the inexorable pursuit as it comes ever closer.The Jesuit J.F.X.", "O'Conor remarks of the Christian themes of the poem that,\"The name is strange.", "It startles one at first.", "It is so bold, so new, so fearless.", "It does not attract, rather the reverse.", "But when one reads the poem this strangeness disappears.", "The meaning is understood.", "As the hound follows the hare, never ceasing in its running, ever drawing nearer in the chase, with unhurrying and unperturbed pace, so does God follow the fleeing soul by His Divine grace.", "And though in sin or in human love, away from God it seeks to hide itself, Divine grace follows after, unwearyingly follows ever after, till the soul feels its pressure forcing it to turn to Him alone in that never ending pursuit.\"" ], [ "Musical settings", "* William Henry Harris ''The Hound of Heaven'' (1919)* Humphrey John Stewart The Hound of Heaven (1924)* Miriam Gideon ''The Hound of Heaven'' (1945)* Maurice Jacobson ''The Hound of Heaven'' (1953)* Howard Blake ''Benedictus'' (1980)* Ronald Corp ''The Hound of Heaven'' (2009)" ], [ "Influence", "* Actor Dean Jones used the line \"Under Running Laughter\" from the first stanza as the title of his memoir.", "* Thompson's work was praised by G. K. Chesterton, and it was also an influence on J. R. R. Tolkien, who presented a paper on Thompson in 1914.", "* In 1933, Halliday Sutherland used a phrase from the second line of the poem as the title of his best-selling autobiography, ''The Arches of the Years''.", "* In 1935, Paramahansa Yogananda, an Indian spiritual master, included \"The Hound of Heaven\" in one of his phonographic albums, ''Songs of My Heart''.", "Today, his organization, Self-Realization Fellowship, offers this album in the form of a CD.", "Kamala Silva, a purported direct disciple of Paramahansa Yogananda, received the gift of a printing of the \"Hound of Heaven\" from Yogananda and he also recited it for her.", "* A short passage from the poem appears in chapter four of Daphne du Maurier's ''Rebecca'' (1938).", "* \"The Hound of Heaven\" inspired Norwegian composer Fartein Valen (1887–1952) to compose his ''Piano Sonata No.", "2'', Op.", "38 (1941).", "The sonata's three movements reflect different parts of Thompson's poem.", "The piece has been recorded by Glenn Gould.", "* Thompson's poem is mentioned and quoted in Robert Frost's 1947 play ''A Masque of Mercy''.", "* \"The Hound of Heaven\" was used as an example of the hero's \"refusal of the call\" to adventure in Joseph Campbell's book, ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'' (1949)* In 1955, a love letter from Suzanne Kempe to her philosophy lecturer, Sydney Sparkes Orr, quotes excerpts from the poem.", "Their affair was later brought to trial in Tasmania.", "* Thompson's poem is the source of the phrase, \"with all deliberate speed,\" used by the Supreme Court in ''Brown II'' (1955), the remedy phase of the famous decision on school desegregation.", "* Thompson's poem was the inspiration for a series of 23 paintings by the American painter R. H. Ives Gammell (1893–1981), ''A Pictorial Sequence Painted by R. H. Ives Gammell Based on The Hound of Heaven'', which was in planning by 1941 and completed in 1956.A reading of ''The Psychology of the Unconscious'' by C. G. Jung showed Gammell a way in which he might give visual form to Thompson's poem.", "* \"The Hound of Heaven\" is the fifth chapter in Robert L. Short's 1965 book ''The Gospel According to Peanuts'' where he describes Snoopy as a \"little Christ\" carrying out \"Christ's ambivalent work of humbling the exalted and exalting the humble.", "\"* In A. J. Cronin's novel, ''A Pocketful of Rye'' (1969), the protagonist Carroll reads the poem as a young man, forgets it, and suffers from a recurring nightmare that finally leads to his conversion.", "* In 1970, Canadian artist William Kurelek used lines from \"The Hound of Heaven\" as titles for his \"Nature, Poor Stepdame, A Series of Sixteen Farm Paintings\"* In 1975 \"The Hound of Heaven\" was mentioned in the suicide note of George R. Price, a geneticist who pioneered the evolutionary theory of altruism and suicide (among other things), before becoming a committed Christian and giving away all his possessions to the poor.", "* The Christian alternative rock band Daniel Amos wrote a song titled ''Hound of Heaven'' on their 1978 album ''Horrendous Disc'' that is based on the Thompson poem.", "* Contemporary Christian music artist Michael Card also wrote and recorded a song called \"Hound of Heaven\" based on Thompson's poem for his 1981 debut album ''First Light''.", "* Lines from the poem are recited between the discussion during the last scene in \"The last enemy\", which is the 2nd episode, 3rd season of ''Inspector Morse'' (1989).", "* In 2001 Ken Bruen cites the poem admiringly in his novel ''The Guards''.", "* In 2002, Katherine A.", "Powers, literary columnist for the ''Boston Globe'', called ''Hound of Heaven'' \"perhaps the most beloved and ubiquitously taught poem among American Catholics for over half a century\".", "* \"The Hound of Heaven\" is the first chapter in John Stott's book ''Why I am a Christian'' (2003) in which he confesses that he is a Christian not because of the influence of his parents and teachers, nor to his own personal decision, but to being relentlessly pursued by 'the Hound of Heaven', that is, Jesus Christ himself.", "* The poem is mentioned and lines quoted in the novel ''Escape from Hell'' (2009) by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle* The main character is reading a book by this name in the first episode of the Irish TV series ''Jack Taylor''.", "* In describing her journey from atheism and agnosticism to devout Christianity, Fox News commentator Kirsten Powers said, \"The Hound of Heaven had pursued me and caught me....\"* In 2014, N. D. Wilson wrote and directed a short film based upon the poem, titled \"The Hound of Heaven\".", "* In April 2020, in an interview with Phoebe Waller-Bridge on his show ''The Late Show with Stephen Colbert'', Stephen Colbert told her that he thought the fox that appeared in her series ''Fleabag'' was the Hound of Heaven, which appeared to astound and delight Waller-Bridge.", "* Five lines from the poem were used in a 1989 episode of ''Inspector Morse'', ''The Last Enemy''.", "\"...My mangled youth lies dead beneath the heap.", "/My days have crackled and gone up in smoke, /Have puffed and burst as sun-starts on a stream.", "/ Yea, faileth now even dream /The dreamer, and the lute the lutanist....\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"The Hound of Heaven\" sources* R. H. Ives Gammell: The Hound of Heaven by Elizabeth Ives Hunter, Traditional Fine Arts Organization* The Hound of Heaven Librivox audio" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Internet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of the Internet''' has its origin in the efforts of scientists and engineers to build and interconnect computer networks.", "The Internet Protocol Suite, the set of rules used to communicate between networks and devices on the Internet, arose from research and development in the United States and involved international collaboration, particularly with researchers in the United Kingdom and France.Computer science was an emerging discipline in the late 1950s that began to consider time-sharing between computer users, and later, the possibility of achieving this over wide area networks.", "J. C. R. Licklider developed the idea of a universal network at the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) of the United States Department of Defense (DoD) Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).", "Independently, Paul Baran at the RAND Corporation proposed a distributed network based on data in message blocks in the early 1960s, and Donald Davies conceived of packet switching in 1965 at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), proposing a national commercial data network in the United Kingdom.ARPA awarded contracts in 1969 for the development of the ARPANET project, directed by Robert Taylor and managed by Lawrence Roberts.", "ARPANET adopted the packet switching technology proposed by Davies and Baran.", "The network of Interface Message Processors was built by a team at Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, with the design and specification led by Bob Kahn.", "The host-to-host protocol was specified by a group of graduate students at UCLA, led by Steve Crocker, along with Jon Postel and Vint Cerf.", "The ARPANET expanded rapidly across the United States with connections to the United Kingdom and Norway.Several early packet-switched networks emerged in the 1970s which researched and provided data networking.", "Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann pioneered a simplified end-to-end approach to internetworking at the IRIA.", "Peter Kirstein at University College London put internetworking into practice in 1973.Bob Metcalfe developed the theory behind Ethernet and PARC Universal Packet.", "ARPA projects, the International Network Working Group and commercial initiatives led to the development of various ideas for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a ''network of networks''.", "Vint Cerf, now at Stanford University, and Bob Kahn, now at DARPA, published research in 1974 that evolved into the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), two protocols of the Internet protocol suite.", "The design included concepts from the French CYCLADES project directed by Louis Pouzin.", "The development of packet switching networks was underpinned by mathematical work in the 1970s by Leonard Kleinrock at UCLA.In the late 1970s, national and international public data networks emerged based on the X.25 protocol, designed by Rémi Després and others.", "In the United States, the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded national supercomputing centers at several universities in the United States, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with the NSFNET project, thus creating network access to these supercomputer sites for research and academic organizations in the United States.", "International connections to NSFNET, the emergence of architecture such as the Domain Name System, and the adoption of TCP/IP on existing networks in the United States and around the world marked the beginnings of the Internet.", "Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the United States and Australia.", "Limited private connections to parts of the Internet by officially commercial entities emerged in several American cities by late 1989 and 1990.The optical backbone of the NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic, as traffic transitioned to optical networks managed by Sprint, MCI and AT&T in the United States.Research at CERN in Switzerland by the British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1989–90 resulted in the World Wide Web, linking hypertext documents into an information system, accessible from any node on the network.", "The dramatic expansion of the capacity of the Internet, enabled by the advent of wave division multiplexing (WDM) and the rollout of fiber optic cables in the mid-1990s, had a revolutionary impact on culture, commerce, and technology.", "This made possible the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone calls, video chat, and the World Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking services, and online shopping sites.", "Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber-optic networks operating at 1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, and 800 Gbit/s by 2019.The Internet's takeover of the global communication landscape was rapid in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year 1993, 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by 2007.The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking services.", "However, the future of the global network may be shaped by regional differences." ], [ "Foundations", "===Precursors===;Telegraphy:The practice of transmitting messages between two different places through an electromagnetic medium dates back to the electrical telegraph in the late 19th century, which was the first fully digital communication system.", "Radiotelegraphy began to be used commercially in the early 20th century.", "Telex became an operational teleprinter service in the 1930s.", "Such systems were limited to point-to-point communication between two end devices.", ";Information theory:Fundamental theoretical work in telecommunications technology was developed by Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley in the 1920s.", "Information theory, as enunciated by Claude Shannon in 1948, provided a firm theoretical underpinning to understand the trade-offs between signal-to-noise ratio, bandwidth, and error-free transmission in the presence of noise.", ";Computers and modems:Early fixed-program computers in the 1940s were operated manually by entering small programs via switches in order to load and run a series of programs.", "As transistor technology evolved in the 1950s, central processing units and user terminals came into use by 1955.The mainframe computer model was devised, and modems, such as the Bell 101, allowed digital data to be transmitted over regular unconditioned telephone lines at low speeds by the late 1950s.", "These technologies made it possible to exchange data between remote computers.", "However, a fixed-line link was still necessary; the point-to-point communication model did not allow for direct communication between any two arbitrary systems.", "In addition, the applications were specific and not general purpose.", "Examples included SAGE (1958) and SABRE (1960).", ";Time-sharing:Christopher Strachey, who became Oxford University's first Professor of Computation, filed a patent application for time-sharing in February 1959.In June that year, he gave a paper \"Time Sharing in Large Fast Computers\" at the UNESCO Information Processing Conference in Paris where he passed the concept on to J. C. R. Licklider.", "Licklider, a vice president at Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN), promoted the idea of time-sharing as an alternative to batch processing.", "John McCarthy, at MIT, wrote a memo in 1959 that broadened the concept of time sharing to encompass multiple interactive user sessions, which resulted in the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) implemented at MIT.", "Other multi-user mainframe systems developed, such as PLATO at the University of Illinois Chicago.", "In the early 1960, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States Department of Defense funded further research into time-sharing at MIT through Project MAC.===Inspiration===J.", "C. R. Licklider, while working at BBN, proposed a computer network in his March 1960 paper ''Man-Computer Symbiosis'':In August 1962, Licklider and Welden Clark published the paper \"On-Line Man-Computer Communication\" which was one of the first descriptions of a networked future.In October 1962, Licklider was hired by Jack Ruina as director of the newly established Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) within ARPA, with a mandate to interconnect the United States Department of Defense's main computers at Cheyenne Mountain, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ.", "There he formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research.", "He began by writing memos in 1963 describing a distributed network to the IPTO staff, whom he called \"Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network\".Although he left the IPTO in 1964, five years before the ARPANET went live, it was his vision of universal networking that provided the impetus for one of his successors, Robert Taylor, to initiate the ARPANET development.", "Licklider later returned to lead the IPTO in 1973 for two years.===Packet switching===The infrastructure for telephone systems at the time was based on circuit switching, which requires pre-allocation of a dedicated communication line for the duration of the call.", "Telegram services had developed store and forward telecommunication techniques.", "Western Union's Automatic Telegraph Switching System Plan 55-A was based on message switching.", "The U.S. military's AUTODIN network became operational in 1962.These systems, like SAGE and SBRE, still required rigid routing structures that were prone to single point of failure.The technology was considered vulnerable for strategic and military use because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case of a broken link.", "In the early 1960s, Paul Baran of the RAND Corporation produced a study of survivable networks for the U.S. military in the event of nuclear war.", "Information would be transmitted across a \"distributed\" network, divided into what he called \"message blocks\".In addition to being prone to a single point of failure, existing telegraphic techniques were inefficient and inflexible.", "Beginning in 1965 Donald Davies, at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom, developed a more advanced proposal of the concept, designed for high-speed computer networking, which he called packet switching, the term that would ultimately be adopted.Packet switching is a technique for transmitting computer data by splitting it into very short, standardized chunks, attaching routing information to each of these chunks, and transmitting them independently through a computer network.", "It provides better bandwidth utilization than traditional circuit-switching used for telephony, and enables the connection of computers with different transmission and receive rates.", "It is a distinct concept to message switching." ], [ "Networks that led to the Internet", "===NPL network===Following discussions with J. C. R. Licklider in 1965, Donald Davies became interested in data communications for computer networks.", "Later that year, at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the United Kingdom, Davies designed and proposed a national commercial data network based on packet switching.", "The following year, he described the use of an \"interface computer\" to act as a router.", "The proposal was not taken up nationally but he produced a design for a local network to serve the needs of the NPL and prove the feasibility of packet switching using high-speed data transmission.", "To deal with packet permutations (due to dynamically updated route preferences) and to datagram losses (unavoidable when fast sources send to a slow destinations), he assumed that \"all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control\", thus inventing what came to be known as the end-to-end principle.", "In 1967, he and his team were the first to use the term 'protocol' in a modern data-commutation context.", "The network's development was described at a 1968 conference.By 1968, Davies had begun building the Mark I packet-switched network to meet the needs of the multidisciplinary laboratory and prove the technology under operational conditions.", "Elements of the network became operational in 1969, the first implementation of packet switching, and the NPL network became the first to use high-speed links.", "Many other packet switching networks built in the 1970s were similar \"in nearly all respects\" to Davies' original 1965 design.", "The Mark II version which operated from 1973 used a layered protocol architecture.", "The NPL team carried out simulation work on packet networks, including datagrams and congestion; and research into internetworking and computer network security.", "In 1976, 12 computers and 75 terminal devices were attached, and more were added until the network was replaced in 1986.===ARPANET===Robert Taylor was promoted to the head of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1966.He intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system.", "As part of the IPTO's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at University of California, Berkeley, and one for the Compatible Time-Sharing System project at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).", "Taylor's identified need for networking became obvious from the waste of resources apparent to him.Bringing in Larry Roberts from MIT in January 1967, he initiated a project to build such a network.", "Roberts and Thomas Merrill had been researching computer time-sharing over wide area networks (WANs).", "Wide area networks emerged during the late 1950s and became established during the 1960s.", "At the first ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967, Roberts presented a proposal for the \"ARPA net\", based on Wesley Clark's proposal to use Interface Message Processors (IMP) to create a message switching network.", "At the conference, Roger Scantlebury presented Donald Davies' work on packet switching for data communications and referenced the work of Paul Baran at RAND.", "Roberts incorporated the packet switching concepts into the ARPANET design and upgraded the proposed communications speed from 2.4 kbit/s to 50 kbit/s.", "ARPA awarded the contract to build the network to Bolt Beranek & Newman.", "The \"IMP guys\", led by Frank Heart and Bob Kahn, developed the routing, flow control, software design and network control.", "The first ARPANET link was established between the Network Measurement Center at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science directed by Leonard Kleinrock, and the NLS system at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) directed by Douglas Engelbart in Menlo Park, California at 22:30 hours on October 29, 1969.Postage stamp of Azerbaijan (2004): 35 Years of the Internet, 1969–2004By December 1969, a four-node network was connected by adding the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department.", "In the same year, Taylor helped fund ALOHAnet, a system designed by professor Norman Abramson and others at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa that transmitted data by radio between seven computers on four islands on Hawaii.Steve Crocker formed the \"Network Working Group\" in 1969 at UCLA.", "He initiated and managed the Request for Comments (RFC) process, which is still used today for proposing and distributing contributions.", "RFC 1, entitled \"Host Software\", was written by Steve Crocker and published on April 7, 1969.The protocol for establishing links between network sites in the ARPANET, the Network Control Program (NCP), was completed in 1970.These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing.Roberts presented the idea of packet switching to the communication professionals, and faced anger and hostility.", "Before ARPANET was operating, they argued that the router buffers would quickly run out.", "After the ARPANET was operating, they argued packet switching would never be economic without the government subsidy.", "Baran faced the same rejection and thus failed to convince the military into constructing a packet switching network.Early international collaborations via the ARPANET were sparse.", "Connections were made in 1973 to the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR), via a satellite link at the Tanum Earth Station in Sweden, and to Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London, which provided a gateway to British academic networks, the first international heterogenous resource sharing network.", "Throughout the 1970s, Leonard Kleinrock developed the mathematical theory to model and measure the performance of packet-switching technology, building on his earlier work on the application of queueing theory to message switching systems.", "By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213.The ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used.===Merit Network===The Merit Network was formed in 1966 as the Michigan Educational Research Information Triad to explore computer networking between three of Michigan's public universities as a means to help the state's educational and economic development.", "With initial support from the State of Michigan and the National Science Foundation (NSF), the packet-switched network was first demonstrated in December 1971 when an interactive host to host connection was made between the IBM mainframe computer systems at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and Wayne State University in Detroit.", "In October 1972 connections to the CDC mainframe at Michigan State University in East Lansing completed the triad.", "Over the next several years in addition to host to host interactive connections the network was enhanced to support terminal to host connections, host to host batch connections (remote job submission, remote printing, batch file transfer), interactive file transfer, gateways to the Tymnet and Telenet public data networks, X.25 host attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks, Ethernet attached hosts, and eventually TCP/IP and additional public universities in Michigan join the network.", "All of this set the stage for Merit's role in the NSFNET project starting in the mid-1980s.===CYCLADES===The CYCLADES packet switching network was a French research network designed and directed by Louis Pouzin.", "In 1971, he began planning the network to explore alternatives to the early ARPANET design and to support internetworking research.", "First demonstrated in 1973, it was the first network to implement the end-to-end principle conceived by Donald Davies and make the hosts responsible for reliable delivery of data, rather than the network itself, using unreliable datagrams.", "Concepts implemented in this network influenced TCP/IP architecture.===X.25 and public data networks===1974 interview with Arthur C. Clarke by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, in which he describes a future of ubiquitous networked personal computersBased on international research initiatives, particularly the contributions of Rémi Després, packet switching network standards were developed by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (ITU-T) in the form of X.25 and related standards.", "X.25 is built on the concept of virtual circuits emulating traditional telephone connections.", "In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became JANET, the United Kingdom's high-speed national research and education network (NREN).", "The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976.Existing networks, such as Telenet in the United States adopted X.25 as well as new public data networks, such as DATAPAC in Canada and TRANSPAC in France.", "X.25 was supplemented by the X.75 protocol which enabled internetworking between national PTT networks in Europe and commercial networks in North America.The British Post Office, Western Union International, and Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet-switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978.This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong, and Australia by 1981.By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure.Unlike ARPANET, X.25 was commonly available for business use.", "Telenet offered its Telemail electronic mail service, which was also targeted to enterprise use rather than the general email system of the ARPANET.The first public dial-in networks used asynchronous teleprinter (TTY) terminal protocols to reach a concentrator operated in the public network.", "Some networks, such as Telenet and CompuServe, used X.25 to multiplex the terminal sessions into their packet-switched backbones, while others, such as Tymnet, used proprietary protocols.", "In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users.", "The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator.", "Other major dial-in networks were America Online (AOL) and Prodigy that also provided communications, content, and entertainment features.", "Many bulletin board system (BBS) networks also provided on-line access, such as FidoNet which was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and amateur radio operators.===UUCP and Usenet===In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, originated the idea of using Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line UUCP connection with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.", "Following public release of the software in 1980, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded.", "UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts.", "UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections, and the lack of strict use policies compared to later networks like CSNET and Bitnet.", "All connects were local.", "By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984.Sublink Network, operating since 1987 and officially founded in Italy in 1989, based its interconnectivity upon UUCP to redistribute mail and news groups messages throughout its Italian nodes (about 100 at the time) owned both by private individuals and small companies.", "Sublink Network evolved into one of the first examples of Internet technology coming into use through popular diffusion." ], [ "1973–1989: Merging the networks and creating the Internet", "Map of the TCP/IP test network in February 1982===TCP/IP===First Internet demonstration, linking the ARPANET, PRNET, and SATNET on November 22, 1977With so many different networking methods seeking interconnection, a method was needed to unify them.", "Louis Pouzin initiated the CYCLADES project in 1971, building on the work of Donald Davies.", "In his work, Pouzin coined the term ''catenet'' for concatenated network.", "An International Network Working Group formed in 1972; active members included Vint Cerf from Stanford University, Alex McKenzie from BBN, Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury from NPL, and Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann from IRIA.", "Bob Kahn, now at DARPA, recruited Vint Cerf to work with him on the problem.", "Bob Metcalfe at Xerox PARC outlined the idea of Ethernet and PARC Universal Packet (PUP).", "By 1973, these groups had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetworking protocol.", "Instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible.Cerf and Kahn published their ideas in May 1974, which incorporated concepts implemented by Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann in the CYCLADES network.", "The specification of the resulting protocol, the Transmission Control Program, was published as by the Network Working Group in December 1974.It contains the first attested use of the term ''internet'', as a shorthand for internetwork.", "This software was monolithic in design using two simplex communication channels for each user session.With the role of the network reduced to a core of functionality, it became possible to exchange traffic with other networks independently from their detailed characteristics, thereby solving the fundamental problems of internetworking.", "DARPA agreed to fund the development of prototype software.", "Testing began in 1975 through concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN and University College London (UCL).", "After several years of work, the first demonstration of a gateway between the Packet Radio network (PRNET) in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted by the Stanford Research Institute.", "On November 22, 1977, a three network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the SRI's Packet Radio Van on the Packet Radio Network and the Atlantic Packet Satellite Network (SATNET) including a node at UCL.The software was redesigned as a modular protocol stack, using full-duplex channels; between 1976 and 1977, Yogen Dalal and Robert Metcalfe among others, proposed separating TCP's routing and transmission control functions into two discrete layers, which led to the splitting of the Transmission Control Program into the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP) in version 3 in 1978.Originally referred to as ''IP/TCP'', version 4 was described in IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981), 792 and 793.It was installed on SATNET in 1982 and the ARPANET in January 1983 after the DoD made it standard for all military computer networking.", "This resulted in a networking model that became known informally as TCP/IP.", "It was also referred to as the Department of Defense (DoD) model, DARPA model, or ARPANET model.", "Cerf credits his graduate students Yogen Dalal, Carl Sunshine, Judy Estrin, Richard Karp, and Gérard Le Lann with important work on the design and testing.", "DARPA sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP implementations for many operating systems.binary value===From ARPANET to NSFNET===BBN Technologies TCP/IP Internet map of early 1986After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years, ARPA looked for another agency to hand off the network to; ARPA's primary mission was funding cutting-edge research and development, not running a communications utility.", "In July 1975, the network was turned over to the Defense Communications Agency, also part of the Department of Defense.", "In 1983, the U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was broken off as a separate network, the MILNET.", "MILNET subsequently became the unclassified but military-only NIPRNET, in parallel with the SECRET-level SIPRNET and JWICS for TOP SECRET and above.", "NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to the public Internet.The networks based on the ARPANET were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden.", "This initially restricted connections to military sites and universities.", "During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and a growing number of companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation and Hewlett-Packard, which were participating in research projects or providing services to those who were.", "Data transmission speeds depended upon the type of connection, the slowest being analog telephone lines and the fastest using optical networking technology.Several other branches of the U.S. government, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the Department of Energy (DOE) became heavily involved in Internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET.", "In the mid-1980s, all three of these branches developed the first Wide Area Networks based on TCP/IP.", "NASA developed the NASA Science Network, NSF developed CSNET and DOE evolved the Energy Sciences Network or ESNet.T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992NASA developed the TCP/IP based NASA Science Network (NSN) in the mid-1980s, connecting space scientists to data and information stored anywhere in the world.", "In 1989, the DECnet-based Space Physics Analysis Network (SPAN) and the TCP/IP-based NASA Science Network (NSN) were brought together at NASA Ames Research Center creating the first multiprotocol wide area network called the NASA Science Internet, or NSI.", "NSI was established to provide a totally integrated communications infrastructure to the NASA scientific community for the advancement of earth, space and life sciences.", "As a high-speed, multiprotocol, international network, NSI provided connectivity to over 20,000 scientists across all seven continents.In 1981, NSF supported the development of the Computer Science Network (CSNET).", "CSNET connected with ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over X.25, but it also supported departments without sophisticated network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange.", "CSNET played a central role in popularizing the Internet outside the ARPANET.In 1986, the NSF created NSFNET, a 56 kbit/s backbone to support the NSF-sponsored supercomputing centers.", "The NSFNET also provided support for the creation of regional research and education networks in the United States, and for the connection of university and college campus networks to the regional networks.", "The use of NSFNET and the regional networks was not limited to supercomputer users and the 56 kbit/s network quickly became overloaded.", "NSFNET was upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s in 1988 under a cooperative agreement with the Merit Network in partnership with IBM, MCI, and the State of Michigan.", "The existence of NSFNET and the creation of Federal Internet Exchanges (FIXes) allowed the ARPANET to be decommissioned in 1990.NSFNET was expanded and upgraded to dedicated fiber, optical lasers and optical amplifier systems capable of delivering T3 start up speeds or 45 Mbit/s in 1991.However, the T3 transition by MCI took longer than expected, allowing Sprint to establish a coast-to-coast long-distance commercial Internet service.", "When NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, its optical networking backbones were handed off to several commercial Internet service providers, including MCI, PSI Net and Sprint.", "As a result, when the handoff was complete, Sprint and its Washington DC Network Access Points began to carry Internet traffic, and by 1996, Sprint was the world's largest carrier of Internet traffic.The research and academic community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as Internet2 in the United States and JANET in the United Kingdom.===Transition towards the Internet===The term \"internet\" was reflected in the first RFC published on the TCP protocol (RFC 675: Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974) as a short form of ''internetworking'', when the two terms were used interchangeably.", "In general, an internet was a collection of networks linked by a common protocol.", "In the time period when the ARPANET was connected to the newly formed NSFNET project in the late 1980s, the term was used as the name of the network, Internet, being the large and global TCP/IP network.Opening the Internet and the fiber optic backbone to corporate and consumers increased demand for network capacity.", "The expense and delay of laying new fiber led providers to test a fiber bandwidth expansion alternative that had been pioneered in the late 1970s by Optelecom using \"interactions between light and matter, such as lasers and optical devices used for optical amplification and wave mixing\".", "This technology became known as wave division multiplexing (WDM).", "Bell Labs deployed a 4-channel WDM system in 1995.To develop a mass capacity (dense) WDM system, Optelecom and its former head of Light Systems Research, David R. Huber formed a new venture, Ciena Corp., that deployed the world's first dense WDM system on the Sprint fiber network in June 1996.This was referred to as the real start of optical networking.As interest in networking grew by needs of collaboration, exchange of data, and access of remote computing resources, the Internet technologies spread throughout the rest of the world.", "The hardware-agnostic approach in TCP/IP supported the use of existing network infrastructure, such as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS) X.25 network, to carry Internet traffic.Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet created simple gateways for the transfer of electronic mail, the most important application of the time.", "Sites with only intermittent connections used UUCP or FidoNet and relied on the gateways between these networks and the Internet.", "Some gateway services went beyond simple mail peering, such as allowing access to File Transfer Protocol (FTP) sites via UUCP or mail.Finally, routing technologies were developed for the Internet to remove the remaining centralized routing aspects.", "The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) was replaced by a new protocol, the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).", "This provided a meshed topology for the Internet and reduced the centric architecture which ARPANET had emphasized.", "In 1994, Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) was introduced to support better conservation of address space which allowed use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables.===Optical networking===The MOS transistor underpinned the rapid growth of telecommunication bandwidth over the second half of the 20th century.", "To address the need for transmission capacity beyond that provided by radio, satellite and analog copper telephone lines, engineers developed optical communications systems based on fiber optic cables powered by lasers and optical amplifier techniques.The concept of lasing arose from a 1917 paper by Albert Einstein, \"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation.\"", "Einstein expanded upon a dialog with Max Planck on how atoms absorb and emit light, part of a thought process that, with input from Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg and others, gave rise to Quantum Mechanics.", "Specifically, in his quantum theory, Einstein mathematically determined that light could be generated not only by spontaneous emission, such as the light emitted by an incandescent light or the Sun, but also by stimulated emission.Forty years later, on November 13, 1957, Columbia University physics student Gordon Gould first realized how to make light by stimulated emission through a process of optical amplification.", "He coined the term LASER for this technology—Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.", "Using Gould's light amplification method (patented as \"Optically Pumped Laser Amplifier\"), Theodore Maiman made the first working laser on May 16, 1960.Gould co-founded Optelecom, Inc. in 1973 to commercialize his inventions in optical fiber telecommunications.", "just as Corning Glass was producing the first commercial fiber optic cable in small quantities.", "Optelecom configured its own fiber lasers and optical amplifiers into the first commercial optical communication systems which it delivered to Chevron and the US Army Missile Defense.", "Three years later, GTE deployed the first optical telephone system in 1977 in Long Beach, California.", "By the early 1980s, optical networks powered by lasers, LED and optical amplifier equipment supplied by Bell Labs, NTT and Perelli were used by select universities and long-distance telephone providers.===TCP/IP goes global (1980s)=======CERN and the European Internet====In early 1982, NORSAR and Peter Kirstein's group at University College London (UCL) left the ARPANET and began to use TCP/IP over SATNET.", "UCL continued to provide access between the ARPANET and academic networks in the UK, a role it had performed since 1973.Between 1984 and 1988, CERN began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs, and an accelerator control system.", "CERN continued to operate a limited self-developed system (CERNET) internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols externally.", "There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP, and the CERN TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989, when a transatlantic connection to Cornell University was established.The Computer Science Network (CSNET) began operation in 1981 to provide networking connections to institutions that could not connect directly to ARPANET.", "Its first international connection was to Israel in 1984.Soon after, connections were established to computer science departments in Canada, France, and Germany.In 1988, the first international connections to NSFNET was established by France's INRIA, and Piet Beertema at the Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands.", "Daniel Karrenberg, from CWI, visited Ben Segal, CERN's TCP/IP coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of EUnet, the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links), over to TCP/IP.", "The previous year, Segal had met with Len Bosack from the then still small company Cisco about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and Segal was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware.", "This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks.", "The NORDUnet connection to NSFNET was in place soon after, providing open access for university students in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden.", "In January 1989, CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections.", "This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out coordination work together.", "Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a cooperative in Amsterdam.The United Kingdom's national research and education network (NREN), JANET, began operation in 1984 using the UK's Coloured Book protocols and connected to NSFNET in 1989.In 1991, JANET adopted Internet Protocol on the existing network.", "The same year, Dai Davies introduced Internet technology into the pan-European NREN, EuropaNet, which was built on the X.25 protocol.", "The European Academic and Research Network (EARN) and RARE adopted IP around the same time, and the European Internet backbone EBONE became operational in 1992.Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were polarized over the issue of which standard, the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite would result in the best and most robust computer networks.====The link to the Pacific====South Korea set up a two-node domestic TCP/IP network in 1982, the System Development Network (SDN), adding a third node the following year.", "SDN was connected to the rest of the world in August 1983 using UUCP (Unix-to-Unix-Copy); connected to CSNET in December 1984; and formally connected to the NSFNET in 1990.Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network JUNET in 1984, connected to CSNET, and later to NSFNET in 1989, marking the spread of the Internet to Asia.In Australia, ad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian universities formed in the late 1980s, based on various technologies such as X.25, UUCPNet, and via a CSNET.", "These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections.", "In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures.", "AARNet was formed in 1989 by the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia.New Zealand adopted the UK's Coloured Book protocols as an interim standard and established its first international IP connection to the U.S. in 1989.====A \"digital divide\" emerges====Internet users in 2015 as a percentage of a country's population'''Source: International Telecommunication Union.Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's population'''Source: International Telecommunication Union.Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's population'''Source: International Telecommunication Union.While developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the Internet, developing countries began to experience a digital divide separating them from the Internet.", "On an essentially continental basis, they built organizations for Internet resource administration and to share operational experience, which enabled more transmission facilities to be put into place.====Africa====At the beginning of the 1990s, African countries relied upon X.25 IPSS and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications.In August 1995, InfoMail Uganda, Ltd., a privately held firm in Kampala now known as InfoCom, and NSN Network Services of Avon, Colorado, sold in 1997 and now known as Clear Channel Satellite, established Africa's first native TCP/IP high-speed satellite Internet services.", "The data connection was originally carried by a C-Band RSCC Russian satellite which connected InfoMail's Kampala offices directly to NSN's MAE-West point of presence using a private network from NSN's leased ground station in New Jersey.", "InfoCom's first satellite connection was just 64 kbit/s, serving a Sun host computer and twelve US Robotics dial-up modems.In 1996, a USAID funded project, the Leland Initiative, started work on developing full Internet connectivity for the continent.", "Guinea, Mozambique, Madagascar and Rwanda gained satellite earth stations in 1997, followed by Ivory Coast and Benin in 1998.Africa is building an Internet infrastructure.", "AFRINIC, headquartered in Mauritius, manages IP address allocation for the continent.", "As do the other Internet regions, there is an operational forum, the Internet Community of Operational Networking Specialists.There are many programs to provide high-performance transmission plant, and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable.", "High-speed cables join North Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental cable systems.", "Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original joint effort between New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has broken off and may become two efforts.====Asia and Oceania====The Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation for the continent.", "APNIC sponsors an operational forum, the Asia-Pacific Regional Internet Conference on Operational Technologies (APRICOT).In South Korea, VDSL, a last mile technology developed in the 1990s by NextLevel Communications, connected corporate and consumer copper-based telephone lines to the Internet.The People's Republic of China established its first TCP/IP college network, Tsinghua University's TUNET in 1991.The PRC went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1994, between the Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration and Stanford University's Linear Accelerator Center.", "However, China went on to implement its own digital divide by implementing a country-wide content filter.Japan hosted the annual meeting of the Internet Society, INET'92, in Kobe.", "Singapore developed TECHNET in 1990, and Thailand gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992.====Latin America====As with the other regions, the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) manages the IP address space and other resources for its area.", "LACNIC, headquartered in Uruguay, operates DNS root, reverse DNS, and other key services." ], [ "1990–2003: Rise of the global Internet, Web 1.0", "Initially, as with its predecessor networks, the system that would evolve into the Internet was primarily for government and government body use.", "Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact definition of commercial use was unclear and subjective.", "UUCPNet and the X.25 IPSS had no such restrictions, which would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of ARPANET and NSFNET connections.", "'''Number of Internet hosts worldwide: 1969–2019'''Source: Internet Systems Consortium.As a result, during the late 1980s, the first Internet service provider (ISP) companies were formed.", "Companies like PSINet, UUNET, Netcom, and Portal Software were formed to provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and Usenet News to the public.", "In 1989, MCI Mail became the first commercial email provider to get an experimental gateway to the Internet.", "The first commercial dialup ISP in the United States was The World, which opened in 1989.In 1992, the U.S. Congress passed the Scientific and Advanced-Technology Act, , which allowed NSF to support access by the research and education communities to computer networks which were not used exclusively for research and education purposes, thus permitting NSFNET to interconnect with commercial networks.", "This caused controversy within the research and education community, who were concerned commercial use of the network might lead to an Internet that was less responsive to their needs, and within the community of commercial network providers, who felt that government subsidies were giving an unfair advantage to some organizations.By 1990, ARPANET's goals had been fulfilled and new networking technologies exceeded the original scope and the project came to a close.", "New network service providers including PSINet, Alternet, CERFNet, ANS CO+RE, and many others were offering network access to commercial customers.", "NSFNET was no longer the de facto backbone and exchange point of the Internet.", "The Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX), Metropolitan Area Exchanges (MAEs), and later Network Access Points (NAPs) were becoming the primary interconnections between many networks.", "The final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic ended on April 30, 1995, when the National Science Foundation ended its sponsorship of the NSFNET Backbone Service.", "NSF provided initial support for the NAPs and interim support to help the regional research and education networks transition to commercial ISPs.", "NSF also sponsored the very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) which continued to provide support for the supercomputing centers and research and education in the United States.An event held on 11 January 1994, ''The Superhighway Summit'' at UCLA's Royce Hall, was the \"first public conference bringing together all of the major industry, government and academic leaders in the field and also began the national dialogue about the ''Information Superhighway'' and its implications\".===Internet use in wider society===The invention of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN, as an application on the Internet, brought many social and commercial uses to what was, at the time, a network of networks for academic and research institutions.", "The Web opened to the public in 1991 and began to enter general use in 1993–4, when websites for everyday use started to become available.Stamped envelope of Russian Post issued in 1993 with stamp and graphics dedicated to first Russian underwater digital optic cable laid in 1993 by Rostelecom from Kingisepp to CopenhagenDuring the first decade or so of the public Internet, the immense changes it would eventually enable in the 2000s were still nascent.", "In terms of providing context for this period, mobile cellular devices (\"smartphones\" and other cellular devices) which today provide near-universal access, were used for business and not a routine household item owned by parents and children worldwide.", "Social media in the modern sense had yet to come into existence, laptops were bulky and most households did not have computers.", "Data rates were slow and most people lacked means to video or digitize video; media storage was transitioning slowly from analog tape to digital optical discs (DVD and to an extent still, floppy disc to CD).", "Enabling technologies used from the early 2000s such as PHP, modern JavaScript and Java, technologies such as AJAX, HTML 4 (and its emphasis on CSS), and various software frameworks, which enabled and simplified speed of web development, largely awaited invention and their eventual widespread adoption.The Internet was widely used for mailing lists, emails, creating and distributing maps with tools like MapQuest, e-commerce and early popular online shopping (Amazon and eBay for example), online forums and bulletin boards, and personal websites and blogs, and use was growing rapidly, but by more modern standards, the systems used were static and lacked widespread social engagement.", "It awaited a number of events in the early 2000s to change from a communications technology to gradually develop into a key part of global society's infrastructure.Typical design elements of these \"Web 1.0\" era websites included: Static pages instead of dynamic HTML; content served from filesystems instead of relational databases; pages built using Server Side Includes or CGI instead of a web application written in a dynamic programming language; HTML 3.2-era structures such as frames and tables to create page layouts; online guestbooks; overuse of GIF buttons and similar small graphics promoting particular items; and HTML forms sent via email.", "(Support for server side scripting was rare on shared servers so the usual feedback mechanism was via email, using mailto forms and their email program.During the period 1997 to 2001, the first speculative investment bubble related to the Internet took place, in which \"dot-com\" companies (referring to the \".com\" top level domain used by businesses) were propelled to exceedingly high valuations as investors rapidly stoked stock values, followed by a market crash; the first dot-com bubble.", "However this only temporarily slowed enthusiasm and growth, which quickly recovered and continued to grow.The history of the World Wide Web up to around 2004 was retrospectively named and described by some as \"Web 1.0\".===IPv6===In the final stage of IPv4 address exhaustion, the last IPv4 address block was assigned in January 2011 at the level of the regional Internet registries.", "IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses which limits the address space to 232 addresses, i.e.", "addresses.", "IPv4 is in the process of replacement by IPv6, its successor, which uses 128-bit addresses, providing 2128 addresses, i.e.", ", a vastly increased address space.", "The shift to IPv6 is expected to take a long time to complete." ], [ "2004–present: Web 2.0, global ubiquity, social media", "The rapid technical advances that would propel the Internet into its place as a social system, which has completely transformed the way humans interact with each other, took place during a relatively short period from around 2005 to 2010, coinciding with the point in time in which IoT devices surpassed the number of humans alive at some point in the late 2000s.", "They included::* The call to \"Web 2.0\" in 2004 (first suggested in 1999),:* Accelerating adoption and commoditization among households of, and familiarity with, the necessary hardware (such as computers).", ":* Accelerating storage technology and data access speeds – hard drives emerged, took over from far smaller, slower floppy discs, and grew from megabytes to gigabytes (and by around 2010, terabytes), RAM from hundreds of kilobytes to gigabytes as typical amounts on a system, and Ethernet, the enabling technology for TCP/IP, moved from common speeds of kilobits to tens of megabits per second, to gigabits per second.", ":* High speed Internet and wider coverage of data connections, at lower prices, allowing larger traffic rates, more reliable simpler traffic, and traffic from more locations,:* The public's accelerating perception of the potential of computers to create new means and approaches to communication, the emergence of social media and websites such as Twitter and Facebook to their later prominence, and global collaborations such as Wikipedia (which existed before but gained prominence as a result),:* The mobile device revolution, particularly with smartphones and tablet computers becoming widespread, which began to provide easy access to the Internet to much of human society of all ages, in their daily lives, and allowed them to share, discuss, and continually update, inquire, and respond.", ":* Non-volatile RAM rapidly grew in size and reliability, and decreased in price, becoming a commodity capable of enabling high levels of computing activity on these small handheld devices as well as solid-state drives (SSD).", ":* An emphasis on power efficient processor and device design, rather than purely high processing power; one of the beneficiaries of this was Arm, a British company which had focused since the 1980s on powerful but low cost simple microprocessors.", "ARM architecture family rapidly gained dominance in the market for mobile and embedded devices.=== Web 2.0 ===The term \"Web 2.0\" describes websites that emphasize user-generated content (including user-to-user interaction), usability, and interoperability.", "It first appeared in a January 1999 article called \"Fragmented Future\" written by Darcy DiNucci, a consultant on electronic information design, where she wrote:: ''\"The Web we know now, which loads into a browser window in essentially static screenfuls, is only an embryo of the Web to come.", "The first glimmerings of Web 2.0 are beginning to appear, and we are just starting to see how that embryo might develop.", "The Web will be understood not as screenfuls of text and graphics but as a transport mechanism, the ether through which interactivity happens.", "It will ... appear on your computer screen, ... on your TV set ... your car dashboard ... your cell phone ... hand-held game machines ... maybe even your microwave oven.", "\"''The term resurfaced during 2002–2004, and gained prominence in late 2004 following presentations by Tim O'Reilly and Dale Dougherty at the first Web 2.0 Conference.", "In their opening remarks, John Battelle and Tim O'Reilly outlined their definition of the \"Web as Platform\", where software applications are built upon the Web as opposed to upon the desktop.", "The unique aspect of this migration, they argued, is that \"customers are building your business for you\".", "They argued that the activities of users generating content (in the form of ideas, text, videos, or pictures) could be \"harnessed\" to create value.Web 2.0 does not refer to an update to any technical specification, but rather to cumulative changes in the way Web pages are made and used.", "Web 2.0 describes an approach, in which sites focus substantially upon allowing users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to Web sites where people are limited to the passive viewing of content.", "Examples of Web 2.0 include social networking services, blogs, wikis, folksonomies, video sharing sites, hosted services, Web applications, and mashups.", "Terry Flew, in his 3rd Edition of ''New Media'' described what he believed to characterize the differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0:: \"The move from personal websites to blogs and blog site aggregation, from publishing to participation, from web content as the outcome of large up-front investment to an ongoing and interactive process, and from content management systems to links based on tagging (folksonomy)\".This era saw several household names gain prominence through their community-oriented operation – YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, Reddit and Wikipedia being some examples.===The mobile revolution===The process of change that generally coincided with \"Web 2.0\" was itself greatly accelerated and transformed only a short time later by the increasing growth in mobile devices.", "This mobile revolution meant that computers in the form of smartphones became something many people used, took with them everywhere, communicated with, used for photographs and videos they instantly shared or to shop or seek information \"on the move\" – and used socially, as opposed to items on a desk at home or just used for work.Location-based services, services using location and other sensor information, and crowdsourcing (frequently but not always location based), became common, with posts tagged by location, or websites and services becoming location aware.", "Mobile-targeted websites (such as \"m.website.com\") became common, designed especially for the new devices used.", "Netbooks, ultrabooks, widespread 4G and Wi-Fi, and mobile chips capable or running at nearly the power of desktops from not many years before on far lower power usage, became enablers of this stage of Internet development, and the term \"App\" emerged (short for \"Application program\" or \"Program\") as did the \"App store\".This \"mobile revolution\" has allowed for people to have a nearly unlimited amount of information at all times.", "With the ability to access the internet from cell phones came a change in the way media was consumed.", "Media consumption statistics show that over half of media consumption between those aged 18 and 34 were using a smartphone.===Networking in outer space===The first Internet link into low Earth orbit was established on January 22, 2010, when astronaut T. J. Creamer posted the first unassisted update to his Twitter account from the International Space Station, marking the extension of the Internet into space.", "(Astronauts at the ISS had used email and Twitter before, but these messages had been relayed to the ground through a NASA data link before being posted by a human proxy.)", "This personal Web access, which NASA calls the Crew Support LAN, uses the space station's high-speed Ku band microwave link.", "To surf the Web, astronauts can use a station laptop computer to control a desktop computer on Earth, and they can talk to their families and friends on Earth using Voice over IP equipment.Communication with spacecraft beyond Earth orbit has traditionally been over point-to-point links through the Deep Space Network.", "Each such data link must be manually scheduled and configured.", "In the late 1990s NASA and Google began working on a new network protocol, Delay-tolerant networking (DTN) which automates this process, allows networking of spaceborne transmission nodes, and takes the fact into account that spacecraft can temporarily lose contact because they move behind the Moon or planets, or because space weather disrupts the connection.", "Under such conditions, DTN retransmits data packages instead of dropping them, as the standard TCP/IP Internet Protocol does.", "NASA conducted the first field test of what it calls the \"deep space internet\" in November 2008.Testing of DTN-based communications between the International Space Station and Earth (now termed Disruption-Tolerant Networking) has been ongoing since March 2009, and is scheduled to continue until March 2014.This network technology is supposed to ultimately enable missions that involve multiple spacecraft where reliable inter-vessel communication might take precedence over vessel-to-Earth downlinks.", "According to a February 2011 statement by Google's Vint Cerf, the so-called \"Bundle protocols\" have been uploaded to NASA's EPOXI mission spacecraft (which is in orbit around the Sun) and communication with Earth has been tested at a distance of approximately 80 light seconds." ], [ "Internet governance", "As a globally distributed network of voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks, the Internet operates without a central governing body.", "Each constituent network chooses the technologies and protocols it deploys from the technical standards that are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).", "However, successful interoperation of many networks requires certain parameters that must be common throughout the network.", "For managing such parameters, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) oversees the allocation and assignment of various technical identifiers.", "In addition, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) provides oversight and coordination for the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System.===NIC, InterNIC, IANA, and ICANN===The IANA function was originally performed by USC Information Sciences Institute (ISI), and it delegated portions of this responsibility with respect to numeric network and autonomous system identifiers to the Network Information Center (NIC) at Stanford Research Institute (SRI International) in Menlo Park, California.", "ISI's Jonathan Postel managed the IANA, served as RFC Editor and performed other key roles until his premature death in 1998.As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from SRI International to each host on the network.", "As the network grew, this became cumbersome.", "A technical solution came in the form of the Domain Name System, created by ISI's Paul Mockapetris in 1983.The Defense Data Network—Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the top-level domains (TLDs) of .mil, .gov, .edu, .org, .net, .com and .us, root nameserver administration and Internet number assignments under a United States Department of Defense contract.", "In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the small private-sector Network Solutions, Inc.The increasing cultural diversity of the Internet also posed administrative challenges for centralized management of the IP addresses.", "In October 1992, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) published RFC 1366, which described the \"growth of the Internet and its increasing globalization\" and set out the basis for an evolution of the IP registry process, based on a regionally distributed registry model.", "This document stressed the need for a single Internet number registry to exist in each geographical region of the world (which would be of \"continental dimensions\").", "Registries would be \"unbiased and widely recognized by network providers and subscribers\" within their region.The RIPE Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) was established as the first RIR in May 1992.The second RIR, the Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), was established in Tokyo in 1993, as a pilot project of the Asia Pacific Networking Group.Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-military sources, it was decided that the Department of Defense would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD.", "In 1993 the U.S. National Science Foundation, after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the InterNIC to manage the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three organizations.", "Registration Services would be provided by Network Solutions; Directory and Database Services would be provided by AT&T; and Information Services would be provided by General Atomics.Over time, after consultation with the IANA, the IETF, RIPE NCC, APNIC, and the Federal Networking Council (FNC), the decision was made to separate the management of domain names from the management of IP numbers.", "Following the examples of RIPE NCC and APNIC, it was recommended that management of IP address space then administered by the InterNIC should be under the control of those that use it, specifically the ISPs, end-user organizations, corporate entities, universities, and individuals.", "As a result, the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) was established as in December 1997, as an independent, not-for-profit corporation by direction of the National Science Foundation and became the third Regional Internet Registry.In 1998, both the IANA and remaining DNS-related InterNIC functions were reorganized under the control of ICANN, a California non-profit corporation contracted by the United States Department of Commerce to manage a number of Internet-related tasks.", "As these tasks involved technical coordination for two principal Internet name spaces (DNS names and IP addresses) created by the IETF, ICANN also signed a memorandum of understanding with the IAB to define the technical work to be carried out by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.", "The management of Internet address space remained with the regional Internet registries, which collectively were defined as a supporting organization within the ICANN structure.", "ICANN provides central coordination for the DNS system, including policy coordination for the split registry / registrar system, with competition among registry service providers to serve each top-level-domain and multiple competing registrars offering DNS services to end-users.===Internet Engineering Task Force===The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is the largest and most visible of several loosely related ad-hoc groups that provide technical direction for the Internet, including the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).The IETF is a loosely self-organized group of international volunteers who contribute to the engineering and evolution of Internet technologies.", "It is the principal body engaged in the development of new Internet standard specifications.", "Much of the work of the IETF is organized into ''Working Groups''.", "Standardization efforts of the Working Groups are often adopted by the Internet community, but the IETF does not control or patrol the Internet.The IETF grew out of quarterly meetings with U.S. government-funded researchers, starting in January 1986.Non-government representatives were invited by the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986.The concept of Working Groups was introduced at the fifth meeting in February 1987.The seventh meeting in July 1987 was the first meeting with more than one hundred attendees.", "In 1992, the Internet Society, a professional membership society, was formed and IETF began to operate under it as an independent international standards body.", "The first IETF meeting outside of the United States was held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, in July 1993.Today, the IETF meets three times per year and attendance has been as high as ca.", "2,000 participants.", "Typically one in three IETF meetings are held in Europe or Asia.", "The number of non-US attendees is typically ca.", "50%, even at meetings held in the United States.The IETF is not a legal entity, has no governing board, no members, and no dues.", "The closest status resembling membership is being on an IETF or Working Group mailing list.", "IETF volunteers come from all over the world and from many different parts of the Internet community.", "The IETF works closely with and under the supervision of the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).", "The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) and the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG), peer activities to the IETF and IESG under the general supervision of the IAB, focus on longer-term research issues.====RFCs====RFCs are the main documentation for the work of the IAB, IESG, IETF, and IRTF.", "Originally intended as requests for comments, RFC 1, \"Host Software\", was written by Steve Crocker at UCLA in April 1969.These technical memos documented aspects of ARPANET development.", "They were edited by Jon Postel, the first RFC Editor.RFCs cover a wide range of information from proposed standards, draft standards, full standards, best practices, experimental protocols, history, and other informational topics.", "RFCs can be written by individuals or informal groups of individuals, but many are the product of a more formal Working Group.", "Drafts are submitted to the IESG either by individuals or by the Working Group Chair.", "An RFC Editor, appointed by the IAB, separate from IANA, and working in conjunction with the IESG, receives drafts from the IESG and edits, formats, and publishes them.", "Once an RFC is published, it is never revised.", "If the standard it describes changes or its information becomes obsolete, the revised standard or updated information will be re-published as a new RFC that \"obsoletes\" the original.===The Internet Society===The Internet Society (ISOC) is an international, nonprofit organization founded during 1992 \"to assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world\".", "With offices near Washington, DC, US, and in Geneva, Switzerland, ISOC has a membership base comprising more than 80 organizational and more than 50,000 individual members.", "Members also form \"chapters\" based on either common geographical location or special interests.", "There are currently more than 90 chapters around the world.ISOC provides financial and organizational support to and promotes the work of the standards settings bodies for which it is the organizational home: the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).", "ISOC also promotes understanding and appreciation of the Internet model of open, transparent processes and consensus-based decision-making.===Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century===Since the 1990s, the Internet's governance and organization has been of global importance to governments, commerce, civil society, and individuals.", "The organizations which held control of certain technical aspects of the Internet were the successors of the old ARPANET oversight and the current decision-makers in the day-to-day technical aspects of the network.", "While recognized as the administrators of certain aspects of the Internet, their roles and their decision-making authority are limited and subject to increasing international scrutiny and increasing objections.", "These objections have led to the ICANN removing themselves from relationships with first the University of Southern California in 2000, and in September 2009, gaining autonomy from the US government by the ending of its longstanding agreements, although some contractual obligations with the U.S. Department of Commerce continued.", "Finally, on October 1, 2016, ICANN ended its contract with the United States Department of Commerce National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), allowing oversight to pass to the global Internet community.The IETF, with financial and organizational support from the Internet Society, continues to serve as the Internet's ad-hoc standards body and issues Request for Comments.In November 2005, the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, called for an Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to be convened by United Nations Secretary General.", "The IGF opened an ongoing, non-binding conversation among stakeholders representing governments, the private sector, civil society, and the technical and academic communities about the future of Internet governance.", "The first IGF meeting was held in October/November 2006 with follow up meetings annually thereafter.", "Since WSIS, the term \"Internet governance\" has been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related policy issues.Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the web, was becoming concerned about threats to the web's future and in November 2009 at the IGF in Washington DC launched the World Wide Web Foundation (WWWF) to campaign to make the web a safe and empowering tool for the good of humanity with access to all.", "In November 2019 at the IGF in Berlin, Berners-Lee and the WWWF went on to launch the ''Contract for the Web'', a campaign initiative to persuade governments, companies and citizens to commit to nine principles to stop \"misuse\" with the warning \"If we don't act now - and act together - to prevent the web being misused by those who want to exploit, divide and undermine, we are at risk of squandering\" (its potential for good)." ], [ "Politicization of the Internet", "Due to its prominence and immediacy as an effective means of mass communication, the Internet has also become more politicized as it has grown.", "This has led in turn, to discourses and activities that would once have taken place in other ways, migrating to being mediated by internet.Examples include political activities such as public protest and canvassing of support and votes, but also:* The spreading of ideas and opinions;* Recruitment of followers, and \"coming together\" of members of the public, for ideas, products, and causes;* Providing and widely distributing and sharing information that might be deemed sensitive or relates to whistleblowing (and efforts by specific countries to prevent this by censorship);* Criminal activity and terrorism (and resulting law enforcement use, together with its facilitation by mass surveillance);* Politically motivated fake news." ], [ "Net neutrality", "On April 23, 2014, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was reported to be considering a new rule that would permit Internet service providers to offer content providers a faster track to send content, thus reversing their earlier net neutrality position.", "A possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School.", "On May 15, 2014, the FCC decided to consider two options regarding Internet services: first, permit fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising net neutrality; and second, reclassify broadband as a telecommunication service, thereby preserving net neutrality.", "On November 10, 2014, President Obama recommended the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve net neutrality.", "On January 16, 2015, Republicans presented legislation, in the form of a U.S. Congress HR discussion draft bill, that makes concessions to net neutrality but prohibits the FCC from accomplishing the goal or enacting any further regulation affecting Internet service providers (ISPs).", "On January 31, 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying (\"with some caveats\") Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on February 26, 2015.Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, ensure net neutrality.", "The FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to ''The New York Times''.On February 26, 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by applying Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 of the Telecommunications act of 1996 to the Internet.", "The FCC chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, \"This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to regulate free speech.", "They both stand for the same concept.", "\"On March 12, 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules.", "On April 13, 2015, the FCC published the final rule on its new \"Net Neutrality\" regulations.On December 14, 2017, the FCC repealed their March 12, 2015 decision by a 3–2 vote regarding net neutrality rules." ], [ "Use and culture", "===Email and Usenet===Email has often been called the killer application of the Internet.", "It predates the Internet, and was a crucial tool in creating it.", "Email started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate.", "Although the history is undocumented, among the first systems to have such a facility were the System Development Corporation (SDC) Q32 and the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) at MIT.The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the evolution of electronic mail.", "An experimental inter-system transferred mail on the ARPANET shortly after its creation.", "In 1971 Ray Tomlinson created what was to become the standard Internet electronic mail addressing format, using the @ sign to separate mailbox names from host names.A number of protocols were developed to deliver messages among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as UUCP and IBM's VNET email system.", "Email could be passed this way between a number of networks, including ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNET, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP.", "See the history of SMTP protocol.In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text files that could be read by many others.", "The News software developed by Steve Daniel and Tom Truscott in 1979 was used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages.", "This quickly grew into discussion groups, known as newsgroups, on a wide range of topics.", "On ARPANET and NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via mailing lists, discussing both technical issues and more culturally focused topics (such as science fiction, discussed on the sflovers mailing list).During the early years of the Internet, email and similar mechanisms were also fundamental to allow people to access resources that were not available due to the absence of online connectivity.", "UUCP was often used to distribute files using the 'alt.binary' groups.", "Also, FTP e-mail gateways allowed people that lived outside the US and Europe to download files using ftp commands written inside email messages.", "The file was encoded, broken in pieces and sent by email; the receiver had to reassemble and decode it later, and it was the only way for people living overseas to download items such as the earlier Linux versions using the slow dial-up connections available at the time.", "After the popularization of the Web and the HTTP protocol such tools were slowly abandoned.===File sharing===Resource or file sharing has been an important activity on computer networks from well before the Internet was established and was supported in a variety of ways including bulletin board systems (1978), Usenet (1980), Kermit (1981), and many others.", "The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for use on the Internet was standardized in 1985 and is still in use today.", "A variety of tools were developed to aid the use of FTP by helping users discover files they might want to transfer, including the Wide Area Information Server (WAIS) in 1991, Gopher in 1991, Archie in 1991, Veronica in 1992, Jughead in 1993, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) in 1988, and eventually the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1991 with Web directories and Web search engines.In 1999, Napster became the first peer-to-peer file sharing system.", "Napster used a central server for indexing and peer discovery, but the storage and transfer of files was decentralized.", "A variety of peer-to-peer file sharing programs and services with different levels of decentralization and anonymity followed, including: Gnutella, eDonkey2000, and Freenet in 2000, FastTrack, Kazaa, Limewire, and BitTorrent in 2001, and Poisoned in 2003.All of these tools are general purpose and can be used to share a wide variety of content, but sharing of music files, software, and later movies and videos are major uses.", "And while some of this sharing is legal, large portions are not.", "Lawsuits and other legal actions caused Napster in 2001, eDonkey2000 in 2005, Kazaa in 2006, and Limewire in 2010 to shut down or refocus their efforts.", "The Pirate Bay, founded in Sweden in 2003, continues despite a trial and appeal in 2009 and 2010 that resulted in jail terms and large fines for several of its founders.", "File sharing remains contentious and controversial with charges of theft of intellectual property on the one hand and charges of censorship on the other.===File hosting services===File hosting allowed for people to expand their computer's hard drives and \"host\" their files on a server.", "Most file hosting services offer free storage, as well as larger storage amount for a fee.", "These services have greatly expanded the internet for business and personal use.Google Drive, launched on April 24, 2012, has become the most popular file hosting service.", "Google Drive allows users to store, edit, and share files with themselves and other users.", "Not only does this application allow for file editing, hosting, and sharing.", "It also acts as Google's own free-to-access office programs, such as Google Docs, Google Slides, and Google Sheets.", "This application served as a useful tool for University professors and students, as well as those who are in need of Cloud storage.Dropbox, released in June 2007 is a similar file hosting service that allows users to keep all of their files in a folder on their computer, which is synced with Dropbox's servers.", "This differs from Google Drive as it is not web-browser based.", "Now, Dropbox works to keep workers and files in sync and efficient.Mega, having over 200 million users, is an encrypted storage and communication system that offers users free and paid storage, with an emphasis on privacy.", "Being three of the largest file hosting services, Google Drive, Dropbox, and Mega all represent the core ideas and values of these services." ], [ "Online piracy", "The earliest form of online piracy began with a P2P (peer to peer) music sharing service named Napster, launched in 1999.Sites like LimeWire, The Pirate Bay, and BitTorrent allowed for anyone to engage in online piracy, sending ripples through the media industry.", "With online piracy came a change in the media industry as a whole." ], [ "Mobile telephone data traffic", "Total global mobile data traffic reached 588 exabytes during 2020, a 150-fold increase from 3.86 exabytes/year in 2010.Most recently, smartphones accounted for 95% of this mobile data traffic with video accounting for 66% by type of data.", "Mobile traffic travels by radio frequency to the closest cell phone tower and its base station where the radio signal is converted into an optical signal that is transmitted over high-capacity optical networking systems that convey the information to data centers.", "The optical backbones enable much of this traffic as well as a host of emerging mobile services including the Internet of things, 3-D virtual reality, gaming and autonomous vehicles.", "The most popular mobile phone application is texting, of which 2.1 trillion messages were logged in 2020.The texting phenomenon began on December 3, 1992, when Neil Papworth sent the first text message of \"Merry Christmas\" over a commercial cell phone network to the CEO of Vodafone.The first mobile phone with Internet connectivity was the Nokia 9000 Communicator, launched in Finland in 1996.The viability of Internet services access on mobile phones was limited until prices came down from that model, and network providers started to develop systems and services conveniently accessible on phones.", "NTT DoCoMo in Japan launched the first mobile Internet service, i-mode, in 1999 and this is considered the birth of the mobile phone Internet services.", "In 2001, the mobile phone email system by Research in Motion (now BlackBerry Limited) for their BlackBerry product was launched in America.", "To make efficient use of the small screen and tiny keypad and one-handed operation typical of mobile phones, a specific document and networking model was created for mobile devices, the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP).", "Most mobile device Internet services operate using WAP.", "The growth of mobile phone services was initially a primarily Asian phenomenon with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan all soon finding the majority of their Internet users accessing resources by phone rather than by PC.", "Developing countries followed, with India, South Africa, Kenya, the Philippines, and Pakistan all reporting that the majority of their domestic users accessed the Internet from a mobile phone rather than a PC.", "The European and North American use of the Internet was influenced by a large installed base of personal computers, and the growth of mobile phone Internet access was more gradual, but had reached national penetration levels of 20–30% in most Western countries.", "The cross-over occurred in 2008, when more Internet access devices were mobile phones than personal computers.", "In many parts of the developing world, the ratio is as much as 10 mobile phone users to one PC user." ], [ "Growth in demand", "Global Internet traffic continues to grow at a rapid rate, rising 23% from 2020 to 2021 when the number of active Internet users reached 4.66 billion people, representing half of the global population.", "Further demand for data, and the capacity to satisfy this demand, are forecast to increase to 717 terabits per second in 2021.This capacity stems from the optical amplification and WDM systems that are the common basis of virtually every metro, regional, national, international and submarine telecommunications networks.", "These optical networking systems have been installed throughout the 5 billion kilometers of fiber optic lines deployed around the world.", "Continued growth in traffic is expected for the foreseeable future from a combination of new users, increased mobile phone adoption, machine-to-machine connections, connected homes, 5G devices and the burgeoning requirement for cloud and Internet services such as Amazon, Facebook, Apple Music and YouTube." ], [ "Historiography", "There are nearly insurmountable problems in supplying a historiography of the Internet's development.", "The process of digitization represents a twofold challenge both for historiography in general and, in particular, for historical communication research.", "A sense of the difficulty in documenting early developments that led to the internet can be gathered from the quote:Notable works on the subject were published by Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, ''Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet'' (1996), Roy Rosenzweig, ''Wizards, Bureaucrats, Warriors, and Hackers: Writing the History of the Internet'' (1998), and Janet Abbate, ''Inventing the Internet'' (2000).Most scholarship and literature on the Internet lists ARPANET as the prior network that was iterated on and studied to create it, although other early computer networks and experiments existed alongside or before ARPANET.These histories of the Internet have since been characterized as teleologies or Whig history; that is, they take the present to be the end point toward which history has been unfolding based on a single cause:In addition to these characteristics, historians have cited methodological problems arising in their work:" ], [ "See also", "* History of email* History of hypertext* History of telecommunication* Index of Internet-related articles* Internet activism* List of Internet pioneers* MH & xmh: Email for Users & Programmers* Nerds 2.0.1 A Brief History of the Internet* On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog* Outline of the Internet" ], [ "References", "===Sources===***** * *" ], [ "External links", " Internet History Timeline – Computer History Museum* Histories of the Internet – Internet Society* Hobbes' Internet Timeline 12* ''History of the Internet'', a short animated film (2009)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Horace" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Quintus Horatius Flaccus''' (; 8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), commonly known in the English-speaking world as '''Horace''' (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian).", "The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his ''Odes'' as just about the only Latin lyrics worth reading: \"He can be lofty sometimes, yet he is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words.", "\"Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses (''Satires'' and ''Epistles'') and caustic iambic poetry (''Epodes'').", "The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist Persius to comment: \"as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about the heartstrings\".His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a republic to an empire.", "An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas, and became a spokesman for the new regime.", "For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained a strong measure of independence (he was \"a master of the graceful sidestep\") but for others he was, in John Dryden's phrase, \"a well-mannered court slave\"." ], [ "Life", "''Horatii Flacci Sermonum'' (1577)Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer.", "In his writings, he tells us far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity.", "Some of the biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from the short but valuable \"Life of Horace\" by Suetonius (in his ''Lives of the Poets'').For the Life of Horace by Suetonius, see: ( ''Vita Horati'')===Childhood===He was born on 8 December 65 BC in the Samnite south of Italy.", "His home town, Venusia, lay on a trade route in the border region between Apulia and Lucania (Basilicata).", "Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language.", "He could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium.", "One of the works he probably studied in school was the ''Odyssia'' of Livius Andronicus, taught by teachers like the 'Orbilius' mentioned in one of his poems.", "Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War (91–88 BC).", "Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to the area.", "According to a local tradition reported by Horace, a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century.", "In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth.", "Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in the wider world, and Horace was no different.", "Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems.Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a Sabine captured in the Samnite Wars.", "Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life.", "He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position.", "Thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'.", "The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace was explained by scholia as a reference to 'coactor argentareus' i.e.", "an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer.The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling and moral development.", "The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father.", "The poem includes this passage:If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise.", "I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son.", "''Satires 1.6.65–92''He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her.", "Perhaps she also had been a slave.===Adulthood===Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in The Academy.", "Founded by Plato, The Academy was now dominated by Epicureans and Stoics, whose theories and practises made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia.", "Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with the elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of Cicero, and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem.", "It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by Asinius Pollio and Augustus).Rome's troubles following the assassination of Julius Caesar were soon to catch up with him.", "Marcus Junius Brutus came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause.", "Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace.", "An educated young Roman could begin military service high in the ranks and Horace was made tribunus militum (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates.", "He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems.", "It was there in 42 BC that Octavian (later Augustus) and his associate Mark Antony crushed the republican forces at the Battle of Philippi.", "Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield, but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour.", "Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes Alcaeus and Archilochus.", "The comparison with the latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of Thasos, where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered.Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it.", "On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for the settlement of veterans (Virgil lost his estate in the north about the same time).", "Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry.", "In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying.", "At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich.", "Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of ''scriba quaestorius'', a civil service position at the ''aerarium'' or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ''ordo equester'' and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to ''scribae'' or permanent clerks.", "It was about this time that he began writing his ''Satires'' and ''Epodes''.He describes in glowing terms the country villa which his patron, Maecenas, had given him in a letter to his friend Quintius:The remains of Horace's Villa are situated on a wooded hillside above the river at Licenza, which joins the Aniene as it flows on to Tivoli.====Poet====Maecenas, by Fyodor BronnikovHorace reciting his verses, by Adalbert von Rössler.The ''Epodes'' belong to iambic poetry.", "Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language; sometimes, it is referred to as ''blame poetry''.", "''Blame poetry'', or ''shame poetry'', is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations.", "Each poem normally has a archetype person Horace decides to shame, or teach a lesson to.", "Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of Archilochus.", "Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of Carthage a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption.", "These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like Sextus Pompey, all jockeying for a bigger share of the spoils.", "One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the Spartacus rebellion, eight years before Horace's birth.", "As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems:Horace's Hellenistic background is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature.", "He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation.", "Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires.", "The way was opened for him by his friend, the poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his ''Eclogues''.", "An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted.", "He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well.", "On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as \"a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance.\"", "There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident.", "His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status.", "However, most Romans considered the civil wars to be the result of ''contentio dignitatis'', or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace.In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to Brundisium, described in one of his poems as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil.", "In fact the journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiate the Treaty of Tarentum with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires).", "Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off Palinurus in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning.", "There are also some indications in his verses that he was with Maecenas at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony.", "By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his Sabine farm, probably not long after the publication of the first book of ''Satires''.", "The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy.", "It signalled his identification with the Octavian regime yet, in the second book of ''Satires'' that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book.", "By this time, he had attained the status of ''eques Romanus'' (Roman 'cavalryman', 'knight'), perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury.====Knight====''Odes'' 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity.", "He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC.", "The fragmented nature of the Greek world had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to his own estate in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life.", "Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology.", "In ''Odes'' 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry.", "The name ''Augustus'', which Octavian assumed in 27 January BC, is first attested in ''Odes'' 3.3 and 3.5.In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the ''Odes'' concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Hispania (3.8) and Parthia (2.2).", "He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14).The public reception of ''Odes'' 1–3 disappointed him, however.", "He attributed the lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques.", "Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters.", "He addressed his first book of ''Epistles'' to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight.", "In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry but, though the collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics.", "Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron.", "In the final poem of the first book of ''Epistles'', he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e.", "21 BC, and \"of small stature, fond of the sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated\".According to Suetonius, the second book of ''Epistles'' was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself.", "Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary.", "Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter.", "The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC.", "It celebrated, among other things, the 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism.", "The literary theme was explored still further in ''Ars Poetica'', published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as ''Epistles'' 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote).", "He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating the victories of Drusus and Tiberius and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the Secular Games, a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs (''Carmen Saeculare'').Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked.", "The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he was laid to rest.", "Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends." ], [ "Works", "The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'.", "There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology:* ''Satires 1'' (c. 35–34 BC)* ''Satires 2'' (c. 30 BC)* ''Epodes'' (30 BC)* ''Odes 1–3'' (c. 23 BC)* ''Epistles 1'' (c. 21 BC)* ''Carmen Saeculare'' (17 BC)* ''Epistles 2'' (c. 11 BC)* ''Odes 4'' (c. 11 BC)* ''Ars Poetica'' (c. 10–8 BC)===Historical context===Horace composed in traditional metres borrowed from Archaic Greece, employing hexameters in his ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', and iambs in his ''Epodes'', all of which were relatively easy to adapt into Latin forms.", "His ''Odes'' featured more complex measures, including alcaics and sapphics, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax.", "Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style.", "He was influenced in particular by Hellenistic aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of Callimachus.In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience (''Urerlebnis'') and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and the visual arts (''Bildungserlebnis'').", "The distinction has little relevance for Horace however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other.", "''Satires'' 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by Lucilius, his predecessor.", "Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects.", "Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art.", "Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed, was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation.Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as Archilochus in the ''Epodes'', Lucilius in the ''Satires'' and Alcaeus in the ''Odes'', later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to the realities confronting him.", "Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome.", "However, the artifice of the ''Odes'' is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and the blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality.", "Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone (''Epistles'' 1.19.23–25).", "It was no idle boast.", "His ''Epodes'' were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real scapegoats.", "Whereas Archilochus presented himself as a serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode).", "He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus (''Epistles'' 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and the symposium.", "He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it.The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity.", "Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully.", "Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics.", "His work expressed genuine freedom or libertas.", "His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure.", "Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets.", "His libertas was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege.", "His ''Satires'' are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the ''Odes'') but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards (''Satires'' 1.10.56–61)The ''Epistles'' may be considered among Horace's most innovative works.", "There was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature.", "Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from Solon to Mimnermus and some lyrical poems from Pindar to Hieron of Syracuse.", "Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by Catullus and Propertius.", "But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters, let alone letters with a focus on philosophical problems.", "The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his ''Satires'' was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre.", "Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace.", "His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs.", "Thus for example it is generally agreed that his second book of ''Satires'', where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues.", "Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems.===Themes===Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself.", "His ''Epodes'' and ''Satires'' are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have a natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of Cynicism.", "This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of Bion of Borysthenes but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment.By the time he composed his ''Epistles'', he was a critic of Cynicism along with all impractical and \"high-falutin\" philosophy in general.The ''Satires'' also include a strong element of Epicureanism, with frequent allusions to the Epicurean poet Lucretius.", "So for example the Epicurean sentiment ''carpe diem'' is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name (''Horatius ~ hora'') in ''Satires'' 2.6.The ''Satires'' also feature some Stoic, Peripatetic and Platonic (''Dialogues'') elements.", "In short, the ''Satires'' present a medley of philosophical programmes, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of the genre.The ''Odes'' display a wide range of topics.", "Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice.", "Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion.", "The \"Odes\" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the ''Odes'' Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to the solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3).", "Epicureanism is the dominant influence, characterising about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism.A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as ''Odes'' 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends.", "While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as the satiric poet, and in ''Odes'' 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's golden mean as a remedy for Rome's political troubles.Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry.", "''Odes'' 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of \"Odes\" to a new level.", "This book shows greater poetic confidence after the public performance of his \"Carmen saeculare\" or \"Century hymn\" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus.", "In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises.", "It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living.", "In that ode, the epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with Stoicism and Epicureanism respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos.The first poem of the ''Epistles'' sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: \"So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern.\"", "His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy is intended to be ambiguous.", "Ambiguity is the hallmark of the ''Epistles''.", "It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticised.", "Though he emerges as an Epicurean, it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste.", "Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers." ], [ "Reception", "Horace, portrayed by Giacomo Di ChiricoThe reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime.", "''Odes'' 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned a ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of ''Odes'' 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured.", "His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly the parasitism that Italy was sinking into).", "In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin.In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself.", "In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself a monument more durable than bronze (\"Exegi monumentum aere perennius\", ''Carmina'' 3.30.1).", "For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement:Yet for men like Wilfred Owen, scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values:The same motto, ''Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori'', had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in the lyrics of early Christian poets like Prudentius.These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work.", "More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections.===Antiquity===Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, Ovid and Propertius.", "Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies.", "His ''Epistles'' provided them both with a model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry.His influence had a perverse aspect.", "As mentioned before, the brilliance of his ''Odes'' may have discouraged imitation.", "Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet Pindar, due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see Influence and Legacy of Pindar).", "The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's ''Epodes''.", "Ovid's ''Ibis'' was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by Callimachus, and there are some iambic elements in Martial but the main influence there was Catullus.", "A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style.", "Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by Persius, who critiqued his own satires as lacking both the acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace.", "Juvenal's caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as \"''the Venusine lamp''\".Statius paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with ''Odes''), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, ''Silvae''.", "Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on the lyric meters of the ''Odes'', including the scholarly poet Caesius Bassus.", "By a process called ''derivatio'', he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by Seneca the Younger when adapting Horatian meters to the stage.Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity.", "Works attributed to Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio are the remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship.", "Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the ''Odes'', because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the ''Odes'' were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also).", "Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as Ausonius and Claudian.", "Prudentius presented himself as a Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone.", "On the other hand, St Jerome, modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: \"''What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil?", "What has Horace to do with the Psalter?''\"", "By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that was struggling to survive the disorder of the times.", "Boethius, the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy.", "It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage.===Middle Ages and Renaissance===ode 4.15 (in praise of Augustus).Classical texts almost ceased being copied in the period between the mid sixth century and the Carolingian revival.", "Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy.", "These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century.", "Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in Alsace, and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries (Lombardy for example).", "By the last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry.", "His influence on the Carolingian Renaissance can be found in the poems of Heiric of Auxerre and in some manuscripts marked with neumes, mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters.", "''Ode'' 4.11 is neumed with the melody of a hymn to John the Baptist, ''Ut queant laxis'', composed in Sapphic stanzas.", "This hymn later became the basis of the solfege system (''Do, re, mi...'')an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian.", "Lyons argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted Ut queant laxis to it.", "However, the melody is unlikely to be a survivor from classical times, although Ovid testifies to Horace's use of the lyre while performing his Odes.The German scholar, Ludwig Traube, once dubbed the tenth and eleventh centuries ''The age of Horace'' (''aetas Horatiana''), and placed it between the ''aetas Vergiliana'' of the eighth and ninth centuries, and the ''aetas Ovidiana'' of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a distinction supposed to reflect the dominant classical Latin influences of those times.", "Such a distinction is over-schematized since Horace was a substantial influence in the ninth century as well.", "Traube had focused too much on Horace's ''Satires''.", "Almost all of Horace's work found favour in the Medieval period.", "In fact medieval scholars were also guilty of over-schematism, associating Horace's different genres with the different ages of man.", "A twelfth-century scholar encapsulated the theory: \"...Horace wrote four different kinds of poems on account of the four ages, the ''Odes'' for boys, the ''Ars Poetica'' for young men, the ''Satires'' for mature men, the ''Epistles'' for old and complete men.\"", "It was even thought that Horace had composed his works in the order in which they had been placed by ancient scholars.", "Despite its naivety, the schematism involved an appreciation of Horace's works as a collection, the ''Ars Poetica'', ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' appearing to find favour as well as the ''Odes''.", "The later Middle Ages however gave special significance to ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'', being considered Horace's mature works.", "Dante referred to Horace as ''Orazio satiro'', and he awarded him a privileged position in the first circle of Hell, with Homer, Ovid and Lucan.Horace's popularity is revealed in the large number of quotes from all his works found in almost every genre of medieval literature, and also in the number of poets imitating him in quantitative Latin meter.", "The most prolific imitator of his ''Odes'' was the Bavarian monk, Metellus of Tegernsee, who dedicated his work to the patron saint of Tegernsee Abbey, St Quirinus, around the year 1170.He imitated all Horace's lyrical meters then followed these up with imitations of other meters used by Prudentius and Boethius, indicating that variety, as first modelled by Horace, was considered a fundamental aspect of the lyric genre.", "The content of his poems however was restricted to simple piety.", "Among the most successful imitators of ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' was another Germanic author, calling himself Sextus Amarcius, around 1100, who composed four books, the first two exemplifying vices, the second pair mainly virtues.Petrarch is a key figure in the imitation of Horace in accentual meters.", "His verse letters in Latin were modelled on the ''Epistles'' and he wrote a letter to Horace in the form of an ode.", "However he also borrowed from Horace when composing his Italian sonnets.", "One modern scholar has speculated that authors who imitated Horace in accentual rhythms (including stressed Latin and vernacular languages) may have considered their work a natural sequel to Horace's metrical variety.", "In France, Horace and Pindar were the poetic models for a group of vernacular authors called the Pléiade, including for example Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay.", "Montaigne made constant and inventive use of Horatian quotes.", "The vernacular languages were dominant in Castilia and Portugal in the sixteenth century, where Horace's influence is notable in the works of such authors as Garcilaso de la Vega, Juan Boscán, Sá de Miranda, Antonio Ferreira and Fray Luis de León, the last writing odes on the Horatian theme ''beatus ille'' (''happy the man'').", "The sixteenth century in western Europe was also an age of translations (except in Germany, where Horace wasn't translated into the vernacular until well into the seventeenth century).", "The first English translator was Thomas Drant, who placed translations of Jeremiah and Horace side by side in ''Medicinable Morall'', 1566.That was also the year that the Scot George Buchanan paraphrased the Psalms in a Horatian setting.", "Ben Jonson put Horace on the stage in 1601 in ''Poetaster'', along with other classical Latin authors, giving them all their own verses to speak in translation.", "Horace's part evinces the independent spirit, moral earnestness and critical insight that many readers look for in his poems.===Age of Enlightenment===During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or the Age of Enlightenment, neoclassical culture was pervasive.", "English literature in the middle of that period has been dubbed Augustan.", "It is not always easy to distinguish Horace's influence during those centuries (the mixing of influences is shown for example in one poet's pseudonym, ''Horace Juvenal'').", "However a measure of his influence can be found in the diversity of the people interested in his works, both among readers and authors.New editions of his works were published almost yearly.", "There were three new editions in 1612 (two in Leiden, one in Frankfurt) and again in 1699 (Utrecht, Barcelona, Cambridge).", "Cheap editions were plentiful and fine editions were also produced, including one whose entire text was engraved by John Pine in copperplate.", "The poet James Thomson owned five editions of Horace's work and the physician James Douglas had five hundred books with Horace-related titles.", "Horace was often commended in periodicals such as The Spectator, as a hallmark of good judgement, moderation and manliness, a focus for moralising.", "His verses offered a fund of mottoes, such as ''simplex munditiis'' (elegance in simplicity), ''splendide mendax'' (nobly untruthful), ''sapere aude'' (dare to know), ''nunc est bibendum'' (now is the time to drink), ''carpe diem'' (seize the day, perhaps the only one still in common use today).", "These were quoted even in works as prosaic as Edmund Quincy's ''A treatise of hemp-husbandry'' (1765).", "The fictional hero Tom Jones recited his verses with feeling.", "His works were also used to justify commonplace themes, such as patriotic obedience, as in James Parry's English lines from an Oxford University collection in 1736:Horatian-style lyrics were increasingly typical of Oxford and Cambridge verse collections for this period, most of them in Latin but some like the previous ode in English.", "John Milton's Lycidas first appeared in such a collection.", "It has few Horatian echoes yet Milton's associations with Horace were lifelong.", "He composed a controversial version of ''Odes'' 1.5, and Paradise Lost includes references to Horace's 'Roman' ''Odes'' 3.1–6 (Book 7 for example begins with echoes of ''Odes'' 3.4).", "Yet Horace's lyrics could offer inspiration to libertines as well as moralists, and neo-Latin sometimes served as a kind of discrete veil for the risqué.", "Thus for example Benjamin Loveling authored a catalogue of Drury Lane and Covent Garden prostitutes, in Sapphic stanzas, and an encomium for a dying lady \"of salacious memory\".", "Some Latin imitations of Horace were politically subversive, such as a marriage ode by Anthony Alsop that included a rallying cry for the Jacobite cause.", "On the other hand, Andrew Marvell took inspiration from Horace's ''Odes'' 1.37 to compose his English masterpiece Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland, in which subtly nuanced reflections on the execution of Charles I echo Horace's ambiguous response to the death of Cleopatra (Marvell's ode was suppressed in spite of its subtlety and only began to be widely published in 1776).", "Samuel Johnson took particular pleasure in reading ''The Odes''.", "Alexander Pope wrote direct ''Imitations'' of Horace (published with the original Latin alongside) and also echoed him in ''Essays'' and The Rape of the Lock.", "He even emerged as \"a quite Horatian Homer\" in his translation of the ''Iliad''.", "Horace appealed also to female poets, such as Anna Seward (''Original sonnets on various subjects, and odes paraphrased from Horace'', 1799) and Elizabeth Tollet, who composed a Latin ode in Sapphic meter to celebrate her brother's return from overseas, with tea and coffee substituted for the wine of Horace's sympotic settings:Horace in an anonymous late 18th to early 19th century engravingHorace's ''Ars Poetica'' is second only to Aristotle's ''Poetics'' in its influence on literary theory and criticism.", "Milton recommended both works in his treatise ''of Education''.", "Horace's ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' however also had a huge impact, influencing theorists and critics such as John Dryden.", "There was considerable debate over the value of different lyrical forms for contemporary poets, as represented on one hand by the kind of four-line stanzas made familiar by Horace's Sapphic and Alcaic ''Odes'' and, on the other, the loosely structured Pindarics associated with the odes of Pindar.", "Translations occasionally involved scholars in the dilemmas of censorship.", "Thus Christopher Smart entirely omitted ''Odes'' 4.10 and re-numbered the remaining odes.", "He also removed the ending of ''Odes'' 4.1.Thomas Creech printed ''Epodes'' 8 and 12 in the original Latin but left out their English translations.", "Philip Francis left out both the English and Latin for those same two epodes, a gap in the numbering the only indication that something was amiss.", "French editions of Horace were influential in England and these too were regularly bowdlerized.Most European nations had their own 'Horaces': thus for example Friedrich von Hagedorn was called ''The German Horace'' and Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski ''The Polish Horace'' (the latter was much imitated by English poets such as Henry Vaughan and Abraham Cowley).", "Pope Urban VIII wrote voluminously in Horatian meters, including an ode on gout.===19th century on===Horace maintained a central role in the education of English-speaking elites right up until the 1960s.", "A pedantic emphasis on the formal aspects of language-learning at the expense of literary appreciation may have made him unpopular in some quarters yet it also confirmed his influencea tension in his reception that underlies Byron's famous lines from ''Childe Harold'' (Canto iv, 77):William Wordsworth's mature poetry, including the preface to ''Lyrical Ballads'', reveals Horace's influence in its rejection of false ornament and he once expressed \"a wish / to meet the shade of Horace...\".", "John Keats echoed the opening of Horace's ''Epodes'' 14 in the opening lines of ''Ode to a Nightingale''.The Roman poet was presented in the nineteenth century as an honorary English gentleman.", "William Thackeray produced a version of ''Odes'' 1.38 in which Horace's 'boy' became 'Lucy', and Gerard Manley Hopkins translated the boy innocently as 'child'.", "Horace was translated by Sir Theodore Martin (biographer of Prince Albert) but minus some ungentlemanly verses, such as the erotic ''Odes'' 1.25 and ''Epodes'' 8 and 12.Edward Bulwer-Lytton produced a popular translation and William Gladstone also wrote translations during his last days as Prime Minister.Edward FitzGerald's ''Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam'', though formally derived from the Persian ''ruba'i'', nevertheless shows a strong Horatian influence, since, as one modern scholar has observed, \"''...the quatrains inevitably recall the stanzas of the 'Odes', as does the narrating first person of the world-weary, ageing Epicurean Omar himself, mixing sympotic exhortation and 'carpe diem' with splendid moralising and 'memento mori' nihilism.''\"", "Matthew Arnold advised a friend in verse not to worry about politics, an echo of ''Odes'' 2.11, yet later became a critic of Horace's inadequacies relative to Greek poets, as role models of Victorian virtues, observing: \"''If human life were complete without faith, without enthusiasm, without energy, Horace...would be the perfect interpreter of human life.''\"", "Christina Rossetti composed a sonnet depicting a woman willing her own death steadily, drawing on Horace's depiction of 'Glycera' in ''Odes'' 1.19.5–6 and Cleopatra in ''Odes'' 1.37.A.", "E. Housman considered ''Odes'' 4.7, in Archilochian couplets, the most beautiful poem of antiquity and yet he generally shared Horace's penchant for quatrains, being readily adapted to his own elegiac and melancholy strain.", "The most famous poem of Ernest Dowson took its title and its heroine's name from a line of ''Odes'' 4.1, ''Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae'', as well as its motif of nostalgia for a former flame.", "Kipling wrote a famous parody of the ''Odes'', satirising their stylistic idiosyncrasies and especially the extraordinary syntax, but he also used Horace's Roman patriotism as a focus for British imperialism, as in the story ''Regulus'' in the school collection ''Stalky & Co.'', which he based on ''Odes'' 3.5.Wilfred Owen's famous poem, quoted above, incorporated Horatian text to question patriotism while ignoring the rules of Latin scansion.", "However, there were few other echoes of Horace in the war period, possibly because war is not actually a major theme of Horace's work.", "The Spanish poet Miquel Costa i Llobera published his renowned collection of poems named ''Horacianes'', thus being dedicated to the Latin poet Horace, and employing Sapphics, Alcaics and similar types of stanzas.Bibendum (the symbol of the Michelin tyre company) takes his name from the opening line of Ode 1.37, ''Nunc est bibendum''.Both W. H. Auden and Louis MacNeice began their careers as teachers of classics and both responded as poets to Horace's influence.", "Auden for example evoked the fragile world of the 1930s in terms echoing ''Odes'' 2.11.1–4, where Horace advises a friend not to let worries about frontier wars interfere with current pleasures.Wall poem in Leiden The American poet Robert Frost echoed Horace's ''Satires'' in the conversational and sententious idiom of some of his longer poems, such as ''The Lesson for Today'' (1941), and also in his gentle advocacy of life on the farm, as in ''Hyla Brook'' (1916), evoking Horace's ''fons Bandusiae'' in ''Ode'' 3.13.Now at the start of the third millennium, poets are still absorbing and re-configuring the Horatian influence, sometimes in translation (such as a 2002 English/American edition of the ''Odes'' by thirty-six poets) and sometimes as inspiration for their own work (such as a 2003 collection of odes by a New Zealand poet).Horace's ''Epodes'' have largely been ignored in the modern era, excepting those with political associations of historical significance.", "The obscene qualities of some of the poems have repulsed even scholars yet more recently a better understanding of the nature of Iambic poetry has led to a re-evaluation of the ''whole'' collection.", "A re-appraisal of the ''Epodes'' also appears in creative adaptations by recent poets (such as a 2004 collection of poems that relocates the ancient context to a 1950s industrial town)." ], [ "Translations", "The ''Ars Poetica'' was first translated into English by Thomas Drant in 1556, and later by Ben Jonson and Lord Byron.", "John Dryden, ''Sylvæ; or, The second Part of Poetical Miscellanies'' (London: Jacob Tonson, 1685) with adaptations of three of the ''Odes'', and one Epode.", "Philip Francis, ''The Odes, Epodes, and Carmen Seculare'' ''of Horace'' (Dublin, 1742; London, 1743) ——— ''The Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry'' ''of Horace'' (1746) Samuel Johnson favoured these translations.", "C. S. Calverley, ''Verses and Translations'' (1860; rev.", "1862) Included versions of ten of the ''Odes.''", "John Conington, ''The Odes and Carmen Sæculare of Horace'' (1863; rev.", "1872)——— ''The Satires'', ''Epistles'' ''and'' ''Ars Poëtica of Horace'' (1869)Theodore Martin, ''The Odes of Horace, Translated Into English Verse, with a Life and Notes'' (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1866)* Edward Marsh, ''The Odes of Horace.", "Translated into English Verse by Edward Marsh'' (London: Macmillan & Co., 1941).", "James Michie, ''The Odes of Horace'' (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1964) Included a dozen ''Odes'' in the original Sapphic and Alcaic metres.", "More recent verse translations of the Odes include those by David West (free verse), and Colin Sydenham (rhymed).", "In 1983, Charles E. Passage translated all the works of Horace in the original metres.", "''Horace's Odes and the Mystery of Do-Re-Mi'' Stuart Lyons (rhymed) Aris & Phillips" ], [ "In literature and the arts", "The Oxford Latin Course textbooks use the life of Horace to illustrate an average Roman's life in the late Republic to Early Empire.Horace was portrayed by Norman Shelley in the 1976 miniseries ''I, Claudius''." ], [ "See also", "* Carpe diem* Horatia gens* List of ancient Romans* Otium* Prosody (Latin)* Translation* Horace's Villa" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", " * * * Q. Horati Flacci '' opera'', recensuerunt O. Keller et A.", "Holder, 2 voll., Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1864–9.", "* Q. Horati Flacci opera (critical edition of all Horace's poems), edited by O. Keller & A.", "Holder, published by B. G. Teubner, 1878.", "* Common sayings from Horace* The works of Horace at The Latin Library* Carmina Horatiana All ''Carmina'' of Horace in Latin recited by Thomas Bervoets.", "* Selected Poems of Horace* Works by Horace at Perseus Digital Library* * Horace's works: text, concordances and frequency list* SORGLL: Horace, ''Odes'' I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky* Translations of several odes in the original meters (with accompaniment).", "* A discussion and comparison of three different contemporary translations of Horace's ''Odes''* academia.edu: Tossing Augustus out of Horace's Ars Poetica * Horati opera, Acronis et Porphyrionis commentarii, varia lectio etc.", "(latine)* Horace MS 1a Ars Poetica and Epistulae at OPenn" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Microsoft Windows version history" ], [ "Introduction", "Microsoft Windows was announced by Bill Gates on 10 November 1983, 2 years before it was first released.", "Microsoft introduced Windows as a graphical user interface for MS-DOS, which had been introduced two years earlier.", "The product line evolved in the 1990s from an operating environment into a fully complete, modern operating system over two lines of development, each with their own separate codebase.The first versions of Windows (1.0 through to 3.11) were graphical shells that ran from MS-DOS.", "Windows 95, though still being based on MS-DOS, was its own operating system, using a 16-bit DOS-based kernel and a 32-bit user space.", "Windows 95 also had a significant amount of 16-bit code ported from Windows 3.1.Windows 95 introduced many features that have been part of the product ever since, including the Start menu, the taskbar, and Windows Explorer (renamed File Explorer in Windows 8).", "In 1997, Microsoft released Internet Explorer 4 which included the (at the time controversial) Windows Desktop Update.", "It aimed to integrate Internet Explorer and the web into the user interface and also brought many new features into Windows, such as the ability to display JPEG images as the desktop wallpaper and single window navigation in Windows Explorer.", "In 1998, Microsoft released Windows 98, which also included the Windows Desktop Update and Internet Explorer 4 by default.", "The inclusion of Internet Explorer 4 and the Desktop Update led to an antitrust case in the United States.", "Windows 98 included USB support out of the box, and also plug and play, which allows devices to work when plugged in without requiring a system reboot or manual configuration.", "Windows Me, the last DOS-based version of Windows, was aimed at consumers and released in 2000.It introduced System Restore, Help and Support Center, updated versions of the Disk Defragmenter and other system tools.In 1993, Microsoft released Windows NT 3.1, the first version of the newly developed Windows NT operating system, followed by Windows NT 3.5 in 1994, and Windows NT 3.51 in 1995.", "\"NT\" is an initialism for \"New Technology\".", "Unlike the Windows 9x series of operating systems, it is a fully 32-bit operating system.", "NT 3.1 introduced NTFS, a file system designed to replace the older File Allocation Table (FAT) which was used by DOS and the DOS-based Windows operating systems.", "In 1996, Windows NT 4.0 was released, which includes a fully 32-bit version of Windows Explorer written specifically for it, making the operating system work like Windows 95.Windows NT was originally designed to be used on high-end systems and servers, but with the release of Windows 2000, many consumer-oriented features from Windows 95 and Windows 98 were included, such as the Windows Desktop Update, Internet Explorer 5, USB support and Windows Media Player.", "These consumer-oriented features were further extended in Windows XP in 2001, which included a new visual style called Luna, a more user-friendly interface, updated versions of Windows Media Player and Internet Explorer 6 by default, and extended features from Windows Me, such as the Help and Support Center and System Restore.", "Windows Vista, which was released in 2007, focused on securing the Windows operating system against computer viruses and other malicious software by introducing features such as User Account Control.", "New features include Windows Aero, updated versions of the standard games (e.g.", "Solitaire), Windows Movie Maker, and Windows Mail to replace Outlook Express.", "Despite this, Windows Vista was critically panned for its poor performance on older hardware and its at-the-time high system requirements.", "Windows 7 followed in 2009 nearly three years after its launch, and despite it technically having higher system requirements, reviewers noted that it ran better than Windows Vista.", "Windows 7 removed many applications, such as Windows Movie Maker, Windows Photo Gallery and Windows Mail, instead requiring users to download separate Windows Live Essentials to gain some of those features and other online services.", "Windows 8, which was released in 2012, introduced many controversial changes, such as the replacement of the Start menu with the Start Screen, the removal of the Aero interface in favor of a flat, colored interface as well as the introduction of \"Metro\" apps (later renamed to Universal Windows Platform apps), and the Charms Bar user interface element, all of which received considerable criticism from reviewers.", "Windows 8.1, a free upgrade to Windows 8, was released in 2013.The following version of Windows, Windows 10, which was released in 2015, reintroduced the Start menu and added the ability to run Universal Windows Platform apps in a window instead of always in full screen.", "Windows 10 was generally well-received, with many reviewers stating that Windows 10 is what Windows 8 should have been.The latest version of Windows, Windows 11, was released on October 5, 2021.Windows 11 incorporates a redesigned user interface, including a new Start menu, a visual style featuring rounded corners, and a new layout for the Microsoft Store, and also included Microsoft Edge by default." ], [ "Windows 1.0", "Windows 1.0, the first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on November 20, 1985, achieved little popularity.", "The project was briefly codenamed \"Interface Manager\" before the windowing system was implemented—contrary to popular belief that it was the original name for Windows and Rowland Hanson, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name ''Windows'' would be more appealing to customers.The logo of Windows 1.x and 2.xWindows 1.0 was not a complete operating system, but rather an \"operating environment\" that extended MS-DOS, and shared the latter's inherent flaws.The first version of Microsoft Windows included a simple graphics painting program called Windows Paint; Windows Write, a simple word processor; an appointment calendar; a card-filer; a notepad; a clock; a control panel; a computer terminal; Clipboard; and RAM driver.", "It also included the MS-DOS Executive and a game called Reversi.Microsoft had worked with Apple Computer to develop applications for Apple's new Macintosh computer, which featured a graphical user interface.", "As part of the related business negotiations, Microsoft had licensed certain aspects of the Macintosh user interface from Apple; in later litigation, a district court summarized these aspects as \"screen displays\".In the development of Windows 1.0, Microsoft intentionally limited its borrowing of certain GUI elements from the Macintosh user interface, to comply with its license.", "For example, windows were only displayed \"tiled\" on the screen; that is, they could not overlap or overlie one another.On December 31, 2001, Microsoft declared Windows 1.0 obsolete and stopped providing support and updates for the system." ], [ "Windows 2.x", "Microsoft Windows version 2.0 (2.01 and 2.03 internally) came out on December 9, 1987 and proved slightly more popular than its predecessor.Much of the popularity for Windows 2.0 came by way of its inclusion as a \"run-time version\" with Microsoft's new graphical applications, Excel and Word for Windows.", "They could be run from MS-DOS, executing Windows for the duration of their activity, and closing down Windows upon exit.Microsoft Windows received a major boost around this time when Aldus PageMaker appeared in a Windows version, having previously run only on Macintosh.", "Some computer historians date this, the first appearance of a significant ''and'' non-Microsoft application for Windows, as the start of the success of Windows.Like prior versions of Windows, version 2.0 could use the real-mode memory model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 megabyte of memory.", "In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasker like DESQview, which used the 286 protected mode.", "It was also the first version to support the High Memory Area when running on an Intel 80286 compatible processor.", "This edition was renamed Windows/286 with the release of Windows 2.1.A separate Windows/386 edition had a protected mode kernel, which required an 80386 compatible processor, with LIM-standard EMS emulation and VxD drivers in the kernel.", "All Windows and DOS-based applications at the time were real mode, and Windows/386 could run them over the protected mode kernel by using the virtual 8086 mode, which was new with the 80386 processor.Version 2.1 came out on May 27, 1988, followed by version 2.11 on March 13, 1989; they included a few minor changes.In Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp., version 2.03, and later 3.0, faced challenges from Apple over its overlapping windows and other features Apple charged mimicked the ostensibly copyrighted \"look and feel\" of its operating system and \"embodied and generated a copy of the Macintosh\" in its OS.", "Judge William Schwarzer dropped all but 10 of Apple's 189 claims of copyright infringement, and ruled that most of the remaining 10 were over uncopyrightable ideas.On December 31, 2001, Microsoft declared Windows 2.x obsolete and stopped providing support and updates for the system." ], [ "Windows 3.0", "The logo of Windows 3.0Windows 3.0, released in May 1990, improved capabilities given to native applications.", "It also allowed users to better multitask older MS-DOS based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of virtual memory.Windows 3.0's user interface finally resembled a serious competitor to the user interface of the Macintosh computer.", "PCs had improved graphics by this time, due to VGA video cards, and the protected/enhanced mode allowed Windows applications to use more memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could.", "Windows 3.0 could run in real, standard, or 386 enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the 8086/8088 up to the 80286 and 80386.This was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel in Windows/386.Windows 3.0 received two updates.", "A few months after introduction, Windows 3.0a was released as a maintenance release, resolving bugs and improving stability.", "A \"multimedia\" version, Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions 1.0, was released in October 1991.This was bundled with \"multimedia upgrade kits\", comprising a CD-ROM drive and a sound card, such as the Creative Labs Sound Blaster Pro.", "This version was the precursor to the multimedia features available in Windows 3.1 (first released in April 1992) and later, and was part of Microsoft's specification for the Multimedia PC.The features listed above and growing market support from application software developers made Windows 3.0 wildly successful, selling around 10 million copies in the two years before the release of version 3.1.Windows 3.0 became a major source of income for Microsoft, and led the company to revise some of its earlier plans.", "Support was discontinued on December 31, 2001." ], [ "OS/2", "OS/2 logoDuring the mid to late 1980s, Microsoft and IBM had cooperatively been developing OS/2 as a successor to DOS.", "OS/2 would take full advantage of the aforementioned protected mode of the Intel 80286 processor and up to 16 MB of memory.", "OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, supported swapping and multitasking and allowed running of DOS executables.IBM licensed Windows' GUI for OS/2 as Presentation Manager, and the two companies stated that it and Windows 2.0 would be almost identical.", "Presentation Manager was not available with OS/2 until version 1.1, released in 1988.Its API was incompatible with Windows.", "Version 1.2, released in 1989, introduced a new file system, HPFS, to replace the FAT file system.By the early 1990s, conflicts developed in the Microsoft/IBM relationship.", "They cooperated with each other in developing their PC operating systems and had access to each other's code.", "Microsoft wanted to further develop Windows, while IBM desired for future work to be based on OS/2.In an attempt to resolve this tension, IBM and Microsoft agreed that IBM would develop OS/2 2.0, to replace OS/2 1.3 and Windows 3.0, while Microsoft would develop the next version, OS/2 3.0.This agreement soon fell apart however, and the Microsoft/IBM relationship was terminated.", "IBM continued to develop OS/2, while Microsoft changed the name of its (as yet unreleased) OS/2 3.0 to Windows NT.", "Both retained the rights to use OS/2 and Windows technology developed up to the termination of the agreement; Windows NT, however, was to be written anew, mostly independently (see below).After an interim 1.3 version to fix up many remaining problems with the 1.x series, IBM released OS/2 version 2.0 in 1992.This was a major improvement: it featured a new, object-oriented GUI, the Workplace Shell (WPS), that included a desktop and was considered by many to be OS/2's best feature.", "Microsoft would later imitate much of it in Windows 95.Version 2.0 also provided a full 32-bit API, offered smooth multitasking and could take advantage of the 4 gigabytes of address space provided by the Intel 80386.Still, much of the system had 16-bit code internally which required, among other things, device drivers to be 16-bit code as well.", "This was one of the reasons for the chronic shortage of OS/2 drivers for the latest devices.", "Version 2.0 could also run DOS and Windows 3.0 programs, since IBM had retained the right to use the DOS and Windows code as a result of the breakup." ], [ "Windows 3.1x", "In response to the impending release of OS/2 2.0, Microsoft developed Windows 3.1 (first released in April 1992), which included several improvements to Windows 3.0, such as display of TrueType scalable fonts (developed jointly with Apple), improved disk performance in 386 Enhanced Mode, multimedia support, and bugfixes.", "It also removed Real Mode, and only ran on an 80286 or better processor.", "Later Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in 1992.The logo of Windows 3.1x and NT 3.xIn 1992 and 1993, Microsoft released Windows for Workgroups (WfW), which was available both as an add-on for existing Windows 3.1 installations and in a version that included the base Windows environment and the networking extensions all in one package.", "Windows for Workgroups included improved network drivers and protocol stacks, and support for peer-to-peer networking.", "There were two versions of Windows for Workgroups – 3.1 and 3.11.Unlike prior versions, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 ran in 386 Enhanced Mode only, and needed at least an 80386SX processor.", "One optional download for WfW was the \"Wolverine\" TCP/IP protocol stack, which allowed for easy access to the Internet through corporate networks.All these versions continued version 3.0's impressive sales pace.", "Even though the 3.1x series still lacked most of the important features of OS/2, such as long file names, a desktop, or protection of the system against misbehaving applications, Microsoft quickly took over the OS and GUI markets for the IBM PC.", "The Windows API became the de facto standard for consumer software.On December 31, 2001, Microsoft declared Windows 3.1 obsolete and stopped providing support and updates for the system.", "However, OEM licensing for Windows for Workgroups 3.11 on embedded systems continued to be available until November 1, 2008." ], [ "Windows NT 3.x", "Meanwhile, Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT.", "The main architect of the system was Dave Cutler, one of the chief architects of VAX/VMS at Digital Equipment Corporation.", "Microsoft hired him in October 1988 to create a successor to OS/2, but Cutler created a completely new system instead.", "Cutler had been developing a follow-on to VMS at DEC called MICA, and when DEC dropped the project he brought the expertise and around 20 engineers with him to Microsoft.Windows NT Workstation (Microsoft marketing wanted Windows NT to appear to be a continuation of Windows 3.1) arrived in Beta form to developers at the July 1992 Professional Developers Conference in San Francisco.", "Microsoft announced at the conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (Windows 95, codenamed Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system.", "This successor was codenamed Cairo.", "In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft had anticipated and, as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified until Windows XP—albeit Windows 2000, oriented to business, had already unified most of the system's bolts and gears, it was XP that was sold to home consumers like Windows 95 and came to be viewed as the final unified OS.", "Parts of Cairo have still not made it into Windows as of 2020: most notably, the WinFS file system, which was the much touted Object File System of Cairo.", "Microsoft announced that they have discontinued the separate release of WinFS for Windows XP and Windows Vista and will gradually incorporate the technologies developed for WinFS in other products and technologies, notably Microsoft SQL Server.Driver support was lacking due to the increased programming difficulty in dealing with NT's superior hardware abstraction model.", "This problem plagued the NT line all the way through Windows 2000.Programmers complained that it was too hard to write drivers for NT, and hardware developers were not going to go through the trouble of developing drivers for a small segment of the market.", "Additionally, although allowing for good performance and fuller exploitation of system resources, it was also resource-intensive on limited hardware, and thus was only suitable for larger, more expensive machines.However, these same features made Windows NT perfect for the LAN server market (which in 1993 was experiencing a rapid boom, as office networking was becoming common).", "NT also had advanced network connectivity options and NTFS, an efficient file system.", "Windows NT version 3.51 was Microsoft's entry into this field, and took away market share from Novell (the dominant player) in the following years.One of Microsoft's biggest advances initially developed for Windows NT was a new 32-bit API, to replace the legacy 16-bit Windows API.", "This API was called Win32, and from then on Microsoft referred to the older 16-bit API as Win16.The Win32 API had three levels of implementation: the complete one for Windows NT, a subset for Chicago (originally called Win32c) missing features primarily of interest to enterprise customers (at the time) such as security and Unicode support, and a more limited subset called Win32s which could be used on Windows 3.1 systems.", "Thus Microsoft sought to ensure some degree of compatibility between the Chicago design and Windows NT, even though the two systems had radically different internal architectures.Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel.", "The hybrid kernel was designed as a modified microkernel, influenced by the Mach microkernel developed by Richard Rashid at Carnegie Mellon University, but without meeting all of the criteria of a pure microkernel.As released, Windows NT 3.x went through three versions (3.1, 3.5, and 3.51), changes were primarily internal and reflected back end changes.", "The 3.5 release added support for new types of hardware and improved performance and data reliability; the 3.51 release was primarily to update the Win32 APIs to be compatible with software being written for the Win32c APIs in what became Windows 95.Support for Windows NT 3.51 ended in 2001 and 2002 for the Workstation and Server editions, respectively." ], [ "Windows 95", "After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new consumer-oriented version of the operating system codenamed Chicago.", "Chicago was designed to have support for 32-bit preemptive multitasking like OS/2 and Windows NT, although a 16-bit kernel would remain for the sake of backward compatibility.", "The Win32 API first introduced with Windows NT was adopted as the standard 32-bit programming interface, with Win16 compatibility being preserved through a technique known as \"thunking\".", "A new object-oriented GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably Plug and Play) slipped.Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32-bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using real mode) for reasons of compatibility, performance, and development time.", "Additionally it was necessary to carry over design decisions from earlier versions of Windows for reasons of backwards compatibility, even if these design decisions no longer matched a more modern computing environment.", "These factors eventually began to impact the operating system's efficiency and stability.The logo of Windows 95 and 98Microsoft marketing adopted Windows 95 as the product name for Chicago when it was released on August 24, 1995.Microsoft had a double gain from its release: first, it made it impossible for consumers to run Windows 95 on a cheaper, non-Microsoft DOS, secondly, although traces of DOS were never completely removed from the system and MS DOS 7 would be loaded briefly as a part of the booting process, Windows 95 applications ran solely in 386 enhanced mode, with a flat 32-bit address space and virtual memory.", "These features make it possible for Win32 applications to address up to 2 gigabytes of virtual RAM (with another 2 GB reserved for the operating system), and in theory prevented them from inadvertently corrupting the memory space of other Win32 applications.", "In this respect the functionality of Windows 95 moved closer to Windows NT, although Windows 95/98/Me did not support more than 512 megabytes of physical RAM without obscure system tweaks.", "Three years after its introduction, Windows 95 was succeeded by Windows 98.IBM continued to market OS/2, producing later versions in OS/2 3.0 and 4.0 (also called Warp).", "Responding to complaints about OS/2 2.0's high demands on computer hardware, version 3.0 was significantly optimized both for speed and size.", "Before Windows 95 was released, OS/2 Warp 3.0 was even shipped pre-installed with several large German hardware vendor chains.", "However, with the release of Windows 95, OS/2 began to lose market share.It is probably impossible to choose one specific reason why OS/2 failed to gain much market share.", "While OS/2 continued to run Windows 3.1 applications, it lacked support for anything but the Win32s subset of Win32 API (see above).", "Unlike with Windows 3.1, IBM did not have access to the source code for Windows 95 and was unwilling to commit the time and resources to emulate the moving target of the Win32 API.", "IBM later introduced OS/2 into the United States v. Microsoft case, blaming unfair marketing tactics on Microsoft's part.Microsoft went on to release five different versions of Windows 95:* Windows 95 – original release* Windows 95 A – included Windows 95 OSR1 slipstreamed into the installation* Windows 95 B (OSR2) – included several major enhancements, Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and full FAT32 file system support* Windows 95 B USB (OSR2.1) – included basic USB support* Windows 95 C (OSR2.5) – included all the above features, plus IE 4.0; this was the last 95 version producedOSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public, rather, they were available only to OEMs that would preload the OS onto computers.", "Some companies sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (officially justifying this as needed due to the hard drive's capacity).The first Microsoft Plus!", "add-on pack was sold for Windows 95.Microsoft ended extended support for Windows 95 on December 31, 2001." ], [ "Windows NT 4.0", "Microsoft released the successor to NT 3.51, Windows NT 4.0, on August 24, 1996, one year after the release of Windows 95.It was Microsoft's primary business-oriented operating system until the introduction of Windows 2000.Major new features included the new Explorer shell from Windows 95, scalability and feature improvements to the core architecture, kernel, USER32, COM and MSRPC.Windows NT 4.0 came in five versions:* Windows NT 4.0 Workstation* Windows NT 4.0 Server* Windows NT 4.0 Server, Enterprise Edition (includes support for 8-way SMP and clustering)* Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server* Windows NT 4.0 EmbeddedMicrosoft ended mainstream support for Windows NT 4.0 Workstation on June 30, 2002, and ended extended support on June 30, 2004, while Windows NT 4.0 Server mainstream support ended on December 31, 2002, and extended support ended on December 31, 2004.Both editions were succeeded by Windows 2000 Professional and the Windows 2000 Server Family, respectively.Microsoft ended mainstream support for Windows NT 4.0 Embedded on June 30, 2003, and ended extended support on July 11, 2006.This edition was succeeded by Windows XP Embedded." ], [ "Windows 98", "Windows 98 desktopOn June 25, 1998, Microsoft released Windows 98 (code-named Memphis), three years after the release of Windows 95, two years after the release of Windows NT 4.0, and 21 months before the release of Windows 2000.It included new hardware drivers and the FAT32 file system which supports disk partitions that are larger than 2 GB (first introduced in Windows 95 OSR2).", "USB support in Windows 98 is marketed as a vast improvement over Windows 95.The release continued the controversial inclusion of the Internet Explorer browser with the operating system that started with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 1.The action eventually led to the filing of the United States v. Microsoft case, dealing with the question of whether Microsoft was introducing unfair practices into the market in an effort to eliminate competition from other companies such as Netscape.In 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an interim release.", "One of the more notable new features was the addition of Internet Connection Sharing, a form of network address translation, allowing several machines on a LAN (Local Area Network) to share a single Internet connection.", "Hardware support through device drivers was increased and this version shipped with Internet Explorer 5.Many minor problems that existed in the first edition were fixed making it, according to many, the most stable release of the Windows 9x family.Mainstream support for Windows 98 and 98 SE ended on June 30, 2002.Extended support ended on July 11, 2006." ], [ "Windows 2000", "Windows 2000 wordmarkMicrosoft released Windows 2000 on February 17, 2000, as the successor to Windows NT 4.0, 17 months after the release of Windows 98.It has the version number Windows NT 5.0, and it was Microsoft's business-oriented operating system starting with the official release on February 17, 2000, until 2001 when it was succeeded by Windows XP.", "Windows 2000 has had four official service packs.", "It was successfully deployed both on the server and the workstation markets.", "Amongst Windows 2000's most significant new features was Active Directory, a near-complete replacement of the NT 4.0 Windows Server domain model, which built on industry-standard technologies like DNS, LDAP, and Kerberos to connect machines to one another.", "Terminal Services, previously only available as a separate edition of NT 4, was expanded to all server versions.", "A number of features from Windows 98 were incorporated also, such as an improved Device Manager, Windows Media Player, and a revised DirectX that made it possible for the first time for many modern games to work on the NT kernel.", "Windows 2000 is also the last NT-kernel Windows operating system to lack product activation.While Windows 2000 upgrades were available for Windows 95 and Windows 98, it was not intended for home users.Windows 2000 was available in four editions:* Windows 2000 Professional* Windows 2000 Server* Windows 2000 Advanced Server* Windows 2000 Datacenter ServerMicrosoft ended support for both Windows 2000 and Windows XP Service Pack 2 on July 13, 2010." ], [ "Windows Me", "Windows Me desktopOn September 14, 2000, Microsoft released a successor to Windows 98 called Windows Me, short for \"Millennium Edition\".", "It was the last DOS-based operating system from Microsoft.", "Windows Me introduced a new multimedia-editing application called Windows Movie Maker, came standard with Internet Explorer 5.5 and Windows Media Player 7, and debuted the first version of System Restore – a recovery utility that enables the operating system to revert system files back to a prior date and time.", "System Restore was a notable feature that would continue to thrive in all later versions of Windows.Windows Me was conceived as a quick one-year project that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and Windows XP.", "Many of the new features were available from the Windows Update site as updates for older Windows versions (''System Restore'' and ''Windows Movie Maker'' were exceptions).", "Windows Me was criticized for stability issues, as well as for lacking real mode DOS support, to the point of being referred to as the \"Mistake Edition\".", "Windows Me was the last operating system to be based on the Windows 9x (monolithic) kernel and MS-DOS, with its successor Windows XP being based on Microsoft's Windows NT kernel instead." ], [ "Windows XP, Server 2003 series and Fundamentals for Legacy PCs", "Windows XP desktopOn October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP (codenamed \"Whistler\").", "The merging of the Windows NT/2000 and Windows 95/98/Me lines was finally achieved with Windows XP.", "Windows XP uses the Windows NT 5.1 kernel, marking the entrance of the Windows NT core to the consumer market, to replace the aging Windows 9x branch.", "The initial release was met with considerable criticism, particularly in the area of security, leading to the release of three major Service Packs.", "Windows XP SP1 was released in September 2002, SP2 was released in August 2004 and SP3 was released in April 2008.Service Pack 2 provided significant improvements and encouraged widespread adoption of XP among both home and business users.", "Windows XP was one of Microsoft's longest-running flagship operating systems, beginning with the public release on October 25, 2001, for at least 5 years, and ending on January 30, 2007, when it was succeeded by Windows Vista.Windows XP is available in a number of versions:* Windows XP Home Edition, for home users* Windows XP Professional, for business and power users contained a number of features not available in Home Edition.", "* Windows XP N, like above editions, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union rulingWindows XP wordmark* Windows XP Media Center Edition (MCE), released in October 2002 for desktops and notebooks with an emphasis on home entertainment.", "Contained all features offered in Windows XP Professional and the Windows Media Center.", "Subsequent versions are the same but have an updated Windows Media Center.", " Windows XP Media Center Edition 2004, released on September 30, 2003 Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005, released on October 12, 2004.Included the Royale theme, support for Media Center Extenders, themes and screensavers from ''Microsoft Plus!", "for Windows XP''.", "The ability to join an Active Directory domain is disabled.", "* Windows XP Tablet PC Edition, for tablet PCs** Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005* Windows XP Embedded, for embedded systems* Windows XP Starter Edition, for new computer users in developing countries* Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, released on April 25, 2005, for home and workstation systems utilizing 64-bit processors based on the x86-64 instruction set originally developed by AMD as AMD64; Intel calls their version Intel 64.Internally, XP x64 was a somewhat updated version of Windows based on the Server 2003 codebase.", "* Windows XP 64-bit Edition, is a version for Intel's Itanium line of processors; maintains 32-bit compatibility solely through a software emulator.", "It is roughly analogous to Windows XP Professional in features.", "It was discontinued in September 2005 when the last vendor of Itanium workstations stopped shipping Itanium systems marketed as \"Workstations\".===Windows Server 2003===Windows Server 2003 desktopOn April 25, 2003, Microsoft launched Windows Server 2003, a notable update to Windows 2000 Server encompassing many new security features, a new \"Manage Your Server\" wizard that simplifies configuring a machine for specific roles, and improved performance.", "It is based on the Windows NT 5.2 kernel.", "A few services not essential for server environments are disabled by default for stability reasons, most noticeable are the \"Windows Audio\" and \"Themes\" services; users have to enable them manually to get sound or the \"Luna\" look as per Windows XP.", "The hardware acceleration for display is also turned off by default, users have to turn the acceleration level up themselves if they trust the display card driver.In December 2005, Microsoft released Windows Server 2003 R2, which is actually Windows Server 2003 with SP1 (Service Pack 1), together with an add-on package.Among the new features are a number of management features for branch offices, file serving, printing and company-wide identity integration.Windows Server 2003 is available in six editions:* Web Edition (32-bit)* Enterprise Edition (32 and 64-bit)* Datacenter Edition (32 and 64-bit)* Small Business Server (32-bit)* Storage Server (OEM channel only)Windows Server 2003 R2, an update of Windows Server 2003, was released to manufacturing on December 6, 2005.It is distributed on two CDs, with one CD being the Windows Server 2003 SP1 CD.", "The other CD adds many optionally installable features for Windows Server 2003.The R2 update was released for all x86 and x64 versions, except Windows Server 2003 R2 Enterprise Edition, which was not released for Itanium.===Windows XP x64 and Server 2003 x64 Editions===On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003, x64 Editions in Standard, Enterprise and Datacenter SKUs.", "Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is an edition of Windows XP for x86-64 personal computers.", "It is designed to use the expanded 64-bit memory address space provided by the x86–64 architecture.Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is based on the Windows Server 2003 codebase, with the server features removed and client features added.", "Both ''Windows Server 2003 x64'' and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition use identical kernels.Windows XP ''Professional'' ''x64 Edition'' is not to be confused with Windows XP ''64-bit Edition'', as the latter was designed for Intel Itanium processors.", "During the initial development phases, Windows XP Professional x64 Edition was named ''Windows XP 64-Bit Edition for 64-Bit Extended Systems''.===Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs===Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs desktopIn July 2006, Microsoft released a thin-client version of Windows XP Service Pack 2, called Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs (WinFLP).", "It is only available to Software Assurance customers.", "The aim of WinFLP is to give companies a viable upgrade option for older PCs that are running Windows 95, 98, and Me that will be supported with patches and updates for the next several years.", "Most user applications will typically be run on a remote machine using Terminal Services or Citrix.While being visually the same as Windows XP, it has some differences.", "For example, if the screen has been set to 16 bit colors, the Windows 2000 recycle bin icon and some XP 16-bit icons will show.", "Paint and some games like Solitaire aren't present too.===Windows Home Server 2007===Windows Home Server (code-named Q, Quattro) is a server product based on Windows Server 2003, designed for consumer use.", "The system was announced on January 7, 2007, by Bill Gates.", "Windows Home Server can be configured and monitored using a console program that can be installed on a client PC.", "Such features as Media Sharing, local and remote drive backup and file duplication are all listed as features.", "The release of Windows Home Server Power Pack 3 added support for Windows 7 to Windows Home Server." ], [ "Windows Vista and Server 2008", "Windows Vista desktopWindows Vista was released on November 30, 2006, to business customers—consumer versions followed on January 30, 2007.Windows Vista intended to have enhanced security by introducing a new restricted user mode called User Account Control, replacing the \"administrator-by-default\" philosophy of Windows XP.", "Vista was the target of much criticism and negative press, and in general was not well regarded, this was seen as leading to the relatively swift release of Windows 7.One major difference between Vista and earlier versions of Windows, Windows 95 and later, was that the original start button was replaced with the Windows icon in a circle (called the Start Orb).", "Vista also featured new graphics features, the Windows Aero GUI, new applications (such as Windows Calendar, Windows DVD Maker and some new games including Chess, Mahjong, and Purble Place), Internet Explorer 7, Windows Media Player 11, and a large number of underlying architectural changes.", "Windows Vista had the version number NT 6.0.During its lifetime, Windows Vista had two service packs.Windows Vista shipped in six editions:* Starter (only available in developing countries)* Home Basic* Home Premium* Business* Enterprise (only available to large business and enterprise)* Ultimate (combines both Home Premium and Enterprise)All editions (except Starter edition) were available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions.", "The biggest advantage of the 64-bit version was breaking the 4 gigabyte memory barrier, which 32-bit computers cannot fully access.===Windows Server 2008===Windows Server 2008, released on February 27, 2008, was originally known as Windows Server Codename \"Longhorn\".", "Windows Server 2008 built on the technological and security advances first introduced with Windows Vista, and was significantly more modular than its predecessor, Windows Server 2003.Windows Server 2008 shipped in ten editions:* Windows Server 2008 Foundation (for OEMs only)* Windows Server 2008 Standard (32-bit and 64-bit)* Windows Server 2008 Enterprise (32-bit and 64-bit)* Windows Server 2008 Datacenter (32-bit and 64-bit)* Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems (IA-64)* Windows HPC Server 2008* Windows Web Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)* Windows Storage Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)* Windows Small Business Server 2008 (64-bit only)* Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)" ], [ "Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2", "Windows 7 desktopWindows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009, and reached general retail availability on October 22, 2009.Since its release, Windows 7 had one service pack.Some features of Windows 7 were faster booting, Device Stage, Windows PowerShell, less obtrusive User Account Control, multi-touch, and improved window management.", "The interface was renewed with a bigger taskbar and some improvements in the searching system and the Start menu.", "Features included with Windows Vista and not in Windows 7 include the sidebar (although gadgets remain) and several programs that were removed in favor of downloading their Windows Live counterparts.", "Windows 7 met with positive reviews, which said the OS was faster and easier to use than Windows Vista.Windows 7 shipped in six editions:* Starter (available worldwide)* Home Basic* Home Premium* Professional* Enterprise (available to volume-license business customers only)* UltimateIn some countries in the European Union, there were other editions that lacked some features such as Windows Media Player, Windows Media Center and Internet Explorer—these editions were called names such as \"Windows 7 N.\"Microsoft focused on selling Windows 7 Home Premium and Professional.", "All editions, except the Starter edition, were available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions.Unlike the corresponding Vista editions, the Professional and Enterprise editions were supersets of the Home Premium edition.At the Professional Developers Conference (PDC) 2008, Microsoft also announced Windows Server 2008 R2, as the server variant of Windows 7.Windows Server 2008 R2 shipped in 64-bit versions (x64 and Itanium) only.=== Windows Thin PC ===In 2010, Microsoft released Windows Thin PC or WinTPC, which was a feature-and size-reduced locked-down version of Windows 7 expressly designed to turn older PCs into thin clients.", "WinTPC was available for software assurance customers and relied on cloud computing in a business network.", "Wireless operation is supported since WinTPC has full wireless stack integration, but wireless operation may not be as good as the operation on a wired connection." ], [ "Windows Home Server 2011", "Windows Home Server 2011 code named 'Vail' was released on April 6, 2011.Windows Home Server 2011 is built on the Windows Server 2008 R2 code base and removed the Drive Extender drive pooling technology in the original Windows Home Server release.", "Windows Home Server 2011 is considered a \"major release\".", "Its predecessor was built on Windows Server 2003.WHS 2011 only supports x86-64 hardware.Microsoft decided to discontinue Windows Home Server 2011 on July 5, 2012, while including its features into Windows Server 2012 Essentials.", "Windows Home Server 2011 was supported until April 12, 2016." ], [ "Windows 8 and Server 2012", "On June 1, 2011, Microsoft previewed Windows 8 at both Computex Taipei and the D9: All Things Digital conference in California.", "The first public preview of Windows Server 2012 was shown by Microsoft at the 2011 Microsoft Worldwide Partner Conference.", "Windows 8 Release Preview and Windows Server 2012 Release Candidate were both released on May 31, 2012.Product development on Windows 8 was completed on August 1, 2012, and it was released to manufacturing the same day.", "Windows Server 2012 went on sale to the public on September 4, 2012.Windows 8 went on sale to the public on October 26, 2012.One edition, Windows RT, runs on some system-on-a-chip devices with mobile 32-bit ARM (ARMv7) processors.", "Windows 8 features a redesigned user interface, designed to make it easier for touchscreen users to use Windows.", "The interface introduced an updated Start menu known as the Start screen, and a new full-screen application platform.", "The desktop interface is also present for running windowed applications, although Windows RT will not run any desktop applications not included in the system.", "On the Building Windows 8 blog, it was announced that a computer running Windows 8 can boot up much faster than Windows 7.New features also include USB 3.0 support, the Windows Store, the ability to run from USB drives with Windows To Go, and others.Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 were released on October 17, 2013.Windows 8.1 is available as an update in the Windows Store for Windows 8 users only and also available to download for clean installation.", "The update adds new options for resizing the live tiles on the Start screen.", "Windows 8 was given the kernel number NT 6.2, with its successor 8.1 receiving the kernel number 6.3.So far, neither has had any service packs yet, although many consider Windows 8.1 to be a service pack for Windows 8.However, Windows 8.1 received two main updates in 2014.Both versions received some criticism due to the removal of the Start menu and some difficulties to perform tasks and commands.Windows 8 is available in the following editions:* Windows 8* Windows 8 Pro* Windows 8 Enterprise* Windows RTMicrosoft ended support for Windows 8 on January 12, 2016 and for Windows 8.1 on January 10, 2023." ], [ "Windows 10 and later Server versions", "Windows 10 was unveiled on September 30, 2014, as the successor for Windows 8, and was released on July 29, 2015.It was distributed without charge to Windows 7 and 8.1 users for one year after release.", "A number of new features like Cortana, the Microsoft Edge web browser, the ability to view Windows Store apps as a window instead of fullscreen, the return of the Start menu, virtual desktops, revamped core apps, Continuum, and a unified Settings app were all features debuted in Windows 10.Like its successor, the operating system was announced as a service OS that would receive constant performance and stability updates.", "Unlike Windows 8, Windows 10 received mostly positive reviews, praising improvements of stability and practicality than its predecessor, however, it received some criticism due to mandatory update installation, privacy concerns and advertising-supported software tactics.Although Microsoft claimed Windows 10 would be the last Windows version, eventually a new major release, Windows 11, was announced in 2021.That made Windows 10 last longer as Microsoft's flagship operating system than any other version of Windows, beginning with the public release on July 29, 2015, for six years, and ending on October 5, 2021, when Windows 11 was released.", "Windows 10 had received thirteen main updates.===Stable releases===+Year201520162017201820192020202120221st Half170318031903200421H12nd Half15071511160717091809190920H221H222H2'''Version 1507''' (codenamed Threshold 1) was the original version of Windows 10 and released in July 2015.One of the big features was the introduction of Windows Hello, which at launch enabled users to log into Windows with facial recognition if the PC was equipped with a compatible active illuminated near-infrared, NIR, camera.", "'''Version 1511''', announced as the ''November Update'' and codenamed Threshold 2.It was released in November 2015.This update added many visual tweaks, such as more consistent context menus and the ability to change the color of window titlebars.", "Windows 10 can now be activated with a product key for Windows 7 and later, thus simplifying the activation process and essentially making Windows 10 free for anyone who has Windows 7 or later, even after the free upgrade period ended.", "A \"Find My Device\" feature was added, allowing users to track their devices if they lose them, similar to the Find My iPhone service that Apple offers.", "Controversially, the Start menu now displays \"featured apps\".", "A few tweaks were added to Microsoft Edge, including tab previews and the ability to sync the browser with other devices running Windows 10.Kernel version number: 10.0.10586.", "'''Version 1607''', announced as the ''Anniversary Update'' and codenamed Redstone 1.It was the first of several planned updates with the \"Redstone\" codename.", "Its version number, 1607, means that it was supposed to launch in July 2016, however it was delayed until August 2016.Many new features were included in the version, including more integration with Cortana, a dark theme, browser extension support for Microsoft Edge, click-to-play Flash by default, tab pinning, web notifications, swipe navigation in Edge, and the ability for Windows Hello to use a fingerprint sensor to sign into apps and websites, similar to Touch ID on the iPhone.", "Also added was Windows Ink, which improves digital inking in many apps, and the Windows Ink Workspace which lists pen-compatible apps, as well as quick shortcuts to a sticky notes app and a sketchpad.", "Microsoft, through their partnership with Canonical, integrated a full Ubuntu bash shell via the Windows Subsystem for Linux.", "Notable tweaks in this version of Windows 10 include the removal of the controversial password-sharing feature of Microsoft's Wi-Fi Sense service, a slightly redesigned Start menu, Tablet Mode working more like Windows 8, overhauled emoji, improvements to the lock screen, calendar integration in the taskbar, and the Blue Screen of Death now showing a QR code which users can scan to quickly find out what caused the error.", "This version of Windows 10's kernel version is 10.0.14393.", "'''Version 1703''', announced as the ''Creators Update'' and codenamed Redstone 2.Features for this update include a new Paint 3D application, which allows users to create and modify 3D models, integration with Microsoft's HoloLens and other \"mixed-reality\" headsets produced by other manufacturers, Windows My People, which allows users to manage contacts, Xbox game broadcasting, support for newly developed APIs such as WDDM 2.2, Dolby Atmos support, improvements to the Settings app, and more Edge and Cortana improvements.", "This version also included tweaks to system apps, such as an address bar in the Registry Editor, Windows PowerShell being the default command line interface instead of the Command Prompt and the Windows Subsystem for Linux being upgraded to support Ubuntu 16.04.This version of Windows 10 was released on April 11, 2017, as a free update.", "'''Version 1709''', announced as the ''Fall Creators Update'' and codenamed Redstone 3.It introduced a new design language—the Fluent Design System and incorporates it in UWP apps such as Calculator.", "It also added new features to the Photos application, which were once available only in Windows Movie Maker.", "'''Version 1803''', announced as the ''April 2018 Update'' and codenamed Redstone 4 introduced Timeline, an upgrade to the task view screen such that it has the ability to show past activities and let users resume them.", "The respective icon on the taskbar was also changed to reflect this upgrade.", "Strides were taken to incorporate Fluent Design into Windows, which included adding Acrylic transparency to the Taskbar and Taskbar Flyouts.", "The Settings App was also redesigned to have an Acrylic left pane.", "Variable Fonts were introduced.", "'''Version 1809''', announced as the ''Windows 10 October 2018 Update'' and codenamed Redstone 5 among new features, introduced Dark Mode for File Explorer, Your Phone App to link Android phone with Windows 10, new screenshot tool called Snip & Sketch, Make Text Bigger for easier accessibility, and Clipboard History and Cloud Sync.", "'''Version 1903''', announced as the ''Windows 10 May 2019 Update,'' codenamed 19H1, was released on May 21, 2019.It added many new features including the addition of a light theme to the Windows shell and a new feature known as Windows Sandbox, which allowed users to run programs in a throwaway virtual window.", "Notably, this was the first version to allow an application to default to using UTF-8 as the process code page and to default to UTF-8 as the code page in programs such as Notepad.", "'''Version 1909''', announced as the ''Windows 10 November 2019 Update'', codenamed 19H2, was released on November 12, 2019.It unlocked many features that were already present, but hidden or disabled, on 1903, such as an auto-expanding menu on Start while hovering the mouse on it, OneDrive integration on Windows Search and creating events from the taskbar's clock.", "Some PCs with version 1903 had already enabled these features without installing 1909.", "'''Version 2004''', announced as the ''Windows 10 May 2020 Update'', codenamed 20H1, was released on May 27, 2020.It introduces several new features such as renaming virtual desktops, GPU temperature control and type of disk on task manager, chat-based interface and window appearance for Cortana, and cloud reinstalling and quick searches (depends from region) for search home.", "'''Version 20H2''', announced as the ''Windows 10 October 2020 Update'', codenamed 20H2, was released on October 20, 2020.It introduces resizing the start menu panels, a graphing mode for Calculator, process architecture view on task manager's Details pane, and optional drivers delivery from Windows Update and an updated in-use location icon on taskbar.", "'''Version 21H1''', announced as the ''Windows 10 May 2021 Update'', codenamed 21H1, was released on May 18, 2021.", "'''Version 21H2''', announced as the ''Windows 10 November 2021 Update'', codenamed 21H2, was released on November 16, 2021.", "'''Version 22H2''', announced as the ''Windows 10 2022 Update'', codenamed 22H2, was released on October 18, 2022.It was the last version of Windows 10.===Windows Server 2016===Windows Server 2016 is a release of the Microsoft Windows Server operating system that was unveiled on September 30, 2014.Windows Server 2016 was officially released at Microsoft's Ignite Conference, September 26–30, 2016.It is based on the Windows 10 Anniversary Update codebase.===Windows Server 2019===Windows Server 2019 is a release of the Microsoft Windows Server operating system that was announced on March 20, 2018.The first Windows Insider preview version was released on the same day.", "It was released for general availability on October 2, 2018.Windows Server 2019 is based on the Windows 10 October 2018 Update codebase.On October 6, 2018, distribution of Windows version 1809 (build 17763) was paused while Microsoft investigated an issue with user data being deleted during an in-place upgrade.", "It affected systems where a user profile folder (e.g.", "Documents, Music or Pictures) had been moved to another location, but data was left in the original location.", "As Windows Server 2019 is based on the Windows version 1809 codebase, it too was removed from distribution at the time, but was re-released on November 13, 2018.The software product life cycle for Server 2019 was reset in accordance with the new release date.===Windows Server 2022===Windows Server 2022 was released on August 18, 2021.This is the first NT server version which does not share the build number with any of its client version counterpart, although its codename is 21H2, similar to the Windows 10 November 2021 Update." ], [ "Windows 11", "Windows 11 is the latest release of Windows NT, and the successor to Windows 10.It was unveiled on June 24, 2021, and was released on October 5, serving as a free upgrade to compatible Windows 10 devices.", "The system incorporates a renewed interface called \"Mica\", which includes translucent backgrounds, rounded edges and color combinations.", "The taskbar's icons are center aligned by default, while the Start menu replaces the \"Live Tiles\" with pinned apps and recommended apps and files.", "The MSN widget panel, the Microsoft Store, and the file browser, among other applications, have also been redesigned.", "However, some features and programs such as Cortana, Internet Explorer (replaced by Microsoft Edge as the default web browser) and Paint 3D were removed.", "Apps like 3D Viewer, Paint 3D, Skype and OneNote for Windows 10 can be downloaded from the Microsoft Store.", "Windows 11 includes compatibility with Android applications; the Amazon Appstore is included in Windows Subsystem for Android.", "Windows 11 received a positive reception from critics.", "While it was praised for its redesigned interface, and increased security and productivity, it was criticized for its high system requirements (which includes an installed TPM 2.0 chip, enabling the Secure Boot protocol, and UEFI firmware) and various UI changes and regressions (such as requiring a Microsoft account for first-time setup, preventing users from changing default browsers, and inconsistent dark theme) compared to Windows 10.===Stable releases===+Year202120222023Version21H222H223H2'''Version 21H2''', codenamed \"Sun Valley\", was the initial version of Windows 11 released on October 5, 2021.", "'''Version 22H2''', announced as the ''Windows 11 2022 Update'', codenamed \"Sun Valley 2\", was released on September 20, 2022.Features in this Windows 11 version include an updated, UWP version of the Task Manager and the Smart App Control feature within the Windows Security app.", "This version has had three major updates, with features including tabbed browsing in the File Explorer, iOS support for the Phone Link app, Bluetooth Low Energy audio support, and a preview of Microsoft Copilot within Windows.", "'''Version 23H2''', announced as the ''Windows 11 2023 Update'', codenamed \"Sun Valley 3\", was released on October 31, 2023." ], [ "See also", "Comparison of operating systemsHistory of operating systemsList of Microsoft codenames" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "#" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Helsinki" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Helsinki''' ( or ; ; , ) is the capital, largest and most populous city in Finland.", "Located on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, it is the seat of the Uusimaa region in southern Finland.", "Approximately million people live in the municipality, with million in the capital region, and 1.64 million in the metropolitan area.", "The region is by far the most populous urban area in Finland and the country's most important centre for politics, education, finance, culture and research.", "Helsinki is located north of Tallinn, Estonia, east of Stockholm, Sweden, and west of Saint Petersburg, Russia.", "It has close historical links with these three cities.Together with the cities of Espoo, Vantaa and Kauniainen – and surrounding commuter towns, including the neighbouring municipality of Sipoo to the east – Helsinki forms the Greater Helsinki Metropolitan Area.", "Often considered Finland's only metropolis, it is the world's northernmost metropolitan area with over one million inhabitants and the northernmost capital of an EU member state.", "Helsinki is the third largest municipality in the Nordic countries after Stockholm and Oslo, and its urban area is the second largest in the Nordic countries after Stockholm.", "The official languages are Finnish and Swedish.", "The city is served by Helsinki Airport, located in the neighbouring city of Vantaa, with frequent flights to many destinations in Europe, North America and Asia.Helsinki hosted the 1952 Summer Olympics, the first CSCE/OSCE Summit in 1975, the 52nd Eurovision Song Contest in 2007 and it was the 2012 World Design Capital.Helsinki has one of the highest standards of urban living in the world.", "In 2011, the British magazine ''Monocle'' ranked Helsinki as the world's most liveable city in its liveable cities index.", "In the Economist Intelligence Unit's 2016 liveability survey, Helsinki ranked ninth out of 140 cities.", "In July 2021, the American magazine ''Time'' named Helsinki as one of the world's greatest places in 2021, as a city that \"can grow into a burgeoning cultural nest in the future\" and that is already known as an environmental pioneer in the world.", "In an international ''Cities of Choice'' survey conducted in 2021 by the Boston Consulting Group and the BCG Henderson Institute, Helsinki was ranked the third best city in the world to live in, with London and New York City coming in first and second.", "In the ''Condé Nast Traveler'' magazine's 2023 Readers' Choice Awards, Helsinki was ranked 4th as the friendliest cities in Europe.", "Helsinki, along with Rovaniemi in Lapland, is also one of Finland's most important tourist cities.", "Due to the large number of sea passengers per year, Helsinki is classified as a major port city.", "Helsinki is the world's busiest passenger port." ], [ "Etymology", "According to a theory put forward in the 1630s, at the time of Swedish colonisation of the Finnish coast, colonists from Hälsingland in central Sweden arrived at what is now the Vantaa River and called it ('Helsinge River'), giving rise to the names of the village and church of Helsinge in the 1300s.", "This theory is questionable, as dialect research suggests that the settlers came from Uppland and the surrounding areas.", "Others have suggested that the name derives from the Swedish word , an archaic form of the word ('neck'), which refers to the narrowest part of a river, the rapids.", "Other Scandinavian towns in similar geographical locations were given similar names at the time, such as Helsingør in Denmark and Helsingborg in Sweden.When a town was founded in the village of Forsby (later ) in 1548, it was called , 'Helsinge rapids'.", "The name refers to the rapids at the mouth of the river.", "The town was commonly known as or , from which the modern Finnish name is derived.Official Finnish government documents and Finnish language newspapers have used the name ''Helsinki'' since 1819, when the Senate of Finland moved to the city from Turku, the former capital of Finland.", "Decrees issued in Helsinki were dated with Helsinki as the place of issue.", "This is how the form Helsinki came to be used in written Finnish.", "As Grand Duchy of Finland being under the rule of the Russian Empire, Helsinki was known in Russian as ().In Helsinki slang, the city is called (from the Swedish word , meaning 'city').", "Abbreviated form is equally common, but its use is associated with people of rural origin (\"junantuomat\", lit.", "\"brought by a train\") and frowned upon by locals.", "is the Northern Sami name for Helsinki." ], [ "History", "Central Helsinki in 1820 before rebuilding.", "Illustration by Carl Ludvig Engel.Construction of Suomenlinna, the largest European sea fortress of its era, began in 1748.=== Early history ===After the end of the Ice Age and the retreat of the ice sheet, the first settlers arrived in the Helsinki area around 5000 BC.", "Their presence has been documented by archaeologists in Vantaa, Pitäjänmäki and Kaarela.", "Permanent settlements did not appear until the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, during the Iron Age, when the area was inhabited by the Tavastians.", "They used the area for fishing and hunting, but due to the lack of archaeological finds it is difficult to say how extensive their settlements were.", "Pollen analysis has shown that there were agricultural settlements in the area in the 10th century, and surviving historical records from the 14th century describe Tavastian settlements in the area.The early settlements were raided by Vikings and later colonised by Christians from Sweden.", "They came mainly from the Swedish coastal regions of Norrland and Hälsingland, and their migration intensified around 1100.Swedes permanently colonised the Helsinki region's coastline in the late 13th century after the successful Second Crusade to Finland, which led to the defeat of the Tavastians.Thanks to trade and travel, e.g.", "to Reval, people could speak several languages, at least helpfully.", "Depending on the situation, Finnish, Swedish, Latin or Low German could be heard in the Helsinki area.", "There are many 1240s villages in the modern day Helsinki area, e.g.", "Koskela, now one of Helsinki's boroughs as are the rest of the 27 small middle age villages.", "Helsinki (then Helsinga ) was so-called \"kirkkopitäjä\" in 1350s.", "A new church was built in 1450, Pyhän Laurin (or Saint Laurentius) church.", "At the time the area was part of Helsinga but today it is part of Vantaa.", "Eastern parts of Helsinga were protected by Vartiokylän linnavuori (fort), built c. 1390s.", "Written chronicles from 1417 mention the village of Koskela near the rapids at the mouth of the River Vantaa, where Helsinki was to be founded.=== Founding of Helsinki ===A map of Helsinki in 1645Helsinki was founded by King Gustav I of Sweden on 12 June 1550 as a trading town called Helsingfors, which he intended to be a rival to the Hanseatic city of Reval (now Tallinn) on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland.", "In order to populate the newly founded town at the mouth of the Vantaa River, the king ordered the bourgeoisie of Porvoo, Ekenäs, Rauma and Ulvila to move to the town.", "The shallowness of the bay did not allow for the construction of a harbour, and the king allowed the settlers to leave the unfortunate location.", "In 1640, Count Per Brahe the Younger, together with some descendants of the original settlers, moved the centre of the town to the Vironniemi peninsula by the sea, today's Kruununhaka district, where the Senate Square and Helsinki Cathedral are located today.During the second half of the 17th century, Helsinki, as a wooden town, suffered from regular fires, and by the beginning of the 18th century the population had fallen below 1,700.For a long time, Helsinki was mainly a small administrative town for the governors of Nyland and Tavastehus County, but its importance began to grow when a more solid naval defence began to be built in front of the town in the 18th century.", "Little came of the plans, however, as Helsinki remained a small town plagued by poverty, wars and disease.", "The plague of 1710 killed most of Helsinki's population.", "After the Russians conquered Helsinki in May 1713 during the Great Northern War, the retreating Swedish administration set fire to parts of the town.", "Despite this, the town's population grew to 3,000 by the beginning of the 19th century.", "The construction of the naval fortress of Sveaborg (''Viapori'' in Finnish, now also called ''Suomenlinna'') in the 18th century helped improve Helsinki's status.", "However, it wasn't until Russia defeated Sweden in the Finnish War and annexed Finland as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland in 1809 that the town began to develop into a substantial city.", "The Russians besieged the Sveaborg fortress during the war, and about a quarter of the town was destroyed in a fire in 1808.Emperor Alexander I of Russia moved the Finnish capital from Turku to Helsinki on 8 April 1812 to reduce Swedish influence in Finland and to bring the capital closer to St Petersburg.", "Following the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, the Royal Academy of Turku, the only university in the country at the time, was also moved to Helsinki and eventually became the modern University of Helsinki.", "The move consolidated the city's new role and helped set it on a path of continuous growth.", "This transformation is most evident in the city centre, which was rebuilt in the neoclassical style to resemble Saint Petersburg, largely according to a plan by the German-born architect C. L. Engel.", "As elsewhere, technological advances such as railways and industrialisation were key factors in the city's growth.===Twentieth century===By the 1910s, the population of Helsinki was already over 100,000, and despite the tumultuous nature of Finnish history in the first half of the 20th century, Helsinki continued to grow steadily.", "This included the Finnish Civil War and the Winter War, both of which left their mark on the city.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, there were roughly equal numbers of Finnish and Swedish speakers in Helsinki; the majority of workers were Finnish-speaking.", "The local Helsinki slang (or ''stadin slangi'') developed among Finnish children and young people from the 1890s as a mixed Finnish-Swedish language, with influences from German and Russian, and from the 1950s the slang began to become more Finnish.", "A landmark event was the 1952 Olympic Games, which were held in Helsinki.", "Finland's rapid urbanisation in the 1970s, which occurred late compared to the rest of Europe, tripled the population of the metropolitan area, and the Helsinki Metro subway system was built." ], [ "Geography", "Helsinki seen from Sentinel-2Known as the \"Daughter of the Baltic\" or the \"Pearl of the Baltic\", Helsinki is located at the tip of a peninsula and on 315 islands.", "The city centre is located on a southern peninsula, ''Helsinginniemi'' (\"Cape of Helsinki\"), which is rarely referred to by its actual name, Vironniemi (\"Cape of Estonia\").", "Population density is comparatively high in certain parts of downtown Helsinki, reaching in the district of Kallio, overall Helsinki's population density is 3,147 per square kilometre.", "Outside the city centre, much of Helsinki consists of post-war suburbs separated by patches of forest.", "A narrow, long Helsinki Central Park, which stretches from the city centre to Helsinki's northern border, is an important recreational area for residents.", "The City of Helsinki has about 11,000 boat moorings and over of marine fishing waters adjacent to the capital region.", "About 60 species of fish are found in this area, and recreational fishing is popular.Helsinki's main islands include Seurasaari, Lauttasaari and Korkeasaari – the latter is home to Finland's largest zoo, Korkeasaari Zoo.", "The former military islands of Vallisaari and Isosaari are now open to the public, but Santahamina is still in military use.", "The most historic and remarkable island is the fortress of Suomenlinna (Sveaborg).", "The island of Pihlajasaari is a popular summer resort for gays and naturists, comparable to Fire Island in New York City.There are 60 nature reserves in Helsinki with a total area of .", "Of the total area, are water areas and are land areas.", "The city also has seven nature reserves in Espoo, Sipoo, Hanko and Ingå.", "The largest nature reserve is the Vanhankaupunginselkä, with an area of .", "The city's first nature reserve, Tiiraluoto of Lauttasaari, was established in 1948.Helsinki's official plant is the Norway maple and its official animal is the red squirrel.===Metropolitan area===Helsinki central urban area, an officially recognized urban areaits sub-regional municipalities (in light orange)The Helsinki metropolitan area, also known as the Capital Region (Finnish: ''Pääkaupunkiseutu'', Swedish: ''Huvudstadsregionen'') comprises four municipalities: Helsinki, Espoo, Vantaa, and Kauniainen.", "The Helsinki urban area is considered to be the only metropolis in Finland.", "It has a population of over 1.36 million, and is the most densely populated area of Finland.", "The Capital Region spreads over a land area of and has a population density of 1,619 per sg km.", "With over 20 percent of the country's population in just 0.2 percent of its surface area, the area's housing density is high by Finnish standards.The Helsinki Metropolitan Area (Greater Helsinki) consists of the cities of Helsinki Capital Region and ten surrounding municipalities: Hyvinkää, Järvenpää, Kerava, Kirkkonummi, Nurmijärvi, Sipoo, Tuusula, Pornainen, Mäntsälä and Vihti.", "The Metropolitan Area covers and has a population of over 1.64 million, or about a fourth of the total population of Finland.", "The metropolitan area has a high concentration of employment: approximately 750,000 jobs.", "Despite the intensity of land use, the region also has large recreational areas and green spaces.", "The Greater Helsinki area is the world's northernmost urban area with a population of over one million people, and the northernmost EU capital city.The Helsinki urban area is an officially recognized urban area in Finland, defined by its population density.", "The area stretches throughout 11 municipalities, and is the largest such area in Finland, with a land area of and approximately 1.36 million inhabitants.===Climate===Helsinki has a humid continental climate (Köppen: ''Dfb'').", "Owing to the mitigating influence of the Baltic Sea and North Atlantic Current (see also Extratropical cyclone), temperatures during the winter are higher than the northern location might suggest, with the average in January and February around .Winters in Helsinki are notably warmer than in the north of Finland, and the snow season is much shorter in the capital, due to it being in extreme Southern Finland and the urban heat island effect.", "Temperatures below occur a few times a year at most.", "However, because of the latitude, days last 5 hours and 48 minutes around the winter solstice with very low sun (at noon, the sun is a little bit over 6 degrees in the sky), and the cloudy weather at this time of year exacerbates darkness.", "Conversely, Helsinki enjoys long daylight during the summer; during the summer solstice, days last 18 hours and 57 minutes.The average maximum temperature from June to August is around .", "Due to the marine effect, especially during hot summer days, daily temperatures are a little cooler and night temperatures higher than further inland.", "The highest temperature ever recorded in the city was on 28 July 2019 at Kaisaniemi weather station, breaking the previous record of that was observed in July 1945 at Ilmala weather station.", "The lowest temperature ever recorded in the city was on 10 January 1987, although an unofficial low of was recorded in December 1876.Helsinki Airport (in Vantaa, north of the Helsinki city centre) recorded a temperature of on 29 July 2010 and a low of on 9 January 1987.Precipitation is received from frontal passages and thunderstorms.", "Thunderstorms are most common in the summer.===Neighbourhoods and other subdivisions===Malmi in the northern part of HelsinkiHelsinki is divided into three major areas: Helsinki Downtown (, ), North Helsinki (, ) and East Helsinki (, ).", "Of these, Helsinki Downtown means the undefined core area of capital, as opposed to suburbs.", "The designations business center and city center usually refer to Kluuvi, Kamppi and Punavuori.", "Other subdivisional centers outside the downtown area include Malmi (), located in the northeastern part of city, and Itäkeskus (), in the eastern part of city." ], [ "Cityscape", "Helsinki Cathedral is among the most prominent buildings in the cityHotel Kämp, the most luxurious hotel in Helsinki, located in KluuviEsplanadi ParkThe view across Eläintarhanlahti in summertimeCasino Helsinki, a non-profit casino owned by government-owned Veikkaus, on Mikonkatu in the city centerAleksanterinkatu at Christmas time===Neoclassical and romantic nationalism trend===Carl Ludvig Engel, appointed to plan a new city centre on his own, designed several neoclassical buildings in Helsinki.", "The focal point of Engel's city plan was the Senate Square.", "It is surrounded by the Government Palace (to the east), the main building of Helsinki University (to the west), and (to the north) the large Helsinki Cathedral, which was finished in 1852, twelve years after Engel's death.", "Helsinki's epithet, \"The White City of the North\", derives from this construction era.", "Most of Helsinki's older buildings were built after the 1808 fire; before that time, the oldest surviving building in the center of Helsinki is the (1757) at the intersection of Senate Square and the Katariinankatu street.", "Suomenlinna also has buildings completed in the 18th century, including the Kuninkaanportti on the (1753–1754).", "The oldest church in Helsinki is the Östersundom church, built in 1754.Helsinki is also home to numerous Art Nouveau-influenced (Jugend in Finnish) buildings belonging to the Kansallisromantiikka (romantic nationalism) trend, designed in the early 20th century and strongly influenced by ''Kalevala'', which was a common theme of the era.", "Helsinki's Art Nouveau style is also featured in central residential districts, such as Katajanokka and Ullanlinna.", "An important architect of the Finnish Art Nouveau style was Eliel Saarinen, whose architectural masterpiece was the Helsinki Central Station.", "Opposite the Bank of Finland building is the Renaissance Revivalish the House of the Estates (1891).The only visible public buildings of the Gothic Revival architecture in Helsinki are St. John's Church (1891) in Ullanlinna, which is the largest stone church in Finland, and its twin towers rise to 74 meters and have 2,600 seats.", "Other examples of neo-Gothic include the House of Nobility in Kruununhaka and the Catholic St. Henry's Cathedral.In addition to other cities in Northern Europe that were not under the Soviet Union, such as Stockholm, Sweden, Helsinki's neoclassical buildings gained also popularity as a backdrop for scenes intended to depict the Soviet Union in numerous Hollywood movies during the Cold War era, when filming within the actual USSR was not possible.", "Some of them, including ''The Kremlin Letter'' (1970), ''Reds'' (1981), and ''Gorky Park'' (1983).", "was possible due to such Russian cities as Leningrad and Moscow also having similar neoclassical architecture.", "At the same time due to Cold War and Finnish relations with the USSR the government secretly instructed Finnish officials not to extend assistance to such film projects.", "There are some films where Helsinki has been represented on its own in films, most notably the 1967 British-American espionage thriller ''Billion Dollar Brain'', starring Michael Caine.", "The city has large amounts of underground areas such as shelters and tunnels, many used daily as swimming pool, church, water management, entertainment etc.===Functionalism and modern architecture===Oodi library is getting attention around the world.Helsinki also features several buildings by Finnish architect Alvar Aalto, recognized as one of the pioneers of architectural functionalism.", "However, some of his works, such as the headquarters of the paper company Stora Enso and the concert venue Finlandia Hall, have been subject to divided opinions from the citizens.Functionalist buildings in Helsinki by other architects include the Olympic Stadium, the Tennis Palace, the Rowing Stadium, the Swimming Stadium, the Velodrome, the Glass Palace, the Töölö Sports Hall, and Helsinki-Malmi Airport.", "The sports venues were built to serve the 1940 Helsinki Olympic Games; the games were initially cancelled due to the Second World War, but the venues fulfilled their purpose in the 1952 Olympic Games.", "Many of them are listed by DoCoMoMo as significant examples of modern architecture.", "The Olympic Stadium and Helsinki-Malmi Airport are also catalogued by the Finnish Heritage Agency as cultural-historical environments of national significance.Residential towers of Kalasatama.", "The Majakka has been built on top of the Redi shopping centre.", "It is currently Finland's tallest building.When Finland became heavily urbanized in the 1960s and 1970s, the district of Pihlajamäki, for example, was built in Helsinki for new residents, where for the first time in Finland, precast concrete was used on a large scale.", "Pikku Huopalahti, built in the 1980s and 1990s, has tried to get rid of a one-size-fits-all grid pattern, which means that its look is very organic and its streets are not repeated in the same way.", "Itäkeskus in Eastern Helsinki was the first regional center in the 1980s.", "Efforts have also been made to protect Helsinki in the late 20th century, and many old buildings have been renovated.", "Modern architecture is represented, for example, by the Museum of Contemporary Art Kiasma, which consists of two straight and curved-walled parts, though this style strongly divided the opinions from the citizens.", "Next to Kiasma is the glass-walled Sanomatalo (1999).There have been many plans to build highrise buildings in Helsinki since the 1920s when architect Eliel Saarinen proposed a 85 meters tall Kalevalatalo in 1921.In 1924 Oiva Kallio won Etu-Töölö competition with his plan (several 14-16 story buildings).", "A 32-story cityhall was also proposed.", "In other plans in the 1930s e.g.18-story Kino palace, 17-story apartment building, and 21-story Stockmann were proposed but only the 14-story hotel Torni was built.", "Later in the 1960s 150 meters tall Flatscreen and four 24-story office buildings in Hakaniemi were cancelled.", "In 1990 104 meters tall Kone building was also cancelled.", "The start of the 21st century marked the beginning of highrise construction in Helsinki, when the city decided to allow the construction of skyscrapers; prior to this, 14-story Hotel Torni (), built in 1931, has generally been called Finland's first skyscraper, and was at time the tallest building in Finland until 1976.In Kalasatama, the first 35-story 131,9 meters tall Majakka, 32-story (; ) and 31-story Lumo residential towers are already completed.", "111 meters tall office building Horisontti is under construction.", "Later they will be joined by a 37-story, 32-story, 27-story, and 24-story residential buildings.", "Even higher skyscrapers under the name ''Trigoni'' were planned for the Central Pasila, former lake area near the Mall of Tripla shopping centre.", "The highest of which was to become about high.", "The project was abandoned in 2021.A new plan \"Etelä-Pasila\" in Läntinen (western) Tornialue has been proposed, consisting of a 29-story office building, 28-story residental building and two lower skyscrapers.", "Their construction will begin in 2026.Over 130 meters tall 32-story office building in Keskinen Tornialue has been approved in 2023, and 3 (or 4) 26-31-story towers will be build in Itäinen (eastern) Tornialue.", "Also a 33-story hotel Pasila has been approved.", "Nearby another over 100 meters tall 27-story hotel has been planned.", "In Vuosaari, a 33-story, 26-story, and 24-story residental buildings have been built in 2023.In Jätkäsaari, a 113 meters tall hotel and a 24-story residental tower has been approved In Ruoholahti, a 29-story and 24-story office buildings will be over 100 meters tall.", "Well over 200 hundred high-rise buildings will be build in Helsinki in the 2020s.===Statues and sculptures===statue of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, the Grand Duke of Finland, sculpted by Walter Runeberg and and erected in 1894 in front of the Helsinki Cathedral at the Senate Square in Helsinki.", "He was known as a well regarded emperor among the majority of Finns during the grand duchy times.Well-known statues and monuments strongly embedded in the cityscape of Helsinki include the Keisarinnankivi (\"Stone of the Empress\", 1835), the statue of Russian Emperor Alexander II (1894), the fountain sculpture ''Havis Amanda'' (1908), the Paavo Nurmi statue (1925), the ''Three Smiths Statue'' (1932), the Aleksis Kivi Memorial (1939), the Eino Leino Statue (1953), the Equestrian statue of Marshal Mannerheim (1960) and the ''Sibelius Monument'' (1967)." ], [ "Government", "The Helsinki City Hall houses the City Council of Helsinki.As is the case with all Finnish municipalities, Helsinki's city council is the main decision-making organ in local politics, dealing with issues such as urban planning, schools, health care, and public transport.", "The council is chosen in the nationally held municipal elections, which are held every four years.Helsinki's city council consists of eighty-five members.", "Following the most recent municipal elections in 2017, the three largest parties are the National Coalition Party (25), the Green League (21), and the Social Democratic Party (12).The Mayor of Helsinki is Juhana Vartiainen." ], [ "Demographics", "=== Population ===Helsinki population pyramid in 2021The city of Helsinki has inhabitants, making it the most populous municipality in Finland and the third in the Nordics.", "The Greater Helsinki region is the largest urbanised area in Finland with 1,641,329 inhabitants.", "The city of Helsinki is home to 12% of Finland's population.", "18.6% of the population has a foreign background, which is twice above the national average.", "However, it is lower than in the major Finnish cities of Espoo or Vantaa.At 53 percent of the population, women form a greater proportion of Helsinki residents than the national average of 51 percent.", "Helsinki's population density of 3,147 people per square kilometre makes Helsinki the most densely-populated city in Finland.", "The life expectancy for men and women is slightly below the national averages: 75.1 years for men as compared to 75.7 years, 81.7 years for women as compared to 82.5 years.Helsinki has experienced strong growth since the 1810s, when it replaced Turku as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Finland, which later became the sovereign Republic of Finland.", "The city continued its growth from that time on, with an exception during the Finnish Civil War.", "From the end of World War II up until the 1970s there was a massive exodus of people from the countryside to the cities of Finland, in particular Helsinki.", "Between 1944 and 1969 the population of the city nearly doubled from 275,000 to 525,600.In the 1960s, the population growth of Helsinki began to decrease, mainly due to a lack of housing.", "Some residents began to move to the neighbouring cities of Espoo and Vantaa, resulting in increased population growth in both municipalities.", "Espoo's population increased ninefold in sixty years, from 22,874 people in 1950 to 244,353 in 2009.Vantaa saw an even more dramatic change in the same time span: from 14,976 in 1950 to 197,663 in 2009, a thirteenfold increase.", "These population changes prompted the municipalities of Greater Helsinki into more intense cooperation in areas such as public transportation – resulting in the foundation of HSL – and waste management.", "The increasing scarcity of housing and the higher costs of living in the capital region have pushed many daily commuters to find housing in formerly rural areas, and even further, to cities such as Lohja, Hämeenlinna, Lahti, and Porvoo.=== Language ===The city of Helsinki is officially bilingual, with both Finnish and Swedish as official languages.", "In 2022, the majority of the population, 76.1%, spoke Finnish as their mother tongue.", "There were Swedish speakers, or 5.5% of the population.", "The number of people who speak Sámi, Finland's third official language, is only inhabitants.", "In Helsinki, 18.3% of the population speak a mother tongue other than Finnish or Swedish.", "As English and Swedish are compulsory school subjects, functional bilingualism or trilingualism acquired through language studies is not uncommon.Although few people speak the Sámi languages as their mother tongue, there are 527 people of Sami origin.", "There are 93 Tatar speakers in Helsinki, almost half of the total number of Tatar speakers in Finland.Helsinki slang is a regional dialect of the city.", "Historically, it was a combination of Finnish and Swedish, with influences from Russian and German.", "Nowadays it has a strong English influence.", "Today, however, Finnish is the common language of communication between Finnish speakers, Swedish speakers and speakers of other languages (New Finns) in everyday public life between strangers.", "The city of Helsinki and the national authorities have specifically targeted Swedish speakers.", "Knowledge of Finnish is essential in business and is usually a basic requirement in the labour market.", "Swedish speakers are most concentrated in the southern parts of the city.", "The district with the most Swedish speakers is Ullanlinna/Ulrikasborg with 2,098 (19.6%), while Byholmen is the only district where Swedish is the majority language (at 82.8%).", "The number of Swedish speakers decreased every year until 2008, and has increased every year since then.", "Since 2007, the number of Swedish speakers has increased by 2,351.In 1890, Finnish speakers overtook Swedish speakers to become the majority of the city's population.", "At that time, the population of Helsinki was 61,530.The number of people with a foreign mother tongue is expected to reach 196,500 in 2035, representing 26% of the population.", "114,000 will speak non-European languages, or 15% of the population.", "Today, at least 160 different languages are spoken in Helsinki.", "The most common foreign languages are Russian (3.1%), Somali (2.0%), Estonian (1.5%) and Arabic (1.5%).===Immigration==='''Population by country of birth (2022)''' Nationality Population % 555,109 83.6 13,533 2.0 10,400 1.6 6,883 1.0 5,818 0.9 3,975 0.6 3,876 0.6 3,562 0.5 2,672 0.4 2,433 0.4 2,370 0.4Other 53,397 8.0In 2022, there were 123,676 people with an immigrant background living in Helsinki, or 18.6% of the population.", "There were 108,919 residents who were born abroad, or 16.4% of the population.", "The number of foreign citizens in Helsinki was 73,076.The relative share of immigrants in Helsinki's population is twice the national average, and the city's new residents are increasingly of foreign origin.", "This will increase the proportion of foreign residents in the coming years.", "As a crossroads of many international ports and Finland's largest airport, Helsinki is the global gateway to and from Finland.", "Most foreign-born citizens come from the former Soviet Union, Estonia, Somalia, Iraq, and Russia.=== Religion ===In 2022, the Evangelical Lutheran Church was the largest religious group with 47.6% of the Helsinki population.", "Other religious groups made up 4.5% of the population.", "47.9% of the population had no religious affiliation.The most important churches in Helsinki are Helsinki Cathedral (1852), Uspenski Cathedral (1868), St. John's Church (1891), Kallio Church (1912) and Temppeliaukio Church (1969).There are 21 Lutheran congregations in Helsinki, 18 of which are Finnish-speaking and 3 are Swedish-speaking.", "These form Helsinki's congregationgroup.", "Outside that there is Finland's German congregation with 3,000 members and Rikssvenska Olaus Petri-församlingen for Swedish-citizens with 1,000 members.The largest Orthodox congregation is the Orthodox Church of Helsinki.", "It has 20,000 members.", "Its main church is the Uspenski Cathedral.", "The two largest Catholic congregations are the Cathedral of Saint Henry, with 4,552 members, established in 1860 and St Mary's Catholic Parish, with 4,107 members, established in 1954.Helsinki Synagogue in 2020There are around 30 mosques in the Helsinki region.", "Many linguistic and ethnic groups such as Bangladeshis, Kosovars, Kurds and Bosniaks have established their own mosques.", "The largest congregation in both Helsinki and Finland is the , established in 1995.It has over 2,800 members , and it received €24,131 in government assistance.In 2015, imam estimated that on big celebrations around 10,000 Muslims visit mosques.", "In 2004, it was estimated that there were 8,000 Muslims in Helsinki, 1.5% of the population at the time.", "The number of people in Helsinki with a background from Muslim majority countries was nearly 41,000 as of 2021, representing over 6% of the population.The main synagogue of Helsinki is the Helsinki Synagogue from 1906, located in Kamppi.", "It has over 1,200 members, out of the 1,800 Jews in Finland, and it is the older of the two buildings in Finland originally built as a synagogue, followed by the Turku Synagogue in 1912.The congregation includes a synagogue, Jewish kindergarten, school, library, Jewish meat shop, two Jewish cemeteries and an retirement home.", "Many Jewish organizations and societies are based there, and the synagogue publishes the main Jewish magazine in Finland, ''''." ], [ "Economy", "Kamppi Center, a shopping and transportation complex in KamppiGreater Helsinki generates approximately one third of Finland's GDP.", "GDP per capita is roughly 1.3 times the national average.", "Helsinki profits on serviced-related IT and public sectors.", "Having moved from heavy industrial works, shipping companies also employ a substantial number of people.The metropolitan area's gross value added per capita is 200% of the mean of 27 European metropolitan areas, equalling those of Stockholm and Paris.", "The gross value added annual growth has been around 4%.83 of the 100 largest Finnish companies have their headquarters in Greater Helsinki.", "Two-thirds of the 200 highest-paid Finnish executives live in Greater Helsinki and 42% in Helsinki.", "The average income of the top 50 earners was 1.65 million euro.The tap water is of excellent quality and it is supplied by the Päijänne Water Tunnel, one of the world's longest continuous rock tunnels." ], [ "Education", "Main building of the University of Helsinki as seen from the Senate Square.Haaga-Helia University of Applied Sciences is the largest business polytechnic in Finland.Helsinki has 190 comprehensive schools, 41 upper secondary schools, and 15 vocational institutes.", "Half of the 41 upper secondary schools are private or state-owned, the other half municipal.", "There are two major research universities in Helsinki, the University of Helsinki and Aalto University, and a number of other higher level institutions and polytechnics which focus on higher-level professional education.===Research universities===University of HelsinkiAalto University (Espoo)===Other institutions of higher education===Hanken School of EconomicsUniversity of the Arts HelsinkiNational Defence UniversityHaaga-Helia University of Applied SciencesLaurea University of Applied SciencesHelsinki Metropolia University of Applied SciencesArcada University of Applied SciencesDiaconia University of Applied SciencesHUMAK University of Applied SciencesHelsinki is one of the co-location centres of the Knowledge and Innovation Community (Future information and communication society) of The European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT)." ], [ "Culture", "===Museums===The biggest historical museum in Helsinki is the National Museum of Finland, which displays a vast collection from prehistoric times to the 21st century.", "The museum building itself, a national romantic-style neomedieval castle, is a tourist attraction.", "Another major historical museum is the Helsinki City Museum, which introduces visitors to Helsinki's 500-year history.", "The University of Helsinki also has many significant museums, including the Helsinki University Museum \"Arppeanum\" and the Finnish Museum of Natural History.The Finnish National Gallery consists of three museums: Ateneum Art Museum for classical Finnish art, Sinebrychoff Art Museum for classical European art, and Kiasma Art Museum for modern art, in a building by architect Steven Holl.", "The old Ateneum, a neo-Renaissance palace from the 19th century, is one of the city's major historical buildings.", "All three museum buildings are state-owned through Senate Properties.The city of Helsinki hosts its own art collection in the Helsinki Art Museum (HAM), primarily located in its Tennispalatsi gallery.", "Around 200 pieces of public art lie outside.", "The art is all city property.Helsinki Art Museum will in 2020 launch the Helsinki Biennial, which will bring art to maritime Helsinki – in its first year to the island of Vallisaari.The Design Museum is devoted to the exhibition of both Finnish and foreign design, including industrial design, fashion, and graphic design.", "Other museums in Helsinki include the Military Museum of Finland, Didrichsen Art Museum, Amos Rex Art Museum, and the .File:Sinebrychoff Art Museum building 2014.jpg\|Sinebrychoff Art Museum (1842)File:Arppeanum - DSC05409.JPG\|Helsinki University Museum \"Arppeanum\" (1869)File:Cygnauksen galleria.jpg\|The Cygnaeus Gallery Museum (1870)File:Mannerheim Museum.jpg\|The Mannerheim Museum (1874; 1957 as museum)File:Sotakorkeakoulu.jpg\|The Military Museum of Finland (1881)File:Helsinki July 2013-26a.jpg\|Classical art museum Ateneum (1887)File:Designmuseo 2020.jpg\|The Design Museum (1894)File:Tram museum in Helsinki-7152.jpg\| (''Ratikkamuseo'') (1900)File: Kansallismuseo Helsinki.jpg\|The National Museum of Finland (1910)File:10 Helsinki City Museum main building.jpg\|The Helsinki City Museum (1911)File:Luonnontieteellinen museo 2020.jpg\|The Finnish Museum of Natural History (1913)File:Taidehalli Helsinki.jpg\|Kunsthalle Helsinki art venue (1928)File:Didrichsenin taidemuseo.jpg\|Didrichsen Art Museum (1964)File:Helsinki Art Museum entrance 01.JPG\|Helsinki Art Museum (1968)File:Helsinki Kiasma.jpg\|Kiasma museum of contemporary art (1998)File:Lasipalatsi - Amos Rex 20180821 152604.jpg\|Amos Rex art museum (2018)===Theatres===The Finnish National Theatre (1902), designed by architect Onni Tarjanne.", "In front of it, the memorial statue of Aleksis Kivi.Helsinki has three major theatres: The Finnish National Theatre, the Helsinki City Theatre, and the Swedish Theatre (''Svenska Teatern'').", "Other notable theatres in the city include the Alexander Theatre, '''', , , and ''''.===Music===Helsinki is home to two full-size symphony orchestras, the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra and the Finnish Radio Symphony Orchestra, both of which perform at the Helsinki Music Centre concert hall.", "Acclaimed contemporary composers Kaija Saariaho, Magnus Lindberg, Esa-Pekka Salonen, and Einojuhani Rautavaara, among others, were born and raised in Helsinki, and studied at the Sibelius Academy.", "The Finnish National Opera, the only full-time, professional opera company in Finland, is located in Helsinki.", "The opera singer Martti Wallén, one of the company's long-time soloists, was born and raised in Helsinki, as was mezzo-soprano Monica Groop.Many widely renowned and acclaimed bands have originated in Helsinki, including Nightwish, Children of Bodom, Hanoi Rocks, HIM, Stratovarius, The 69 Eyes, Finntroll, Ensiferum, Wintersun, The Rasmus, Poets of the Fall, and Apocalyptica.", "The most significant of the metal music events in Helsinki is the Tuska Open Air Metal Festival in Suvilahti, Sörnäinen.The city's main musical venues are the Finnish National Opera, the Finlandia concert hall, and the Helsinki Music Centre.", "The Music Centre also houses a part of the Sibelius Academy.", "Bigger concerts and events are usually held at one of the city's two big ice hockey arenas: the Helsinki Halli or the Helsinki Ice Hall.", "Helsinki has Finland's largest fairgrounds, the Messukeskus Helsinki, which is attended by more than a million visitors a year.Helsinki Arena hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2007, the first Eurovision Song Contest arranged in Finland, following Lordi's win in 2006.===Art===''Havis Amanda'', a fountain sculpture at the Helsinki Market SquareStrange Fruit performing at the Night of the Arts in HelsinkiThe Helsinki Day (''Helsinki-päivä'') will be celebrated on every 12 June, with numerous entertainment events culminating in an open-air concert.", "Also, the Helsinki Festival is an annual arts and culture festival, which takes place every August (including the Night of the Arts).At the Senate Square in fall 2010, Finland's largest open-air art exhibition to date took place: About 1.4 million people saw the international exhibition of ''United Buddy Bears''.Helsinki was the 2012 World Design Capital, in recognition of the use of design as an effective tool for social, cultural, and economic development in the city.", "In choosing Helsinki, the World Design Capital selection jury highlighted Helsinki's use of 'Embedded Design', which has tied design in the city to innovation, \"creating global brands, such as Nokia, Kone, and Marimekko, popular events, like the annual , outstanding education and research institutions, such as the Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture, and exemplary architects and designers such as Eliel Saarinen and Alvar Aalto\".Helsinki hosts many film festivals.", "Most of them are small venues, while some have generated interest internationally.", "The most prolific of these is the Helsinki International Film Festival – Love & Anarchy film festival, also known as Helsinki International Film Festival, which features films on a wide spectrum.", "Night Visions, on the other hand, focuses on genre cinema, screening horror, fantasy, and science fiction films in very popular movie marathons that last the entire night.", "Another popular film festival is , a festival that focuses solely on documentary cinema.===Media===Sanomatalo, a current office building of Sanoma CorporationToday, there are around 200 newspapers, 320 popular magazines, 2,100 professional magazines, 67 commercial radio stations, three digital radio channels, and one nationwide and five national public service radio channels.Sanoma publishes Finland's journal of record, , the tabloid ''Ilta-Sanomat'', the commerce-oriented ''Taloussanomat'', and the television channel Nelonen.", "Another Helsinki-based media house, Alma Media, publishes over thirty magazines, including the tabloid ''Iltalehti'', and the commerce-oriented ''Kauppalehti''.Finland's national public-broadcasting institution Yle operates five television channels and thirteen radio channels in both national languages.", "Yle is headquartered in the neighbourhood of Pasila.", "All TV channels are broadcast digitally, both terrestrially and on cable.", "Yle's studio area houses the high television and radio tower, Yle Transmission Tower (''Pasilan linkkitorni''), which is the third tallest structure in Helsinki and one of Helsinki's most famous landmarks, from the top of which, in good weather, can be seen even as far as Tallinn over the Gulf of Finland.The commercial television channel MTV3 and commercial radio channel Radio Nova are owned by Nordic Broadcasting (Bonnier and Proventus).===Food===Café Ekberg, the oldest coffeehouse of Helsinki, along the Bulevardi in the Kamppi districtHelsinki was already known in the 18th century for its abundant number of inns and pubs, where both locals and those who landed in the harbor were offered plenty of alcoholic beverages.", "At that time, taxes on the sale of alcohol were a very significant source of income for Helsinki, and one of the most important sellers of alcohol was (1722–1805), a trade councilor who attracted rural merchants with alcohol and made good deals.", "Gradually, a new kind of beverage culture began to grow in the next century, and as early as 1852, the first café of Finland, , was established by confectioner (1825–1891) after attending his studies in St. Petersburg.", "Ekberg has also been said to have created Finland's \"national pastry tradition\".", "At first, café culture was only a prerogative of sophisticated elite, when it recently began to take shape as the right of every man.", "Today, there are several hundred cafés in Helsinki, the most notable of which is Cafe Regatta, which is very popular with foreign tourists.Fish food for sale in the Old Market Hall (''Vanha kauppahalli'')As an important port city on the Baltic Sea, Helsinki has long been known for its fish food, and it has recently started to become one of the leading fish food capitals in Northern Europe.", "Helsinki's Market Square is especially known for its traditional herring market, which has been organized since 1743.Salmon is also a typical Helsinki fish dish, both fried and souped.", "The most prestigious restaurants specializing in seafood include Restaurant Fisken på Disken.A terrace of the Restaurant Roslund at the Teurastamo areaHelsinki is currently experiencing a period of booming food culture, and it has developed into an internationally acclaimed food city, receiving recognition for promoting food culture.", "The local food culture is made up of cuisines from around the world and the fusions they form.", "Various Asian restaurants such as Chinese, Thai, Indian and Nepalese are particularly prominent in Helsinki's cityscape, but over the past couple of years, restaurants serving Vietnamese food have been very popular.", "Sushi restaurant buffets have also made their way into the city's restaurant offerings in one fell swoop.", "The third prominent trend is restaurants serving pure local food, many of which specialize primarily in serving pure Nordic flavors.", "In past years Middle Eastern food culture rose in its popularity.", "Especially Helsinki's eastern part offers many different options for Middle Eastern cuisine lovers.", "There is also some touches of Russian cuisine, one of which is the Finnish version of ''blinis'', a thick pancakes that are usually fried in a cast iron pan.", "One of the most significant food culture venues in Helsinki is the general public area known as Teurastamo in the Hermanni district, which operated as the city's slaughterhouse between 1933 and 1992, to which the name of the place also refers.A nationwide food carnival called Restaurant Day (''Ravintolapäivä'') has begun in Helsinki and has traditionally been celebrated since May 2011.The purpose of the day is to have fun, share new food experiences and enjoy the common environment with the group.===Other===May Day celebration called ''vappu'' in Helsinki in May 2018Vappu is an annual carnival for students and workers on 1 May.", "The last week of June marks the Helsinki Pride human rights event, which was attended by 100,000 marchers in 2018." ], [ "Sports", "The Helsinki Olympic Stadium was the centre of activities during the 1952 Summer Olympics.Helsinki Olympic Stadium TowerHelsinki has a long tradition of sports: the city gained much of its initial international recognition during the 1952 Summer Olympics, and the city has arranged sporting events such as the first World Championships in Athletics 1983 and 2005, and the European Championships in Athletics 1971, 1994, and 2012.Helsinki hosts successful local teams in both of the most popular team sports in Finland: football and ice hockey.", "Helsinki houses HJK Helsinki, Finland's largest and most successful football club, and IFK Helsingfors, their local rivals with 7 championship titles.", "The fixtures between the two are commonly known as Stadin derby.", "Helsinki's track and field club Helsingin Kisa-Veikot is also dominant within Finland.", "Ice hockey is popular among many Helsinki residents, who usually support either of the local clubs IFK Helsingfors (HIFK) or Jokerit.", "HIFK, with 14 Finnish championships titles, also plays in the highest bandy division, along with Botnia-69.The Olympic stadium hosted the first ever Bandy World Championship in 1957.Helsinki was elected host-city of the 1940 Summer Olympics, but due to World War II they were canceled.", "Instead Helsinki was the host of the 1952 Summer Olympics.", "The Olympics were a landmark event symbolically and economically for Helsinki and Finland as a whole that was recovering from the winter war and the continuation war fought with the Soviet Union.", "Helsinki was also in 1983 the first ever city to host the World Championships in Athletics.", "Helsinki also hosted the event in 2005, thus also becoming the first city to ever host the Championships for a second time.", "The Helsinki City Marathon has been held in the city every year since 1981, usually in August.", "A Formula 3000 race through the city streets was held on 25 May 1997.In 2009 Helsinki was host of the European Figure Skating Championships, and in 2017 it hosted World Figure Skating Championships.", "The city will host the 2021 FIBA Under-19 Basketball World Cup.Most of Helsinki's sports venues are under the responsibility of the city's sports office, such as 70 sports halls and about 350 sports fields.", "There are nine ice rinks, three of which are managed by the Helsinki Sports Agency (''Helsingin liikuntavirasto'').", "In winter, there are seven artificial ice rinks.", "People can swim in Helsinki in 14 swimming pools, the largest of which is the , two inland swimming pools and more than 20 beaches, of which Hietaniemi Beach is probably the most famous." ], [ "Transport", "===Roads===Helsinki region roadsThe backbone of Helsinki's motorway network consists of three semicircular beltways, Ring I, Ring II, and Ring III, which connect expressways heading to other parts of Finland, and the western and eastern arteries of ''Länsiväylä'' and ''Itäväylä'' respectively.", "While variants of a ''Keskustatunneli'' tunnel under the city centre have been repeatedly proposed, the plan remains on the drawing board.Many important Finnish highways leave Helsinki for various parts of Finland; most of them in the form of motorways, but a few of these exceptions include ''Vihdintie''.", "The most significant highways are: Finnish national road 1/E18 (to Lohja, Salo and Turku)* Finnish national road 3/E12 (to Hämeenlinna, Tampere and Vaasa)* Finnish national road 4/E75 (to Lahti, Jyväskylä, Oulu and Rovaniemi)* Finnish national road 7/E18 (to Porvoo and Kotka).The city of Helsinki is surrounded by an extensive highway network.Helsinki has some 390 cars per 1000 inhabitants.", "This is less than in cities of similar population and construction density, such as Brussels' 483 per 1000, Stockholm's 401, and Oslo's 413.===Intercity rail===Central railway station, inaugurated 1919Helsinki Central Railway Station is the main terminus of the rail network in Finland.", "Two rail corridors lead out of Helsinki, the Main Line to the north (to Tampere, Oulu, Rovaniemi), and the Coastal Line to the west (to Turku).", "The Main Line (''päärata''), which is the first railway line in Finland, was officially opened on 17 March 1862, between cities of Helsinki and Hämeenlinna.", "The railway connection to the east branches from the Main Line outside of Helsinki at Kerava, and leads via Lahti to eastern parts of Finland.A majority of intercity passenger services in Finland originate or terminate at the Helsinki Central Railway Station.", "All major cities in Finland are connected to Helsinki by rail service, with departures several times a day.", "The most frequent service is to Tampere, with more than 25 intercity departures per day .Until 2022 there also was an international services from Helsinki to Saint Petersburg and Moscow.", "The Saint Petersburg to Helsinki route was operated by Allegro high-speed trains.A Helsinki to Tallinn Tunnel has been proposed and agreed upon by representatives of the cities.", "The rail tunnel would connect Helsinki to the Estonian capital Tallinn, further linking Helsinki to the rest of continental Europe by Rail Baltica.===Aviation===Air traffic is handled primarily from Helsinki Airport, located approximately north of Helsinki's downtown area, in the neighbouring city of Vantaa.", "Helsinki's own airport, Helsinki-Malmi Airport, is mainly used for general and private aviation.", "Charter flights are available from Hernesaari Heliport.===Sea transport===South HarbourLike many other cities, Helsinki was deliberately founded at a location on the sea in order to take advantage of shipping.", "The freezing of the sea imposed limitations on sea traffic up to the end of the 19th century.", "But for the last hundred years, the routes leading to Helsinki have been kept open even in winter with the aid of icebreakers, many of them built in the Helsinki Hietalahti shipyard.", "The arrival and departure of ships has also been a part of everyday life in Helsinki.", "Regular route traffic from Helsinki to Stockholm, Tallinn, and Saint Petersburg began as far back as 1837.Over 300 cruise ships and 360,000 cruise passengers visit Helsinki annually.", "There are international cruise ship docks in South Harbour, Katajanokka, West Harbour, and Hernesaari.", "In terms of combined liner and cruise passengers, the Port of Helsinki overtook the Port of Dover in 2017 to become the busiest passenger port in the world.Ferry connections to Tallinn, Mariehamn, and Stockholm are serviced by various companies; very popular MS ''J.", "L. Runeberg'' ferry connection to Finland's second oldest city, medieval old town of Porvoo, is also available for tourists.", "Finnlines passenger-freight ferries to Gdynia, Poland; Travemünde, Germany; and Rostock, Germany are also available.", "St. Peter Line offers passenger ferry service to Saint Petersburg several times a week.===Urban transport===The Helsinki Metro with its characteristic bright orange trains is the world's northernmost subway.Helsinki tram network is one of the most dense in Europe.In the Helsinki metropolitan area, public transportation is managed by the Helsinki Regional Transport Authority, the metropolitan area transportation authority.", "The diverse public transport system consists of trams, commuter rail, the metro, bus lines, two ferry lines and a public bike system.Helsinki's tram system dates back to 1891 when the first horse-drawn trams were introduced; the system was electrified in 1900., the system consists of 14 routes covering the inner part of the city center and one newer light rail style line connecting Keilaniemi in Espoo with Itäkeskus in eastern Helsinki.", "The length of the network is planned to more than double during the 2020s and 2030s compared to 2021, with major projects including Vantaa light rail, the Crown Bridges link to the island of Laajasalo and the West Helsinki light rail project connecting Kannelmäki to the city center.", "Construction work on the new tram as the number line 13 (Nihti–Kalasatama–Vallilanlaakso–Pasila) has begun in May 2020, and the line is scheduled for completion in 2024.The commuter rail system includes purpose-built double track for local services in two rail corridors along intercity railways, and the Ring Rail Line, an urban double-track railway with a station at the Helsinki Airport in Vantaa.", "Electric operation of commuter trains was first begun in 1969, and the system has been gradually expanded since.", "15 different services are operated , some extending outside of the Helsinki region.", "The frequent services run at a 10-minute headway in peak traffic." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns and sister cities===Helsinki is officially the sister city of Beijing, China ''(since 2006)''.", "In addition, the city has a special partnership relation with:* Tallinn* Stockholm* BerlinUntil 2022, Helsinki also had an international partnership with the Russian cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg." ], [ "Notable people", "=== Born before 1900 ===Karl Fazer, the chocolatier and Olympic sport shooter best known for founding the Fazer companyErkki Karu, film director and producer* Peter Forsskål (1732–1763), Swedish-Finnish naturalist and orientalist* Axel Hampus Dalström (1829–1882), architect* Maria Tschetschulin (1850–1917), clerk* Augusta Krook (1853–1941), politician and teacher* Agnes Tschetschulin (1859–1942), composer and violinist* Jakob Sederholm (1863–1934), petrologist* Karl Fazer (1866–1932), baker, confectioner, chocolatier, entrepreneur, and sport shooter* Emil Lindh (1867–1937), sailor* Oskar Merikanto (1868–1924), composer* Signe Lagerborg-Stenius (1870–1968), architect and member the Helsinki City Council* Maggie Gripenberg (1881–1976), dancer* Gunnar Nordström (1881–1923), theoretical physicist* Väinö Tanner (1881–1966), politician* Walter Jakobsson (1882–1957), figure-skater* Mauritz Stiller (1883–1928), Russian-Swedish director and screenwriter* Karl Wiik (1883–1946), Social Democratic politician* Lennart Lindroos (1886–1921), swimmer, Olympic games 1912* Erkki Karu (1887–1935), film director and producer* Kai Donner (1888–1935), linguist, anthropologist and politician* Gustaf Molander (1888–1973), Swedish director and screenwriter* Johan Helo (1889–1966), lawyer and politician* Minna Craucher (1891–1932), socialite and spy* Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (1895–1973), chemist (Nobel Prize, 1945)* Rolf Nevanlinna (1895–1980), mathematician, university teacher and writer* Elmer Diktonius (1896–1961), Finnish-Swedish writer and composer* Yrjö Leino (1897–1961), communist politician* Toivo Wiherheimo (1898–1970), economist and politician=== Born after 1900 ===Tarja Halonen, former president of FinlandKim Hirschovits, ice hockey playerLinus Torvalds, the software engineer best known for creating the popular open-source kernel LinuxEsa-Pekka Salonen, conductor and composerSam Lake, the video game creative director known for the ''Max Payne'' games* Aku Ahjolinna (born 1946), ballet dancer and choreographer* Lars Ahlfors (1907–1996), mathematician, Fields medalist* Ella Eronen (1900–1987), actress and poetic recite* Tuomas Holopainen (born 1976), songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and record producer* Helena Anhava (1925–2018), poet, author and translator* Paavo Berglund (1929–2012), conductor* Laci Boldemann (1921–1969), composer* Irja Agnes Browallius (1901–1968), Swedish writer* Bo Carpelan (1926–2011), Finland-Swedish writer, literary critic and translator* Tarja Cronberg (born 1943), politician* Jörn Donner (1933–2020), writer, film director and politician* George Gaynes (1917–2016), American television and film actor* Ragnar Granit (1900–1991), Finnish-Swedish neurophysiologist and Nobel laureate* Mika Waltari (1908–1979), writer* Elina Haavio-Mannila (born 1933), social scientist and professor * Tarja Halonen (born 1943), President of Finland* Reino Helismaa (1913–1965), writer, film actor and singer* Kim Hirschovits (born 1982), ice hockey player* Bengt Holmström (born 1949), Professor of Economics, Nobel laureate* Shawn Huff (born 1984), basketball player* Ville Husso (born 1995), ice hockey goaltender* Kirsti Ilvessalo (1920–2019), textile artist* Tove Jansson (1914–2001), Finland-Swedish writer, painter, illustrator, comic writer, graphic designer* Kaapo Kähkönen (born 1996), ice hockey goaltender* Aki Kaurismäki (born 1957), director, screenwriter and producer* Emma Kimiläinen (born 1989), racing driver* Kiti Kokkonen (born 1974), Finnish actress and writer* Petteri Koponen, basketball player* Lennart Koskinen (born 1944), Swedish, Lutheran bishop* Sam Lake (born 1970), writer and actor; the creative director at Remedy Entertainment* Olli Lehto (1925–2020), mathematician* Samuel Lehtonen (1921–2010), bishop of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland* Juha Leiviskä (born 1936), architect* Magnus Lindberg (born 1958), composer and pianist* Esa Lindell (born 1994), professional ice hockey player* Lill Lindfors (born 1940), Finland-Swedish singer and TV presenter* Jari Mäenpää (born 1977), founder, former lead guitarist and current lead singer in melodic death metal band Wintersun, former lead singer and guitarist of folk metal band Ensiferum* Klaus Mäkelä (born 1996), cellist and conductor* Susanna Mälkki (born 1969), conductor* Georg Malmstén (1902–1981), singer, musician, composer, orchestra director and actor* Tauno Marttinen (1912–2008), composer* Vesa-Matti Loiri (1945-2022), actor, comedian, singer* Abdirahim Hussein Mohamed (born 1978), Finnish-Somalian media personality and politician* Hanno Möttölä, Finnish basketball player* Väinö Myllyrinne (1909–1963), acromegalic giant and at time (1940–1963) the world's tallest living person* Peter Nygård (born 1941), businessman, arrested in December 2020 for sex crimes* Markku Peltola (1956–2007), actor and musician* Kimmo Pikkarainen (born 1976), professional ice hockey player* Anne Marie Pohtamo (born 1955), actress, model, Miss Suomi 1975 and Miss Universe 1975* Elisabeth Rehn (born 1935), politician* Einojuhani Rautavaara (1928–2016), composer* Susanne Ringell (born 1955), writer and actress* Miron Ruina (born 1998), Finnish-Israeli basketball player* Kaija Saariaho (1952-2023), composer* Riitta Salin (born 1950), athlete* Sasu Salin, Finnish basketball player* Esa-Pekka Salonen (born 1958), composer and conductor* Asko Sarkola (born 1945), actor* Heikki Sarmanto (born 1939), jazz pianist and composer* Teemu Selänne (born 1970), Hall of Fame ice hockey player* Ann Selin (born 1960), trade union leader* Birgit Sergelius (1907–1979), stage and film actress* Teuvo Teräväinen (born 1994), professional ice hockey player* Märta Tikkanen (born 1935), Finland-Swedish writer and philosophy teacher* Linus Torvalds (born 1969), software engineer, creator of Linux* Elin Törnudd (1924–2008), Finnish chief librarian and professor* Klaus Törnudd (born 1931), diplomat and political scientist* Sirkka Turkka (1939–2021), poet* Jarno Tuunainen (born 1977), footballer* Ville Valo (born 1976), lead singer of the rock band HIM* Ulla Vuorela (1945–2011), professor of social anthropology* Lauri Ylönen (born 1979), lead singer of the rock band The Rasmus" ], [ "See also", "* * Greater Helsinki* Helsinki urban area* Subdivisions of Helsinki* Helsinki Parish Village* Underground Helsinki" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Hel.fi: Official City of Helsinki website* welcome.helsinki: An introduction to the city for new residents * My Helsinki: Your local guide to Helsinki* Lunch restaurants in Helsinki" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hobart" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hobart''' ( ; Nuennonne/palawa kani: '''''nipaluna''''') is the capital and most populous city of the island state of Tasmania, Australia.", "Home to almost half of all Tasmanians, it is the southernmost and least-populated Australian state capital city, and second-smallest if territories are taken into account, before Darwin, Northern Territory.", "Hobart is located in Tasmania's south-east on the estuary of the River Derwent, making it the most southern of Australia's capital cities.", "Its skyline is dominated by the kunanyi/Mount Wellington, and its harbour forms the second-deepest natural port in the world, with much of the city's waterfront consisting of reclaimed land.", "The metropolitan area is often referred to as '''Greater Hobart''', to differentiate it from the City of Hobart, one of the seven local government areas that cover the city.", "It has a mild maritime climate.The city lies on country which was known by the local Mouheneener people as nipaluna, a name which includes surrounding features such as kunanyi/Mt.", "Wellington and timtumili minanya (River Derwent).", "Prior to British settlement, the land had been occupied for possibly as long as 35,000 years by Aboriginal Tasmanians.Founded in 1804 as a British penal colony, Hobart is Australia's second-oldest capital city after Sydney, New South Wales.", "Whaling quickly emerged as a major industry in the area, and for a time Hobart served as the Southern Ocean's main whaling port.", "Penal transportation ended in the 1850s, after which the city experienced periods of growth and decline.", "The early 20th century saw an economic boom on the back of mining, agriculture and other primary industries, and the loss of men who served in the world wars was counteracted by an influx of immigration.", "Despite the rise in migration from Asia and other non-English speaking regions, Hobart's population remains predominantly ethnically Anglo-Celtic, and has the highest percentage of Australian-born residents among Australia's capital cities.Today, Hobart is the financial and administrative hub of Tasmania, serving as the home port for both Australian and French Antarctic operations and acting as a tourist destination, with over 1.192 million visitors in 2011–12, and 924,000 during 2022–23.Well-known drawcards include its convict-era architecture, Salamanca Market and the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA), the Southern Hemisphere's largest private museum." ], [ "History", "John Glover's 1834 painting ''Mount Wellington and Hobart Town from Kangaroo Point'' depicts Aboriginal Tasmanians dancing in the foreground.\|leftThe first European settlement began in 1803 as a military camp at Risdon Cove on the eastern shores of the River Derwent, amid British concerns over the presence of French explorers.", "In 1804, along with the military, settlers and convicts from the abandoned Port Phillip settlement, the camp at Risdon Cove was moved by Captain David Collins to a better location at the present site of Hobart at Sullivans Cove.", "The city, initially known as ''Hobart Town'' or ''Hobarton'', was named after Lord Hobart, the British Secretary of State for war and the colonies.", "''A View of Hobart, Tasmania'' - Charles Emilius Gold, 1846The area's indigenous inhabitants were members of the semi-nomadic ''Mouheneener'' tribe.", "Violent conflict with the European settlers, and the effects of diseases brought by them, dramatically reduced the Aboriginal population, which was rapidly replaced by free settlers and the convict population.", "Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town in February 1836 as part of the ''Beagle'' expedition.", "He writes of Hobart and the Derwent estuary in ''The Voyage of the Beagle'':\"...The lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared; and the bright yellow fields of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, appear very luxuriant...", "I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building.", "Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505.", "\"The River Derwent was one of Australia's finest deepwater ports and was the centre of South Seas whaling and sealing trades.", "The settlement rapidly grew into a major port, with allied industries such as shipbuilding.Hobart Town became a city on 21 August 1842, and was renamed Hobart from the beginning of 1881.Collins Street in 1915''A bird's eye view of Hobart'' c.1894On 7 September 1936, one of the last known surviving thylacines died at the Beaumaris Zoo in Hobart.During the mid 20th century, the state and local governments invested in building Hobart's reputation as a tourist attraction - in 1956 the Lanherne Airport (now Hobart International Airport) was opened.", "Australia's first legal casino, Wrest Point Hotel Casino opened in 1973.Despite these successes, Hobart faced significant challenges during the 20th century, including the 1967 Tasmanian fires, which claimed 64 lives in Hobart itself and destroyed over 1200 homes, and the 1975 Tasman Bridge disaster, when a bulk ore carrier collided with and destroyed the concrete span bridge that connected the city to its eastern suburbs.In the 21st century, Hobart benefited as Tasmania's economy recovered from the 1990s recession, and the city's long-stagnant population growth began to reverse.", "A period of significant growth has followed, including the redevelopment of the former Macquarie Point railyards, Parliament Square, and new hotel developments throughout the city." ], [ "Geography", "===Topography===The City of Hobart (green) and Greater Hobart (teal).", "Greater Hobart covers , whereas the built-up urban area from Bridgewater to Taroona to Tranmere covers approximately .Hobart is located on the estuary of the River Derwent in the state's south-east.", "Geologically Hobart is built predominantly on Jurassic dolerite around the foothills interspersed with smaller areas of Triassic siltstone and Permian mudstone.", "Hobart extends along both sides of the River Derwent; on the western shore from the Derwent valley in the north through the flatter areas of Glenorchy which rests on older Triassic sediment and into the hilly areas of New Town, Lenah Valley.", "Both of these areas rest on the younger Jurassic dolerite deposits, before stretching into the lower areas such as the beaches of Sandy Bay in the south, in the Derwent estuary.", "South of the Derwent estuary lies Storm Bay and the Tasman Peninsula.The Eastern Shore also extends from the Derwent valley area in a southerly direction hugging the Meehan Range in the east before sprawling into flatter land in suburbs such as Bellerive.", "These flatter areas of the eastern shore rest on far younger deposits from the Quaternary.", "From there the city extends in an easterly direction through the Meehan Range into the hilly areas of Rokeby and Oakdowns, before reaching into the tidal flatland area of Lauderdale.Hobart has access to a number of beach areas including those in the Derwent estuary itself; Long Beach, Nutgrove Beach, Bellerive Beach, Cornelian Bay, Kingston, and Howrah Beaches as well as many more in Frederick Henry Bay such as; Seven Mile, Roaches, Cremorne, Clifton, and Goats Beaches.`Mount Direction visible in the backgroundBellerive===Climate===Hobart has a mild temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb'').", "The highest temperature recorded was on 4 January 2013 and the lowest was on 25 June 1972 and 11 July 1981.Annually, Hobart receives only 40.8 clear days without rain.", "Compared to other major Australian cities, Hobart has the fewest daily average hours of sunshine, with only 5.9 hours per day.", "However, during the summer it has the same hours of daylight of any Australian city, with 15.3 hours on the summer solstice.", "By global standards, Hobart has cool summers and mild winters for its relative latitude, being heavily influenced by its seaside location.", "In spite of this, the strong northerly winds from the Australian outback ensure that Hobart most years gets temperatures above .", "Those temperatures are very warm compared to climates on higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere with similar summer averages.", "Light air frost occasionally happens, albeit it is not a yearly occurrence.Although Hobart itself rarely receives snow during the winter due to the foehn effect created by the Central Highlands (the city's geographic position causes a rain shadow), the adjacent Kunanyi/Mount Wellington is frequently seen with a snowcap throughout the year including in summer.", "During the 20th century, the city itself has received snowfalls at sea level on average only once every 5 years; however, outer suburbs lying higher on the slopes of Mount Wellington receive snow more often, owing to the more exposed position coupled with them resting at higher altitude.", "These snow-bearing winds often carry on through Tasmania and Victoria to the Snowy Mountains in Victoria and southern New South Wales.The average temperature of the sea ranges from in September to in February.Climate data for HobartMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearAverage sea temperature °C (°F)16.9(62.4)16.4(61.5)16.4(61.5)15.4(59.7)14.6(58.3)13.6(56.5)12.9(55.2)12.7(54.9)12.7(54.9)13.1(55.6)14.4(57.9)15.9(60.6)14.6(58.3)Mean daily daylight hours15.014.012.011.010.09.09.010.012.013.015.015.012.1Average Ultraviolet index119642112468105.3Source: Weather Atlas, ''seatemperature.org''" ], [ "Demographics", "The Hobart metropolitan area and its surroundsAt the 2021 census, there were 247,068 people in the Greater Hobart.", "The City of Hobart local government area had a population of 55,077.As of 2021, the median weekly household income was $1,542, compared with $1,746 nationally.18.1% of households total weekly income is less than $650 week, while 18.9% of households weekly income exceeds $3,000.This compares to national rates of 16.5% and 24.3% respectively.35.4% of renting households, and 10.3% of owned households with a mortgage experience housing stress, where rent or mortgage repayments exceed 30% of income.At the 2016 census, The most common occupation categories were professionals (22.6%), clerical and administrative workers (14.7%), technicians and trades workers (13.3%), community and personal service workers (12.8%), and managers (11.3%).===Ancestry and immigration===+ Country of birth (2021) Birthplace Population Australia 189,218 England 8,155 Mainland China 5,544 Nepal 4,107 India 4,074 New Zealand 2,108 Philippines 1,1654.5% of the population (11,216 people) are Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders).At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestry groups include:23.4% of the population was born overseas at the 2021 census.", "The five largest groups of overseas-born were from England (3.3%), Mainland China (2.2%), Nepal (1.7%), India (1.6%) and New Zealand (0.9%).===Language===At the 2021 census, 82.6% of the population spoke only English at home.", "The other languages most commonly spoken at home were Mandarin (2.6%), Nepali (1.8%), Punjabi (0.7%), Cantonese (0.5%) and Vietnamese (0.4%).=== Religion ===St David's CathedralIn the 2021 census, 49.9% of Greater Hobart residents specified no religion.", "Christianity comprised the largest religious affiliation (37.1%), with the largest denominations being Anglicanism (14.1%) and Catholicism (14.1%).", "Hinduism (2.6%), Buddhism (1.3%), Islam (1.3%) and Sikhism (0.6%) constitute the remaining largest religious affiliations.Hobart has a small community of 456 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, with meetinghouses in Glenorchy, Rosny, and Glen Huon.", "There is also a synagogue, with a Jewish community of 203 people.", "Hobart has a Baháʼí community, with a Baháʼí Centre of Learning, located within the city.", "In 2013, Hillsong Church established a Hillsong Connect campus in Hobart." ], [ "Economy", "Hobart City CentreShipping is significant to the city's economy.", "Hobart is the home port for the Antarctic activities of Australia and France.", "The port loads around 2,000 tonnes of Antarctic cargo a year for the Australian research vessel ''Nuyina (previously the Aurora Australis).''", "The city is also a popular cruise ship destination during the summer months, with 47 such ships docking during the course of the 2016–17 summer season.The city also supports many other industries.", "Major local employers include catamaran builder Incat, zinc refinery Nyrstar Hobart, Cascade Brewery and Cadbury's Chocolate Factory, Norske Skog Boyer and Wrest Point Casino.", "The city also supports a host of light industry manufacturers, as well as a range of redevelopment projects, including the $689 million Royal Hobart Hospital Redevelopment – standing as the states largest ever Health Infrastructure project.Tourism is a significant part of the economy, with visitors coming to the city to explore its historic inner suburbs and nationally acclaimed restaurants and cafes, as well as its vibrant music and nightlife culture.", "The two major draw-cards are the weekly market in Salamanca Place, and the Museum of Old and New Art.", "The city is also used as a base from which to explore the rest of Tasmania.The last 15–20 years have seen Hobart's wine industry thrive as many vineyards have developed in countryside areas outside of the city in the Coal River Wine Region and D'Entrecasteaux Channel, including Moorilla Estate at Berriedale one of the most awarded vineyards in Australia.===Antarctic gateway===Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesHobart is an Antarctic gateway city, with geographical proximity to East Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.", "Infrastructure is provided by the port of Hobart for scientific research and cruise ships, and Hobart International Airport supports an Antarctic Airlink to Wilkins Runway at Casey Station.", "Hobart is a logistics point for the French icebreaker ''L'Astrolabe''.Hobart is the home port for the Australian and French Antarctic programs, and provides port services for other visiting Antarctic nations and Antarctic cruise ships.", "Antarctic and Southern Ocean expeditions are supported by a specialist cluster offering cold climate products, services and scientific expertise.", "The majority of these businesses and organisations are members of the Tasmanian polar network, supported in part by the Tasmanian State Government.Tasmania has a high concentration of Antarctic and Southern Ocean scientists.", "Hobart is home to the following Antarctic and Southern Ocean scientific institutions:* Australian Antarctic Division* Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)* Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)* The University of Tasmania (UTAS) – expertise in Antarctic and Southern Ocean science and research* Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) (established by UTAS)Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS)Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre (ACE-CRC)International Antarctic Institute (IAI) (hosted by UTAS)Southern Ocean Observing System (hosted by UTAS/ IMAS)* CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research===Tourism===Salamanca Market with the snow-capped Mount Wellington in the backgroundHobart serves as a focal point and mecca for tourism in the state of Tasmania.", "Hobart has been a significant tourist destination for many years, however tourism has evolved to a core industry in the last decade.", "This process has been termed the \"MONA Effect\" - referring to the significant influence of the Museum of New and Old Art (MONA), the Southern Hemisphere's largest private museum, on the local tourist economy - compared to the effect of the Guggenheim on Bilbao.", "Since opening in 2011, MONA had received 2.5 million visitors by 2022 and has helped establish a number of art and food venues and events, including MONA FOMA, and the winter festivals of Mid-Winter Fest and Dark Mofo.", "27% of visitors to Tasmania visit the museum.In 2016, Hobart received 1.8 million visitors, surpassing both Perth and Canberra, tying equally with Brisbane.", "Visitor numbers reached a low of 744,200 in 2021, primarily as a result of the Covid-19 Pandemic, with expectations that numbers would return to normal by 2023.Many local tourist attractions focuses on the convict history of Hobart, the city's historic architecture, art experiences, and food and alcohol experiences.", "Hobart is home to a significant number of nationally known restaurants, boutique alcohol producers, including Sullivans Cove Whiskey, which won world's best single malt in 2014, boutique hotels, and art experiences.", "Other significant tourist attractions include Australia's second oldest botanic gardens, the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, which holds extensive significant plant collections, a range of public and private museums including the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery and Maritime Museum Tasmania, and kunanyi/Mount Wellington, one of the dominant features of Hobart's skyline.", "At , the mountain has its own ecosystems, is rich in biodiversity and plays a large part in determining the local weather." ], [ "Architecture", "Early colonial-era buildings along Hunter StreetHobart is known for its well-preserved Georgian and Victorian architecture, giving the city a distinctly \"Old World\" feel.", "For locals, this became a source of discomfiture about the city's convict past, but is now a draw card for tourists.", "Regions within the city centre, such as Salamanca Place and Battery Point, contain many of the city's heritage-listed buildings.", "Historic homes and mansions also exist in the suburbs, much of the inner-city neighbourhoods are dotted with weatherboard cottages and two-storey Victorian houses.", "Hobart has a significant body of notable buildings, including the Cascades Female Factory, one of the UNESCO Australian Convict Sites, the Hobart Synagogue, which is the oldest synagogue in Australia and a rare surviving example of an Egyptian Revival synagogue, Hadley's Orient Hotel, on Hobart's Murray Street, which is the oldest continuously operating hotel in Australia, and the Theatre Royal, the oldest continually operating theatre in Australia.Macquarie Street lined with Victorian and Edwardian architectureKelly's Steps were built in 1839 by shipwright and adventurer James Kelly to provide a short-cut from Kelly Street and Arthur Circus in Battery Point to the warehouse and dockyards district of Salamanca Place.", "In 1835, John Lee Archer designed and oversaw the construction of the sandstone Customs House, facing Sullivans Cove.", "Completed in 1840, it was used as Tasmania's parliament house, and is now commemorated by a pub bearing the same name (built in 1844) which is frequented by yachtsmen after they have completed the Sydney to Hobart yacht race.Hobart is also home to many historic churches.", "The Scots Church (formerly known as St Andrew's) was built in Bathurst Street from 1834 to 1836, and a small sandstone building within the churchyard was used as the city's first Presbyterian Church.", "The Salamanca Place warehouses and the Theatre Royal were also constructed in this period.", "The Greek revival St George's Anglican Church in Battery Point was completed in 1838, and a classical tower, designed by James Blackburn, was added in 1847.St Joseph's was built in 1840.St David's Cathedral, Hobart's first cathedral, was consecrated in 1874.Hobart has very few high-rise buildings in comparison to other Australian capital cities.", "This is partly a result of height limits imposed due to Hobart's proximity to the River Derwent and Mount Wellington." ], [ "Culture", "===Arts and entertainment===Theatre Royal is Australia's oldest continually operating theatre.Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery===Theatres and cinemas===Hobart is home to Australia's oldest continuously operating theatre, the Theatre Royal, designed by colonial architect John Lee Archer and built in 1837.Other theatres in the city The Playhouse Theatre was built as a chapel around 1864, designed by Henry Bastow.", "It was briefly operated as the Amuzu Cinema from July 1935.The Hobart Repertory Theatre Society has owned the theatre since 1937 The Rewind Cinema, in New Town, was formerly The Hidden Theatre, was also designed by John Lee Archer, and built by convicts under instruction from George Arthur, in the 1820s or 1830s.===Music===The Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra is based at the Federation Concert Hall on the city's waterfront.", "The Federation Concert Hall also hosts the University of Tasmania's Australian International Symphony Orchestra Institute (AISOI) which fosters advanced young musicians from across Australia and internationally.The city has long been home to a thriving classical, jazz, folk, punk, hip-hop, electro, metal, and rock music scene.", "Internationally recognised musicians such as metal acts Striborg and Psycroptic, indie-electro bands The Paradise Motel and The Scientists of Modern Music, singer-songwriters Sacha Lucashenko (of The Morning After Girls), Michael Noga (of The Drones), and Monique Brumby, two-thirds of indie rock band Love of Diagrams, post punk band Sea Scouts, theremin player Miles Brown, blues guitarist Phil Manning (of blues-rock band Chain), power-pop group The Innocents, and TikTok artist Kim Dracula all originated in Hobart.", "In addition, founding member of Violent Femmes, Brian Ritchie, now calls Hobart home, and has formed a local band, The Green Mist.", "Ritchie also curates the annual international arts festival MONA FOMA, held at Salamanca Place's waterfront venue, Princes Wharf, Shed No.", "1.Hobart hosts many significant festivals including summer's Taste of Tasmania celebrating local produce, wine and music, ''Dark Mofo'' marking the winter solstice, Australia's premier festival celebration of voice the ''Festival of Voices'', and Tasmania's biennial international arts festival Ten Days On The Island.", "Other festivals, including the ''Hobart Fringe Festival'', Hobart Summer Festival, Southern Roots Festival, the Falls Festival in Marion Bay and the Soundscape Festival also capitalise on Hobart's artistic communities.===Galleries and artworks===Hobart is home to the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery.", "The Meadowbank Estate winery and restaurant features a floor mural by Tom Samek, part funded by the Federal Government.", "The Museum of Old and New Art (MONA) opened in 2011 to coincide with the third annual MONA FOMA festival.", "The multi-storey MONA gallery was built directly underneath the historic Sir Roy Grounds courtyard house, overlooking the River Derwent.", "This building serves as the entrance to the MONA Gallery.", "The Lady Franklin Gallery became Australia's first privately funded museum when established by Lady Jane Franklin in 1843.The Art Society of Tasmania has operated from the premises since 1949.Maritime Museum Tasmania is on Hobart's historic waterfront, and explores the influence of the sea on the lives of Tasmanians and the strong maritime heritage of the island.", "Hobart has a growing street art scene thanks to a program called ''Hobart Walls'', which was launched in association with the ''Vibrance Festival'', an annual mural-painting event.", "The City of Hobart and Vibrance Festival launched Hobart's first legal street art wall in Bidencopes Lane in 2018, allowing any artist to paint there, on any day of the week, provided they sign up for a permit and paint between 9am and 10pm.241x241px===Novel===Australia's first novel, ''Quintus Servinton'', was published in 1831 by convict Henry Savery and published in Hobart, where he wrote the work during his imprisonment.", "A generally autobiographical work, it is the story of what happens to a well-educated man from a relatively well-to-do family, who makes poor choices in life.", "Mary Leman Grimstone, whose book ''Woman's Love'' was written in Hobart between 1826 and 1829, holds the distinction of being the first non-biographical Australian novel.", "It was printed in London in 1832.===Other culture and entertainment===Designed by the prolific architect Sir Roy Grounds, the 17-storey Wrest Point Hotel Casino in Sandy Bay, opened as Australia's first legal casino in 1973.The city's nightlife primarily revolves around Salamanca Place, the waterfront area, Elizabeth St in North Hobart and Sandy Bay, but popular pubs, bars and nightclubs exist around the city as well.", "Major national and international music events are usually held at the Derwent Entertainment Centre, or the Casino.", "Popular restaurant strips include Elizabeth Street in North Hobart, and Salamanca Place near the waterfront.", "These include numerous ethnic restaurants including Chinese, Thai, Greek, Pakistani, Italian, Indian and Mexican.", "The major shopping street in the CBD is Elizabeth Street, with the pedestrianised Elizabeth Mall and the General Post Office.Close Shave, one of Australia's longest serving male a cappella quartets, is based in Hobart.The Museum of Old and New Art (MONA), the largest privately owned museum in the Southern Hemisphere===Events===Hobart's Constitution Dock is the arrival point for yachts after they have completed the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race, and is the scene of celebration by many yachtsmen during the new year festivities.Hobart is internationally famous among the yachting community as the finish of the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race which starts in Sydney on Boxing Day (the day after Christmas Day).", "The arrival of the yachts is celebrated as part of the Hobart Summer Festival, a food and wine festival beginning just after Christmas and ending in mid-January.", "The Taste of Tasmania is a major part of the festival, where locals and visitors can taste fine local and international food and wine.The city is the finishing point of the Targa Tasmania rally car event, which has been held annually in April since 1991.The annual Tulip Festival at the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens is a popular Spring celebration in the city.The Australian Wooden Boat Festival is a biennial event held in Hobart celebrating wooden boats.", "It is held concurrently with the Royal Hobart Regatta, which began in 1830 and is therefore Tasmania's oldest surviving sporting event.===Sport===Blundstone Arena is home to cricket and Australian rules football, Hobart's two most popular spectator sports.Most professional Hobart-based sports teams represent Tasmania as a whole rather than exclusively the city.Cricket is a popular game of the city.", "The Tasmanian Tigers cricket team plays its home games at the Bellerive Oval on the Eastern Shore.", "A new team, Hobart Hurricanes represent the city in the Big Bash League.", "Bellerive Oval has been the breeding ground of some world class cricket players including the former Australia captain Ricky Ponting.Despite Australian rules football's huge popularity in the state of Tasmania, the state does not have a team in the Australian Football League.", "However, a bid for a Tasmanian AFL team is a popular topic among football fans.", "The State government is one of the potential sponsors of such a team.", "Local domestic club football is still played.", "Tasmanian State League football features five clubs from Hobart, and other leagues such as Southern Football League and the Old Scholars Football Association are also played each Winter.The city has two local rugby league football teams (Hobart Tigers and South Hobart Storm) that compete in the Tasmanian Rugby League.Tasmania is not represented by teams in the NRL, Super Rugby, ANZ Championship or A-League.", "However, the Tasmania JackJumpers entered the NBL in the 2021/22 season.", "The Hobart Chargers also represent Hobart in the second-tier South East Australian Basketball League.", "Besides the bid for an AFL club which was passed over in favour of a second Queensland team, despite several major local businesses and the Premier pioneering for a club, there is also a Hobart bid for entry into the A-League.The Tassie Tigers field men's and women's representative sides in the national hockey league, Hockey One (which replaced the Australian Hockey League in 2019).", "They play their home matches at the Tasmanian Hockey Centre in New Town near Cornelian Bay, which features three synthetic hockey pitches that have also hosted international competition such as the Men's FIH Pro League as recently as 2019.The Kookaburras current co-Captain and games record holder, Eddie Ockenden, is a product of the Hobart-based club North West Graduates.The city co-hosted the basketball FIBA Oceania Championship 1975, where the Australian national basketball team won the gold medal.===Media===The main television and radio transmitter of Hobart behind the lookout building near the summit of Mount WellingtonFive free-to-air television stations service Hobart:* ABC Tasmania (ABT)* SBS Tasmania (SBS)* Southern Cross Seven Tasmania (TNT) – Seven Network affiliate* Nine Tasmania (TVT) – Nine Network affiliate* Tasmanian Digital Television (TDT) – Network 10 affiliateEach station broadcasts a primary channel and several multichannels.Hobart is served by twenty-nine digital free-to-air television channels:# ABC# ABC HD (ABC broadcast in HD)# ABC TV Plus/KIDS# ABC ME# ABC News# SBS# SBS HD (SBS broadcast in HD)# SBS Viceland# SBS Viceland HD (SBS Viceland broadcast in HD)# Food Network# NITV# 7 Tasmania (on relay from Melbourne)# 7HD (Seven broadcast in HD)# 7two# 7mate# Racing.com# Nine (on relay from Melbourne)# 9HD (Nine broadcast in HD)# 9Gem# 9Go!# 9Life# TVSN# Gold# Sky News on WIN# 10 (on relay from Melbourne)# 10 HD (TDT broadcast in HD)# 10 Bold# 10 Peach# 10 ShakeThe majority of pay television services are provided by Foxtel via satellite, although other smaller pay television providers do service Hobart.Commercial radio stations licensed to cover the Hobart market include Triple M Hobart, hit100.9 Hobart and 7HO FM.", "Local community radio stations include Christian radio station Ultra106five, Edge Radio and Hobart FM which targets the wider community with specialist programmes.", "The five ABC radio networks available on analogue radio broadcast to Hobart via 936 ABC Hobart, Radio National, Triple J, NewsRadio and ABC Classic FM.", "Hobart is also home to the video creation company Biteable.", "Station Frequency Energy FM 87.8 FM Commercial Triple J 92.9 FM Government funded ABC Classic FM 93.9 FM Government funded Hobart FM 96.1 FM Community Edge Radio 99.3 FM Community hit100.9 Hobart 100.9 FM Commercial 7HO FM 101.7 FM Commercial SBS Radio 105.7 FM Government funded Ultra106five 106.5 FM Christian/narrowcast Triple M Hobart 107.3 FM Commercial ABC Radio National 585 AM Government funded ABC NewsRadio 747 AM Government funded 7RPH 864 AM Community 936 ABC Hobart 936 AM Government funded TOTE Sport Radio 1080 AM Racing/narrowcast Rete Italia 1611 AM Italian radio NTC Radio Australia 1620 AM CommunityHobart's major newspaper is ''The Mercury'', which was founded by John Davies in 1854 and has been continually published ever since.", "The paper is owned and operated by Rupert Murdoch's News Limited." ], [ "Government", "Parliament House of TasmaniaGreater Hobart as of the 2021 Census is divided into seven local government areas - three of which are designated as cities, City of Hobart, City of Glenorchy and City of Clarence.", "The remaining metropolitan area is within the Municipality of Kingborough, the Municipality of Brighton, the Municipality of Sorell and the Municipality of Derwent Valley.", "Each local government area has an elected council which manages functions delegated by the Tasmanian state government such as roads, planning, animal control and parks.", "Mains water and sewerage processing are serviced by TasWater, which is a state-wide authority part owned by the state government and local government areas.Hobart is the seat of the Parliament of Tasmania, located at Parliament House, Salamanca Place, and the location of the official residence of the Governor of Tasmania, Government House.", "The senior sitting of the Supreme Court of Tasmania, and only sitting of the Court's appeal division, sit in Hobart.Hobart was made the seat of government for the southern district of Tasmania (then called Van Diemen's Land), Buckingham County in 1804, with the northern half of the state separately governed from Port Dalrymple, now George Town.", "At the time, Van Diemen's Land remained part of the Colony of New South Wales.", "In 1812, the northern lieutenant governorship ceased and Hobart become de facto seat of government for the entire island.", "Hobart officially became capital of an independent colony of Van Diemen's Land in 1825, and the seat of responsible self government in 1850 with the Australian Constitutions Act 1850." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Education===University of Tasmania's Centenary Building, Sandy Bay campusHobart is home to the main campus of the University of Tasmania, located in Sandy Bay.", "On-site accommodation colleges include Christ College, Jane Franklin Hall and St John Fisher College.", "Other campuses are in Launceston and Burnie.The Greater Hobart area contains 122 primary, secondary and pretertiary (College) schools distributed throughout Clarence, Glenorchy and Hobart City Councils and Kingborough and Brighton Municipalities.", "These schools are made up of a mix of public, catholic, private and independent run, with the heaviest distribution lying in the more densely populated West around the Hobart city core.", "TasTAFE operates a total of seven polytechnic campuses within the Greater Hobart area that provide vocational education and training.===Health===Royal Hobart Hospital is a major public hospital in central Hobart with 501 beds, which also serves as a teaching hospital for the University of Tasmania.A private hospital, Hobart Private Hospital is located adjacent to it and operated by Australian healthcare provider Healthscope.", "The company also owns another hospital in the city, the St. Helen's Private Hospital, which features a mother-baby unit.===Transport===Buses in the city centreThe only public transportation within the city of Hobart is via a network of Metro Tasmania buses funded bythe Tasmanian Government and a small number of private bus services, departing from the centrally located Hobart City Interchange on Elizabeth Street.", "Like many large Australian cities, Hobart once operated passenger tram services, a trolleybus network consisting of six routes which operated until 1968.However, the tramway closed in the early 1960s.", "The tracks are still visible in the older streets of Hobart.Suburban passenger trains, run by the Tasmanian Government Railways, were closed in 1974 and the intrastate passenger service, the Tasman Limited, ceased running in 1978.Recently though there has been a push from the city, and increasingly from government, to establish a light rail network, intended to be fast, efficient, and eco-friendly, along existing tracks in a North South corridor; to help relieve the frequent jamming of traffic in Hobart CBD.Tasman BridgeThe main arterial routes within the urban area are the Brooker Highway to Glenorchy and the northern suburbs, the Tasman Bridge and Bowen Bridge across the river to Rosny and the Eastern Shore.", "The East Derwent Highway to Lindisfarne, Geilston Bay, and Northwards to Brighton, the South Arm Highway leading to Howrah, Rokeby, Lauderdale and Opossum Bay and the Southern Outlet south to Kingston and the D'Entrecasteaux Channel.", "Leaving the city, motorists can travel the Lyell Highway to the west coast, Midland Highway to Launceston and the north, Tasman Highway to the east coast, or the Huon Highway to the far south.MONA ROMA ferry in the Port of HobartFerry services from Hobart's Eastern Shore into the city were once a common form of public transportation, but with lack of government funding, as well as a lack of interest from the private sector, there has been the demise of a regular commuter ferry service – leaving Hobart's commuters relying solely on travel by automobiles and buses.", "There is however a water taxi service operating from the Eastern Shore into Hobart which provides an alternative to the Tasman Bridge.In 2021, the State Government begun a ferry service that operates on the Derwent between Brooke Street Pier and Bellerive.", "Derwent Ferries was initiated as a year-long trial servicing between Brooke Street Pier in Hobart centre to Bellerive Pier on the eastern shore.The ferry provides a convenient alternative to crossing the Tasman Bridge choke point, with its purpose being to reduce congestion.", "It is seen as a first step in diversifying Hobart's transport options to ameliorate traffic problems that involves taking cars off the road rather than inducing more traffic.Due to the success of the trial, the ferry service was made permanent, with more than 2100 passengers in the first three weeks.Hobart is served by Hobart International Airport with flights to/from Adelaide, Auckland, Brisbane, Canberra, Gold Coast, Melbourne, Perth, Sydney, and regional destinations including the Bass Strait islands.", "The smaller Cambridge Aerodrome mainly serves small charter airlines offering local tourist flights.", "In the past decade, Hobart International Airport received a huge upgrade, with the airport now being a first class airport facility.In 2009, it was announced that Hobart Airport would receive more upgrades, including a first floor, aerobridges (currently, passengers must walk on the tarmac) and shopping facilities.", "Possible new international flights to Asia and New Zealand, and possible new domestic flights to Darwin and Cairns have been proposed.", "A second runway, possibly to be constructed in the next 15 years, would assist with growing passenger numbers to Hobart.", "Hobart Control Tower may be renovated and fitted with new radar equipment, and the airport's carpark may be extended further.", "Also, new facilities will be built just outside the airport.", "A new service station, hotel and day care centre have already been built and the road leading to the airport has been maintained and re-sealed.", "In 2016, work began on a 500-metre extension of the existing runway in addition to a $100 million upgrade of the airport.", "The runway extension is expected to allow international flights to land and increase air-traffic with Antarctica.", "This upgrade was, in part, funded under a promise made during the 2013 federal election by the Abbott government." ], [ "Notable residents", "===Arts===* Asta, singer-songwriter* Phillip Borsos, director and producer, best known for his films ''The Mean Season'' (1985) and ''One Magic Christmas'' (1985)* Saroo Brierley, author of ''A Long Way Home'', adapted into the 2016 film ''Lion''.", "* Jeanine Claes, artist, dancer, choreographer and dance teacher* Essie Davis, actress* Richard Flanagan, author* Errol Flynn, Hollywood actor* Frederick Frith, painter and photographer* Lisa Gormley, English-born Australian actress best known for playing Bianca Scott on the Channel 7 serial drama ''Home and Away''* Lucky Grills, best known for portraying the unconventional detective \"Bluey\" Hills in the television series ''Bluey'' in 1976.", "* Robert Grubb, actor* John Harwood, writer and poet* Ernest, Tasman and Arthur Higgins, brothers and pioneering cinematographers during the silent era* Don Kay, Australian classical composer* William Kermode, artist* Constantine Koukias, Greek-Australian composer and flautist* Louise Lovely, the first Australian motion picture actress to find success in Hollywood* Dennis Miller, actor best known for his recurring role on ''Blue Heelers'' as Ex-Sergeant Pat Doyle (1994–2000).", "* Richard Morgan, most noted for playing the long-running role of Terry Sullivan in the Australian television series ''The Sullivans''.", "* Tara Morice, actress* Gerda Nicolson, actress* Len Reynolds, illustrator, caricaturist, painter, cartoonist* Glenn Richards, musician, singer, songwriter and guitarist with Augie March* Brian Ritchie, musician, bassist of Violent Femmes* Clive Sansom, poet and playwright* Don Sharp, actor* Michael Siberry, actor* Jaason Simmons, actor best known for his role as life guard Logan Fowler in the TV series ''Baywatch''* Freya Stafford, actress who has appeared on TV programs such as ''Head Start'' and ''White Collar Blue'' and the 2010 horror film ''The Clinic''* Will Upson, pianist and composer, immigrated from the UK* Amali Ward, ''Australian Idol'' Season 2 finalist* Charles Woolley, photographer and artistActor Errol Flynn was born in Hobart in 1909.===Sports===* Darrel Baldock - Australian Rules footballer.", "Captain of St Kilda 1966 Grand Final victory over Collingwood.", "Legend status in the AFL Hall of Fame.", "* Scott Bowden – Australian cyclist* Al Bourke – Australian boxer of the 1940s, and 1950s* Josh Burdon – Australian racing driver* Roy Cazaly – Australian rules footballer who died in 1963 in Hobart, member of the Australian Football Hall of Fame* Adam Coleman, rugby union player* Rodney Eade – Australian rules footballer who played 259 games for Hawthorn and the Bears, former head coach of the Western Bulldogs until Round 21, 2011 and former head coach of the Gold Coast Suns.", "* David Foster – World Champion woodchopper* Ryan Foster – Middle-distance runner and first Tasmanian to break the 4-minute mile.", "* Brendon Gale – former Australian rules footballer, and is CEO of the Richmond Football Club* Royce Hart – Australian rules footballer, member of the Australian Football Hall of Fame with legend status and member of the Team of the Century* Peter Hudson – Australian rules footballer, considered one of the greatest full-forwards in the game's history, when playing for Glenorchy he kicked 616 goals in 81 games with some records stating he instead kicked 769 goals; he is also a member of the Australian Football Hall of Fame* Peter 'Percy' Jones – Australian rules footballer, played 249 games for the Carlton Blues in the VFL* Eddie Ockenden – midfielder and striker for Australia's national hockey team, the Kookaburras* Tim Paine – Australian cricketer and wicketkeeper* Alex Peroni – Australian racing driver* Steve Randell – Australian Test cricket match umpire; convicted of 15 counts of sexual assault against nine schoolgirls * Jack Riewoldt – Premiership winning Australian rules footballer for Richmond, winner of the 2010 and 2012 Coleman and Jack Dyer Medal, cousin of Nick.", "* Nick Riewoldt – Australian rules footballer, former captain of the St Kilda Football Club* Ian Stewart – Australian rules footballer who played 127 games for St Kilda, including the club's first (and thus far only) Premiership in 1966; he is also a member of the Australian Football Hall of Fame with legend status and a triple Brownlow Medal winner* Max Walker – Australian rules footballer and Australian cricketer, media commentator and motivational speaker* Paul Williams – Australian Rules footballer who played 306 games for Collingwood and Sydney, also previously caretaker coach of the Western Bulldogs* Cameron Wurf – Australian road cyclist and member of the Cannondale Pro Cycling Team===Others===* Elizabeth Blackburn, Nobel Prize-winning biological researcher* Regina Sorensen (more commonly known as Reggie Bird), winner of Network Ten's iteration of Big Brother Australia Season 3 and Season 14, television personality * Bob Brown, retired politician, former leader of the Australian Greens* William Buckley, escaped convict who lived with the native Wathaurung people on the Bellarine Peninsula for over 30 years* Alec Campbell, longest surviving war veteran from the Gallipoli Campaign* Peter Conrad, academic and author, teaching at Christ Church, Oxford* Mary Donaldson, Queen of Denmark* Alice Gordon Elliott OBE (1886 – 1977) was an Australian WWI nurse who was born and died here.", "* Helene Chung Martin, journalist and author, notable for being the first reporter of Asian descent to report on the ABC* Bernard Montgomery, general who grew up in Hobart; served in both world wars and is famous for his victory at the battle of El Alamein* Alexander Pearce, convict and cannibal* Joseph Potaski, convict and first Pole to come to Australia* Harry Smith, Officer Commanding D Company, 6 RAR during the Battle of Long Tan in the Vietnam War* Ernest Ewart Unwin, educationist* David Walsh, art collector and founder of the Museum of Old and New Art* Charles Wooley, journalist, most famous for his role on Channel Nine's ''60 Minutes''" ], [ "Sister cities", "Japanese Garden at Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens* Yaizu, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan (1977)* L'Aquila, Abruzzo, Italy (1980)* Valdivia, Los Ríos, Chile (1998)* Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (2015)* Fuzhou, Fujian, China (2017)* Barile, Basilicata, Italy (2009)" ], [ "See also", "* Hobart City Centre* 2018 Hobart floods" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", " Hobart City Council*** *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hesiod" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hesiod''' ( or ; ''Hēsíodos'') was an ancient Greek poet generally thought to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as Homer.", "He is generally regarded by Western authors as 'the first written poet in the Western tradition to regard himself as an individual persona with an active role to play in his subject.'", "Ancient authors credited Hesiod and Homer with establishing Greek religious customs.", "Modern scholars refer to him as a major source on Greek mythology, farming techniques, early economic thought, Archaic Greek astronomy and ancient time-keeping." ], [ "Life", "The dating of Hesiod's life is a contested issue in scholarly circles (''see § Dating below'').", "Epic narrative allowed poets like Homer no opportunity for personal revelations.", "However, Hesiod's extant work comprises several didactic poems in which he went out of his way to let his audience in on a few details of his life.", "There are three explicit references in ''Works and Days'', as well as some passages in his ''Theogony'', that support inferences made by scholars.", "The former poem says that his father came from Cyme in Aeolis (on the coast of Asia Minor, a little south of the island Lesbos) and crossed the sea to settle at a hamlet, near Thespiae in Boeotia, named Ascra, \"a cursed place, cruel in winter, hard in summer, never pleasant\" (''Works'' 640).", "Hesiod's patrimony in Ascra, a small piece of ground at the foot of Mount Helicon, occasioned lawsuits with his brother Perses, who seems, at first, to have cheated him of his rightful share thanks to corrupt authorities or \"kings\" but later became impoverished and ended up scrounging from the thrifty poet (''Works'' 35, 396).Unlike his father Hesiod was averse to sea travel, but he once crossed the narrow strait between the Greek mainland and Euboea to participate in funeral celebrations for one Athamas of Chalcis, and there won a tripod in a singing competition.", "He also describes a meeting between himself and the Muses on Mount Helicon, where he had been pasturing sheep when the goddesses presented him with a laurel staff, a symbol of poetic authority (''Theogony'' 22–35).", "Fanciful though the story might seem, the account has led ancient and modern scholars to infer that he was not a professionally trained rhapsode, or he would have been presented with a lyre instead.", "''Hesiod and the Muse'' (1891), by Gustave Moreau.", "The poet is presented with a lyre, in contradiction to the account given by Hesiod himself in which the gift was a laurel staff.Some scholars have seen Perses as a literary creation, a foil for the moralizing that Hesiod develops in ''Works and Days'', but there are also arguments against that theory.", "For example, it is quite common for works of moral instruction to have an imaginative setting, as a means of getting the audience's attention, but it could be difficult to see how Hesiod could have traveled around the countryside entertaining people with a narrative about himself if the account was known to be fictitious.", "Gregory Nagy, on the other hand, sees both ''Pérsēs'' (\"the destroyer\" from , ''pérthō'') and ''Hēsíodos'' (\"he who emits the voice\" from , ''híēmi'' and , ''audḗ'') as fictitious names for poetical personae.It might seem unusual that Hesiod's father migrated from Asia Minor westwards to mainland Greece, the opposite direction to most colonial movements at the time, and Hesiod himself gives no explanation for it.", "However around 750 BC or a little later, there was a migration of seagoing merchants from his original home in Cyme in Asia Minor to Cumae in Campania (a colony they shared with the Euboeans), and possibly his move west had something to do with that, since Euboea is not far from Boeotia, where he eventually established himself and his family.", "The family association with Aeolian Cyme might explain his familiarity with Eastern myths, evident in his poems, though the Greek world might have already developed its own versions of them.In spite of Hesiod's complaints about poverty, life on his father's farm could not have been too uncomfortable if ''Works and Days'' is anything to judge by, since he describes the routines of prosperous yeomanry rather than peasants.", "His farmer employs a friend (''Works and Days'' 370) as well as servants (502, 573, 597, 608, 766), an energetic and responsible ploughman of mature years (469 ff.", "), a slave boy to cover the seed (441–6), a female servant to keep house (405, 602) and working teams of oxen and mules (405, 607f.).", "One modern scholar surmises that Hesiod may have learned about world geography, especially the catalogue of rivers in ''Theogony'' (337–45), listening to his father's accounts of his own sea voyages as a merchant.", "The father probably spoke in the Aeolian dialect of Cyme but Hesiod probably grew up speaking the local Boeotian, belonging to the same dialect group.", "However, while his poetry features some Aeolisms there are no words that are certainly Boeotian.", "His basic language was the main literary dialect of the time, Homer's Ionian.It is probable that Hesiod wrote his poems down, or dictated them, rather than passed them on orally, as rhapsodes did—otherwise, the pronounced personality that now emerges from the poems would surely have been diluted through oral transmission from one rhapsode to another.", "Pausanias asserted that Boeotians showed him an old tablet made of lead on which the ''Works'' were engraved.", "If he did write or dictate, it was perhaps as an aid to memory or because he lacked confidence in his ability to produce poems extempore, as trained rhapsodes could do.", "It certainly wasn't in a quest for immortal fame since poets in his era had probably no such notions for themselves.", "However, some scholars suspect the presence of large-scale changes in the text and attribute this to oral transmission.", "Possibly he composed his verses during idle times on the farm, in the spring before the May harvest or the dead of winter.", "''The Dance of the Muses at Mount Helicon'' by Bertel Thorvaldsen (1807).", "Hesiod cites inspiration from the Muses while on Mount Helicon.The personality behind the poems is unsuited to the kind of \"aristocratic withdrawal\" typical of a rhapsode but is instead \"argumentative, suspicious, ironically humorous, frugal, fond of proverbs, wary of women.\"", "He was in fact a \"misogynist\" of the same calibre as the later poet Semonides.", "He resembles Solon in his preoccupation with issues of good versus evil and \"how a just and all-powerful god can allow the unjust to flourish in this life\".", "He recalls Aristophanes in his rejection of the idealised hero of epic literature in favour of an idealized view of the farmer.", "Yet the fact that he could eulogize kings in ''Theogony'' (80 ff., 430, 434) and denounce them as corrupt in ''Works and Days'' suggests that he could resemble whichever audience he composed for.Various legends accumulated about Hesiod and they are recorded in several sources: the story about the ''Contest of Homer and Hesiod'';a ''vita'' of Hesiod by the Byzantine grammarian John Tzetzes;the entry for Hesiod in the ''Suda'';two passages and some scattered remarks in Pausanias (IX, 31.3–6 and 38.3 f.);a passage in Plutarch ''Moralia'' (162b).===Death===Two different—yet early—traditions record the site of Hesiod's grave.", "One, as early as Thucydides, reported in Plutarch, the ''Suda'' and John Tzetzes, states that the Delphic oracle warned Hesiod that he would die in Nemea, and so he fled to Locris, where he was killed at the local temple to Nemean Zeus, and buried there.", "This tradition follows a familiar ironic convention: the oracle predicts accurately after all.", "The other tradition, first mentioned in an epigram by Chersias of Orchomenus written in the 7th century BC (within a century or so of Hesiod's death) claims that Hesiod lies buried at Orchomenus, a town in Boeotia.", "According to Aristotle's ''Constitution of Orchomenus,'' when the Thespians ravaged Ascra, the villagers sought refuge at Orchomenus, where, following the advice of an oracle, they collected the ashes of Hesiod and set them in a place of honour in their ''agora'', next to the tomb of Minyas, their eponymous founder.", "Eventually, they came to regard Hesiod too as their \"hearth-founder\" (, ''oikistēs'').", "Later writers attempted to harmonize these two accounts.", "Yet another account taken from classical sources, cited by author Charles Abraham Elton in his ''The Remains of Hesiod the Ascræan, Including the Shield of Hercules by Hesiod'' depicts Hesiod as being falsely accused of rape by a girl's brothers and murdered in reprisal despite his advanced age while the true culprit (his Milesian fellow-traveler) managed to escape.=== Dating ===Modern Mount Helicon.", "Hesiod once described his nearby hometown, Ascra, as \"cruel in winter, hard in summer, never pleasant.", "\"Greeks in the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC considered their oldest poets to be Orpheus, Musaeus, Hesiod and Homer—in that order.", "Thereafter, Greek writers began to consider Homer earlier than Hesiod.", "Devotees of Orpheus and Musaeus were probably responsible for precedence being given to their two cult heroes and maybe the Homeridae were responsible in later antiquity for promoting Homer at Hesiod's expense.The first known writers to locate Homer earlier than Hesiod were Xenophanes and Heraclides Ponticus, though Aristarchus of Samothrace was the first actually to argue the case.", "Ephorus made Homer a younger cousin of Hesiod, the 5th century BC historian Herodotus (''Histories'' II, 53) evidently considered them near-contemporaries, and the 4th century BC sophist Alcidamas in his work ''Mouseion'' even brought them together for an imagined poetic ''ágōn'' (), which survives today as the ''Contest of Homer and Hesiod''.", "Most scholars today agree with Homer's priority but there are good arguments on either side.Hesiod certainly predates the lyric and elegiac poets whose work has come down to the modern era.", "Imitations of his work have been observed in Alcaeus, Epimenides, Mimnermus, Semonides, Tyrtaeus and Archilochus, from which it has been inferred that the latest possible date for him is about 650 BC.An upper limit of 750 BC is indicated by a number of considerations, such as the probability that his work was written down, the fact that he mentions a sanctuary at Delphi that was of little national significance before c. 750 BC (''Theogony'' 499), and he lists rivers that flow into the Euxine, a region explored and developed by Greek colonists beginning in the 8th century BC.", "(''Theogony'' 337–45).Hesiod mentions a poetry contest at Chalcis in Euboea where the sons of one Amphidamas awarded him a tripod (''Works and Days'' 654–662).", "Plutarch identified this Amphidamas with the hero of the Lelantine War between Chalcis and Eretria and he concluded that the passage must be an interpolation into Hesiod's original work, assuming that the Lelantine War was too late for Hesiod.", "Modern scholars have accepted his identification of Amphidamas but disagreed with his conclusion.", "The date of the war is not known precisely but estimates placing it around 730–705 BC fit the estimated chronology for Hesiod.", "In that case, the tripod that Hesiod won might have been awarded for his rendition of ''Theogony'', a poem that seems to presuppose the kind of aristocratic audience he would have met at Chalcis." ], [ "Works", "Vignette for ''Hesiodi Ascraei quaecumque exstant'' (1701)Three works have survived which were attributed to Hesiod by ancient commentators: ''Works and Days'', ''Theogony'', and ''Shield of Heracles''.", "Only fragments exist of other works attributed to him.", "The surviving works and fragments were all written in the conventional metre and language of epic.", "However, the ''Shield of Heracles'' is now known to be spurious and probably was written in the sixth century BC.", "Many ancient critics also rejected ''Theogony'' (e.g., Pausanias 9.31.3), even though Hesiod mentions himself by name in that poem.", "''Theogony'' and ''Works and Days'' might be very different in subject matter, but they share a distinctive language, metre, and prosody that subtly distinguish them from Homer's work and from the ''Shield of Heracles'' (see Hesiod's Greek below).", "Moreover, they both refer to the same version of the Prometheus myth.", "Yet even these authentic poems may include interpolations.", "For example, the first ten verses of the ''Works and Days'' may have been borrowed from an Orphic hymn to Zeus (they were recognised as not the work of Hesiod by critics as ancient as Pausanias).", "Some scholars have detected a proto-historical perspective in Hesiod, a view rejected by Paul Cartledge, for example, on the grounds that Hesiod advocates a not-forgetting without any attempt at verification.", "Hesiod has also been considered the father of gnomic verse.", "He had \"a passion for systematizing and explaining things\".", "Ancient Greek poetry in general had strong philosophical tendencies and Hesiod, like Homer, demonstrates a deep interest in a wide range of 'philosophical' issues, from the nature of divine justice to the beginnings of human society.", "Aristotle (''Metaphysics'' 983b–987a) believed that the question of first causes may even have started with Hesiod (''Theogony'' 116–53) and Homer (''Iliad'' 14.201, 246).He viewed the world from outside the charmed circle of aristocratic rulers, protesting against their injustices in a tone of voice that has been described as having a \"grumpy quality redeemed by a gaunt dignity\" but, as stated in the biography section, he could also change to suit the audience.", "This ambivalence appears to underlie his presentation of human history in ''Works and Days'', where he depicts a golden period when life was easy and good, followed by a steady decline in behaviour and happiness through the silver, bronze, and Iron Ages – except that he inserts a heroic age between the last two, representing its warlike men as better than their bronze predecessors.", "He seems in this case to be catering to two different world-views, one epic and aristocratic, the other unsympathetic to the heroic traditions of the aristocracy.===''Theogony''===The ''Theogony'' is commonly considered Hesiod's earliest work.", "Despite the different subject matter between this poem and the ''Works and Days'', most scholars, with some notable exceptions, believe that the two works were written by the same man.", "As M. L. West writes, \"Both bear the marks of a distinct personality: a surly, conservative countryman, given to reflection, no lover of women or life, who felt the gods' presence heavy about him.\"", "An example:Hateful strife bore painful Toil,Neglect, Starvation, and tearful Pain,Battles, Combats...The ''Theogony'' concerns the origins of the world (cosmogony) and of the gods (theogony), beginning with Chaos, Gaia, Tartarus and Eros, and shows a special interest in genealogy.", "Embedded in Greek myth, there remain fragments of quite variant tales, hinting at the rich variety of myth that once existed, city by city; but Hesiod's retelling of the old stories became, according to Herodotus, the accepted version that linked all Hellenes.", "It's the earliest known source for the myths of Pandora, Prometheus and the Golden Age.The creation myth in Hesiod has long been held to have Eastern influences, such as the Hittite Song of Kumarbi and the Babylonian Enuma Elis.", "This cultural crossover may have occurred in the eighth- and ninth-century Greek trading colonies such as Al Mina in North Syria.", "(For more discussion, read Robin Lane Fox's ''Travelling Heroes'' and Peter Walcot's ''Hesiod and the Near East''.", ")===''Works and Days''===Opening lines of ''Works and Days'' in a 16th-century manuscript''Works and Days'' is a poem of over 800 lines which revolves around two general truths: labour is the universal lot of Man, but he who is willing to work will get by.", "Scholars have interpreted this work against a background of agrarian crisis in mainland Greece, which inspired a wave of documented colonisations in search of new land.", "''Works and Days'' may have been influenced by an established tradition of didactic poetry based on Sumerian, Hebrew, Babylonian and Egyptian wisdom literature.This work lays out the five Ages of Man, as well as containing advice and wisdom, prescribing a life of honest labour and attacking idleness and unjust judges (like those who decided in favour of Perses) as well as the practice of usury.", "It describes immortals who roam the earth watching over justice and injustice.", "The poem regards labor as the source of all good, in that both gods and men hate the idle, who resemble drones in a hive.", "In the horror of the triumph of violence over hard work and honor, verses describing the \"Golden Age\" present the social character and practice of nonviolent diet through agriculture and fruit-culture as a higher path of living sufficiently.===Hesiodic corpus===In addition to the ''Theogony'' and ''Works and Days'', numerous other poems were ascribed to Hesiod during antiquity.", "Modern scholarship has doubted their authenticity, and these works are generally referred to as forming part of the \"Hesiodic corpus\" whether or not their authorship is accepted.", "The situation is summed up in this formulation by Glenn Most:Of these works forming the extended Hesiodic corpus, only the ''Shield of Heracles'' (, ''Aspis Hērakleous'') is transmitted intact via a medieval manuscript tradition.Classical authors also attributed to Hesiod a lengthy genealogical poem known as ''Catalogue of Women'' or ''Ehoiai'' (because sections began with the Greek words ''ē hoiē,'' \"Or like the one who ...\").", "It was a mythological catalogue of the mortal women who had mated with gods, and of the offspring and descendants of these unions.Several additional hexameter poems were ascribed to Hesiod: ''Megalai Ehoiai'', a poem similar to the ''Catalogue of Women'', but presumably longer.", "* ''Wedding of Ceyx'', a poem concerning Heracles' attendance at the wedding of a certain Ceyx—noted for its riddles.", "* ''Melampodia'', a genealogical poem that treats of the families of, and myths associated with, the great seers of mythology.", "* ''Idaean Dactyls'', a work concerning mythological smelters, the Idaean Dactyls.", "* ''Descent of Perithous'', about Theseus and Perithous' trip to Hades.", "* ''Precepts of Chiron'', a didactic work that presented the teaching of Chiron as delivered to the young Achilles.", "* ''Megala Erga'' or ''Great Works'', a poem similar to the ''Works and Days'', but presumably longer* ''Astronomia'', an astronomical poem to which Callimachus (''Ep''.", "27) apparently compared Aratus' ''Phaenomena''.", "* ''Aegimius'', a heroic epic concerning the Dorian Aegimius (variously attributed to Hesiod or Cercops of Miletus).", "* ''Kiln'' or ''Potters'', a brief poem asking Athena to aid potters if they pay the poet.", "Also attributed to Homer.", "* ''Ornithomantia'', a work on bird omens that followed the ''Works and Days''.In addition to these works, the ''Suda'' lists an otherwise unknown \"dirge for Batrachus, Hesiod's beloved\"." ], [ "Reception", "Sappho's countryman and contemporary, the lyric poet Alcaeus, paraphrased a section of ''Works and Days'' (582–88), recasting it in lyric meter and Lesbian dialect.", "The paraphrase survives only as a fragment.Ancient bronze bust, the so-called ''Pseudo-Seneca'', now conjectured to be an imaginative portrait of Hesiod.", "The lyric poet Bacchylides quoted or paraphrased Hesiod in a victory ode addressed to Hieron of Syracuse, commemorating the tyrant's victory in the chariot race at the Pythian Games 470 BC, the attribution made with these words: \"A man of Boeotia, Hesiod, minister of the sweet Muses, spoke thus: 'He whom the immortals honour is attended also by the good report of men.'\"", "However, the quoted words are not found in Hesiod's extant work.", "Hesiod's ''Catalogue of Women'' created a vogue for catalogue poems in the Hellenistic period.", "Thus for example Theocritus presents catalogues of heroines in two of his bucolic poems (3.40–51 and 20.34–41), where both passages are recited in character by lovelorn rustics." ], [ "Depictions", "=== Monnus mosaic ===Monnus mosaic from the end of the 3rd century AD.", "The figure is identified by the name ESIO-DVS (Hesiod).Portrait of Hesiod from Augusta Treverorum (Trier), from the end of the 3rd century AD.", "The mosaic is signed in its central field by the maker, 'MONNUS FECIT' ('Monnus made this').", "The figure is identified by name: 'ESIO-DVS' ('Hesiod').", "It is the only known authenticated portrait of Hesiod.===Portrait bust===The Roman bronze bust, the so-called ''Pseudo-Seneca,'' of the late first century BC found at Herculaneum is now thought not to be of Seneca the Younger.", "It has been identified by Gisela Richter as an imagined portrait of Hesiod.", "In fact, it has been recognized since 1813 that the bust was not of Seneca when an inscribed herma portrait of Seneca with quite different features was discovered.", "Most scholars now follow Richter's identification." ], [ "Hesiod's Greek", "Title to an edition of Hesiod's ''Carmina'' (1823)Hesiod employed the conventional dialect of epic verse, which was Ionian.", "Comparisons with Homer, a native Ionian, can be unflattering.", "Hesiod's handling of the dactylic hexameter was not as masterful or fluent as Homer's and one modern scholar refers to his \"hobnailed hexameters\".", "His use of language and meter in ''Works and Days'' and ''Theogony'' distinguishes him also from the author of the ''Shield of Heracles''.", "All three poets, for example, employed digamma inconsistently, sometimes allowing it to affect syllable length and meter, sometimes not.", "The ratio of observance/neglect of digamma varies between them.", "The extent of variation depends on how the evidence is collected and interpreted but there is a clear trend, revealed for example in the following set of statistics.", "''Theogony'' 2.5/1 ''Works and Days'' 1.5/1 ''Shield'' 5.9/1 Homer 5.4/1Hesiod does not observe digamma as often as the others do.", "That result is a bit counter-intuitive since digamma was still a feature of the Boeotian dialect that Hesiod probably spoke, whereas it had already vanished from the Ionic vernacular of Homer.", "This anomaly can be explained by the fact that Hesiod made a conscious effort to compose like an Ionian epic poet at a time when digamma was not heard in Ionian speech, while Homer tried to compose like an older generation of Ionian bards, when it was heard in Ionian speech.", "There is also a significant difference in the results for ''Theogony'' and ''Works and Days'', but that is merely due to the fact that the former includes a catalog of divinities and therefore it makes frequent use of the definite article associated with digamma, oἱ.Though typical of epic, his vocabulary features some significant differences from Homer's.", "One scholar has counted 278 un-Homeric words in ''Works and Days'', 151 in ''Theogony'' and 95 in ''Shield of Heracles''.", "The disproportionate number of un-Homeric words in ''W & D'' is due to its un-Homeric subject matter.", "Hesiod's vocabulary also includes quite a lot of formulaic phrases that are not found in Homer, which indicates that he may have been writing within a different tradition." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", " Allen, T. W. and Arthur A. Rambaut, \"The Date of Hesiod\", ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'', 35 (1915), pp. 85–99.", "* .", "* .", "* Barron, J. P. and Easterling, P. E. (1985), \"Hesiod\", ''The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature'', Cambridge University Press.", "* Buckham, Philip Wentworth (1827), ''Theatre of the Greeks''.", "* .", "* .", "* Evelyn-White, Hugh G. (1964), ''Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica'' (= Loeb Classical Library, vol.", "57), Harvard University Press, pp.", "xliii–xlvii.", "* Lamberton, Robert (1988), ''Hesiod'', New Haven: Yale University Press.", ".", "* .", "* .", "* Murray, Gilbert (1897), ''A History of Ancient Greek Literature'', New York: D. Appleton and Company, pp.", "53 ff.", "* .", "* Peabody, Berkley (1975), ''The Winged Word: A Study in the Technique of Ancient Greek Oral Composition as Seen Principally Through Hesiod's Works and Days'', State University of New York Press.", ".", "* Pucci, Pietro (1977), ''Hesiod and the Language of Poetry'', Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.", ".", "* .", "* Rohde, Erwin (1925), ''Psyche.", "The cult of the souls and belief in immortality among the Greeks'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.* Symonds, John Addington (1873), ''Studies of the Greek Poets'', London: Smyth, Elder & Co.* Taylor, Thomas (1891), ''A Dissertation on the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries'', New York: J. W.", "Bouton.", "" ], [ "Further reading", "********** ****Zeitlin, Froma (1996).", "'Signifying difference: the case of Hesiod's Pandora', in Froma Zeitlin, ''Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "pp.", "53–86.=== Selected translations === George Chapman, ''The Works of Hesiod'', London, 1618, dedicated to Sir Francis Bacon.", "* Cooke, Hesiod, ''Works and Days'', Translated from the Greek, London, 1728* Sinclair, Thomas Alan (translator), ''Hesiodou Erga kai hemerai'', London, Macmillan and co., 1932.", "* West, Martin Litchfield (translator), ''Hesiod Works & Days'', Oxford University Press, 1978, .", "Edited with Prolegomena and Commentary.", "* Athanassakis, Apostolos N., ''Theogony; Works and days; Shield / Hesiod; introduction, translation, and notes'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.", "* Frazer, R.M.", "(Richard McIlwaine), ''The Poems of Hesiod'', Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983.", "* Tandy, David W., and Neale, Walter C. translators, ''Works and Days: a translation and commentary for the social sciences'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.", "* Schlegel, Catherine M., and Henry Weinfield, translators, ''Theogony and Works and Days'', Ann Arbor, Michigan, 2006* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Hesiod, ''Works and Days Book 1'' ''Works and Days Book 2'' ''Works and Days Book 3'' Translated from the Greek by Mr. Cooke (London, 1728).", "A youthful exercise in Augustan heroic couplets by Thomas Cooke (1703–1756), employing the Roman names for all the gods.", "* Web texts taken from ''Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica'', edited and translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, published as Loeb Classical Library No.", "57, 1914, : Scanned text at the Internet Archive, in PDF and DjVu format Perseus Classics Collection: Greek and Roman Materials: Text: Hesiod (Greek texts and English translations for ''Works and Days'', ''Theogony'', and ''Shield of Heracles'' with additional notes and cross links.", ") Versions of the electronic edition of Evelyn-White's English translation edited by Douglas B. Killings, June 1995:* Project Gutenberg plain text.", "* The Medieval and Classical Literature Library: Hesiod* Sacred Texts: Classics: The Works of Hesiod (''Theogony'' and ''Works and Days'' only)** Hesiod Poems and Fragments including Ps-Hesiod works ''Astronomy'' and ''Catalogue of Women'' at demonax.info" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hebrew numerals" ], [ "Introduction", "The system of '''Hebrew numerals''' is a quasi-decimal alphabetic numeral system using the letters of the Hebrew alphabet.The system was adapted from that of the Greek numerals sometime between 200 and 78 BCE, the latter being the date of the earliest archeological evidence.The current numeral system is also known as the ''Hebrew alphabetic numerals'' to contrast with earlier systems of writing numerals used in classical antiquity.", "These systems were inherited from usage in the Aramaic and Phoenician scripts, attested from c. 800 BCE in the Samaria Ostraca.The Greek system was adopted in Hellenistic Judaism and had been in use in Greece since about the 5th century BCE.In this system, there is no notation for zero, and the numeric values for individual letters are added together.", "Each unit (1, 2, ..., 9) is assigned a separate letter, each tens (10, 20, ..., 90) a separate letter, and the first four hundreds (100, 200, 300, 400) a separate letter.", "The later hundreds (500, 600, 700, 800 and 900) are represented by the sum of two or three letters representing the first four hundreds.", "To represent numbers from 1,000 to 999,999, the same letters are reused to serve as thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of thousands.", "Gematria (Jewish numerology) uses these transformations extensively.In Israel today, the decimal system of Hindu–Arabic numeral system (ex.", "0, 1, 2, 3, etc.)", "is used in almost all cases (money, age, date on the civil calendar).", "The Hebrew numerals are used only in special cases, such as when using the Hebrew calendar, or numbering a list (similar to a, b, c, d, etc.", "), much as Roman numerals are used in the West." ], [ "Numbers", "The Hebrew language has names for common numbers that range from zero to one million.", "Letters of the Hebrew alphabet are used to represent numbers in a few traditional contexts, such as in calendars.", "In other situations, numerals from the Hindu–Arabic numeral system are used.", "Cardinal and ordinal numbers must agree in gender with the noun they are describing.", "If there is no such noun (e.g., in telephone numbers), the feminine form is used.", "For ordinal numbers greater than ten, the cardinal is used.", "Multiples of ten above the value 20 have no gender (20, 30, 40, ... are genderless), unless the number has the digit 1 in the tens position (110, 210, 310, ...).Jewish Town Hall building in Prague, with Hebrew numerals in counterclockwise orderEarly 20th century pocket watches with Hebrew numerals in clockwise order (Jewish Museum, Berlin)===Ordinal values===Ordinal(English)Ordinal(Hebrew) Masculine FeminineFirst (rishon) (rishona) Second (sheni) (shniya) Third (shlishi) (shlishit) Fourth (revi'i) (revi'it) Fifth (chamishi) (chamishit) Sixth (shishi) (shishit) Seventh (shvi'i) (shvi'it) Eighth (shmini) (shminit) Ninth (tshi'i) (tshi'it) Tenth ('asiri) ('asirit) '''Note:''' For ordinal numbers greater than 10, cardinal numbers are used instead.===Cardinal values===Hindu-ArabicnumeralsHebrewnumeralsCardinal(ex.", "one, two, three) Masculine Feminine0 (efes) 1 (alef) (eḥadh) (aḥath) 2 (bet) (shənayim) (shətayim) 3 (gimel) (shəloshah) (shalosh) 4 (dalet) (arəba'ah) (arəba') 5 (he) (ḥamisha) (ḥamesh) 6 (vav) (shishah) (shesh) 7 (zayin) (shivə'ah) (sheva') 8 (ḥet) (shəmonah) (shəmoneh) 9 (tet) (tishə'ah) (tesha') 10 (yod) ('asara) ('eser) 11 (aḥadh-'asar) (aḥath-'esəreh) 12 (shəneym-'asar) (shəteym-'esreh) 13 (shəloshah-'asar) (shəlosh-'esreh) 14 (arəba'ah-'asar) (arəba'-'esreh) 15 (ḥamishah-'asar) (ḥamesh-'esreh) 16 (shishah-'asar) (shesh-'esreh) 17 (shivə'ah-'asar) (shəva'-'esreh) 18 (shəmonah-'asar) (shəmoneh-'esreh) 19 (tishə'ah-'asar) (təsha'-'esreh) 20 (kaf) ('esərim) 30 (lamed) (shəloshim) 40 (mem) (arəba'im) 50 (nun) (ḥamishim) 60 (samekh) (shishim) 70 ('ayin) (shivə'im) 80 (pe) (shəmonim) 90 (tsadi) (tishə'im) 100 (qof) (me'ah) 200 (resh) (ma'atayim) 300 (shin) (shəlosh me'oth) 400 (tav) (arəba' me'oth) 500 (ḥamesh me'oth) 600 (shesh me'oth) 700 (shəva me'oth) 800 (shəmone me'oth) 900 (təsha' me'oth) 1000 (elef) 2000 (alpaym) 5000 (ḥamesheth alafim) 10 000 (aseret alafim) or (revava) or (ribbo) 100 000 (mea elef) or (aseret ribbo) 1 000 000 (miliyon) or (mea ribbo) 10 000 000 (asara miliyon) or (elef ribbo) 100 000 000 (mea miliyon) or (ribbo ribbo'ot) or (ribbo revavot) 1 000 000 000 (miliyard) 1 000 000 000 000 (trilyon) 1015 (kwadrilyon) 1018 (kwintilyon) '''Note:''' Officially, numbers greater than a million were represented by the long scale.", "However, since January 21, 2013, the modified short scale (under which the long scale milliard is substituted for the strict short scale billion), which was already the colloquial standard, became official.===Collective numerals===+Table of collective numerals and their declensionsNumberWe masc.We fem.You masc.You fem.They masc.They fem.Two together (shnenu) (shtenu) (shnechem) (shtechen) (shnehem) (shtehen) Three together (shloshtenu) (shlosht'chem) (shlosht'chen) (shloshtam) (shloshtan) Four together (arba'tenu) (arba'tchem) (arba'tchen) (arba'tam) (arba'tan) Five together (chamishtenu) (chamisht'chem) (chamisht'chen) (chamishtam) (chamishtan) Six together (shishtenu) (shisht'chem) (shisht'chen) (shishtam) (shishtan) Seven together (shva'tenu) (shva'tchem) (shva'tchen) (shva'tam) (shva'tan) Eight together (shmonatenu) (shmonatchem) (shmonatchen) (shmonatam) (shmonatan) Nine together (tsha'tenu) (tsha'tchem) (tsha'tchen) (tsha'tam) (tsha'tan) Ten together (asartenu) (asart'chem) (asart'chen) (asartam) (asartan) ===Speaking and writing===Cardinal and ordinal numbers must agree in gender (masculine or feminine; mixed groups are treated as masculine) with the noun they are describing.", "If there is no such noun (e.g.", "a telephone number or a house number in a street address), the feminine form is used.", "Ordinal numbers must also agree in number and definite status like other adjectives.", "The cardinal number precedes the noun (e.g., ''shlosha yeladim''), except for the number one which succeeds it (e.g., ''yeled echad'').", "The number two is special: ''shnayim'' (m.) and ''shtayim'' (f.) become ''shney'' (m.) and ''shtey'' (f.) when followed by the noun they count.", "For ordinal numbers (numbers indicating position) greater than ten the cardinal is used." ], [ "Calculations", "The Hebrew numeric system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to form the total.", "For example, 177 is represented as which (from right to left) corresponds to 100 + 70 + 7 = 177.Mathematically, this type of system requires 27 letters (1-9, 10–90, 100–900).", "In practice, the last letter, ''tav'' (which has the value 400), is used in combination with itself or other letters from ''qof'' (100) onwards to generate numbers from 500 and above.", "Alternatively, the 22-letter Hebrew numeral set is sometimes extended to 27 by using 5 ''sofit'' (final) forms of the Hebrew letters.===Key exceptions===By convention, the numbers 15 and 16 are represented as (9 + 6) and (9 + 7), respectively, in order to refrain from using the two-letter combinations (10 + 5) and (10 + 6), which are alternate written forms for the Name of God in everyday writing.", "In the calendar, this manifests every full moon since all Hebrew months start on a new moon (see for example: Tu BiShvat).Combinations which would spell out words with negative connotations are sometimes avoided by switching the order of the letters.", "For instance, 744 which should be written as (meaning \"you/it will be destroyed\") might instead be written as or (meaning \"end to demon\").===Use of final letters===The Hebrew numeral system has sometimes been extended to include the five final letter forms— for 500, for 600, for 700, for 800, for 900.The ordinary additive forms for 500 to 900 are , , , and ." ], [ "Gershayim", "A tombstone from 1935 in Baiersdorf, Germany, reading:In English:''Passed away on day '''20''' IyarAnd buried on day '''23''' IyarYear '''695''' without the thousands i.e.", "year 5695''Note the dots above each letter in each number.Gershayim (U+05F4 in Unicode, and resembling a double quote mark) (sometimes erroneously referred to as ''merkha'ot'', which is Hebrew for double quote) are inserted before (to the right of) the last (leftmost) letter to indicate that the sequence of letters represents something other than a word.", "This is used in the case where a number is represented by two or more Hebrew numerals (''e.g.,'' 28 → ).Similarly, a single geresh (U+05F3 in Unicode, and resembling a single quote mark) is appended after (to the left of) a single letter to indicate that the letter represents a number rather than a (one-letter) word.", "This is used in the case where a number is represented by a single Hebrew numeral (''e.g.''", "100 → ).Note that geresh and gershayim merely indicate \"''not a (normal) word.''\"", "Context usually determines whether they indicate a number or something else (such as an abbreviation).An alternative method found in old manuscripts and still found on modern-day tombstones is to put a dot above each letter of the number." ], [ "Decimals", "In print, Arabic numerals are employed in Modern Hebrew for most purposes.", "Hebrew numerals are used nowadays primarily for writing the days and years of the Hebrew calendar; for references to traditional Jewish texts (particularly for Biblical chapter and verse and for Talmudic folios); for bulleted or numbered lists (similar to ''A'', ''B'', ''C'', ''etc.", "'', in English); and in numerology (gematria)." ], [ "Thousands and date formats", "Thousands are counted separately, and the thousands count precedes the rest of the number (to the ''right'', since Hebrew is read from right to left).", "There are no special marks to signify that the \"count\" is starting over with thousands, which can theoretically lead to ambiguity, although a single quote mark is sometimes used after the letter.", "When specifying years of the Hebrew calendar in the present millennium, writers usually omit the thousands (which is presently 5 ), but if they do not this is accepted to mean 5,000, with no ambiguity.", "The current Israeli coinage includes the thousands.===Date examples===\"Monday, 15 Adar 5764\" (where 5764 = 5(×1000) + 400 + 300 + 60 + 4, and 15 = 9 + 6):: In full (with thousands): \"Monday, 15(th) of Adar, 5764\": : Common usage (omitting thousands): \"Monday, 15(th) of Adar, (5)764\": \"Thursday, 3 Nisan 5767\" (where 5767 = 5(×1000) + 400 + 300 + 60 + 7):: In full (with thousands): \"Thursday, 3(rd) of Nisan, 5767\": : Common usage (omitting thousands): \"Thursday, 3(rd) of Nisan, (5)767\": To see how ''today's'' date in the Hebrew calendar is written, see, for example, Hebcal date converter.===Recent years===5781 (2020–21) = 5780 (2019–20) = 5779 (2018–19) = ...5772 (2011–12) = 5771 (2010–11) = 5770 (2009–10) = 5769 (2008–09) = ...5761 (2000–01) = 5760 (1999–2000) =" ], [ "Similar systems", "The Abjad numerals are equivalent to the Hebrew numerals up to 400.The Greek numerals differ from the Hebrew ones from 90 upwards because in the Greek alphabet there is no equivalent for ''tsade'' ()." ], [ "See also", "* Bible code, a purported set of secret messages encoded within the Torah.", "* Gematria, Jewish system of assigning numerical value to a word or phrase.", "* Hebrew calendar* Notarikon, a method of deriving a word by using each of its initial letters.", "* Sephirot, the 10 attributes/emanations found in Kabbalah.", "* Significance of numbers in Judaism* Base 32, a system that can be written with both all Arabic numerals and all Hebrew letters, much as how Base 36 is written with all Arabic numerals and roman letters." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* , , * Gematria Chart on inner.org* Hebrew Number Chart 1 to 1 Million with English Transliteration* Learn to say any number in English with Transliteration" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hero" ], [ "Introduction", "Achilles during the Trojan War, as depicted in an ancient Greek polychromatic pottery painting (dating to ).Joan of Arc is considered a medieval Christian heroine of France for her role in the Hundred Years' War, and was canonized as a Roman Catholic saintWilliam Tell, a popular folk hero of Switzerland.Giuseppe Garibaldi is considered an Italian national hero for his role in the Italian unification, and is known as the \"''Hero of the Two Worlds''\" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe.", "A '''hero''' (feminine: '''heroine''') is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength.", "The original hero type of classical epics did such things for the sake of glory and honor.", "Post-classical and modern heroes, on the other hand, perform great deeds or selfless acts for the common good instead of the classical goal of wealth, pride, and fame.", "The antonym of ''hero'' is ''villain''.", "Other terms associated with the concept of ''hero'' may include ''good guy'' or ''white hat''.In classical literature, the hero is the main or revered character in heroic epic poetry celebrated through ancient legends of a people, often striving for military conquest and living by a continually flawed personal honor code.", "The definition of a hero has changed throughout time.", "Merriam Webster dictionary defines a hero as \"a person who is admired for great or brave acts or fine qualities\".", "Examples of heroes range from mythological figures, such as Gilgamesh, Achilles and Iphigenia, to historical and modern figures, such as Joan of Arc, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Sophie Scholl, Alvin York, Audie Murphy, and Chuck Yeager, and fictional \"superheroes\", including Superman, Spider-Man, Batman, and Captain America." ], [ "Etymology", "''Coronation of the Hero of Virtue'' by Peter Paul Rubens, -1614The word ''hero'' comes from the Greek ἥρως (''hērōs''), \"hero\" (literally \"protector\" or \"defender\"), particularly one such as Heracles with divine ancestry or later given divine honors.", "Before the decipherment of Linear B the original form of the word was assumed to be , ''hērōw-'', but the Mycenaean compound ''ti-ri-se-ro-e'' demonstrates the absence of -w-.", "Hero as a name appears in pre-Homeric Greek mythology, wherein Hero was a priestess of the goddess Aphrodite, in a myth that has been referred to often in literature.According to ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'', the Proto-Indo-European root is ''ser'' meaning \"to protect\".", "According to Eric Partridge in ''Origins'', the Greek word ''hērōs'' \"is akin to\" the Latin ''seruāre'', meaning ''to safeguard''.", "Partridge concludes, \"The basic sense of both Hera and hero would therefore be 'protector'.\"", "R. S. P. Beekes rejects an Indo-European derivation and asserts that the word has a Pre-Greek origin.", "Hera was a Greek goddess with many attributes, including protection and her worship appears to have similar proto-Indo-European origins." ], [ "Antiquity", "Perseus and the head of Medusa in a Roman fresco at StabiaeA classical hero is considered to be a \"warrior who lives and dies in the pursuit of honor\" and asserts their greatness by \"the brilliancy and efficiency with which they kill\".", "Each classical hero's life focuses on fighting, which occurs in war or during an epic quest.", "Classical heroes are commonly semi-divine and extraordinarily gifted, such as Achilles, evolving into heroic characters through their perilous circumstances.", "While these heroes are incredibly resourceful and skilled, they are often foolhardy, court disaster, risk their followers' lives for trivial matters, and behave arrogantly in a childlike manner.", "During classical times, people regarded heroes with the highest esteem and utmost importance, explaining their prominence within epic literature.", "The appearance of these mortal figures marks a revolution of audiences and writers turning away from immortal gods to mortal mankind, whose heroic moments of glory survive in the memory of their descendants, extending their legacy.Two heroes.", "A Roman fresco in Herculaneum, 30-40 ADHector was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War, which is known primarily through Homer's ''Iliad''.", "Hector acted as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy, \"killing 31,000 Greek fighters,\" offers Hyginus.", "Hector was known not only for his courage, but also for his noble and courtly nature.", "Indeed, Homer places Hector as peace-loving, thoughtful, as well as bold, a good son, husband and father, and without darker motives.", "However, his familial values conflict greatly with his heroic aspirations in the ''Iliad,'' as he cannot be both the protector of Troy and a father to his child.", "Hector is ultimately betrayed by the deities when Athena appears disguised as his ally Deiphobus and convinces him to challenge Achilles, leading to his death at the hands of a superior warrior.", "''The Rage of Achilles'', by 302x302pxAchilles was a Greek hero who was considered the most formidable military fighter in the entire Trojan War and the central character of the ''Iliad''.", "He was the child of Thetis and Peleus, making him a demi-god.", "He wielded superhuman strength on the battlefield and was blessed with a close relationship to the deities.", "Achilles famously refused to fight after his dishonoring at the hands of Agamemnon, and only returned to the war due to unadulterated rage after Hector killed his beloved companion Patroclus.", "Achilles was known for uncontrollable rage that defined many of his bloodthirsty actions, such as defiling Hector's corpse by dragging it around the city of Troy.", "Achilles plays a tragic role in the ''Iliad'' brought about by constant de-humanization throughout the epic, having his ''menis'' (wrath) overpower his ''philos'' (love).Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the deities.", "Thus, Heracles's name means \"the glory of Hera\", even though he was tormented all his life by Hera, the Queen of the Greek deities.", "Perhaps the most striking example is the Athenian king Erechtheus, whom Poseidon killed for choosing Athena rather than him as the city's patron deity.", "When the Athenians worshiped Erechtheus on the Acropolis, they invoked him as ''Poseidon Erechtheus''.Fate, or destiny, plays a massive role in the stories of classical heroes.", "The classical hero's heroic significance stems from battlefield conquests, an inherently dangerous action.", "The deities in Greek mythology, when interacting with the heroes, often foreshadow the hero's eventual death on the battlefield.", "Countless heroes and deities go to great lengths to alter their pre-destined fates, but with no success, as none, neither human or immortal can change their prescribed outcomes by the three powerful Fates.", "The most characteristic example of this is found in ''Oedipus Rex.''", "After learning that his son, Oedipus, will end up killing him, the King of Thebes, Laius, takes huge steps to assure his son's death by removing him from the kingdom.", "When Oedipus encounters his father when his father was unknown to him in a dispute on the road many years later, Oedipus slays him without an afterthought.", "The lack of recognition enabled Oedipus to slay his father, ironically further binding his father to his fate.Stories of heroism may serve as moral examples.", "However, classical heroes often didn't embody the Christian notion of an upstanding, perfectly moral hero.", "For example, Achilles's character-issues of hateful rage lead to merciless slaughter and his overwhelming pride lead to him only joining the Trojan War because he didn't want his soldiers to win all of the glory.", "Classical heroes, regardless of their morality, were placed in religion.", "In classical antiquity, cults that venerated deified heroes such as Heracles, Perseus, and Achilles played an important role in Ancient Greek religion.", "These ancient Greek hero cults worshipped heroes from oral epic tradition, with these heroes often bestowing blessings, especially healing ones, on individuals." ], [ "Myth and monomyth", "The four heroes from the 16th-century Chinese novel, ''Journey to the West''The concept of the \"Mythic Hero Archetype\" was first developed by Lord Raglan in his 1936 book, ''The Hero, A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama''.", "It is a set of 22 common traits that he said were shared by many heroes in various cultures, myths, and religions throughout history and worldwide.", "Raglan argued that the higher the score, the more likely the figure is mythical.", "''Lemminkäinen and the Fiery Eagle'', Robert Wilhelm Ekman, 1867The concept of a story archetype of the standard monomythical \"hero's quest\" that was reputed to be pervasive across all cultures is somewhat controversial.", "Expounded mainly by Joseph Campbell in his 1949 work ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces'', it illustrates several uniting themes of hero stories that hold similar ideas of what a hero represents despite vastly different cultures and beliefs.", "The monomyth or Hero's Journey consists of three separate stages: the Departure, Initiation, and Return.", "Within these stages, there are several archetypes that the hero of either gender may follow, including the call to adventure (which they may initially refuse), supernatural aid, proceeding down a road of trials, achieving a realization about themselves (or an apotheosis), and attaining the freedom to live through their quest or journey.", "Campbell offered examples of stories with similar themes, such as Krishna, Buddha, Apollonius of Tyana, and Jesus.", "One of the themes he explores is the androgynous hero, who combines male and female traits, such as Bodhisattva: \"The first wonder to be noted here is the androgynous character of the Bodhisattva: masculine Avalokiteshvara, feminine Kwan Yin.\"", "In his 1968 book, ''The Masks of God: Occidental Mythology'', Campbell writes, \"It is clear that, whether accurate or not as to biographical detail, the moving legend of the Crucified and Risen Christ was fit to bring a new warmth, immediacy, and humanity, to the old motifs of the beloved Tammuz, Adonis, and Osiris cycles.\"" ], [ "Slavic fairy tales", "Ivan Tsarevich, a hero of Russian folklore, by Viktor Vasnetsov (1880)Vladimir Propp, in his analysis of Russian fairy tales, concluded that a fairy tale had only eight ''dramatis personæ'', of which one was the hero, and his analysis has been widely applied to non-Russian folklore.", "The actions that fall into such a hero's sphere include:# Departure on a quest# Reacting to the test of a donor# Marrying a princess (or similar figure)Propp distinguished between ''seekers'' and ''victim-heroes''.", "A villain could initiate the issue by kidnapping the hero or driving him out; these were victim-heroes.", "On the other hand, an antagonist could rob the hero, or kidnap someone close to him, or, without the villain's intervention, the hero could realize that he lacked something and set out to find it; these heroes are seekers.", "Victims may appear in tales with seeker heroes, but the tale does not follow them both.== Historical studies ==Simo Häyhä, a Finnish military sniper during the Winter War, achieved the reputation of a pioneering war hero, despite his modest nature.The philosopher Hegel gave a central role to the \"hero\", personalized by Napoleon, as the incarnation of a particular culture's ''Volksgeist'' and thus of the general ''Zeitgeist''.", "Thomas Carlyle's 1841 work, ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History'', also accorded an essential function to heroes and great men in history.", "Carlyle centered history on the biographies of individuals, as in ''Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches'' and ''History of Frederick the Great''.", "His heroes were not only political and military figures, the founders or topplers of states, but also religious figures, poets, authors, and captains of industry.Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century.", "Most in the philosophy of history school contend that the motive forces in history may best be described only with a wider lens than the one that Carlyle used for his portraits.", "For example, Karl Marx argued that history was determined by the massive social forces at play in \"class struggles\", not by the individuals by whom these forces are played out.", "After Marx, Herbert Spencer wrote at the end of the 19th century: \"You must admit that the genesis of the great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown...before he can remake his society, his society must make him.\"", "Michel Foucault argued in his analysis of societal communication and debate that history was mainly the \"science of the sovereign\", until its inversion by the \"historical and political popular discourse\".Bust of Nelson Mandela erected on London's South Bank by the Greater London Council administration of Ken Livingstone in 1985The Swedish Diplomat Raoul Wallenberg saved the lives of tens of thousands of Jews in Budapest during World War II.Modern examples of the typical hero are, Minnie Vautrin, Norman Bethune, Alan Turing, Raoul Wallenberg, Chiune Sugihara, Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela, Oswaldo Payá, Óscar Elías Biscet, and Aung San Suu Kyi.The Annales school, led by Lucien Febvre, Marc Bloch, and Fernand Braudel, would contest the exaggeration of the role of individual subjects in history.", "Indeed, Braudel distinguished various time scales, one accorded to the life of an individual, another accorded to the life of a few human generations, and the last one to civilizations, in which geography, economics, and demography play a role considerably more decisive than that of individual subjects.Among noticeable events in the studies of the role of the hero and great man in history one should mention Sidney Hook's book (1943) ''The Hero in History''.", "In the second half of the twentieth century such male-focused theory has been contested, among others by feminists writers such as Judith Fetterley in ''The Resisting Reader'' (1977) and literary theorist Nancy K. Miller, ''The Heroine's Text: Readings in the French and English Novel, 1722–1782''.In the epoch of globalization an individual may change the development of the country and of the whole world, so this gives reasons to some scholars to suggest returning to the problem of the role of the hero in history from the viewpoint of modern historical knowledge and using up-to-date methods of historical analysis.Within the frameworks of developing counterfactual history, attempts are made to examine some hypothetical scenarios of historical development.", "The hero attracts much attention because most of those scenarios are based on the suppositions: what would have happened if this or that historical individual had or had not been alive." ], [ "Modern fiction", "Batman (Adam West) and Robin (Burt Ward) in the 1966–1968 television series, ''Batman''The word \"hero\" (or \"heroine\" in modern times), is sometimes used to describe the protagonist or the romantic interest of a story, a usage which may conflict with the superhuman expectations of heroism.", "A good example is Anna Karenina, the lead character in the novel of the same title by Leo Tolstoy.", "In modern literature the hero is more and more a problematic concept.", "In 1848, for example, William Makepeace Thackeray gave ''Vanity Fair'' the subtitle, ''A Novel without a Hero'', and imagined a world in which no sympathetic character was to be found.", "''Vanity Fair'' is a satirical representation of the absence of truly moral heroes in the modern world.", "The story focuses on the characters, Emmy Sedley and Becky Sharpe (the latter as the clearly defined anti-hero), with the plot focused on the eventual marriage of these two characters to rich men, revealing character flaws as the story progresses.", "Even the most sympathetic characters, such as Captain Dobbin, are susceptible to weakness, as he is often narcissistic and melancholic.The larger-than-life hero is a more common feature of fantasy (particularly in comic books and epic fantasy) than more realist works.", "However, these larger-than life figures remain prevalent in society.", "The superhero genre is a multibillion-dollar industry that includes comic books, movies, toys, and video games.", "Superheroes usually possess extraordinary talents and powers that no living human could ever possess.", "The superhero stories often pit a super villain against the hero, with the hero fighting the crime caused by the super villain.", "Examples of long-running superheroes include Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Spider-Man.Research indicates that male writers are more likely to make heroines superhuman, whereas female writers tend to make heroines ordinary humans, as well as making their male heroes more powerful than their heroines, possibly due to sex differences in valued traits." ], [ "Psychology", "Social psychology has begun paying attention to heroes and heroism.", "Zeno Franco and Philip Zimbardo point out differences between heroism and altruism, and they offer evidence that observer perceptions of unjustified risk play a role above and beyond risk type in determining the ascription of heroic status.Psychologists have also identified the traits of heroes.", "Elaine Kinsella and her colleagues have identified 12 central traits of heroism, which consist of brave, moral integrity, conviction, courageous, self-sacrifice, protecting, honest, selfless, determined, saves others, inspiring, and helpful.", "Scott Allison and George Goethals uncovered evidence for \"the great eight traits\" of heroes consisting of wise, strong, resilient, reliable, charismatic, caring, selfless, and inspiring.", "These researchers have also identified four primary functions of heroism.", "Heroes give us wisdom; they enhance us; they provide moral modeling; and they offer protection.An evolutionary psychology explanation for heroic risk-taking is that it is a costly signal demonstrating the ability of the hero.", "It may be seen as one form of altruism for which there are several other evolutionary explanations as well.Roma Chatterji has suggested that the hero or more generally protagonist is first and foremost a symbolic representation of the person who is experiencing the story while reading, listening, or watching; thus the relevance of the hero to the individual relies a great deal on how much similarity there is between them and the character.", "Chatterji suggested that one reason for the hero-as-self interpretation of stories and myths is the human inability to view the world from any perspective but a personal one.In the Pulitzer Prize-winning book, ''The Denial of Death'', Ernest Becker argues that human civilization is ultimately an elaborate, symbolic defense mechanism against the knowledge of our mortality, which in turn acts as the emotional and intellectual response to our basic survival mechanism.", "Becker explains that a basic duality in human life exists between the physical world of objects and a symbolic world of human meaning.", "Thus, since humanity has a dualistic nature consisting of a physical self and a symbolic self, he asserts that humans are able to transcend the dilemma of mortality through heroism, by focusing attention mainly on the symbolic self.", "This symbolic self-focus takes the form of an individual's \"immortality project\" (or \"''causa sui'' project\"), which is essentially a symbolic belief-system that ensures that one is believed superior to physical reality.", "By successfully living under the terms of the immortality project, people feel they can become heroic and, henceforth, part of something eternal; something that will never die as compared to their physical body.", "This he asserts, in turn, gives people the feeling that their lives have meaning, a purpose, and are significant in the grand scheme of things.", "Another theme running throughout the book is that humanity's traditional \"hero-systems\", such as religion, are no longer convincing in the age of reason.", "Science attempts to serve as an immortality project, something that Becker believes it can never do, because it is unable to provide agreeable, absolute meanings to human life.", "The book states that we need new convincing \"illusions\" that enable people to feel heroic in ways that are agreeable.", "Becker, however, does not provide any definitive answer, mainly because he believes that there is no perfect solution.", "Instead, he hopes that gradual realization of humanity's innate motivations, namely death, may help to bring about a better world.", "Terror Management Theory (TMT) has generated evidence supporting this perspective." ], [ "Mental and physical integration", "Examining the success of resistance fighters on Crete during the Nazi occupation in WWII, author and endurance researcher C. McDougall drew connections to the Ancient Greek heroes and a culture of integrated physical self-mastery, training, and mental conditioning that fostered confidence to take action, and made it possible for individuals to accomplish feats of great prowess, even under the harshest of conditions.", "The skills established an \"...ability to unleash tremendous resources of strength, endurance, and agility that many people don't realize they already have.", "\"McDougall cites examples of heroic acts, including a ''scholium'' to Pindar's Fifth Nemean Ode: \"Much weaker in strength than the Minotaur, Theseus fought with it and won using ''pankration'', as he had no knife.\"", "''Pankration'' is an ancient Greek term meaning \"total power and knowledge,\" one \"...associated with gods and heroes...who conquer by tapping every talent.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Action hero* Altruism* Antihero* Byronic hero* Carnegie Hero Fund* Culture hero* Folk hero* Germanic hero* Helping behavior* Hero and Leander* Hero of Socialist Labour* Heroic fantasy* List of female action heroes and villains* List of genres* Messiah* Moral development* Randian hero* Reluctant hero* Rescue* Romantic hero* Self-sacrifice* Soter* Space opera* The common good* Tragic hero* Youxia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ** * * * * * Carlyle, Thomas (1840) '' On Heroes, Hero Worship and the Heroic in History''* Craig, David, ''Back Home'', Life Magazine-Special Issue, Volume 8, Number 6, 85–94.", "* * * * * Hook, Sydney (1943) ''The Hero in History: A Study in Limitation and Possibility''* ** Lidell, Henry and Robert Scott.", "''A Greek–English Lexicon.''", "link* ** (Republished 2003)* " ], [ "External links", " ''The British Hero'' — online exhibition from screenonline, a website of the British Film Institute, looking at British heroes of film and television.", "* Listen to BBC Radio 4's ''In Our Time'' programme on Heroism* \"The Role of Heroes in Children's Lives\" by Marilyn Price-Mitchell, PhD*'' 10% — What Makes A Hero'' directed by Yoav Shamir" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hydroxide" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hydroxide''' is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−.", "It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge.", "It is an important but usually minor constituent of water.", "It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, and a catalyst.", "The hydroxide ion forms salts, some of which dissociate in aqueous solution, liberating solvated hydroxide ions.", "Sodium hydroxide is a multi-million-ton per annum commodity chemical.The corresponding electrically neutral compound HO• is the hydroxyl radical.", "The corresponding covalently bound group –OH of atoms is the hydroxy group.Both the hydroxide ion and hydroxy group are nucleophiles and can act as catalysts in organic chemistry.Many inorganic substances which bear the word ''hydroxide'' in their names are not ionic compounds of the hydroxide ion, but covalent compounds which contain hydroxy groups." ], [ "Hydroxide ion", "The hydroxide ion is naturally produced from water by the self-ionization reaction::H3O+ + OH− 2H2OThe equilibrium constant for this reaction, defined as:''K''w = H+OH−has a value close to 10−14 at 25 °C, so the concentration of hydroxide ions in pure water is close to 10−7 mol∙dm−3, in order to satisfy the equal charge constraint.", "The pH of a solution is equal to the decimal cologarithm of the hydrogen cation concentration; the pH of pure water is close to 7 at ambient temperatures.", "The concentration of hydroxide ions can be expressed in terms of pOH, which is close to (14 − pH), so the pOH of pure water is also close to 7.Addition of a base to water will reduce the hydrogen cation concentration and therefore increase the hydroxide ion concentration (increase pH, decrease pOH) even if the base does not itself contain hydroxide.", "For example, ammonia solutions have a pH greater than 7 due to the reaction NH3 + H+ , which decreases the hydrogen cation concentration, which increases the hydroxide ion concentration.", "pOH can be kept at a nearly constant value with various buffer solutions.Schematic representation of the bihydroxide ionIn aqueous solution the hydroxide ion is a base in the Brønsted–Lowry sense as it can accept a proton from a Brønsted–Lowry acid to form a water molecule.", "It can also act as a Lewis base by donating a pair of electrons to a Lewis acid.", "In aqueous solution both hydrogen and hydroxide ions are strongly solvated, with hydrogen bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms.", "Indeed, the bihydroxide ion has been characterized in the solid state.", "This compound is centrosymmetric and has a very short hydrogen bond (114.5 pm) that is similar to the length in the bifluoride ion (114 pm).", "In aqueous solution the hydroxide ion forms strong hydrogen bonds with water molecules.", "A consequence of this is that concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxide have high viscosity due to the formation of an extended network of hydrogen bonds as in hydrogen fluoride solutions.In solution, exposed to air, the hydroxide ion reacts rapidly with atmospheric carbon dioxide, acting as an acid, to form, initially, the bicarbonate ion.", ":OH− + CO2 The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be specified either as a reaction with dissolved carbon dioxide or as a reaction with carbon dioxide gas (see Carbonic acid for values and details).", "At neutral or acid pH, the reaction is slow, but is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which effectively creates hydroxide ions at the active site.Solutions containing the hydroxide ion attack glass.", "In this case, the silicates in glass are acting as acids.", "Basic hydroxides, whether solids or in solution, are stored in airtight plastic containers.The hydroxide ion can function as a typical electron-pair donor ligand, forming such complexes as tetrahydroxoaluminate/tetrahydroxidoaluminate Al(OH)4−.", "It is also often found in mixed-ligand complexes of the type ML''x''(OH)''y''''z''+, where L is a ligand.", "The hydroxide ion often serves as a bridging ligand, donating one pair of electrons to each of the atoms being bridged.", "As illustrated by Pb2(OH)3+, metal hydroxides are often written in a simplified format.", "It can even act as a 3-electron-pair donor, as in the tetramer PtMe3(OH)4.When bound to a strongly electron-withdrawing metal centre, hydroxide ligands tend to ionise into oxide ligands.", "For example, the bichromate ion HCrO4− dissociates according to:O3CrO–H− CrO42− + H+with a p''K''a of about 5.9.===Vibrational spectra===The infrared spectra of compounds containing the OH functional group have strong absorption bands in the region centered around 3500 cm−1.The high frequency of molecular vibration is a consequence of the small mass of the hydrogen atom as compared to the mass of the oxygen atom, and this makes detection of hydroxyl groups by infrared spectroscopy relatively easy.", "A band due to an OH group tends to be sharp.", "However, the band width increases when the OH group is involved in hydrogen bonding.", "A water molecule has an HOH bending mode at about 1600 cm−1, so the absence of this band can be used to distinguish an OH group from a water molecule.When the OH group is bound to a metal ion in a coordination complex, an M−OH bending mode can be observed.", "For example, in Sn(OH)62− it occurs at 1065 cm−1.The bending mode for a bridging hydroxide tends to be at a lower frequency as in (bipyridine)Cu(OH)2Cu(bipyridine)2+ (955 cm−1).", "M−OH stretching vibrations occur below about 600 cm−1.For example, the tetrahedral ion Zn(OH)42− has bands at 470 cm−1 (Raman-active, polarized) and 420 cm−1 (infrared).", "The same ion has a (HO)–Zn–(OH) bending vibration at 300 cm−1." ], [ "Applications", "Sodium hydroxide solutions, also known as lye and caustic soda, are used in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking water, soaps and detergents, and as a drain cleaner.", "Worldwide production in 2004 was approximately 60 million tonnes.", "The principal method of manufacture is the chloralkali process.Solutions containing the hydroxide ion are generated when a salt of a weak acid is dissolved in water.", "Sodium carbonate is used as an alkali, for example, by virtue of the hydrolysis reaction: + H2O + OH− (p''K''a2= 10.33 at 25 °C and zero ionic strength)Although the base strength of sodium carbonate solutions is lower than a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, it has the advantage of being a solid.", "It is also manufactured on a vast scale (42 million tonnes in 2005) by the Solvay process.", "An example of the use of sodium carbonate as an alkali is when washing soda (another name for sodium carbonate) acts on insoluble esters, such as triglycerides, commonly known as fats, to hydrolyze them and make them soluble.Bauxite, a basic hydroxide of aluminium, is the principal ore from which the metal is manufactured.", "Similarly, goethite (α-FeO(OH)) and lepidocrocite (γ-FeO(OH)), basic hydroxides of iron, are among the principal ores used for the manufacture of metallic iron." ], [ "Inorganic hydroxides", "===Alkali metals===Aside from NaOH and KOH, which enjoy very large scale applications, the hydroxides of the other alkali metals also are useful.", "Lithium hydroxide is a strong base, with a p''K''b of −0.36.Lithium hydroxide is used in breathing gas purification systems for spacecraft, submarines, and rebreathers to remove carbon dioxide from exhaled gas.", ":2 LiOH + CO2 → Li2CO3 + H2OThe hydroxide of lithium is preferred to that of sodium because of its lower mass.", "Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and the hydroxides of the other alkali metals are also strong bases.===Alkaline earth metals===Trimeric hydrolysis product of beryllium dicationBeryllium hydrolysis as a function of pHWater molecules attached to Be are omittedBeryllium hydroxide Be(OH)2 is amphoteric.", "The hydroxide itself is insoluble in water, with a solubility product log ''K''sp of −11.7.Addition of acid gives soluble hydrolysis products, including the trimeric ion Be3(OH)3(H2O)63+, which has OH groups bridging between pairs of beryllium ions making a 6-membered ring.", "At very low pH the aqua ion Be(H2O)42+ is formed.", "Addition of hydroxide to Be(OH)2 gives the soluble tetrahydroxoberyllate or tetrahydroxidoberyllate anion, Be(OH)42−.The solubility in water of the other hydroxides in this group increases with increasing atomic number.", "Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 is a strong base (up to the limit of its solubility, which is very low in pure water), as are the hydroxides of the heavier alkaline earths: calcium hydroxide, strontium hydroxide, and barium hydroxide.", "A solution or suspension of calcium hydroxide is known as limewater and can be used to test for the weak acid carbon dioxide.", "The reaction Ca(OH)2 + CO2 Ca2+ + + OH− illustrates the basicity of calcium hydroxide.", "Soda lime, which is a mixture of the strong bases NaOH and KOH with Ca(OH)2, is used as a CO2 absorbent.===Boron group elements===Aluminium hydrolysis as a function of pH.", "Water molecules attached to Al are omittedThe simplest hydroxide of boron B(OH)3, known as boric acid, is an acid.", "Unlike the hydroxides of the alkali and alkaline earth hydroxides, it does not dissociate in aqueous solution.", "Instead, it reacts with water molecules acting as a Lewis acid, releasing protons.", ":B(OH)3 + H2O + H+A variety of oxyanions of boron are known, which, in the protonated form, contain hydroxide groups.Tetrahydroxo-aluminate(III) ionAluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3 is amphoteric and dissolves in alkaline solution.", ":Al(OH)3 (solid) + OH− (aq) (aq)In the Bayer process for the production of pure aluminium oxide from bauxite minerals this equilibrium is manipulated by careful control of temperature and alkali concentration.", "In the first phase, aluminium dissolves in hot alkaline solution as , but other hydroxides usually present in the mineral, such as iron hydroxides, do not dissolve because they are not amphoteric.", "After removal of the insolubles, the so-called red mud, pure aluminium hydroxide is made to precipitate by reducing the temperature and adding water to the extract, which, by diluting the alkali, lowers the pH of the solution.", "Basic aluminium hydroxide AlO(OH), which may be present in bauxite, is also amphoteric.In mildly acidic solutions, the hydroxo/hydroxido complexes formed by aluminium are somewhat different from those of boron, reflecting the greater size of Al(III) vs. B(III).", "The concentration of the species Al13(OH)327+ is very dependent on the total aluminium concentration.", "Various other hydroxo complexes are found in crystalline compounds.", "Perhaps the most important is the basic hydroxide AlO(OH), a polymeric material known by the names of the mineral forms boehmite or diaspore, depending on crystal structure.", "Gallium hydroxide, indium hydroxide, and thallium(III) hydroxide are also amphoteric.", "Thallium(I) hydroxide is a strong base.===Carbon group elements===Carbon forms no simple hydroxides.", "The hypothetical compound C(OH)4 (orthocarbonic acid or methanetetrol) is unstable in aqueous solution::C(OH)4 → + H3O+: + H+ H2CO3Carbon dioxide is also known as carbonic anhydride, meaning that it forms by dehydration of carbonic acid H2CO3 (OC(OH)2).Silicic acid is the name given to a variety of compounds with a generic formula SiO''x''(OH)4−2''x''''n''.", "''Orthosilicic acid'' has been identified in very dilute aqueous solution.", "It is a weak acid with p''K''a1 = 9.84, p''K''a2 = 13.2 at 25 °C.", "It is usually written as H4SiO4, but the formula Si(OH)4 is generally accepted.", "Other silicic acids such as ''metasilicic acid'' (H2SiO3), ''disilicic acid'' (H2Si2O5), and ''pyrosilicic acid'' (H6Si2O7) have been characterized.", "These acids also have hydroxide groups attached to the silicon; the formulas suggest that these acids are protonated forms of polyoxyanions.Few hydroxo complexes of germanium have been characterized.", "Tin(II) hydroxide Sn(OH)2 was prepared in anhydrous media.", "When tin(II) oxide is treated with alkali the pyramidal hydroxo complex is formed.", "When solutions containing this ion are acidified, the ion Sn3(OH)42+ is formed together with some basic hydroxo complexes.", "The structure of Sn3(OH)42+ has a triangle of tin atoms connected by bridging hydroxide groups.", "Tin(IV) hydroxide is unknown but can be regarded as the hypothetical acid from which stannates, with a formula Sn(OH)62−, are derived by reaction with the (Lewis) basic hydroxide ion.Hydrolysis of Pb2+ in aqueous solution is accompanied by the formation of various hydroxo-containing complexes, some of which are insoluble.", "The basic hydroxo complex Pb6O(OH)64+ is a cluster of six lead centres with metal–metal bonds surrounding a central oxide ion.", "The six hydroxide groups lie on the faces of the two external Pb4 tetrahedra.", "In strongly alkaline solutions soluble plumbate ions are formed, including Pb(OH)62−.===Other main-group elements===150px180px180px150px150px150pxPhosphorous acidPhosphoric acidSulfuric acidTelluric acid''Ortho''-periodic acidXenic acidIn the higher oxidation states of the pnictogens, chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases there are oxoacids in which the central atom is attached to oxide ions and hydroxide ions.", "Examples include phosphoric acid H3PO4, and sulfuric acid H2SO4.In these compounds one or more hydroxide groups can dissociate with the liberation of hydrogen cations as in a standard Brønsted–Lowry acid.", "Many oxoacids of sulfur are known and all feature OH groups that can dissociate.Telluric acid is often written with the formula H2TeO4·2H2O but is better described structurally as Te(OH)6.", "''Ortho''-periodic acid can lose all its protons, eventually forming the periodate ion IO4−.", "It can also be protonated in strongly acidic conditions to give the octahedral ion I(OH)6+, completing the isoelectronic series, E(OH)6''z'', E = Sn, Sb, Te, I; ''z'' = −2, −1, 0, +1.Other acids of iodine(VII) that contain hydroxide groups are known, in particular in salts such as the ''meso''periodate ion that occurs in K4I2O8(OH)2·8H2O.As is common outside of the alkali metals, hydroxides of the elements in lower oxidation states are complicated.", "For example, phosphorous acid H3PO3 predominantly has the structure OP(H)(OH)2, in equilibrium with a small amount of P(OH)3.The oxoacids of chlorine, bromine, and iodine have the formula OA(OH), where ''n'' is the oxidation number: +1, +3, +5, or +7, and A = Cl, Br, or I.", "The only oxoacid of fluorine is F(OH), hypofluorous acid.", "When these acids are neutralized the hydrogen atom is removed from the hydroxide group.===Transition and post-transition metals===The hydroxides of the transition metals and post-transition metals usually have the metal in the +2 (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn) or +3 (M = Fe, Ru, Rh, Ir) oxidation state.", "None are soluble in water, and many are poorly defined.", "One complicating feature of the hydroxides is their tendency to undergo further condensation to the oxides, a process called olation.", "Hydroxides of metals in the +1 oxidation state are also poorly defined or unstable.", "For example, silver hydroxide Ag(OH) decomposes spontaneously to the oxide (Ag2O).", "Copper(I) and gold(I) hydroxides are also unstable, although stable adducts of CuOH and AuOH are known.", "The polymeric compounds M(OH)2 and M(OH)3 are in general prepared by increasing the pH of an aqueous solutions of the corresponding metal cations until the hydroxide precipitates out of solution.", "On the converse, the hydroxides dissolve in acidic solution.", "Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2 is amphoteric, forming the tetrahydroxidozincate ion in strongly alkaline solution.Numerous mixed ligand complexes of these metals with the hydroxide ion exist.", "In fact, these are in general better defined than the simpler derivatives.", "Many can be made by deprotonation of the corresponding metal aquo complex.", ":L''n''M(OH2) + B L''n''M(OH) + BH+ (L = ligand, B = base)Vanadic acid H3VO4 shows similarities with phosphoric acid H3PO4 though it has a much more complex vanadate oxoanion chemistry.", "Chromic acid H2CrO4, has similarities with sulfuric acid H2SO4; for example, both form acid salts A+HMO4−.", "Some metals, e.g.", "V, Cr, Nb, Ta, Mo, W, tend to exist in high oxidation states.", "Rather than forming hydroxides in aqueous solution, they convert to oxo clusters by the process of olation, forming polyoxometalates." ], [ "Basic salts containing hydroxide", "In some cases, the products of partial hydrolysis of metal ion, described above, can be found in crystalline compounds.", "A striking example is found with zirconium(IV).", "Because of the high oxidation state, salts of Zr4+ are extensively hydrolyzed in water even at low pH.", "The compound originally formulated as ZrOCl2·8H2O was found to be the chloride salt of a tetrameric cation Zr4(OH)8(H2O)168+ in which there is a square of Zr4+ ions with two hydroxide groups bridging between Zr atoms on each side of the square and with four water molecules attached to each Zr atom.The mineral malachite is a typical example of a basic carbonate.", "The formula, Cu2CO3(OH)2 shows that it is halfway between copper carbonate and copper hydroxide.", "Indeed, in the past the formula was written as CuCO3·Cu(OH)2.The crystal structure is made up of copper, carbonate and hydroxide ions.", "The mineral atacamite is an example of a basic chloride.", "It has the formula, Cu2Cl(OH)3.In this case the composition is nearer to that of the hydroxide than that of the chloride CuCl2·3Cu(OH)2.Copper forms hydroxyphosphate (libethenite), arsenate (olivenite), sulfate (brochantite), and nitrate compounds.", "White lead is a basic lead carbonate, (PbCO3)2·Pb(OH)2, which has been used as a white pigment because of its opaque quality, though its use is now restricted because it can be a source for lead poisoning." ], [ "Structural chemistry", "The hydroxide ion appears to rotate freely in crystals of the heavier alkali metal hydroxides at higher temperatures so as to present itself as a spherical ion, with an effective ionic radius of about 153 pm.", "Thus, the high-temperature forms of KOH and NaOH have the sodium chloride structure, which gradually freezes in a monoclinically distorted sodium chloride structure at temperatures below about 300 °C.", "The OH groups still rotate even at room temperature around their symmetry axes and, therefore, cannot be detected by X-ray diffraction.", "The room-temperature form of NaOH has the thallium iodide structure.", "LiOH, however, has a layered structure, made up of tetrahedral Li(OH)4 and (OH)Li4 units.", "This is consistent with the weakly basic character of LiOH in solution, indicating that the Li–OH bond has much covalent character.The hydroxide ion displays cylindrical symmetry in hydroxides of divalent metals Ca, Cd, Mn, Fe, and Co. For example, magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 (brucite) crystallizes with the cadmium iodide layer structure, with a kind of close-packing of magnesium and hydroxide ions.The amphoteric hydroxide Al(OH)3 has four major crystalline forms: gibbsite (most stable), bayerite, nordstrandite, and doyleite.All these polymorphs are built up of double layers of hydroxide ions – the aluminium atoms on two-thirds of the octahedral holes between the two layers – and differ only in the stacking sequence of the layers.", "The structures are similar to the brucite structure.", "However, whereas the brucite structure can be described as a close-packed structure in gibbsite the OH groups on the underside of one layer rest on the groups of the layer below.", "This arrangement led to the suggestion that there are directional bonds between OH groups in adjacent layers.", "This is an unusual form of hydrogen bonding since the two hydroxide ion involved would be expected to point away from each other.", "The hydrogen atoms have been located by neutron diffraction experiments on α-AlO(OH) (diaspore).", "The O–H–O distance is very short, at 265 pm; the hydrogen is not equidistant between the oxygen atoms and the short OH bond makes an angle of 12° with the O–O line.", "A similar type of hydrogen bond has been proposed for other amphoteric hydroxides, including Be(OH)2, Zn(OH)2, and Fe(OH)3.A number of mixed hydroxides are known with stoichiometry A3MIII(OH)6, A2MIV(OH)6, and AMV(OH)6.As the formula suggests these substances contain M(OH)6 octahedral structural units.", "Layered double hydroxides may be represented by the formula .", "Most commonly, ''z'' = 2, and M2+ = Ca2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, or Zn2+; hence ''q'' = ''x''." ], [ "In organic reactions", "Potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide are two well-known reagents in organic chemistry.===Base catalysis===The hydroxide ion may act as a base catalyst.", "The base abstracts a proton from a weak acid to give an intermediate that goes on to react with another reagent.", "Common substrates for proton abstraction are alcohols, phenols, amines, and carbon acids.", "The p''K''a value for dissociation of a C–H bond is extremely high, but the pKa alpha hydrogens of a carbonyl compound are about 3 log units lower.", "Typical p''K''a values are 16.7 for acetaldehyde and 19 for acetone.", "Dissociation can occur in the presence of a suitable base.", ":RC(O)CH2R' + B RC(O)CH−R' + BH+The base should have a p''K''a value not less than about 4 log units smaller, or the equilibrium will lie almost completely to the left.The hydroxide ion by itself is not a strong enough base, but it can be converted in one by adding sodium hydroxide to ethanol:OH− + EtOH EtO− + H2Oto produce the ethoxide ion.", "The pKa for self-dissociation of ethanol is about 16, so the alkoxide ion is a strong enough base.", "The addition of an alcohol to an aldehyde to form a hemiacetal is an example of a reaction that can be catalyzed by the presence of hydroxide.", "Hydroxide can also act as a Lewis-base catalyst.===As a nucleophilic reagent===Nucleophilic acyl substitution with an anionic nucleophile (Nu−) and leaving group (L−)The hydroxide ion is intermediate in nucleophilicity between the fluoride ion F−, and the amide ion .", "Ester hydrolysis under alkaline conditions (also known as base hydrolysis):R1C(O)OR2 + OH− R1CO(O)H + −OR2 R1CO2− + HOR2is an example of a nucleophilic acyl substitution with the hydroxide ion acting as a nucleophile.", "Early methods for manufacturing soap treated triglycerides from animal fat (the ester) with lye.", "Other cases where hydroxide can act as a nucleophilic reagent are amide hydrolysis, the Cannizzaro reaction, nucleophilic aliphatic substitution, nucleophilic aromatic substitution, and in elimination reactions.", "The reaction medium for KOH and NaOH is usually water but with a phase-transfer catalyst the hydroxide anion can be shuttled into an organic solvent as well, for example in the generation of the reactive intermediate dichlorocarbene." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "H. R. Giger" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hans Ruedi Giger''' ( ; ; 5 February 1940 – 12 May 2014) was a Swiss artist best known for his airbrushed images that blended human physiques with machines, an art style known as \"biomechanical\".", "Giger later abandoned airbrush for pastels, markers and ink.", "He was part of the special effects team that won an Academy Award for the visual design of Ridley Scott's 1979 sci-fi horror film ''Alien'', and was responsible for creating the titular Alien itself.", "His work is on permanent display at the H.R.", "Giger Museum in Gruyères, Switzerland.", "His style has been adapted to many forms of media, including album covers, furniture, tattoos and video games." ], [ "Early life", "Giger was born in 1940 in Chur, the capital city of Graubünden, the largest and easternmost Swiss canton.", "His father, a pharmacist, viewed art as a \"breadless profession\" and strongly encouraged him to enter pharmacy.", "He moved to Zürich in 1962 where he studied architecture and industrial design at the School of Applied Arts until 1970." ], [ "Career", "''Birth Machine'' sculpture in GruyèresGiger's first success was when H. H. Kunz, co-owner of Switzerland's first poster publishing company, printed and distributed Giger's first posters, beginning in 1969.Giger's style and thematic execution were influential.", "He was part of the special effects team that won an Academy Award for Best Achievement in Visual Effects for their design work on the film ''Alien''.", "His design for the Alien was inspired by his painting ''Necronom IV'' and earned him an Oscar in 1980.His books of paintings, particularly ''Necronomicon'' and ''Necronomicon II'' (1985) and the frequent appearance of his art in ''Omni'' magazine contributed to his rise to international prominence.", "Giger was admitted to the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2013.He is also well known for artwork on several music recording albums including ''Danzig III: How The Gods Kill'' by Danzig, ''Brain Salad Surgery'' by Emerson, Lake & Palmer, ''Attahk'' by Magma, ''Heartwork'' by Carcass, ''To Mega Therion'' by Celtic Frost, ''Eparistera Daimones'' and ''Melana Chasmata'' by Triptykon, Deborah Harry's ''KooKoo,'' ''Atomic Playboys'' by Steve Stevens, and ''Frankenchrist'' by the Dead Kennedys.In 1998, Giger acquired the Saint-Germain Castle in Gruyères, Switzerland, which now houses the H.R.", "Giger Museum, a permanent repository of his work." ], [ "Personal life", "Giger had a relationship with Swiss actress Li Tobler until she died by suicide in 1975.Tobler's image appears in many of his paintings.", "He married Mia Bonzanigo in 1979; they divorced a year and a half later.Giger lived and worked in Zürich with his second wife, Carmen Maria Scheifele Giger, who is the director of the H.R.", "Giger Museum.On 12 May 2014, Giger died in a Zürich hospital after suffering injuries from a fall." ], [ "Style", "Giger started with small ink drawings before progressing to oil paintings.", "For most of his career, he worked predominantly in airbrush, creating monochromatic canvasses depicting surreal, nightmarish dreamscapes.", "He also worked with pastels, markers and ink.Giger's most distinctive stylistic innovation was that of a representation of human bodies and machines in cold, interconnected relationships, which he described as \"biomechanical\".", "His main influences were painters Dado, Ernst Fuchs, and Salvador Dalí.", "He was introduced to Dali by painter Robert Venosa.", "Giger was also influenced by Polish sculptor Stanislaw Szukalski, and by painters Austin Osman Spare and Mati Klarwein, and was a personal friend of Timothy Leary.", "He studied interior and industrial design at the School of Commercial Art in Zurich from 1962 to 1965, and made his first paintings as art therapy." ], [ "Other works", "Entrance to Giger Bar in ChurIbanez H. R. Giger signature bass and guitarsGiger directed a number of films, including ''Swiss Made'' (1968), ''Tagtraum'' (1973), ''Giger's Necronomicon'' (1975) and ''Giger's Alien'' (1979).Giger created furniture designs, particularly the Harkonnen Capo Chair for a film of the novel ''Dune'' that was to be directed by Alejandro Jodorowsky.", "Many years later, David Lynch directed the film, using only rough concepts by Giger.", "Giger had wished to work with Lynch, as he stated in one of his books that Lynch's film ''Eraserhead'' was closer than even Giger's own films to realizing his vision.Giger also applied his biomechanical style to interior design.", "One \"Giger Bar\" appeared in Tokyo, but the realization of his designs was a great disappointment to him, since the Japanese organization behind the venture did not wait for his final designs, and instead used Giger's rough preliminary sketches.", "For that reason Giger disowned the Tokyo bar.", "The two Giger Bars in his native Switzerland, in Gruyères and Chur, were built under Giger's close supervision and they accurately reflect his original concepts.", "At The Limelight in Manhattan, Giger's artwork was licensed to decorate the VIP room, the uppermost chapel of the landmarked church, but it was never intended to be a permanent installation and bore no similarity to the bars in Switzerland.", "The arrangement was terminated after two years when the Limelight closed.Giger's art has greatly influenced tattooists and fetishists worldwide.", "Under a licensing deal Ibanez guitars released an H. R. Giger signature series: the Ibanez ICHRG2, an Ibanez Iceman, features \"NY City VI\", the Ibanez RGTHRG1 has \"NY City XI\" printed on it, the S Series SHRG1Z has a metal-coated engraving of \"Biomechanical Matrix\" on it, and a 4-string SRX bass, SRXHRG1, has \"N.Y. City X\" on it.Giger is often referred to in popular culture, especially in science fiction and cyberpunk.", "William Gibson (who wrote an early script for ''Alien 3'') seems particularly fascinated: A minor character in ''Virtual Light'', Lowell, is described as having ''New York XXIV'' tattooed across his back, and in ''Idoru'' a secondary character, Yamazaki, describes the buildings of nanotech Japan as Giger-esque.===Films===* ''Alien'' (designed, among other things, the Alien creature, \"The Derelict\" and the \"Space Jockey\")* ''Aliens'' (credited for the creation of the creature only)* ''Alien 3'' (designed the dog-like Alien bodyshape, plus a number of unused concepts, many mentioned on the special features disc of ''Alien 3'', despite not being credited in the theatrical version)* ''Alien Resurrection'' (credited for the creation of the creature only)* ''Alien vs.", "Predator'' (credited for the creation of the creature only)* ''Aliens vs.", "Predator: Requiem'' (credited for the creation of the creature only)* ''Poltergeist II: The Other Side''* ''Killer Condom'' (creative consultant, set design)* ''Species'' (designed Sil, and the Ghost Train in a dream sequence)* ''Species II'' (the film includes Eve, based on creature Sil from the first ''Species'' film)* ''Future-Kill'' (designed artwork for the movie poster)* ''Tokyo: The Last Megalopolis'' (creature designs)* ''Prometheus'' (The 2012 film includes \"The Derelict\" spacecraft and the \"Space Jockey\" designs from the first ''Alien'' film, as well as a \"Temple\" design from the failed Jodorowsky ''Dune'' project and original extraterrestrial murals created exclusively for ''Prometheus'', based in conceptual art from ''Alien''.", "Unlike ''Alien Resurrection'', the ''Prometheus'' film credited H. R. Giger with the original designs.", ")* ''Alien: Covenant'' (the 2017 film includes the Alien creature, \"The Derelict\" spacecraft and the \"Space Jockey\" designs from the first ''Alien'' film)===Work for recording artists===Jonathan Davis with his microphone stand* Celtic Frost: ''To Mega Therion''* Magma: ''Attahk''* Emerson, Lake & Palmer: ''Brain Salad Surgery'' * Floh de Cologne: ''Mumien'' * Steve Stevens' ''Atomic Playboys''* Deborah Harry, portraits for ''KooKoo'' album cover and videos \"Backfired\" and \"Now I Know You Know\" * hide: ''Hide Your Face''* Carcass: ''Heartwork'' * Danzig: ''Danzig III: How the Gods Kill''* Dead Kennedys' album ''Frankenchrist'', Poster insert of Landscape XX (which led to an obscenity trial)* Atrocity – ''Hallucinations''* Korn's Jonathan Davis commissioned Giger to design and sculpt a microphone stand, with the requirement that it be biomechanical, erotic, and movable.", "The contract allowed for five aluminium microphone stands to be made, but Davis purchased only two of the three to which he was entitled.", "The design of the microphone stand was later adapted to Giger's ''Nubian Queen'', transforming it into a fine art sculpture.", "* Helped to design the first professional video clip of \"Böhse Onkelz\" called \"Dunkler Ort\" (dark location) from their album ''Ein böses Märchen ... aus tausend finsteren Nächten'', which was released in 2000.", "* Ibanez Guitars released a series of H. R. Giger Signature Models with artwork on the body.", "* Triptykon: ''Eparistera Daimones''* Triptykon: ''Melana Chasmata''===Interior decoration===* Giger Bars in Switzerland's Chur and Gruyères* Maison d'Ailleurs (House of Elsewhere) in Yverdon-les-Bains===Video games===* ''Dark Seed'' and its sequel, ''Dark Seed II'', both adventure games for the Amiga, Macintosh, and PC, were developed by Cyberdreams and directly based on Giger's input." ], [ "Recognition", "Street name sign in Chur, SwitzerlandGiger was awarded the Inkpot Award in 1979.In addition to his awards, Giger was recognized by a variety of festivals and institutions.", "On the one year anniversary of his death, the Museum of Arts and Design in New York City staged the series ''The Unseen Cinema of HR Giger'' in May 2015.", "''Dark Star: H. R. Giger's World'', a biographical documentary by Belinda Sallin, debuted 27 September 2014 in Zurich, Switzerland.In July 2018, the asteroid 109712 Giger was named in his memory." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Museum HR Giger* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hispaniola" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hispaniola''' (, also ) is an island in the Caribbean that is part of the Greater Antilles.", "Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and the region's second largest in area, after the island of Cuba.", "The island is divided into two separate nations: the Spanish-speaking Dominican Republic (48,445 km2, 18,705 sq mi) to the east and the French/Haitian Creole-speaking Haiti (27,750 km2, 10,710 sq mi) to the west.", "The only other divided island in the Caribbean is Saint Martin, which is shared between France (Saint Martin) and the Netherlands (Sint Maarten).Hispaniola is the site of one of the first European forts in the Americas, La Navidad (1492–1493), as well as the first settlement and proper town, La Isabela (1493–1500), and the first permanent settlement, the current capital of the Dominican Republic, Santo Domingo (est.", "1498).", "These settlements were founded successively during each of Christopher Columbus's first three voyages.", "The Spanish Empire controlled the entire island of Hispaniola from the 1490s until the 17th century, when French pirates began establishing bases on the western side of the island.", "The official name was ''La Española'', meaning \"The Spanish (Island)\".", "It was also called ''Santo Domingo'', after Saint Dominic." ], [ "Etymology", "The island was called by various names by its native people, the Taíno.", "The Taino had no written language, hence, historical evidence for these names comes through three European historians: the Italian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, and the Spaniards Bartolomé de las Casas and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo.", "Based on a comprehensive survey and map prepared by Andrés de Morales in 1508, Martyr reported that the island as a whole was called ''Quizquella'' (or ''Quisqueya'') and ''Ayiti'' referred to a rugged mountainous region on the western end of the island.", "Diego Álvarez Chanca, a physician on Columbus's second voyage, also noted that “Ayiti” or ''Haiti'' was the westernmost province of the island.", "On the other hand, Oviedo and Las Casas both recorded that the entire island was called ''Ayiti'' by the Taíno.When Columbus took possession of the island in 1492, he named it ''Insula Hispana'' in Latin and ''La Isla Española'' in Spanish, both meaning \"the Spanish island\".", "Las Casas shortened the name to ''Española'', and when Peter Martyr detailed his account of the island in Latin, he rendered its name as ''Hispaniola''.Due to Taíno, Spanish and French influences on the island, historically the whole island was often referred to as ''Haiti'', ''Hayti'', ''Santo Domingo'', or ''Saint-Domingue''.", "Martyr's literary work was translated into English and French soon after being written, the name Hispaniola became the most frequently used term in English-speaking countries for the island in scientific and cartographic works.", "In 1918, the United States occupation government, led by Harry Shepard Knapp, obliged the use of the name Hispaniola on the island, and recommended the use of that name to the National Geographic Society.The name \"Haïti\" was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1804, as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, in tribute to the Amerindian predecessors.", "It was also adopted as the official name of independent Santo Domingo, as the Republic of Spanish Haiti, a state that existed from November 1821 until its annexation by Haiti in February 1822." ], [ "History", "=== Pre-Columbian ===The Archaic Age people arrived from the mainland about 6,000 or 7,000 years ago.", "The primary indigenous group on the island of Hispaniola was the Taíno people.", "The Arawak tribe originated in the Orinoco Delta, spreading from what is now Venezuela.", "They arrived on Hispaniola around 1200 CE.", "Each society on the island was a small independent kingdom with a lead known as a cacique.", "In 1492, which is considered the peak of the Taíno, there were five different kingdoms on the island, the Xaragua, Higuey (Caizcimu), Magua (Huhabo), Ciguayos (Cayabo or Maguana), and Marien (Bainoa).", "Many distinct Taíno languages also existed in this time period.", "There is still heated debate over the population of Taíno people on the island of Hispaniola in 1492, but estimates range from no more than a few tens of thousands, according to a 2020 genetic analysis, to upwards of 750,000.A Taíno home consisted of a circular building with woven straw and palm leaves as covering.", "Most individuals slept in fashioned hammocks, but grass beds were also used.", "The cacique lived in a different structure with larger rectangular walls and a porch.", "The Taíno village also had a flat court used for ball games and festivals.", "Religiously, the Taíno people were polytheists, and their gods were called Zemí.", "Religious worship and dancing were common, and medicine men or priests also consulted the Zemí for advice in public ceremonies.For food, the Taíno relied on meat and fish as a primary source for protein.", "On the island they hunted small mammals, but also snakes, worms, and birds.", "In lakes and in the sea they were able to catch ducks and turtles.The Taíno also relied on agriculture as a primary food source.", "The indigenous people of Hispaniola raised crops in a conuco, which is a large mound packed with leaves and fixed crops to prevent erosion.", "Some common agricultural goods were cassava, maize, squash, beans, peppers, peanuts, cotton, and tobacco, which was used as an aspect of social life and religious ceremonies.Chiefdoms of HispaniolaThe Taíno people traveled often and used hollowed canoes with paddles when on the water for fishing or for migration purposes, and upwards of 100 people could fit into a single canoe.", "The Taíno came frequently in contact with the Caribs, another indigenous tribe.", "The Taíno people had to defend themselves using bows and arrows with poisoned tips and some war clubs.", "When Columbus landed on Hispaniola, many Taíno leaders wanted protection from the Caribs.===Post-Columbian===Early map of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Christopher Columbus first landed at Hispaniola on December 6, 1492 at a small bay he named San Nicolas, now called Môle-Saint-Nicolas on the north coast of present-day Haiti.", "He was welcomed in a friendly fashion by the indigenous people known as the Taíno.", "Trading with the natives yielded more gold than they had come across previously on the other Caribbean islands and Columbus was led to believe that much more gold would be found inland.", "Before he could explore further, his flagship, the ''Santa Maria'', ran aground and sank in the bay on December 24.With only two smaller ships remaining for the voyage home, Columbus built a fortified encampment, La Navidad, on the shore and left behind 21 crewman to await his return the following year.", "Colonization began in earnest the following year when Columbus brought 1,300 men to Hispaniola in November 1493 with the intention of establishing a permanent settlement.", "They found the encampment at Navidad had been destroyed and all the crewmen left behind killed by the natives.", "Columbus decided to sail east in search of a better site to found a new settlement.", "In January 1494 they established La Isabela in present-day Dominican Republic.Fortaleza OzamaIn 1496, the town of Nueva Isabela was founded.", "After being destroyed by a hurricane, it was rebuilt on the opposite side of the Ozama River and called Santo Domingo.", "It is the oldest permanent European settlement in the Americas.", "The island had an important role in the establishment of Latin American colonies for decades to come.", "Due to its strategic location, it was the military stronghold of ''conquistadors'' of the Spanish Empire, serving as a headquarters for the further colonial expansion into the Americas.", "The colony was a meeting point of European explorers, soldiers, and settlers who brought with them the culture, architecture, laws, and traditions of the Old World.Spaniards imposed a harsh regime of forced labor and enslavement of the Taínos, as well as redirection of their food production and labor to Spaniards.", "This had a devastating impact on both mortality and fertility of the Taíno population over the first quarter century.", "Colonial administrators and Dominican and Hieronymite friars observed that the search for gold and agrarian enslavement through the ''encomienda'' system were deciminating the indigenous population.", "Demographic data from two provinces in 1514 shows a low birth rate, consistent with a 3.5% annual population decline.", "In 1503, Spaniards began to bring enslaved Africans after a charter was passed in 1501, allowing the import of African slaves by Ferdinand and Isabel.", "The Spanish believed Africans would be more capable of performing physical labor.", "From 1519 to 1533, the indigenous uprising known as Enriquillo's Revolt, after the Taíno cacique who led them, ensued, resulting from escaped African slaves on the island (maroons) possibly working with the Taíno people.Precious metals played a large role in the history of the island after Columbus's arrival.", "One of the first inhabitants Columbus came across on this island was \"a girl wearing only a gold nose plug\".", "Soon the Taínos were trading pieces of gold for hawk's bells with their cacique declaring the gold came from Cibao.", "Traveling further east from Navidad, Columbus came across the Yaque del Norte River, which he named Río de Oro (River of Gold) because its \"sands abound in gold dust\".On Columbus's return during his second voyage, he learned it was the chief Caonabo who had massacred his settlement at Navidad.", "While Columbus established a new settlement the village of La Isabela on Jan. 1494, he sent Alonso de Ojeda and 15 men to search for the mines of Cibao.", "After a six-day journey, Ojeda came across an area containing gold, in which the gold was extracted from streams by the Taíno people.", "Columbus himself visited the mines of Cibao on 12 March 1494.He constructed the Fort of Santo Tomás, present day Jánico, leaving Captain Pedro Margarit in command of 56 men.", "On 24 March 1495, Columbus, with his ally Guacanagarix, embarked on a war of revenge against Caonabo, capturing him and his family while killing and capturing many natives.", "Afterwards, every person over the age of fourteen had to produce a hawksbill of gold.===16th century: gold, sugar and pirates===Gold mining using forced indigenous labor began early on Hispaniola.", "Miguel Díaz and Francisco de Garay discovered large gold nuggets on the lower Haina River in 1496.These San Cristobal mines were later known as the Minas Viejas mines.", "Then, in 1499, the first major discovery of gold was made in the cordillera central, which led to a mining boom.", "By 1501 Columbus's cousin, Giovanni Colombo, had discovered gold near Buenaventura.", "The deposits were later known as Minas Nuevas.", "Two major mining areas resulted, one along San Cristobal-Buenaventura, and another in Cibao within the La Vega-Cotuy-Bonao triangle, while Santiago de los Caballeros, Concepción, and Bonao became mining towns.", "The gold rush of 1500–1508 ensued, and Ovando expropriated the gold mines of Miguel Díaz and Francisco de Garay in 1504, as pit mines became royal mines for Ferdinand II of Aragon, who reserved the best mines for himself, though placers were open to private prospectors.", "King Ferdinand kept 967 natives in the San Cristóbal mining area, supervised by salaried miners.Under the royal governor Nicolás de Ovando, the indigenous people were forced to work in the gold mines.", "By 1503, the Spanish Crown legalized the allocation of private grants of indigenous labor to particular Spaniards for mining through the ''encomienda'' system.", "Once the indigenous were forced into mining far from their home villages, they suffered hunger and other difficult conditions.", "By 1508, the Taíno population of about 400,000 was reduced to 60,000, and by 1514, only 26,334 remained.", "About half resided in the mining towns of Concepción, Santiago, Santo Domingo, and Buenaventura.", "The repartimiento of 1514 accelerated emigration of the Spanish colonists, coupled with the exhaustion of the mines.", "The first documented outbreak of smallpox, previously an Eastern hemisphere disease, occurred on Hispaniola in December 1518 among enslaved African miners.", "Some scholars speculate that European diseases arrived before this date, but there is no compelling evidence for an outbreak.", "The natives had no acquired immunity to European diseases, including smallpox.", "By May 1519, as many as one-third of the remaining Taínos had died.", "In the century following the Spanish arrival on Hispaniola, the Taíno population fell by up to 95% of the population, out of a pre-contact population estimated from tens of thousands to 8,000,000.Many authors have described the treatment of Tainos in Hispaniola under the Spanish Empire as genocide.Sugar cane was introduced to Hispaniola by settlers from the Canary Islands, and the first sugar mill in the New World was established in 1516, on Hispaniola.", "The need for a labor force to meet the growing demands of sugar cane cultivation led to an exponential increase in the importation of slaves over the following two decades.", "The sugar mill owners soon formed a new colonial elite.", "The first major slave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo during 1521, when enslaved Muslims of the Wolof nation led an uprising in the sugar plantation of admiral Don Diego Colon, son of Christopher Columbus.", "Many of these insurgents managed to escape where they formed independent maroon communities in the south of the island.Beginning in the 1520s, the Caribbean Sea was raided by increasingly numerous French pirates.", "In 1541, Spain authorized the construction of Santo Domingo's fortified wall, and in 1560 decided to restrict sea travel to enormous, well-armed convoys.", "In another move, which would destroy Hispaniola's sugar industry, in 1561 Havana, more strategically located in relation to the Gulf Stream, was selected as the designated stopping point for the merchant ''flotas,'' which had a royal monopoly on commerce with the Americas.", "In 1564, the island's main inland cities Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepción de la Vega were destroyed by an earthquake.", "In the 1560s, English privateers joined the French in regularly raiding Spanish shipping in the Americas.===17th century===By the early 17th century, Hispaniola and its nearby islands (notably Tortuga) became regular stopping points for Caribbean pirates.", "In 1606, the government of Philip III ordered all inhabitants of Hispaniola to move close to Santo Domingo, to fight against piracy.", "Rather than secure the island, his action meant that French, English, and Dutch pirates established their own bases on the less populated north and west coasts of the island.The main cities and towns of the Spanish in the early 1600s.Spanish Caribbean Islands in the American Viceroyalties in the 1600s.In 1625, French and English pirates arrived on the island of Tortuga, just off the northwest coast of Hispaniola, which was originally settled by a few Spanish colonists.", "The pirates were attacked in 1629 by Spanish forces commanded by Don Fadrique de Toledo, who fortified the island, and expelled the French and English.", "As most of the Spanish army left for the main island of Hispaniola to root out French colonists there, the French returned to Tortuga in 1630 and had constant battles for several decades.", "In 1654, the Spanish re-captured Tortuga for the last time.Tortuga island) made Hispaniola a center of pirate activity in the 17th century.In 1655 the island of Tortuga was reoccupied by the English and French.", "In 1660 the English appointed a Frenchman as Governor who proclaimed the King of France, set up French colours, and defeated several English attempts to reclaim the island.", "In 1665, French colonization of the island was officially recognized by King Louis XIV.", "The French colony was given the name Saint-Domingue.", "By 1670 a Welsh privateer named Henry Morgan invited the pirates on the island of Tortuga to set sail under him.", "They were hired by the French as a striking force that allowed France to have a much stronger hold on the Caribbean region.", "Consequently, the pirates never really controlled the island and kept Tortuga as a neutral hideout.", "The capital of the French Colony of Saint-Domingue was moved from Tortuga to Port-de-Paix on the mainland of Hispaniola in 1676.In 1680, new Acts of Parliament forbade sailing under foreign flags (in opposition to former practice).", "This was a major legal blow to the Caribbean pirates.", "Settlements were made in the Treaty of Ratisbon of 1684, signed by the European powers, that put an end to piracy.", "Most of the pirates after this time were hired out into the Royal services to suppress their former buccaneer allies.", "In the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain formally ceded the western third of the island to France.", "Saint-Domingue quickly came to overshadow the east in both wealth and population.", "Nicknamed the \"Pearl of the Antilles\", it became the most prosperous colony in the West Indies, with a system of human slavery used to grow and harvest sugar cane during a time when European demand for sugar was high.", "Slavery kept costs low and profit was maximized.", "It was an important port in the Americas for goods and products flowing to and from France and Europe.===18th century onwards===slave revolt in 1791European colonists often died young due to tropical fevers, as well as from violent slave resistance in the late eighteenth century.", "In 1791, during the French Revolution, a major slave revolt broke out on Saint-Domingue.", "When the French Republic abolished slavery in the colonies on February 4, 1794, it was a European first.", "The ex-slave army joined forces with France in its war against its European neighbors.", "In the second 1795 Treaty of Basel (July 22), Spain ceded the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, later to become the Dominican Republic.", "French settlers had begun to colonize some areas in the Spanish side of the territory.Under Napoleon, France reimposed slavery in most of its Caribbean islands in 1802 and sent an army to bring the island into full control.", "However, thousands of the French troops succumbed to yellow fever during the summer months, and more than half of the French army died because of disease.", "After an extremely brutal war with atrocities committed on both sides, the French removed the surviving 7,000 troops in late 1803, the leaders of the revolution declared western Hispaniola the new nation of independent Haiti in early 1804.France continued to rule Spanish Santo Domingo.", "In 1805, Haitian troops of General Henri Christophe tried to conquer all of Hispaniola.", "They invaded Santo Domingo and sacked the towns of Santiago de los Caballeros and Moca, killing most of their residents, but news of a French fleet sailing towards Haiti forced General Christophe to withdraw from the east, leaving it in French hands.Dominican war against Haiti.In 1808, following Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the criollos of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule and, with the aid of the United Kingdom, returned Santo Domingo to Spanish control.", "Fearing the influence of a society of slaves that had successfully revolted against their owners, the United States and European powers refused to recognize Haiti, the second republic in the Western Hemisphere.", "France demanded a high payment for compensation to slaveholders who lost their property, and Haiti was saddled with unmanageable debt for decades.", "Haiti would Annex Spanish Haiti which had recently gained independence.", "However, suppression of the Dominican culture would lead to the Dominican War of Independence.", "This is one of the reasons for the tensions between the two countries today.", "Haiti would become one of the poorest countries in the Americas, while the Dominican Republic gradually has developed into one of the largest economies of Central America and the Caribbean." ], [ "Geography", "Topographic mapCaribbean locationsCaribbean maritime boundariesHispaniola is the second-largest island in the Caribbean (after Cuba), with an area of , of which is under the sovereignty of the Dominican Republic occupying the eastern portion and under the sovereignty of Haiti occupying the western portion.AntillesCaribbean general map and map of the Caribbean SeaThe island of Cuba lies , Cayman Islands and Navassa Island to the northwest across the Windward Passage; 190 km (118 mi) to the southwest lies Jamaica, separated by the Jamaica Channel.", "Puerto Rico lies 130 km (80 mi) east of Hispaniola across the Mona Passage.", "The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands lie to the north.", "Its westernmost point is known as Cap Carcasse.", "Cuba, Cayman Islands, Navassa Island, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico are collectively known as the Greater Antilles.", "Hispaniola is also a part of the Antilles and the West Indies.The island has five major ranges of mountains: The Central Range, known in the Dominican Republic as the Cordillera Central, spans the central part of the island, extending from the south coast of the Dominican Republic into northwestern Haiti, where it is known as the Massif du Nord.", "This mountain range boasts the highest peak in the Antilles, Pico Duarte at above sea level.", "The Cordillera Septentrional runs parallel to the Central Range across the northern end of the Dominican Republic, extending into the Atlantic Ocean as the Samaná Peninsula.", "The Cordillera Central and Cordillera Septentrional are separated by the lowlands of the Cibao Valley and the Atlantic coastal plains, which extend westward into Haiti as the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain).", "The lowest of the ranges is the Cordillera Oriental, in the eastern part of the country.The Sierra de Neiba rises in the southwest of the Dominican Republic, and continues northwest into Haiti, parallel to the Cordillera Central, as the Montagnes Noires, Chaîne des Matheux and the Montagnes du Trou d'Eau.", "The Plateau Central lies between the Massif du Nord and the Montagnes Noires, and the Plaine de l'Artibonite lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Chaîne des Matheux, opening westward toward the Gulf of Gonâve, the largest gulf of the Antilles.The southern range begins in the southwesternmost Dominican Republic as the Sierra de Bahoruco, and extends west into Haiti as the Massif de la Selle and the Massif de la Hotte, which form the mountainous spine of Haiti's southern peninsula.", "Pic de la Selle is the highest peak in the southern range, the third highest peak in the Antilles and consequently the highest point in Haiti, at above sea level.", "A depression runs parallel to the southern range, between the southern range and the Chaîne des Matheux-Sierra de Neiba.", "It is known as the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac in Haiti, and Haiti's capital Port-au-Prince lies at its western end.", "The depression is home to a chain of salt lakes, including Lake Azuei in Haiti and Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic.The island has four distinct ecoregions.", "The Hispaniolan moist forests ecoregion covers approximately 50% of the island, especially the northern and eastern portions, predominantly in the lowlands but extending up to elevation.", "The Hispaniolan dry forests ecoregion occupies approximately 20% of the island, lying in the rain shadow of the mountains in the southern and western portion of the island and in the Cibao valley in the center-north of the island.", "The Hispaniolan pine forests occupy the mountainous 15% of the island, above elevation.", "The flooded grasslands and savannas ecoregion in the south central region of the island surrounds a chain of lakes and lagoons in which the most notable include that of Lake Azuei and Trou Caïman in Haiti and the nearby Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic, which is not only the lowest point of the island, but also the lowest point for an island country.===Climate===Köppen climate types of the Caribbean region, present (1980-2016)Köppen climate types of the Caribbean region, future (2071-2100)Köppen climate types of the Dominican Republic, the island of HispaniolaKöppen climate types of Haiti, the island of HispaniolaHispaniola's climate shows considerable variation due to its diverse mountainous topography, and is the most varied island of all the Antilles.", "Except in the Northern Hemisphere summer season, the predominant winds over Hispaniola are the northeast trade winds.", "As in Jamaica and Cuba, these winds deposit their moisture on the northern mountains, and create a distinct rain shadow on the southern coast, where some areas receive as little as of rainfall, and have semi-arid climates.", "Annual rainfall under also occurs on the southern coast of Haiti's northwest peninsula and in the central Azúa region of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac.", "In these regions, moreover, there is generally little rainfall outside hurricane season from August to October, and droughts are by no means uncommon when hurricanes do not come.On the northern coast, in contrast, rainfall may peak between December and February, though some rain falls in all months of the year.", "Annual amounts typically range from on the northern coastal lowlands; there is probably much more in the Cordillera Septentrional, though no data exist.", "The interior of Hispaniola, along with the southeastern coast centered around Santo Domingo, typically receives around per year, with a distinct season from May to October.", "Usually, this wet season has two peaks: one around May, the other around the hurricane season.", "In the interior highlands, rainfall is much greater, around per year, but with a similar pattern to that observed in the central lowlands.The variations of temperature depend on altitude and are much less marked than rainfall variations in the island.", "Lowland Hispaniola is generally more hot and humid, with temperatures averaging .", "with high humidity during the daytime, and around at night.", "At higher altitudes, temperatures fall steadily, so that frosts occur during the dry season on the highest peaks, where maxima are no higher than .File:Hato mayor, dominican republic waterfall.jpg\|Salto de Jalda in Hato Mayor, Dominican Republic, the tallest waterfall in the CaribbeanFile:View of Haitian Landscape hispaniola.jpg\|Les Cayes, Sud, HaitiFile:Constanza, valle nuevo, clima invierno..jpg\|Frosted alpine forest in Constanza, Dominican RepublicFile:Cabo Cabrón, (Rincón Beach) Samaná, DR.JPG\|Tropical rainforest climate in Samana, Dominican RepublicFile:Jaragua National Park (Road2).JPG\|Semi-arid climate in Pedernales, Hispaniolan dry forests, Dominican Republic and Haiti, the island of HispaniolaFile:Dunas de Baní 1.jpg\|Desert sand dunes of Baní, Dominican RepublicFile:Cordillera Central.jpg\|Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic has the highest elevation of the CaribbeanFile:Lake Enriquillo.jpg\|Lake Enriquillo, Dominican Republic and Haiti, the island of HispaniolaFile:Lake Enriquillo sentinel-2.jpg\|Lake Enriquillo is the biggest saltwater lake- hypersaline lake in the Dominican Republic.", "Lake Enriquillo is located in Enriquillo wetlands, Lake Enriquillo is the largest lake in both the Dominican Republic and Hispaniola, as well as the entire Caribbean.", "It is also the lowest point for an island country and Lake Enriquillo do also borders Haiti in the north west area of the lake on the island of HispaniolaFile:Rio Yaque del Norte, looking south, July 2009 - panoramio.jpg\|Yaque del Norte river, Dominican RepublicFile:Lago de OviedoWW.jpg\|Oviedo Lake in Pedernales, Dominican RepublicFile:La ciudad desde la carretera - panoramio.jpg\|Hispaniolan moist forests, hills north of Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic and Haiti, the island of HispaniolaFile:Hispaniolanpineforest.jpg\|Hispaniolan pine forests, Hispaniolan pine forest as seen from Pico Duarte, Dominican Republic and Haiti, the island of HispaniolaFile:Gfp-looking-at-the-horizon.jpg\|Nord (Haitian department), La Belle Mère, Haiti===Fauna===There are many bird species in Hispaniola, and the island's amphibian species are also diverse.", "There are many species endemic to the island including insects and other invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians, fishs, birds and mammals (originally animals, native animals) and also (imported animals, introduced animals, not native animals or invasive species) just like farm animals, transport animals, house animals, pets and more.", "The two endemic terrestrial mammals on the island are the Hispaniolan hutia (''Plagiodontia aedium'') and the Hispaniolan solenodon (''Solenodon paradoxus'').", "There are also many avian species on the island, with six endemic genera (''Calyptophilus'', ''Dulus'', ''Nesoctites'', ''Phaenicophilus'', ''Xenoligea'' and ''Microligea'').", "More than half of the original distribution of its ecoregions has been lost due to habitat destruction impacting the local fauna and some of the original animals either threat, threatened with extinction or totally extinct, because of climate change or because they have been hunted by humans or their habitats have been felled or changed for some reasons or have become some of the animals have been threatened by (introduced animals, not native animals or invasive species) or there are fighting for space to survive and perhaps some animals that feed on the same plants or animals or just something like that.===Flora===The island has four distinct ecoregions.", "The Hispaniolan moist forests ecoregion covers approximately 50% of the island, especially the northern and eastern portions, predominantly in the lowlands but extending up to elevation.", "The Hispaniolan dry forests ecoregion occupies approximately 20% of the island, lying in the rain shadow of the mountains in the southern and western portion of the island, and in the Cibao valley in the center-north of the island.", "The Hispaniolan pine forests occupy the mountainous 15% of the island, above elevation.", "The flooded grasslands and savannas ecoregion in the south central region of the island surrounds a chain of lakes and lagoons, the most notable of which are Etang Saumatre and Trou Caïman in Haiti and the nearby Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic.Satellite image depicting the border between Haiti (left) and the Dominican Republic (right)In Haiti, deforestation has long been cited by scientists as a source of ecological crisis; the timber industry dates back to French colonial rule.", "Haiti has seen a dramatic reduction of forests due to the excessive and increasing use of charcoal as fuel for cooking.", "Various media outlets have suggested that the country has just 2% forest cover, but this has not been substantiated by research.Also extremely important are the rarely mentioned species of Pinguicula casabitoana (a carnivorous plant), Gonocalyx tetraptera, Gesneria sylvicola, Lyonia alaini and Myrcia saliana, as well as palo de viento (Didymopanax tremulus), jaiqui (Bumelia salicifolia), pino criciolio) (pino criciol) , sangre de pollo (Mecranium amigdalinum) and palo santo (Alpinia speciosa).", "According to reports in the Dominican Republic and Haiti, the flora in this naturally protected area consists of 621 species of vascular plants, of which 153 are highly endemic to La Hispaniola.", "The most prominent endemic species of flora that abound in the area are Ebano Verde (green ebony), Magnolia pallescens, a highly endangered hardwood.Recent in-depth studies of satellite imagery and environmental analysis regarding forest classification conclude that Haiti actually has approximately 30% tree cover; this is, nevertheless, a stark decrease from the country's 60% forest cover in 1925.The country has been significantly deforested over the last 50 years, resulting in the desertification of many portions of Haitian territory.", "Haiti's poor citizens use cooking fires often, and this is a major culprit behind the nation's loss of trees.", "Haitians use trees as fuel either by burning the wood directly, or by first turning it into charcoal in ovens.", "Seventy-one percent of all fuel consumed in Haiti is wood or charcoal.", "Another significant contributor to deforestation in Haiti is agricultural expansion.", "Haiti's government began establishing protected areas across the country in 1968.These 26 areas today represent nearly 7 per cent of the country’s land and 1.5 per cent of its waters.", "In the Dominican Republic, the forest cover has increased.", "In 2003, the Dominican Republic's forest cover had been reduced to 32% of its land area, but by 2011, forest cover had increased to nearly 40%.", "The success of the Dominican forest growth is due to several Dominican government policies and private organizations for the purpose of reforesting, and a strong educational campaign that has resulted in increased awareness by the Dominican people of the importance of forests for their welfare and other forms of life on the island." ], [ "Demographics", "Peoples of the Dominican RepublicPeoples of Haiti in Port-de-Paix in HaitiHispaniola is the most populous Caribbean island with a combined population of 23 million inhabitants .The Dominican Republic is a Hispanophone nation of approximately 11.3 million people.", "Spanish is spoken by essentially all Dominicans as a primary language.", "Roman Catholicism is the official and dominant religion and some Evangelicalism and Protestant churches and The Church of Jesus Christ and minority religions such as African religions, Afro-American religions-African diaspora religions, Haitian Vodou, Dominican Vodou, Dominican Santeria-Congos Del Espiritu Santo, Dominican Protestants-Pentecostals, Judaism, Islam and Baháʼí Faith, Hinduism, Buddhism, Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Pentecostalism and others also exist.People of Haitian origin in the Dominican RepublicHaiti Population Density, 2000Haiti is a Creole-speaking nation of roughly 11.7 million people.", "Although French is spoken as a primary language by the educated and wealthy minority, virtually the entire population speaks Haitian Creole, one of several French-derived creole languages.", "Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion, practiced by more than half the population, although in some cases in combination with Haitian Vodou faith.", "Another 25% of the populace belong to Protestant churches.===Ethnic composition===The ethnic composition of the Dominican population is 73% mixed ethnicity, 16% white and 11% black.", "Descendants of early Spanish settlers and of black slaves from West Africa constitute the two main racial strains.The ethnic composition of Haiti is estimated to be 95% black and 5% white and Mulatto.In recent times, Dominican and Puerto Rican researchers identified in the current Dominican population the presence of genes belonging to the aborigines of the Canary Islands (commonly called Guanches).", "These genes also have been detected in Puerto Rico." ], [ "Economics", "Historical GDP per capita development in the Dominican Republic and HaitiGeologic map of Hispaniola.", "Mzb are Mesozoic amphibolites and associated metasedimentary rocks, Ki are Cretaceous plutons, Kv are Cretaceous volcanic rocks, uK are Upper Cretaceous marine strata, Ku are Cretaceous sedimentary and volcanic rocks, K are Cretaceous marine strata, IT are Eocene and/or Paleocene marine strata, uT are Post-Eocene marine strata, T are Tertiary marine strata, V are volcanic rocks, and Q are Quaternary alluvium.", "The black triangles indicate the Late Eocene Hatillo Thrust fault.The island has the largest economy in the Greater Antilles; however, most of the economic development is found in the Dominican Republic, the Dominican economy being nearly 800% larger than the Haitian economy.", ", the estimated annual per capita income is US$868 in Haiti and US$8,050 in the Dominican Republic.The divergence between the level of economic development in Haiti and the Dominican Republic makes its border the highest contrast of all western land borders.===Natural resources===The island also has an economic history and current day interest and involvement in precious metals.", "In 1860, it was observed that the island contained a large supply of gold, which the early Spaniards had hardly developed.", "By 1919, Condit and Ross noted that much of the island was covered by government granted concessions for mining different types of minerals.", "Besides gold, these minerals included silver, manganese, copper, magnetite, iron and nickel.Mining operations in 2016 have taken advantage of the volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits around Maimón.", "To the northeast, the Pueblo Viejo Gold Mine was operated by state-owned Rosario Dominicana from 1975 until 1991.In 2009, Pueblo Viejo Dominicana Corporation, formed by Barrick Gold and Goldcorp, started open-pit mining operations of the Monte Negro and Moore oxide deposits.", "The mined ore is processed with gold cyanidation.", "Pyrite and sphalerite are the main sulfide minerals found in the 120-meter thick volcanic conglomerates and agglomerates, which constitute the world's second largest sulphidation gold deposit.Between Bonao and Maimón, Falconbridge Dominicana has been mining nickel laterites since 1971.The Cerro de Maimon copper/gold open-pit mine southeast of Maimón has been operated by Perilya since 2006.Copper is extracted from the sulfide ores, while gold and silver are extracted from both the sulfide and the oxide ores.", "Processing is via froth flotation and cyanidation.", "The ore is located in the VMS Early Cretaceous Maimón Formation.", "Goethite enriched with gold and silver is found in the 30-meter thick oxide cap.", "Below that cap is a supergene zone containing pyrite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite.", "Below the supergene zone is found the unaltered massive sulphide mineralization." ], [ "Human development", "This is a list of Dominican Republic and Haiti regions by Human Development Index as of 2018.Santo Domingo in South MetroSantiago de los Caballeros in Cibao NorthPort-au-Prince in Ouest MetroCap Haitien in Nord Rank Region 2018 HDI Country High human development1South Metro0.764Dominican Republic 2 Cibao North 0.755 Dominican Republic 3 North-East 0.745 Dominican Republic 4 Valdesia 0.744 Dominican Republic 5 Center0.737Dominican Republic 6 Yuma 0.728 Dominican Republic7Enriquillo 0.706 Dominican Republic Medium human development 8 El Valle 0.697 Dominican Republic 9 North-West 0.694 Dominican Republic Low human development 10 Ouest Metro 0.535 Haiti 11 North 0.516 Haiti 12 North-West 0.493 Haiti13North-East0.492Haiti 14 South 0.487 Haiti15South-East 0.481 Haiti16Grande-Anse 0.471 Haiti17Artibonite 0.469 Haiti 18 Centre 0.454 Haiti" ], [ "See also", "* Casa de Contratación* Dominican Republic–Haiti relations* Geography of the Dominican Republic* Geography of Haiti* History of the Caribbean* Spanish colonization of the Americas* Spanish West Indies* List of divided islands" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Altman, Ida.", "''Life and Society in the Early Caribbean: The Greater Antilles, 1493–1550''.", "Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 2021.", "Altman, Ida and David Wheat, eds.", "''The Spanish Caribbean & the Atlantic World in the Long Sixteenth Century''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2019.", "* Deagan, Kathleen and José María Cruxent.", "''Columbus's Outpost Among the Taínos''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press 2002.", "Floyd, Troy S. ''The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean, 1492–1526''.", "Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1973.", "Livi-Bacci, Maximo.", "''Return to Hispaniola: Assessing a Demographic Catastrophe.''", "Hispanic American Historical Review 83, no.", "1 (2003): 3–51.", "Rodríguez Morel, Genaro.", "\"The Sugar Economy of Española in the Sixteenth Century\" in ''Tropical Bablyons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World.", "1450–1680'', ed.", "Stuart B. Schwartz.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2004.", "Sauer, Carl O.. ''The Early Spanish Main''.", "Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1966.", "Tibesar, Antonine S. ''The Franciscan Province of the Holy Cross of Española, 1505–1559.''", "The Americas 13, no.", "4 (1957)Wilson, Samuel M. ''Hispaniola: Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus''.", "Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press 1990." ], [ "External links", "* Google maps* Map of the Islands of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico from 1639* The Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake at the Library of Congress contains primary materials on Hispaniola." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Halle Berry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Halle Maria Berry''' ( ; born '''Maria Halle Berry'''; August 14, 1966) is an American actress.", "She began her career as a model and entered several beauty contests, finishing as the first runner-up in the Miss USA pageant and coming in sixth in the Miss World 1986.Her breakthrough film role was in the romantic comedy ''Boomerang'' (1992), alongside Eddie Murphy, which led to roles in ''The Flintstones'' (1994) and ''Bulworth'' (1998) as well as the television film ''Introducing Dorothy Dandridge'' (1999), for which she won a Primetime Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award.Berry established herself as one of the highest-paid actresses in Hollywood during the 2000s.", "For her performance of a struggling widow in the romantic drama ''Monster's Ball'' (2001), Berry became the only African-American woman to win the Academy Award for Best Actress, and the first woman of color.", "Berry took on high-profile roles such as Storm in four installments of the ''X-Men'' film series (2000–2014), the henchwoman of a robber in the thriller ''Swordfish'' (2001), Bond girl Jinx in ''Die Another Day'' (2002), and the title role in the much-derided ''Catwoman'' (2004).A varying critical and commercial reception followed in subsequent years, with ''Perfect Stranger'' (2007), ''Cloud Atlas'' (2012) and ''The Call'' (2013) being among her notable film releases in that period.", "Berry launched a production company, 606 Films, in 2014 and has been involved in the production of a number of projects in which she performed, such as the CBS science fiction series ''Extant'' (2014–2015).", "She appeared in the action films ''Kingsman: The Golden Circle'' (2017) and ''John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum'' (2019) and made her directorial debut with the Netflix drama ''Bruised'' (2020).Berry has been a Revlon spokesmodel since 1996.She was formerly married to baseball player David Justice, singer-songwriter Eric Benét, and actor Olivier Martinez.", "She has two children, one with Martinez and another with model Gabriel Aubry." ], [ "Early life", "Berry was born Maria Halle Berry in Cleveland, Ohio, on August 14, 1966, to Judith Ann (née Hawkins), an English immigrant from Liverpool, and Jerome Jesse Berry, an African-American man.", "Her name was legally changed to Halle Maria Berry at the age of five.", "Her parents selected her middle name from Halle's Department Store, which was then a local landmark in Cleveland.", "Berry's mother worked as a psychiatric nurse, and her father worked in the same hospital as an attendant in the psychiatric ward; he later became a bus driver.", "They divorced when Berry was four years old, and she and her older sister Heidi Berry-Henderson were raised exclusively by their mother.", "She has been estranged from her father since childhood, noting in 1992 that she did not even know if he was still alive.", "Her father was abusive to her mother, and Berry has recalled witnessing her mother being beaten daily, kicked down stairs, and hit in the head with a wine bottle.Berry grew up in Oakwood, Ohio, and graduated from Bedford High School, where she was a cheerleader, honor student, editor of the school newspaper, and prom queen.", "She worked in the children's department at Higbee's Department store.", "She then studied at Cuyahoga Community College.", "In the 1980s, she entered several beauty contests, winning Miss Teen All American 1985 and Miss Ohio USA in 1986.She was the 1986 Miss USA first runner-up to Christy Fichtner of Texas.", "In the Miss USA 1986 pageant interview competition, she said she hoped to become an entertainer or to have something to do with the media.", "Her interview was awarded the highest score by the judges.", "She was the first African-American Miss World entrant in 1986, where she finished sixth and Trinidad and Tobago's Giselle Laronde was crowned Miss World." ], [ "Career", "===Early work and breakthrough (1989–1999)===In 1989, Berry moved to New York City to pursue her acting ambitions.", "During her early time there, she ran out of money and briefly lived in a homeless shelter and a YMCA.", "Her situation improved by the end of that year, and she was cast in the role of model Emily Franklin in the short-lived ABC television series ''Living Dolls'', which was shot in New York and was a spin-off of the hit series ''Who's the Boss?''.", "During the taping of ''Living Dolls'', she lapsed into a coma and was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes.", "After the cancellation of ''Living Dolls'', she moved to Los Angeles.Berry at the 1997 Essence AwardsBerry's film debut was in a small role for Spike Lee's ''Jungle Fever'' (1991), in which she played Vivian, a drug addict.", "That same year, Berry had her first co-starring role in ''Strictly Business''.", "In 1992, Berry portrayed a career woman who falls for the lead character played by Eddie Murphy in the romantic comedy ''Boomerang''.", "The following year, she caught the public's attention as a headstrong biracial slave in the TV adaptation of ''Queen: The Story of an American Family'', based on the book by Alex Haley.", "Berry was also in the live-action ''Flintstones'' film as Sharon Stone, a sultry secretary who attempts to seduce Fred Flintstone.Berry tackled a more serious role, playing a former drug addict struggling to regain custody of her son in ''Losing Isaiah'' (1995), starring opposite Jessica Lange.", "She portrayed Sandra Beecher in ''Race the Sun'' (1996), which was based on a true story, shot in Australia, and co-starred alongside Kurt Russell in ''Executive Decision''.", "Beginning in 1996, she was a Revlon spokeswoman for seven years and renewed her contract in 2004.She starred alongside Natalie Deselle Reid in the 1997 comedy film ''BAPS''.", "In 1998, Berry received praise for her role in ''Bulworth'' as an intelligent woman raised by activists who gives a politician (Warren Beatty) a new lease on life.", "The same year, she played the singer Zola Taylor, one of the three wives of pop singer Frankie Lymon, in the biopic ''Why Do Fools Fall in Love''.In the 1999 HBO biopic ''Introducing Dorothy Dandridge'', she portrayed Dorthy Dandridge, the first African American woman to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress.", "It was to Berry a heartfelt project that she introduced, co-produced and fought intensely for it to come through.", "Berry won awards including a Primetime Emmy Award and Golden Globe Award.===Worldwide recognition (2000–2004)===Berry portrayed the mutant superhero Storm in the film adaptation of the comic book series ''X-Men'' (2000) and its sequels, ''X2'' (2003), ''X-Men: The Last Stand'' (2006) and ''X-Men: Days of Future Past'' (2014).", "In 2001, Berry appeared in the film ''Swordfish'', which featured her first topless scene.", "At first, she was opposed to a sunbathing scene in the film in which she would appear topless, but Berry eventually agreed.", "Some people attributed her change of heart to a substantial increase in the amount Warner Bros. offered her; she was reportedly paid an additional $500,000 for the short scene.", "Berry denied these stories, telling one interviewer that they amused her and \"made for great publicity for the movie.\"", "After turning down numerous roles that required nudity, she said she decided to make ''Swordfish'' because her then-husband, Eric Benét, supported her and encouraged her to take risks.Berry appeared as Leticia Musgrove, the troubled wife of an executed murderer (Sean Combs), in the 2001 feature film ''Monster's Ball''.", "Her performance was awarded the National Board of Review and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress.", "She became the only African-American woman to win the Academy Award for Best Actress.", "The NAACP issued the statement: \"Congratulations to Halle Berry and Denzel Washington for giving us hope and making us proud.", "If this is a sign that Hollywood is finally ready to give opportunity and judge performance based on skill and not on skin color then it is a good thing.\"", "This role generated controversy.", "Her graphic nude love scene with a racist character played by co-star Billy Bob Thornton was the subject of much media chatter and discussion among African Americans.", "Many in the African-American community were critical of Berry for taking the part.", "Berry responded: \"I don't really see a reason to ever go that far again.", "That was a unique movie.", "That scene was special and pivotal and needed to be there, and it would be a really special script that would require something like that again.", "\"Berry asked for a higher fee for Revlon advertisements after winning the Oscar.", "Ron Perelman, the cosmetics firm's chief, congratulated her, saying how happy he was that she modeled for his company.", "She replied, \"Of course, you'll have to pay me more.\"", "Perelman stalked off in a rage.", "In accepting her award, she gave an acceptance speech honoring previous black actresses who had never had the opportunity.", "She said, \"This moment is so much bigger than me.", "This is for every nameless, faceless woman of color who now has a chance tonight because this door has been opened.", "\"Catwoman'' in 2004As Bond girl Giacinta 'Jinx' Johnson in the 2002 blockbuster ''Die Another Day'', Berry recreated a scene from ''Dr.", "No'', emerging from the surf to be greeted by James Bond as Ursula Andress had 40 years earlier.", "Lindy Hemming, costume designer on ''Die Another Day'', had insisted that Berry wear a bikini and knife as a homage.", "Berry has said of the scene: \"It's splashy\", \"exciting\", \"sexy\", \"provocative\" and \"it will keep me still out there after winning an Oscar.\"", "According to an ITV news poll, Jinx was voted the fourth toughest girl on screen of all time.", "Berry was hurt during filming when debris from a smoke grenade flew into her eye.", "It was removed in a 30-minute operation.", "After Berry won the Academy Award, rewrites were commissioned to give her more screentime for ''X2''.She starred in the psychological thriller ''Gothika'' opposite Robert Downey, Jr. in November 2003, during which she broke her arm in a scene with Downey, who twisted her arm too hard.", "Production was halted for eight weeks.", "It was a moderate hit at the United States box office, taking in $60 million; it earned another $80 million abroad.", "Berry appeared in the nu metal band Limp Bizkit's music video for \"Behind Blue Eyes\" for the motion picture soundtrack for the film.", "The same year, she was named No.", "1 in ''FHM''s 100 Sexiest Women in the World poll.Berry starred as the title role in the film ''Catwoman'', for which she received US$12.5 million.", "and is widely regarded by critics as one of the worst films ever made.", "She was awarded the Worst Actress Razzie Award for her performance; she appeared at the ceremony to accept the award in person (while holding her Oscar from ''Monster's Ball'') with a sense of humor, considering it an experience of the \"rock bottom\" in order to be \"at the top.\"", "Holding the Academy Award in one hand and the Razzie in the other she said, \"I never in my life thought that I would be up here, winning a Razzie!", "It's not like I ever aspired to be here, but thank you.", "When I was a kid, my mother told me that if you could not be a good loser, then there's no way you could be a good winner.", "\"===Established actress and career fluctuations (2005–2013)===Berry at New York Fleet Week in 2006Her next film appearance was in the Oprah Winfrey-produced ABC television film ''Their Eyes Were Watching God'' (2005), an adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's novel, with Berry portraying a free-spirited woman whose unconventional sexual mores upset her 1920s contemporaries in a small community.", "She received her second Primetime Emmy Award nomination for her role.", "Also in 2005, she served as an executive producer in ''Lackawanna Blues'', and landed her voice for the character of Cappy, one of the many mechanical beings in the animated feature ''Robots''.In the thriller ''Perfect Stranger'' (2007), Berry starred with Bruce Willis, playing a reporter who goes undercover to uncover the killer of her childhood friend.", "The film grossed a modest US$73 million worldwide, and received lukewarm reviews from critics, who felt that despite the presence of Berry and Willis, it is \"too convoluted to work, and features a twist ending that's irritating and superfluous.\"", "Her next 2007 film release was the drama ''Things We Lost in the Fire'', co-starring Benicio del Toro, where she took on the role of a recent widow befriending the troubled friend of her late husband.", "The film was the first time in which she worked with a female director, Danish Susanne Bier, giving her a new feeling of \"thinking the same way,\" which she appreciated.", "While the film made US$8.6 million in its global theatrical run, it garnered positive reviews from writers; ''The Austin Chronicle'' found the film to be \"an impeccably constructed and perfectly paced drama of domestic and internal volatility\" and felt that \"Berry is brilliant here, as good as she's ever been.", "\"In April 2007, Berry was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in front of the Kodak Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard for her contributions to the film industry, and by the end of the decade, she established herself as one of the highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning an estimated $10 million per film.In the independent drama ''Frankie and Alice'' (2010), Berry played the leading role of a young multiracial American woman with dissociative identity disorder struggling against her alter personality to retain her true self.", "The film received a limited theatrical release, to a mixed critical response.", "''The Hollywood Reporter'' nevertheless described the film as \"a well-wrought psychological drama that delves into the dark side of one woman's psyche\" and found Berry to be \"spellbinding\" in it.", "She earned the African-American Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress and a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama.", "She next made part of a large ensemble cast in Garry Marshall's romantic comedy ''New Year's Eve'' (2011), with Michelle Pfeiffer, Jessica Biel, Robert De Niro, Josh Duhamel, Zac Efron, Sarah Jessica Parker, and Sofía Vergara, among many others.", "In the film, she took on the supporting role of a nurse befriending a man in the final stages (De Niro).", "While the film was panned by critics, it made US$142 million worldwide.In 2012, Berry starred as an expert diver tutor alongside then-husband Olivier Martinez in the little-seen thriller ''Dark Tide'', and led an ensemble cast opposite Tom Hanks and Jim Broadbent in The Wachowskis's epic science fiction film ''Cloud Atlas'' (2012), with each of the actors playing six different characters across a period of five centuries.", "Budgeted at US$128.8 million, ''Cloud Atlas'' made US$130.4 million worldwide, and garnered polarized reactions from both critics and audiences.Berry at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con InternationalBerry appeared in a segment of the independent anthology comedy ''Movie 43'' (2013), which the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' called \"the ''Citizen Kane'' of awful.\"", "Berry found greater success with her next performance, as a 9-1-1 operator receiving a call from a girl kidnapped by a serial killer, in the crime thriller ''The Call'' (2013).", "Berry was drawn to \"the idea of being a part of a movie that was so empowering for women.", "We don't often get to play roles like this, where ordinary people become heroic and do something extraordinary.\"", "Manohla Dargis of ''The New York Times'' found the film to be \"an effectively creepy thriller,\" while reviewer Dwight Brown felt that \"the script gives Berry a blue-collar character she can make accessible, vulnerable and gutsy....\" ''The Call'' was a sleeper hit, grossing US$68.6 million around the globe.===Continued film and television work (2014–present)===In 2014, Berry signed on to star and serve as a co-executive producer in CBS drama series ''Extant'', where she took on the role of Molly Woods, an astronaut who struggles to reconnect with her husband and android son after spending 13 months in space.", "The show ran for two seasons until 2015, receiving largely positive reviews from critics.", "''USA Today'' remarked: \"She Halle Berry brings a dignity and gravity to Molly, a projected intelligence that allows you to buy her as an astronaut and to see what has happened to her as frightening rather than ridiculous.", "Berry's all in, and you float along.\"", "Also in 2014, Berry launched a new production company, 606 Films, with producing partner Elaine Goldsmith-Thomas.", "It is named after the Anti-Paparazzi Bill, SB 606, that the actress pushed for and which was signed into law by California Governor Jerry Brown in the fall of 2013.The new company emerged as part of a deal for Berry to work in ''Extant''.In the stand-up comedy concert film ''Kevin Hart: What Now?''", "(2016), Berry appeared as herself, opposite Kevin Hart, attending a poker game event that goes horribly wrong.", "She provided uncredited vocals to the song, \"Calling All My Lovelies\" by Bruno Mars from his third studio album, ''24K Magic'' (2016).", "''Kidnap'', an abduction thriller Berry filmed in 2014, was released in 2017.In the film, she starred as a diner waitress tailing a vehicle when her son is kidnapped by its occupants.", "''Kidnap'' grossed US$34 million and garnered mixed reviews from writers, who felt that it \"strays into poorly scripted exploitation too often to take advantage of its pulpy premise — or the still-impressive talents of Berry.\"", "She next played an agent employed by a secret American spy organisation in the action comedy sequel ''Kingsman: The Golden Circle'' (2017), as part of an ensemble cast, consisting of Colin Firth, Taron Egerton, Mark Strong, Julianne Moore, and Elton John.", "While critical response towards the film was mixed, it made US$414 million worldwide.Alongside Daniel Craig, Berry starred as a working-class mother during the 1992 Los Angeles riots in Deniz Gamze Ergüven's drama ''Kings'' (2017).", "The film found a limited theatrical release following its initial screening at the Toronto International Film Festival, and as part of an overall lukewarm reception, ''Variety'' noted: \"It should be said that Berry has given some of the best and worst performances of the past quarter-century, but this is perhaps the only one that swings to both extremes in the same movie.\"", "Berry competed against James Corden in the first rap battle on the first episode of TBS's ''Drop the Mic'', originally aired on October 24, 2017.She played Sofia, an assassin, in the film ''John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum'', which was released on May 17, 2019, by Lionsgate.", "She is, as of February 2019, executive producer of the BET television series ''Boomerang'', based on the film in which she starred.", "The series premiered February 12, 2019.Berry made her directorial debut with the feature ''Bruised'' in which she plays a disgraced MMA fighter named Jackie Justice, who reconnects with her estranged son.", "The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2020 and was released on Netflix in November 2021.Berry received a positive review from ''Deadline'' for her performance.In January of 2023, Berry signed with Range Media Partners as a producer and director." ], [ "Media image", "Berry was ranked No.", "1 on ''People'' \"50 Most Beautiful People in the World\" list in 2003 after making the top ten seven times and appeared No.", "1 on ''FHM'' \"100 Sexiest Women in the World\" the same year.", "She was named ''Esquire'' magazine's \"Sexiest Woman Alive\" in October 2008, about which she stated: \"I don't know exactly what it means, but being 42 and having just had a baby, I think I'll take it.\"", "''Men's Health'' ranked her at No.", "35 on their \"100 Hottest Women of All-Time\" list.", "In 2009, she was voted #23 on ''Empire'''s 100 Sexiest Film Stars.", "The same year, rapper Hurricane Chris released a song titled \"Halle Berry (She's Fine)\" extolling Berry's beauty and sex appeal.", "At the age of 42 (in 2008), she was named the \"Sexiest Black Woman\" by Access Hollywood's \"TV One Access\" survey.", "Born to an African-American father and a white mother, Berry has stated that her biracial background was \"painful and confusing\" when she was a young woman, and she made the decision early on to identify as a black woman because she knew that was how she would be perceived." ], [ "Personal life", "Berry dated Chicago dentist John Ronan from March 1989 to October 1991.In November 1993, Ronan sued Berry for $80,000 in what he claimed were unpaid loans to help launch her career.", "Berry contended that the money was a gift, and a judge dismissed the case because Ronan did not list Berry as a debtor when he filed for bankruptcy in 1992.According to Berry, a beating from a former abusive boyfriend during the filming of ''The Last Boy Scout'' in 1991 punctured her eardrum and caused her to lose 80% of her hearing in her left ear.", "She has never named the abuser, but said that he was someone \"well known in Hollywood\".", "In 2004, her former boyfriend Christopher Williams accused Wesley Snipes of being responsible for the incident, saying, \"I'm so tired of people thinking I'm the guy who did it.", "Wesley Snipes busted her eardrum, not me.", "\"Berry first saw baseball player David Justice on TV playing in an MTV celebrity baseball game in February 1992.When a reporter from Justice's hometown of Cincinnati told her that Justice was a fan, Berry gave her phone number to the reporter to give to Justice.", "Berry married Justice shortly after midnight on January 1, 1993.Following their separation in February 1996, Berry stated publicly that she was so depressed that she had considered taking her own life.", "Berry and Justice were divorced on June 20, 1997.In May 2000, Berry pleaded no contest to a charge of leaving the scene of a car accident; she was sentenced to three years’ probation, fined $13,500, and ordered to perform 200 hours of community service.Berry married her second husband, singer-songwriter Eric Benét, on January 24, 2001, following a two-year courtship.", "Benét underwent treatment for sex addiction in 2002; by early October 2003 they had separated, and their divorce was finalized on January 3, 2005.In November 2005, Berry began dating French-Canadian model Gabriel Aubry, whom she had met at a Versace photoshoot.", "Berry gave birth to their daughter in March 2008.On April 30, 2010, Berry and Aubry announced that their relationship had ended some months earlier.", "In January 2011, Berry and Aubry became involved in a highly publicized custody battle, centered primarily on Berry's desire to move with their daughter from Los Angeles, where Berry and Aubry resided, to France, the home of French actor Olivier Martinez, whom Berry had started dating in 2010, having met him while filming ''Dark Tide'' in South Africa.", "Aubry objected to the move on the ground that it would interfere with their joint custody arrangement.", "In November 2012, a judge denied Berry's request to move the couple's daughter to France.", "Less than two weeks later, on November 22, 2012, Aubry and Martinez were both treated at a hospital for injuries after engaging in a physical altercation at Berry's residence.", "Martinez performed a citizen's arrest on Aubry, and because it was considered a domestic violence incident, was granted a temporary emergency protective order preventing Aubry from coming within 100 yards of Berry, Martinez, and the child with whom he shares custody with Berry, until November 29, 2012.In turn, Aubry obtained a temporary restraining order against Martinez on November 26, 2012, asserting that the fight had begun when Martinez had threatened to kill Aubry if he did not allow the couple to move to France.", "Leaked court documents included photos showing significant injuries to Aubry's face, which were widely displayed in the media.", "On November 29, 2012, Berry's lawyer announced that Berry and Aubry had reached an amicable custody agreement in court.", "In June 2014, a Superior Court ruling called for Berry to pay Aubry $16,000 a month in child support as well as a retroactive payment of $115,000 and $300,000 for Aubry's attorney fees.Berry and Martinez confirmed their engagement in March 2012, and married in France on July 13, 2013.In October 2013, Berry gave birth to their son.", "In 2015, after two years of marriage, the couple announced they were divorcing.", "The divorce was finalized in December 2016.In August 2023, issues dealing with custody and child support were settled.Berry started dating American musician Van Hunt in 2020, which was revealed through her Instagram.===Activism===Along with Pierce Brosnan, Cindy Crawford, Jane Seymour, Dick Van Dyke, Téa Leoni, and Daryl Hannah, Berry successfully fought in 2006 against the Cabrillo Port Liquefied Natural Gas facility that was proposed off the coast of Malibu.", "Berry said, \"I care about the air we breathe, I care about the marine life and the ecosystem of the ocean.\"", "In May 2007, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the facility.", "Hasty Pudding Theatricals gave her its 2006 ''Woman of The Year'' award.", "Berry took part in a nearly 2,000-house cellphone-bank campaign for Barack Obama in February 2008.In April 2013, she appeared in a video clip for Gucci's \"Chime for Change\" campaign that aims to raise funds and awareness of women's issues in terms of education, health, and justice.", "In August 2013, Berry testified alongside Jennifer Garner before the California State Assembly's Judiciary Committee in support of a bill that would protect celebrities' children from harassment by photographers.", "The bill passed in September." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film===Berry at the 2013 Golden Globe Awards Year Title Role Notes 1991 ''Jungle Fever'' Vivian ''Strictly Business'' Natalie '''' Cory 1992 ''Boomerang'' Angela Lewis 1993 ''CB4'' Herself ''Father Hood'' Kathleen Mercer ''The Program'' Autumn Haley 1994 '''' Sharon Stone 1995 ''Solomon & Sheba'' Nikhaule/Queen Sheba Television film ''Losing Isaiah'' Khaila Richards 1996 ''Executive Decision'' Jean ''Girl 6'' Herself ''Race the Sun'' Miss Sandra Beecher '''' Josie Potenza 1997 ''BAPS'' Nisi 1998 ''Bulworth'' Nina ''Why Do Fools Fall in Love'' Zola Taylor ''Welcome to Hollywood'' Herself 1999 ''Introducing Dorothy Dandridge'' Dorothy Dandridge Television film 2000 ''X-Men'' Ororo Munroe/Storm 2001 ''Swordfish'' Ginger Knowles ''Monster's Ball'' Leticia Musgrove 2002 ''Die Another Day'' Giacinta \"Jinx\" Johnson 2003 ''X2'' Ororo Munroe/Storm ''Gothika'' Miranda Grey 2004 ''Catwoman'' Patience Phillips/Catwoman 2005 ''Their Eyes Were Watching God'' Janie Crawford Television film ''Robots'' Cappy Voice 2006 ''X-Men: The Last Stand'' Ororo Munroe/Storm 2007 ''Perfect Stranger'' Rowena Price ''Things We Lost in the Fire'' Audrey Burke 2010 ''Frankie & Alice'' Frankie/Alice 2011 ''New Year's Eve'' Nurse Aimee 2012 ''Dark Tide'' Kate Mathieson ''Cloud Atlas'' Various Roles 2013 ''Movie 43'' EmilySegment: \"Truth Or Dare\" ''The Call'' Jordan Turner 2014 ''X-Men: Days of Future Past'' Ororo Munroe/Storm 2016 ''Kevin Hart: What Now?''", "Money Berry 2017 ''Kidnap'' Karla Dyson ''Kings'' Millie Dunbar ''Kingsman: The Golden Circle'' Ginger Ale 2019 ''John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum'' Sofia 2020 ''Bruised'' Jackie Justice 2022 ''Moonfall'' Jocinda \"Jo\" Fowler 2024 ''The Union'' Roxanne TBA ''Never Let Go'' Post-production ''The Mothership'' Sara Morse ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1989 ''Living Dolls'' Emily Franklin Main Cast 1991 ''Amen'' Claire Episode: \"Unforgettable\" '''' Jaclyn Episode: \"Love, Hillman-Style\" ''They Came from Outer Space'' Rene Episode: \"Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow\" ''Knots Landing'' Debbie Porter Recurring Cast: Season 13 1993 ''NAACP Image Awards'' Herself/Co-Host Main Co-Host ''Alex Haley's Queen'' Queen Jackson Haley Episode: \"Part 1-3\" 1994 ''A Century of Women'' Herself Episode: \"Part 1-2\" 1996 ''Martin'' Herself Episode: \"Where the Party At\" 1996-97 ''Essence Awards'' Herself/Co-Host Main Co-Host 1997 ''World Music Awards'' Herself/Host Main Host 1998 ''Behind the Music'' Herself Episode: \"Lionel Richie\" ''Intimate Portrait'' Herself Episode: \"Halle Berry\" ''Mad TV'' Herself/Host Episode: \"Halle Berry\" ''The Wedding'' Shelby Coles Episode: \"Part 1-2\" ''Frasier'' Betsy Voice, episode: \"Room Service\" 1999-08 ''Biography'' Herself Recurring Guest 2001 ''Great Streets'' Herself Episode: \"The Champs Elysees\" 2002 ''E!", "True Hollywood Story'' Herself Episode: \"The Bond Girls\" ''Mad TV'' Herself Episode: \"Episode #8.7\" ''The Bernie Mac Show'' Herself Episode: \"Handle Your Business\" 2003 ''Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway'' Herself Episode: \"Episode #2.8\" ''Saturday Night Live'' Herself/Host Episode: \"Halle Berry/Britney Spears\" ''Style Star'' Herself Episode: \"Halle Berry\" ''Punk'd'' Herself Episode: \"Episode #2.5\" ''Making the Video'' Herself Episode: \"Limp Bizkit: Behind Blue Eyes\" 2004 ''Rove'' Herself Episode: \"Episode #5.9\" ''Getaway'' Herself Episode: \"Getaway Goes to Hollywood\" ''4Pop'' Herself Episode: \"Pärstäkerroin voittaa aina\" 2009 ''NAACP Image Awards'' Herself/Co-Host Main Co-Host 2011 ''The Simpsons'' Herself Voice, episode: \"Angry Dad: The Movie\" 2012 ''Sesame Street'' Herself Episode: \"Get Lost, Mr. Chips\" 2014-15 ''Extant'' Molly Woods Main cast 2017 ''Drop the Mic'' Herself Episode: \"Halle Berry vs. James Corden & Anthony Anderson vs.", "Usher\" 2021 ''American Masters'' Herself Episode: \"How It Feels To Be Free\" 2022 ''Soul of a Nation'' Herself Episode: \"Soul of a Nation Presents: Screen Queens Rising\" ''Celebrity IOU'' Herself Episode: \"Halle Berry's Beautiful Gift\"===Video game=== Year Game Role 2004 ''Catwoman'' Patience Phillips/Catwoman===Music videos=== Year Song Artist 1994 \"(Meet) The Flintstones\" The B-52s 1998 \"Ghetto Supastar (That Is What You Are)\" Pras featuring Ol' Dirty Bastard and Mya 2003 \"Behind Blue Eyes\" Limp Bizkit" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "See also", "* List of African American firsts* List of female film and television directors* List of LGBT-related films directed by women" ], [ "References" ], [ "General bibliography", "* Banting, Erinn.", "''Halle Berry'', Weigl Publishers, 2005..* Gogerly, Liz.", "''Halle Berry'', Raintree, 2005..* Naden, Corinne J.", "''Halle Berry'', Sagebrush Education Resources, 2001..* O'Brien, Daniel.", "''Halle Berry'', Reynolds & Hearn, 2003..* Sanello, Frank.", "''Halle Berry: A Stormy Life'', Virgin Books, 2003..* Schuman, Michael A.", "''Halle Berry: Beauty Is Not Just Physical'', Enslow, 2006.." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Robert Koch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch''' ( , ; 11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German physician and microbiologist.", "As the discoverer of the specific causative agents of deadly infectious diseases including tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax, he is regarded as one of the main founders of modern bacteriology.", "As such he is popularly nicknamed the father of microbiology (with Louis Pasteur), and as the father of medical bacteriology.", "His discovery of the anthrax bacterium (''Bacillus anthracis'') in 1876 is considered as the birth of modern bacteriology.", "Koch used his discoveries to establish that germs \"could cause a specific disease\" and directly provided proofs for that germ theory of diseases, therefore creating the scientific basis of public health, saving millions of lives.", "For his life's work Koch is seen as one of the founders of modern medicine.While working as a private physician, Koch developed many innovative techniques in microbiology.", "He was the first to use the oil immersion lens, condenser, and microphotography in microscopy.", "His invention of the bacterial culture method using agar and glass plates (later developed as the Petri dish by his assistant Julius Richard Petri) made him the first to grow bacteria in the laboratory.", "In appreciation of his work, he was appointed to government advisor at the Imperial Health Office in 1880, promoted to a senior executive position (''Geheimer Regierungsrat'') in 1882, Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine at Berlin University in 1885, and the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (later renamed Robert Koch Institute after his death) in 1891.The methods Koch used in bacteriology led to establishment of a medical concept known as Koch's postulates, four generalized medical principles to ascertain the relationship of pathogens with specific diseases.", "The concept is still in use in most situations and influences subsequent epidemiological principles such as the Bradford Hill criteria.", "A major controversy followed when Koch discovered tuberculin as a medication for tuberculosis which was proven to be ineffective, but developed for diagnosis of tuberculosis after his death.", "For his research on tuberculosis, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905.The day he announced the discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, 24 March 1882, has been observed by the World Health Organization as \"World Tuberculosis Day\" every year since 1982." ], [ "Early life and education", "Koch was born in Clausthal, Germany, on 11 December 1843, to Hermann Koch (1814–1877) and Mathilde Julie Henriette (née Biewend; 1818–1871).", "His father was a mining engineer.", "He was the third of thirteen siblings.", "He excelled academically from an early age.", "Before entering school in 1848, he had taught himself how to read and write.", "He completed secondary education in 1862, having excelled in science and math.At the age of 19, in 1862, Koch entered the University of Göttingen to study natural science.", "He took up mathematics, physics and botany.", "He was appointed assistant in the university's Pathological Museum.", "After three semesters, he decided to change his area of study to medicine, as he aspired to be a physician.", "During his fifth semester at the medical school, Jacob Henle, an anatomist who had published a theory of contagion in 1840, asked him to participate in his research project on uterine nerve structure.", "This research won him a research prize from the university and enabled him to briefly study under Rudolf Virchow, who was at the time considered as \"Germany's most renowned physician.\"", "In his sixth semester, Koch began to research at the Physiological Institute, where he studied the secretion of succinic acid, which is a signaling molecule that is also involved in the metabolism of the mitochondria.", "This would eventually form the basis of his dissertation.", "In January 1866, he graduated from the medical school, earning honours of the highest distinction, ''maxima cum laude''." ], [ "Career", "After graduation in 1866, Koch briefly worked as an assistant in the General Hospital of Hamburg.", "In October that year he moved to Idiot's Hospital of Langenhagen, near Hanover, as a general physician.", "In 1868, he moved to Neimegk and then to Rakwitz in 1869.As the Franco-Prussian War started in 1870, he enlisted in the German army as a volunteer surgeon in 1871 to support the war effort.", "He was discharged a year later and was appointed as a district physician (''Kreisphysikus'') in Wollstein in Prussian Posen (now Wolsztyn, Poland).", "As his family settled there, his wife gave him a microscope as a birthday gift.", "With the microscope, he set up a private laboratory and started his career in microbiology.Koch began conducting research on microorganisms in a laboratory connected to his patient examination room.", "His early research in this laboratory yielded one of his major contributions to the field of microbiology, as he developed the technique of growing bacteria.", "Furthermore, he managed to isolate and grow selected pathogens in a pure laboratory culture.", "His discovery of the anthrax bacillus (later named ''Bacillus anthracis'') hugely impressed Ferdinand Julius Cohn, professor at the University of Breslau (now the University of Wrocław), who helped him publish the discovery in 1876.Cohn had established the Institute of Plant Physiology and invited Koch to demonstrate his new bacterium there in 1877.Koch was transferred to Breslau as district physician in 1879.A year after, he left for Berlin when he was appointed a government advisor at the Imperial Health Office, where he worked from 1880 to 1885.Following his discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, he was promoted to ''Geheimer Regierungsrat'', a senior executive position, in June 1882.In 1885, Koch received two appointments as an administrator and professor at Berlin University.", "He became Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine.", "In 1891, he relinquished his professorship and became a director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (now the Robert Koch Institute) which consisted of a clinical division and beds for the division of clinical research.", "For this he accepted harsh conditions.", "The Prussian Ministry of Health insisted after the 1890 scandal with tuberculin, which Koch had discovered and intended as a remedy for tuberculosis, that any of Koch's inventions would unconditionally belong to the government and he would not be compensated.", "Koch lost the right to apply for patent protection.", "In 1906, he moved to East Africa to research a cure for trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).", "He established the Bugula research camp where up to 1000 people a day were treated with the experimental drug Atoxyl." ], [ "Scientific contributions", "===Techniques in bacteria study===Robert Koch made two important developments in microscopy; he was the first to use an oil immersion lens and a condenser that enabled smaller objects to be seen.", "In addition, he was also the first to effectively use photography (microphotography) for microscopic observation.", "He introduced the \"bedrock methods\" of bacterial staining using methylene blue and Bismarck (Vesuvin) brown dye.", "In an attempt to grow bacteria, Koch began to use solid nutrients such as potato slices.", "Through these initial experiments, Koch observed individual colonies of identical, pure cells.", "He found that potato slices were not suitable media for all organisms, and later began to use nutrient solutions with gelatin.", "However, he soon realized that gelatin, like potato slices, was not the optimal medium for bacterial growth, as it did not remain solid at 37 °C, the ideal temperature for growth of most human pathogens.", "And also many bacteria can hydrolyze gelatin making it a liquid.", "As suggested to him by his post-doctoral assistant Walther Hesse, who got the idea from his wife Fanny Hesse, in 1881, Koch started using agar to grow and isolate pure cultures.", "Agar is a polysaccharide that remains solid at 37 °C, is not degraded by most bacteria, and results in a stable transparent medium.==== Development of Petri dish ====Koch's booklet published in 1881 titled \"''Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen''\" (''Methods for the Study of Pathogenic Organisms'') has been known as the \"Bible of Bacteriology.\"", "In it he described a novel method of using glass slide with agar to grow bacteria.", "The method involved pouring a liquid agar on to the glass slide and then spreading a thin layer of gelatin over.", "The gelatin made the culture medium solidify, in which bacterial samples could be spread uniformly.", "The whole bacterial culture was then put in a glass plate together with a small wet paper.", "Koch named this container as ''feuchte Kammer'' (moist chamber).", "The typical chamber was a circular glass dish 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm in height and had a lid to prevent contamination.", "The glass plate and the transparent culture media made observation of the bacterial growth easy.Koch publicly demonstrated his plating method at the Seventh International Medical Congress in London in August 1881.There, Louis Pasteur exclaimed, ''\"C'est un grand progrès, Monsieur''!\"", "(\"What a great progress, Sir!\")", "It was using Koch's microscopy and agar-plate culture method that his students discovered new bacteria.", "Friedrich Loeffler discovered the bacteria of glanders (''Burkholderia mallei'') in 1882 and diphtheria (''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'') in 1884; and Georg Theodor August Gaffky, the bacterium of typhoid (''Salmonella enterica'') in 1884.Koch's assistant Julius Richard Petri developed an improved method and published it in 1887 as \"''Eine kleine Modification des Koch’schen Plattenverfahrens''\" (A minor modification of the plating technique of Koch).", "The culture plate was given an eponymous name Petri dish.", "It is often asserted that Petri developed a new culture plate, but this was not so.", "He simply discarded the use of glass plate and instead used the circular glass dish directly, not just as moist chamber, but as the main culture container.", "This further reduced chances of contaminations.", "It would also have been appropriate if the name \"Koch dish\" had been given.===Anthrax===Robert Koch is widely known for his work with anthrax, discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to be ''Bacillus anthracis''.", "He published the discovery in a booklet as \"''Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, Begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis''\" (''The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis'') in 1876 while working at in Wöllstein.", "His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacterium marked the first photography of a bacterium.", "He discovered the formation of spores in anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions.", "However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease.", "To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope.", "His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea of spontaneous generation and supporting the germ theory of disease.===Tuberculosis===Koch's drawing of tuberculosis bacilli in 1882 (from ''Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose'')During his time as the government advisor with the Imperial Health Agency in Berlin in the 1880s, Koch became interested in tuberculosis research.", "At the time, it was widely believed that tuberculosis was an inherited disease.", "However Koch was convinced that the disease was caused by a bacterium and was infectious.", "In 1882, he published his findings on tuberculosis, in which he reported the causative agent of the disease to be the slow-growing ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis''.", "He published the discovery as \"''Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose''\" (''The Etiology of Tuberculosis''), and presented before the German Physiological Society at Berlin on 24 March 1882.Koch said,When the cover-glasses were exposed to this staining fluid methylene blue mixed with potassium hydroxide for 24 hours, very fine rod-like forms became apparent in the tubercular mass for the first time, having, as further observations showed, the power of multiplication and of spore formation and hence belonging to the same group of organisms as the anthrax bacillus...", "Microscopic examination then showed that only the previously blue-stained cell nuclei and detritus became brown, while the tubercle bacilli remained a beautiful blue.There was no particular reaction to this announcement.", "Eminent scientists such as Rudolf Virchow remained skeptical.", "Virchow clung to his theory that all diseases are due to faulty cellular activities.", "On the other hand, Paul Ehrlich later recollected that this moment was his \"single greatest scientific experience.\"", "Koch expanded the report and published under the same title as a booklet in 1884, in which he concluded that the discovery of tuberculosis bacterium fulfilled the three principles, eventually known as Koch's postulates, which were formulated by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler in 1883, saying:All these factors together allow me to conclude that the bacilli present in the tuberculous lesions do not only accompany tuberculosis, but rather cause it.", "These bacilli are the true agents of tuberculosis.===Cholera===Photograph of Koch (third from the right) and other members of the German Cholera Commission in Egypt, 1884Koch (on the microscope) and his colleague Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer (standing) investigating cholera outbreak in Bombay, India.", "In August 1883, the German government sent a medical team led by Koch to Alexandria, Egypt, to investigate a cholera epidemic there.", "Koch soon found that the intestinal mucosa of people who died of cholera always had bacterial infection, yet could not confirm whether the bacteria were the causative pathogens.", "As the outbreak in Egypt declined, he was transferred to Calcutta (now Kolkata) India, where there was a more severe outbreak.", "He soon found that the river Ganges was the source of cholera.", "He performed autopsies of almost 100 bodies, and found in each bacterial infection.", "He identified the same bacteria from water tanks, linking the source of the infection.", "He isolated the bacterium in pure culture on 7 January 1884.He subsequently confirmed that the bacterium was a new species, and described as \"a little bent, like a comma.\"", "His experiment using fresh blood samples indicated that the bacterium could kill red blood cells, and he hypothesized that some sort of poison was used by the bacterium to cause the disease.", "In 1959, Indian scientist Sambhu Nath De discovered this poison, the cholera toxin.", "Koch reported his discovery to the German Secretary of State for the Interior on 2 February, and published it in the ''Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift'' (''German Medical Weekly'') the following month.Although Koch was convinced that the bacterium was the cholera pathogen, he could not entirely establish a critical evidence the bacterium produced the symptoms in healthy subjects (following Koch's postulates).", "His experiment on animals using his pure bacteria culture did not cause the disease, and correctly explained that animals are immune to human pathogen.", "The bacterium was then known as \"the comma bacillus\", and scientifically as ''Bacillus comma''.", "It was later realised that the bacterium was already described by an Italian physician Filippo Pacini in 1854, and was also observed by the Catalan physician Joaquim Balcells i Pascual around the same time.", "But they failed to identify the bacterium as the causative agent of cholera.", "Koch's colleague Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer correctly identified the comma bacillus as Pacini's ''vibrioni'' and renamed it as ''Vibrio cholera'' in 1896.=== Tuberculosis treatment and tuberculin ===Koch gave much of his research attention on tuberculosis throughout his career.", "After medical expeditions to various parts of the world, he again focussed on tuberculosis from the mid-1880s.", "By that time the Imperial Health Office was carrying out a project for disinfection of sputum of tuberculosis patients.", "Koch experimented with arsenic and creosote as possible disinfectants.", "These chemicals and other available drugs did not work.", "His report in 1883 also mentioned a failed experiment on an attempt to make tuberculosis vaccine.", "By 1888, Koch turned his attention to synthetic dyes as antibacterial chemicals.", "He developed a method for examining antibacterial activity by mixing the gelatin-based culture media with a yellow dye, auramin.", "His notebook indicates that by February 1890, he tested hundreds of compounds.", "In one of such tests, he found that an extract from the tuberculosis bacterium culture dissolved in glycerine could cure tuberculosis in guinea pigs.", "Based on a series of experiments from April to July 1891, he could conclude that the extract did not kill the tuberculosis bacterium, but destroyed (by necrosis) the infected tissues, thereby depriving bacterial growth.", "He made a vague announcement in August 1890 at the Tenth International Medical Congress in Berlin, saying,In a communication which I made a few months ago to the International Medical Congress in London in 1881, I described a substance of which the result is to make laboratory animals insensitive to inoculation of tubercle bacilli, and in the case of already infected animals, to bring the tuberculous process to a halt.I can tell … that much, that guinea pigs, which are highly susceptible to the disease tuberculosis, no longer react upon inoculation with tubercle virus bacterium when treated with that substance and that in guinea pigs, which are sick (with tuberculosis), the pathological process can be brought to a complete standstill.By November 1890, Koch was able to show that the extract was effective in humans as well.", "Many patients and doctors went to Berlin to get Koch's remedy.", "But his experiments showed that tuberculosis infected guinea pigs developed severe symptoms when the substance was inoculated.", "The severity was more so in humans.", "This development of severe immune response, which is now known to be due to hypersensitivity, is known as the \"Koch phenomenon.\"", "The chemical nature was not known, and among several independent experiments done by the next year, only his son-in-law, Eduard Pfuhl, was able to reproduce similar results.", "It nevertheless became a medical sensation, and the unknown substance was referred to as \"Koch's Lymph.\"", "Koch published his experiments in the 15 January 1891 issue of ''Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift'', and ''The British Medical Journal'' immediately published the English version simultaneously.", "The English version was also reproduced in ''Nature'', and ''The Lancet'' in the same month.", "''The Lancet'' presented it as \"glad tidings of great joy.\"", "Koch simply referred to the medication as \"brownish, transparent fluid.\"", "Josephs Pohl-Pincus had used the name tuberculin in 1844 for tuberculosis culture media, and Koch subsequently adopted as \"tuberkulin.", "\"The first report on the clinical trial in 1891 was disappointing.", "By then 1061 patients with tuberculosis of internal organs and of 708 patients with tuberculosis of external tissues were given the treatment.", "An attempt to use tuberculin as a therapeutic drug is regarded as Koch's \"greatest failure.\"", "With it his reputation greatly waned.", "But he devoted the rest of his life trying to make tuberculin as a usable medication.", "His discovery was not a total failure, the substance is today used for hypersensitivity test for tuberculosis patients.=== Acquired immunity ===Koch observed the phenomenon of acquired immunity.", "On 26 December 1900, he arrived as part of an expedition to German New Guinea, which was then a protectorate of the German Reich.", "Koch serially examined the Papuan people, the indigenous inhabitants, and their blood samples and noticed they contained ''Plasmodium'' parasites, the cause of malaria, but their bouts of malaria were mild or could not even be noticed, i.e.", "were subclinical.", "On the contrary, German settlers and Chinese workers, who had been brought to New Guinea, fell sick immediately.", "The longer they had stayed in the country, however, the more they too seemed to develop a resistance against it.=== Koch's postulates ===During his time as government advisor, Koch published a report on how he discovered and experimentally showed tuberculosis bacterium as the pathogen of tuberculosis.", "He described the importance of pure cultures in isolating disease-causing organisms and explained the necessary steps to obtain these cultures, methods which are summarized in Koch's four postulates.", "Koch's discovery of the causative agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of postulates which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases.", "These postulates, which not only outlined a method for linking cause and effect of an infectious disease but also established the significance of laboratory culture of infectious agents, became the \"gold standard\" in infectious diseases.Although Koch worked out the principles, he did not formulate the postulates, which were introduced by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler.", "Loeffler, reporting his discovery of diphtheria bacillus in 1883, stated three postulates as follows::1.The organism must always be present in every case of the disease, but not in healthy individuals.", ":2.The organism must be isolated from a diseased individual and grown in pure culture.", ":3.The pure culture must cause the same disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible individuals.The fourth postulate was added by an American plant pathologist Erwin Frink Smith in 1905, and is stated as::4.The same pathogen must be isolated from the experimentally infected individuals." ], [ "Personal life", "In July 1867, Koch married Emma (Emmy) Adolfine Josephine Fraatz, and the two had a daughter, Gertrude, in 1868.Their marriage ended after 26 years in 1893, and later that same year, he married actress Hedwig Freiberg (1872–1945).On 9 April 1910, Koch suffered a heart attack and never made a complete recovery.", "On 27 May, three days after giving a lecture on his tuberculosis research at the Prussian Academy of Sciences, Koch died in Baden-Baden at the age of 66.Following his death, the Institute named its establishment after him in his honour.", "He was irreligious." ], [ "Awards and honors", " In 1938 the National Tuberculosis Association paid tribute to Koch and issued a U.S.Christmas Seal.", "Christmas seals were and continue to be sold as a way of raising funds to fight tuberculosis.", "Statue of Koch at Robert-Koch-Platz (Robert Koch square) in Berlin Koch's name as it appears on the rightKoch was made a Knight Grand Cross in the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle on 19 November 1890, and was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1897.In 1905, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine \"for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis.\"", "In 1906, research on tuberculosis and tropical diseases won him the Order Pour le Merite and in 1908, the Robert Koch Medal, established to honour the greatest living physicians.", "Emperor Wilhelm I awarded him the Order of the Crown, 100,000 marks and appointment as Privy Imperial Councillor, Surgeon-General of Health Service, and Fellow of the Science Senate of Kaiser Wilhelm Society.Koch established the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin 1891.After his death it was renamed Robert Koch Institute in his honour.The World Health Organization observes \"World Tuberculosis Day\" every 24 March since 1982 to commemorate the day Koch discovered tuberculosis bacterium.Koch's name is one of 23 from the fields of hygiene and tropical medicine featured on the frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine building in Keppel Street, Bloomsbury.A large marble statue of Koch stands in a small park known as Robert Koch Platz, just north of the Charity Hospital, in the Mitte section of Berlin.", "His life was the subject of a 1939 German produced motion picture that featured Oscar winning actor Emil Jannings in the title role.", "On 10 December 2017, Google showed a Doodle in celebration of Koch's birthday.Koch and his relationship to Paul Ehrlich, who developed a mechanism to diagnose TB, were portrayed in the 1940 movie ''Dr.", "Ehrlich's Magic Bullet''." ], [ "Controversies", "=== Louis Pasteur ===At their first meeting at the Seventh International Medical Congress in London in August 1881, Koch and Pasteur were friendly towards each other.", "But the rest of their careers followed with scientific disputes.", "The conflict started when Koch interpreted his discovery of anthrax bacillus in 1876 as causality, that is, the germ caused the anthrax infections.", "Although his postulates were not yet formulated, he did not establish the bacterium as the cause of the disease: it was an inference.", "Pasteur therefore argued that Koch's discovery was not the full proof of causality, but Pasteur's anthrax vaccine developed in 1881 was.", "Koch published his conclusion in 1881 with a statement: \"anthrax never occurs without viable anthrax bacilli or spores.", "In my opinion no more conclusive proof can be given that anthrax bacilli are the true and only cause of anthrax,\" and that vaccination such as claimed by Pasteur would be impossible.", "To prove his vaccine, Pasteur sent his assistant Louis Thuillier to Germany for demonstration and disproved Koch's idea.", "They had a heated public debate at the International Congress for Hygiene in Geneva in 1882, where Koch criticised Pasteur's methods as \"unreliable,\" and claimed they \"are false and as such they inevitably lead to false conclusions.\"", "Koch later continued to attack Pasteur, saying, \"Pasteur is not a physician, and one cannot expect him to make sound judgments about pathological processes and the symptoms of disease.", "\"=== Tuberculin ===When Koch discovered tuberculin in 1890 as a medication for tuberculosis, he kept the experiment secret and avoided disclosing the source.", "It was only after a year under public pressure that he publicly announced the experiment and the source.", "Clinical trials with tuberculin were disastrous and complete failures.", "Rudolf Virchow's autopsy report of 21 subjects treated with tuberculin to the Berlin Medical Society on 7 January 1891 revealed that instead of healing tuberculosis, the subjects died because of the treatment.", "One week later, Koch publicised that the drug was a glycerine extract of a pure cultivation of the tuberculosis bacilli.", "The German official report in late 1891 declared that tuberculosis was not cured with tuberculin.", "From this moment onwards, Koch's prestige fell apart.", "The reason for his initial secrecy was due to an ambition for monetary benefits for the new drug, and with that establishment of his own research institute.", "Since 1885, he had tried to leave government service and create an independent state-run institute of his own.", "Following the disappointment, he was released from the University of Berlin and forced to work as Director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases, a newly established institute, in 1891.He was prohibited from working on tuberculin and from claim for patent rights in any of his subsequent works.=== Human and cattle tuberculosis ===Koch initially believed that human (''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'') and cattle tuberculosis bacilli (now called ''Mycobacterium bovis'') were different pathogens when he made the discovery in 1882.Two years later, he revoked that position and asserted that the two bacilli were the same type.", "This later assumption was taken as a fact in veterinary practice.", "Based on it, legislations were made in US for inspection of meat and milk.", "In 1898, an American veterinarian Theobald Smith published a detailed comparative study and found that the tuberculosis bacteria are different based on their structure, growth patterns, and pathogenicity.", "In addition he also discovered that there were variations in each type.", "In his conclusion, he made two important points:# Human tuberculosis bacillus cannot infect cattle.# But cattle bacillus may infect humans since it is very pathogenic.By that time, there was evidence that cattle tuberculosis was transmitted to humans through meat and milk.", "Upon these reports, Koch conceded that the two bacilli were different but still advocated that cattle tuberculosis was of no health concern.", "Speaking at the Third International Congress on Tuberculosis, held in London in July 1901, he said that cattle tuberculosis is not dangerous to humans and there is no need for medical attention.", "He said, \"I therefore consider it unnecessary to take any measures against this form of TB.", "The fight against TB clearly has to concentrate on the human ''bacillus.''\"", "Chair of the congress, Joseph Lister reprimanded Koch and explained the medical evidences of cattle tuberculosis in humans.=== The 1902 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ===The Nobel Committee selected the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to be awarded for the discovery of the transmission of malaria.", "But it could not make the final decision on whom to give it to — the British surgeon Ronald Ross or the Italian biologist Giovanni Battista Grassi.", "Ross had discovered that the human malarial parasite was carried by certain mosquitoes in 1897, and the next year that bird malaria could be transmitted from infected to healthy birds by the bite of a mosquito.", "Grassi had discovered ''Plasmodium vivax'' and the bird malaria parasite, and towards the end of 1898 the transmission of ''Plasmodium falciparum'' between humans through mosquitoes ''Anopheles claviger''.", "To the surprise of the Nobel Committee, the two nominees exchanged polemic arguments against each other publicly justifying the importance of their own works.", "Robert Koch was then appointed as a \"neutral arbitrator\" to make the final decision.", "To his disadvantage, Grassi had criticised Koch on his malaria research in 1898 during an investigation of the epidemic, while Ross had established a cordial relationship with Koch.", "Ross was selected for the award, as Koch \"threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Weindling, Paul.", "\"Scientific elites and laboratory organization in fin de siècle Paris and Berlin: The Pasteur Institute and Robert Koch’s Institute for Infectious Diseases compared,\" in Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams, eds.", "''The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine'' (Cambridge University Press, 1992) pp: 170–88.", "* Christoph, Hans Gerhard: Robert Koch \" Trias deutschen Forschergeistes \" Naturheilpraxis / Pflaum- Verlag / Munich 70.Jahrgang December 2017 pages 90–93" ], [ "External links", "* Robert Koch Institute* Audio version of this page* including the Nobel Lecture on 12 December 1905 ''The Current State of the Struggle against Tuberculosis''* MPIWG-Berlin, Robert Koch Biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science* Biography on the Science Museum web site * Musoptin.com, original microscope out of the laboratory Robert Koch used in Wollstein (1877)* Musoptin.com, microscope objectives: as they were used by Robert Koch for his first photos of microorganisms (1877–1878)* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hogshead" ], [ "Introduction", "A hogshead in relation to other barrelsA '''hogshead''' (abbreviated \"hhd\", plural \"hhds\") is a large cask of liquid (or, less often, of a food commodity).", "More specifically, it refers to a specified volume, measured in either imperial or US customary measures, primarily applied to alcoholic beverages, such as wine, ale, or cider." ], [ "Etymology", "United States revenue stamp (proof) for the $2 tax on one hogshead of beer in 1867.English philologist Walter William Skeat (1835–1912) noted the origin is to be found in the name for a cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in Germanic languages, in Dutch ''oxhooft'' (modern ''okshoofd''), Danish ''oxehoved'', Old Swedish ''oxhuvud'', etc.", "The ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' of 1911 conjectured that the word should therefore be \"oxhead\", \"hogshead\" being a mere corruption." ], [ "Varieties and standardisation", "\"Sugar hogsheads\" from ''Ten Views in the Island of Antigua'', W. Clark, 1823, plate X.A '''tobacco hogshead''' was used in British and American colonial times to transport and store tobacco.", "It was a very large wooden barrel.", "A standardized hogshead measured long and in diameter at the head (at least , depending on the width in the middle).", "Fully packed with tobacco, it weighed about .A ''' hogshead''' in Britain contains about .The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (OED) notes that the hogshead was first standardized by an act of Parliament (2 Hen.", "6.c.", "14) in 1423, though the standards continued to vary by locality and content.", "For example, the OED cites an 1897 edition of ''Whitaker's Almanack'', which specified the gallons of wine in a hogshead varying most particularly across fortified wines: claret/Madeira , port , sherry .", "The ''American Heritage Dictionary'' claims that a hogshead can consist of anything from (presumably) .", "A hogshead of Madeira wine was approximately equal to 45–48 gallons (0.205–0.218 m3).", "A hogshead of brandy was approximately equal to 56–61 gallons (0.255–0.277) m3.Eventually, a hogshead of wine came to be , while a hogshead of beer or ale is 54 gallons (250 L if old beer/ale gallons, 245 L if imperial).A hogshead was also used as unit of measurement for sugar in Louisiana for most of the 19th century.", "Plantations were listed in sugar schedules by the number of hogsheads of sugar or molasses produced.", "Used for sugar in the 18th & 19th centuries in the British West Indies, a hogshead weighed on average 16 cwt / 812kg.", "A hogshead was also used for the measurement of herring fished for sardines in Blacks Harbour, New Brunswick and Cornwall." ], [ "Charts" ], [ "See also", "*English units of wine casks" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Honda" ], [ "Introduction", " is a Japanese public multinational conglomerate manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles, and battery-powered equipment, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, reaching a production of 400 million by the end of 2019.It is also the world's largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines measured by volume, producing more than 14 million internal combustion engines each year.", "Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001.In 2015, Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world.Honda was the first Japanese automobile manufacturer to release a dedicated luxury brand, Acura, in 1986.Aside from their core automobile and motorcycle businesses, Honda also manufactures garden equipment, marine engines, personal watercraft, power generators, and other products.", "Since 1986, Honda has been involved with artificial intelligence/robotics research and released their ASIMO robot in 2000.They have also ventured into aerospace with the establishment of GE Honda Aero Engines in 2004 and the Honda HA-420 HondaJet, which began production in 2012.Honda has two joint-ventures in China: Dongfeng Honda and GAC Honda.In 2013, Honda invested about 5.7% (US$6.8 billion) of its revenues into research and development.", "Also in 2013, Honda became the first Japanese automaker to be a net exporter from the United States, exporting 108,705 Honda and Acura models, while importing only 88,357." ], [ "History", "Honda's foray into four-wheelers started with the alt=Throughout his life, Honda's founder, Soichiro Honda (1906–1991), had an interest in automobiles.", "He worked as a mechanic at the Art Shokai garage, where he tuned cars and entered them in races.", "In 1937, with financing from his acquaintance Kato Shichirō, Honda founded Tōkai Seiki (Eastern Sea Precision Machine Company) to make piston rings working out of the Art Shokai garage.", "After initial failures, Tōkai Seiki won a contract to supply piston rings to Toyota, but lost the contract due to the poor quality of their products.", "After attending engineering school without graduating, and visiting factories around Japan to better understand Toyota's quality control processes known as \"Five whys\", by 1941 Honda was able to mass-produce piston rings acceptable to Toyota, using an automated process that could employ even unskilled wartime laborers.Tōkai Seiki was placed under the control of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry (called the Ministry of Munitions after 1943) at the start of World War II, and Soichiro Honda was demoted from president to senior managing director after Toyota took a 40% stake in the company.", "Honda also aided the war effort by assisting other companies in automating the production of military aircraft propellers.", "The relationships Honda cultivated with personnel at Toyota, Nakajima Aircraft Company and the Imperial Japanese Navy would be instrumental in the postwar period.", "A US B-29 bomber attack destroyed Tōkai Seiki's Yamashita plant in 1944, and the Itawa plant collapsed on 13 January 1945 Mikawa earthquake.", "Soichiro Honda sold the salvageable remains of the company to Toyota after the war for ¥450,000 and used the proceeds to found the Honda Technical Research Institute in October 1946.With a staff of 12 men working in a shack, they built and sold improvised motorized bicycles, using a supply of 500 two-stroke ''50 cc'' Tohatsu war surplus radio generator engines.", "When the engines ran out, Honda began building their own copy of the Tohatsu engine, and supplying these to customers to attach to their bicycles.", "This was the Honda A-Type, nicknamed the Bata Bata for the sound the engine made.", "In 1949, the Honda Technical Research Institute was liquidated for 1,000,000, or about 5,000 today; these funds were used to incorporate Honda Motor Co., Ltd. At about the same time Honda hired engineer Kihachiro Kawashima, and Takeo Fujisawa who provided indispensable business and marketing expertise to complement Soichiro Honda's technical bent.", "The close partnership between Soichiro Honda and Fujisawa lasted until they stepped down together in October 1973.The first complete motorcycle with both the frame and engine made by Honda was the 1949 D-Type, the first Honda to go by the name Dream.", "In 1961, Honda achieved its first Grand Prix victories and World Championships in the 125 cc and 250 cc categories.", "Honda Motor Company grew in a short time to become the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles by 1964.The first production automobile from Honda was the T360 mini pick-up truck, which went on sale in August 1963.Powered by a small 356 cc straight-4 gasoline engine, it was classified under the cheaper Kei car tax bracket.", "The second production car from Honda was the S500 sports car, which followed the T360 into production in October 1963.Its chain-driven rear wheels pointed to Honda's motorcycle origins.Over the next few decades, Honda worked to expand its product line, operations and exports to numerous countries around the world.", "In 1986, Honda introduced the successful Acura brand to the American market in an attempt to gain ground in the luxury vehicle market.", "The year 1991 saw the introduction of the Honda NSX supercar, the first all-aluminum monocoque vehicle that incorporated a mid-engine V6 with variable-valve timing.In 1990, CEO Tadashi Kume was succeeded by Nobuhiko Kawamoto.", "Kawamoto was selected over Shoichiro Irimajiri, who oversaw the successful establishment of Honda of America Manufacturing, Inc. in Marysville, Ohio.", "Irimajiri and Kawamoto shared a friendly rivalry within Honda; owing to health issues, Irimajiri would resign in 1992.Following the death of Soichiro Honda and the departure of Irimajiri, Honda found itself quickly being outpaced in product development by other Japanese automakers and was caught off-guard by the truck and sport utility vehicle boom of the 1990s, all which took a toll on the profitability of the company.", "Japanese media reported in 1992 and 1993 that Honda was at serious risk of an unwanted and hostile takeover by Mitsubishi Motors, which at the time was a larger automaker by volume and was flush with profits from its successful Pajero and Diamante models.Kawamoto acted quickly to change Honda's corporate culture, rushing through market-driven product development that resulted in recreational vehicles such as the first-generation Odyssey and the CR-V, and a refocusing away from some of the numerous sedans and coupes that were popular with the company's engineers but not with the buying public.", "The most shocking change to Honda came when Kawamoto ended the company's successful participation in Formula One after the 1992 season, citing costs in light of the takeover threat from Mitsubishi as well as the desire to create a more environmentally friendly company image.The Honda Aircraft Company as established in 2006 as a wholly owned subsidiary to manufacture and sell the HondaJet family of aircraft.", "The first deliveries to customers began in December 2015.On 23 February 2015, Honda announced that CEO and President Takanobu Ito would step down and be replaced by Takahiro Hachigo in June of that year; additional retirements by senior managers and directors were expected.In October 2019, Honda was reported to be in talks with Hitachi to merge the two companies' car parts businesses, creating a components supplier with almost $17 billion in annual sales.In January 2020, Honda announced that it would be withdrawing employees working in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "On 23 March 2020 due to the global spread of the virus, Honda became the first major automaker with operations in the US to suspend production in its factories.", "It resumed automobile, engine and transmission production at its US plants on 11 May 2020.Honda and General Motors announced in September 2020 a North American alliance to begin in 2021.According to The Detroit Free Press, \"The proposed alliance will include sharing a range of vehicles, to be sold under each company’s distinct brands, as well as cooperation in purchasing, research and development, and connected services.", "\"In 2021, Honda announced its intention to become the world's first carmaker to sell a vehicle with level 3 self-driving technology.In March 2022, Honda announced it would develop and build electric vehicles in a joint venture with Sony.", "The latter is set to provide its imaging, sensing, network and other technologies while Honda would be responsible for the car manufacturing processes.", "The venture is set to fully launch later in 2022 with the release of first cars scheduled for 2025.In 2023, Honda announced a deal with American car company General Motors to produce cars using a new hydrogen fuel system.", "The aim is to ramp up the hydrogen powered cells in their Electric vehicles as well as trucks, construction machinery, and power stations.In 2023, Honda recalled 500,000 vehicles in the United States and Canada due to an issue with seat belts in the car not latching correctly.", "Among the models recalled were the 2017-2020 CR-V, the 2018 and 2019 Accord, the 2018-2020 Odyssey, the 2019 Insight, and the Acura RDX from 2019 and 2020.According to the recall, the seat belts in the front seats would break open on impact increasing the risk of injury in a crash.On 31 December 2023, Honda announced a global recall of about 4.5 million vehicles, including 2.54 million in the U.S., over fuel pump failures, following earlier recalls in 2021 and 2020 for the same issue." ], [ "Senior leadership", "* ''Chairman:'' Toshiaki Mikoshiba (since April 2019) * ''President and Chief Executive'': Toshihiro Mibe (since April 2021)" ], [ "Corporate profile and divisions", "Honda is headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.", "Their shares trade on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange, as well as exchanges in Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, Kyoto, Fukuoka, London, Paris, and Switzerland.The company has assembly plants around the globe.", "These plants are located in China, the United States, Pakistan, Canada, England, Japan, Belgium, Brazil, México, New Zealand, Malaysia, Indonesia, India, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Turkey, Taiwan, Perú and Argentina.", "As of July 2010, 89% of Honda and Acura vehicles sold in the United States were built in North American plants, up from 82.2% a year earlier.", "This shields profits from the yen's advance to a 15-year high against the dollar.American Honda Motor Company is based in Torrance, California.", "Honda Racing Corporation (HRC) is Honda's motorsport division.", "Honda Canada Inc. is headquartered in Markham, Ontario, it was originally planned to be located in Richmond Hill, Ontario, but delays led them to look elsewhere.", "Their manufacturing division, Honda of Canada Manufacturing, is based in Alliston, Ontario.", "Honda has also created joint ventures around the world, such as Honda Siel Cars and Hero Honda Motorcycles in India, Guangzhou Honda and Dongfeng Honda in China, Boon Siew Honda in Malaysia and Honda Atlas in Pakistan.", "The company also runs a business innovation initiative called '''Honda Xcelerator''', in order to build relationships with innovators, partner with Silicon Valley startups and entrepreneurs, and help other companies work on prototypes.", "Xcelerator had worked with reportedly 40 companies as of January 2019.Xcelerator and a developer studio are part of the '''Honda Innovations''' group, formed in Spring 2017 and based in Mountain View, California.", "Through Honda Mobilityland, Honda also operate the Suzuka Circuit and Twin Ring Motegi racing tracks.Following the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan, Honda announced plans to halve production at its UK plants.", "The decision was made to put staff at the Swindon plant on a 2-day week until the end of May as the manufacturer struggled to source supplies from Japan.", "It's thought around 22,500 cars were produced during this period.For the fiscal year 2018, Honda reported earnings of US$9.534 billion, with an annual revenue of US$138.250 billion, an increase of 6.2% over the previous fiscal cycle.", "Honda's shares traded at over $32 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at US$50.4 billion in October 2018.YearRevenuein mil.", "US$Net incomein mil.", "US$Total assetsin mil.", "US$Employees200577,8514,37683,853200689,1725,37395,145200799,7845,331108,329167,2312008108,0265,400113,540178,9602009100,112 1,370118,189181,876201092,655 3,052125,594176,8152011107,2426,762138,851179,0602012100,9412,820149,616187,0942013119,5234,443164,988190,3382014118,4255,741156,220198,3682015121,286 4,636167,675204,7302016121,1902,860151,303208,3992017130,1935,734176,311211,9152018138,2509,534174,143215,638+ Honda's Net Sales and Other Operating Revenue by Geographical Regions in 2007 Geographic Region Total revenue (in millions of ¥) Japan 1,681,190 North America 5,980,876 Europe 1,236,757 Asia 1,283,154 Others 905,163" ], [ "Products", "===Automobiles===Eleventh-generation Honda AccordEleventh-generation Honda CivicSixth-generation Honda CR-VHonda's automotive manufacturing ambitions can be traced back to 1963, with the Honda T360, a Kei truck built for the Japanese market.", "This was followed by the two-door roadster, the Honda S500 also introduced in 1963.In 1965, Honda built a two-door commercial delivery van, named the Honda L700.Honda's first four-door sedan was not the Honda Accord, but the air-cooled, four-cylinder, gasoline-powered Honda 1300 which was introduced in 1969.The Civic was a hatchback that gained wide popularity internationally, but it wasn't the first two-door hatchback built by Honda.", "That was the Honda N360, a Kei car that was adapted for international sale as the N600.The Civic, which appeared in 1972 and replaced the N600 also had a smaller sibling that replaced the air-cooled N360, called the Honda Life, which was water-cooled.The Honda Life represented Honda's efforts in competing in the ''kei'' car segment, offering sedan, delivery van and small pick-up platforms on a shared chassis.", "The Life Step Van had a novel approach that, while not initially a commercial success, appeared to be an influence to vehicles with the front passengers sitting behind the engine, a large cargo area with a flat roof and a liftgate installed in back, and utilizing a transversely installed engine with a front-wheel-drive powertrain.As Honda entered into automobile manufacturing in the late 1960s where Japanese manufacturers such as Toyota and Nissan had been making cars since before WWII, Honda instilled a sense of doing things a little differently than its Japanese competitors.", "Its mainstay products like the Accord and Civic (with the exception of its USA-market 1993–97 Passport which was part of a vehicle exchange program with Isuzu (part of the Subaru-Isuzu joint venture)) have always employed Front-wheel drive powertrain implementation, which is currently a long-held Honda tradition.", "Honda also installed new technologies into their products, first as optional equipment, then later standard, like anti-lock brakes, speed-sensitive power steering, and multi-port fuel injection in the early 1980s.", "This desire to be the first to try new approaches is evident with the creation of the first Japanese luxury chain Acura, and was also evident with the all-aluminum, mid-engined sports car, the Honda NSX, which also introduced variable valve timing technology, which Honda calls VTEC.The Civic family is a line of compact cars developed and manufactured by Honda.", "In North America, the Civic is the second-longest continuously running nameplate from a Japanese manufacturer; only its perennial rival, the Toyota Corolla, introduced in 1966, has been in production longer.", "The Civic, along with the Accord and Prelude, comprised Honda's vehicles sold in North America until the 1990s, when the model lineup was expanded.", "Having gone through several generational changes, the Civic has become larger and more upmarket, and it currently slots between the Fit and Accord.Honda's first hybrid electric vehicle was the 1999 Insight.", "The Civic was first offered as a hybrid in 2001, and the Accord followed in 2004.In 2008, the company launched the Clarity, a fuel cell car.In 2008, Honda increased global production to meet the demand for small cars and hybrids in the U.S. and emerging markets.", "The company shuffled U.S. production to keep factories busy and boost car output while building fewer minivans and sport utility vehicles as light truck sales fell.Its first entrance into the pickup segment, the light-duty Ridgeline, won Truck of the Year from ''Motor Trend'' magazine in 2006.Also in 2006, the redesigned Civic won Car of the Year from the magazine, giving Honda a rare double win of Motor Trend honors.It is reported that Honda plans to increase hybrid sales in Japan to more than 20% of its total sales in the fiscal year 2011, from 14.8% in the previous year.Five of United States Environmental Protection Agency's top ten most fuel-efficient cars from 1984 to 2010 come from Honda, more than any other automakers.", "The five models are: 2000–2006 Honda Insight ( combined), 1986–1987 Honda Civic Coupe HF ( combined), 1994–1995 Honda Civic hatchback VX ( combined), 2006– Honda Civic Hybrid ( combined), and 2010– Honda Insight ( combined).", "The ACEEE has also rated the Civic GX as the greenest car in America for seven consecutive years.Honda currently builds vehicles in factories located in Japan, the United States of America, Canada, China, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Brazil, Indonesia, India, Thailand, Turkey, Argentina, Mexico, Taiwan, and the Philippines.===Motorcycles===Honda Gold Wing bikeHonda is the largest motorcycle manufacturer in Japan and has been since it started production in 1955.At its peak in 1982, Honda manufactured almost three million motorcycles annually.", "By 2006, this figure had been reduced to around 550,000 but was still higher than its three domestic competitors.In 2017, India became the largest motorcycle market for Honda.", "In India, Honda is leading in the scooters segment, with 59% market share.During the 1960s when it was a small manufacturer, Honda broke out of the Japanese motorcycle market and began exporting to the United States.", "Working with the advertising agency Grey Advertising, Honda created an innovative marketing campaign, using the slogan \"You meet the nicest people on a Honda.\"", "In contrast to the prevailing negative stereotypes of motorcyclists in America as tough, antisocial rebels, this campaign suggested that Honda motorcycles were made for the everyman.", "The campaign was hugely successful; the ads ran for three years, and by the end of 1963 alone, Honda had sold 90,000 motorcycles.Taking Honda's story as an archetype of the smaller manufacturer entering a new market already occupied by highly dominant competitors, the story of their market entry, and their subsequent huge success in the U.S. and around the world has been the subject of some academic controversy.", "Competing explanations have been advanced to explain Honda's strategy and the reasons for their success.The first of these explanations was put forward when, in 1975, the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) was commissioned by the UK government to write a report explaining why and how the British motorcycle industry had been out-competed by its Japanese competitors.", "The report concluded that the Japanese firms, including Honda, had sought a very high scale of production (they had made a large number of motorbikes) in order to benefit from economies of scale and learning curve effects.", "It blamed the decline of the British motorcycle industry on the failure of British managers to invest enough in their businesses to profit from economies of scale and scope.2004 Honda Super CubThe second explanation was offered in 1984 by Richard Pascale, who had interviewed the Honda executives responsible for the firm's entry into the U.S. market.", "As opposed to the tightly focused strategy of low cost and high scale that BCG accredited to Honda, Pascale found that their entry into the U.S. market was a story of \"miscalculation, serendipity, and organizational learning\" – in other words, Honda's success was due to the adaptability and hard work of its staff, rather than any long-term strategy.", "For example, Honda's initial plan on entering the US market was to compete in large motorcycles, around 300 cc.", "Honda's motorcycles in this class suffered performance and reliability problems when ridden the relatively long distances of the US highways.", "When the team found that the scooters they were using to get themselves around their U.S. base of San Francisco attracted positive interest from consumers they fell back on selling the Super Cub instead.The most recent school of thought on Honda's strategy was put forward by Gary Hamel and C. K. Prahalad in 1989.Creating the concept of core competencies with Honda as an example, they argued that Honda's success was due to its focus on leadership in the technology of internal combustion engines.", "For example, the high power-to-weight ratio engines Honda produced for its racing bikes provided technology and expertise which was transferable into mopeds.", "Honda's entry into the U.S. motorcycle market during the 1960s is used as a case study for teaching introductory strategy at business schools worldwide.===ATVs===Honda builds utility ATVs under models Recon, Rubicon, Rancher, Foreman and Rincon.", "Honda also builds sports ATVs under the models TRX 90X, TRX 250X, TRX 400x, TRX 450R and TRX 700.===Power equipment===A Honda Power EU70is power generatorPower equipment production started in 1953 with H-type engine (prior to motorcycles).Honda power equipment reached record sales in 2007 with 6.4 million units sold annually.", "By 2010 (Fiscal year ended 31 March) this figure had decreased to 4.7 million units.", "Cumulative production of power products has exceeded 85 million units annually (as of September 2008).Honda power equipment includes:===Engines===Honda Outboard motorsHonda engines powered the entire 33-car starting field of the 2010 Indianapolis 500 and for the fifth consecutive race, there were no engine-related retirements during the running of the Memorial Day Classic.In the 1980s Honda developed the GY6 engine for use in motor scooters.", "Although no longer manufactured by Honda, it's still commonly used in many Chinese, Korean and Taiwanese light vehicles.Honda, despite being known as an engine company, has never built a V8 engine for passenger vehicles.", "In the late 1990s, the company resisted considerable pressure from its American dealers for a V8 engine (which would have seen use in top-of-the-line Honda SUVs and Acuras), with American Honda reportedly sending one dealer a shipment of V8 beverages to silence them.", "Honda considered starting V8 production in the mid-2000s for larger Acura sedans, a new version of the high-end NSX sports car (which previously used DOHC V6 engines with VTEC to achieve its high power output) and possible future ventures into the American full-size truck and SUV segment for both the Acura and Honda brands, but this was canceled in late 2008, with Honda citing environmental and worldwide economic conditions as reasons for the termination of this project.===Robots===ASIMO at Expo 2005ASIMO is part of Honda's Research & Development robotics program.", "It's the eleventh in a line of successive builds starting in 1986 with Honda E0 moving through the ensuing Honda E series and the Honda P series.", "Weighing 54 kilograms and standing 130 centimeters tall, ASIMO resembles a small astronaut wearing a backpack, and can walk on two feet in a manner resembling human locomotion, at up to .", "ASIMO is the world's only humanoid robot able to ascend and descend stairs independently.", "However, human motions such as climbing stairs are difficult to mimic with a machine, which ASIMO has demonstrated by taking two plunges off a staircase.Honda's robot ASIMO (see below) as an R&D project brings together expertise to create a robot that walks, dances and navigates steps.2010 marks the year Honda developed a machine capable of reading a user's brainwaves to move ASIMO.", "The system uses a helmet covered with electroencephalography and near-infrared spectroscopy sensors that monitor electrical brainwaves and cerebral blood flow signals that alter slightly during the human thought process.", "The user thinks of one of the limited number of gestures it wants from the robot, which has been fitted with a Brain-Machine Interface.===Aircraft===Honda has also pioneered new technology in its HA-420 HondaJet, manufactured by its subsidiary Honda Aircraft Company, which allows new levels of reduced drag, increased aerodynamics and fuel efficiency thus reducing operating costs.===Mountain bikes===Honda has also built a downhill racing bicycle known as the Honda RN-01.It is not available for sale to the public.", "The bike has a gearbox, which replaces the standard derailleur found on most bikes.Honda has hired several people to pilot the bike, among them Greg Minnaar.", "The team is known as Team G Cross Honda." ], [ "Former products", "===Solar cells===Honda's solar cell subsidiary company Honda Soltec (Headquarters: Kikuchi-gun, Kumamoto; President and CEO: Akio Kazusa) started sales throughout Japan of thin-film solar cells for public and industrial use on October 24, 2008, after selling solar cells for residential use in October 2007.Honda announced in the end of October 2013 that Honda Soltec would cease business operations in the Spring of 2014 except for support for existing customers and the subsidiary would be dissolved." ], [ "Motorsports", "Honda has been active in motorsports, like Formula One, MotoGP and others, since the early years of the company.", "Since 2022, Honda's general motorsport activities have been managed by its motorsport subsidiary Honda Racing Corporation (HRC).", "Prior to 2022, Honda's motorcycle racing activities were run by HRC since it was founded in 1982, while its automobile racing activities were run as projects within the Honda Motor Company itself.", "Honda Performance Development (HPD) was established in 1993 as the company's North American motorsport subsidiary, and for 2024 HPD became Honda Racing Corporation USA (HRC US) to form a global motorsports organization.", "Honda also owns two Japanese race tracks, the Suzuka Circuit and Mobility Resort Motegi (formerly Twin Ring Motegi), which it established in 1962 and 1997, respectively, and which are managed by Honda Mobilityland.===Automobiles===Max Verstappen won the 2021 Formula One World Championship with a Honda power unit.Honda entered Formula One for the first time in 1964, just one year after starting the production of road cars, making both engine and chassis.", "Honda achieved their first victory at the 1965 Mexican Grand Prix, and another win at the 1967 Italian Grand Prix, before they withdrew after the 1968 season.", "They returned to the sport in 1983 as an engine manufacturer, remaining until 1992.This period saw Honda dominate Grand Prix racing, as between 1986 and 1991 they won five consecutive Drivers' Championships with Nelson Piquet, Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost, and six Constructors' titles with Williams and McLaren.", "A third stint from 2000 to 2008, initially as engine maker and later also as team owner, yielded 17 podiums, including one win, and second place in the 2004 constructors' standings.", "They returned as a power unit supplier for the second year of the hybrid era in 2015 and initially struggled, but intense development saw them become race winners again by 2019, and in 2021 they won the World Drivers' Championship with Max Verstappen and Red Bull Racing.", "Honda formally left Formula One after 2021 to focus its resources on carbon neutral technologies, but an arrangement was made for it to extend power unit supply for Red Bull until 2025.As the series introduced more sustainable regulations, Honda announced it will formally rejoin in 2026 to provide power units to Aston Martin as a works team.Honda debuted in the CART IndyCar World Series as an engine supplier in 1994, and the company won six consecutive Drivers' Championships and four Manufacturers' Championships between 1996 and 2001.In 2003, Honda transferred its effort to the IRL IndyCar Series.", "In 2004, Honda won the Indianapolis 500 for the first time and claimed the Drivers' and Manufacturers' Championships, a feat which it repeated in 2005.From 2006 to 2011, Honda was the series' lone manufacturer, before manufacturer competition returned for 2012.Since 2012, Honda's turbocharged V6 engines have won the Indianapolis 500 several times as well as claimed multiple Drivers' and Manufacturers' titles.", "In the Japanese Super Formula Championship, Honda-powered cars have won the championship numerous times since 1981, with their title tally in the double digits.", "In Formula Two, Honda engines dominated the premier series in 1966 and scored multiple titles in the early 1980s.In sports car racing, Honda won the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1995 in the GT2 class, and in 2010 and 2012 they won in the LMP2 category.", "Honda made their factory debut in the Super GT Series (previously known as the All-Japan GT Championship) in 1997, and in 2000 they won their first championships.", "Since then, they have won several further titles, uniquely with both mid- and front-engined cars.", "Through their Acura and HPD divisions, Honda has also competed in sports prototype racing, beginning with the Spice-Acura prototypes that won the IMSA GT Lights championship in 1991, 1992 and 1993.Acura joined the American Le Mans Series in 2007 and won the 12 Hours of Sebring in class on their debut, before winning the championship in both the LMP1 and LMP2 classes in 2009.The cars were rebranded as HPDs for 2010, after which they won multiple titles in the ALMS and also won the FIA World Endurance Championship in the LMP2 class.", "Acura returned to prototype racing in 2018 in the DPi class of the IMSA SportsCar Championship, winning championship titles in 2019, 2020 and 2022 as well as the 24 Hours of Daytona overall in 2021, 2022, and 2023.Honda's GT3 car won both the IMSA GTD and Super GT GT300 titles.During the Group A era of the Japanese Touring Car Championship, Honda won seven manufacturers' titles and six drivers' titles in the sub-1,600 cc division between 1986 and 1993.The following Super Touring era of touring car racing saw Honda win the Japanese and North American championships in 1996 and 1997, while in Europe Honda's Super Touring cars claimed over 40 wins across the British, German and European series.", "After the collapse of the Super Touring regulations in the early 2000s, Honda remained involved in the British Touring Car Championship, where their cars would win multiple championships in the mid-2000s and throughout the 2010s.", "Honda entered the World Touring Car Championship in late 2012, and in 2013 they won the Manufacturers' World Championship.", "Honda's TCR car won the global TCR Model of the Year award in 2019 and 2020.===Motorcycles===Honda RC212V raced by Dani PedrosaHonda Racing Corporation (HRC) was formed in 1982.The company combines participation in motorcycle races throughout the world with the development of high-potential racing machines.", "Its racing activities are an important source for the creation of leading-edge technologies used in the development of Honda motorcycles.", "HRC also contributes to the advancement of motorcycle sports through a range of activities that include sales of production racing motorcycles, support for satellite teams, and rider education programs.Soichiro Honda, being a race driver himself, could not stay out of international motorsport.", "In 1959, Honda entered five motorcycles into the Isle of Man TT race, the most prestigious motorcycle race in the world.", "While always having powerful engines, it took until 1961 for Honda to tune their chassis well enough to allow Mike Hailwood to claim their first Grand Prix victories in the 125 and 250 cc classes.", "Hailwood would later pick up their first Senior TT wins in 1966 and 1967.Honda's race bikes were known for their \"sleek & stylish design\" and exotic engine configurations, such as the 5-cylinder, 22,000 rpm, 125 cc bike and their 6-cylinder 250 cc and 297 cc bikes.In 1979, Honda returned to Grand Prix motorcycle racing with the monocoque-framed, four-stroke NR500.The FIM rules limited engines to four cylinders, so the NR500 had non-circular, 'race-track', cylinders, each with 8 valves and two connecting rods, in order to provide sufficient valve area to compete with the dominant two-stroke racers.", "Unfortunately, it seemed Honda tried to accomplish too much at one time and the experiment failed.", "For the 1982 season, Honda debuted its first two-stroke race bike, the NS500 and in , Honda won their first 500 cc Grand Prix World Championship with Freddie Spencer.", "Since then, Honda has become a dominant marque in motorcycle Grand Prix racing, winning a plethora of top-level titles with riders such as Mick Doohan and Valentino Rossi.", "Honda also head the number of wins at the Isle of Man TT having notched up 227 victories in the solo classes and Sidecar TT, including Ian Hutchinson's clean sweep at the 2010 races.The outright lap record on the Snaefell Mountain Course was held by Honda, set at the 2015 TT by John McGuinness at an average speed of on a Honda CBR1000RR, bettered the next year by Michael Dunlop on a BMW S1000RR at .In the Motocross World Championship, Honda has claimed seventeen world championships.", "In the World Enduro Championship, Honda has captured eight titles, most recently with Stefan Merriman in 2003 and with Mika Ahola from 2007 to 2010.In motorcycle trials, Honda has claimed three world championships with Belgian rider Eddy Lejeune." ], [ "Electric and alternative fuel vehicles", "2009 Honda Civic GX hooked up to Phill refueling system===Compressed natural gas===The Honda Civic GX was for a long time the only purpose-built natural gas vehicle (NGV) commercially available in some parts of the U.S.", "The Honda Civic GX first appeared in 1998 as a factory-modified Civic LX that had been designed to run exclusively on compressed natural gas.", "The car looks and drives just like a contemporary Honda Civic LX, but does not run on gasoline.", "In 2001, the Civic GX was rated the cleanest-burning internal combustion engine in the world by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).First leased to the City of Los Angeles, in 2005, Honda started offering the GX directly to the public through factory trained dealers certified to service the GX.", "Before that, only fleets were eligible to purchase a new Civic GX.", "In 2006, the Civic GX was released in New York, making it the second state where the consumer is able to buy the car.In June 2015, Honda announced its decision to phase out the commercialization of natural-gas powered vehicles to focus on the development of a new generation of electrified vehicles such as hybrids, plug-in electric cars and hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles.", "Since 2008, Honda has sold about 16,000 natural-gas vehicles, mainly to taxi and commercial fleets.flexible-fuel Honda CivicBelow: U.S. Honda Civic Hybrid ===Flexible-fuel===Honda's Brazilian subsidiary launched flexible-fuel versions for the Honda Civic and Honda Fit in late 2006.As other Brazilian flex-fuel vehicles, these models run on any blend of hydrous ethanol (E100) and E20-E25 gasoline.", "Initially, and in order to test the market preferences, the carmaker decided to produce a limited share of the vehicles with flex-fuel engines, 33 percent of the Civic production and 28 percent of the Fit models.", "Also, the sale price for the flex-fuel version was higher than the respective gasoline versions, around US$1,000 premium for the Civic, and US$650 for the Fit, despite the fact that all other flex-fuel vehicles sold in Brazil had the same tag price as their gasoline versions.", "In July 2009, Honda launched in the Brazilian market its third flexible-fuel car, the Honda City.During the last two months of 2006, both flex-fuel models sold 2,427 cars against 8,546 gasoline-powered automobiles, jumping to 41,990 flex-fuel cars in 2007, and reaching 93,361 in 2008.Due to the success of the flex versions, by early 2009 a hundred percent of Honda's automobile production for the Brazilian market is now flexible-fuel, and only a small percentage of gasoline version is produced in Brazil for exports.In March 2009, Honda launched in the Brazilian market the first flex-fuel motorcycle in the world.", "Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia, the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US$2,700.===Hybrid electric===Honda CR-Z, the first sports coupe hybrid to come with a six-speed manual transmissionIn late 1999, Honda launched the first commercial hybrid electric car sold in the U.S. market, the Honda Insight, just one month before the introduction of the Toyota Prius, and initially sold for US$20,000.The first-generation Insight was produced from 2000 to 2006 and had a fuel economy of for the EPA's highway rating, the most fuel-efficient mass-produced car at the time.", "Total global sales for the Insight amounted to only around 18,000 vehicles.", "Cumulative global sales reached 100,000 hybrids in 2005 and 200,000 in 2007.Honda introduced the second-generation Insight in Japan in February 2009, and released it in other markets through 2009 and in the U.S. market in April 2009.At $19,800 as a five-door hatchback it will be the least expensive hybrid available in the U.S.2010 Honda Insight hybrid electric vehicle (second generation)Since 2002, Honda has also been selling the Honda Civic Hybrid (2003 model) in the U.S. market.", "It was followed by the Honda Accord Hybrid, offered in model years 2005 through 2007.Sales of the Honda CR-Z began in Japan in February 2010, becoming Honda's third hybrid electric car in the market.", ", Honda was producing around 200,000 hybrids a year in Japan.Sales of the Fit Hybrid began in Japan in October 2010, at the time, the lowest price for a gasoline-hybrid electric vehicle sold in the country.", "The European version, called Honda Jazz Hybrid, was released in early 2011.During 2011 Honda launched three hybrid models available only in Japan, the Fit Shuttle Hybrid, Freed Hybrid and Freed Spike Hybrid.Honda's cumulative global hybrid sales passed the 1 million unit milestone at the end of September 2012, 12 years and 11 months after sales of the first generation Insight began in Japan November 1999.A total of 187,851 hybrids were sold worldwide in 2013, and 158,696 hybrids during the first six months of 2014., Honda has sold more than 1.35 million hybrids worldwide.===Hydrogen fuel cell===Honda FCX Clarity hydrogen fuel cell vehicleIn Takanezawa, Japan, on 16 June 2008, Honda Motors produced the first assembly-line FCX Clarity, a hybrid hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.", "More efficient than a gas-electric hybrid vehicle, the FCX Clarity combines hydrogen and oxygen from ordinary air to generate electricity for an electric motor.", "In July 2014 Honda announced the end of production of the Honda FCX Clarity for the 2015 model.The vehicle itself does not emit any pollutants and its only by-products are heat and water.", "The FCX Clarity also has an advantage over gas-electric hybrids in that it does not use an internal combustion engine to propel itself.", "Like a gas-electric hybrid, it uses a lithium ion battery to assist the fuel cell during acceleration and capture energy through regenerative braking, thus improving fuel efficiency.", "The lack of hydrogen filling stations throughout developed countries will keep production volumes low.", "Honda will release the vehicle in groups of 150.California is the only U.S. market with infrastructure for fueling such a vehicle, though the number of stations is still limited.", "Building more stations is expensive, as the California Air Resources Board (CARB) granted $6.8 million for four H2 fueling stations, costing US$1.7 million each.Honda views hydrogen fuel cell vehicles as the long-term replacement of piston cars, not battery cars.===Plug-in electric vehicles=== Honda Fit EV concept unveiled at the 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show\|alt=The all-electric Honda EV Plus was introduced in 1997 as a result of CARB's zero-emissions vehicle mandate and was available only for leasing in California.", "The EV plus was the first battery electric vehicle from a major automaker with non-lead–acid batteries The EV Plus had an all-electric range of .", "Around 276 units were sold in the U.S. and production ended in 1999.The all-electric Honda Fit EV was introduced in 2012 and has a range of .", "The all-electric car was launched in the U.S. to retail customers in July 2012 with initial availability limited to California and Oregon.", "Production is limited to only 1,100 units over the first three years.", "A total of 1,007 units have been leased in the U.S. through September 2014.The Fit EV was released in Japan through leasing to local government and corporate customers in August 2012.Availability in the Japanese market is limited to 200 units during its first two years.", "In July 2014 Honda announced the end of production of the Fit EV for the 2015 model.The Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid was introduced in 2013 and has an all-electric range of Sales began in the U.S. in January 2013 and the plug-in hybrid is available only in California and New York.", "A total of 835 units have been sold in the U.S. through September 2014.The Accord PHEV was introduced in Japan in June 2013 and is available only for leasing, primarily to corporations and government agencies.The Honda e was launched in 2020 and has an electric range of .", "It is an electric supermini that is retro styled, similar to the first-generation Honda Civic.", "Following this, the Honda e:Ny1 was launched in 2023, with an electric range of on the top spec model.", "It is Honda's first electric SUV.In April 2022, Honda and General Motors announced a joint venture to develop low-cost electric vehicles based on GM's Ultium architecture in order to beat Tesla vehicles in sales.", "In October 2023, the two companies announced that the joint venture has been cancelled due to slower-than-expected demand of electric vehicles and changing market conditions.", "Although the upcoming Honda Prologue and Acura ZDX will use the Ultium architecture and will be manufactured by General Motors, future Honda electric vehicles will be designed solely by Honda and will be manufactured in Honda assembly plants.=== Batteries ===In August 2022, Honda and LG Energy Solution announced a joint venture to build a new lithium-ion battery factory in the US for Honda and Acura electric vehicles.", "At the time of the announcement, the goal was for 40 gigawatt hours." ], [ "Marketing", "=== Japanese marketing===Saitama, Japan)Starting in 1978, Honda in Japan decided to diversify its sales distribution channels and created '''Honda Verno''', which sold established products with a higher content of standard equipment and more sporting nature.", "The establishment of ''Honda Verno'' coincided with its new sports compact, the Honda Prelude.", "Later, the Honda Vigor, Honda Ballade, and Honda Quint were added to ''Honda Verno'' stores.", "This approach was implemented due to efforts in place by rival Japanese automakers Toyota and Nissan.Honda Primo (Osaka)As sales progressed, Honda created two more sales channels, called '''Honda Clio''' in 1984, and '''Honda Primo''' in 1985.The ''Honda Clio'' chain sold products that were traditionally associated with Honda dealerships before 1978, like the Honda Accord, and ''Honda Primo'' sold the Honda Civic, kei cars such as the Honda Today, superminis like the Honda Capa, along with other Honda products, such as farm equipment, lawnmowers, portable generators, and marine equipment, plus motorcycles and scooters like the Honda Super Cub.", "A styling tradition was established when ''Honda Primo'' and ''Clio'' began operations in that all ''Verno'' products had the rear license plate installed in the rear bumper, while ''Primo'' and ''Clio'' products had the rear license plate installed on the trunk lid or rear door for minivans.", "The Renault Clio was sold in Japan at Nissan dealerships, but was renamed the '''Renault Lutecia'''.", "Lutecia is derived from the name of ''Lutetia'', an ancient Roman city that was the predecessor of Paris.Honda Verno (2008)As time progressed and sales began to diminish partly due to the collapse of the Japanese \"bubble economy\", \"supermini\" and \"kei\" vehicles that were specific to ''Honda Primo'' were \"badge engineered\" and sold at the other two sales channels, thereby providing smaller vehicles that sold better at both ''Honda Verno'' and ''Honda Clio'' locations.", "As of March 2006, the three sales chains were discontinued, with the establishment of ''Honda Cars'' dealerships.", "While the network was disbanded, some Japanese Honda dealerships still use the network names, offering all Japanese market Honda cars at all locations.Honda Wing motorcycle dealership (Japan)Honda sells genuine accessories through a separate retail chain called ''Honda Access'' for both their motorcycle, scooter, and automobile products.", "In cooperation with corporate group partner Pioneer, Honda sells an aftermarket line of audio and in-car navigation equipment that can be installed in any vehicle under the brand name Gathers, which is available at Honda Access locations as well as Japanese auto parts retailers, such as Autobacs.", "Buyers of used vehicles are directed to a specific Honda retail chain that sells only used vehicles called ''Honda Auto Terrace.", "''In the spring of 2012, Honda in Japan introduced ''Honda Cars Small Store'' which is devoted to compact cars like the Honda Fit, and ''kei'' vehicles like the Honda N-One and Honda S660 roadster.", "All cars sold at Honda Verno \tPrelude, Integra, CR-X, Vigor, Saber, Ballade, Quint, Crossroad, Element, NSX, HR-V, Mobilio Spike, S2000, CR-V, That's, MDX, Rafaga, Capa, and the Torneo\tAll cars sold at Honda Clio\tAccord, Legend, Inspire, Avancier, S-MX, Lagreat, Stepwgn, Elysion, Stream, Odyssey (int'l), Domani, Concerto, Accord Tourer, Logo, Fit, Insight, That's, Mobilio, and the City\tAll cars sold at Honda Primo\tCivic, Life, Acty, Vamos, Hobio, Ascot, Ascot Innova, Torneo, Civic Ferio, Freed, Mobilio, Orthia, Capa, Today, Z, and the Beat===International marketing===A Honda dealership in Ontario, CanadaA Honda dealership in Dreghorn, ScotlandIn 2003, Honda released its ''Cog'' advertisement in the UK and on the Internet.", "To make the ad, the engineers at Honda constructed a Rube Goldberg Machine made entirely out of car parts from a Honda Accord Touring.", "To the chagrin of the engineers at Honda, all the parts were taken from two of only six hand-assembled pre-production models of the Accord.", "The advertisement depicted a single cog which sets off a chain of events that ends with the Honda Accord moving and Garrison Keillor speaking the tagline, \"Isn't it nice when things just...", "work?\"", "It took 100 takes to create the ad.Honda has done humor marketing such as its 1985 four-page \"How to fit six Hondas in a two-car garage\" print ad or \"descending so low in a parking garage, they pass stalagmites and a Gollum-like figure.", "\"In 2004, they produced the ''Grrr'' advert, usually immediately followed by a shortened version of the 2005 ''Impossible Dream'' advert.", "In December 2005, Honda released ''The Impossible Dream'' a two-minute panoramic advertisement filmed in New Zealand, Japan, and Argentina which illustrates the founder's dream to build performance vehicles.", "While singing the song \"Impossible Dream\", a man reaches for his racing helmet, leaves his trailer on a minibike, then rides a succession of vintage Honda vehicles: a motorcycle, then a car, then a powerboat, then goes over a waterfall only to reappear piloting a hot air balloon, with Garrison Keillor saying \"I couldn't have put it better myself\" as the song ends.", "The song is from the 1960s musical ''Man of La Mancha'', sung by Andy Williams.In 2006, Honda released its ''Choir'' advertisement, for the UK and the internet.", "This had a 60-person choir who sang the car noises as the film of the Honda Civic is shown.In the mid to late 2000s in the United States, during model close-out sales for the current year before the start of the new model year, Honda's advertising has had an animated character known simply as Mr.", "Opportunity, voiced by Rob Paulsen.", "The casual-looking man talked about various deals offered by Honda and ended with the phrase \"I'm Mr.", "Opportunity, and I'm knockin, followed by him \"knocking\" on the television screen or \"thumping\" the speaker at the end of radio ads.", "In addition, commercials for Honda's international hatchback, the Jazz, are parodies of well-known pop culture images such as ''Tetris'' and Thomas the Tank Engine.In late 2006, Honda released an ad with ASIMO exploring a museum, looking at the exhibits with almost childlike wonderment (spreading out its arms in the aerospace exhibit, waving hello to an astronaut suit that resembles him, etc.", "), while Garrison Keillor ruminates on progress.", "It concludes with the tagline: \"More forwards please\".", "Honda also sponsored ITV's coverage of Formula One in the UK for 2007.However, they had announced that they would not continue in 2008 due to the sponsorship price requested by ITV being too high.In May 2007, focuses on their strengths in racing and the use of the Red H badge – a symbol of what is termed as \"Hondamentalism\".", "The campaign highlights the lengths that Honda engineers go to in order to get the most out of an engine, whether it is for bikes, cars, powerboats – even lawnmowers.", "Honda released its Hondamentalism campaign.", "In the TV spot, Garrison Keillor says, \"An engineer once said to build something great is like swimming in honey\", while Honda engineers in white suits walk and run towards a great light, battling strong winds and flying debris, holding on to anything that will keep them from being blown away.", "Finally one of the engineers walks towards a red light, his hand outstretched.", "A web address is shown for the Hondamentalism website.", "The digital campaign aims to show how visitors to the site share many of the Hondamentalist characteristics.At the beginning of 2008, Honda released – the ''Problem Playground''.", "The advert outlines Honda's environmental responsibility, demonstrating a hybrid engine, more efficient solar panels, and the FCX Clarity, a hydrogen-powered car.", "The 90-second advert has large-scale puzzles, involving Rubik's Cubes, large shapes, and a 3-dimensional puzzle.", "On 29 May 2008, Honda, in partnership with Channel 4, broadcast a live advertisement.", "It showed skydivers jumping from an airplane over Spain and forming the letters H, O, N, D, and A in mid-air.", "This live advertisement is generally agreed to be the first of its kind on British television.", "The ad lasted three minutes.In 2009, American Honda released the ''Dream the Impossible'' documentary series, a collection of 5- to 8-minute web vignettes that focus on the core philosophies of Honda.", "Current short films include ''Failure: The Secret to Success'', ''Kick Out the Ladder'' and ''Mobility 2088''.", "They have Honda employees as well as Danica Patrick, Christopher Guest, Ben Bova, Chee Pearlman, Joe Johnston and Orson Scott Card.", "The film series plays at dreams.honda.com.", "In the UK, national television ads feature voice-overs from American radio host Garrison Keillor, while in the US the voice of Honda commercials is actor and wrestler John CenaIn the North American market, Honda starts all of its commercials with a two-tone jingle since the mid-2010s.===Sports===The late F1 driver Ayrton Senna stated that Honda probably played the most significant role in his three world championships.", "He had immense respect for founder, Soichiro Honda, and had a good relationship with Nobuhiko Kawamoto, the chairman of Honda at that time.", "Senna once called Honda \"the greatest company in the world\".As part of its marketing campaign, Honda is an official partner and sponsor of the National Hockey League, the Anaheim Ducks of the NHL, and the arena named after it: Honda Center.", "Honda also sponsors The Honda Classic golf tournament and is a sponsor of Major League Soccer.", "The \"Honda Player of the Year\" award is presented in United States soccer.", "The \"Honda Sports Award\" is given to the best female athlete in each of twelve college sports in the United States.", "One of the twelve Honda Sports Award winners is chosen to receive the Honda-Broderick Cup, as \"Collegiate Woman Athlete of the Year.", "\"Honda sponsored La Liga club Valencia CF starting from 2014–15 season.Honda has been a presenting sponsor of the Los Angeles Marathon since 2010 in a three-year sponsorship deal, with winners of the LA Marathon receiving a free Honda Accord.", "Since 1989, the Honda Campus All-Star Challenge has been a quiz bowl tournament for Historically black colleges and universities." ], [ "Facilities (partial list)" ], [ "Sales", " Calendar year Total US sales 1992 768,845 1993 716,546 1994 788,230 1995 794,579 1996 843,928 1997 940,386 1998 1,009,600 1999 1,076,893 2000 1,158,860 2001 1,207,639 2002 1,247,834 2003 1,349,847 2004 1,394,398 2005 1,462,472 2006 1,509,358 2007 1,551,542 2008 1,284,261 2009 1,150,784 2010 1,230,480 2011 1,147,000 2012 1,422,000 2013 1,525,312 2014 1,540,872 2015 1,586,551 2016 1,637,942 2017 1,641,42920181,604,82820191,608,170" ], [ "Production numbers", " Calendar year Global production 2009 3,012,000 2010 3,643,000 2011 2,909,000 2012 4,110,000 2013 4,112,000 2014 4,513,769 2015 4,543,838 2016 4,999,266 2017 5,236,842 2018 5,357,013" ], [ "See also", " Comparison of Honda water-pumps* Honda advanced technology* Honda Airport* Honda Battle of the Bands* Honda G-Con* Honda F.C., football (soccer) club* Honda Heat, rugby union club* Honda in motorsport* Honda Performance Development* Honda Type R* List of Honda assembly plants* List of Honda transmissions* List of motor scooter manufacturers and brands" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* \"Move Over, Volvo: Honda Sets New Safety Standard for Itself\", an article in the \"News\" section of the March 2004 issue of ''Motor Trend'', on page 32* * The story of Honda's entry and growth in the American market is documented in Terry Sanders' film The Japan Project: Made in Japan.", "Honda* Honda's Midlife Crisis: Honda's slipping market position and views of Fukui Takeo (Chief Executive magazine, December 2005 issue)* Honda's Corporate History" ], [ "External links", "* * * Honda Press Library (Japanese, but with graphical timelines of car and bike models)* * * Wiki collection of bibliographic works on Honda" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Handball" ], [ "Introduction", "Handball game highlights video'''Handball''' (also known as '''team handball''', '''European handball''' or '''Olympic handball''') is a team sport in which two teams of seven players each (six outcourt players and a goalkeeper) pass a ball using their hands with the aim of throwing it into the goal of the opposing team.", "A standard match consists of two periods of 30 minutes, and the team that scores more goals wins.Modern handball is played on a court of , with a goal in the middle of each end.", "The goals are surrounded by a zone where only the defending goalkeeper is allowed; goals must be scored by throwing the ball from outside the zone or while \"diving\" into it.", "The sport is usually played indoors, but outdoor variants exist in the forms of field handball, Czech handball (which were more common in the past) and beach handball.", "The game is fast and high-scoring: professional teams now typically score between 20 and 35 goals each, though lower scores were not uncommon until a few decades ago.", "Body contact is permitted for the defenders trying to stop the attackers from approaching the goal.", "No protective equipment is mandated, but players may wear soft protective bands, pads and mouth guards.The modern set of rules was published in 1917 by Karl Schelenz, Max Heiser, and Erich Konigh, on 29 October in Berlin, which day is seen as the date of birth of the sport.", "The rules have had several revisions since.", "The first official handball match was played in 1917 in Germany.", "Karl Schelenz modified the rules in 1919.The first international games were played (under these rules) with men in 1925 (between Germany and Belgium) and with women in 1930 (between Germany and Austria).Men's handball was first played at the Olympics in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin outdoors, and the next time at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich indoors; handball has been an Olympic sport since then.", "Women's handball was added at the 1976 Summer Olympics.The International Handball Federation was formed in 1946 and, , has 197 member federations.", "The sport is most popular in Europe, and European countries have won all medals but one in the men's world championships since 1938.In the women's world championships, only two non-European countries have won the title: South Korea and Brazil.", "The game also enjoys popularity in East Asia, North Africa and parts of South America." ], [ "Origins and development", "A picture copied from an amphora shows youths playing a version of handball, .Games similar to handball were played in Ancient Greece and are represented on amphorae and stone carvings.", "Although detailed textual reference is rare, there are numerous descriptions of ball games being played where players throw the ball to one another; sometimes this is done in order to avoid interception by a player on the opposing team.", "Such games were played widely and served as both a form of exercise and a social event.There is evidence of ancient Roman women playing a version of handball called .", "There are records of handball-like games in medieval France, and among the Inuit in Greenland, in the Middle Ages.", "By the 19th century, there existed similar games of ''håndbold'' from Denmark, ''házená'' in the Czech Republic, ''handbol'' in Ukraine, and ''torball'' in Germany.The team handball game of today was codified at the end of the 19th century in northern Europe: primarily in Denmark, Germany, Norway, and Sweden.", "The first written set of team handball rules was published in 1906 by the Danish gym teacher, lieutenant and Olympic medalist Holger Nielsen from Ordrup grammar school, north of Copenhagen.", "The modern set of rules was published by Max Heiser, Karl Schelenz, and Erich Konigh in 1917 on 29 October in Berlin, Germany; this day is therefore seen as the \"date of birth\" of the sport.", "The first official handball match was played on 2 December 1917 in Berlin.", "In 1919 the rules were modified by Karl Schelenz.", "The first international games were played under these rules, between Germany and Austria by men in 1925 and between Germany and Austria by women in 1930.In 1926, the Congress of World Athletics (then known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation) nominated a committee to draw up international rules for field handball.", "The International Amateur Handball Federation was formed in 1928 and later the International Handball Federation was formed in 1946.Men's field handball was played at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin.", "During the next several decades, indoor handball flourished and evolved in the Scandinavian countries.", "The sport re-emerged onto the world stage as men's team handball for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich.", "Women's team handball was added at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal.", "Due to its popularity in the region, the Eastern European countries that refined the event became the dominant force in the sport when it was reintroduced.The International Handball Federation organised the men's world championship in 1938 and every four (sometimes three) years from World War II to 1995.Since the 1995 world championship in Iceland, the competition has been held every two years.", "The women's world championship has been held since 1957.The IHF also organizes women's and men's junior world championships.", "By July 2009, the IHF listed 166 member federations – approximately 795,000 teams and 19 million players." ], [ "Rules", "The rules are laid out in the IHF's set of rules, most recently published in 2015.===Summary===Two teams of seven players (six court players plus one goalkeeper) take the court and attempt to score points by putting the game ball into the opposing team's goal.", "In handling the ball, players are subject to the following restrictions:* After receiving the ball, players can pass, keep possession, or shoot the ball.", "* Players are not allowed to touch the ball with their feet.", "The goalkeeper is the only player allowed to use their feet, but only within the goal area.", "* If possessing the ball, players must dribble (similar to a basketball dribble), or can take up to three steps for up to three seconds at a time without dribbling.", "* No attacking or defending players other than the defending goalkeeper are allowed to touch the floor of the goal area (within six metres of the goal).", "A shot or pass in the goal area is valid if completed ''before touching the floor''.", "Goalkeepers are allowed outside the goal area, but are not allowed to cross the goal area boundary with the ball in their hands.", "* The ball may not be passed back to the goalkeeper when they are positioned in the goal area.Notable scoring opportunities can occur when attacking players jump into the goal area.", "For example, an attacking player may catch a pass while launching toward the inside the goal area, and then shoot or pass before touching the floor.", "''Doubling'' occurs when a diving attacking player passes to another diving teammate.===Playing court===Schematic diagram of a handball courtAn outdoor handball courtHandball is played on a court , with a goal in the centre of each end.", "The goals are surrounded by a near-semicircular area, called the zone or the crease, defined by a line six metres from the goal.", "A dashed near-semicircular line nine metres from the goal marks the free-throw line.", "Each line on the court is part of the area it encompasses; the centre line belongs to both halves at the same time.====Goals====The goals are two metres high and three metres wide.", "They must be securely bolted either to the floor or the wall behind.The goal posts and the crossbar must be made out of the same material (e.g., wood or aluminium) and feature a quadratic cross section with sides of .", "The three sides of the beams visible from the playing court must be painted alternatingly in two contrasting colors which both have to contrast against the background.", "The colors on both goals must be the same.Each goal must feature a net.", "This must be fastened in such a way that a ball thrown into the goal does not leave or pass the goal under normal circumstances.", "If necessary, a second net may be clasped to the back of the net on the inside.====Crease====The goals are surrounded by the crease, also called the zone.", "This area is delineated by two quarter circles with a radius of six metres around the far corners of each goal post and a connecting line parallel to the goal line.", "Only the defending goalkeeper is allowed inside this zone.", "However, court players may catch and touch the ball in the air within it as long as the player starts their jump outside the zone and releases the ball before they land (landing inside the perimeter is allowed in this case as long as the ball has been released).If a player without the ball contacts the ground inside the goal perimeter, or the line surrounding the perimeter, they must take the most direct path out of it.", "However, should a player cross the zone in an attempt to gain an advantage (e.g., better position) their team cedes the ball.", "Similarly, violation of the zone by a defending player is penalized only if they do so in order to gain an advantage in defending.====Substitution area====Outside of one long edge of the court to both sides of the middle line are the substitution areas for each team.", "Team officials, substitutes, and suspended players must wait within this area.", "A team's area is the same side as the goal the team is defending; during halftime, substitution areas are swapped.", "Any player entering or leaving the play must cross the substitution line which is part of the side line and extends from the middle line to the team's side.===Duration===Team timeout A standard match has two 30-minute halves with a 10- or 15-minute (major Championships/Olympics) halftime intermission.", "At half-time, teams switch sides of the court as well as benches.", "For youths, the length of the halves is reduced—25 minutes at ages 12 to 15, and 20 minutes at ages 8 to 11; though national federations of some countries may differ in their implementation from the official guidelines.If a decision must be reached in a particular match (e.g., in a tournament) and it ends in a draw after regular time, there are at maximum two overtimes, each consisting of two straight 5-minute periods with a one-minute break in between.", "If these does not decide the game either, then the winning team is determined in a penalty shootout (best-of-five rounds; if still tied, extra rounds are added until one team wins).The referees may call ''timeout'' according to their sole discretion; typical reasons are injuries, suspensions, or court cleaning.", "Penalty throws should trigger a timeout only for lengthy delays, such as a change of the goalkeeper.Since 2012, teams can call 3 ''team timeouts'' per game (up to two per half), which last one minute each.", "This right may only be invoked by the team in possession of the ball.", "Team representatives must show a green card marked with a black ''T'' on the timekeeper's desk.", "The timekeeper then immediately interrupts the game by sounding an acoustic signal to stop the clock.", "Before 2012, teams were allowed only one timeout per half.", "For the purpose of calling timeouts, overtime and shootouts are extensions of the second half.===Referees===A handball match is adjudicated by two equal referees.", "Some national bodies allow games with only a single referee in special cases like illness on short notice.", "Should the referees disagree on any occasion, a decision is made on mutual agreement during a short timeout; or, in case of punishments, the more severe of the two comes into effect.", "The referees are obliged to make their decisions \"on the basis of their observations of facts\".", "Their judgements are final and can be appealed against only if not in compliance with the rules.The referees (blue shirts) keep both teams between them.The referees position themselves in such a way that the team players are confined between them.", "They stand diagonally aligned so that each can observe one side line.", "Depending on their positions, one is called ''court referee'' and the other ''goal referee''.", "These positions automatically switch on ball turnover.", "They physically exchange their positions approximately every 10 minutes (long exchange), and change sides every five minutes (short exchange).The IHF defines 18 hand signals for quick visual communication with players and officials.", "The signal for warning is accompanied by a yellow card.", "A disqualification for the game is indicated by a red card, followed by a blue card if the disqualification will be accompanied by a report.", "The referees also use whistle blows to indicate infractions or to restart the play.The referees are supported by a ''scorekeeper'' and a ''timekeeper'' who attend to formal things such as keeping track of goals and suspensions, or starting and stopping the clock, respectively.", "They also keep an eye on the benches and notify the referees on substitution errors.", "Their desk is located between the two substitution areas.===Team players, substitutes, and officials===Each team consists of seven players on court and seven substitute players on the bench.", "One player on the court must be the designated goalkeeper, differing in his clothing from the rest of the court players.", "Substitution of players can be done in any number and at any time during game play.", "An exchange takes place over the substitution line.", "A prior notification of the referees is not necessary.Some national bodies, such as the Deutsche Handball Bund (DHB, \"German Handball Federation\"), allow substitution in junior teams only when in ball possession or during timeouts.", "This restriction is intended to prevent early specialization of players to offence or defence.====Court players====Court players are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their bodies above and including the knee.", "As in several other team sports, a distinction is made between catching and dribbling.", "A player who is in possession of the ball may stand stationary for only three seconds, and may take only three steps.", "They must then either shoot, pass, or dribble the ball.", "Taking more than three steps at any time is considered travelling, and results in a turnover.", "A player may dribble as many times as they want (though, since passing is faster, it is the preferred method of attack), as long as during each dribble the hand contacts only the top of the ball.", "Therefore, carrying is completely prohibited, and results in a turnover.", "After the dribble is picked up, the player has the right to another three seconds or three steps.", "The ball must then be passed or shot, as further holding or dribbling will result in a ''double dribble'' turnover and a free throw for the other team.", "Other offensive infractions that result in a turnover include charging and setting an illegal screen.", "Carrying the ball into the six-metre zone results either in ball possession by the goalkeeper (by attacker) or turnover (by defender).====Goalkeeper====Only the goalkeepers are allowed to move freely within the goal perimeter, although they may not cross the goal perimeter line while carrying or dribbling the ball.", "Within the zone, they are allowed to touch the ball with all parts of their bodies, including their feet, with a defensive aim (for other actions, they are subject to the same restrictions as the court players).", "The goalkeepers may participate in the normal play of their teammates.", "A regular court player may substitute for the goalkeeper if a team elects to use this scheme in order to outnumber the defending players.", "Prior to 2015, this court player became the designated goalkeeper on the court and had to wear some vest or bib the same color as the goalkeeper's shirt to be identified as such.", "A rule change meant to make the game more offensive now allows any player to substitute for the goalkeeper without becoming a designated goalkeeper.", "The new rule resembles the one used in ice hockey.", "This rule was first used in the women's world championship in December 2015 and has since been used by the men's European championship in January 2016 and by both genders in the Olympic tournament in 2016.This rule change has led to a drastic increase of empty net goals.If either goalkeeper deflects the ball over the outer goal line, their team stays in possession of the ball, in contrast to other sports like football.", "The goalkeeper resumes the play with a throw from within the zone (\"goalkeeper throw\").", "In a penalty shot or directly taken free throw, throwing the ball against the head of a goalkeeper who is not moving will lead to a direct disqualification (\"red card\").", "Hitting a non moving goalkeeper's head out of regular play will lead to a two-minute suspension as long as the player threw without obstruction.Outside of own D-zone, the goalkeeper is treated as an ordinary court player, and has to follow court players' rules; holding or tackling an opponent player outside the area risks a direct disqualification.", "The goalkeeper may not return to the area with the ball.", "Passing to one's own goalkeeper results in a turnover.====Team officials====Each team is allowed to have a maximum of four team officials seated on the benches.", "An official is anybody who is neither player nor substitute.", "One official must be the designated representative who is usually the team manager.", "Since 2012, representatives can call up to 3 team timeouts (up to twice per half), and may address the scorekeeper, timekeeper, and referees (before that, it was once per half); overtime and shootouts are considered extensions of the second half.", "Other officials typically include physicians or managers.", "No official is allowed to enter the playing court without the permission of the referees.===Ball===A size III handball The ball is spherical and must be made either of leather or a synthetic material.", "It is not allowed to have a shiny or slippery surface.", "As the ball is intended to be operated by a single hand, its official sizes vary depending on age and gender of the participating teams.", "Size Class Circumference (cm) Circumference (in) Weight (g) Weight (oz) III Men over 16 II Women over 14, men over 12 I Junior over 8 ===Awarded throws===The referees may award a special throw to a team.", "This usually happens after certain events such as scored goals, off-court balls, turnovers and timeouts.", "All of these special throws require the thrower to obtain a certain position, and pose restrictions on the positions of all other players.", "Sometimes the execution must wait for a whistle blow by the referee.", ";Throw-off: A throw-off takes place from the center of the court.", "The thrower must touch the middle line with one foot, and all the other offensive players must stay in their half until the referee restarts the game.", "The defending players must keep a distance of at least three metres from the thrower until the ball leaves his hand.", "A throw-off occurs at the beginning of each period and after the opposing team scores a goal.", "It must be cleared by the referees.", ":Modern handball introduced the \"fast throw-off\" concept; i.e., the play will be immediately restarted by the referees as soon as the executing team fulfills its requirements.", "Many teams leverage this rule to score easy goals before the opposition has time to form a stable defense line.", ";Throw-in: The team which did not touch the ball last is awarded a throw-in when the ball fully crosses the side line or touches the ceiling.", "If the ball crosses the outer goal line, a throw-in is awarded only if the defending court players touched the ball last.", "Execution requires the thrower to place one foot on the nearest outer line to the cause.", "All defending players must keep a distance of .", "However, they are allowed to stand immediately outside their own goal area even when the distance is less than three metres.", ";Goalkeeper-throw: If the ball crosses the outer goal line without interference from the defending team or when deflected by the defending team's goalkeeper, or when the attacking team violates the D-zone as described above, a goalkeeper-throw is awarded to the defending team.", "This is the most common turnover.", "The goalkeeper resumes the play with a throw from anywhere within the goal area.", ";Free-throw: A free-throw restarts the play after an interruption by the referees.", "It takes places from the spot where the interruption was caused, as long as this spot is outside of the free-throw line of the opposing team.", "In the latter case, the throw is deferred to the nearest spot on the free-throw line.", "Free-throws are the equivalent to free-kicks in association football; however, conceding them is typically not seen as poor sportsmanship for the defending side, and in itself, they carry no major disadvantages.", "(In particular, being awarded a free throw while being on warning for passive play will not reset the warning, whereas a shot on goal will.)", "The thrower may take a direct attempt for a goal which, however, is rarely feasible if the defending team has organised a defense.", "However, if a free throw is awarded and the half or game ends, a direct throw at the goal is typically attempted, which occasionally goes in.A seven-metre throw;Seven-metre throw: A seven-metre throw is awarded when a clear chance of scoring is illegally prevented anywhere on the court by an opposing team player, official, or spectator.", "It is awarded also when the referees have interrupted a legitimate scoring chance for any reason.", "The thrower steps with one foot behind the 7-metre line with only the defending goalkeeper between him and the goal.", "The goalkeeper must keep a distance of 3 metres away, which is marked by a short tick on the floor.", "All other players must remain behind the free-throw line until execution and the defending court players must keep a distance of three metres.", "The thrower must await the whistle blow of the referee.", "A seven-metre throw is the equivalent to a penalty kick in association football; however, it is far more common and typically occurs several times in a single game.", "It is thus tactically similar to free throw percentage in basketball and teams will try to have their best seven metre throwers execute those throws.===Penalties===Yellow card shown in a handball matchPenalties are given to players, in progressive format, for fouls that require more punishment than just a free-throw.", "Actions directed mainly at the opponent and not the ball (such as reaching around, holding, pushing, tripping, and jumping into opponent) as well as contact from the side, from behind a player or impeding the opponent's counterattack are all considered illegal and are subject to penalty.", "Any infraction that prevents a clear scoring opportunity will result in a seven-metre penalty shot.Typically the referee will give a warning yellow card for an illegal action; but, if the contact was particularly dangerous, like striking the opponent in the head, neck or throat, the referee can forego the warning for an immediate two-minute suspension.", "Players are warned once before given a yellow card; they risk being red-carded if they receive three two-minute suspensions.A red card results in an ejection from the game and a two-minute penalty for the team.", "A player may receive a red card directly for particularly rough penalties.", "For instance, any contact from behind during a fast break is now being treated with a red card; as does any deliberate intent to injure opponents.", "A red-carded player has to leave the playing area completely.", "A player who is disqualified may be substituted with another player after the two-minute penalty is served.", "A coach or official can also be penalized progressively.", "Any coach or official who receives a two-minute suspension will have to pull out one of their players for two minutes; however, the player is not the one punished, and can be substituted in again, as the penalty consists of the team playing with one fewer player than the opposing team.After referees award the ball to the opponents for whatever reason, the player currently in possession of the ball has to lay it down quickly, or risk a two-minute suspension.", "Also, gesticulating or verbally questioning the referee's order, as well as arguing with the officials' decisions, will normally risk a yellow card.", "If the suspended player protests further, does not walk straight off the court to the bench, or if the referee deems the tempo deliberately slow, that player risks a double yellow card.", "Illegal substitution (outside of the dedicated area, or if the replacement player enters too early) is prohibited; if they do, they risk a yellow card." ], [ "Gameplay", "===Formations===Positions of attacking (red) and defending players (blue), in a 5–1 defense formationPositions of attacking (red) and defending players (blue), in a 6–0 defense formationPlayers are typically referred to by the positions they are playing.", "The positions are always denoted from the view of the respective goalkeeper, so that a defender on the right opposes an attacker on the left.", "However, not all of the following positions may be occupied depending on the formation or potential suspensions.====Offense====* Left and right wingman.", "These typically are fast players who excel at ball control and wide jumps from the outside of the goal perimeter in order to get into a better shooting angle at the goal.", "Teams usually try to occupy the left position with a right-handed player and vice versa.", "* Left and right backcourt.", "Goal attempts by these players are typically made by jumping high and shooting over the defenders.", "Thus, it is usually advantageous to have tall players with a powerful shot for these positions.", "* Centre backcourt.", "A player with experience is preferred on this position who acts as playmaker and the handball equivalent of a basketball point guard.", "* Pivot (left and right, if applicable), also commonly called \"line player\".", "This player tends to intermingle with the defence, setting picks and attempting to disrupt the defence's formation.", "This position requires the least jumping skills; but ball control and physical strength are advantages.Sometimes, the offense uses formations with two pivot players.====Defense====There are many variations in defensive formations.", "Usually, they are described as ''n:m'' formations, where ''n'' is the number of players defending at the goal line and ''m'' the number of players defending more offensive.", "Exceptions are the 3:2:1 defense and n+m formation (e.g.", "5+1), where m players defend some offensive player in man coverage (instead of the usual zone coverage).", "* Far left and far right.", "The opponents of the wingmen.", "* Half left and half right.", "The opponents of the left and right backcourts.", "* Back center (left and right).", "Opponent of the pivot.", "* Front center.", "Opponent of the center backcourt, may also be set against another specific backcourt player.===Offensive play===Attacks are played with all court players on the side of the defenders.", "Depending on the speed of the attack, one distinguishes between three attack ''waves'' with a decreasing chance of success:Women's handball – a jump shot completes a fast-break.Men's handball – a jump shot (Kiril Lazarov, world record-holder for the number of goals scored in one world championship) ;First wave: ''First wave'' attacks are characterised by the absence of defending players around their goal perimeter.", "The chance of success is very high, as the throwing player is unhindered in his scoring attempt.", "Such attacks typically occur after an intercepted pass or a steal, and if the defending team can switch fast to offence.", "The far left or far right will usually try to run the attack, as they are not as tightly bound in the defence.", "On a turnover, they immediately sprint forward and receive the ball halfway to the other goal.", "Thus, these positions are commonly held by quick players.", ";Second wave: If the first wave is not successful and some defending players have gained their positions around the zone, the second wave comes into play: the remaining players advance with quick passes to locally outnumber the retreating defenders.", "If one player manages to step up to the perimeter or catches the ball at this spot, he becomes unstoppable by legal defensive means.", "From this position, the chance of success is naturally very high.", "Second wave attacks became much more important with the \"fast throw-off\" rule.", ";Third wave: The time during which the second wave may be successful is very short, as then the defenders closed the gaps around the zone.", "In the ''third wave'', the attackers use standardised attack patterns usually involving crossing and passing between the back court players who either try to pass the ball through a gap to their pivot, take a jumping shot from the backcourt at the goal, or lure the defence away from a wingman.The third wave evolves into the normal offensive play when all defenders not only reach the zone, but gain their accustomed positions.", "Some teams then substitute specialised offence players.", "However, this implies that these players must play in the defence should the opposing team be able to switch quickly to offence.", "The latter is another benefit for fast playing teams.If the attacking team does not make sufficient progress (eventually releasing a shot on goal), the referees can call '''passive play''' (since 1995, the referee gives an advance warning by holding one hand high, signalling that the attacking team should release a shot soon), turning control over to the other team.", "A shot on goal or an infringement leading to a yellow card or two-minute penalty will mark the start of a new attack, causing the hand to be taken down; but a shot blocked by the defense or a normal free throw will not.", "This rule prevents an attacking team from stalling the game indefinitely, as it is difficult to intercept a pass without at the same time conceding dangerous openings towards the goal.===Defensive play===The usual formations of the defense are 6–0, when all the defense players line up between the and lines to form a wall; the 5–1, when one of the players cruises outside the perimeter, usually targeting the center forwards while the other 5 line up on the line; and the less common 4–2 when there are two such defenders out front.", "Very fast teams will also try a 3–3 formation which is close to a switching man-to-man style.", "The formations vary greatly from country to country, and reflect each country's style of play.", "6–0 is sometimes known as \"flat defense\", and all other formations are usually called \"offensive defense\"." ], [ "Organization", "Handball teams are usually organised as clubs.", "On a national level, the clubs are associated in federations which organize matches in leagues and tournaments.===International body===The International Handball Federation (IHF) is the administrative and controlling body for international handball.", "Handball is an Olympic sport played during the Summer Olympics.The IHF organizes world championships, held in odd-numbered years, with separate competitions for men and women.The IHF World Men's Handball Championship 2021 title holders are Denmark.", "The IHF World Women's Handball Championship 2021 title holder is Norway.The IHF is composed of five continental federations: Asian Handball Federation, African Handball Confederation, Pan-American Team Handball Federation, European Handball Federation and Oceania Handball Federation.", "These federations organize continental championships held every other second year.", "Handball is played during the Pan American Games, All-Africa Games, and Asian Games.", "It is also played at the Mediterranean Games.", "In addition to continental competitions between national teams, the federations arrange international tournaments between club teams.===International competitions===* Nor.Ca.", "Handball Championship (men, women)===National competitions=======Europe====* Austria: Handball Liga Austria* Belgium: BENE-League Handball (shared competition with the Netherlands)* Bosnia and Herzegovina: Handball Championship of Bosnia and Herzegovina* Croatia: Croatian First League of Handball* Czech Republic: Czech Handball Extraliga* Denmark: Damehåndboldligaen (women), Jack & Jones Ligaen (men)* England: England Handball Association* Finland: Finnish Handball League* France: Liqui Moly Starligue (men), Ligue Butagaz Énergie (women)* Germany: Handball-Bundesliga, Handball-Bundesliga (women)* Greece: Greek Men's handball championship* Hungary: Nemzeti Bajnokság I (men), Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women)* Iceland: Olís deildin* Israel: Ligat Winner* Montenegro: First League (men), First League (women), Second League (men), Second League (women) * Netherlands: BENE-League Handball (shared competition with Belgium), Eredivisie (women)* North Macedonia: Macedonian Handball Super League* Norway: Eliteserien (men's handball), Eliteserien (women's handball)* Poland: Polish Superliga (men's handball), Ekstraklasa (women's handball)* Portugal: Andebol 1 (men), 1ª Divisão Feminino (women)* Romania: Liga Națională (men), Liga Naţională (women)Russia: Men's Championship, Women's Championship, Women's Handball Cup, Men's Handball Cup, Women's Handball Super Cup, Men's Handball Super Cup Scotland: Scottish Handball League* Serbia: Serbian First League of Handball* Slovakia: Slovenská hadzanárska extraliga* Slovenia: Slovenian First League of Handball, Handball Cup of Slovenia* Spain: Liga ASOBAL, División de Plata de Balonmano* Sweden: Handbollsligan (men), Svensk handbollselit (women)* Turkey: Handball Super League (men), Women's Handball Super League (women)====Other====* Angola: Angola Men's Handball League (men), Angola Women's Handball League (women)* Argentina: Confederación Argentina de Handball* Australia: Australian Handball Club Championship, Handball League Australia, Australian National Handball Championship (States)* Egypt: Egyptian Handball League* Japan: Japan Handball League* Korea: Handball Korea League* Tahiti: Tahitian Handball League* United States: USA Team Handball Nationals, USA Team Handball College Nationals" ], [ "Attendance records", "The worldwide attendance record for seven-a-side handball was set on 10 January 2024 in Düsseldorf, Germany, during the two opening matches of the 2024 European Men's Handball Championship.", "The two games (France versus North Macedonia and Germany against Switzerland) were played in front of 53,586 spectators." ], [ "Commemorative coins", "Handball events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins.", "One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Handball commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics.", "On the coin, the modern athlete directs the ball in his hands towards his target, while in the background the ancient athlete is just about to throw a ball, in a game known as ''cheirosphaira'', in a representation taken from a black-figure pottery vase of the Archaic period.The most recent commemorative coin featuring handball is the British 50 pence coin, part of the series of coins commemorating the London 2012 Olympic Games." ], [ "See also", "* Beach handball* Handball at the Summer Olympics* Handball in the United States* Water polo, a similar sport played in water" ], [ "References", "===Sources===" ], [ "External links", "* International Handball Federation* Team Handball News – Handball news and commentary* Basic Rules" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hilbert's basis theorem" ], [ "Introduction", " In mathematics, specifically commutative algebra, '''Hilbert's basis theorem''' says that a polynomial ring over a Noetherian ring is Noetherian." ], [ "Statement", "If is a ring, let denote the ring of polynomials in the indeterminate over .", "Hilbert proved that if is \"not too large\", in the sense that if is Noetherian, the same must be true for .", "Formally,'''Hilbert's Basis Theorem.'''", "If is a Noetherian ring, then is a Noetherian ring.'''Corollary.'''", "If is a Noetherian ring, then is a Noetherian ring.This can be translated into algebraic geometry as follows: every algebraic set over a field can be described as the set of common roots of finitely many polynomial equations.", "Hilbert proved the theorem (for the special case of polynomial rings over a field) in the course of his proof of finite generation of rings of invariants.Hilbert produced an innovative proof by contradiction using mathematical induction; his method does not give an algorithm to produce the finitely many basis polynomials for a given ideal: it only shows that they must exist.", "One can determine basis polynomials using the method of Gröbner bases." ], [ "Proof", "'''Theorem.'''", "If is a left (resp.", "right) Noetherian ring, then the polynomial ring is also a left (resp.", "right) Noetherian ring.:'''Remark.'''", "We will give two proofs, in both only the \"left\" case is considered; the proof for the right case is similar.===First proof===Suppose is a non-finitely generated left ideal.", "Then by recursion (using the axiom of dependent choice) there is a sequence of polynomials such that if is the left ideal generated by then is of minimal degree.", "By construction, is a non-decreasing sequence of natural numbers.", "Let be the leading coefficient of and let be the left ideal in generated by .", "Since is Noetherian the chain of ideals:must terminate.", "Thus for some integer .", "So in particular,:Now consider:whose leading term is equal to that of ; moreover, .", "However, , which means that has degree less than , contradicting the minimality.===Second proof=== Let be a left ideal.", "Let be the set of leading coefficients of members of .", "This is obviously a left ideal over , and so is finitely generated by the leading coefficients of finitely many members of ; say .", "Let be the maximum of the set , and let be the set of leading coefficients of members of , whose degree is .", "As before, the are left ideals over , and so are finitely generated by the leading coefficients of finitely many members of , say:with degrees .", "Now let be the left ideal generated by::We have and claim also .", "Suppose for the sake of contradiction this is not so.", "Then let be of minimal degree, and denote its leading coefficient by .", ":'''Case 1:''' .", "Regardless of this condition, we have , so is a left linear combination:::of the coefficients of the .", "Consider:::which has the same leading term as ; moreover while .", "Therefore and , which contradicts minimality.", ":'''Case 2:''' .", "Then so is a left linear combination:::of the leading coefficients of the .", "Considering:::we yield a similar contradiction as in Case 1.Thus our claim holds, and which is finitely generated.Note that the only reason we had to split into two cases was to ensure that the powers of multiplying the factors were non-negative in the constructions." ], [ "Applications", "Let be a Noetherian commutative ring.", "Hilbert's basis theorem has some immediate corollaries.#By induction we see that will also be Noetherian.", "#Since any affine variety over (i.e.", "a locus-set of a collection of polynomials) may be written as the locus of an ideal and further as the locus of its generators, it follows that every affine variety is the locus of finitely many polynomials — i.e.", "the intersection of finitely many hypersurfaces.", "#If is a finitely-generated -algebra, then we know that , where is an ideal.", "The basis theorem implies that must be finitely generated, say , i.e.", "is finitely presented." ], [ "Formal proofs", "Formal proofs of Hilbert's basis theorem have been verified through the Mizar project (see HILBASIS file) and Lean (see ring_theory.polynomial)." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cox, Little, and O'Shea, ''Ideals, Varieties, and Algorithms'', Springer-Verlag, 1997.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heterocyclic compound" ], [ "Introduction", "Structures and names of common heterocyclic compoundsPyridine, a heterocyclic compoundA '''heterocyclic compound''' or '''ring structure''' is a cyclic compound that has atoms of at least two different elements as members of its ring(s).", "'''Heterocyclic organic chemistry''' is the branch of organic chemistry dealing with the synthesis, properties, and applications of '''organic heterocycles'''.Examples of heterocyclic compounds include all of the nucleic acids, the majority of drugs, most biomass (cellulose and related materials), and many natural and synthetic dyes.", "More than half of known compounds are heterocycles.", "59% of US FDA-approved drugs contain nitrogen heterocycles." ], [ "Classification", "The study of organic heterocyclic chemistry focuses especially on organic unsaturated derivatives, and the preponderance of work and applications involves unstrained organic 5- and 6-membered rings.", "Included are pyridine, thiophene, pyrrole, and furan.", "Another large class of organic heterocycles refers to those fused to benzene rings.", "For example, the fused benzene derivatives of pyridine, thiophene, pyrrole, and furan are quinoline, benzothiophene, indole, and benzofuran, respectively.", "The fusion of two benzene rings gives rise to a third large family of organic compounds.", "Analogs of the previously mentioned heterocycles for this third family of compounds are acridine, dibenzothiophene, carbazole, and dibenzofuran, respectively.", "Heterocyclic organic compounds can be usefully classified based on their electronic structure.", "The saturated organic heterocycles behave like the acyclic derivatives.", "Thus, piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are conventional amines and ethers, with modified steric profiles.", "Therefore, the study of organic heterocyclic chemistry focuses on organic unsaturated rings.===Inorganic rings===Some heterocycles contain no carbon.", "Examples are borazine (B3N3 ring), hexachlorophosphazenes (P3N3 rings), and tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4.In comparison with organic heterocycles, which have numerous commercial applications, inorganic ring systems are mainly of theoretical interest.", "IUPAC recommends the Hantzsch-Widman nomenclature for naming heterocyclic compounds." ], [ "Notes on lists", "* \"Heteroatoms\" are atoms in the ring other than carbon atoms.", "* Names in italics are retained by IUPAC and do not follow the Hantzsch-Widman nomenclature* Some of the names refer to classes of compounds rather than individual compounds.", "* Also no attempt is made to list isomers." ], [ "3-membered rings", "Although subject to ring strain, 3-membered heterocyclic rings are well characterized.===Three-membered rings with one heteroatom===HeteroatomSaturatedUnsaturated Boron Borirane Borirene Nitrogen Aziridine Azirine Oxygen Oxirane (ethylene oxide, epoxides) Oxirene Phosphorus Phosphirane Phosphirene Sulfur Thiirane (episulfides) Thiirene===Three-membered rings with two heteroatoms===HeteroatomsSaturatedUnsaturated 2× Nitrogen Diaziridine Diazirine Nitrogen + oxygen Oxaziridine Oxazirine 2× Oxygen Dioxirane(highly unstable)" ], [ "4-membered rings", "===Four-membered rings with ''one'' heteroatom=== Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Azetidine Azete Oxygen Oxetane OxetePhosphorusPhosphetanePhosphete Sulfur Thietane Thiete===Four-membered rings with ''two'' heteroatoms=== Heteroatoms Saturated Unsaturated 2× Nitrogen Diazetidine Diazete 2× Oxygen Dioxetane Dioxete 2× Sulfur Dithietane Dithiete" ], [ "5-membered rings", "===Five-membered rings with ''one'' heteroatom=== Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Antimony Stibolane Stibole Arsenic Arsolane Arsole Bismuth Bismolane Bismole Boron Borolane Borole Nitrogen ''Pyrrolidine'' (\"Azolidine\" is not used) ''Pyrrole'' (\"Azole\" is not used) Oxygen ''Tetrahydrofuran'' ''Furan'' Phosphorus Phospholane Phosphole Selenium Selenolane Selenophene Silicon Silacyclopentane Silole Sulfur Tetrahydrothiophene ''Thiophene'' Tellurium Tellurophene Tin Stannolane Stannole===Five-membered rings with ''two'' heteroatoms===The 5-membered ring compounds containing ''two'' heteroatoms, at least one of which is nitrogen, are collectively called the azoles.", "Thiazoles and isothiazoles contain a sulfur and a nitrogen atom in the ring.", "Dithiolanes have two sulfur atoms.", "Heteroatoms Saturated Unsaturated (and partially unsaturated) 2× nitrogen ''Imidazolidine'' ''Pyrazolidine'' ''Imidazole'' (Imidazoline)''Pyrazole'' (Pyrazoline) Oxygen + sulfur 1,3-Oxathiolane1,2-Oxathiolane Oxathiole (Oxathioline)Isoxathiole Nitrogen + Oxygen OxazolidineIsoxazolidine Oxazole (Oxazoline)Isoxazole Nitrogen + sulfur ThiazolidineIsothiazolidine Thiazole (Thiazoline)Isothiazole 2× oxygen Dioxolane 2× sulfur Dithiolane Dithiole===Five-membered rings with at least ''three'' heteroatoms===A large group of 5-membered ring compounds with ''three'' or more heteroatoms also exists.", "One example is the class of dithiazoles, which contain two sulfur atoms and one nitrogen atom.", "Heteroatoms Saturated Unsaturated N N N Triazoles N N O FurazanOxadiazole N N S Thiadiazole N O O Dioxazole N S S Dithiazole N N N NTetrazole N N N N O Oxatetrazole N N N N S Thiatetrazole N N N N N Pentazole" ], [ "6-membered rings", "===Six-membered rings with ''one'' heteroatom=== Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Ions Antimony Stibinin Arsenic Arsinane Arsinine Bismuth Bismin Boron Borinane Borinine Boratabenzene anion Germanium Germinane Germine Nitrogen ''Piperidine''(Azinane is not used) ''Pyridine''(Azine is not used) Pyridinium cation Oxygen Oxane ''Pyran''(2''H''-Oxine is not used) Pyrylium cation Phosphorus Phosphinane Phosphinine Selenium Selenane Selenopyran Selenopyrylium cation Silicon Silinane Siline Sulfur Thiane ''Thiopyran''(2''H''-Thiine is not used) Thiopyrylium cation Tellurium Tellurane Telluropyran Telluropyrylium cation Tin Stanninane Stannine===Six-membered rings with ''two'' heteroatoms=== Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen / nitrogen Diazinane Diazine Oxygen / nitrogen ''Morpholine'' Oxazine Sulfur / nitrogen ''Thiomorpholine'' Thiazine Oxygen / Sulfur ''Oxathiane'' Oxathiin Oxygen / oxygen Dioxane Dioxine Sulfur / sulfur Dithiane Dithiin Boron / nitrogen 1,2-Dihydro-1,2-azaborine===Six-membered rings with ''three'' heteroatoms=== Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Triazinane Triazine Oxygen Trioxane Sulfur Trithiane===Six-membered rings with ''four'' heteroatoms=== Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen TetrazineCarborazine is a six-membered ring with two nitrogen heteroatoms and two boron heteroatom.===Six-membered rings with five heteroatoms=== Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Pentazine===Six-membered rings with six heteroatoms===The hypothetical chemical compound with six nitrogen heteroatoms would be hexazine.Borazine is a six-membered ring with three nitrogen heteroatoms and three boron heteroatoms." ], [ "7-membered rings", "In a 7-membered ring, the heteroatom must be able to provide an empty π-orbital (e.g.", "boron) for \"normal\" aromatic stabilization to be available; otherwise, homoaromaticity may be possible.", "Compounds with one heteroatom include: Heteroatom Saturated UnsaturatedBoronBorepinNitrogen Azepane AzepineOxygen Oxepane OxepineSulfur Thiepane ThiepineThose with two heteroatoms include: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Diazepane Diazepine Nitrogen/sulfur Thiazepine" ], [ "8-membered rings", " Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Azocane Azocine Oxygen Oxocane Oxocine Sulfur Thiocane ThiocineBorazocine is an eight-membered ring with four nitrogen heteroatoms and four boron heteroatoms." ], [ "9-membered rings", " Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Azonane AzonineOxygen Oxonane OxonineSulfur Thionane Thionine" ], [ "Images of rings with one heteroatom", " Saturated Unsaturated Heteroatom Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfur Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfur 3-atom ring Aziridine Oxirane Thiirane Azirine Oxirene Thiirene Structure of aziridine Structure of oxirane Structure of thiirane Structure of azirine Structure of oxirene Structure of thiirene 4-atom ring Azetidine Oxetane Thietane Azete Oxete Thiete Structure of acetidine Structure of oxetane Structure of thietane Structure of azete Structure of oxete Structure of thiete 5-atom ring ''Pyrrolidine'' Oxolane Thiolane ''Pyrrole'' ''Furan'' ''Thiophene'' Structure of pyrrolidine Structure of oxolane Structure of thiolane Structure of pyrrole Structure of furan Structure of thiophene 6-atom ring ''Piperidine'' Oxane Thiane ''Pyridine'' ''Pyran'' ''Thiopyran'' Structure of piperidine Structure of oxane Structure of thiane Structure of pyridine Structure of pyran Structure of thiopyran 7-atom ring Azepane Oxepane Thiepane Azepine Oxepine Thiepine Structure of azepane Structure of oxepane Structure of thiepane Structure of azepine Structure of oxepine Structure of thiepine 8-atom ring Azocane Oxocane Thiocane Azocine Oxocine Thiocine Structure of azocane Structure of oxocane Structure of thiocane Structure of azocine Structure of oxocine Structure of thiocine 9-atom ring Azonane Oxonane Thionane Azonine Oxonine Thionine Structure of azonane Structure of oxonane Structure of thionane Structure of azonine Structure of oxonine Structure of thionine" ], [ "Fused/condensed rings", "Heterocyclic rings systems that are formally derived by fusion with other rings, either carbocyclic or heterocyclic, have a variety of common and systematic names.", "For example, with the benzo-fused unsaturated nitrogen heterocycles, pyrrole provides indole or isoindole depending on the orientation.", "The pyridine analog is quinoline or isoquinoline.", "For azepine, benzazepine is the preferred name.", "Likewise, the compounds with two benzene rings fused to the central heterocycle are carbazole, acridine, and dibenzoazepine.", "Thienothiophene are the fusion of two thiophene rings.", "Phosphaphenalenes are a tricyclic phosphorus-containing heterocyclic system derived from the carbocycle phenalene." ], [ "History of heterocyclic chemistry", "The history of heterocyclic chemistry began in the 1800s, in step with the development of organic chemistry.", "Some noteworthy developments:* 1818: Brugnatelli makes alloxan from uric acid* 1832: Dobereiner produces furfural (a furan) by treating starch with sulfuric acid* 1834: Runge obtains pyrrole (\"fiery oil\") by dry distillation of bones* 1906: Friedlander synthesizes indigo dye, allowing synthetic chemistry to displace a large agricultural industry* 1936: Treibs isolates chlorophyll derivatives from crude oil, explaining the biological origin of petroleum.", "* 1951: Chargaff's rules are described, highlighting the role of heterocyclic compounds (purines and pyrimidines) in the genetic code." ], [ "Uses", "Heterocyclic compounds are pervasive in many areas of life sciences and technology.", "Many drugs are heterocyclic compounds." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Hantzsch-Widman nomenclature, IUPAC* Heterocyclic amines in cooked meat, US CDC* List of known and probable carcinogens, American Cancer Society* List of known carcinogens by the State of California, Proposition 65 (more comprehensive)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harry Connick Jr." ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Harry Fowler Connick Jr.''' (born September 11, 1967) is an American singer, pianist, composer, actor, and former television host.", "As of 2019, he has sold over 30 million records worldwide.", "Connick is ranked among the top60 best-selling male artists in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America, with 16million in certified sales.", "He has had seven top20 US albums, and ten number-one US jazz albums, earning more number-one albums than any other artist in U.S. jazz chart history as of 2009.Connick's best-selling album in the United States is his Christmas album ''When My Heart Finds Christmas'' (1993).", "His highest-charting album is ''Only You'' (2004), which reached No.5 in the US and No.6 in Britain.", "He has won three Grammy Awards and two Emmy Awards.", "He played Leo Markus, the husband of Grace Adler (played by Debra Messing) on the NBC sitcom ''Will & Grace'' from 2002 to 2006.Connick began his acting career playing a tail gunner in the World War II film ''Memphis Belle'' (1990).", "He played a serial killer in ''Copycat'' (1995) before being cast as a fighter pilot in the blockbuster ''Independence Day'' (1996).", "Connick's first role as a leading man was in ''Hope Floats'' (1998) with Sandra Bullock.", "He also lent his voice to the animated cult classic ''The Iron Giant'' (1999).", "His first thriller film since ''Copycat'' was ''Basic'' (2003) with John Travolta.", "Additionally, he played a violent ex-husband in ''Bug'', and was in two romantic comedies: ''P.S.", "I Love You'' (2007), and ''New in Town'' (2009) with Renée Zellweger.", "He was the leading man.", "In 2011, he appeared in the family film ''Dolphin Tale'' as Dr. Clay Haskett and in its 2014 sequel." ], [ "Early life", "Harry Connick Jr. was born and raised in New Orleans.", "His mother, Anita Frances Livingston (née Levy), was a lawyer and judge in New Orleans.", "His father, Harry Connick Sr.(1926-2024), who was the district attorney of Orleans Parish from 1973 to 2003.He has an older sister named Suzanna.His parents also owned a record store.", "Connick's father was a Roman Catholic of Northern Irish descent, while his mother, who died of ovarian cancer when he was 13 years old, was Jewish and from New York; his part-Jewish heritage would later inspire him to play Jewish doctor Leo on ''Will & Grace''.", "In addition to his career as a prosecutor, Connick Sr. also had a career performing weekly gigs at French Quarter Clubs.", "Connick and his sister, Suzanna, were raised in the Lakeview neighborhood of New Orleans.", "Harry Connick began learning to play keyboards at age three, playing publicly at age five, and recording with a local jazz band when he was ten.", "At nine years old, Connick performed Beethoven's Piano Concerto No.", "3 Opus 37 with the New Orleans Symphony Orchestra (now the Louisiana Philharmonic).Later he played a duet with Eubie Blake at the Royal Orleans Esplanade Lounge in New Orleans.", "The song was \"I'm Just Wild About Harry\".", "It was recorded for a Japanese documentary called ''Jazz Around the World''.", "The clip was also shown in a Bravo special called ''Worlds of Harry Connick, Junior.''", "in 1999.His musical talents were developed at the New Orleans Center for Creative Arts and under the tutelage of Ellis Marsalis Jr. and James Booker.Connick attended Jesuit High School, Isidore Newman School, Lakeview School, and the New Orleans Center for Creative Arts; they are all in New Orleans.", "After an unsuccessful attempt studying jazz at Loyola University New Orleans as well as giving recitals in the classical and jazz piano programs at Loyola, he left the city.", "He lived at the 92nd Street YMHA in New York City while he was a student at Hunter College and the Manhattan School of Music.There he met Columbia Records executive George Butler, who persuaded him to sign with the label.", "His first record, ''Harry Connick Jr.'', was mainly an album of instrumental standards.", "He soon acquired a reputation in jazz because of his regular performances at various high-profile New York City venues.", "His next album, ''20'', featured vocals and added to his success." ], [ "Career", "=== ''When Harry Met Sally...'', success on charts and in movies ===Connick's reputation was growing, and director Rob Reiner asked him to provide a soundtrack for his romantic comedy ''When Harry Met Sally...'' (1989), starring Meg Ryan and Billy Crystal.", "The soundtrack consisted of several standards, including \"It Had to Be You\", \"Let's Call the Whole Thing Off\" and \"Don't Get Around Much Anymore\".", "The soundtrack earned double-platinum status in the United States.", "Connick won his first Grammy Award for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance for his work on the soundtrack.Connick made his screen debut in ''Memphis Belle'' (1990), based on a true story about a B-17 Flying Fortress bomber crew in World War II.", "In that year, he began a two-year world tour.", "In addition, he released two albums in July 1990: the instrumental jazz trio album ''Lofty's Roach Souffle'' and a big-band album of mostly original songs titled ''We Are in Love'', which also went double platinum.", "''We Are in Love'' earned him his second consecutive Grammy for Best Jazz Male Vocal.", "\"Promise Me You'll Remember\", his contribution to the ''Godfather III'' soundtrack, was nominated for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award in 1991.In a year of recognition, he was also nominated for an Emmy Award for Best Performance in a Variety Special for his PBS special ''Swingin' Out Live'', which was also released as a video.", "In October 1991, he released his third consecutive multi-platinum album, ''Blue Light, Red Light'', on which he wrote and arranged the songs.", "Also in October 1991, he starred in ''Little Man Tate'', directed by Jodie Foster, playing the friend of a child prodigy who goes to college.In November 1992, Connick released ''25'', a solo piano collection of standards that again went platinum.", "He also re-released the album ''Eleven''.", "Connick contributed \"A Wink and a Smile\" to the ''Sleepless in Seattle'' soundtrack, released in 1993.His multi-platinum album of holiday songs, ''When My Heart Finds Christmas'', was the best-selling Christmas album in 1993.=== Mid-1990s: funk ===In 1994, Connick decided to branch out.", "He released ''She'', an album of New Orleans funk that also went platinum.", "In addition, he released a song called \"(I Could Only) Whisper Your Name\" for the soundtrack of ''The Mask'', starring Jim Carrey, which is his most successful single in the United States to date.Connick took his funk music on a tour of the United Kingdom in 1994, an effort that did not please some of his fans, who were expecting a jazz crooner.", "Connick also went on a tour of the People's Republic of China in 1995, playing at the Shanghai Center Theatre.", "The performance was televised live in China for what became known as the Shanghai Gumbo special.", "In his third film ''Copycat'' (1995), Connick played a serial killer who terrorizes a psychiatrist (played by Sigourney Weaver).", "The following year, he released his second funk album, ''Star Turtle'', which did not sell as well as previous albums, although it did reach No.", "38 on the charts.", "However, he appeared in the most successful movie of 1996, ''Independence Day'', with Will Smith and Jeff Goldblum.=== Late 1990s: Jazz and ''Hope Floats'' ===For his 1997 release ''To See You'', Connick recorded original love songs, touring the United States and Europe with a full symphony orchestra backing him and his piano in each city.", "As part of his tour, he played at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert in Oslo, Norway, with his final concert of that tour in Paris being recorded for a Valentine's Day special on PBS in 1998.He also continued his film career, starring in ''Excess Baggage'' (1997) opposite Alicia Silverstone and Benicio del Toro.In May 1998, he had his first leading role in director Forest Whitaker's ''Hope Floats'', with Sandra Bullock being the female lead.", "In 1999 he released ''Come By Me'', his first album of big band music in eight years, and embarked on a world tour, visiting the United States, Europe, Japan, and Australia.", "In addition, he provided the voice of Dean McCoppin in the animated film ''The Iron Giant''.=== 2000–2002: Broadway debut, musicals, ''Will & Grace'' ===Connick wrote the score for Susan Stroman's Broadway musical ''Thou Shalt Not'', based on Émile Zola's novel ''Thérèse Raquin'' which was written in 2000.The play premiered in 2001.His music and lyrics earned him a Tony Award nomination.", "He was also the narrator of the film ''My Dog Skip'', released in that year.In March 2001, Connick starred in a television production of ''South Pacific'' with Glenn Close; it was televised on the ABC network.", "He also starred in ''Mickey'', a movie; John Grisham wrote the screenplay.", "In October 2001, he released two albums: ''Songs I Heard'', featuring big band re-workings of children's show themes, and ''30'', featuring Connick on piano with guest appearances by several musical artists.", "''Songs I Heard'' won Connick a Grammy for Best Traditional Pop Album; he toured performing songs from the album, holding matinees.", "At the performances each parent in attendance had to be accompanied by a child.In 2002, he received a for a \"system and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra.\"", "Connick appeared as Grace Adler's boyfriend and later husband, Leo Markus on the NBC sitcom ''Will & Grace'' from 2002 to 2006.=== 2003–2005: ''Connick on Piano'' and ''Only You'' ===In July 2003, Connick released his first instrumental album in fifteen years, ''Other Hours Connick on Piano Volume 1''.", "It was released on Branford Marsalis' new label Marsalis Music leading to a short tour of nightclubs and small theaters.", "Connick appeared in the film ''Basic''.", "In October 2003, he released his second Christmas album, ''Harry for the Holidays; it'' went gold and reached No.", "12 on the ''Billboard'' 200 albums chart.", "He also had a television special on NBC featuring Whoopi Goldberg, Nathan Lane, Marc Anthony, and Kim Burrell.", "''Only You'', his seventeenth album for Columbia Records, was released in February 2004.A collection of 1950s and 1960s ballads, ''Only You'', was in the top ten on both sides of the Atlantic and was certified gold in the United States in March 2004.The ''Only You'' big band toured the U.S., Australia, with a few stops in Asia.", "''Harry for the Holidays'' was certified platinum in November 2004.A music DVD ''Harry Connick Jr.\"Only You\" in Concert'' was released in March 2004, after it had first aired as a ''Great Performances'' special on PBS.", "The special won him an Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction.", "The DVD received a Gold & Platinum Music VideoLong Form awards from the RIAA in November 2005.An animated holiday special, ''The Happy Elf'' aired on NBC in December 2005; Connick was the composer, the narrator, and one of the executive producers.", "The show was released on DVD soon afterwards.", "The holiday special was based on his original song ''The Happy Elf'', from his 2003 album ''Harry for the Holidays''.", "Another album from Marsalis Music was recorded in 2005, ''Occasion : Connick on Piano, Volume 2'', a duo album with Harry Connick Jr. on piano and Branford Marsalis on saxophone.", "A music DVD, ''A Duo Occasion'' was filmed at the Ottawa International Jazz Festival 2005 in Canada; it was released in November 2005.He appeared in another episode of the ''Will & Grace'' sitcom in November 2005, he was in three more episodes in 2006.=== 2006–2008: ''The Pajama Game'', ''Bug,'' and ''P.S.", "I Love You'' ===Harry Connick Junior in concert in Savannah, Georgia on February 27, 2007''Bug'', a film directed by William Friedkin, is a psychological thriller filmed in 2005 starring Connick, Ashley Judd, and Michael Shannon.", "The film was released in 2007.He starred in the Broadway revival of ''The Pajama Game'', produced by the Roundabout Theater Company, along with Michael McKean and Kelli O'Hara, at the ''American Airlines Theatre'' in 2006.It ran from February 23 to June 17, 2006; five benefit performances ran rom June 13 to 17.Connick's performance was highly acclaimed; David Rooney wrote in ''Variety'', \"With his handsome wholesomeness and those mellifluous Sinatra-esque pipes, it's hard to imagine a leading man more tailor-made for this 1954 show.\"", "The ''Pajama Game'' cast recording was nominated for a Grammy, after being released as part of Connick's double disc album Harry on Broadway, Act I.He hosted The Weather Channel's miniseries ''100 Biggest Weather Moments'' which aired in 2007.He was part of the documentary Note by Note: The Making of Steinway L1037, released in November 2007.He sat in playing piano on Bob French's 2007 album ''Marsalis Music Honors Series: Bob French''.", "He appeared in the film ''P.S.", "I Love You'', released in December 2007.The third album in the ''Connick on Piano'' series, ''Chanson du Vieux Carré'' was released in 2007, and Connick received two Grammy nominations for the track \"Ash Wednesday\" for the Grammy awards in 2008.", "''Chanson du Vieux Carré'' was released simultaneously with the album ''Oh, My NOLA''.", "He toured North America and Europe in 2007, and toured Asia and Australia in 2008 as part of his My New Orleans Tour.", "Connick wrote two songs and did the arrangements for Kelli O'Hara's album which was released in May 2008; he also sang a duet on the recording.", "He was the featured singer at the Concert of Hope immediately preceding Pope Benedict XVI's mass at Yankee Stadium in April 2008.He had the starring role of Dr. Dennis Slamon in the Lifetime television film ''Living Proof'' (2008).", "His third Christmas album, ''What a Night!", "'', was released in November 2008.Connick has a vast knowledge of musical genres and vocalists, even gospel music.", "One of his favorite gospel artists is Stellar Award winner and Grammy nominated artist Kim Burrell of Houston.", "Chris Gray of the Houston Press said, \"... when Harry Connick Jr. assembled a symphony orchestra for Pope Benedict XVI's appearance at Yankee Stadium in 2008, he wanted Burrell on vocals\"=== 2009–2011: ''New in Town and'' ''Your Songs'' ===Harry Connick Junior and Renée Zellweger at the Rachael Ray show, January 30, 2009The film ''New in Town'' starring Connick and Renée Zellweger began filming in January 2008; it was released in January 2009.Connick's album ''Your Songs'' was released on CD, September 22, 2009.In contrast to Connick's previous albums, this album is a collaboration with a record company producer, the multiple Grammy Award winning music executive Clive Davis.Connick starred in the Broadway revival of ''On a Clear Day You Can See Forever'', which opened at the St. James Theatre in November 2011 in previews.", "It closed in January 2012, after 29 previews and 57 performances.Connick appeared on the May 4, 2010, episode of ''American Idol'' season 9, where he acted as a mentor for the top 5 finalists.", "He appeared again the next night on May 5 to perform \"And I Love Her\".=== 2012–2019: ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit and'' ''Every Man Should Know'' ===On January 6, 2012, NBC president Robert Greenblatt announced at the Television Critics Association winter press tour that Connick had been cast in a four-episode arc of NBC's long-running legal drama ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' as new Executive ADA, David Haden, a prosecutor who is assigned a case with Detective Olivia Benson (Mariska Hargitay).On June 11, 2013, Connick released a new album of all original music titled ''Every Man Should Know''.", "Connick debuted the title track live on the May 2, 2013, episode of ''American Idol'' and appeared on ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'' the following week to discuss his new project.", "A 2013 US summer tour was announced in support of the album.Connick returned to ''American Idol'' to mentor the top four of season 12.He performed \"Every Man Should Know\" on the results show the following night.", "Connick was on the judging panel for seasons 13, 14 and 15 of ''American Idol'', airing in 2014 to 2016.", "''Angels Sing'', a family Christmas movie released in November 2013 by Lionsgate, afforded Connick an onscreen collaboration with fellow musician Willie Nelson.", "The two wrote a special song exclusively for the movie.", "Shot in Austin, Texas, ''Angels Sing'' features actor/musicians Connie Britton, Lyle Lovett, and Kris Kristofferson and is directed by Tim McCanlies, who previously worked with Connick in The Iron Giant.A one-hour weekday daytime talk show starring Connick called ''Harry'' debuted on September 12, 2016.In January 2019, it was announced that Connick was hired by piano instruction software company Playground Sessions as a video instructor.On October 25, 2019, he released a new album of Cole Porter compositions rearranged by Connick himself from Porter's The Great American Songbook including “Anything Goes” and “You Do Something To Me.” After selecting the songs, and writing and orchestrating the arrangements, he assembled and conducted the orchestra which features his longtime touring band with additional horns and a full string section.", "Along with his album, Connick announced his return to Broadway on September 16, 2019, with ''Harry Connick Jr. — A Celebration of Cole Porter'', a multimedia celebration of the Cole Porter songbook.", "The production was conceived and directed by Connick himself with the addition of theatrical and film elements accompanied by a company of dancers and an onstage orchestra.=== 2020–present: ''Alone With My Faith and'' ''Annie'' ===Harry released his new album ''Alone With My Faith'' on March 19, 2021.With the Coronavirus pandemic casting a long shadow in 2020, Connick retreated to his home studio during the lockdown and emerged with an album of new music.", "He arranged all of the songs, played every instrument, and sang every part.", "In addition to the familiar, traditional songs, Connick wrote and recorded new tracks that tell the story of his experience coping during lockdown and feeling the full spectrum of emotions that came with it.", "Both the album cover and the music videos for “Amazing Grace” and “Alone With My Faith” were conceived and directed by Harry's daughter Georgia Connick.", "''Alone With My Faith'' earned Connick his 16th career GRAMMY nomination for Best Roots Gospel Album as part of the 64th annual GRAMMY awards.Harry joined the cast of Annie Live!", "as Sir Oliver \"Daddy\" Warbucks - opposite Taraji P. Henson's devious Miss Hannigan.", "The live production aired December 2, 2021, on NBC and also coincided with the release of the Annie Live!", "Cast Album – the original soundtrack of the NBC television event.On 28 September 2022, Australia's Seven Network announced Connick Jr. would be a judge on the revival of ''Australian Idol'' in 2023." ], [ "Touring Big Band members", "'''The following musicians have toured as the Harry Connick Jr. Big Band since its inception in 1990''':* Piano and vocalsHarry Connick Jr.* DrumsShannon Powell, Duffy Jackson, Arthur Latin II (Winard Harper, Jeff \"Tain\" Wattssubs)* BassBen Wolfe, Neal Caine* GuitarJonathan Dubose Jr., Evan Vidar (Bryan Suttonsubs)* Piano, KeyboardsHarry Connick Jr., Howard Kaplan, Jonathan Batiste* Lead trumpetRoger Ingram (Dave Stahl, Walter White, Walt Johnsonsubs)* 2nd trumpetDan Miller, Derrick Gardner, Bijon Watson, Sal Cracchiolo (Earl Gardner, Greg Gisbert, Darryl Shawsubs)* 3rd trumpetJeremy Davenport, Joe Magnarelli, Mark Braud* 4th trumpetLeroy Jones, Mark Braud* Lead alto saxophoneBrad Leali, Mike Smith, Jon Gordon, Ned Goold, Geoff Burke* 2nd alto saxophoneMark Sterbank, Will Campbell, Ned Goold* 1st tenor saxophoneJerry Weldon (Geoff Burke sub)* 2nd tenor saxophoneJimmy Greene, Ned Goold* Baritone saxophoneDave Schumacher (Howard Johnsonsub)* ClarinetLouis Ford* Lead tromboneMark Mullins, John Allred, Jeff Bush* 2nd tromboneCraig Klein, John Allred* 3rd tromboneLucien Barbarin, Craig Klein* Bass tromboneJoe Barati* VocalsJonathan Dubose Jr., Jonathan Batiste (The Honolulu Heartbreakers – subs)" ], [ "Connick and New Orleans, Hurricane Katrina", "Connick at the New Orleans Jazz Fest 2007Connick, a New Orleans native, is a founder of the Krewe of Orpheus which is a music-based New Orleans krewe.", "Its name is derived from Orpheus of classical mythology.", "The Krewe of Orpheus has parades on St. Charles Avenue and Canal Street in New Orleans on Lundi Gras (Fat Monday), which is the day before Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday).On September 2, 2005, Connick helped organize and appeared in the NBC-sponsored live telethon concert, ''A Concert for Hurricane Relief'', for relief in the wake of Hurricane Katrina.", "He spent several days touring the city to draw attention to the plight of citizens stranded at the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center and other places.", "At the concert he paired with host Matt Lauer and entertainers including Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Kanye West, Mike Myers, and John Goodman.On September 6, 2005, Connick was made the honorary chair of Habitat for Humanity's Operation Home Delivery, a long-term rebuilding plan for families who survived Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans and along the Gulf Coast.", "His actions in New Orleans earned him a Jefferson Award for Public Service.Connick's album ''Oh, My NOLA'', and ''Chanson du Vieux Carré'' were released in 2007; a tour called the My New Orleans Tour followed.=== Musicians' Village ===Musicians' Village in New Orleans, August 20, 2007Connick and Branford Marsalis devised an initiative to help restore New Orleans' musical heritage.", "Habitat for Humanity and New Orleans Area Habitat for Humanity, working with Connick and Marsalis announced on December 6, 2005, plans for a Musicians' Village in New Orleans.", "The Musicians' Village includes Habitat-constructed homes, with an ''Ellis Marsalis Center for Music'', as the area's centerpiece.", "The Habitat-built homes provide musicians, and anyone else who qualifies, the opportunity to buy decent, affordable housing.In 2012, Connick and Marsalis received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards." ], [ "Personal life", "On April 16, 1994, Connick married former Victoria's Secret model Jill Goodacre, who is originally from Texas, at the St. Louis Cathedral, New Orleans.", "She is the daughter of sculptor Glenna Goodacre, originally from Lubbock, and now Santa Fe, New Mexico.", "The song \"Jill\", on the album ''Blue Light, Red Light'' (1991) is about Goodacre.", "They have three daughters, Georgia Tatum (born 1996), Sarah Kate (born 1997), and Charlotte (born 2002).", "As of 2023 all the daughters are living in Australia.", "The family have lived in both New Orleans and New Canaan, Connecticut.Connick is a practicing Roman Catholic, although he also identifies with his maternal Jewish heritage.", "Connick, a Louisiana native of mixed Irish Catholic and Jewish heritage, has also been described as a Creole.In 2011, Harry wrote Kate's debut song \"A Lot Like Me\".", "The song was released to celebrate the debut of American Girl's newest historical characters Cecile Rey and Marie Grace Gardner.", "\"A Lot Like Me\" is available on iTunes.", "The proceeds from \"A Lot Like Me\" went towards Ellis Marsalis Center for Music.Connick is a supporter of hometown NFL franchise New Orleans Saints.", "He was caught on camera at the Super Bowl XLIV, which the Saints won, in Miami by the television crew of ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'' during the post-game celebrations.", "Ellen's mother Betty was on the sidelines watching the festivities when she spotted Connick in the stands sporting a Drew Brees jersey.Connick was arrested by the Port Authority Police in December 1992 and charged with having a 9mm pistol in his possession at JFK International Airport.", "After he was in jail for a day, he agreed to make a public-service television commercial warning against carrying a pistol in New York City without a license.", "The court agreed to drop all charges if Connick stayed out of trouble for six months." ], [ "Discography", "* ''Dixieland Plus'' (1977)* ''Pure Dixieland'' (1979)* ''Harry Connick Jr.'' (1987)* ''20'' (1988)* ''When Harry Met Sally'' (1989) Soundtrack album* ''We Are in Love'' (1990)* ''Lofty's Roach Souffle'' (1990)* ''Blue Light, Red Light'' (1991)* ''25'' (1992)* ''Eleven'' (1992) Re-release of ''Pure Dixieland''* ''When My Heart Finds Christmas'' (1993)* ''Forever For Now'' (1993) Compilation album released in the UK* ''She'' (1994)* ''Star Turtle'' (1996)* ''To See You'' (1997)* ''Come by Me'' (1999)* ''30'' (2001)* ''Songs I Heard'' (2001)* ''Thou Shalt Not'' (2002) Cast recording* ''Other Hours: Connick on Piano, Volume 1'' (2003)* ''Harry for the Holidays'' (2003)* ''Only You'' (2004)* ''Occasion: Connick on Piano, Volume 2'' (2005)* ''Harry on Broadway, Act I'' (2006) Cast recording* ''Oh, My NOLA'' (2007)* ''Chanson du Vieux Carré : Connick on Piano, Volume 3'' (2007)* ''What a Night!", "A Christmas Album'' (2008)* ''Your Songs'' (2009)* ''In Concert on Broadway'' (2011) Live album* ''Music from The Happy Elf: Connick on Piano, Volume 4'' (2011)* ''Smokey Mary'' (2013)* ''Every Man Should Know'' (2013)* ''That Would Be Me'' (2015)* ''True Love: A Celebration of Cole Porter'' (2019)* ''Alone With My Faith'' (2021)" ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1990 ''Memphis Belle'' Sgt.", "Clay Busby 1991 ''Little Man Tate'' Eddie 1995 ''Copycat'' Daryll Lee Cullum 1996 ''Independence Day'' Captain Jimmy Wilder 1997 ''Excess Baggage'' Greg Kistler 1998 ''Hope Floats'' Justin Matisse 1999 ''The Iron Giant'' Dean McCoppin Voice only ''Wayward Son'' Jesse Banks Rhodes 2000 ''My Dog Skip'' Narrator ''The Simian Line'' Rick 2001 ''South Pacific'' Lt. Joseph Cable ''Life Without Dick'' Daniel Gallagher 2003 ''Basic'' Pete Vilmer 2004 ''Mickey'' Glen Ryan (Tripp Spence) 2005 ''The Happy Elf'' Lil' Farley (narrator) 2006 ''Bug'' Jerry Goss 2007 ''P.S.", "I Love You'' Daniel Connelly 2008 ''Living Proof'' Dr. Dennis Slamon 2009 ''New in Town'' Ted Mitchell 2011 ''Dolphin Tale'' Clay Haskett 2013 ''Angels Sing'' Michael Walker 2014 ''Dolphin Tale 2'' Clay Haskett 2021 ''Fear of Rain'' John Burroughs TBA ''The Islander''TBA===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1992 ''Cheers'' Russell Boyd Episode: \"A Diminished Rebecca with a Suspended Cliff\" 1994 ''Ghostwriter'' Himself Episode: \"What's Up with Alex?", ": Part 1\" 1997 ''Action League Now!''", "Big Baby (voice) Episode: \"Rock-A-Big-Baby\" 2002–2006, 2017 ''Will & Grace'' Leo Markus 25 episodes 2004 ''Sesame Street'' Himself Episode: 4080 2008 ''This Old House'' Himself Episode: \"New Orleans Project: Part 1\" 2009 ''Hey Hey It's Saturday: The Reunion'' Himself – guest judge ''Australian Idol'' Himself – guest judge 2010 ''American Idol'' Himself – guest judge 2012 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Executive A.D.A.", "David Haden Episodes: \"Official Story\", \"Father's Shadow\", \"Hunting Ground\", and \"Justice Denied\" 2013 ''American Idol'' Himself – guest judge 2014–2016 ''American Idol'' Himself – judge Seasons 13-15 with Jennifer Lopez and Keith Urban 2015 ''Repeat After Me'' Himself 1 episode 2016–2018 ''Harry'' Himself 164 episodes 2017 ''Kevin Can Wait'' Himself Episode: \"Kenny Can Wait\"2021''American Idol''Himself - guest performerEpisode: Comeback Show2021''Annie Live!", "''Daddy WarbucksTelevision special+ Non-fictional appearances Year Title Role Notes 1990 ''Carly in Concert: My Romance'' Guest artist 1992 ''Super Bowl XXVI'' Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" 1993 ''The Harry Connick Jr. Christmas Special'' Himself CBS special 1996 ''Road Rules: USA – The Second Adventure'' Himself Cameo appearance1998 ''Harry Connick Jr.: Romance in Paris'' Himself PBS special 1999 ''The Worlds of Harry Connick Jr.'' Himself 2001 ''Evening at Pops'' Himself 2003 ''Harry for the Holidays'' Himself NBC special 2004 ''Only You: In Concert'' Himself PBS special 2007 ''100 Biggest Weather Moments'' Host ''Note by Note: The Making of Steinway L1037'' Himself 2010 ''Daytona 500'' Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" 2013 ''World Series'' Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" 2017''Kentucky Derby'' Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" 2020''NFL Draft'' Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\"" ], [ "Broadway", "* 1990 ''An Evening with Harry Connick Jr. and His Orchestra'' (special, concert)* 2001 ''Thou Shalt Not'' (Broadway Musical)composer* 2006 ''The Pajama Game'' (Broadway Musical)* 2010 ''Harry Connick Jr.: In Concert on Broadway'' (special, concert)* 2011 ''On a Clear Day You Can See Forever'' (Broadway Musical)* 2019 ''Harry Connick, Jr. - A Celebration of Cole Porter'' (special, concert)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Harry Connick Jr. interview by Pete Lewis, 'Blues & Soul' November 2009* * \" Harry Connick Jr. discusses playing, singing and arranging.\"", "radio transcript.", "2005.", "''The Music Show''.", "Presented by Andrew Ford.", "* Article on Connick's United States patent 6,348,648 for a \"system and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra.\"" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of humorists" ], [ "Introduction", "A humorist (American English) or humourist (British English) is an intellectual who uses humor in writing or public speaking.", "Humorists are distinct from comedians, who are show business entertainers whose business is to make an audience laugh, though it is possible for some persons to occupy both roles in the course of their careers.Despite the fact that the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts annually bestows a Mark Twain Prize for American Humor (usually on comedians) since 1998, this award does not by itself qualify the recipient as a humorist.", "only two recipients, Steve Martin and Neil Simon, are known as humorists, being humorous playwrights." ], [ "List", "Notable humorists include:* Renowned polymath Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), as a newspaper editor and printer, became one of America's first humorists, most famously for ''Poor Richard's Almanack'' published under the pen name \"Richard Saunders\".", "* Seba Smith (1792–1868) American writer and editor, most famous for his editorial character, Jack Downing.", "* John Neal (1793–1876) American critic, activist, lecturer, and writer who played a pivotal role in the development of satirical and humorous short stories between the 1820s and 1840s.", "* Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) Irish poet and playwright known for his biting wit.", "* Kajetan Abgarowicz (1856–1909) Armenian-Polish journalist, novelist and short story writer.", "* Sholom Aleichem (1859–1916) pen name of the leading Yiddish author and playwright Solomon Naumovich Rabinovich, on whose stories the musical ''Fiddler on the Roof'' was based.", "* Jerome K. Jerome (1859–1927) English writer and humorist, best known for the comic travelogue ''Three Men in a Boat''.", "* Ring Lardner (1885–1933) was a sports columnist and short story writer best known for his satirical writings about sports, marriage, and the theatre.", "* George Ade (1866–1944) American writer and newspaper columnist.", "* Robert Benchley (1889–1945) best known for his work as a newspaper columnist and film actor, began writing humorously for ''The Harvard Lampoon'' while attending Harvard University, and for many years wrote essays and articles for ''Vanity Fair'' and ''The New Yorker''.", "* H. L. Mencken (1880–1956) journalist, satirist, cultural critic and scholar of American English.", "Known as the \"Sage of Baltimore\", he is regarded as one of the most influential American writers and prose stylists of the first half of the 20th century.", "He commented widely on the social scene, literature, music, prominent politicians and contemporary movements.", "He is known for dubbing the Scopes trial \"the Monkey Trial\".", "* James Thurber (1894–1961) cartoonist, author, journalist, playwright, and celebrated wit, best known for his cartoons and short stories published mainly in ''The New Yorker''.", "* Dorothy Parker (1893–1967) writer for ''Vanity Fair'', ''Vogue'' and other magazines, playwright, and a close friend of Benchley, was known for her biting, satirical wit.", "* Bennett Cerf (1898–1971) one of the founders of the publishing firm Random House, known for his own compilations of jokes and puns, for regular personal appearances lecturing across the United States, and for his television appearances on the panel game show ''What's My Line?", "''* P. G. Wodehouse (1881–1975) one of the most widely read humorists of the 20th century.", "* René Goscinny (1926–1977) was one of the most important french comic book authors of the Bande dessinée best known for Asterix and Lucky Luke.", "* Erma Bombeck (1927–1996) newspaper columnist and writer of 15 books who specialized in humorously describing midwestern suburban home life.", "* André Franquin (1924–1997) another french comic book author best known for Spirou & Fantasio and creator of the Marsupilami.", "* Douglas Adams (1952–2001) English author.", "* Art Buchwald (1925–2007) wrote a political satire op-ed column for ''The Washington Post'', which was nationally syndicated in many newspapers.", "* Alan Coren (1938–2007) could be considered the English equivalent of Bennett Cerf: a writer and satirist who was well known as a regular panelist on the BBC radio quiz ''The News Quiz'' and a team captain on BBC television's ''Call My Bluff''.", "Coren was also a journalist, and for almost a decade was the editor of ''Punch'' magazine.", "* Moin Akhter (1950–2011) Pakistani TV and radio comedian.", "* Tom Sharpe (1928–2013) satirical novelist, best known for his ''Wilt'' series, as well as ''Porterhouse Blue'' and '' Blott on the Landscape''.", "* Terry Pratchett (1948–2015) author known for comic fantasy novels, most notably the ''Discworld'' series of 41 novels.", "He was strongly influenced by Wodehouse, Sharpe, Jerome, Coren, and Twain.", "* Woody Allen (born 1935) American comedian, writer for ''The New Yorker''.", "* Garrison Keilor (born 1942) author, storyteller, voice actor, and radio personality, best known as the creator and host of the Minnesota Public Radio (MPR) show ''A Prairie Home Companion'' from 1974 to 2016.He created the fictional Minnesota town Lake Wobegon, the setting of many of his books.", "He created and voiced the hardboiled detective parody character Guy Noir on his radio show.", "* Fran Lebowitz (born 1950) writes sardonic social commentary from a New York City point of view.", "* Scott Adams (born 1957) American cartoonist and author.", "* Henry Alford (born 1962) American journalist and writer.", "* Steve Martin comedian turned playwright.", "* Neil Simon humorous playwright." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrostatic shock" ], [ "Introduction", "Average time until incapacitation decreases rapidly with pressure wave magnitude as magnitudes approach .", "See: ''Links between traumatic brain injury and ballistic pressure waves originating in the thoracic cavity and extremities.''", "Brain Injury 21(7): 657–662, 2007.", "'''Hydrostatic shock''' is the controversial concept that a penetrating projectile (such as a bullet) can produce a pressure wave that causes \"remote neural damage\", \"subtle damage in neural tissues\" and \"rapid incapacitating effects\" in living targets.", "It has also been suggested that pressure wave effects can cause indirect bone fractures at a distance from the projectile path, although it was later demonstrated that indirect bone fractures are caused by temporary cavity effects (strain placed on the bone by the radial tissue displacement produced by the temporary cavity formation).Proponents of the concept argue that hydrostatic shock can produce remote neural damage and produce incapacitation more quickly than blood loss effects.", "In arguments about the differences in stopping power between calibers and between cartridge models, proponents of cartridges that are \"light and fast\" (such as the 9×19mm Parabellum) versus cartridges that are \"slow and heavy\" (such as the .45 ACP) often refer to this phenomenon.Martin Fackler has argued that sonic pressure waves do not cause tissue disruption and that temporary cavity formation is the actual cause of tissue disruption mistakenly ascribed to sonic pressure waves.", "One review noted that strong opinion divided papers on whether the pressure wave contributes to wound injury.", "It ultimately concluded that no \"conclusive evidence could be found for permanent pathological effects produced by the pressure wave\"." ], [ "Origin of the hypothesis", "An early mention of \"hydrostatic shock\" appeared in ''Popular Mechanics'' in April 1942.In the scientific literature, the first discussion of pressure waves created when a bullet hits a living target is presented by E. Harvey Newton and his research group at Princeton University in 1947:Frank Chamberlin, a World War II trauma surgeon and ballistics researcher, noted remote pressure wave effects.", "Col. Chamberlin described what he called \"explosive effects\" and \"hydraulic reaction\" of bullets in tissue.", "''...liquids are put in motion by 'shock waves' or hydraulic effects... with liquid filled tissues, the effects and destruction of tissues extend in all directions far beyond the wound axis''.", "He avoided the ambiguous use of the term \"shock\" because it can refer to either a specific kind of pressure wave associated with explosions and supersonic projectiles or to a medical condition in the body.Col.", "Chamberlin recognized that many theories have been advanced in wound ballistics.", "During World War II he commanded an 8,500-bed hospital center that treated over 67,000 patients during the fourteen months that he operated it.", "P.O.", "Ackley estimates that 85% of the patients were suffering from gunshot wounds.", "Col. Chamberlin spent many hours interviewing patients as to their reactions to bullet wounds.", "He conducted many live animal experiments after his tour of duty.", "On the subject of wound ballistics theories, he wrote:Other World War II era scientists noted remote pressure wave effects in the peripheral nerves.", "There was support for the idea of remote neural effects of ballistic pressure waves in the medical and scientific communities, but the phrase \"hydrostatic shock\" and similar phrases including \"shock\" were used mainly by gunwriters (such as Jack O'Conner) and the small arms industry (such as Roy Weatherby, and Federal \"Hydra-Shok.\")" ], [ "Arguments against", "Martin Fackler, a Vietnam-era trauma surgeon, wound ballistics researcher, a colonel in the U.S. Army and the head of the Wound Ballistics Laboratory for the U.S. Army's Medical Training Center, Letterman Institute, claimed that hydrostatic shock had been disproved and that the assertion that a pressure wave plays a role in injury or incapacitation is a myth.", "Others expressed similar views.Fackler based his argument on the lithotriptor, a tool commonly used to break up kidney stones.", "A lithotriptor uses sonic pressure waves which are stronger than those caused by most handgun bullets, yet it produces no damage to soft tissues whatsoever.", "Hence, Fackler argued, ballistic pressure waves cannot damage tissue either.Fackler claimed that a study of rifle bullet wounds in Vietnam (Wound Data and Munitions Effectiveness Team) found \"no cases of bones being broken, or major vessels torn, that were not hit by the penetrating bullet.", "In only two cases, an organ that was not hit (but was within a few cm of the projectile path), suffered some disruption.\"", "Fackler cited a personal communication with R. F. Bellamy.", "However, Bellamy's published findings the following year estimated that 10% of fractures in the data set might be due to indirect injuries, and one specific case is described in detail (pp. 153–154).", "In addition, the published analysis documents five instances of abdominal wounding in cases where the bullet did not penetrate the abdominal cavity (pp.", "149–152), a case of lung contusion resulting from a hit to the shoulder (pp.", "146–149), and a case of indirect effects on the central nervous system (p. 155).", "Fackler's critics argue that his evidence does not contradict distant injuries, as Fackler claimed, but the WDMET data from Vietnam actually provides supporting evidence for it.A summary of the debate was published in 2009 as part of a ''Historical Overview of Wound Ballistics Research.''" ], [ "Distant injuries in the WDMET data", "The Wound Data and Munitions Effectiveness Team (WDMET) gathered data on wounds sustained during the Vietnam War.", "In their analysis of this data published in the ''Textbook of Military Medicine'', Ronald Bellamy and Russ Zajtchuck point out a number of cases which seem to be examples of distant injuries.", "Bellamy and Zajtchuck describe three mechanisms of distant wounding due to pressure transients: 1) stress waves 2) shear waves and 3) a vascular pressure impulse.After citing Harvey's conclusion that \"stress waves probably do not cause any tissue damage\" (p. 136), Bellamy and Zajtchuck express their view that Harvey's interpretation might not be definitive because they write \"the possibility that stress waves from a penetrating projectile might also cause tissue damage cannot be ruled out.\"", "(p. 136) The WDMET data includes a case of a lung contusion resulting from a hit to the shoulder.", "The caption to Figure 4-40 (p. 149) says, \"The pulmonary injury may be the result of a stress wave.\"", "They describe the possibility that a hit to a soldier's trapezius muscle caused temporary paralysis due to \"the stress wave passing through the soldier's neck indirectly causing cervical cord dysfunction.\"", "(p. 155)In addition to stress waves, Bellamy and Zajtchuck describe shear waves as a possible mechanism of indirect injuries in the WDMET data.", "They estimate that 10% of bone fractures in the data may be the result of indirect injuries, that is, bones fractured by the bullet passing close to the bone without a direct impact.", "A Chinese experiment is cited which provides a formula estimating how pressure magnitude decreases with distance.", "Together with the difference between strength of human bones and strength of the animal bones in the Chinese experiment, Bellamy and Zajtchuck use this formula to estimate that assault rifle rounds \"passing within a centimeter of a long bone might very well be capable of causing an indirect fracture.\"", "(p. 153) Bellamy and Zajtchuck suggest the fracture in Figures 4-46 and 4-47 is likely an indirect fracture of this type.", "Damage due to shear waves extends to even greater distances in abdominal injuries in the WDMET data.", "Bellamy and Zajtchuck write, \"The abdomen is one body region in which damage from indirect effects may be common.\"", "(p. 150) Injuries to the liver and bowel shown in Figures 4-42 and 4-43 are described, \"The damage shown in these examples extends far beyond the tissue that is likely to direct contact with the projectile.\"", "(p. 150)In addition to providing examples from the WDMET data for indirect injury due to propagating shear and stress waves, Bellamy and Zajtchuck expresses an openness to the idea of pressure transients propagating via blood vessels can cause indirect injuries.", "\"For example, pressure transients arising from an abdominal gunshot wound might propagate through the vena cavae and jugular venous system into the cranial cavity and cause a precipitous rise in intracranial pressure there, with attendant transient neurological dysfunction.\"", "(p. 154) However, no examples of this injury mechanism are presented from the WDMET data.", "However, the authors suggest the need for additional studies writing, \"Clinical and experimental data need to be gathered before such indirect injuries can be confirmed.\"", "Distant injuries of this nature were later confirmed in the experimental data of Swedish and Chinese researchers, in the clinical findings of Krajsa and in autopsy findings from Iraq." ], [ "Autopsy findings", "Proponents of the concept point to human autopsy results demonstrating brain hemorrhaging from fatal hits to the chest, including cases with handgun bullets.", "Thirty-three cases of fatal penetrating chest wounds by a single bullet were selected from a much larger set by excluding all other traumatic factors, including past history.An 8-month study in Iraq performed in 2010 and published in 2011 reports on autopsies of 30 gunshot victims struck with high-velocity (greater than 2500 fps) rifle bullets.", "The authors determined that the lungs and chest are the most susceptible to distant wounding, followed by the abdomen.", "The study noted that the \"sample size was so small too small to reach the level of statistical significance\".", "Nevertheless, the authors conclude:" ], [ "Inferences from blast pressure wave observations", "Ballistic pressure waves believed to be the mechanism of hydrostatic shock that were measured with a high speed pressure transducer for the specified loads.A shock wave can be created when fluid is rapidly displaced by an explosive or projectile.", "Tissue behaves similarly enough to water that a sonic pressure wave can be created by a bullet impact, generating pressures in excess of .Duncan MacPherson, a former member of the International Wound Ballistics Association and author of the book, ''Bullet Penetration'', claimed that shock waves cannot result from bullet impacts with tissue.", "In contrast, Brad Sturtevant, a leading researcher in shock wave physics at Caltech for many decades, found that shock waves can result from handgun bullet impacts in tissue.", "Other sources indicate that ballistic impacts can create shock waves in tissue.Blast and ballistic pressure waves have physical similarities.", "Prior to wave reflection, they both are characterized by a steep wave front followed by a nearly exponential decay at close distances.", "They have similarities in how they cause neural effects in the brain.", "In tissue, both types of pressure waves have similar magnitudes, duration, and frequency characteristics.", "Both have been shown to cause damage in the hippocampus.", "It has been hypothesized that both reach the brain from the thoracic cavity via major blood vessels.For example, Ibolja Cernak, a leading researcher in blast wave injury at the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, hypothesized, \"alterations in brain function following blast exposure are induced by kinetic energy transfer of blast overpressure via great blood vessels in abdomen and thorax to the central nervous system.\"", "This hypothesis is supported by observations of neural effects in the brain from localized blast exposure focused on the lungs in experiments in animals." ], [ "Physics of ballistic pressure waves", "World War II era ballistic pressure wave measurement.", "Peak is , duration is 0.12 ms.A number of papers describe the physics of ballistic pressure waves created when a high-speed projectile enters a viscous medium.", "These results show that ballistic impacts produce pressure waves that propagate at close to the speed of sound.Lee et al.", "present an analytical model showing that unreflected ballistic pressure waves are well approximated by an exponential decay, which is similar to blast pressure waves.", "Lee et al.", "note the importance of the energy transfer:The rigorous calculations of Lee et al.", "require knowing the drag coefficient and frontal area of the penetrating projectile at every instant of the penetration.", "Since this is not generally possible with expanding handgun bullets, Courtney and Courtney developed a model for estimating the peak pressure waves of handgun bullets from the impact energy and penetration depth in ballistic gelatin.", "This model agrees with the more rigorous approach of Lee et al.", "for projectiles where they can both be applied.", "For expanding handgun bullets, the peak pressure wave magnitude is proportional to the bullet's kinetic energy divided by the penetration depth." ], [ "Remote cerebral effects of ballistic pressure waves", "Göransson et al.", "were the first contemporary researchers to present compelling evidence for remote cerebral effects of extremity bullet impact.", "They observed changes in EEG readings from pigs shot in the thigh.", "A follow-up experiment by Suneson et al.", "implanted high-speed pressure transducers into the brain of pigs and demonstrated that a significant pressure wave reaches the brain of pigs shot in the thigh.", "These scientists observed apnea, depressed EEG readings, and neural damage in the brain caused by the distant effects of the ballistic pressure wave originating in the thigh.The results of Suneson et al.", "were confirmed and expanded upon by a later experiment in dogswhich \"confirmed that distant effect exists in the central nervous system after a high-energy missile impact to an extremity.", "A high-frequency oscillating pressure wave with large amplitude and short duration was found in the brain after the extremity impact of a high-energy missile...\" Wang et al.", "observed significant damage in both the hypothalamus and hippocampus regions of the brain due to remote effects of the ballistic pressure wave." ], [ "Remote pressure wave effects in the spine and internal organs", "In a study of a handgun injury, Sturtevant found that pressure waves from a bullet impact in the torso can reach the spine and that a focusing effect from concave surfaces can concentrate the pressure wave on the spinal cord producing significant injury.", "This is consistent with other work showing remote spinal cord injuries from ballistic impacts.Roberts et al.", "present both experimental work and finite element modeling showing that there can be considerable pressure wave magnitudes in the thoracic cavity for handgun projectiles stopped by a Kevlar vest.", "For example, an 8 gram projectile at 360 m/s impacting a NIJ level II vest over the sternum can produce an estimated pressure wave level of nearly 2.0 MPa (280 psi) in the heart and a pressure wave level of nearly 1.5 MPa (210 psi) in the lungs.", "Impacting over the liver can produce an estimated pressure wave level of 2.0 MPa (280 psi) in the liver." ], [ "Energy transfer required for remote neural effects", "The work of Courtney et al.", "supports the role of a ballistic pressure wave in incapacitation and injury.", "The work of Suneson et al.", "and Courtney et al.", "suggest that remote neural effects can occur with levels of energy transfer possible with handguns, about .", "Using sensitive biochemical techniques, the work of Wang et al.", "suggests even lower impact energy thresholds for remote neural injury to the brain.", "In analysis of experiments of dogs shot in the thigh they report highly significant (p < 0.01), easily detectable neural effects in the hypothalamus and hippocampus with energy transfer levels close to .", "Wang et al.", "reports less significant (p < 0.05) remote effects in the hypothalamus with energy transfer just under .Even though Wang et al.", "document remote neural damage for low levels of energy transfer, roughly , these levels of neural damage are probably too small to contribute to rapid incapacitation.", "Courtney and Courtney believe that remote neural effects only begin to make significant contributions to rapid incapacitation for ballistic pressure wave levels above (corresponds to transferring roughly in of penetration) and become easily observable above (corresponds to transferring roughly in of penetration).", "Incapacitating effects in this range of energy transfer are consistent with observations of remote spinal injuries, observations of suppressed EEGs and apnea in pigs and with observations of incapacitating effects of ballistic pressure waves without a wound channel." ], [ "Other scientific findings", "The scientific literature contains significant other findings regarding injury mechanisms of ballistic pressure waves.", "Ming et al.", "found that ballistic pressure waves can break bones.", "Tikka et al.", "reports abdominal pressure changes produced in pigs hit in one thigh.", "Akimov et al.", "report on injuries to the nerve trunk from gunshot wounds to the extremities." ], [ "Hydrostatic shock as a factor in selection of ammunition", "===Ammunition selection for self-defense, military, and law enforcement===In self-defense, military, and law enforcement communities, opinions vary regarding the importance of remote wounding effects in ammunition design and selection.", "In his book on hostage rescuers, Leroy Thompson discusses the importance of hydrostatic shock in choosing a specific design of .357 Magnum and 9×19mm Parabellum bullets.", "In ''Armed and Female'', Paxton Quigley explains that hydrostatic shock is the real source of \"stopping power.\"", "Jim Carmichael, who served as shooting editor for ''Outdoor Life'' magazine for 25 years, believes that hydrostatic shock is important to \"a more immediate disabling effect\" and is a key difference in the performance of .38 Special and .357 Magnum hollow point bullets.", "In \"The search for an effective police handgun,\" Allen Bristow describes that police departments recognize the importance of hydrostatic shock when choosing ammunition.", "A research group at West Point suggests handgun loads with at least of energy and of penetration and recommends:A number of law enforcement and military agencies have adopted the 5.7×28mm cartridge.", "These agencies include the Navy SEALs and the Federal Protective Service branch of the ICE.", "In contrast, some defense contractors, law enforcement analysts, and military analysts say that hydrostatic shock is an unimportant factor when selecting cartridges for a particular use because any incapacitating effect it may have on a target is difficult to measure and inconsistent from one individual to the next.", "This is in contrast to factors such as proper shot placement and massive blood loss which are almost always eventually incapacitating for nearly every individual.The FBI recommends that loads intended for self-defense and law enforcement applications meet a minimum penetration requirement of in ballistic gelatin and explicitly advises against selecting rounds based on hydrostatic shock effects.===Ammunition selection for hunting===Hydrostatic shock is commonly considered as a factor in the selection of hunting ammunition.", "Peter Capstick explains that hydrostatic shock may have value for animals up to the size of white-tailed deer, but the ratio of energy transfer to animal weight is an important consideration for larger animals.", "If the animal's weight exceeds the bullet's energy transfer, penetration in an undeviating line to a vital organ is a much more important consideration than energy transfer and hydrostatic shock.", "Jim Carmichael, in contrast, describes evidence that hydrostatic shock can affect animals as large as Cape Buffalo in the results of a carefully controlled study carried out by veterinarians in a buffalo culling operation.Randall Gilbert describes hydrostatic shock as an important factor in bullet performance on whitetail deer, \"When it a bullet enters a whitetail’s body, huge accompanying shock waves send vast amounts of energy through nearby organs, sending them into arrest or shut down.\"", "Dave Ehrig expresses the view that hydrostatic shock depends on impact velocities above per second.", "Sid Evans explains the performance of the Nosler Partition bullet and Federal Cartridge Company's decision to load this bullet in terms of the large tissue cavitation and hydrostatic shock produced from the frontal diameter of the expanded bullet.", "The North American Hunting Club suggests big game cartridges that create enough hydrostatic shock to quickly bring animals down." ], [ "See also", "Blast injuryShock (fluid dynamics)Stopping powerTable of handgun and rifle cartridges" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Terminal Ballistics Research" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hadith" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Ḥadīth''''' ( or ; , , ; '''''', , , , ) or '''Athar''' (, , ) refers to what most Muslims and the mainstream schools of Islamic thought believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Islamic prophet Muhammad as transmitted through chains of narrators.", "In other words, the ḥadīth are attributed reports about what Muhammad said and did (see: Oral tradition).", "is the Arabic word for things like a report or an account (of an event).", "For many, the authority of hadith is a source for religious and moral guidance known as Sunnah, which ranks second only to that of the Quran (which Muslims hold to be the word of God revealed to Muhammad).", "While the number of verses pertaining to law in the Quran is relatively small, hadith are considered by many to give direction on everything from details of religious obligations (such as or , ablutions for prayer), to the correct forms of salutations and the importance of benevolence to slaves.", "Thus for many, the \"great bulk\" of the rules of Sharia are derived from hadith, rather than the Quran.", "Among scholars of Sunni Islam the term hadith may include not only the words, advice, practices, etc.", "of Muhammad, but also those of his companions.", "In Shia Islam, hadith are the embodiment of the sunnah, the words and actions of Muhammad and his family, the (The Twelve Imams and Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah).", "Ibn Hanbal's Islamic legal writings (Sharia), produced October 879\|250x250pxUnlike the Quran, not all Muslims believe that hadith accounts (or at least not all hadith accounts) are divine revelation.", "Different collections of hadīth would come to differentiate the different branches of the Islamic faith.", "Some Muslims believe that Islamic guidance should be based on the Quran only, thus rejecting the authority of hadith; some further claim that most hadiths are fabrications (pseudepigrapha) created in the 8th and 9th centuries AD, and which are falsely attributed to Muhammad.", "Historically, some sects of the Kharijites also rejected the hadiths, while Mu'tazilites rejected the hadiths as the basis for Islamic law, while at the same time accepting the Sunnah and Ijma.", "Muslims who criticise the hadith emphasise that the problems in the Islamic world come partly from the traditional elements of the hadith and seek to reject those teachings.", "Because some hadith contain questionable and even contradictory statements, the authentication of hadith became a major field of study in Islam.", "In its classic form a hadith consists of two parts—the chain of narrators who have transmitted the report (the ), and the main text of the report (the ).", "Individual hadith are classified by Muslim clerics and jurists into categories such as (\"authentic\"), (\"good\"), or (\"weak\").", "However, different groups and different scholars may classify a hadith differently." ], [ "Etymology", "In Arabic, the noun ( ) means \"report\", \"account\", or \"narrative\".", "Its Arabic plural is ( ).", "''Hadith'' also refers to the speech of a person." ], [ "Definition", "In Islamic terminology, according to Juan Campo, the term ''hadith'' refers to reports of statements or actions of Muhammad, or of his tacit approval or criticism of something said or done in his presence.Classical hadith specialist Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani says that the intended meaning of ''hadith'' in religious tradition is something attributed to Muhammad but that is not found in the Quran.Scholar Patricia Crone includes reports by others than Muhammad in her definition of hadith: \"short reports (sometimes just a line or two) recording what an early figure, such as a companion of the prophet or Muhammad himself, said or did on a particular occasion, preceded by a chain of transmitters\".", "However, she adds that \"nowadays, hadith almost always means hadith from Muhammad himself.", "\"In contrast, according to the Shia Islam Ahlul Bayt Digital Library Project, \"... when there is no clear Qur'anic statement, nor is there a Hadith upon which Muslim schools have agreed.", "... Shi'a ... refer to Ahlul-Bayt the family of Muhammad to derive the Sunnah of the Prophet\"—implying that while hadith is limited to the \"Traditions\" of Muhammad, the Shi'a Sunna draws on the sayings, etc.", "of the i.e.", "the Imams of Shi'a Islam.===Distinction from ===The word is also used in reference to a normative custom of Muhammad or the early Muslim community.Joseph Schacht describes hadith as providing \"the documentation\" of the .Another source (Joseph A. Islam) distinguishes between the two saying: Whereas the 'Hadith' is an oral communication that is allegedly derived from the Prophet or his teachings, the 'Sunna' (quite literally: mode of life, behaviour or example) signifies the prevailing customs of a particular community or people.", "... A 'Sunna' is a practice which has been passed on by a community from generation to generation en masse, whereas the hadith are reports collected by later compilers often centuries removed from the source.", "... A practice which is contained within the Hadith may well be regarded as Sunna, but it is not necessary that a Sunna would have a supporting hadith sanctioning it.Some sources (Khaled Abou El Fadl) limit hadith to verbal reports, with the deeds of Muhammad and reports about his companions being part of the , but not hadith.===Distinction from other literature===Islamic literary classifications similar to hadith (but not ) are and .", "They differ from hadith in that they are organized \"relatively chronologically\" rather than by subject.", "* (literally \"way of going\" or \"conduct\"), biographies of Muhammad, written since the middle of the eighth century.", "Similar writings called (literally \"raid\") preceded the literature, focusing on military actions of Muhammad, but also included non-military aspects of his life.", "Therefore, there is overlap in the meaning of the terms, although suggests military aspects rather than general biographical ones.Other \"traditions\" of Islam related to hadith include: * (literally news, information, pl. )", "may be used as a synonym for hadith, but some scholars use it to refer to traditions about Muhammad's companions and their successors from the following generation, in contrast to hadith as defined as traditions about Muhammad himself.", "Another definition (by Ibn Warraq) describes them as \"discrete anecdotes or reports\" from early Islam which \"include simple statements, utterances of authoritative scholars, saints, or statesmen, reports of events, and stories about historical events all varying in length from one line to several pages.\"", "Conversely, (trace, remnant) usually refers to traditions about the companions and successors, though sometimes connotes traditions about Muhammad." ], [ "Hadith compilation", "The hadith literature in use today is based on spoken reports in circulation after the death of Muhammad.", "Unlike the Quran, hadith were not promptly written down during Muhammad's lifetime or immediately after his death.", "Hadith were evaluated orally to written and gathered into large collections during the 8th and 9th centuries, generations after Muhammad's death, after the end of the era of the Rashidun Caliphate, over 1,000 km (600 mi) from where Muhammad lived.", "\"Many thousands of times\" more numerous than the verses of the Quran, hadith have been described as resembling layers surrounding the \"core\" of Islamic beliefs (the Quran).", "Well-known, widely accepted hadith make up the narrow inner layer, with a hadith becoming less reliable and accepted with each layer stretching outward.The reports of Muhammad's (and sometimes his companions') behavior collected by hadith compilers include details of ritual religious practice such as the five (obligatory Islamic prayers) that are not found in the Quran, as well as everyday behavior such as table manners, dress, and posture.", "Hadith are also regarded by Muslims as important tools for understanding things mentioned in the Quran but not explained, a source for (commentaries written on the Quran).Some important elements, which are today taken to be a long-held part of Islamic practice and belief are not mentioned in the Quran, but are reported in hadiths.", "Therefore, Muslims usually maintain that hadiths are a necessary requirement for the true and proper practice of Islam, as it gives Muslims the nuanced details of Islamic practice and belief in areas where the Quran is silent.", "An example is the obligatory prayers, which are commanded in the Quran, but explained in hadith.Details of the prescribed movements and words of the prayer (known as ) and how many times they are to be performed, are found in hadith.", "However, hadiths differ on these details and consequently is performed differently by different hadithist Islamic sects.", "Quranists, on the other hand, believe that if the Quran is silent on some matter, it is because God did not hold its detail to be of consequence; and that some hadith contradict the Quran, proving that some hadith are a source of corruption and not a complement to the Quran.===Non-prophetic hadith===Joseph Schacht quotes a hadith of Muhammad that is used \"to justify reference\" in Islamic law to the companions of Muhammad as religious authorities—\"My companions are like lodestars.", "\"According to Schacht, (and other scholars) in the very first generations after the death of Muhammad, use of hadith from (\"companions\" of Muhammad) and (\"successors\" of the companions) \"was the rule\", while use of hadith of Muhammad himself by Muslims was \"the exception\".", "Schacht credits Al-Shafi'i—founder of the Shafi'i school of (or )—with establishing the principle of the using the hadith of Muhammad for Islamic law, and emphasizing the inferiority of hadith of anyone else, saying hadiths:\"...from other persons are of no account in the face of a tradition from the Prophet, whether they confirm or contradict it; if the other persons had been aware of the tradition from the Prophet, they would have followed it\".This led to \"the almost complete neglect\" of traditions from the Companions and others.Collections of hadith sometimes mix those of Muhammad with the reports of others.", "Muwatta Imam Malik is usually described as \"the earliest written collection of hadith\" but sayings of Muhammad are \"blended with the sayings of the companions\", (822 hadith from Muhammad and 898 from others, according to the count of one edition).In ''Introduction to Hadith'' by Abd al-Hadi al-Fadli, is referred to as \"the first hadith book of the (family of Muhammad) to be written on the authority of the Prophet\".", "However, the acts, statements or approvals of the Prophet Muhammad are called , while those of companions are called , and those of Tabi'un are called ." ], [ "Impact, typology and components", "===Impact===The hadith had a profound and controversial influence on ''tafsir'' (commentaries of the Quran).", "The earliest commentary of the Quran known as Tafsir Ibn Abbas is sometimes attributed to the companion Ibn Abbas.The hadith were used the form the basis of ''sharia'' (the religious law system forming part of the Islamic tradition), and ''fiqh'' (Islamic jurisprudence).", "The hadith are at the root of why there is no single ''fiqh'' system, but rather a collection of parallel systems within Islam.Much of the early Islamic history available today is also based on the hadith, although it has been challenged for its lack of basis in primary source material and the internal contradictions of available secondary material.The hadith have been called by American-Sunni scholar Jonathan A. C. Brown as \"the backbone\" of Islamic civilization.===Types=== Hadith may be ''hadith qudsi'' (sacred hadith) — which some Muslims regard as the words of God — or ''hadith sharif'' (noble hadith), which are Muhammad's own utterances.According to as-Sayyid ash-Sharif al-Jurjani, the hadith qudsi differ from the Quran in that the former are \"expressed in Muhammad's words\", whereas the latter are the \"direct words of God\".", "A ''hadith qudsi'' need not be a ''sahih'' (sound hadith), but may be ''da'if'' or even ''mawdu'''.An example of a ''hadith qudsi'' is the hadith of Abu Hurairah who said that Muhammad said:When God decreed the Creation He pledged Himself by writing in His book which is laid down with Him: My mercy prevails over My wrath.In the Shia school of thought, there are two fundamental viewpoints of hadith: The Usuli view and the Akhbari view.", "The Usuli scholars emphasize the importance of scientific examination of hadiths through ijtihad while the Akhbari scholars consider all hadiths from the four Shia books as authentic.===Components===The two major aspects of a hadith are the text of the report (the ''matn''), which contains the actual narrative, and the chain of narrators (the ''isnad''), which documents the route by which the report has been transmitted.", "The isnad was an effort to document that a hadith actually came from Muhammad, and Muslim scholars from the eighth century to the present have never ceased to repeat the mantra \"The isnad is part of the religion — if not for the isnad, whoever wanted could say whatever they wanted.\"", "The ''isnad'' literally means \"support\", and it is so named because hadith specialists rely on it to determine the authenticity or weakness of a hadith.", "The ''isnad'' consists of a chronological list of the narrators, each mentioning the one from whom they heard the hadith, until mentioning the originator of the ''matn'' along with the ''matn'' itself.The first people to hear hadith were the companions who preserved it and then conveyed it to those after them.", "Then the generation following them received it, thus conveying it to those after them and so on.", "So a companion would say, \"I heard the Prophet say such and such.\"", "The Follower would then say, \"I heard a companion say, 'I heard the Prophet.", "The one after him would then say, \"I heard someone say, 'I heard a Companion say, 'I heard the Prophet...\" and so on." ], [ "Hadith literature by branch or denomination of Islam", "Different branches of Islam refer to different collections of hadith, although the same incident may be found in hadith from different collections.", "In general, the difference between Shi'a and Sunni collections is that Shia give preference to hadiths attributed to Muhammad's family and close companions (''Ahl al-Bayt''), while Sunnis do not consider family lineage in evaluating hadith and sunnah narrated by any of twelve thousand companions of Muhammad.===Sunni===In the Sunni branch of Islam, the canonical hadith collections are ''the six books'', of which Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim generally have the highest status.", "The other books of hadith are Sunan Abu Dawood, Jami' al-Tirmidhi, Al-Sunan al-Sughra and Sunan ibn Majah.", "However the Malikis, one of the four Sunni \"schools of thought\" (''madhhabs''), traditionally reject Sunan ibn Majah and assert the canonical status of Muwatta Imam Malik.===Shia===In the Twelver Shi'a branch of Islam, the canonical hadith collections are ''the Four Books'': Kitab al-Kafi, Man la yahduruhu al-Faqih, Tahdhib al-Ahkam, and Al-Istibsar.", "The Ismaili shia sects use the Da'a'im al-Islam as their hadith collection.===Ibadi===In the Ibadi branch of Islam, the main canonical collection is the Tartib al-Musnad.", "This is an expansion of the earlier Jami Sahih collection, which retains canonical status in its own right.===Others===Some minor groups, collectively known as Quranists, reject the authority of the hadith collections altogether." ], [ "History, tradition and usage", "===History===Traditions of the life of Muhammad and the early history of Islam were passed down mostly orally for more than a hundred years after Muhammad's death in AD 632.Muslim historians say that Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (the third khalifa (caliph) of the Rashidun Caliphate, or third successor of Muhammad, who had formerly been Muhammad's secretary), is generally credited with urging Muslims to record the hadith just as Muhammad had suggested that some of his followers to write down his words and actions.Uthman's labours were cut short by his assassination, at the hands of aggrieved soldiers, in 656.No direct sources survive directly from this period so we are dependent on what later writers tell us about this period.According to British historian of Arab world Alfred Guillaume, it is \"certain\" that \"several small collections\" of hadith were \"assembled in Umayyad times.", "\"In Islamic law, the use of hadith as it is understood today (hadith of Muhammad with documentation, isnads, etc.)", "came gradually.", "According to scholars such as Joseph Schacht, Ignaz Goldziher, and Daniel W. Brown, early schools of Islamic jurisprudence used the rulings of the Prophet's Companions, the rulings of the Caliphs, and practices that “had gained general acceptance among the jurists of that school”.", "On his deathbed, Caliph Umar instructed Muslims to seek guidance from the Quran, the early Muslims (''muhajirun'') who emigrated to Medina with Muhammad, the Medina residents who welcomed and supported the ''muhajirun'' (the ''ansar'') and the people of the desert.According to the scholars Harald Motzki and Daniel W. Brown the earliest Islamic legal reasonings that have come down to us were \"virtually hadith-free\", but gradually, over the course of second century A.H. \"the infiltration and incorporation of Prophetic hadiths into Islamic jurisprudence\" took place.It was Abū ʿAbdullāh Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī (150-204 AH), known as al-Shafi'i, who emphasized the final authority of a hadith of Muhammad, so that even the Quran was \"to be interpreted in the light of traditions (i.e.", "hadith), and not vice versa.\"", "While traditionally the Qur'an has traditionally been considered superior in authority to the sunna, Al-Shafi'i \"forcefully argued\" that the sunna was \"on equal footing with the Quran\", (according to scholar Daniel Brown) for (as Al-Shafi'i put it) “the command of the Prophet is the command of God.”In 851 the rationalist Mu`tazila school of thought fell out of favor in the Abbasid Caliphate.", "The Mu`tazila, for whom the \"judge of truth ... was human reason,\" had clashed with traditionists who looked to the literal meaning of the Quran and hadith for truth.", "While the Quran had been officially compiled and approved, hadiths had not.One result was the number of hadiths began \"multiplying in suspiciously direct correlation to their utility\" to the quoter of the hadith (Traditionists quoted hadith warning against listening to human opinion instead of Sharia; Hanafites quoted a hadith stating that \"In my community there will rise a man called Abu Hanifa the Hanafite founder who will be its guiding light\".", "In fact one agreed upon hadith warned that, \"There will be forgers, liars who will bring you hadiths which neither you nor your forefathers have heard, Beware of them.\"", "In addition the number of hadith grew enormously.", "While Malik ibn Anas had attributed just 1720 statements or deeds to the Muhammad, it was no longer unusual to find people who had collected a hundred times that number of hadith.Faced with a huge corpus of miscellaneous traditions supporting different views on a wide variety of controversial matters—some of them flatly contradicting each other—Islamic scholars of the Abbasid period sought to authenticate hadith.", "Scholars had to decide which hadith were to be trusted as authentic and which had been fabricated for political or theological purposes.", "To do this, they used a number of techniques which Muslims now call the science of hadith.The earliest surviving hadith manuscripts were copied on papyrus.", "A long scroll collects traditions transmitted by the scholar and qadi 'Abd Allāh ibn Lahīʻa (d. 790).", "A ''Ḥadīth Dāwūd'' (''History of David''), attributed to Wahb ibn Munabbih, survives in a manuscript dated 844.A collection of hadiths dedicated to invocations to God, attributed to a certain Khālid ibn Yazīd, is dated 880-881.A consistent fragment of the ''Jāmiʿ'' of the Egyptian Maliki jurist 'Abd Allāh ibn Wahb (d. 813) is finally dated to 889.===Shia and Sunni textual traditions===Sunni and Shia hadith collections differ because scholars from the two traditions differ as to the reliability of the narrators and transmitters.", "Narrators who sided with Abu Bakr and Umar rather than Ali, in the disputes over leadership that followed the death of Muhammad, are considered unreliable by the Shia; narrations attributed to Ali and the family of Muhammad, and to their supporters, are preferred.", "Sunni scholars put trust in narrators such as Aisha, whom Shia reject.", "Differences in hadith collections have contributed to differences in worship practices and shari'a law and have hardened the dividing line between the two traditions.====Extent and nature in the Sunni tradition====In the Sunni tradition, the number of such texts is somewhere between seven and thirteen thousand, but the number of ''hadiths'' is far greater because several ''isnad'' sharing the same text are each counted as individual hadith.", "If, say, ten companions record a text reporting a single incident in the life of Muhammad, hadith scholars can count this as ten hadiths.", "Thus, Musnad Ahmad, for example, has over 30,000 hadiths—but this count includes texts that are repeated in order to record slight variations within the text or within the chains of narrations.", "Identifying the narrators of the various texts, comparing their narrations of the same texts to identify both the soundest reporting of a text and the reporters who are most sound in their reporting occupied experts of hadith throughout the 2nd century.", "In the 3rd century of Islam (from 225/840 to about 275/889), hadith experts composed brief works recording a selection of about two- to five-thousand such texts which they felt to have been most soundly documented or most widely referred to in the Muslim scholarly community.", "The 4th and 5th century saw these six works being commented on quite widely.", "This auxiliary literature has contributed to making their study the place of departure for any serious study of hadith.", "In addition, Bukhari and Muslim in particular, claimed that they were collecting only the soundest of sound hadiths.", "These later scholars tested their claims and agreed to them, so that today, they are considered the most reliable collections of hadith.", "Toward the end of the 5th century, Ibn al-Qaisarani formally standardized the Sunni canon into six pivotal works, a delineation which remains to this day.Over the centuries, several different categories of collections have emerged.", "Some are more general, such as the ''muṣannaf'', the ''muʿjam'', and the ''jāmiʿ'', and some more specific, characterized either by the subjects covered, such as the ''sunan'' (restricted to legal-liturgical traditions), or by''their''s composition, such as the ''arbaʿīniyyāt'' (collections of forty hadiths).====Extent and nature in the Shia tradition====Shi'a Muslims seldom if ever use the six major hadith collections followed by the Sunnis because they do not trust many of the Sunni narrators and transmitters.", "They have their own extensive hadith literature.", "The best-known hadith collections are The Four Books, which were compiled by three authors who are known as the 'Three Muhammads'.", "The Four Books are: ''Kitab al-Kafi'' by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni al-Razi (329 AH), ''Man la yahduruhu al-Faqih'' by Muhammad ibn Babuya and ''Al-Tahdhib'' and ''Al-Istibsar'' both by Shaykh Muhammad Tusi.", "Shi'a clerics also make use of extensive collections and commentaries by later authors.Unlike Sunnis, the majority of Shia do not consider any of their hadith collections to be sahih (authentic) in their entirety.", "Therefore, each individual hadith in a specific collection must be investigated separately to determine its authenticity.", "The Akhbari school, however, considers all the hadith from the four books to be authentic.The importance of hadith in the Shia school of thought is well documented.", "This can be captured by Ali ibn Abi Talib, cousin of Muhammad, when he narrated that \"Whoever of our Shia (followers) knows our Shariah and takes out the weak of our followers from the darkness of ignorance to the light of knowledge (Hadith) which we (Ahl al-Bayt) have gifted to them, he on the day of judgement will come with a crown on his head.", "It will shine among the people gathered on the plain of resurrection.\"", "Hassan al-Askari, a descendant of Muhammad, gave support to this narration, stating \"Whoever he had taken out in the worldly life from the darkness of ignorance can hold to his light to be taken out of the darkness of the plain of resurrection to the garden (paradise).", "Then all those whomever he had taught in the worldly life anything of goodness, or had opened from his heart a lock of ignorance or had removed his doubts will come out.", "\"Regarding the importance of maintaining accuracy in recording hadith, it has been documented that Muhammad al-Baqir, the great grandson of Muhammad, has said that \"Holding back in a doubtful issue is better than entering destruction.", "Your not narrating a Hadith is better than you narrating a Hadith in which you have not studied thoroughly.", "On every truth, there is a reality.", "Above every right thing, there is a light.", "Whatever agrees with the book of Allah you must take it and whatever disagrees you must leave it alone.\"", "Al-Baqir also emphasized the selfless devotion of Ahl al-Bayt to preserving the traditions of Muhammad through his conversation with Jabir ibn Abd Allah, an old companion of Muhammad.", "He (Al-Baqir) said, \"Oh Jabir, had we spoken to you from our opinions and desires, we would be counted among those who are destroyed.", "We speak to you of the hadith which we treasure from the Messenger of Allah, Oh Allah grant compensation to Muhammad and his family worthy of their services to your cause, just as they treasure their gold and silver.\"", "Further, it has been narrated that Ja'far al-Sadiq, the son of al-Baqir, has said the following regarding hadith: \"You must write it down; you will not memorize until you write it down.", "\"===Modern usage===Imam Nawawi's Forty Hadith taught in the Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan in Cairo, EgyptHadith as an Interpretation of the Holy Quran: The mainstream sects consider hadith to be essential supplements to, and clarifications of, the Quran, Islam's holy book, as well as for clarifying issues pertaining to Islamic jurisprudence.", "Ibn al-Salah, a hadith specialist, described the relationship between hadith and other aspects of the religion by saying: \"It is the science most pervasive in respect to the other sciences in their various branches, in particular to jurisprudence being the most important of them.\"", "\"The intended meaning of 'other sciences' here are those pertaining to religion,\" explains Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, \"Quranic exegesis, hadith, and jurisprudence.", "The science of hadith became the most pervasive due to the need displayed by each of these three sciences.", "The need hadith has of its science is apparent.", "As for Quranic exegesis, then the preferred manner of explaining the speech of God is by means of what has been accepted as a statement of Muhammad.", "The one looking to this is in need of distinguishing the acceptable from the unacceptable.", "Regarding jurisprudence, then the jurist is in need of citing as an evidence the acceptable to the exception of the later, something only possible utilizing the science of hadith.\"" ], [ "Studies and authentication", "Authenticity of a hadith is primarily verified by its chain of transmission (isnad).", "Because a chain of transmission can be a forgery, the status of authenticity given by Muslim scholars, is not accepted by Orientalists or historians.", "Ignaz Goldziherr demonstrated that several hadiths do not fit the time of Muhammad chronologically and content-wise.", "As a result, many Orientalists regarded hadiths generally to be constructs of a later period of time, temporarily.", "This overly critical attitude is not the norm today.", "Comparing and analyzing different hadiths shows that many hadiths must have been written as early as the 7th century.", "According to Bernard Lewis, \"in the early Islamic centuries there could be no better way of promoting a cause, an opinion, or a faction than to cite an appropriate action or utterance of the Prophet.\"", "To fight these forgeries, the elaborate science of hadith studies was devised to authenticate hadith known as ''ilm al jarh'' or ''ilm al dirayah'' Hadith studies use a number of methods of evaluation developed by early Muslim scholars in determining the veracity of reports attributed to Muhammad.", "This is achieved by: the individual narrators involved in its transmission, the scale of the report's transmission, analyzing the text of the report, and the routes through which the report was transmitted.Based on these criteria, various classifications of hadith have been developed.", "The earliest comprehensive work in hadith studies was Abu Muhammad al-Ramahurmuzi's ''al-Muhaddith al-Fasil'', while another significant work was al-Hakim al-Naysaburi's ''Ma‘rifat ‘ulum al-hadith''.", "Ibn al-Salah's ''ʻUlum al-hadith'' is considered the standard classical reference on hadith studies.", "Some schools of Hadith methodology apply as many as sixteen separate tests.===Biographical evaluation===Biographical analysis (''‘ilm al-rijāl'', lit.", "\"science of people\", also \"science of ''Asma Al-Rijal'' or ''‘ilm al-jarḥ wa al-taʻdīl'' (\"science of discrediting and accrediting\"), in which details about the transmitter are scrutinized.", "This includes analyzing their date and place of birth; familial connections; teachers and students; religiosity; moral behaviour; literary output; their travels; as well as their date of death.", "Based upon these criteria, the reliability (''thiqāt'') of the transmitter is assessed.", "It is also determined whether the individual was actually able to transmit the report, which is deduced from their contemporaneity and geographical proximity with the other transmitters in the chain.", "Examples of biographical dictionaries include: Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisi's ''Al-Kamal fi Asma' al-Rijal'', Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani's ''Tahdhīb al-Tahdhīb'' and al-Dhahabi's ''Tadhkirat al-huffaz''.===Scale of transmission===Hadith on matters of importance needed to come through a number of independent chains, this was known as the scale of transmission.", "Reports that passed through many reliable transmitters in many ''isnad'' up until their collection and transcription are known as ''mutawātir''.", "These reports are considered the most authoritative as they pass through so many different routes that collusion between all of the transmitters becomes an impossibility.", "Reports not meeting this standard are known as ''aahad'', and are of several different types.===Analyzing text===According to Muhammad Shafi, Hadith whose isnad has been scrutinized then have their text or ''matn'' examined for:contradiction of the Quran;contradiction of reliable hadith;making sense, being logical;being a report about the importance of an individual (or individuals) which is transmitted only through their supporters or family, and which is not supported by reports from other independent channels.However, Joseph Schacht states that the \"whole technical criticism of traditions ... is mainly based on criticism of isnads\", which he (and others) believe to be ineffective in eliminating fraudulent hadith.This claim was later refuted by Muhammad Mustafa Azmi in his book \"On Schacht's Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence\" , in which he demonstrated that Joseph Schacht critically misunderstood the hadith literature and its authentication system.===Terminology: admissible and inadmissible hadiths===Having been evaluated, hadith may be categorized.", "Two categories are: ''ṣaḥīḥ'' (sound, authentic), ''ḍaʿīf'' (weak)Other classifications include: ''ḥasan'' (good), which refers to an otherwise ''ṣaḥīḥ'' report suffering from minor deficiency, or a weak report strengthened due to numerous other corroborating reports; ''mawḍūʿ'' (fabricated), ''munkar'' (denounced) which is a report that is rejected due to the presence of an unreliable transmitter contradicting another more reliable narrator.", "Both ''sahīh'' and ''hasan'' reports are considered acceptable for usage in Islamic legal discourse.===Criticism===Critics have complained that, contrary to the description above where the ''matn'' is scrutinized, the process of authenticating hadith \"was confined to a careful examination of the chain of transmitters who narrated the report and not report itself.", "'Provided the chain was uninterrupted and its individual links deemed trustworthy persons, the Hadith was accepted as binding law.", "There could, by the terms of the religious faith itself, be no questioning of the content of the report; for this was the substance of divine revelation and therefore not susceptible to any form of legal or historical criticism,'\" according to scholar N.J. Coulson." ], [ "Criticism", "The major points of intra-Muslim criticism of the hadith literature is based in questions regarding its authenticity.", "However, Muslim criticism of hadith is also based on theological and philosophical Islamic grounds of argument and critique.Historically, some sects of the Kharijites rejected the Hadith.", "There were some who opposed even the writing down of the Hadith itself for fear that it would compete, or even replace the Qur'an.", "Mu'tazilites also rejected the hadiths as the basis for Islamic law, while at the same time accepting the Sunnah and ijma.", "For Mu'tazilites, the basic argument for rejecting the hadiths was that \"since its essence is transmission by individuals, it cannot be a sure avenue of our knowledge about the Prophetic teaching unlike the Qur'an about whose transmission there is a universal unanimity among Muslims\".With regard to clarity, Imam Ali al-Ridha has narrated that \"In our Hadith there are Mutashabih (unclear ones) like those in al-Quran as well as Muhkam (clear ones) like those of al-Quran.", "You must refer the unclear ones to the clear ones.", "\"Muslim scholars have a long history of questioning the hadith literature throughout Islamic history.", "Western academics also became active in the field later, starting in 1890, but much more often since 1950.Some Muslim critics of hadith even go so far as to completely reject them as the basic texts of Islam and instead adhere to the movement called Quranism.", "Quranists argue that the Quran itself does not contain an invitation to accept hadith as a second theological source alongside the Quran.", "The expression \"to obey God and the Messenger\", which occurs among others in 3:132 or 4:69, is understood to mean that one follows the Messenger whose task it was to convey the Quran by following the Quran alone.", "Muhammad is, so to speak, a mediator from God to people through the Quran alone and not through hadith, according to Quranists.", "Both modernist Muslims and Qur'anists believe that the problems in the Islamic world come partly from the traditional elements of the hadith and seek to reject those teachings.Among the most prominent Muslim critics of hadith in modern times are the Egyptian Rashad Khalifa, who became known as the \"discoverer\" of the Quran code (Code 19), the Malaysian Kassim Ahmad and the American-Turkish Edip Yüksel (Quranism)." ], [ "See also", " Categories of Hadith* Criticism of hadith* Hadith studies* Hadith terminology* Islamic honorifics* Kutub al-Sittah* List of fatwas* List of hadith authors and commentators* List of hadith collections* Oral Torah* Prophetic biography* Sacred tradition* Sharia* Tafsir" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * *** * * * * Schacht, Joseph (1950).", "The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence.", "Oxford: Clarendon* " ], [ "Further reading", "Saeed, Abu Hayyan, Hadiths Rejection .. What are the facts ?", "(December 17, 2023).", "Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4666920 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4666920* Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, Barnes & Noble )* English Translation of over 60,000 Basic Ahadith Books from Ahl Al-Bayt, Online Shia Islamic Articles, Books, Khutbat, Calendar, Duas ( including Bihar ul Anwaar})* ''1000 Qudsi Hadiths: An Encyclopedia of Divine Sayings''; New York: Arabic Virtual Translation Center; (2012) * * * Musa, A. Y.", "''Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam'', New York: Palgrave, 2008.", "* Fred M. Donner, ''Narratives of Islamic Origins'' (1998)* Tottoli, Roberto, \"Hadith\", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.", "), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp.", "231–236.=== Online ===* Hadith Islam, in ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', by Albert Kenneth Cragg, Gloria Lotha, Marco Sampaolo, Matt Stefon, Noah Tesch and Adam Zeidan* Hadith by Topics and advice of PBUH" ], [ "External links", "* Hadith – Search by keyword and find hadith by narrator* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hull (watercraft)" ], [ "Introduction", "Hull form lines, lengthwise and in cross-sectionA '''hull''' is the watertight body of a ship, boat, or flying boat.", "The hull may open at the top (such as a dinghy), or it may be fully or partially covered with a deck.", "Atop the deck may be a deckhouse and other superstructures, such as a funnel, derrick, or mast.", "The line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline." ], [ "General features", "Ship above the water with the entire hull visibleThere is a wide variety of hull types that are chosen for suitability for different usages, the hull shape being dependent upon the needs of the design.", "Shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat.", "The shape is chosen to strike a balance between cost, hydrostatic considerations (accommodation, load carrying, and stability), hydrodynamics (speed, power requirements, and motion and behavior in a seaway) and special considerations for the ship's role, such as the rounded bow of an icebreaker or the flat bottom of a landing craft.In a typical modern steel ship, the hull will have watertight decks, and major transverse members called bulkheads.", "There may also be intermediate members such as girders, stringers and webs, and minor members called ordinary transverse frames, frames, or longitudinals, depending on the structural arrangement.", "The uppermost continuous deck may be called the \"upper deck\", \"weather deck\", \"spar deck\", \"main deck\", or simply \"deck\".", "The particular name given depends on the context—the type of ship or boat, the arrangement, or even where it sails.In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames (often referred to as ribs) and bulkheads, which are further tied together by longitudinal stringers or ceiling.", "Often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel.", "In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, or be of a monocoque arrangement.", "In many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb, or other material.Perhaps the earliest proper hulls were built by the Ancient Egyptians, who by 3000 BC knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull." ], [ "Hull shapes", "Hulls come in many varieties and can have composite shape, (e.g., a fine entry forward and inverted bell shape aft), but are grouped primarily as follows:* Chined and hard-chined.", "Examples are the flat-bottom (chined), v-bottom, and multi-chine hull (several gentler hard chines, still not smooth).", "These types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length.", "* Moulded, round bilged or soft-chined.", "These hull shapes all have smooth curves.", "Examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull.===Planing and displacement hulls===Royal Navy World War II MTB planing at speed on calm water showing its hard chine hull with most of the forepart of the boat out of the water.", "* Displacement hull: here the hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy.", "Vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length except for especially narrow hulls such as sailing multihulls that are less limited this way.", "* Planing hull: here, the planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed.", "The dynamic lift reduces the wetted surface and therefore also the drag.", "They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged.", "The most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down.", "Planing hulls are more efficient at higher speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds.", "An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with good sea keeping.", "Sailboats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds.", "* Semi-displacement, or semi-planing: here the hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift; however, most of the vessel's weight is still supported through buoyancy.===Hull forms===At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull.With a small payload, such a craft has less of its hull below the waterline, giving less resistance and more speed.", "With a greater payload, resistance is greater and speed lower, but the hull's outward bend provides smoother performance in waves.", "As such, the inverted bell shape is a popular form used with planing hulls.====Chined and hard-chined hulls====A chined hull does not have a smooth rounded transition between bottom and sides.", "Instead, its contours are interrupted by sharp angles where predominantly longitudinal panels of the hull meet.", "The sharper the intersection (the more acute the angle), the \"harder\" the chine.", "More than one chine per side is possible.The Cajun \"pirogue\" is an example of a craft with hard chines.Benefits of this type of hull include potentially lower production cost and a (usually) fairly flat bottom, making the boat faster at planing.", "A hard chined hull resists rolling (in smooth water) more than does a hull with rounded bilges (the chine creates turbulence and drag resisting the rolling motion, as it moves through the water, the rounded-bilge provides less flow resistance around the turn).", "In rough seas, this can make the boat roll more, as the motion drags first down, then up, on a chine: round-bilge boats are more seakindly in waves, as a result.Chined hulls may have one of three shapes:* Flat-bottom chined hulls* Multi-chined hulls* V-bottom chined hulls.", "Sometimes called hard chine.Each of these chine hulls has its own unique characteristics and use.", "The flat-bottom hull has high initial stability but high drag.", "To counter the high drag, hull forms are narrow and sometimes severely tapered at bow and stern.", "This leads to poor stability when heeled in a sailboat.", "This is often countered by using heavy interior ballast on sailing versions.", "They are best suited to sheltered inshore waters.", "Early racing power boats were fine forward and flat aft.", "This produced maximum lift and a smooth, fast ride in flat water, but this hull form is easily unsettled in waves.", "The multi-chine hull approximates a curved hull form.", "It has less drag than a flat-bottom boat.", "Multi chines are more complex to build but produce a more seaworthy hull form.", "They are usually displacement hulls.", "V or arc-bottom chine boats have a Vshape between 6°and 23°.", "This is called the angle.", "The flatter shape of a 6-degree hull will plane with less wind or a lower-horsepower engine but will pound more in waves.", "The deep Vform (between 18and 23degrees) is only suited to high-powered planing boats.", "They require more powerful engines to lift the boat onto the plane but give a faster, smoother ride in waves.", "Displacement chined hulls have more wetted surface area, hence more drag, than an equivalent round-hull form, for any given displacement.====Smooth curve hulls====Smooth curve hulls are hulls that use, just like the curved hulls, a centreboard, or an attached keel.Semi round bilge hulls are somewhat less round.", "The advantage of the semi-round is that it is a nice middle between the S-bottom and chined hull.", "Typical examples of a semi-round bilge hull can be found in the Centaur and Laser sailing dinghies.Comparison of three types of hulls: S-bottom hulls are sailing boat hulls with a midships transverse half-section shaped like an ''s''.", "In the s-bottom, the hull has round bilges and merges smoothly with the keel, and there are no sharp corners on the hull sides between the keel centreline and the sheer line.", "Boats with this hull form may have a long fixed deep keel, or a long shallow fixed keel with a centreboard swing keel inside.", "Ballast may be internal, external, or a combination.", "This hull form was most popular in the late 19th and early to mid 20th centuries.", "Examples of small sailboats that use this s-shape are the Yngling and Randmeer." ], [ "Appendages", "* Control devices such as a rudder, trim tabs or stabilizing fins may be fitted.", "* A keel may be fitted on a hull to increase the transverse stability, directional stability or to create lift.", "* Retractable appendages include centreboards and daggerboards.", "* A forward protrusion below the waterline is called a bulbous bow.", "These are fitted on some hulls to reduce the wave making resistance drag and thereby increase fuel efficiency.", "Bulbs fitted at the stern are less common but accomplish a similar task." ], [ "Terms", "* '''Baseline''' is a level reference line from which vertical distances are measured.", "* '''Bow''' is the front part of the hull.", "* '''''' is the middle portion of the vessel in the fore and aft direction.", "* '''Port''' is the left side of the vessel when facing the bow from on board.", "* '''Starboard''' is the right side of the vessel when facing the bow from on board.", "* '''Stern''' is the rear part of the hull.", "* '''Waterline''' is an imaginary line circumscribing the hull that matches the surface of the water when the hull is not moving." ], [ "Metrics<!--linked from 'Ship measurements'-->", "Principal hull measurements''\"LWL & LOA\"''Hull forms are defined as follows:'''Block measures''' that define the principal dimensions.", "They are:* Beam or breadth ('''B''') is the width of the hull.", "(ex: BWL is the maximum beam at the waterline)* Draft ('''d''') or ('''T''') is the vertical distance from the bottom of the keel to the waterline.", "* Freeboard ('''FB''') is '''depth''' plus the height of the keel structure minus '''draft'''.", "* Length at the waterline ('''LWL''') is the length from the forwardmost point of the waterline measured in profile to the stern-most point of the waterline.", "* Length between perpendiculars ('''LBP''' or '''LPP''') is the length of the summer load waterline from the stern post to the point where it crosses the stem.", "(see also p/p)* Length overall ('''LOA''') is the extreme length from one end to the other.", "* Moulded depth ('''D''') is the vertical distance measured from the top of the keel to the underside of the upper deck at side.", "'''Form derivatives''' that are calculated from the shape and the block measures.", "They are:* Displacement ('''Δ''') is the weight of water equivalent to the immersed volume of the hull.", "* Longitudinal centre of buoyancy ('''LCB''') is the longitudinal position of the centroid of the displaced volume, often given as the distance from a point of reference (often midships) to the centroid of the static displaced volume.", "Note that the longitudinal centre of gravity or centre of the weight of the vessel must align with the LCB when the hull is in equilibrium.", "* Longitudinal centre of flotation ('''LCF''') is the longitudinal position of the centroid of the waterplane area, usually expressed as longitudinal distance from a point of reference (often midships) to the centre of the area of the static waterplane.", "This can be visualized as being the area defined by the water's surface and the hull.", "* Vertical centre of buoyancy ('''VCB''') is the vertical position of the centroid of displaced volume, generally given as a distance from a point of reference (such as the baseline) to the centre of the static displaced volume.", "* Volume ('''V''' or '''∇''') is the volume of water displaced by the hull.The volume of a ship's hull below the waterline (solid), divided by the volume of a rectangular solid (lines) of the same length, height and width, determine a ship's block coefficient.", "'''Coefficients''' help compare hull forms as well:# ('''Cb''') is the volume (V) divided by the LWL × BWL × TWL.", "If you draw a box around the submerged part of the ship, it is the ratio of the box volume occupied by the ship.", "It gives a sense of how much of the block defined by the LWL, beam (B) & draft (T) is filled by the hull.", "Full forms such as oil tankers will have a high Cb where fine shapes such as sailboats will have a low Cb.", "# Midship coefficient ('''Cm''' or '''Cx''') is the cross-sectional area (Ax) of the slice at midships (or at the largest section for Cx) divided by beam x draft.", "It displays the ratio of the largest underwater section of the hull to a rectangle of the same overall width and depth as the underwater section of the hull.", "This defines the fullness of the underbody.", "A low Cm indicates a cut-away mid-section and a high Cm indicates a boxy section shape.", "Sailboats have a cut-away mid-section with low Cx whereas cargo vessels have a boxy section with high Cx to help increase the Cb.", "# Prismatic coefficient ('''Cp''') is the volume (V) divided by LWLx Ax.", "It displays the ratio of the immersed volume of the hull to a volume of a prism with equal length to the ship and cross-sectional area equal to the largest underwater section of the hull (midship section).", "This is used to evaluate the distribution of the volume of the underbody.", "A low or fine Cp indicates a full mid-section and fine ends, a high or full Cp indicates a boat with fuller ends.", "Planing hulls and other highspeed hulls tend towards a higher Cp.", "Efficient displacement hulls travelling at a low Froude number will tend to have a low Cp.", "# Waterplane coefficient ('''Cw''') is the waterplane area divided by LWL x BWL.", "The waterplane coefficient expresses the fullness of the waterplane, or the ratio of the waterplane area to a rectangle of the same length and width.", "A low Cw figure indicates fine ends and a high Cw figure indicates fuller ends.", "High Cw improves stability as well as handling behavior in rough conditions.", "'''Note:'''" ], [ "Computer-aided design", "Use of computer-aided design has superseded paper-based methods of ship design that relied on manual calculations and lines drawing.", "Since the early 1990s, a variety of commercial and freeware software packages specialized for naval architecture have been developed that provide 3D drafting capabilities combined with calculation modules for hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.", "These may be referred to as geometric modeling systems for naval architecture." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * Hull classification symbol* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hymn" ], [ "Introduction", "'s ''Man Singing Hymn'' (1884)A '''hymn''' is a type of song, and partially synonymous with devotional song, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification.", "The word ''hymn'' derives from Greek (''hymnos''), which means \"a song of praise\".", "A writer of hymns is known as a hymnist.", "The singing or composition of hymns is called '''hymnody'''.", "Collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymn books.", "Hymns may or may not include instrumental accompaniment.Although most familiar to speakers of English in the context of Christianity, hymns are also a fixture of other world religions, especially on the Indian subcontinent (''stotras'').", "Hymns also survive from antiquity, especially from Egyptian and Greek cultures.", "Some of the oldest surviving examples of notated music are hymns with Greek texts." ], [ "Origins", "Ancient Eastern hymns include the Egyptian ''Great Hymn to the Aten'', composed by Pharaoh Akhenaten; the Hurrian ''Hymn to Nikkal''; the ''Rigveda'', an Indian collection of Vedic hymns; hymns from the ''Classic of Poetry'' (''Shijing''), a collection of Chinese poems from 11th to 7th centuries BC; the ''Gathas''—Avestan hymns believed to have been composed by Zoroaster; and the Biblical ''Book of Psalms''.The Western tradition of hymnody begins with the Homeric Hymns, a collection of ancient Greek hymns, the oldest of which were written in the 7th century BC, praising deities of the ancient Greek religions.", "Surviving from the 3rd century BC is a collection of six literary hymns () by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus.", "The ''Orphic hymns'' are a collection of 87 short poems in Greek religion.Patristic writers began applying the term , or ''hymnus'' in Latin, to Christian songs of praise, and frequently used the word as a synonym for \"psalm\"." ], [ "Christian hymnody", "Uffington Parish Church in England, 1944)Originally modelled on the Book of Psalms and other poetic passages (commonly referred to as \"canticles\") in the Scriptures, Christian hymns are generally directed as praise to the Christian God.", "Many refer to Jesus Christ either directly or indirectly.Since the earliest times, Christians have sung \"psalms and hymns and spiritual songs\", both in private devotions and in corporate worship.", "Non-scriptural hymns (i.e.", "not psalms or canticles) from the Early Church still sung today include 'Phos Hilaron', 'Sub tuum praesidium', and 'Te Deum'.One definition of a hymn is \"...a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally conceived, which is designed to be sung and which expresses the worshipper's attitude toward God or God's purposes in human life.", "It should be simple and metrical in form, genuinely emotional, poetic and literary in style, spiritual in quality, and in its ideas so direct and so immediately apparent as to unify a congregation while singing it.", "\"Christian hymns are often written with special or seasonal themes and these are used on holy days such as Christmas, Easter and the Feast of All Saints, or during particular seasons such as Advent and Lent.", "Others are used to encourage reverence for the Bible or to celebrate Christian practices such as the eucharist or baptism.", "Some hymns praise or address individual saints, particularly the Blessed Virgin Mary; such hymns are particularly prevalent in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and to some extent High Church Anglicanism.A writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is called ''hymnody''; the same word is used for the collectivity of hymns belonging to a particular denomination or period (e.g.", "\"nineteenth century Methodist hymnody\" would mean the body of hymns written and/or used by Methodists in the 19th century).", "A collection of hymns is called a ''hymnal, hymn book'' or ''hymnary''.", "These may or may not include music; among the hymnals without printed music, some include names of hymn tunes suggested for use with each text, in case readers already know the tunes or would like to find them elsewhere.", "A student of hymnody is called a ''hymnologist'', and the scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody is hymnology.", "The music to which a hymn may be sung is a hymn tune.In many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns.", "The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the radical shift of style and devotional thinking that began with the Jesus movement and Jesus music.", "In recent years, Christian traditional hymns ''have'' seen a revival in some churches, usually more Reformed or Calvinistic in nature, as modern hymn writers such as Keith and Kristyn Getty and Sovereign Grace Music have reset old lyrics to new melodies, revised old hymns and republished them, or simply written a song in a hymn-like fashion such as ''In Christ Alone''.=== Music and accompaniment ===In ancient and medieval times, string instruments such as the harp, lyre and lute were used with psalms and hymns.Since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised.", "During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of Gregorian chant or plainsong.", "This type was sung in unison, in one of eight church modes, and most often by monastic choirs.", "While they were written originally in Latin, many have been translated; a familiar example is the 4th century ''Of the Father's Heart Begotten'' sung to the 11th century plainsong ''Divinum Mysterium''.==== Western church ====organ musicLater hymnody in the Western church introduced four-part vocal harmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys, and came to be led by organ and choir.", "It shares many elements with classical music.Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregations and ''a cappella'' congregations, hymns are typically sung in unison.", "In some cases complementary full settings for organ are also published, in others organists and other accompanists are expected to adapt the available setting, or extemporise one, on their instrument of choice.In traditional Anglican practice, hymns are sung (often accompanied by an organ) during the processional to the altar, during the receiving of communion, during the recessional, and sometimes at other points during the service.", "The Doxology is also sung after the tithes and offerings are brought up to the altar.Contemporary Christian worship, as often found in Evangelicalism and Pentecostalism, may include the use of contemporary worship music played with electric guitars and the drum kit, sharing many elements with rock music.Other groups of Christians have historically excluded instrumental accompaniment, citing the absence of instruments in worship by the church in the first several centuries of its existence, and adhere to an unaccompanied ''a cappella'' congregational singing of hymns.", "These groups include the 'Brethren' (often both 'Open' and 'Exclusive'), the Churches of Christ, Mennonites, several Anabaptist-based denominations—such as the Apostolic Christian Church of America—Primitive Baptists, and certain Reformed churches, although during the last century or so, several of these, such as the Free Church of Scotland have abandoned this stance.====Eastern church====Eastern Christianity (the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches) has a variety of ancient hymnographical traditions.", "In the Byzantine Rite, chant is used for all forms of liturgical worship: if it is not sung a cappella, the only accompaniment is usually an , or drone.", "Organs and other instruments were excluded from church use, although they were employed in imperial ceremonies.", "However, instruments are common in some other Oriental traditions.", "The Coptic tradition makes use of the cymbals and the triangle only.", "The Indian Orthodox (Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church) use the organ.", "The Tewahedo Churches use drums, cymbals and other instruments on certain occasions.=== Development of Christian hymnody ===Thomas Aquinas, in the introduction to his commentary on the Psalms, defined the Christian hymn thus: \"''Hymnus est laus Dei cum cantico; canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem''.\"", "(\"A hymn is the praise of God with song; a song is the exultation of the mind dwelling on eternal things, bursting forth in the voice.", "\")The Protestant Reformation resulted in two conflicting attitudes towards hymns.", "One approach, the regulative principle of worship, favoured by many Zwinglians, Calvinists and some radical reformers, considered anything that was not directly authorised by the Bible to be a novel and Catholic introduction to worship, which was to be rejected.", "All hymns that were not direct quotations from the Bible fell into this category.", "Such hymns were banned, along with any form of instrumental musical accompaniment, and organs were removed from churches.", "Instead of hymns, biblical psalms were chanted, most often without accompaniment, to very basic melodies.", "This was known as exclusive psalmody.", "Examples of this may still be found in various places, including in some of the Presbyterian churches of western Scotland.The other Reformation approach, the normative principle of worship, produced a burst of hymn writing and congregational singing.", "Martin Luther is notable not only as a reformer, but as the author of hymns including \"Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott\" (\"A Mighty Fortress Is Our God\"), \"Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ\" (\"Praise be to You, Jesus Christ\"), and many others.", "Luther and his followers often used their hymns, or chorales, to teach tenets of the faith to worshipers.", "The first Protestant hymnal was published in Bohemia in 1532 by the Unitas Fratrum.Count Zinzendorf, the Lutheran leader of the Moravian Church in the 18th century wrote some 2,000 hymns.The earlier English writers tended to paraphrase biblical texts, particularly Psalms; Isaac Watts followed this tradition, but is also credited as having written the first English hymn which was not a direct paraphrase of Scripture.", "Watts (1674–1748), whose father was an Elder of a dissenter congregation, complained at age 16, that when allowed only psalms to sing, the faithful could not even sing about their Lord, Christ Jesus.", "His father invited him to see what he could do about it; the result was Watts' first hymn, \"Behold the glories of the Lamb\".Found in few hymnals today, the hymn has eight stanzas in common metre and is based on Revelation 5:6, 8, 9, 10, 12.Relying heavily on Scripture, Watts wrote metered texts based on New Testament passages that brought the Christian faith into the songs of the church.", "Isaac Watts has been called \"the father of English hymnody\", but Erik Routley sees him more as \"the liberator of English hymnody\", because his hymns, and hymns like them, moved worshippers beyond singing only Old Testament psalms, inspiring congregations and revitalizing worship.Later writers took even more freedom, some even including allegory and metaphor in their texts.Charles Wesley's hymns spread Methodist theology, not only within Methodism, but in most Protestant churches.", "He developed a new focus: expressing one's personal feelings in the relationship with God as well as the simple worship seen in older hymns.", "Wesley's contribution, along with the Second Great Awakening in America led to a new style called gospel, and a new explosion of sacred music writing with Fanny Crosby, Lina Sandell, Philip Bliss, Ira D. Sankey, and others who produced testimonial music for revivals, camp meetings, and evangelistic crusades.", "The tune style or form is technically designated \"gospel songs\" as distinct from hymns.", "Gospel songs generally include a refrain (or chorus) and usually (though not always) a faster tempo than the hymns.", "As examples of the distinction, \"Amazing Grace\" is a hymn (no refrain), but \"How Great Thou Art\" is a gospel song.", "During the 19th century, the gospel-song genre spread rapidly in Protestantism and to a lesser but still definite extent, in Roman Catholicism; the gospel-song genre is unknown in the worship ''per se'' by Eastern Orthodox churches, which rely exclusively on traditional chants (a type of hymn).The Methodist Revival of the 18th century created an explosion of hymn-writing in Welsh, which continued into the first half of the 19th century.", "The most prominent names among Welsh hymn-writers are William Williams Pantycelyn and Ann Griffiths.", "The second half of the 19th century witnessed an explosion of hymn tune composition and congregational four-part singing in Wales.Along with the more classical sacred music of composers ranging from Charpentier (19 ''Hymns,'' H.53 - H.71) to Mozart to Monteverdi, the Catholic Church continued to produce many popular hymns such as Lead, Kindly Light, Silent Night, O Sacrament Most Holy, and Faith of Our Fathers.In some radical Protestant movements, their own sacred hymns completely replaced the written Bible.", "An example of this, the ''Book of Life'' (Russian: \"Zhivotnaya kniga\") is the name of all oral hymns of the Doukhobors, the Russian denomination, similar to western Quakers.", "''The Book of Life of the Doukhobors'' (1909) is firstly printed hymnal containing songs, which to have been composed as an oral piece to be sung aloud.Many churches today use contemporary worship music which includes a range of styles often influenced by popular music.", "This often leads to some conflict between older and younger congregants (see contemporary worship).", "This is not new; the Christian pop music style began in the late 1960s and became very popular during the 1970s, as young hymnists sought ways in which to make the music of their religion relevant for their generation.This long tradition has resulted in a wide variety of hymns.", "Some modern churches include within hymnody the traditional hymn (usually describing God), contemporary worship music (often directed to God) and gospel music (expressions of one's personal experience of God).", "This distinction is not perfectly clear; and purists remove the second two types from the classification as hymns.", "It is a matter of debate, even sometimes within a single congregation, often between revivalist and traditionalist movements.Swedish composer and musicologist Elisabet Wentz-Janacek mapped 20,000 melody variants for Swedish hymns and helped create the Swedish Choral Registrar, which displays the wide variety of hymns today.In modern times, hymn use has not been limited to strictly religious settings, including secular occasions such as Remembrance Day, and this \"secularization\" also includes use as sources of musical entertainment or even vehicles for mass emotion.====American developments====Hymn writing, composition, performance and the publishing of Christian hymnals were prolific in the 19th-century and were often linked to the abolitionist movement by many hymn writers.", "Stephen Foster wrote a number of hymns that were used during church services during this era of publishing.Thomas Symmes spread throughout churches a new idea of how to sing hymns, in which anyone could sing a hymn any way they felt led to; this idea was opposed by the views of Symmes' colleagues who felt it was \"like Five Hundred different Tunes roared out at the same time\".", "William Billings, a singing school teacher, created the first tune book with only American born compositions.", "Within his books, Billings did not put as much emphasis on \"common measure\" which was the typical way hymns were sung, but he attempted \"to have a Sufficiency in each measure\".", "Boston's Handel and Haydn Society aimed at raising the level of church music in America, publishing their \"Collection of Church Music\".", "In the late 19th century Ira D. Sankey and Dwight L. Moody developed the relatively new subcategory of gospel hymns.Earlier in the 19th century, the use of musical notation, especially shape notes, exploded in America, and professional singing masters went from town to town teaching the population how to sing from sight, instead of the more common lining out that had been used before that.", "During this period hundreds of tune books were published, including B.F. White's ''Sacred Harp'', and earlier works like the ''Missouri Harmony'', ''Kentucky Harmony'', ''Hesperian Harp'', D.H. Mansfield's ''The American Vocalist'', ''The Social Harp'', the ''Southern Harmony'', William Walker's ''Christian Harmony'', Jeremiah Ingalls' ''Christian Harmony'', and literally many dozens of others.", "Shape notes were important in the spread of (then) more modern singing styles, with tenor-led 4-part harmony (based on older English West Gallery music), fuging sections, anthems and other more complex features.", "During this period, hymns were incredibly popular in the United States, and one or more of the above-mentioned tunebooks could be found in almost every household.", "It is not uncommon to hear accounts of young people and teenagers gathering together to spend an afternoon singing hymns and anthems from tune books, which was considered great fun, and there are surviving accounts of Abraham Lincoln and his sweetheart singing together from the ''Missouri Harmony'' during his youth.By the 1860s musical reformers like Lowell Mason (the so-called \"better music boys\") were actively campaigning for the introduction of more \"refined\" and modern singing styles, and eventually these American tune books were replaced in many churches, starting in the Northeast and urban areas, and spreading out into the countryside as people adopted the gentler, more soothing tones of Victorian hymnody, and even adopted dedicated, trained choirs to do their church's singing, rather than having the entire congregation participate.", "But in many rural areas the old traditions lived on, not in churches, but in weekly, monthly or annual conventions were people would meet to sing from their favorite tunebooks.", "The most popular one, and the only one that survived continuously in print, was the ''Sacred Harp'', which could be found in the typical rural Southern home right up until the living tradition was \"re-discovered\" by Alan Lomax in the 1960s (although it had been well-documented by musicologist George Pullen Jackson prior to this).", "Since then there has been a renaissance in \"Sacred Harp singing\", with annual conventions popping up in all 50 states and in a number of European countries recently, including the UK, Germany, Ireland and Poland, as well as in Australia.==== Black America's hymns ====African-Americans developed a rich hymnody from spirituals during times of slavery to the modern, lively black gospel style.", "The first influences of African-American culture into hymns came from slave songs of the United States a collection of slave hymns, compiled by William Francis Allen, who had difficulty pinning them down from the oral tradition, and though he succeeded, he points out the awe-inspiring effect of the hymns when sung in by their originators.", "Some of the first hymns in the black church were renderings of Isaac Watts hymns written in the African-American vernacular English of the time.===Hymn meters===The meter indicates the number of syllables for the lines in each stanza of a hymn.", "This provides a means of marrying the hymn's text with an appropriate hymn tune for singing.", "In practice many hymns conform to one of a relatively small number of meters (syllable count and stress patterns).", "Care must be taken, however, to ensure that not only the metre of words and tune match, but also the stresses on the words in each line.", "Technically speaking an iambic tune, for instance, cannot be used with words of, say, trochaic metre.The meter is often denoted by a row of figures besides the name of the tune, such as \"87.87.87\", which would inform the reader that each verse has six lines, and that the first line has eight syllables, the second has seven, the third line eight, etc.", "The meter can also be described by initials; L.M.", "indicates long meter, which is 88.88 (four lines, each eight syllables long); S.M.", "is short meter (66.86); C.M.", "is common metre (86.86), while D.L.M., D.S.M.", "and D.C.M.", "(the \"D\" stands for double) are similar to their respective single meters except that they have eight lines in a verse instead of four.Also, if the number of syllables in one verse differ from another verse in the same hymn (e.g., the hymn \"I Sing a Song of the Saints of God\"), the meter is called Irregular." ], [ "Hindu hymnody", "Sanskrit manuscript page from the \"Vivaha sukta\" ''Rigveda'', dated 1500–1200 BCE''The Rigveda'' is the earliest and foundational Indian collection of over a thousand liturgical hymns in Vedic Sanskrit.Between other notable Hindu hymns (''stotras'' and others) or their collections there are:* ''Naalayira Divya Prabandham''* ''Ram Raksha Stotra''* ''Saundarya Lahari''* ''Shiva Stuti''* ''Shiva Tandava Stotram''* ''Tirumurai''* ''Vayu Stuti''A hymnody acquired tremendous importance during the medieval era of the bhakti movements.", "When the chanting (bhajan and kirtan) of the devotional songs of the poet-sants (Basava, Chandidas, Dadu Dayal, Haridas, Hith Harivansh, Kabir, Meera Bai, Namdev, Nanak, Ramprasad Sen, Ravidas, Sankardev, Surdas, Vidyapati) in local languages in a number of groups, namely Dadu panth, Kabir panth, Lingayatism, Radha-vallabha, Sikhism, completely or significantly replaced all previous Sanskrit literature.", "The same and with the songs of Baul movement.", "That is, the new hymns themselves received the status of holy scripture.", "An example of a hymnist, both lyricist and composer is the 15th–16th centuries Assamese reformer guru Sankardev with his ''borgeet''-songs." ], [ "Sikh hymnody", "The Sikh holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib ( ), is a collection of hymns (Shabad) or ''Gurbani'' describing the qualities of God and why one should meditate on God's name.", "The ''Guru Granth Sahib'' is divided by their musical setting in different ragas into fourteen hundred and thirty pages known as ''Angs'' (limbs) in Sikh tradition.", "Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the tenth guru, after adding Guru Tegh Bahadur's bani to the Adi Granth affirmed the sacred text as his successor, elevating it to ''Guru Granth Sahib''.", "The text remains the holy scripture of the Sikhs, regarded as the teachings of the Ten Gurus.", "The role of Guru Granth Sahib, as a source or guide of prayer, is pivotal in Sikh worship." ], [ "In other religions", "===Buddhism======Confucianism===The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the ''Classic of Poetry'' (''Shijing''), were initially lyrics.", "The ''Shijing'', with its collection of poems and folk songs, was heavily valued by the philosopher Confucius and is considered to be one of the official Confucian classics.", "His remarks on the subject have become an invaluable source in ancient music theory.===Islam======Jainism======Judaism======Shinto======Zoroastrianism===" ], [ "Appreciations", "According to Nissim Ezekiel, views on hymns can be divided:" ], [ "See also", "CarolChoraleList of Chinese hymn booksList of English-language hymnals by denominationMetrical psalterSacred Harp" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bradley, Ian.", "''Abide with Me: the World of Victorian Hymns''.", "London: S.C.M.", "Press, 1997.", "* Hughes, Charles, Albert Christ Janer, and Carleton Sprague Smith, eds.", "''American Hymns, Old and New''.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 1989.2 vols.", "''N.B''.", ": Vol.", "l, the music, harmonized, with words, of the selected hymns of various Christian denominations, sects, and cults; vol.", "2, ''Notes on the Hymns and Biographies of the Authors and Composers''.", "set comprising both volumes.", "* Weddle, Franklyn S. ''How to Use the Hymnal''.", "Independence, Mo.", ": Herald House, 1956.", "* Wren, Brian.", "\"Praying Twice: The Music and Words of Congregational Song\".", "Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000.", "* H. A. Hodges (ed.", "E. Wyn James), ''Flame in the Mountains: Williams Pantycelyn, Ann Griffiths and the Welsh Hymn'' (Tal-y-bont: Y Lolfa, 2017), 320 pp.", "." ], [ "External links", "The links below are restricted to either material that is historical or resources that are non-denominational or inter-denominational.", "Denomination-specific resources are mentioned from the relevant denomination-specific articles.", "* * —Extensive database of hymns and hymnology resources; incorporates the Dictionary of North American Hymnology* * * —2000 pages of hymns in both staff and neumatic notation* —Site with extensive hymn searching tools" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of physics" ], [ "Introduction", "A Newton's cradle, named after physicist Isaac NewtonPhysics is a branch of science whose primary objects of study are matter and energy.", "Discoveries of physics find applications throughout the natural sciences and in technology.", "Historically, physics emerged from the scientific revolution of the 17th century, grew rapidly in the 19th century, then was transformed by a series of discoveries in the 20th century.", "Physics today may be divided loosely into classical physics and modern physics.Many detailed articles on specific topics are available through the Outline of the history of physics." ], [ "Ancient history", "Elements of what became physics were drawn primarily from the fields of astronomy, optics, and mechanics, which were methodologically united through the study of geometry.", "These mathematical disciplines began in antiquity with the Babylonians and with Hellenistic writers such as Archimedes and Ptolemy.", "Ancient philosophy, meanwhile, included what was called \"Physics\".===Greek concept===The move towards a rational understanding of nature began at least since the Archaic period in Greece (650–480 BCE) with the Pre-Socratic philosophers.", "The philosopher Thales of Miletus (7th and 6th centuries BCE), dubbed \"the Father of Science\" for refusing to accept various supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaimed that every event had a natural cause.", "Thales also made advancements in 580 BCE by suggesting that water is the basic element, experimenting with the attraction between magnets and rubbed amber and formulating the first recorded cosmologies.", "Anaximander, famous for his proto-evolutionary theory, disputed Thales' ideas and proposed that rather than water, a substance called ''apeiron'' was the building block of all matter.", "Around 500 BCE, Heraclitus proposed that the only basic law governing the Universe was the principle of change and that nothing remains in the same state indefinitely.", "Along with his contemporary Parmenides were among the first scholars in ancient physics to contemplate on the role of time in the universe, a key concept that is still an issue in modern physics.Aristotle(384–322 BCE)During the classical period in Greece (6th, 5th and 4th centuries BCE) and in Hellenistic times, natural philosophy slowly developed into an exciting and contentious field of study.", "Aristotle (, ''Aristotélēs'') (384–322 BCE), a student of Plato, promoted the concept that observation of physical phenomena could ultimately lead to the discovery of the natural laws governing them.", "Aristotle's writings cover physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology.", "He wrote the first work which refers to that line of study as \"Physics\" – in the 4th century BCE, Aristotle founded the system known as Aristotelian physics.", "He attempted to explain ideas such as motion (and gravity) with the theory of four elements.", "Aristotle believed that all matter was made up of aether, or some combination of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire.", "According to Aristotle, these four terrestrial elements are capable of inter-transformation and move toward their natural place, so a stone falls downward toward the center of the cosmos, but flames rise upward toward the circumference.", "Eventually, Aristotelian physics became enormously popular for many centuries in Europe, informing the scientific and scholastic developments of the Middle Ages.", "It remained the mainstream scientific paradigm in Europe until the time of Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.Early in Classical Greece, knowledge that the Earth is spherical (\"round\") was common.", "Around 240 BCE, as the result of a seminal experiment, Eratosthenes (276–194 BCE) accurately estimated its circumference.", "In contrast to Aristotle's geocentric views, Aristarchus of Samos (; – BCE) presented an explicit argument for a heliocentric model of the Solar System, i.e.", "for placing the Sun, not the Earth, at its centre.", "Seleucus of Seleucia, a follower of Aristarchus' heliocentric theory, stated that the Earth rotated around its own axis, which, in turn, revolved around the Sun.", "Though the arguments he used were lost, Plutarch stated that Seleucus was the first to prove the heliocentric system through reasoning.The ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes, famous for his ideas regarding fluid mechanics and buoyancy.In the 3rd century BCE, the Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse ( (287–212 BCE) – generally considered to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time – laid the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and calculated the underlying mathematics of the lever.", "A leading scientist of classical antiquity, Archimedes also developed elaborate systems of pulleys to move large objects with a minimum of effort.", "The Archimedes' screw underpins modern hydroengineering, and his machines of war helped to hold back the armies of Rome in the First Punic War.", "Archimedes even tore apart the arguments of Aristotle and his metaphysics, pointing out that it was impossible to separate mathematics and nature and proved it by converting mathematical theories into practical inventions.", "Furthermore, in his work ''On Floating Bodies'', around 250 BCE, Archimedes developed the law of buoyancy, also known as Archimedes' principle.", "In mathematics, Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of pi.", "He also defined the spiral bearing his name, formulae for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers.", "He also developed the principles of equilibrium states and centers of gravity, ideas that would influence the well known scholars, Galileo, and Newton.Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), focusing on astronomy and mathematics, used sophisticated geometrical techniques to map the motion of the stars and planets, even predicting the times that Solar eclipses would happen.", "He added calculations of the distance of the Sun and Moon from the Earth, based upon his improvements to the observational instruments used at that time.", "Another of the most famous of the early physicists was Ptolemy (90–168 CE), one of the leading minds during the time of the Roman Empire.", "Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science.", "The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the ''Almagest'' (in Greek, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, \"The Great Treatise\", originally Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, \"Mathematical Treatise\").", "The second is the ''Geography'', which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world.Much of the accumulated knowledge of the ancient world was lost.", "Even of the works of the better known thinkers, few fragments survived.", "Although he wrote at least fourteen books, almost nothing of Hipparchus' direct work survived.", "Of the 150 reputed Aristotelian works, only 30 exist, and some of those are \"little more than lecture notes\".===India and China===The Hindu-Arabic numeral system.", "The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (3rd century BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas.Important physical and mathematical traditions also existed in ancient Chinese and Indian sciences.Star maps by the 11th-century Chinese polymath Su Song are the oldest known woodblock-printed star maps to have survived to the present day.", "This example, dated 1092, employs the cylindrical equirectangular projection.In Indian philosophy, Maharishi Kanada was the first to systematically develop a theory of atomism around 200 BCE though some authors have allotted him an earlier era in the 6th century BCE.", "It was further elaborated by the Buddhist atomists Dharmakirti and Dignāga during the 1st millennium CE.", "Pakudha Kaccayana, a 6th-century BCE Indian philosopher and contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world.", "These philosophers believed that other elements (except ether) were physically palpable and hence comprised minuscule particles of matter.", "The last minuscule particle of matter that could not be subdivided further was termed Parmanu.", "These philosophers considered the atom to be indestructible and hence eternal.", "The Buddhists thought atoms to be minute objects unable to be seen to the naked eye that come into being and vanish in an instant.", "The Vaisheshika school of philosophers believed that an atom was a mere point in space.", "It was also first to depict relations between motion and force applied.", "Indian theories about the atom are greatly abstract and enmeshed in philosophy as they were based on logic and not on personal experience or experimentation.", "In Indian astronomy, Aryabhata's ''Aryabhatiya'' (499 CE) proposed the Earth's rotation, while Nilakantha Somayaji (1444–1544) of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics proposed a semi-heliocentric model resembling the Tychonic system.The study of magnetism in Ancient China dates back to the 4th century BCE.", "(in the ''Book of the Devil Valley Master''), A main contributor to this field was Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, as well as establishing the concept of true north.", "In optics, Shen Kuo independently developed a camera obscura.===Islamic world===Ibn al-Haytham ().In the 7th to 15th centuries, scientific progress occurred in the Muslim world.", "Many classic works in Indian, Assyrian, Sassanian (Persian) and Greek, including the works of Aristotle, were translated into Arabic.", "Important contributions were made by Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040), an Arab scientist, considered to be a founder of modern optics.", "Ptolemy and Aristotle theorised that light either shone from the eye to illuminate objects or that \"forms\" emanated from objects themselves, whereas al-Haytham (known by the Latin name \"Alhazen\") suggested that light travels to the eye in rays from different points on an object.", "The works of Ibn al-Haytham and al-Biruni (973–1050), a Persian scientist, eventually passed on to Western Europe where they were studied by scholars such as Roger Bacon and Vitello.Ibn al-Haytham used controlled experiments in his work on optics, although to what extent it differed from Ptolemy is up to debate .", "Arabic mechanics like Bīrūnī and Al-Khazini developed sophisticated \"science of weight\", carrying out measurements of specific weights and volumesIbn Sīnā (980–1037), known as \"Avicenna\", was a polymath from Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan) responsible for important contributions to physics, optics, philosophy and medicine.", "He published his theory of motion in ''Book of Healing'' (1020), where he argued that an impetus is imparted to a projectile by the thrower, and believed that it was a temporary virtue that would decline even in a vacuum.", "He viewed it as persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to dissipate it.", "Ibn Sina made a distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' (called \"mayl\"), and argued that an object gained mayl when the object is in opposition to its natural motion.", "He concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the mayl is spent.", "He also claimed that projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon.", "This conception of motion is consistent with Newton's first law of motion, inertia, which states that an object in motion will stay in motion unless it is acted on by an external force.", "This idea which dissented from the Aristotelian view was later described as \"impetus\" by John Buridan, who was influenced by Ibn Sina's ''Book of Healing''.al-Khwārizmī's ''Algebra''.Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (– ) adopted and modified Ibn Sina's theory on projectile motion.", "In his ''Kitab al-Mu'tabar'', Abu'l-Barakat stated that the mover imparts a violent inclination (''mayl qasri'') on the moved and that this diminishes as the moving object distances itself from the mover.", "He also proposed an explanation of the acceleration of falling bodies by the accumulation of successive increments of power with successive increments of velocity.", "According to Shlomo Pines, al-Baghdaadi's theory of motion was \"the oldest negation of Aristotle's fundamental dynamic law namely, that a constant force produces a uniform motion, and is thus an anticipation in a vague fashion of the fundamental law of classical mechanics namely, that a force applied continuously produces acceleration.\"", "Jean Buridan and Albert of Saxony later referred to Abu'l-Barakat in explaining that the acceleration of a falling body is a result of its increasing impetus.Ibn Bajjah (– 1138), known as \"Avempace\" in Europe, proposed that for every force there is always a reaction force.", "Ibn Bajjah was a critic of Ptolemy and he worked on creating a new theory of velocity to replace the one theorized by Aristotle.", "Two future philosophers supported the theories Avempace created, known as Avempacean dynamics.", "These philosophers were Thomas Aquinas, a Catholic priest, and John Duns Scotus.", "Galileo went on to adopt Avempace's formula \"that the velocity of a given object is the difference of the motive power of that object and the resistance of the medium of motion\".Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274), a Persian astronomer and mathematician who died in Baghdad introduced the Tusi couple.", "Copernicus later drew heavily on the work of al-Din al-Tusi and his students, but without acknowledgment.===Medieval Europe===Awareness of ancient works re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin.", "Their re-introduction, combined with Judeo-Islamic theological commentaries, had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas.", "Scholastic European scholars, who sought to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with Christian theology, proclaimed Aristotle the greatest thinker of the ancient world.", "In cases where they didn't directly contradict the Bible, Aristotelian physics became the foundation for the physical explanations of the European Churches.", "Quantification became a core element of medieval physics.Based on Aristotelian physics, Scholastic physics described things as moving according to their essential nature.", "Celestial objects were described as moving in circles, because perfect circular motion was considered an innate property of objects that existed in the uncorrupted realm of the celestial spheres.", "The theory of impetus, the ancestor to the concepts of inertia and momentum, was developed along similar lines by medieval philosophers such as John Philoponus and Jean Buridan.", "Motions below the lunar sphere were seen as imperfect, and thus could not be expected to exhibit consistent motion.", "More idealized motion in the \"sublunary\" realm could only be achieved through artifice, and prior to the 17th century, many did not view artificial experiments as a valid means of learning about the natural world.", "Physical explanations in the sublunary realm revolved around tendencies.", "Stones contained the element earth, and earthly objects tended to move in a straight line toward the centre of the earth (and the universe in the Aristotelian geocentric view) unless otherwise prevented from doing so." ], [ "Scientific Revolution", "During the 16th and 17th centuries, a large advancement of scientific progress known as the Scientific Revolution took place in Europe.", "Dissatisfaction with older philosophical approaches had begun earlier and had produced other changes in society, such as the Protestant Reformation, but the revolution in science began when natural philosophers began to mount a sustained attack on the Scholastic philosophical programme and supposed that mathematical descriptive schemes adopted from such fields as mechanics and astronomy could actually yield universally valid characterizations of motion and other concepts.===Nicolaus Copernicus===The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) is remembered for his development of a heliocentric model of the Solar System.A breakthrough in astronomy was made by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) when, in 1543, he gave strong arguments for the heliocentric model of the Solar System, ostensibly as a means to render tables charting planetary motion more accurate and to simplify their production.", "In heliocentric models of the Solar system, the Earth orbits the Sun along with other bodies in Earth's galaxy, a contradiction according to the Greek-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (2nd century CE; see above), whose system placed the Earth at the center of the Universe and had been accepted for over 1,400 years.", "The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos ( – BCE) had suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun, but Copernicus' reasoning led to lasting general acceptance of this \"revolutionary\" idea.", "Copernicus' book presenting the theory (''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'', \"On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres\") was published just before his death in 1543 and, as it is now generally considered to mark the beginning of modern astronomy, is also considered to mark the beginning of the Scientific Revolution.", "Copernicus' new perspective, along with the accurate observations made by Tycho Brahe, enabled German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) to formulate his laws regarding planetary motion that remain in use today.===Galileo Galilei===Galileo Galilei, early proponent of the modern scientific worldview and method (1564–1642)The Italian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was famous for his support for Copernicanism, his astronomical discoveries, empirical experiments and his improvement of the telescope.", "As a mathematician, Galileo's role in the university culture of his era was subordinated to the three major topics of study: law, medicine, and theology (which was closely allied to philosophy).", "Galileo, however, felt that the descriptive content of the technical disciplines warranted philosophical interest, particularly because mathematical analysis of astronomical observations – notably, Copernicus' analysis of the relative motions of the Sun, Earth, Moon, and planets – indicated that philosophers' statements about the nature of the universe could be shown to be in error.", "Galileo also performed mechanical experiments, insisting that motion itself – regardless of whether it was produced \"naturally\" or \"artificially\" (i.e.", "deliberately) – had universally consistent characteristics that could be described mathematically.Galileo's early studies at the University of Pisa were in medicine, but he was soon drawn to mathematics and physics.", "At 19, he discovered (and, subsequently, verified) the isochronal nature of the pendulum when, using his pulse, he timed the oscillations of a swinging lamp in Pisa's cathedral and found that it remained the same for each swing regardless of the swing's amplitude.", "He soon became known through his invention of a hydrostatic balance and for his treatise on the center of gravity of solid bodies.", "While teaching at the University of Pisa (1589–92), he initiated his experiments concerning the laws of bodies in motion that brought results so contradictory to the accepted teachings of Aristotle that strong antagonism was aroused.", "He found that bodies do not fall with velocities proportional to their weights.", "The famous story in which Galileo is said to have dropped weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa is apocryphal, but he did find that the path of a projectile is a parabola and is credited with conclusions that anticipated Newton's laws of motion (e.g.", "the notion of inertia).", "Among these is what is now called Galilean relativity, the first precisely formulated statement about properties of space and time outside three-dimensional geometry.A composite montage comparing Jupiter (lefthand side) and its four Galilean moons (top to bottom: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto).Galileo has been called the \"father of modern observational astronomy\", the \"father of modern physics\", the \"father of science\", and \"the father of modern science\".", "According to Stephen Hawking, \"Galileo, perhaps more than any other single person, was responsible for the birth of modern science.\"", "As religious orthodoxy decreed a geocentric or Tychonic understanding of the Solar system, Galileo's support for heliocentrism provoked controversy and he was tried by the Inquisition.", "Found \"vehemently suspect of heresy\", he was forced to recant and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.The contributions that Galileo made to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus; his discovery, in 1609, of Jupiter's four largest moons (subsequently given the collective name of the \"Galilean moons\"); and the observation and analysis of sunspots.", "Galileo also pursued applied science and technology, inventing, among other instruments, a military compass.", "His discovery of the Jovian moons was published in 1610 and enabled him to obtain the position of mathematician and philosopher to the Medici court.", "As such, he was expected to engage in debates with philosophers in the Aristotelian tradition and received a large audience for his own publications such as the ''Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences'' (published abroad following his arrest for the publication of ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'') and ''The Assayer''.", "Galileo's interest in experimenting with and formulating mathematical descriptions of motion established experimentation as an integral part of natural philosophy.", "This tradition, combining with the non-mathematical emphasis on the collection of \"experimental histories\" by philosophical reformists such as William Gilbert and Francis Bacon, drew a significant following in the years leading up to and following Galileo's death, including Evangelista Torricelli and the participants in the Accademia del Cimento in Italy; Marin Mersenne and Blaise Pascal in France; Christiaan Huygens in the Netherlands; and Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle in England.===René Descartes===René Descartes(1596–1650)The French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) was well-connected to, and influential within, the experimental philosophy networks of the day.", "Descartes had a more ambitious agenda, however, which was geared toward replacing the Scholastic philosophical tradition altogether.", "Questioning the reality interpreted through the senses, Descartes sought to re-establish philosophical explanatory schemes by reducing all perceived phenomena to being attributable to the motion of an invisible sea of \"corpuscles\".", "(Notably, he reserved human thought and God from his scheme, holding these to be separate from the physical universe).", "In proposing this philosophical framework, Descartes supposed that different kinds of motion, such as that of planets versus that of terrestrial objects, were not fundamentally different, but were merely different manifestations of an endless chain of corpuscular motions obeying universal principles.", "Particularly influential were his explanations for circular astronomical motions in terms of the vortex motion of corpuscles in space (Descartes argued, in accord with the beliefs, if not the methods, of the Scholastics, that a vacuum could not exist), and his explanation of gravity in terms of corpuscles pushing objects downward.Descartes, like Galileo, was convinced of the importance of mathematical explanation, and he and his followers were key figures in the development of mathematics and geometry in the 17th century.", "Cartesian mathematical descriptions of motion held that all mathematical formulations had to be justifiable in terms of direct physical action, a position held by Huygens and the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz, who, while following in the Cartesian tradition, developed his own philosophical alternative to Scholasticism, which he outlined in his 1714 work, the ''Monadology''.", "Descartes has been dubbed the \"Father of Modern Philosophy\", and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day.", "In particular, his ''Meditations on First Philosophy'' continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments.", "Descartes' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system— allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system— was named after him.", "He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, important to the discovery of calculus and analysis.===Christiaan Huygens===Christiaan Huygens(1629–1695)The Dutch physicist, mathematician, astronomer and inventor Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) was the leading scientist in Europe between Galileo and Newton.", "Huygens came from a family of nobility that had an important position in the Dutch society of the 17th century; a time in which the Dutch Republic flourished economically and culturally.", "This period— roughly between 1588 and 1702— of the history of the Netherlands is also referred to as the Dutch Golden Age, an era during the Scientific Revolution when Dutch science was among the most acclaimed in Europe.", "At this time, intellectuals and scientists like René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Pierre Bayle, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, John Locke and Hugo Grotius resided in the Netherlands.", "It was in this intellectual environment where Christiaan Huygens grew up.", "Christiaan's father, Constantijn Huygens, was, apart from an important poet, the secretary and diplomat for the Princes of Orange.", "He knew many scientists of his time because of his contacts and intellectual interests, including René Descartes and Marin Mersenne, and it was because of these contacts that Christiaan Huygens became aware of their work.", "Especially Descartes, whose mechanistic philosophy was going to have a huge influence on Huygens' own work.", "Descartes was later impressed by the skills Christiaan Huygens showed in geometry, as was Mersenne, who christened him \"the new Archimedes\" (which led Constantijn to refer to his son as \"my little Archimedes\").A child prodigy, Huygens began his correspondence with Marin Mersenne when he was 17 years old.", "Huygens became interested in games of chance when he encountered the work of Fermat, Blaise Pascal and Girard Desargues.", "It was Blaise Pascal who encourages him to write ''Van Rekeningh in Spelen van Gluck'', which Frans van Schooten translated and published as ''De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae'' in 1657.The book is the earliest known scientific treatment of the subject, and at the time the most coherent presentation of a mathematical approach to games of chance.", "Two years later Huygens derived geometrically the now standard formulae in classical mechanics for the centripetal- and centrifugal force in his work ''De vi Centrifuga'' (1659).", "Around the same time Huygens' research in horology resulted in the invention of the pendulum clock; a breakthrough in timekeeping and the most accurate timekeeper for almost 300 years.", "The theoretical research of the way the pendulum works eventually led to the publication of one of his most important achievements: the Horologium Oscillatorium.", "This work was published in 1673 and became one of the three most important 17th century works on mechanics (the other two being Galileo’s ''Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences'' (1638) and Newton’s ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' (1687)).", "The ''Horologium Oscillatorium'' is the first modern treatise in which a physical problem (the accelerated motion of a falling body) is idealized by a set of parameters then analyzed mathematically and constitutes one of the seminal works of applied mathematics.", "It is for this reason, Huygens has been called the first theoretical physicist and one of the founders of modern mathematical physics.", "Huygens' ''Horologium Oscillatorium'' had a tremendous influence on the history of physics, especially on the work of Isaac Newton, who greatly admired the work.", "For instance, the laws Huygens described in the ''Horologium Oscillatorium'' are structurally the same as Newton's first two laws of motion.Five years after the publication of his ''Horologium Oscillatorium'', Huygens described his wave theory of light.", "Though proposed in 1678, it wasn't published until 1690 in his Traité de la Lumière.", "His mathematical theory of light was initially rejected in favour of Newton's corpuscular theory of light, until Augustin-Jean Fresnel adopted Huygens' principle to give a complete explanation of the rectilinear propagation and diffraction effects of light in 1821.Today this principle is known as the Huygens–Fresnel principle.", "As an astronomer, Huygens began grinding lenses with his brother Constantijn jr. to build telescopes for astronomical research.", "He was the first to identify the rings of Saturn as \"a thin, flat ring, nowhere touching, and inclined to the ecliptic,\" and discovered the first of Saturn's moons, Titan, using a refracting telescope.Apart from the many important discoveries Huygens made in physics and astronomy, and his inventions of ingenious devices, he was also the first who brought mathematical rigor to the description of physical phenomena.", "Because of this, and the fact that he developed institutional frameworks for scientific research on the continent, he has been referred to as \"the leading actor in 'the making of science in Europe===Isaac Newton===Sir Isaac Newton(1642–1727)The late 17th and early 18th centuries saw the achievements of Cambridge University physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727).", "Newton, a fellow of the Royal Society of England, combined his own discoveries in mechanics and astronomy to earlier ones to create a single system for describing the workings of the universe.", "Newton formulated three laws of motion which formulated the relationship between motion and objects and also the law of universal gravitation, the latter of which could be used to explain the behavior not only of falling bodies on the earth but also planets and other celestial bodies.", "To arrive at his results, Newton invented one form of an entirely new branch of mathematics: calculus (also invented independently by Gottfried Leibniz), which was to become an essential tool in much of the later development in most branches of physics.", "Newton's findings were set forth in his ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' (\"Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy\"), the publication of which in 1687 marked the beginning of the modern period of mechanics and astronomy.Newton was able to refute the Cartesian mechanical tradition that all motions should be explained with respect to the immediate force exerted by corpuscles.", "Using his three laws of motion and law of universal gravitation, Newton removed the idea that objects followed paths determined by natural shapes and instead demonstrated that not only regularly observed paths, but all the future motions of any body could be deduced mathematically based on knowledge of their existing motion, their mass, and the forces acting upon them.", "However, observed celestial motions did not precisely conform to a Newtonian treatment, and Newton, who was also deeply interested in theology, imagined that God intervened to ensure the continued stability of the solar system.Gottfried Leibniz(1646–1716)Newton's principles (but not his mathematical treatments) proved controversial with Continental philosophers, who found his lack of metaphysical explanation for movement and gravitation philosophically unacceptable.", "Beginning around 1700, a bitter rift opened between the Continental and British philosophical traditions, which were stoked by heated, ongoing, and viciously personal disputes between the followers of Newton and Leibniz concerning priority over the analytical techniques of calculus, which each had developed independently.", "Initially, the Cartesian and Leibnizian traditions prevailed on the Continent (leading to the dominance of the Leibnizian calculus notation everywhere except Britain).", "Newton himself remained privately disturbed at the lack of a philosophical understanding of gravitation while insisting in his writings that none was necessary to infer its reality.", "As the 18th century progressed, Continental natural philosophers increasingly accepted the Newtonians' willingness to forgo ontological metaphysical explanations for mathematically described motions.Newton built the first functioning reflecting telescope and developed a theory of color, published in ''Opticks'', based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours forming the visible spectrum.", "While Newton explained light as being composed of tiny particles, a rival theory of light which explained its behavior in terms of waves was presented in 1690 by Christiaan Huygens.", "However, the belief in the mechanistic philosophy coupled with Newton's reputation meant that the wave theory saw relatively little support until the 19th century.", "Newton also formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, investigated power series, demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem and developed a method for approximating the roots of a function.", "His work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.", "Most importantly, Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, which were neither capricious nor malevolent.", "By demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his own theory of gravitation, Newton also removed the last doubts about heliocentrism.", "By bringing together all the ideas set forth during the Scientific Revolution, Newton effectively established the foundation for modern society in mathematics and science.===Other achievements===Other branches of physics also received attention during the period of the Scientific Revolution.", "William Gilbert, court physician to Queen Elizabeth I, published an important work on magnetism in 1600, describing how the earth itself behaves like a giant magnet.", "Robert Boyle (1627–91) studied the behavior of gases enclosed in a chamber and formulated the gas law named for him; he also contributed to physiology and to the founding of modern chemistry.", "Another important factor in the scientific revolution was the rise of learned societies and academies in various countries.", "The earliest of these were in Italy and Germany and were short-lived.", "More influential were the Royal Society of England (1660) and the Academy of Sciences in France (1666).", "The former was a private institution in London and included such scientists as John Wallis, William Brouncker, Thomas Sydenham, John Mayow, and Christopher Wren (who contributed not only to architecture but also to astronomy and anatomy); the latter, in Paris, was a government institution and included as a foreign member the Dutchman Huygens.", "In the 18th century, important royal academies were established at Berlin (1700) and at St. Petersburg (1724).", "The societies and academies provided the principal opportunities for the publication and discussion of scientific results during and after the scientific revolution.", "In 1690, James Bernoulli showed that the cycloid is the solution to the tautochrone problem; and the following year, in 1691, Johann Bernoulli showed that a chain freely suspended from two points will form a catenary, the curve with the lowest possible center of gravity available to any chain hung between two fixed points.", "He then showed, in 1696, that the cycloid is the solution to the brachistochrone problem.====Early thermodynamics====A precursor of the engine was designed by the German scientist Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, designed and built the world's first vacuum pump to create a vacuum as demonstrated in the Magdeburg hemispheres experiment.", "He was driven to make a vacuum to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'Nature abhors a vacuum'.", "Shortly thereafter, Irish physicist and chemist Boyle had learned of Guericke's designs and in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump.", "Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation for a gas: ''PV'' = ''k'', where ''P'' is pressure, ''V'' is volume and ''k'' is a constant: this relationship is known as Boyle's Law.", "In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules.", "The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later.", "Therefore, Boyle's publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring.", "Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified.", "This tool gave Gay-Lussac the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the ideal gas law.", "But, already before the establishment of the ideal gas law, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built in 1679 a bone digester, which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated.Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding.", "By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine.", "He did not however follow through with his design.", "Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine.", "Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time.", "Hence, prior to 1698 and the invention of the Savery Engine, horses were used to power pulleys, attached to buckets, which lifted water out of flooded salt mines in England.", "In the years to follow, more variations of steam engines were built, such as the Newcomen Engine, and later the Watt Engine.", "In time, these early engines would eventually be used in place of horses.", "Thus, each engine began to be associated with a certain amount of \"horse power\" depending upon how many horses it had replaced.", "The main problem with these first engines was that they were slow and clumsy, converting less than 2% of the input fuel into useful work.", "In other words, large quantities of coal (or wood) had to be burned to yield only a small fraction of work output.", "Hence the need for a new science of engine dynamics was born." ], [ "18th-century developments", "Alessandro Volta(1745–1827)During the 18th century, the mechanics founded by Newton was developed by several scientists as more mathematicians learned calculus and elaborated upon its initial formulation.", "The application of mathematical analysis to problems of motion was known as rational mechanics, or mixed mathematics (and was later termed classical mechanics).===Mechanics===Daniel Bernoulli(1700–1782)In 1714, Brook Taylor derived the fundamental frequency of a stretched vibrating string in terms of its tension and mass per unit length by solving a differential equation.", "The Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) made important mathematical studies of the behavior of gases, anticipating the kinetic theory of gases developed more than a century later, and has been referred to as the first mathematical physicist.", "In 1733, Daniel Bernoulli derived the fundamental frequency and harmonics of a hanging chain by solving a differential equation.", "In 1734, Bernoulli solved the differential equation for the vibrations of an elastic bar clamped at one end.", "Bernoulli's treatment of fluid dynamics and his examination of fluid flow was introduced in his 1738 work ''Hydrodynamica''.Rational mechanics dealt primarily with the development of elaborate mathematical treatments of observed motions, using Newtonian principles as a basis, and emphasized improving the tractability of complex calculations and developing of legitimate means of analytical approximation.", "A representative contemporary textbook was published by Johann Baptiste Horvath.", "By the end of the century analytical treatments were rigorous enough to verify the stability of the Solar System solely on the basis of Newton's laws without reference to divine intervention—even as deterministic treatments of systems as simple as the three body problem in gravitation remained intractable.", "In 1705, Edmond Halley predicted the periodicity of Halley's Comet, William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, and Henry Cavendish measured the gravitational constant and determined the mass of the Earth in 1798.In 1783, John Michell suggested that some objects might be so massive that not even light could escape from them.In 1739, Leonhard Euler solved the ordinary differential equation for a forced harmonic oscillator and noticed the resonance phenomenon.", "In 1742, Colin Maclaurin discovered his uniformly rotating self-gravitating spheroids.", "In 1742, Benjamin Robins published his ''New Principles in Gunnery'', establishing the science of aerodynamics.", "British work, carried on by mathematicians such as Taylor and Maclaurin, fell behind Continental developments as the century progressed.", "Meanwhile, work flourished at scientific academies on the Continent, led by such mathematicians as Bernoulli and Euler, as well as Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon Laplace, and Adrien-Marie Legendre.", "In 1743, Jean le Rond d'Alembert published his ''Traité de dynamique'', in which he introduced the concept of generalized forces for accelerating systems and systems with constraints, and applied the new idea of virtual work to solve dynamical problem, now known as D'Alembert's principle, as a rival to Newton's second law of motion.", "In 1747, Pierre Louis Maupertuis applied minimum principles to mechanics.", "In 1759, Euler solved the partial differential equation for the vibration of a rectangular drum.", "In 1764, Euler examined the partial differential equation for the vibration of a circular drum and found one of the Bessel function solutions.", "In 1776, John Smeaton published a paper on experiments relating power, work, momentum and kinetic energy, and supporting the conservation of energy.", "In 1788, Lagrange presented his equations of motion in ''Mécanique analytique'', in which the whole of mechanics was organized around the principle of virtual work.", "In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier stated the law of conservation of mass.", "The rational mechanics developed in the 18th century received expositions in both Lagrange's ''Mécanique analytique'' and Laplace's ''Traité de mécanique céleste'' (1799–1825).===Thermodynamics===During the 18th century, thermodynamics was developed through the theories of weightless \"imponderable fluids\", such as heat (\"caloric\"), electricity, and phlogiston (which was rapidly overthrown as a concept following Lavoisier's identification of oxygen gas late in the century).", "Assuming that these concepts were real fluids, their flow could be traced through a mechanical apparatus or chemical reactions.", "This tradition of experimentation led to the development of new kinds of experimental apparatus, such as the Leyden Jar; and new kinds of measuring instruments, such as the calorimeter, and improved versions of old ones, such as the thermometer.", "Experiments also produced new concepts, such as the University of Glasgow experimenter Joseph Black's notion of latent heat and Philadelphia intellectual Benjamin Franklin's characterization of electrical fluid as flowing between places of excess and deficit (a concept later reinterpreted in terms of positive and negative charges).", "Franklin also showed that lightning is electricity in 1752.The accepted theory of heat in the 18th century viewed it as a kind of fluid, called caloric; although this theory was later shown to be erroneous, a number of scientists adhering to it nevertheless made important discoveries useful in developing the modern theory, including Joseph Black (1728–99) and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810).", "Opposed to this caloric theory, which had been developed mainly by the chemists, was the less accepted theory dating from Newton's time that heat is due to the motions of the particles of a substance.", "This mechanical theory gained support in 1798 from the cannon-boring experiments of Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), who found a direct relationship between heat and mechanical energy.While it was recognized early in the 18th century that finding absolute theories of electrostatic and magnetic force akin to Newton's principles of motion would be an important achievement, none were forthcoming.", "This impossibility only slowly disappeared as experimental practice became more widespread and more refined in the early years of the 19th century in places such as the newly established Royal Institution in London.", "Meanwhile, the analytical methods of rational mechanics began to be applied to experimental phenomena, most influentially with the French mathematician Joseph Fourier's analytical treatment of the flow of heat, as published in 1822.Joseph Priestley proposed an electrical inverse-square law in 1767, and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb introduced the inverse-square law of electrostatics in 1798.At the end of the century, the members of the French Academy of Sciences had attained clear dominance in the field.", "At the same time, the experimental tradition established by Galileo and his followers persisted.", "The Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences were major centers for the performance and reporting of experimental work.", "Experiments in mechanics, optics, magnetism, static electricity, chemistry, and physiology were not clearly distinguished from each other during the 18th century, but significant differences in explanatory schemes and, thus, experiment design were emerging.", "Chemical experimenters, for instance, defied attempts to enforce a scheme of abstract Newtonian forces onto chemical affiliations, and instead focused on the isolation and classification of chemical substances and reactions." ], [ "19th century", "===Mechanics===In 1821, William Hamilton began his analysis of Hamilton's characteristic function.", "In 1835, he stated Hamilton's canonical equations of motion.In 1813, Peter Ewart supported the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper ''On the measure of moving force''.", "In 1829, Gaspard Coriolis introduced the terms of work (force times distance) and kinetic energy with the meanings they have today.", "In 1841, Julius Robert von Mayer, an amateur scientist, wrote a paper on the conservation of energy, although his lack of academic training led to its rejection.", "In 1847, Hermann von Helmholtz formally stated the law of conservation of energy.===Electromagnetism===Michael Faraday(1791–1867)In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the electric battery (known as the voltaic pile) and thus improved the way electric currents could also be studied.", "A year later, Thomas Young demonstrated the wave nature of light—which received strong experimental support from the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel—and the principle of interference.", "In 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted found that a current-carrying conductor gives rise to a magnetic force surrounding it, and within a week after Ørsted's discovery reached France, André-Marie Ampère discovered that two parallel electric currents will exert forces on each other.", "In 1821, Michael Faraday built an electricity-powered motor, while Georg Ohm stated his law of electrical resistance in 1826, expressing the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electric circuit.In 1831, Faraday (and independently Joseph Henry) discovered the reverse effect, the production of an electric potential or current through magnetism – known as electromagnetic induction; these two discoveries are the basis of the electric motor and the electric generator, respectively.===Laws of thermodynamics===In the 19th century, the connection between heat and mechanical energy was established quantitatively by Julius Robert von Mayer and James Prescott Joule, who measured the mechanical equivalent of heat in the 1840s.", "In 1849, Joule published results from his series of experiments (including the paddlewheel experiment) which show that heat is a form of energy, a fact that was accepted in the 1850s.", "The relation between heat and energy was important for the development of steam engines, and in 1824 the experimental and theoretical work of Sadi Carnot was published.", "Carnot captured some of the ideas of thermodynamics in his discussion of the efficiency of an idealized engine.", "Sadi Carnot's work provided a basis for the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics—a restatement of the law of conservation of energy—which was stated around 1850 by William Thomson, later known as Lord Kelvin, and Rudolf Clausius.", "Lord Kelvin, who had extended the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances in 1848, drew upon the engineering theory of Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron–as well as the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms of work—to formulate the first law.Kelvin and Clausius also stated the second law of thermodynamics, which was originally formulated in terms of the fact that heat does not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter.", "Other formulations followed quickly (for example, the second law was expounded in Thomson and Peter Guthrie Tait's influential work ''Treatise on Natural Philosophy'') and Kelvin in particular understood some of the law's general implications.", "The second Law–the idea that gases consist of molecules in motion–had been discussed in some detail by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, but had fallen out of favor, and was revived by Clausius in 1857.In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault measured the speed of light in water and find that it is slower than in air, in support of the wave model of light.", "In 1852, Joule and Thomson demonstrated that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule–Thomson effect or Joule–Kelvin effect.", "Hermann von Helmholtz puts forward the idea of the heat death of the universe in 1854, the same year that Clausius established the importance of ''dQ/T'' (Clausius's theorem) (though he did not yet name the quantity).===Statistical mechanics (a fundamentally new approach to science)===James Clerk Maxwell(1831–1879)In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell discovered the distribution law of molecular velocities.", "Maxwell showed that electric and magnetic fields are propagated outward from their source at a speed equal to that of light and that light is one of several kinds of electromagnetic radiation, differing only in frequency and wavelength from the others.", "In 1859, Maxwell worked out the mathematics of the distribution of velocities of the molecules of a gas.", "The wave theory of light was widely accepted by the time of Maxwell's work on the electromagnetic field, and afterward the study of light and that of electricity and magnetism were closely related.", "In 1864 James Maxwell published his papers on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field, and stated that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon in the 1873 publication of Maxwell's ''Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism''.", "This work drew upon theoretical work by German theoreticians such as Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber.", "The encapsulation of heat in particulate motion, and the addition of electromagnetic forces to Newtonian dynamics established an enormously robust theoretical underpinning to physical observations.The prediction that light represented a transmission of energy in wave form through a \"luminiferous ether\", and the seeming confirmation of that prediction with Helmholtz student Heinrich Hertz's 1888 detection of electromagnetic radiation, was a major triumph for physical theory and raised the possibility that even more fundamental theories based on the field could soon be developed.", "Experimental confirmation of Maxwell's theory was provided by Hertz, who generated and detected electric waves in 1886 and verified their properties, at the same time foreshadowing their application in radio, television, and other devices.", "In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect.", "Research on the electromagnetic waves began soon after, with many scientists and inventors conducting experiments on their properties.", "In the mid to late 1890s Guglielmo Marconi developed a radio wave based wireless telegraphy system (see invention of radio).The atomic theory of matter had been proposed again in the early 19th century by the chemist John Dalton and became one of the hypotheses of the kinetic-molecular theory of gases developed by Clausius and James Clerk Maxwell to explain the laws of thermodynamics.Ludwig Boltzmann(1844-1906)The kinetic theory in turn led to a revolutionary approach to science, the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) and Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), which studies the statistics of microstates of a system and uses statistics to determine the state of a physical system.", "Interrelating the statistical likelihood of certain states of organization of these particles with the energy of those states, Clausius reinterpreted the dissipation of energy to be the statistical tendency of molecular configurations to pass toward increasingly likely, increasingly disorganized states (coining the term \"entropy\" to describe the disorganization of a state).", "The statistical versus absolute interpretations of the second law of thermodynamics set up a dispute that would last for several decades (producing arguments such as \"Maxwell's demon\"), and that would not be held to be definitively resolved until the behavior of atoms was firmly established in the early 20th century.", "In 1902, James Jeans found the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium.===Other developments===In 1822, botanist Robert Brown discovered Brownian motion: pollen grains in water undergoing movement resulting from their bombardment by the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the liquid.In 1834, Carl Jacobi discovered his uniformly rotating self-gravitating ellipsoids (the Jacobi ellipsoid).In 1834, John Russell observed a nondecaying solitary water wave (soliton) in the Union Canal near Edinburgh and used a water tank to study the dependence of solitary water wave velocities on wave amplitude and water depth.", "In 1835, Gaspard Coriolis examined theoretically the mechanical efficiency of waterwheels, and deduced the Coriolis effect.", "In 1842, Christian Doppler proposed the Doppler effect.In 1851, Léon Foucault showed the Earth's rotation with a huge pendulum (Foucault pendulum).There were important advances in continuum mechanics in the first half of the century, namely formulation of laws of elasticity for solids and discovery of Navier–Stokes equations for fluids." ], [ "20th century: birth of modern physics", "Marie Skłodowska-Curie(1867–1934) She was awarded two Nobel prizes, Physics (1903) and Chemistry (1911)At the end of the 19th century, physics had evolved to the point at which classical mechanics could cope with highly complex problems involving macroscopic situations; thermodynamics and kinetic theory were well established; geometrical and physical optics could be understood in terms of electromagnetic waves; and the conservation laws for energy and momentum (and mass) were widely accepted.", "So profound were these and other developments that it was generally accepted that all the important laws of physics had been discovered and that, henceforth, research would be concerned with clearing up minor problems and particularly with improvements of method and measurement.However, around 1900 serious doubts arose about the completeness of the classical theories—the triumph of Maxwell's theories, for example, was undermined by inadequacies that had already begun to appear—and their inability to explain certain physical phenomena, such as the energy distribution in blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect, while some of the theoretical formulations led to paradoxes when pushed to the limit.", "Prominent physicists such as Hendrik Lorentz, Emil Cohn, Ernst Wiechert and Wilhelm Wien believed that some modification of Maxwell's equations might provide the basis for all physical laws.", "These shortcomings of classical physics were never to be resolved and new ideas were required.", "At the beginning of the 20th century a major revolution shook the world of physics, which led to a new era, generally referred to as modern physics.===Radiation experiments===J.", "J. Thomson (1856–1940) discovered the electron and isotopy and also invented the mass spectrometer.", "He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906.In the 19th century, experimenters began to detect unexpected forms of radiation: Wilhelm Röntgen caused a sensation with his discovery of X-rays in 1895; in 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered that certain kinds of matter emit radiation on their own accord.", "In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the electron, and new radioactive elements found by Marie and Pierre Curie raised questions about the supposedly indestructible atom and the nature of matter.", "Marie and Pierre coined the term \"radioactivity\" to describe this property of matter, and isolated the radioactive elements radium and polonium.", "Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy identified two of Becquerel's forms of radiation with electrons and the element helium.", "Rutherford identified and named two types of radioactivity and in 1911 interpreted experimental evidence as showing that the atom consists of a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons.", "Classical theory, however, predicted that this structure should be unstable.", "Classical theory had also failed to explain successfully two other experimental results that appeared in the late 19th century.", "One of these was the demonstration by Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley—known as the Michelson–Morley experiment—which showed there did not seem to be a preferred frame of reference, at rest with respect to the hypothetical luminiferous ether, for describing electromagnetic phenomena.", "Studies of radiation and radioactive decay continued to be a preeminent focus for physical and chemical research through the 1930s, when the discovery of nuclear fission by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch opened the way to the practical exploitation of what came to be called \"atomic\" energy.===Albert Einstein's theory of relativity===Albert Einstein (1879–1955), photographed here in around 1905In 1905, a 26-year-old German physicist named Albert Einstein (then a patent clerk in Bern, Switzerland) showed how measurements of time and space are affected by motion between an observer and what is being observed.", "Einstein's radical theory of relativity revolutionized science.", "Although Einstein made many other important contributions to science, the theory of relativity alone represents one of the greatest intellectual achievements of all time.", "Although the concept of relativity was not introduced by Einstein, he recognised that the speed of light in vacuum is constant, i.e., the same for all observers, and an absolute upper limit to speed.", "This does not impact a person's day-to-day life since most objects travel at speeds much slower than light speed.", "For objects travelling near light speed, however, the theory of relativity shows that clocks associated with those objects will run more slowly and that the objects shorten in length according to measurements of an observer on Earth.", "Einstein also derived the famous equation, , which expresses the equivalence of mass and energy.====Special relativity====Einstein proposed that gravitation is a result of masses (or their equivalent energies) curving (\"bending\") the spacetime in which they exist, altering the paths they follow within it.Einstein argued that the speed of light was a constant in all inertial reference frames and that electromagnetic laws should remain valid independent of reference frame—assertions which rendered the ether \"superfluous\" to physical theory, and that held that observations of time and length varied relative to how the observer was moving with respect to the object being measured (what came to be called the \"special theory of relativity\").", "It also followed that mass and energy were interchangeable quantities according to the equation ''E''=''mc''2.In another paper published the same year, Einstein asserted that electromagnetic radiation was transmitted in discrete quantities (\"quanta\"), according to a constant that the theoretical physicist Max Planck had posited in 1900 to arrive at an accurate theory for the distribution of blackbody radiation—an assumption that explained the strange properties of the photoelectric effect.The special theory of relativity is a formulation of the relationship between physical observations and the concepts of space and time.", "The theory arose out of contradictions between electromagnetism and Newtonian mechanics and had great impact on both those areas.", "The original historical issue was whether it was meaningful to discuss the electromagnetic wave-carrying \"ether\" and motion relative to it and also whether one could detect such motion, as was unsuccessfully attempted in the Michelson–Morley experiment.", "Einstein demolished these questions and the ether concept in his special theory of relativity.", "However, his basic formulation does not involve detailed electromagnetic theory.", "It arises out of the question: \"What is time?\"", "Newton, in the ''Principia'' (1686), had given an unambiguous answer: \"Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external, and by another name is called duration.\"", "This definition is basic to all classical physics.Einstein had the genius to question it, and found that it was incomplete.", "Instead, each \"observer\" necessarily makes use of his or her own scale of time, and for two observers in relative motion, their time-scales will differ.", "This induces a related effect on position measurements.", "Space and time become intertwined concepts, fundamentally dependent on the observer.", "Each observer presides over his or her own space-time framework or coordinate system.", "There being no absolute frame of reference, all observers of given events make different but equally valid (and reconcilable) measurements.", "What remains absolute is stated in Einstein's relativity postulate: \"The basic laws of physics are identical for two observers who have a constant relative velocity with respect to each other.", "\"Special relativity had a profound effect on physics: started as a rethinking of the theory of electromagnetism, it found a new symmetry law of nature, now called ''Poincaré symmetry'', that replaced the old Galilean symmetry.Special relativity exerted another long-lasting effect on dynamics.", "Although initially it was credited with the \"unification of mass and energy\", it became evident that relativistic dynamics established a firm ''distinction'' between rest mass, which is an invariant (observer independent) property of a particle or system of particles, and the energy and momentum of a system.", "The latter two are separately conserved in all situations but not invariant with respect to different observers.", "The term ''mass'' in particle physics underwent a semantic change, and since the late 20th century it almost exclusively denotes the rest (or ''invariant'') mass.", "====General relativity====By 1916, Einstein was able to generalize this further, to deal with all states of motion including non-uniform acceleration, which became the general theory of relativity.", "In this theory Einstein also specified a new concept, the curvature of space-time, which described the gravitational effect at every point in space.", "In fact, the curvature of space-time completely replaced Newton's universal law of gravitation.", "According to Einstein, gravitational force in the normal sense is a kind of illusion caused by the geometry of space.", "The presence of a mass causes a curvature of space-time in the vicinity of the mass, and this curvature dictates the space-time path that all freely-moving objects must follow.", "It was also predicted from this theory that light should be subject to gravity - all of which was verified experimentally.", "This aspect of relativity explained the phenomena of light bending around the sun, predicted black holes as well as properties of the Cosmic microwave background radiation — a discovery rendering fundamental anomalies in the classic Steady-State hypothesis.", "For his work on relativity, the photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation, Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921.The gradual acceptance of Einstein's theories of relativity and the quantized nature of light transmission, and of Niels Bohr's model of the atom created as many problems as they solved, leading to a full-scale effort to reestablish physics on new fundamental principles.", "Expanding relativity to cases of accelerating reference frames (the \"general theory of relativity\") in the 1910s, Einstein posited an equivalence between the inertial force of acceleration and the force of gravity, leading to the conclusion that space is curved and finite in size, and the prediction of such phenomena as gravitational lensing and the distortion of time in gravitational fields.===Quantum mechanics===Max Planck(1858–1947)Although relativity resolved the electromagnetic phenomena conflict demonstrated by Michelson and Morley, a second theoretical problem was the explanation of the distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body; experiment showed that at shorter wavelengths, toward the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, the energy approached zero, but classical theory predicted it should become infinite.", "This glaring discrepancy, known as the ultraviolet catastrophe, was solved by the new theory of quantum mechanics.", "Quantum mechanics is the theory of atoms and subatomic systems.", "Approximately the first 30 years of the 20th century represent the time of the conception and evolution of the theory.", "The basic ideas of quantum theory were introduced in 1900 by Max Planck (1858–1947), who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918 for his discovery of the quantified nature of energy.", "The quantum theory (which previously relied in the \"correspondence\" at large scales between the quantized world of the atom and the continuities of the \"classical\" world) was accepted when the Compton Effect established that light carries momentum and can scatter off particles, and when Louis de Broglie asserted that matter can be seen as behaving as a wave in much the same way as electromagnetic waves behave like particles (wave–particle duality).Werner Heisenberg(1901–1976)In 1905, Einstein used the quantum theory to explain the photoelectric effect, and in 1913 the Danish physicist Niels Bohr used the same constant to explain the stability of Rutherford's atom as well as the frequencies of light emitted by hydrogen gas.", "The quantized theory of the atom gave way to a full-scale quantum mechanics in the 1920s.", "New principles of a \"quantum\" rather than a \"classical\" mechanics, formulated in matrix-form by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan in 1925, were based on the probabilistic relationship between discrete \"states\" and denied the possibility of causality.", "Quantum mechanics was extensively developed by Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Paul Dirac, and Erwin Schrödinger, who established an equivalent theory based on waves in 1926; but Heisenberg's 1927 \"uncertainty principle\" (indicating the impossibility of precisely and simultaneously measuring position and momentum) and the \"Copenhagen interpretation\" of quantum mechanics (named after Bohr's home city) continued to deny the possibility of fundamental causality, though opponents such as Einstein would metaphorically assert that \"God does not play dice with the universe\".", "The new quantum mechanics became an indispensable tool in the investigation and explanation of phenomena at the atomic level.", "Also in the 1920s, the Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose's work on photons and quantum mechanics provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics, the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate.", "The spin–statistics theorem established that any particle in quantum mechanics may be either a boson (statistically Bose–Einstein) or a fermion (statistically Fermi–Dirac).", "It was later found that all fundamental bosons transmit forces, such as the photon that transmits electromagnetism.Fermions are particles \"like electrons and nucleons\" and are the usual constituents of matter.", "Fermi–Dirac statistics later found numerous other uses, from astrophysics (see Degenerate matter) to semiconductor design." ], [ "Contemporary physics", "===Quantum field theory===A Feynman diagram representing (left to right) the production of a photon (blue sine wave) from the annihilation of an electron and its complementary antiparticle, the positron.", "The photon becomes a quark–antiquark pair and a gluon (green spiral) is released.Richard Feynman's Los Alamos ID badgeAs the philosophically inclined continued to debate the fundamental nature of the universe, quantum theories continued to be produced, beginning with Paul Dirac's formulation of a relativistic quantum theory in 1928.However, attempts to quantize electromagnetic theory entirely were stymied throughout the 1930s by theoretical formulations yielding infinite energies.", "This situation was not considered adequately resolved until after World War II ended, when Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga independently posited the technique of renormalization, which allowed for an establishment of a robust quantum electrodynamics (QED).Meanwhile, new theories of fundamental particles proliferated with the rise of the idea of the quantization of fields through \"exchange forces\" regulated by an exchange of short-lived \"virtual\" particles, which were allowed to exist according to the laws governing the uncertainties inherent in the quantum world.", "Notably, Hideki Yukawa proposed that the positive charges of the nucleus were kept together courtesy of a powerful but short-range force mediated by a particle with a mass between that of the electron and proton.", "This particle, the \"pion\", was identified in 1947 as part of what became a slew of particles discovered after World War II.", "Initially, such particles were found as ionizing radiation left by cosmic rays, but increasingly came to be produced in newer and more powerful particle accelerators.Outside particle physics, significant advances of the time were:* the invention of the laser (1964 Nobel Prize in Physics);* the theoretical and experimental research of superconductivity, especially the invention of a quantum theory of superconductivity by Vitaly Ginzburg and Lev Landau (1962 Nobel Prize in Physics) and, later, its explanation via Cooper pairs (1972 Nobel Prize in Physics).", "The Cooper pair was an early example of quasiparticles.===Unified field theories===Einstein deemed that all fundamental interactions in nature can be explained in a single theory.", "Unified field theories were numerous attempts to \"merge\" several interactions.", "One of many formulations of such theories (as well as field theories in general) is a ''gauge theory'', a generalization of the idea of symmetry.", "Eventually the Standard Model (see below) succeeded in unification of strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions.", "All attempts to unify gravitation with something else failed.===Particle physics and the Standard Model===The Standard Model.Chien-Shiung Wu worked on parity violation in 1956 and announced her results in January 1957.When parity was broken in weak interactions by Chien-Shiung Wu in her experiment, a series of discoveries were created thereafter.", "The interaction of these particles by scattering and decay provided a key to new fundamental quantum theories.", "Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman brought some order to these new particles by classifying them according to certain qualities, beginning with what Gell-Mann referred to as the \"Eightfold Way\".", "While its further development, the quark model, at first seemed inadequate to describe strong nuclear forces, allowing the temporary rise of competing theories such as the S-Matrix, the establishment of quantum chromodynamics in the 1970s finalized a set of fundamental and exchange particles, which allowed for the establishment of a \"standard model\" based on the mathematics of gauge invariance, which successfully described all forces except for gravitation, and which remains generally accepted within its domain of application.The Standard Model, based on the Yang–Mills theory groups the electroweak interaction theory and quantum chromodynamics into a structure denoted by the gauge group SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1).", "The formulation of the unification of the electromagnetic and weak interactions in the standard model is due to Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg and, subsequently, Sheldon Glashow.", "Electroweak theory was later confirmed experimentally (by observation of neutral weak currents), and distinguished by the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics.Since the 1970s, fundamental particle physics has provided insights into early universe cosmology, particularly the Big Bang theory proposed as a consequence of Einstein's general theory of relativity.", "However, starting in the 1990s, astronomical observations have also provided new challenges, such as the need for new explanations of galactic stability (\"dark matter\") and the apparent acceleration in the expansion of the universe (\"dark energy\").While accelerators have confirmed most aspects of the Standard Model by detecting expected particle interactions at various collision energies, no theory reconciling general relativity with the Standard Model has yet been found, although supersymmetry and string theory were believed by many theorists to be a promising avenue forward.", "The Large Hadron Collider, however, which began operating in 2008, has failed to find any evidence whatsoever that is supportive of supersymmetry and string theory.===Cosmology===Cosmology may be said to have become a serious research question with the publication of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity in 1915 although it did not enter the scientific mainstream until the period known as the \"Golden age of general relativity\".About a decade later, in the midst of what was dubbed the \"Great Debate\", Hubble and Slipher discovered the expansion of universe in the 1920s measuring the redshifts of Doppler spectra from galactic nebulae.", "Using Einstein's general relativity, Lemaître and Gamow formulated what would become known as the big bang theory.", "A rival, called the steady state theory, was devised by Hoyle, Gold, Narlikar and Bondi.Cosmic microwave background radiation was verified in the 1960s by Penzias and Wilson, and this discovery favoured the big bang at the expense of the steady state scenario.", "Later work was by Smoot et al.", "(1989), among other contributors, using data from the Cosmic Background explorer (CoBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) satellites that refined these observations.", "The 1980s (the same decade of the COBE measurements) also saw the proposal of inflation theory by Alan Guth.Recently the problems of dark matter and dark energy have risen to the top of the cosmology agenda.===Higgs boson===One possible signature of a Higgs boson from a simulated proton–proton collision.", "It decays almost immediately into two jets of hadrons and two electrons, visible as lines.On July 4, 2012, physicists working at CERN's Large Hadron Collider announced that they had discovered a new subatomic particle greatly resembling the Higgs boson, a potential key to an understanding of why elementary particles have mass and indeed to the existence of diversity and life in the universe.", "For now, some physicists are calling it a \"Higgslike\" particle.", "Joe Incandela, of the University of California, Santa Barbara, said, \"It's something that may, in the end, be one of the biggest observations of any new phenomena in our field in the last 30 or 40 years, going way back to the discovery of quarks, for example.\"", "Michael Turner, a cosmologist at the University of Chicago and the chairman of the physics center board, said:Peter Higgs was one of six physicists, working in three independent groups, who, in 1964, invented the notion of the Higgs field (\"cosmic molasses\").", "The others were Tom Kibble of Imperial College, London; Carl Hagen of the University of Rochester; Gerald Guralnik of Brown University; and François Englert and Robert Brout, both of Université libre de Bruxelles.Although they have never been seen, Higgslike fields play an important role in theories of the universe and in string theory.", "Under certain conditions, according to the strange accounting of Einsteinian physics, they can become suffused with energy that exerts an antigravitational force.", "Such fields have been proposed as the source of an enormous burst of expansion, known as inflation, early in the universe and, possibly, as the secret of the dark energy that now seems to be speeding up the expansion of the universe.=== Physical sciences ===With increased accessibility to and elaboration upon advanced analytical techniques in the 19th century, physics was defined as much, if not more, by those techniques than by the search for universal principles of motion and energy, and the fundamental nature of matter.", "Fields such as acoustics, geophysics, astrophysics, aerodynamics, plasma physics, low-temperature physics, and solid-state physics joined optics, fluid dynamics, electromagnetism, and mechanics as areas of physical research.", "In the 20th century, physics also became closely allied with such fields as electrical, aerospace and materials engineering, and physicists began to work in government and industrial laboratories as much as in academic settings.", "Following World War II, the population of physicists increased dramatically, and came to be centered on the United States, while, in more recent decades, physics has become a more international pursuit than at any time in its previous history." ], [ "Articles on the history of physics", "===On branches of physics===History of astronomy (timeline) History of condensed matter (timeline)History of aerodynamicsHistory of materials science (timeline)History of fluid mechanics (timeline)History of metamaterials History of nanotechnologyHistory of superconductivityHistory of computational physics (timeline)History of electromagnetic theory (timeline)History of electrical engineeringHistory of the philosophy of field theoryHistory of Maxwell's equationsHistory of optics*History of spectroscopyHistory of geophysicsHistory of gravity, spacetime and cosmologyHistory of the Big Bang theoryHistory of cosmology (timeline)History of gravitational theory (timeline) History of general relativityHistory of special relativity (timeline)*History of Lorentz transformations History of classical mechanics (timeline)*History of variational principles in physicsHistory of nuclear physicsDiscovery of nuclear fissionHistory of nuclear fusionHistory of nuclear powerHistory of nuclear weaponsHistory of quantum mechanics (timeline)Atomic theoryHistory of molecular theoryHistory of quantum field theory* History of quantum information (timeline)*History of subatomic physics (timeline)History of thermodynamics (timeline)History of energyHistory of entropy *History of perpetual motion machines===On specific discoveries===Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiationHistory of grapheneFirst observation of gravitational wavesSubatomic particles (timeline)Search for the Higgs bosonDiscovery of the neutron===Historical periods=== Classical physicsCopernican RevolutionGolden age of physicsGolden age of cosmologyModern physicsPhysics in the medieval Islamic worldAstronomy in the medieval Islamic worldNoisy intermediate-scale quantum era" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* Buchwald, Jed Z. and Robert Fox, eds.", "''The Oxford Handbook of the History of Physics'' (2014) 976pp; excerpt* * * .", "* * * .", "* .", "* .", "* A selection of 56 articles, written by physicists.", "Commentaries and notes by Lloyd Motz and Dale McAdoo.", "* de Haas, Paul, \"Historic Papers in Physics (20th Century)\"" ], [ "External links", "* \"Selected Works about Isaac Newton and His Thought\" from ''The Newton Project''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrofoil" ], [ "Introduction", " A '''hydrofoil''' is a lifting surface, or foil, that operates in water.", "They are similar in appearance and purpose to aerofoils used by aeroplanes.", "Boats that use hydrofoil technology are also simply termed hydrofoils.", "As a hydrofoil craft gains speed, the hydrofoils lift the boat's hull out of the water, decreasing drag and allowing greater speeds." ], [ "Description", "The hydrofoil usually consists of a winglike structure mounted on struts below the hull, or across the keels of a catamaran in a variety of boats (see illustration).", "As a hydrofoil-equipped watercraft increases in speed, the hydrofoil elements below the hull(s) develop enough lift to raise the hull out of the water, which greatly reduces hull drag.", "This provides a corresponding increase in speed and fuel efficiency.Wider adoption of hydrofoils is prevented by the increased complexity of building and maintaining them.", "Hydrofoils are generally prohibitively more expensive than conventional watercraft above a certain displacement, so most hydrofoil craft are relatively small, and are mainly used as high-speed passenger ferries, where the relatively high passenger fees can offset the high cost of the craft itself.", "However, the design is simple enough that there are many human-powered hydrofoil designs.", "Amateur experimentation and development of the concept is popular." ], [ "Hydrodynamic mechanics", "The two types of hydrofoils: surface-piercing and fully submergedSince air and water are governed by similar fluid equations—albeit with different levels of viscosity, density, and compressibility—the hydrofoil and airfoil (both types of foil) create lift in identical ways.", "The foil shape moves smoothly through the water, deflecting the flow downward, which, following the Euler equations, exerts an upward force on the foil.", "This turning of the water creates higher pressure on the bottom of the foil and reduced pressure on the top.", "This pressure difference is accompanied by a velocity difference, via Bernoulli's principle, so the resulting flow field about the foil has a higher average velocity on one side than the other.When used as a lifting element on a hydrofoil boat, this upward force lifts the body of the vessel, decreasing drag and increasing speed.", "The lifting force eventually balances with the weight of the craft, reaching a point where the hydrofoil no longer lifts out of the water but remains in equilibrium.", "Since wave resistance and other impeding forces such as various types of drag (physics) on the hull are eliminated as the hull lifts clear, turbulence and drag act increasingly on the much smaller surface area of the hydrofoil, and decreasingly on the hull, creating a marked increase in speed.===Foil configurations===Early hydrofoils used V-shaped foils.", "Hydrofoils of this type are known as \"surface-piercing\" since portions of the V-shape hydrofoils rise above the water surface when foilborne.", "Some modern hydrofoils use fully submerged inverted T-shape foils.", "Fully submerged hydrofoils are less subject to the effects of wave action, and, therefore, more stable at sea and more comfortable for crew and passengers.", "This type of configuration, however, is not self-stabilizing.", "The angle of attack on the hydrofoils must be adjusted continuously to changing conditions, a control process performed by sensors, a computer, and active surfaces." ], [ "History", "Forlanini's hydrofoil over Lake Maggiore, 1906=== Prototypes ===The first evidence of a hydrofoil on a vessel appears on a British patent granted in 1869 to Emmanuel Denis Farcot, a Parisian.", "He claimed that \"adapting to the sides and bottom of the vessel a series or inclined planes or wedge formed pieces, which as the vessel is driven forward will have the effect of lifting it in the water and reducing the draught.\".", "Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini began work on hydrofoils in 1898 and used a \"ladder\" foil system.", "Forlanini obtained patents in Britain and the United States for his ideas and designs.Between 1899 and 1901, British boat designer John Thornycroft worked on a series of models with a stepped hull and single bow foil.", "In 1909 his company built the full scale long boat, ''Miranda III''.", "Driven by a engine, it rode on a bowfoil and flat stern.", "The subsequent ''Miranda IV'' was credited with a speed of .Alexander Graham Bell's ''HD-4'' on a test run, c. 1919In May 1904 a hydrofoil boat was described being tested on the River Seine \"in the neighbourhood of Paris\".", "This boat was designed by Comte de Lambert.", "This had 5 variable pitch fins on the hull beneath the water so inclined that when the boat begins to move \"the boat rises and the planes come to the surface\" with the result that \"it skims over the surface with little but the propellers beneath the surface\".", "The boat had twin hulls 18-foot long connected by a single deck 9-foot wide, and was fitted with a 14HP De Dion-Bouton motor, the boat was reported to have reached 20 mph.", "It was stated that \"The boat running practically on its fins resembles an aeroplane\".A March 1906 Scientific American article by American hydrofoil pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils.", "Alexander Graham Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane (now regarded as a distinct type, but also employing lift) a very significant achievement, and after reading the article began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat.", "With his chief engineer Casey Baldwin, Bell began hydrofoil experiments in the summer of 1908.Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini and began testing models based on those designs, which led to the development of hydrofoil watercraft.", "During Bell's world tour of 1910–1911, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in Italy, where they rode in his hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore.", "Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying.On returning to Bell's large laboratory at his Beinn Bhreagh estate near Baddeck, Nova Scotia, they experimented with a number of designs, culminating in Bell's ''HD-4''.", "Using Renault engines, a top speed of was achieved, accelerating rapidly, taking waves without difficulty, steering well and showing good stability.", "Bell's report to the United States Navy permitted him to obtain two 260 kW (350 hp) engines.", "On 9 September 1919 the ''HD-4'' set a world marine speed record of , which stood for two decades.", "A full-scale replica of the ''HD-4'' is viewable at the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site museum in Baddeck, Nova Scotia.In the early 1950s an English couple built the ''White Hawk'', a jet-powered hydrofoil water craft, in an attempt to beat the absolute water speed record.", "However, in tests, ''White Hawk'' could barely top the record breaking speed of the 1919 ''HD-4''.", "The designers had faced an engineering phenomenon that limits the top speed of even modern hydrofoils: cavitation disturbs the lift created by the foils as they move through the water at speed above , bending the lifting foil.A schematic illustration of self-stabilizing systems for fully submerged hydrofoils.", "Its computer gathers data for the boom position and current water level to determine the required flap position.=== First passenger boats ===German engineer Hanns von Schertel worked on hydrofoils prior to and during World War II in Germany.", "After the war, the Russians captured Schertel's team.", "As Germany was not authorized to build fast boats, Schertel went to Switzerland, where he established the Supramar company.", "In 1952, Supramar launched the first commercial hydrofoil, PT10 \"Freccia d'Oro\" (Golden Arrow), in Lake Maggiore, between Switzerland and Italy.", "The PT10 is of surface-piercing type, it can carry 32 passengers and travel at .", "In 1968, the Bahraini born banker Hussain Najadi acquired the Supramar AG and expanded its operations into Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, the UK, Norway and the US.", "General Dynamics of the United States became its licensee, and the Pentagon awarded its first R&D naval research project in the field of supercavitation.", "Hitachi Shipbuilding of Osaka, Japan, was another licensee of Supramar, as well as many leading ship owners and shipyards in the OECD countries.From 1952 to 1971, Supramar designed many models of hydrofoils: PT20, PT50, PT75, PT100 and PT150.All are of surface-piercing type, except the PT150 combining a surface-piercing foil forward with a fully submerged foil in the aft location.", "Over 200 of Supramar's design were built, most of them by Rodriquez (headed at the time by Engineer Carlo Rodriquez in Sicily, Italy.During the same period the Soviet Union experimented extensively with hydrofoils, constructing hydrofoil river boats and ferries with streamlined designs during the cold war period and into the 1980s.", "Such vessels include the Raketa (1957) type, followed by the larger Meteor type and the smaller Voskhod type.", "One of the most successful Soviet designer/inventor in this area was Rostislav Alexeyev, who some consider the 'father' of the modern hydrofoil due to his 1950s era high speed hydrofoil designs.", "Later, circa 1970s, Alexeyev combined his hydrofoil experience with the surface effect principle to create the Ekranoplan.", "Extensive investment in this type of technology in the USSR resulted in the largest civil hydrofoil fleet in the world and the making of the Meteor type, the most successful hydrofoil in history, with more than 400 units built.Peterhof hydrofoil (18272163540).jpg\|VoskhodMeteor boat on Neva Bay.jpg\|MeteorRaketa-185 on Khimki Reservoir 6-jun-2014 02.jpg\|RaketaPolesye-1 (ship, 1986, Gomel, 7).jpg\|PolesyeKizhi 06-2017 img30 Kometa-17 hydrofoil.jpg\|KometaIn 1961, SRI International issued a study on \"The Economic Feasibility of Passenger Hydrofoil Craft in US Domestic and Foreign Commerce\".", "Commercial use of hydrofoils in the US first appeared in 1961 when two commuter vessels were commissioned by Harry Gale Nye, Jr.'s North American Hydrofoils to service the route from Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey to the financial district of Lower Manhattan." ], [ "Military usage", "===Germany===A 17-ton German craft ''VS-6 Hydrofoil'' was designed and constructed in 1940, completed in 1941 for use as a mine layer,;it was tested in the Baltic Sea, producing speeds of 47 knots.", "Tested against a standard E-boat over the next three years it performed well but was not brought into production.", "Being faster it could carry a higher payload and was capable of travelling over minefields but was prone to damage and noisier.===Canada===HMCS ''Bras d'Or'', a military concept hydrofoil.In Canada during World War II, Baldwin worked on an experimental smoke laying hydrofoil (later called the Comox Torpedo) that was later superseded by other smoke-laying technology and an experimental target-towing hydrofoil.", "The forward two foil assemblies of what is believed to be the latter hydrofoil were salvaged in the mid-1960s from a derelict hulk in Baddeck, Nova Scotia by Colin MacGregor Stevens.", "These were donated to the Maritime Museum in Halifax, Nova Scotia.The Canadian Armed Forces built and tested a number of hydrofoils (e.g., Baddeck and two vessels named ''Bras d'Or''), which culminated in the high-speed anti-submarine hydrofoil HMCS ''Bras d'Or'' in the late 1960s.", "However, the program was cancelled in the early 1970s due to a shift away from anti-submarine warfare by the Canadian military.", "The ''Bras d'Or'' was a surface-piercing type that performed well during her trials, reaching a maximum speed of .===Soviet Union===Project 206M \"Shtorm\" patrol fast attack craft hydrofoil of the Cuban Navy.The USSR introduced several hydrofoil-based fast attack craft into their navy, principally:* ''Sarancha'' class missile boat, a unique vessel built in the 1970s* ''Turya'' class torpedo boat, introduced in 1972 and still in service* ''Matka'' class missile boat, introduced in the 1980s and still in service* ''Muravey'' class patrol boat, introduced in the 1980s and still in service===United States===USS ''Aquila'', a military hydrofoil.", "The T-shaped foils are visible just below the water.The US Navy began experiments with hydrofoils in the mid-1950s by funding a sailing vessel that used hydrofoils to reach speeds in the 30 mph range.", "The ''XCH-4'' (officially, ''Experimental Craft, Hydrofoil No.", "4''), designed by William P. Carl, exceeded speeds of and was mistaken for a seaplane due to its shape.The US Navy implemented a small number of combat hydrofoils, such as the ''Pegasus'' class, from 1977 through 1993.These hydrofoils were fast and well armed.===Italy===Italian ''Sparviero'' class hydrofoil-missile NIBBIO P-421.The Italian Navy has used six hydrofoils of the ''Sparviero'' class since the late 1970s.", "These were armed with a 76 mm gun and two missiles, and were capable of speeds up to .", "Three similar boats were built for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force." ], [ "Sailing and sports", "Team New Zealand's AC72 at the 2013 America's Cup, San Francisco Bay.Several editions of the America's Cup have been raced with foiling yachts.", "In 2013 and 2017 respectively the AC72 and AC50 classes of catamaran, and in 2021 the AC75 class of foiling monohulls with canting arms.The French experimental sail powered hydrofoil ''Hydroptère'' is the result of a research project that involves advanced engineering skills and technologies.", "In September 2009, the ''Hydroptère'' set new sailcraft world speed records in the 500 m category, with a speed of and in the category with a speed of .The 500 m speed record for sailboats is currently held by the ''Vestas Sailrocket'', an exotic design which operates in effect as a hydrofoil.Another trimaran sailboat is the Windrider Rave.", "The Rave is a commercially available , two person, hydrofoil trimaran, capable of reaching speeds of .", "The boat was designed by Jim Brown.The Moth dinghy has evolved into some radical foil configurations.Hobie Sailboats produced a production foiling trimaran, the Hobie Trifoiler, the fastest production sailboat.", "Trifoilers have clocked speeds upward of thirty knots.A new kayak design, called Flyak, has hydrofoils that lift the kayak enough to significantly reduce drag, allowing speeds of up to .", "Some surfers have developed surfboards with hydrofoils called foilboards, specifically aimed at surfing big waves further out to sea.Quadrofoil Q2 is a two-seater, four-foiled hydrofoil electrical leisure watercraft.", "Its initial design was set in 2012 and it has been available commercially since the end of 2016.Powered by a 5.2-kWh lithium-ion battery pack and propelled by a 5.5 kW motor, it reaches the top speed of 40 km/h and has 80 km of range.The Manta5 Hydrofoiler XE-1 is a Hydrofoil E-bike, designed and built in New Zealand that has since been available commercially for pre-order since late 2017.Propelled by a 400 watt motor, it can reach speeds exceeding 14 km/h with a weight of 22 kg.", "A single charge of the battery lasts an hour for a rider weighing 85 kg.Candela, a Swedish company, is producing a recreational hydrofoil powerboat, making strong claims for efficiency, performance, and range.Hydrofoils are now widely used with kitesurfing, that is traction kites over water.", "Hydrofoils are a new trend in windsurfing - including the new Summer Olympic class, the IQFoil, and more recently with Wing foiling, which are essentially a kite with no strings, or a hand-held sail.Voskhod on the North Sea Canal, the NetherlandsTurboJET's ''Urzela'' JetFoil on West Lamma Channel, Hong KongTurboJET's ''Barca'' Foilcat" ], [ "Modern passenger boats", "''Flying Poseidon'' (built 1982) had just berthed at Rhodes from Fethiye when the sister ''Kometas'' hydrofoil from Bodrum also arrived from Turkey in 2011.Soviet-built Voskhods are one of the most successful passenger hydrofoil designs.", "Manufactured in Soviet and later Ukrainian Crimea, they are in service in more than 20 countries.", "The most recent model, Voskhod-2M FFF, also known as Eurofoil, was built in Feodosiya for the Dutch public transport operator Connexxion.The first Kometa 120M, named Chaika (Seagull) after Valentina Tereshkova's callsign, moored in SevastopolMid-2010s saw a Russian governmental program aimed at restoring passenger hydrofoil production.", "The , based on the earlier , Kolhida and Katran models, became the first to enter production, initially on factory in Rybinsk, and later on More shipyard in Feodosiya.", "Since 2018, the ships are running Sevastopol-Yalta and Sochi-Gelenzhik-Novorossiysk, with a Sevastopol-Sochi connection in the immediate plans in 2021.At the same time, the Alekseyev Bureau began building lighter, smaller hydrofoils, based on a widely successful model, at its own plant in Nizhny Novgorod, the relatively shallow-draft boats used on the Ob and the Volga.", "The , a development of the , became the Valday's larger sibling, the first ship launched in Nizhny Novgorod in August 2021.The Boeing 929 is widely used in Asia for passenger services, between Hong Kong and Macau and between the many islands of Japan, also on the Korean peninsula.", "The main user is Hong Kong private corp.=== Current operation ===Current operators of hydrofoils include:* TurboJET service, which speeds passengers across the Pearl River Delta between Hong Kong and Macau in less than an hour, with an average speed of 45 knots (83 km/h), mainly using Boeing's Jetfoil.", "Also services Shenzhen, Panyu (Nansha) and Kowloon.", "Operated by Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited.", "* Voskhod and ''Polesye'' service between Tulcea and Sulina on the Danube.", "* ''Meteor'' and ''Polesye'' service in Poland between Szczecin and Świnoujście.", "* ''Cometa'' service between Nizhneangarsk and Irkutsk on Lake Baikal.", "* ''Cometa'' service between Vladivostok and Slavyanka.", "* ''Polesye'' service between Mozyr and Turov on the Pripyat River (Belarus).", "* ''Meteor'' service between Saint Petersburg, Russia and the Peterhof Palace, a summer palace of Russian tsars.Hydrofoil high-speed boat Meteor on Lake Ladoga, Russia.Passenger hydrofoil ''Flying Dolphin Zeus'' moving at high speed near Piraeus, Greece.", "* ''Meteor'' service between Saint Petersburg, Russia and the Kronstadt, a strongly fortified Russian seaport town, located on Kotlin Island, near the head of the Gulf of Finland.", "It lies thirty kilometers west of Saint Petersburg.", "Since 2012 replaced by a catamaran ''Mercury''.", "* ''Meteor'', ''Raketa'' and ''Voskhod'' hydrofoil types operate all over Volga, Don and Kama Rivers in Russia.", "Also the Lena River and Amur River.", "* ''Meteor'' hydrofoils are operated by a number of tour operators in Croatia, mostly for packaged tours, but there are also some scheduled services to islands in Adriatic.", "* Hydrofoils are regularly operated on the three major Italian lakes by branches of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport: ''Navigazione Lago Maggiore'' services routes on Lake Maggiore between Locarno and Arona, ''Navigazione Lago di Como'' services routes on Lake Como, and ''Navigazione Lago di Garda'' services routes on Lake Garda.", "Three units of the Rodriguez RHS150 type operate on each lake, for a total of nine hydrofoils.", "* Former Russian hydrofoils are used in southern Italy for connection with islands of Lazio and Campania.", "SNAV has five RHS200, RHS160 and RHS150 used in the connections between Naples and the islands of Capri and Ischia.", "* A regular hydrofoil service runs from Istanbul to Yalova.", "* Hellenic Seaways operate their Flying Dolphins service over many routes in the Aegean, between the Cyclades, Saronic Gulf islands such as Aegina and Poros, and Athens.", "* ''Meteor'' (2), ''Polesye'' (4) and ''Voskhod'' (3) hydrofoil types operate in Hungary.", "MAHART PassNave Ltd. operates scheduled hydrofoil liners between Budapest, Bratislava and Vienna, inland liners between Budapest and the Danube Bend, and theme cruises to Komárom, Solt, Kalocsa and Mohács.", "* \"Kometa\" Flying Dolphin services are currently operated by Joy Cruises between Corfu and Paxos.", "They run from Corfu Port to Gaios using two hydrofoils: ''Ilida'' and ''Ilida II''.", "The company operates also an international service from Corfu to Saranda (Albania) using the hydrofoil ''Ilida Dolphin'' of the same type.", "* \"Kometa\" type hydrofoils (registered in Albania) are operated by Ionian Cruises and Finikas Lines between Saranda and Corfu.", "* Russian hydrofoils of the ''Kometa'' type operated on the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast connecting Varna, Nesebar, Burgas, Sozopol, Primorsko, and Tsarevo, and ''Raketa'' and ''Meteor'' models served the Bulgarian Danube ports between Rousse and Vidin.", "Both services were discontinued in the 1990s.", "In 2011 the service reopened between Varna, Nesebar, Burgas and Sozopol, operated by Bulgarian Hydrofoils Ltd.* Vietnamese ''Greenline Company'' operates hourly shuttle service between Ho Chi Minh City, Vung Tau and Con Dao island.", "Hydrofoil lines using the Russian-built Meteor type also connect Hai Phong, Ha Long and Mong Cai in North Vietnam, Phan Thiet and Phu Quy Island and between Rach Gia and Phu Quoc Island in the South.", "The service between Busan, South Korea and Fukuoka, Japan is operated by two companies.", "Japanese JR Kyūshū Jet Ferry operates ''Beetle'' five times a day.", "Korean Miraejet operates ''Kobee'' three to four times a day.", "All of their fleets are Boeing 929.", "As of February 2008, all of the commercial lines in Japan use Boeing 929.The routes include:Sado Kisen operates the route between Sado and Niigata.", "Tōkai Kisen operates ''Seven Islands'', running between Tokyo and Izu Islands, via Tateyama or Yokosuka.", "The destinations include Izu Ōshima, Toshima, Niijima, Shikinejima, and Kōzushima.", "The same ship also links Atami and Izu Ōshima.", "Kyūshū Yūsen operates the route between Fukuoka, Iki, and the two ports of Tsushima.", "Kyūshū Shōsen operates the route between Nagasaki and the two of Gotō Islands, namely Fukuejima and Nakadōrijima.", "*Kagoshima Shōsen and Cosmo Line operate the various routes between Kagoshima and Tanegashima or Yakushima.", " In 2012, Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department (AFCD) in Hong Kong leased a 12-meter HAWC (Hydrofoil Assisted Water Craft), a catamaran, to patrol the Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark in the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region.", "* In 2017, Voskhod boat began operating on 2 lines in Ukraine: Nova Kakhovka-Kherson-Hola Prystan, Mykolaiv-Kinburn Spit, Ochakiv-Kinburn Spit.", "* In July 2018, the new generation Kometa 120M boat has started operation on the busy Sevastopol-Yalta route in Crimea, with the plans to add two more and possible other routes in 2019.", "* In Italy hydrofoils have been used for commercial connections since 1956, by the Rodriguez shipyards and the SNAV company.Currently, the main hydrofoil operator in Italy is Liberty Lines, which operates connections between the smaller Sicilian islands with Sicily and Calabria and between Trieste and some towns on the Croatian coast.SNAV operates connections between Naples and the smaller Campanian islands and - in the summer period - between Naples and the Aeolian Islands.In summer, Aliscost operates a connection between Salerno and some coastal towns of Campania and the Aeolian Islands.=== Discontinued operations ===* Until 31 December 2013, Fast Flying Ferries operated by Connexxion provided a regular public transport service over the North Sea Canal between Amsterdam Central Station and Velsen-Zuid in the Netherlands, using Voskhod 2M hydrofoils.", "It was stopped due to a new speed limit.", "* Between 1981 and 1990, Transmediterranea operated a service of hydrofoils connecting Ceuta and Algeciras in the Strait of Gibraltar.", "The crossing took half an hour, in comparison to the hour and a half of conventional ferries.", "Due to the common extreme winds and storms that take place in winter in the Strait of Gibraltar, the service was replaced in 1990 by catamarans, which were also able to carry cars.", "At the peak of the year, in summer, there was a service every half an hour in each direction.", "This high-speed connection had a big impact on the development of Ceuta, facilitating one-day business trips to mainland Spain.", "* Between 1964 and 1991 the Sydney hydrofoils operated on Sydney Harbour between Circular Quay and Manly.", "* Between 1969 and 1998 Red Funnel operated between Southampton and Cowes, Isle of Wight.", "* During the 1970s and 1980s there were frequent services between Belgrade and Tekija in Đerdap gorge.", "The distance of was covered in 3 hours and 30 minutes downstream and 4 hours upstream.", "* Between 1980 and 1981, B+I Line operated a Boeing 929 jetfoil, named ''Cú Na Mara'' (Hound of the Sea), between Liverpool and Dublin.", "The service was not successful and was discontinued at the end of the 1981 season.", "* Between the 1960s and 1985 there were hydrofoils going between Malmö, Sweden and Copenhagen, Denmark.", "They were retired and exchanged for catamarans.", "The service got cancelled when the Öresund Bridge got built in the early 2000s.", "* Condor Ferries operated six hydrofoil ferries over a 29-year period between the Channel Islands, the south coast of England and Saint-Malo in France.", "* Following the restoration of Estonian independence in the 1990s, the regular ferry service between Helsinki and Tallinn was augmented by Soviet built hydrofoils during the summer season in periods of good weather.", "The higher speed service competed with the traditional ro-ro ferries but allowed easy day trips for pedestrian travellers.", "They were ultimately replaced with high-speed catamarans that could also carry vehicles and have better seaworthiness; however, the latter ceased operations as the operator filed for bankruptcy in May 2018." ], [ "See also", "* Boeing hydrofoils* ''Disco Volante''* Flyak – a hydrofoil kayak* Foilboard* ''The Hydrofoil Mystery'' – historical fiction* Hydroplane, a different application of lift to the hull itself* Planing (sailing)* ''Raketa''* Riverboat* Sailing hydrofoil* Sit-down hydrofoil* Supercavitation* Trampofoil – a one-person human-powered hydrofoil* ''Voskhod''* LISA Akoya – amphibious plane with hydrofoil assisted takeoff" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The International Hydrofoil Society* Fast CC Hydrofoil design by Prof. KG Hoppe, inventor of HYSUCAT technology patented by University of Stellenbosch, S.A.* HYFOIL Marine has cooperative technology agreements with Prof. KG Hoppe* Hydrofoil Assisted Water Craft employing HYSUCAT and HYSUWAC patents in their projects and vessels currently in operation* Swiss experimental hydrofoils* HyRaii - Hydrofoil Sailboat, Student Project ETH Zurich" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henri Chopin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henri Chopin''' (18 June 1922 – 3 January 2008) was a French avant-garde poet and musician." ], [ "Life", "Henri Chopin was born in Paris, 18 June 1922, one of three brothers, and the son of an accountant.", "Both his siblings died during the war.", "One was shot by a German soldier the day after an armistice was declared in Paris, the other while sabotaging a train.Chopin was a French practitioner of concrete and sound poetry, well known throughout the second half of the 20th century.", "His work, though iconoclastic, remained well within the historical spectrum of poetry as it moved from a spoken tradition to the printed word and now back to the spoken word again.", "He created a large body of pioneering recordings using early tape recorders, studio technologies and the sounds of the manipulated human voice.", "His emphasis on sound is a reminder that language stems as much from oral traditions as from classic literature, of the relationship of balance between order and chaos.Chopin is significant above all for his diverse spread of creative achievement, as well as for his position as a focal point of contact for the international arts.", "As poet, painter, graphic artist and designer, typographer, independent publisher, filmmaker, broadcaster and arts promoter, Chopin's work is a barometer of the shifts in European media between the 1950s and the 1970s.In 1966 he was with Gustav Metzger, Otto Muehl, Wolf Vostell, Peter Weibel and others a participant of the Destruction in Art Symposium (''DIAS'') in London.In 1964 he created ''OU'', one of the most notable reviews of the second half of the 20th century, and he ran it until 1974.", "''OU'''s contributors included William S. Burroughs, Brion Gysin, Gil J. Wolman, François Dufrêne, Bernard Heidsieck, John Furnival, Tom Phillips, and the Austrian sculptor, writer and Dada pioneer Raoul Hausmann.His books included ''Le Dernier Roman du Monde'' (1971), ''Portrait des 9'' (1975), ''The Cosmographical Lobster'' (1976), ''Poésie Sonore Internationale'' (1979), ''Les Riches Heures de l'Alphabet'' (1992) and ''Graphpoemesmachine'' (2006).", "Henri also created many graphic works on his typewriter: the typewriter poems (also known as dactylopoèmes) feature in international art collections such as those of Francesco Conz in Verona, the Morra Foundation in Naples and Ruth and Marvin Sackner in Miami, and have been the subject of Australian, British and French retrospectives.His publication and design of the classic audio-visual magazines ''Cinquième Saison'' and ''OU'' between 1958 and 1974, each issue containing recordings as well as texts, images, screenprints and multiples, brought together international contemporary writers and artists such as members of Lettrisme and Fluxus, Jiri Kolar, Ian Hamilton Finlay, Tom Phillips, Brion Gysin, William S. Burroughs and many others, as well as bringing the work of survivors from earlier generations such as Raoul Hausmann and Marcel Janco to a fresh audience.From 1968 to 1986 Henri Chopin lived in Ingatestone, Essex, but with the death of his wife Jean in 1985, he moved back to France.In 2001 with his health failing, he returned to England, living with his daughter and family at Dereham, Norfolk until his death on 3 January 2008." ], [ "Aesthetics", "Chopin's ''poesie sonore'' aesthetics included a deliberate cultivation of a ''barbarian'' approach in production, using raw or crude sound manipulations to explore the area betweendistortion and intelligibility.", "He avoided high-quality, professional recording machines, preferring to use very basic equipment and ''bricolage'' methods, such as sticking matchsticks in the erase heads of a second-hand tape recorder, or manually interfering with the tape path." ], [ "Books", "Chopin, Henri.", "1979.", "''Poesie Sonore Internationale'', edited by Jean-Michel Place.", "Paris: Trajectoires." ], [ "Films on Henri Chopin", "''De Henri à Chopin, le dernier pape'' by Frédéric Acquaviva and Maria Faustino, DV, 3h10mn, 2002–2008''Henri Chopin, reflecting on OU'', by Silva Gabriela Béju, DV, 28', 2001, published in 2016 in \"CRU\"n°2 magazine (La Plaque Tournante, Berlin, dir.", "Frédéric Acquaviva and Loré Lixenberg)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Patterson, Jack.", "2022.", "\"Henri Chopin: From the Paper Civilization to the Electronic Age\".", "''Resonance'' 3, n. 4 (December): 344–363.doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/res.2022.3.4.344Jamet, Cédric.", "2009.", "\"Limitless Voice(s), Intensive Bodies: Henri Chopin's Poetics of Expansion\".", "''Mosaic'' 42, n. 2 (June): 135–51.", "Lentz, Michael.", "1996.\"'Musik?", "Poesie?", "Eigentlich …': Lautmusik/Poesie nach 1945\".", "''Neue Zeitschrift für Musik'' 157, n. 2 (March–April): 47–55.", "Matter, Marc.", "2014.", "\"Revue OU Disque\" (Editorial).", "''Fabrikzeitung'', n. 298 (February): 2–3.", "Norris, Andrew.", "2005.", "\"Projections of the Pulseless Body: Don van Vliet and Henri Chopin\".", "''Chapter & Verse'', n. 3 (Spring).", "Oehlschlägel, Reinhard.", "2008.", "\"Henri Chopin gestorben\".", "''MusikTexte'', n. 116 (February): 87.", "Zurbrugg, Nicholas.", "1994.", "'Electronic Arts in Australia' Continuum Vol 8, No 1 (p129-132) Interview with Henri Chopin.", "Zurbrugg, Nicholas.", "2001.", "\"Programming Paradise: Haraldo de Campos, Concrete Poetry, and the Postmodern Multimedia Avant-Garde\".", "In ''Writing Aloud: The Sonics of Language'', edited by Brandon LaBelle and Christof Migone, 7–35.Los Angeles: Errant Bodies.", "." ], [ "External links", " Archivio Conz* Sound and video on erratum.org* The History of ASCII (Text) Art by Joan G.", "Stark.", "Henri Chopin Papers.", "General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.===Listening=== UbuWeb Sound: Henri Chopin." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hassium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hassium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Hs''' and atomic number 108.Hassium is highly radioactive: its most stable known isotopes have half-lives of approximately ten seconds.", "One of its isotopes, 270Hs, has magic numbers of both protons and neutrons for deformed nuclei, which gives it greater stability against spontaneous fission.", "Hassium is a superheavy element; it has been produced in a laboratory only in very small quantities by fusing heavy nuclei with lighter ones.", "Natural occurrences of the element have been hypothesised but never found.In the periodic table of elements, hassium is a transactinide element, a member of the 7th period and group 8; it is thus the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals.", "Chemistry experiments have confirmed that hassium behaves as the heavier homologue to osmium, reacting readily with oxygen to form a volatile tetroxide.", "The chemical properties of hassium have been only partly characterized, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 8 elements.The principal innovation that led to the discovery of hassium was the technique of cold fusion, in which the fused nuclei did not differ by mass as much as in earlier techniques.", "It relied on greater stability of target nuclei, which in turn decreased excitation energy.", "This decreased the number of neutron ejections during synthesis, creating heavier, more stable resulting nuclei.", "The technique was first tested at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, in 1974.JINR used this technique to attempt synthesis of element 108 in 1978, in 1983, and in 1984; the latter experiment resulted in a claim that element 108 had been produced.", "Later in 1984, a synthesis claim followed from the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany.", "The 1993 report by the Transfermium Working Group, formed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, concluded that the report from Darmstadt was conclusive on its own whereas that from Dubna was not, and major credit was assigned to the German scientists.", "GSI formally announced they wished to name the element ''hassium'' after the German state of Hesse (Hassia in Latin), home to the facility in 1992; this name was accepted as final in 1997." ], [ "Introduction to the heaviest elements" ], [ "Discovery", "Scheme of an apparatus for creating superheavy elements, based on the Dubna Gas-Filled Recoil Separator set up in the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in JINR.", "The trajectory within the detector and the beam focusing apparatus changes because of a dipole magnet in the former and quadrupole magnets in the latter.=== Cold fusion ===Nuclear reactions used in the 1960s resulted in high excitation energies that required expulsion of four or five neutrons; these reactions used targets made of elements with high atomic numbers to maximize the size difference between the two nuclei in a reaction.", "While this increased the chance of fusion due to the lower electrostatic repulsion between the target and the projectile, the formed compound nuclei often broke apart and did not survive to form a new element.", "Moreover, fusion processes inevitably produce neutron-poor nuclei, as heavier elements require more neutrons per proton to maximize stability; therefore, the necessary ejection of neutrons results in final products with typically have shorter lifetimes.", "As such, light beams (six to ten protons) allowed synthesis of elements only up to 106.To advance to heavier elements, Soviet physicist Yuri Oganessian at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, proposed a different mechanism, in which the bombarded nucleus would be lead-208, which has magic numbers of protons and neutrons, or another nucleus close to it.", "Each proton and neutron has a fixed value of rest energy; those of all protons are equal and so are those of all neutrons.", "In a nucleus, some of this energy is diverted to binding protons and neutrons; if a nucleus has a magic number of protons and/or neutrons, then even more of its rest energy is diverted, which gives the nuclide additional stability.", "This additional stability requires more energy for an external nucleus to break the existing one and penetrate it.", "More energy diverted to binding nucleons means less rest energy, which in turn means less mass (mass is proportional to rest energy).", "More equal atomic numbers of the reacting nuclei result in greater electrostatic repulsion between them, but the lower mass excess of the target nucleus balances it.", "This leaves less excitation energy for the newly created compound nucleus, which necessitates fewer neutron ejections to reach a stable state.", "Because of this energy difference, the former mechanism became known as \"hot fusion\" and the latter as \"cold fusion\".Cold fusion was first declared successful in 1974 at JINR, when it was tested for synthesis of the yet-undiscovered element106.These new nuclei were projected to decay via spontaneous fission.", "The physicists at JINR concluded element 106 was produced in the experiment because no fissioning nucleus known at the time showed parameters of fission similar to what was observed during the experiment and because changing either of the two nuclei in the reactions negated the observed effects.", "Physicists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL; originally Radiation Laboratory, RL, and later Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, LBNL) of the University of California in Berkeley, California, United States, also expressed great interest in the new technique.", "When asked about how far this new method could go and if lead targets were a physics' Klondike, Oganessian responded, \"Klondike may be an exaggeration ...", "But soon, we will try to get elements 107... 108 in these reactions.", "\"=== Reports ===The synthesis of element108 was first attempted in 1978 by a research team led by Oganessian at the JINR.", "The team used a reaction that would generate element108, specifically, the isotope 270108, from fusion of radium (specifically, the isotope and calcium .", "The researchers were uncertain in interpreting their data, and their paper did not unambiguously claim to have discovered the element.", "The same year, another team at JINR investigated the possibility of synthesis of element108 in reactions between lead and iron ; they were uncertain in interpreting the data, suggesting the possibility that element108 had not been created.GSI's linear leftIn 1983, new experiments were performed at JINR.", "The experiments probably resulted in the synthesis of element108; bismuth was bombarded with manganese to obtain 263108, lead , was bombarded with iron to obtain 264108, and californium was bombarded with neon to obtain 270108.These experiments were not claimed as a discovery and Oganessian announced them in a conference rather than in a written report.In 1984, JINR researchers in Dubna performed experiments set up identically to the previous ones; they bombarded bismuth and lead targets with ions of lighter elements manganese and iron, respectively.", "Twenty-one spontaneous fission events were recorded; the researchers concluded they were caused by 264108.Later in 1984, a research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI; ''Institute for Heavy Ion Research'') in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany, attempted to create element108.The team bombarded a lead target with accelerated iron nuclei.", "GSI's experiment to create element108 was delayed until after their creation of element109 in 1982, as prior calculations had suggested that even–even isotopes of element108 would have spontaneous fission half-lives of less than one microsecond, making them difficult to detect and identify.", "The element108 experiment finally went ahead after 266109 had been synthesized and was found to decay by alpha emission, suggesting that isotopes of element108 would do likewise, and this was corroborated by an experiment aimed at synthesizing isotopes of element106.GSI reported synthesis of three atoms of 265108.Two years later, they reported synthesis of one atom of the even–even 264108.=== Arbitration ===In 1985, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) formed the Transfermium Working Group (TWG) to assess discoveries and establish final names for elements with atomic numbers greater than 100.The party held meetings with delegates from the three competing institutes; in 1990, they established criteria for recognition of an element and in 1991, they finished the work of assessing discoveries and disbanded.", "These results were published in 1993.According to the report, the 1984 works from JINR and GSI simultaneously and independently established synthesis of element108.Of the two 1984 works, the one from GSI was said to be sufficient as a discovery on its own.", "The JINR work, which preceded the GSI one, \"very probably\" displayed synthesis of element108.However, that was determined in retrospect given the work from Darmstadt; the JINR work focused on chemically identifying remote granddaughters of element108 isotopes (which could not exclude the possibility that these daughter isotopes had other progenitors), while the GSI work clearly identified the decay path of those element108 isotopes.", "The report concluded that the major credit should be awarded to GSI.", "In written responses to this ruling, both JINR and GSI agreed with its conclusions.", "In the same response, GSI confirmed that they and JINR were able to resolve all conflicts between them.=== Naming ===Historically, a newly discovered element was named by its discoverer.", "The first regulation came in 1947, when IUPAC decided naming required regulation in case there are conflicting names.", "These matters were to be resolved by the Commission of Inorganic Nomenclature and the Commission of Atomic Weights.", "They would review the names in case of a conflict and select one; the decision would be based on a number of factors, such as usage, and would not be an indicator of priority of a claim.", "The two commissions would recommend a name to the IUPAC Council, which would be the final authority.", "The discoverers held the right to name an element, but their name would be subject to approval by IUPAC.", "The Commission of Atomic Weights distanced itself from element naming in most cases.Under Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, hassium would be known as \"eka-osmium\", as in \"the first element below osmium in the periodic table\" (from Sanskrit ''eka'' meaning \"one\").", "In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called \"unniloctium\" and assigned the corresponding symbol of \"Uno\", a systematic element name as a placeholder until the element was discovered and the discovery then confirmed, and a permanent name was decided.", "Although these recommendations were widely followed in the chemical community, the competing physicists in the field ignored them.", "They either called it \"element108\", with the symbols ''E108'', ''(108)'' or ''108'', or used the proposed name \"hassium\".Coat of arms of the German state of Hesse, after which hassium is namedIn 1990, in an attempt to break a deadlock in establishing priority of discovery and naming of several elements, IUPAC reaffirmed in its nomenclature of inorganic chemistry that after existence of an element was established, the discoverers could propose a name.", "(In addition, the Commission of Atomic Weights was excluded from the naming process.)", "The first publication on criteria for an element discovery, released in 1991, specified the need for recognition by TWG.Armbruster and his colleagues, the officially recognized German discoverers, held a naming ceremony for the elements 107 through 109, which had all been recognized as discovered by GSI, on 7September 1992.For element108, the scientists proposed the name \"hassium\".", "It is derived from the Latin name ''Hassia'' for the German state of Hesse where the institute is located.", "This name was proposed to IUPAC in a written response to their ruling on priority of discovery claims of elements, signed 29 September 1992.The process of naming of element 108 was a part of a larger process of naming a number of elements starting with element 101; three teams—JINR, GSI, and LBL—claimed discoveries of several elements and the right to name those elements.", "Sometimes, these claims clashed; since a discoverer was considered entitled to naming of an element, conflicts over priority of discovery often resulted in conflicts over names of these new elements.", "These conflicts became known as the Transfermium Wars.", "Different suggestions to name the whole set of elements from 101 onward and they occasionally assigned names suggested by one team to be used for elements discovered by another.", "However, not all suggestions were met with equal approval; the teams openly protested naming proposals on several occasions.In 1994, IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry recommended that element108 be named \"hahnium\" (Hn) after the German physicist Otto Hahn so elements named after Hahn and Lise Meitner (it was recommended element109 should be named meitnerium, following GSI's suggestion) would be next to each other, honouring their joint discovery of nuclear fission; IUPAC commented that they felt the German suggestion was obscure.", "GSI protested, saying this proposal contradicted the long-standing convention of giving the discoverer the right to suggest a name; the American Chemical Society supported GSI.", "The name \"hahnium\", albeit with the different symbol Ha, had already been proposed and used by the American scientists for element105, for which they had a discovery dispute with JINR; they thus protested the confusing scrambling of names.", "Following the uproar, IUPAC formed an ad hoc committee of representatives from the national adhering organizations of the three countries home to the competing institutions; they produced a new set of names in 1995.Element108 was again named ''hahnium''; this proposal was also retracted.", "The final compromise was reached in 1996 and published in 1997; element108 was named ''hassium'' (Hs).", "Simultaneously, the name ''dubnium'' (Db; from Dubna, the JINR location) was assigned to element105, and the name ''hahnium'' was not used for any element.The official justification for this naming, alongside that of darmstadtium for element110, was that it completed a set of geographic names for the location of the GSI; this set had been initiated by 19th-century names europium and germanium.", "This set would serve as a response to earlier naming of americium, californium, and berkelium for elements discovered in Berkeley.", "Armbruster commented on this, \"this bad tradition was established by Berkeley.", "We wanted to do it for Europe.\"", "Later, when commenting on the naming of element112, Armbruster said, \"I did everything to ensure that we do not continue with German scientists and German towns.\"" ], [ "Isotopes", "Hassium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes.", "Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements.", "As of 2019, the quantity of all hassium ever produced was on the order of hundreds of atoms.", "Thirteen isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 263 to 277 (with the exceptions of 274 and 276) have been reported, four of which—hassium-265, -266, -267, and -277—have known metastable states, although that of hassium-277 is unconfirmed.", "Most of these isotopes decay predominantly through alpha decay; this is the most common for all isotopes for which comprehensive decay characteristics are available, the only exception being hassium-277, which undergoes spontaneous fission.", "Lighter isotopes were usually synthesized by direct fusion between two lighter nuclei, whereas heavier isotopes were typically observed as decay products of nuclei with larger atomic numbers.Atomic nuclei have well-established nuclear shells, and the existence of these shells provides nuclei with additional stability.", "If a nucleus has certain numbers of protons or neutrons, called magic numbers, that complete certain nuclear shells, then the nucleus is even more stable against decay.", "The highest known magic numbers are 82 for protons and 126 for neutrons.", "This notion is sometimes expanded to include additional numbers between those magic numbers, which also provide some additional stability and indicate closure of \"sub-shells\".", "In contrast to the better-known lighter nuclei, superheavy nuclei are deformed.", "Until the 1960s, the liquid drop model was the dominant explanation for nuclear structure.", "It suggested that the fission barrier would disappear for nuclei with about 280nucleons.", "It was thus thought that spontaneous fission would occur nearly instantly before nuclei could form a structure that could stabilize them; it appeared that nuclei with Z≈103 were too heavy to exist for a considerable length of time.The later nuclear shell model suggested that nuclei with about three hundred nucleons would form an island of stability in which nuclei will be more resistant to spontaneous fission and will primarily undergo alpha decay with longer half-lives, and the next doubly magic nucleus (having magic numbers of both protons and neutrons) is expected to lie in the center of the island of stability in the vicinity of ''Z''=110–114 and the predicted magic neutron number ''N''=184.Subsequent discoveries suggested that the predicted island might be further than originally anticipated; they also showed that nuclei intermediate between the long-lived actinides and the predicted island are deformed, and gain additional stability from shell effects.", "The addition to the stability against the spontaneous fission should be particularly great against spontaneous fission, although increase in stability against the alpha decay would also be pronounced.", "The center of the region on a chart of nuclides that would correspond to this stability for deformed nuclei was determined as 270Hs, with 108 expected to be a magic number for protons for deformed nuclei—nuclei that are far from spherical—and 162 a magic number for neutrons for such nuclei.", "Experiments on lighter superheavy nuclei, as well as those closer to the expected island, have shown greater than previously anticipated stability against spontaneous fission, showing the importance of shell effects on nuclei.Theoretical models predict a region of instability for some hassium isotopes to lie around ''A''=275 and ''N''=168–170, which is between the predicted neutron shell closures at ''N''=162 for deformed nuclei and ''N''=184 for spherical nuclei.", "Nuclides within this region are predicted to have low fission barrier heights, resulting in short partial half-lives toward spontaneous fission.", "This prediction is supported by the observed eleven-millisecond half-life of 277Hs and the five-millisecond half-life of the neighbouring isobar 277Mt because the hindrance factors from the odd nucleon were shown to be much lower than otherwise expected.", "The measured half-lives are even lower than those originally predicted for the even–even 276Hs and 278Ds, which suggests a gap in stability away from the shell closures and perhaps a weakening of the shell closures in this region.In 1991, Polish physicists Zygmunt Patyk and Adam Sobiczewski predicted that 108 is a proton magic number for deformed nuclei and 162 is a neutron magic number for such nuclei.", "This means such nuclei are permanently deformed in their ground state but have high, narrow fission barriers to further deformation and hence relatively long life-times toward spontaneous fission.", "Computational prospects for shell stabilization for 270Hs made it a promising candidate for a deformed doubly magic nucleus.", "Experimental data is scarce, but the existing data is interpreted by the researchers to support the assignment of ''N''=162 as a magic number.", "In particular, this conclusion was drawn from the decay data of 269Hs, 270Hs, and 271Hs.", "In 1997, Polish physicist Robert Smolańczuk calculated that the isotope 292Hs may be the most stable superheavy nucleus against alpha decay and spontaneous fission as a consequence of the predicted ''N''=184 shell closure." ], [ "Natural occurrence", "rightHassium is not known to occur naturally on Earth; the half-lives of all its known isotopes are short enough that no primordial hassium would have survived to the present day.", "This does not rule out the possibility of the existence of unknown, longer-lived isotopes or nuclear isomers, some of which could still exist in trace quantities if they are long-lived enough.", "As early as 1914, German physicist Richard Swinne proposed element108 as a source of X-rays in the Greenland ice sheet.", "Although Swinne was unable to verify this observation and thus did not claim discovery, he proposed in 1931 the existence of \"regions\" of long-lived transuranic elements, including one around ''Z''=108.In 1963, Soviet geologist and physicist Viktor Cherdyntsev, who had previously claimed the existence of primordial curium-247, claimed to have discovered element108—specifically the 267108 isotope, which supposedly had a half-life of 400 to 500million years—in natural molybdenite and suggested the provisional name ''sergenium'' (symbol Sg); this name takes its origin from the name for the Silk Road and was explained as \"coming from Kazakhstan\" for it.", "His rationale for claiming that sergenium was the heavier homologue to osmium was that minerals supposedly containing sergenium formed volatile oxides when boiled in nitric acid, similarly to osmium.Cherdyntsev's findings were criticized by Soviet physicist Vladimir Kulakov on the grounds that some of the properties Cherdyntsev claimed sergenium had were inconsistent with the then-current nuclear physics.", "The chief questions raised by Kulakov were that the claimed alpha decay energy of sergenium was many orders of magnitude lower than expected and the half-life given was eight orders of magnitude shorter than what would be predicted for a nuclide alpha-decaying with the claimed decay energy.", "At the same time, a corrected half-life in the region of 1016years would be impossible because it would imply the samples contained about a hundred milligrams of sergenium.", "In 2003, it was suggested that the observed alpha decay with energy 4.5MeV could be due to a low-energy and strongly enhanced transition between different hyperdeformed states of a hassium isotope around 271Hs, thus suggesting that the existence of superheavy elements in nature was at least possible, although unlikely.In 2006, Russian geologist Alexei Ivanov hypothesized that an isomer of 271Hs might have a half-life of around years, which would explain the observation of alpha particles with energies of around 4.4MeV in some samples of molybdenite and osmiridium.", "This isomer of 271Hs could be produced from the beta decay of 271Bh and 271Sg, which, being homologous to rhenium and molybdenum respectively, should occur in molybdenite along with rhenium and molybdenum if they occurred in nature.", "Because hassium is homologous to osmium, it should occur along with osmium in osmiridium if it occurs in nature.", "The decay chains of 271Bh and 271Sg are hypothetical and the predicted half-life of this hypothetical hassium isomer is not long enough for any sufficient quantity to remain on Earth.", "It is possible that more 271Hs may be deposited on the Earth as the Solar System travels through the spiral arms of the Milky Way; this would explain excesses of plutonium-239 found on the ocean floors of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Finland.", "However, minerals enriched with 271Hs are predicted to have excesses of its daughters uranium-235 and lead-207; they would also have different proportions of elements that are formed during spontaneous fission, such as krypton, zirconium, and xenon.", "The natural occurrence of hassium in minerals such as molybdenite and osmiride is theoretically possible, but very unlikely.In 2004, JINR started a search for natural hassium in the Modane Underground Laboratory in Modane, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France; this was done underground to avoid interference and false positives from cosmic rays.", "In 2008–09, an experiment run in the laboratory resulted in detection of several registered events of neutron multiplicity (number of emitted free neutrons after a nucleus hit has been hit by a neutron and fissioned) above three in natural osmium, and in 2012–13, these findings were reaffirmed in another experiment run in the laboratory.", "These results hinted natural hassium could potentially exist in nature in amounts that allow its detection by the means of analytical chemistry, but this conclusion is based on an explicit assumption that there is a long-lived hassium isotope to which the registered events could be attributed.Since 292Hs may be particularly stable against alpha decay and spontaneous fission, it was considered as a candidate to exist in nature.", "This nuclide, however, is predicted to be very unstable toward beta decay and any beta-stable isotopes of hassium such as 286Hs would be too unstable in the other decay channels to be observed in nature.", "A 2012 search for 292Hs in nature along with its homologue osmium at the Maier-Leibnitz Laboratory in Garching, Bavaria, Germany, was unsuccessful, setting an upper limit to its abundance at of hassium per gram of osmium." ], [ "Predicted properties", "Various calculations suggest hassium should be the heaviest group 8 element so far, consistently with the periodic law.", "Its properties should generally match those expected for a heavier homologue of osmium; as is the case for all transactinides, a few deviations are expected to arise from relativistic effects.Very few properties of hassium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that hassium (and its parents) decays very quickly.", "A few singular chemistry-related properties have been measured, such as enthalpy of adsorption of hassium tetroxide, but properties of hassium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.=== Relativistic effects ===Energy levels of outermost orbitals of hassium and osmium atoms in electronvolts, with and without taking relativistic effects into account.", "Note the lack of spin–orbit splitting (and thus the lack of distinction between d3/2 and d5/2 orbitals) in nonrelativistic calculations.Relativistic effects on hassium should arise due to the high charge of its nuclei, which causes the electrons around the nucleus to move faster—so fast their velocity becomes comparable to the speed of light.", "There are three main effects: the direct relativistic effect, the indirect relativistic effect, and spin–orbit splitting.", "(The existing calculations do not account for Breit interactions, but those are negligible, and their omission can only result in an uncertainty of the current calculations of no more than 2%.", ")As atomic number increases, so does the electrostatic attraction between an electron and the nucleus.", "This causes the velocity of the electron to increase, which leads to an increase in its mass.", "This in turn leads to contraction of the atomic orbitals, most specifically the s and p1/2 orbitals.", "Their electrons become more closely attached to the atom and harder to pull from the nucleus.", "This is the direct relativistic effect.", "It was originally thought to be strong only for the innermost electrons, but was later established to significantly influence valence electrons as well.Since the s and p1/2 orbitals are closer to the nucleus, they take a bigger portion of the electric charge of the nucleus on themselves (\"shield\" it).", "This leaves less charge for attraction of the remaining electrons, whose orbitals therefore expand, making them easier to pull from the nucleus.", "This is the indirect relativistic effect.", "As a result of the combination of the direct and indirect relativistic effects, the Hs+ ion, compared to the neutral atom, lacks a 6d electron, rather than a 7s electron.", "In comparison, Os+ lacks a 6s electron compared to the neutral atom.", "The ionic radius (in oxidation state +8) of hassium is greater than that of osmium because of the relativistic expansion of the 6p3/2 orbitals, which are the outermost orbitals for an Hs8+ ion (although in practice such highly charged ions would be too polarised in chemical environments to have much reality).There are several kinds of electronic orbitals, denoted by the letters s, p, d, and f (g orbitals are expected to start being chemically active among elements after element 120).", "Each of these corresponds to an azimuthal quantum number ''l'': s to 0, p to 1, d to 2, and f to 3.Every electron also corresponds to a spin quantum number ''s'', which may equal either +1/2 or −1/2.Thus, the total angular momentum quantum number ''j = l'' + ''s'' is equal to ''j'' = ''l'' ± 1/2 (except for ''l'' = 0, for which for both electrons in each orbital ''j ='' 0 + 1/2 = 1/2).", "Spin of an electron relativistically interacts with its orbit, and this interaction leads to a split of a subshell into two with different energies (the one with ''j'' = ''l'' − 1/2 is lower in energy and thus these electrons more difficult to extract): for instance, of the six 6p electrons, two become 6p1/2 and four become 6p3/2.This is the spin–orbit splitting (sometimes also referred to as subshell splitting or ''jj'' coupling).", "It is most visible with p electrons, which do not play an important role in the chemistry of hassium, but those for d and f electrons are within the same order of magnitude (quantitatively, spin–orbit splitting in expressed in energy units, such as electronvolts).These relativistic effects are responsible for the expected increase of the ionization energy, decrease of the electron affinity, and increase of stability of the +8 oxidation state compared to osmium; without them, the trends would be reversed.", "Relativistic effects decrease the atomization energies of the compounds of hassium because the spin–orbit splitting of the d orbital lowers binding energy between electrons and the nucleus and because relativistic effects decrease ionic character in bonding.=== Physical and atomic ===The previous members of group8 have relatively high melting points: Fe, 1538°C; Ru, 2334°C; Os, 3033°C.", "Much like them, hassium is predicted to be a solid at room temperature although its melting point has not been precisely calculated.", "Hassium should crystallize in the hexagonal close-packed structure (''c''/''a''=1.59), similarly to its lighter congener osmium.", "Pure metallic hassium is calculated to have a bulk modulus (resistance to uniform compression) of 450GPa, comparable with that of diamond, 442GPa.", "Hassium is expected to be one of the densest of the 118 known elements, with a predicted density of 27–29 g/cm3 vs. the 22.59 g/cm3 measured for osmium.The atomic radius of hassium is expected to be around 126pm.", "Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital, the Hs+ ion is predicted to have an electron configuration of Rn5f146d57s2, giving up a 6d electron instead of a 7s electron, which is the opposite of the behaviour of its lighter homologues.", "The Hs2+ ion is expected to have an electron configuration of Rn5f146d57s1, analogous to that calculated for the Os2+ ion.", "In chemical compounds, hassium is calculated to display bonding characteristic for a d-block element, whose bonding will be primarily executed by 6d3/2 and 6d5/2 orbitals; compared to the elements from the previous periods, 7s, 6p1/2, 6p3/2, and 7p1/2 orbitals should be more important.=== Chemical ===+Stable oxidation states in group 8 Element Stable oxidation statesiron+6 +3+2ruthenium+8 +6+5+4+3+2osmium+8 +6+5+4+3+2Hassium is the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals and is expected to be much like the platinum group metals.", "Some of these properties were confirmed by gas-phase chemistry experiments.", "The group8 elements portray a wide variety of oxidation states but ruthenium and osmium readily portray their group oxidation state of +8; this state becomes more stable down the group.", "This oxidation state is extremely rare: among stable elements, only ruthenium, osmium, and xenon are able to attain it in reasonably stable compounds.", "Hassium is expected to follow its congeners and have a stable +8 state, but like them it should show lower stable oxidation states such as +6, +4, +3, and +2.Hassium(IV) is expected to be more stable than hassium(VIII) in aqueous solution.", "Hassium should be a rather noble metal.", "The standard reduction potential for the Hs4+/Hs couple is expected to be 0.4V.The group 8 elements show a distinctive oxide chemistry.", "All the lighter members have known or hypothetical tetroxides, MO4.Their oxidizing power decreases as one descends the group.", "FeO4 is not known due to its extraordinarily large electron affinity—the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion—which results in the formation of the well-known oxyanion ferrate(VI), .", "Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO4, which is formed by oxidation of ruthenium(VI) in acid, readily undergoes reduction to ruthenate(VI), .", "Oxidation of ruthenium metal in air forms the dioxide, RuO2.In contrast, osmium burns to form the stable tetroxide, OsO4, which complexes with the hydroxide ion to form an osmium(VIII) -''ate'' complex, OsO4(OH)22−.", "Therefore, hassium should behave as a heavier homologue of osmium by forming of a stable, very volatile tetroxide HsO4, which undergoes complexation with hydroxide to form a hassate(VIII), HsO4(OH)22−.", "Ruthenium tetroxide and osmium tetroxide are both volatile due to their symmetrical tetrahedral molecular geometry and because they are charge-neutral; hassium tetroxide should similarly be a very volatile solid.", "The trend of the volatilities of the group8 tetroxides is experimentally known to be RuO44>HsO4, which confirms the calculated results.", "In particular, the calculated enthalpies of adsorption—the energy required for the adhesion of atoms, molecules, or ions from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface—of HsO4, −(45.4±1)kJ/mol on quartz, agrees very well with the experimental value of −(46±2)kJ/mol." ], [ "Experimental chemistry", "The first goal for chemical investigation was the formation of the tetroxide; it was chosen because ruthenium and osmium form volatile tetroxides, being the only transition metals to display a stable compound in the +8 oxidation state.", "Despite this selection for gas-phase chemical studies being clear from the beginning, chemical characterization of hassium was considered a difficult task for a long time.", "Although hassium isotopes were first synthesized in 1984, it was not until 1996 that a hassium isotope long-lived enough to allow chemical studies was synthesized.", "Unfortunately, this hassium isotope, 269Hs, was synthesized indirectly from the decay of 277Cn; not only are indirect synthesis methods not favourable for chemical studies, but the reaction that produced the isotope 277Cn had a low yield—its cross section was only 1pb—and thus did not provide enough hassium atoms for a chemical investigation.", "Direct synthesis of 269Hs and 270Hs in the reaction 248Cm(26Mg,''x''n)274−''x''Hs (''x''=4 or 5) appeared more promising because the cross section for this reaction was somewhat larger at 7pb.", "This yield was still around ten times lower than that for the reaction used for the chemical characterization of bohrium.", "New techniques for irradiation, separation, and detection had to be introduced before hassium could be successfully characterized chemically.Ruthenium and osmium have very similar chemistry due to the lanthanide contraction but iron shows some differences from them; for example, although ruthenium and osmium form stable tetroxides in which the metal is in the +8 oxidation state, iron does not.", "In preparation for the chemical characterization of hassium, research focused on ruthenium and osmium rather than iron because hassium was expected to be similar to ruthenium and osmium, as the predicted data on hassium closely matched that of those two.The first chemistry experiments were performed using gas thermochromatography in 2001, using the synthetic osmium radioisotopes 172Os and 173Os as a reference.", "During the experiment, seven hassium atoms were synthesized using the reactions 248Cm(26Mg,5n)269Hs and 248Cm(26Mg,4n)270Hs.", "They were then thermalized and oxidized in a mixture of helium and oxygen gases to form hassium tetroxide molecules.", ":Hs + 2 O2 → HsO4The measured deposition temperature of hassium tetroxide was higher than that of osmium tetroxide, which indicated the former was the less volatile one, and this placed hassium firmly in group 8.The enthalpy of adsorption for HsO4 measured, , was significantly lower than the predicted value, , indicating OsO4 is more volatile than HsO4, contradicting earlier calculations that implied they should have very similar volatilities.", "For comparison, the value for OsO4 is .", "(The calculations that yielded a closer match to the experimental data came after the experiment, in 2008.)", "It is possible hassium tetroxide interacts differently with silicon nitride than with silicon dioxide, the chemicals used for the detector; further research is required to establish whether there is a difference between such interactions and whether it has influenced the measurements.", "Such research would include more accurate measurements of the nuclear properties of 269Hs and comparisons with RuO4 in addition to OsO4.In 2004, scientists reacted hassium tetroxide and sodium hydroxide to form sodium hassate(VIII), a reaction that is well known with osmium.", "This was the first acid-base reaction with a hassium compound, forming sodium hassate(VIII):: + 2 NaOH → The team from the University of Mainz planned in 2008 to study the electrodeposition of hassium atoms using the new TASCA facility at GSI.", "Their aim was to use the reaction 226Ra(48Ca,4n)270Hs.", "Scientists at GSI were hoping to use TASCA to study the synthesis and properties of the hassium(II) compound hassocene, Hs(C5H5)2, using the reaction 226Ra(48Ca,''x''n).", "This compound is analogous to the lighter compounds ferrocene, ruthenocene, and osmocene, and is expected to have the two cyclopentadienyl rings in an eclipsed conformation like ruthenocene and osmocene and not in a staggered conformation like ferrocene.", "Hassocene, which is expected to be a stable and highly volatile compound, was chosen because it has hassium in the low formal oxidation state of +2—although the bonding between the metal and the rings is mostly covalent in metallocenes—rather than the high +8 state that had previously been investigated, and relativistic effects were expected to be stronger in the lower oxidation state.", "The highly symmetrical structure of hassocene and its low number of atoms make relativistic calculations easier.", ", there are no experimental reports of hassocene." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Kissinger" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Alfred Kissinger''' (May 27, 1923November 29, 2023) was an American diplomat, political scientist, geopolitical consultant, and politician who served as the United States secretary of state and national security advisor in the presidential administrations of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford between 1969 and 1977.Born in Germany, Kissinger came to the United States in 1938 as a Jewish refugee fleeing Nazi persecution.", "He served in the U.S. Army during World War II, and, after the war, was educated at Harvard University, where he excelled academically.", "He later became a professor of government at the university and earned an international reputation as an expert on nuclear weapons and foreign policy.", "He frequently acted as a consultant to government agencies, think tanks, and the presidential campaigns of Nelson Rockefeller and Richard Nixon before being appointed national security advisor.Kissinger pioneered the policy of ''détente'' with the Soviet Union, orchestrated an opening of relations with China, engaged in \"shuttle diplomacy\" in the Middle East to end the Yom Kippur War, and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords, which ended American involvement in the Vietnam War.", "For his role in negotiating the end of the Vietnam War, he was awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize under controversial circumstances.", "A practitioner of a pragmatic approach to politics called ''Realpolitik'', he has been widely considered by scholars to have been an effective secretary of state.", "Kissinger is also associated with controversial U.S. policies, including its bombing of Cambodia, involvement in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, support for Argentina's military junta in its Dirty War, support for Indonesia in its invasion of East Timor, and support for Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War and Bangladesh genocide.", "He was accused of war crimes for the civilian death toll of the policies he pursued, his role in facilitating U.S. support for dictatorial regimes, and willful ignorance towards human rights abuses committed by the United States and its allies.After leaving government, Kissinger founded Kissinger Associates, an international geopolitical consulting firm.", "He authored over a dozen books on diplomatic history and international relations.", "His advice was sought by American presidents of both political parties." ], [ "Early life and education", "Kissinger was born '''Heinz Alfred Kissinger''' on May 27, 1923, in Fürth, Bavaria, Germany.", "He was the son of homemaker Paula (; 1901–1998), from Leutershausen, and Louis Kissinger (1887–1982), a schoolteacher.", "He had a younger brother, Walter (1924–2021), who was a businessman.", "Kissinger's family was German-Jewish.", "His great-great-grandfather Meyer Löb adopted \"Kissinger\" as his surname in 1817, taking it from the Bavarian spa town of Bad Kissingen.", "In his childhood, Kissinger enjoyed playing soccer.", "He played for the youth team of SpVgg Fürth, which was one of the nation's best clubs at the time.In a 2022 BBC interview, Kissinger vividly recalled being nine years old in 1933 and learning of Adolf Hitler's election as Chancellor of Germany, which proved to be a profound turning point for the Kissinger family.", "During Nazi rule, Kissinger and his friends were regularly harassed and beaten by Hitler Youth gangs.", "Kissinger sometimes defied the segregation imposed by Nazi racial laws by sneaking into soccer stadiums to watch matches, often resulting in beatings from security guards.", "As a result of the Nazis' anti-Semitic laws, Kissinger was unable to gain admittance to the ''Gymnasium'' and his father was dismissed from his teaching job.On August 20, 1938, when Kissinger was 15 years old, he and his family fled Germany to avoid further Nazi persecution.", "The family briefly stopped in London before arriving in New York City on September 5.Kissinger later downplayed the influence his experiences of Nazi persecution had had on his policies, writing that the \"Germany of my youth had a great deal of order and very little justice; it was not the sort of place likely to inspire devotion to order in the abstract.\"", "Nevertheless, many scholars, including Kissinger's biographer Walter Isaacson, have argued that his experiences influenced the formation of his realist approach to foreign policy.Kissinger spent his high-school years in the German-Jewish community in the Washington Heights section of Manhattan.", "Although Kissinger assimilated quickly into American culture, he never lost his pronounced German accent, due to childhood shyness that made him hesitant to speak.", "After his first year at George Washington High School, he began attending school at night while working in a shaving brush factory during the day.Following high school, Kissinger studied accounting at the City College of New York, excelling academically as a part-time student while continuing to work.", "His studies were interrupted in early 1943, when he was drafted into the U.S. Army.=== U.S. Army ===Kissinger underwent basic training at Camp Croft in Spartanburg, South Carolina.", "On June 19, 1943, at the age of 20, while stationed in South Carolina, he became a naturalized U.S. citizen.", "The army sent him to study engineering at Lafayette College in Pennsylvania under the Army Specialized Training Program, but the program was canceled and Kissinger was reassigned to the 84th Infantry Division.", "There, he made the acquaintance of Fritz Kraemer, a fellow immigrant from Germany who noted Kissinger's fluency in German and his intellect and arranged for him to be assigned to the division's military intelligence.", "Kissinger saw combat with the division and volunteered for hazardous intelligence duties during the Battle of the Bulge.", "On April 10, 1945, he participated in the liberation of the Hannover-Ahlem concentration camp, a subcamp of the Neuengamme concentration camp.", "At the time, Kissinger wrote in his journal, \"I had never seen people degraded to the level that people were in Ahlem.", "They barely looked human.", "They were skeletons.\"", "After the initial shock, however, Kissinger was relatively silent about his wartime service.During the American advance into Germany, Kissinger, though only a private (the lowest military rank), was put in charge of the administration of the city of Krefeld because of a lack of German speakers on the division's intelligence staff.", "Within eight days he had established a civilian administration.", "Kissinger was then reassigned to the Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC), where he became a CIC Special Agent holding the enlisted rank of sergeant.", "He was given charge of a team in Hanover assigned to tracking down Gestapo officers and other saboteurs, for which he was awarded the Bronze Star.", "Kissinger drew up a comprehensive list of all known Gestapo employees in the Bergstraße region, and had them rounded up.", "By the end of July, 12 men had been arrested.", "In March 1947, Fritz Girke, Hans Hellenbroich, Michael Raaf, and Karl Stattmann were subsequently caught and tried by the Dachau Military Tribunal for killing two American prisoners of war.", "The four men were all found guilty and sentenced to death.", "They were executed by hanging at Landsberg Prison in October 1948.In June 1945, Kissinger was made commandant of the Bensheim metro CIC detachment, Bergstraße district of Hesse, with responsibility for denazification of the district.", "Although he possessed absolute authority and powers of arrest, Kissinger took care to avoid abuses against the local population by his command.In 1946, Kissinger was reassigned to teach at the European Command Intelligence School at Camp King and, as a civilian employee following his separation from the army, continued to serve in this role.Kissinger recalled that his experience in the army \"made me feel like an American\"." ], [ "Academic career", "Kissinger earned his Bachelor of Arts ''summa cum laude'', Phi Beta Kappa in political science from Harvard College in 1950, where he lived in Adams House and studied under William Yandell Elliott.", "His senior undergraduate thesis, titled ''The Meaning of History: Reflections on Spengler, Toynbee and Kant'', was over 400 pages long, and was the origin of the current limit on length (35,000 words).", "He earned his Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy at Harvard University in 1951 and 1954, respectively.", "In 1952, while still a graduate student at Harvard, he served as a consultant to the director of the Psychological Strategy Board, and founded a magazine, ''Confluence''.", "At that time, he sought to work as a spy for the FBI.Portrait of Kissinger as a Harvard senior in 1950Kissinger's doctoral dissertation was titled ''Peace, Legitimacy, and the Equilibrium (A Study of the Statesmanship of Castlereagh and Metternich)''.", "Stephen Graubard, Kissinger's friend, asserted that Kissinger primarily pursued such endeavor to instruct himself on the history of power play between European states in the 19th century.", "In his doctoral dissertation, Kissinger first introduced the concept of \"legitimacy\", which he defined as: \"Legitimacy as used here should not be confused with justice.", "It means no more than an international agreement about the nature of workable arrangements and about the permissible aims and methods of foreign policy\".", "An international order accepted by all of the major powers is \"legitimate\" whereas an international order not accepted by one or more of the great powers is \"revolutionary\" and hence dangerous.", "Thus, when after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the leaders of Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia agreed to co-operate in the Concert of Europe to preserve the peace after Austria, Prussia, and Russia participated in a series of three Partitions of Poland, in Kissinger's viewpoint this international system was \"legitimate\" because it was accepted by the leaders of all five of the Great Powers of Europe.", "Notably, Kissinger's ''Primat der Außenpolitik'' (Primacy of foreign policy) approach to diplomacy took it for granted that as long as the decision-makers in the major states were willing to accept the international order, then it is \"legitimate\" with questions of public opinion and morality dismissed as irrelevant.", "His dissertation also won him the Senator Charles Sumner Prize, an award given to the best dissertation \"from the legal, political, historical, economic, social, or ethnic approach, dealing with any means or measures tending toward the prevention of war and the establishment of universal peace\" by a student under the Harvard Department of Government.", "It was published in 1957 as ''A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace 1812–1822''.Kissinger remained at Harvard as a member of the faculty in the Department of Government where he served as the director of the Harvard International Seminar between 1951 and 1971.In 1955, he was a consultant to the National Security Council's Operations Coordinating Board.", "During 1955 and 1956, he was also study director in nuclear weapons and foreign policy at the Council on Foreign Relations.", "He released his book ''Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy'' the following year.", "The book, which criticized the Eisenhower administration's ''massive retaliation'' nuclear doctrine, caused much controversy at the time by proposing the use of tactical nuclear weapons on a regular basis to win wars.", "That same year, he published ''A World Restored'', a study of balance-of-power politics in post-Napoleonic Europe.From 1956 to 1958, Kissinger worked for the Rockefeller Brothers Fund as director of its Special Studies Project.", "He served as the director of the Harvard Defense Studies Program between 1958 and 1971.In 1958, he also co-founded the Center for International Affairs with Robert R. Bowie where he served as its associate director.", "Outside of academia, he served as a consultant to several government agencies and think tanks, including the Operations Research Office, the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, Department of State, and the RAND Corporation.Keen to have a greater influence on U.S. foreign policy, Kissinger became foreign policy advisor to the presidential campaigns of Nelson Rockefeller, supporting his bids for the Republican nomination in 1960, 1964, and 1968.Kissinger first met Richard Nixon at a party hosted by Clare Boothe Luce in 1967, saying that he found him more \"thoughtful\" than he expected.", "During the Republican primaries in 1968, Kissinger again served as the foreign policy adviser to Rockefeller and in July 1968 called Nixon \"the most dangerous of all the men running to have as president\".", "Initially upset when Nixon won the Republican nomination, the ambitious Kissinger soon changed his mind about Nixon and contacted a Nixon campaign aide, Richard Allen, to state he was willing to do anything to help Nixon win.", "After Nixon became president in January 1969, Kissinger was appointed as National Security Advisor.", "By this time, he was arguably \"one of the most important theorists about foreign policy ever to be produced by the United States of America\", according to his official biographer Niall Ferguson." ], [ "Foreign policy", "Kissinger being sworn in as Secretary of State by Chief Justice Warren Burger, September 22, 1973.Kissinger's mother, Paula, holds the Bible as President Nixon looks on.Kissinger served as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State under President Richard Nixon and continued as Secretary of State under Nixon's successor Gerald Ford.", "With the death of George Shultz in February 2021, Kissinger was the last surviving member of the Nixon administration Cabinet.The relationship between Nixon and Kissinger was unusually close, and has been compared to the relationships of Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House, or Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Hopkins.", "In all three cases, the State Department was relegated to a backseat role in developing foreign policy.", "Kissinger and Nixon shared a penchant for secrecy and conducted numerous \"backchannel\" negotiations, such as that through the Soviet Ambassador to the United States, Anatoly Dobrynin, that excluded State Department experts.", "Historian David Rothkopf has looked at the personalities of Nixon and Kissinger, saying:They were a fascinating pair.", "In a way, they complemented each other perfectly.", "Kissinger was the charming and worldly Mr. Outside who provided the grace and intellectual-establishment respectability that Nixon lacked, disdained and aspired to.", "Kissinger was an international citizen.", "Nixon very much a classic American.", "Kissinger had a worldview and a facility for adjusting it to meet the times, Nixon had pragmatism and a strategic vision that provided the foundations for their policies.", "Kissinger would, of course, say that he was not political like Nixon—but in fact he was just as political as Nixon, just as calculating, just as relentlessly ambitious ... these self-made men were driven as much by their need for approval and their neuroses as by their strengths.A proponent of ''Realpolitik'', Kissinger played a dominant role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977.In that period, he extended the policy of ''détente''.", "This policy led to a significant relaxation in U.S.–Soviet tensions and played a crucial role in 1971 talks with the People's Republic of China premier Zhou Enlai.", "The talks concluded with a rapprochement between the United States and China, and the formation of a new strategic anti-Soviet Sino-American alignment.", "He was jointly awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize with Lê Đức Thọ for helping to establish a ceasefire and U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam.", "The ceasefire, however, was not durable.", "Thọ declined to accept the award and Kissinger appeared deeply ambivalent about it—he donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony, and later offered to return his prize medal.", "As National Security Advisor in 1974, Kissinger directed the much-debated National Security Study Memorandum 200.===''Détente'' and opening to the People's Republic of China===Kissinger initially had little interest in China when he began his work as National Security Adviser in 1969, and the driving force behind the rapprochement with China was Nixon.", "In April 1970, both Nixon and Kissinger promised Chiang Ching-kuo, the son of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, that they would never abandon Taiwan or make any compromises with Mao Zedong, although Nixon did speak vaguely of his wish to improve relations with the People's Republic.Kissinger, shown here with Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong, negotiated rapprochement with China.Kissinger made two trips to the People's Republic in July and October 1971 (the first of which was made in secret) to confer with Premier Zhou Enlai, then in charge of Chinese foreign policy.", "During his visit to Beijing, the main issue turned out to be Taiwan, as Zhou demanded the United States recognize that Taiwan was a legitimate part of the People's Republic, pull U.S. forces out of Taiwan, and end military support for the Kuomintang regime.", "Kissinger gave way by promising to pull U.S. forces out of Taiwan, saying two-thirds would be pulled out when the Vietnam war ended and the rest to be pulled out as Sino-American relations improved.In October 1971, as Kissinger was making his second trip to the People's Republic, the issue of which Chinese government deserved to be represented in the United Nations came up again.", "Out of concern to not be seen abandoning an ally, the United States tried to promote a compromise under which both Chinese regimes would be United Nations members, although Kissinger called it \"an essentially doomed rearguard action\".", "While American ambassador to the United Nations George H. W. Bush was lobbying for the \"two Chinas\" formula, Kissinger was removing favorable references to Taiwan from a speech that then Secretary of State William P. Rogers was preparing, as he expected the country to be expelled from the United Nations.", "During his second visit to Beijing, Kissinger told Zhou that according to a public opinion poll 62% of Americans wanted Taiwan to remain a United Nations member and asked him to consider the \"two Chinas\" compromise to avoid offending American public opinion.", "Zhou responded with his claim that the People's Republic was the legitimate government of all China, and no compromise was possible with the Taiwan issue.", "Kissinger said that the United States could not totally sever ties with Chiang, who had been an ally in World War II.", "Kissinger told Nixon that Bush was \"too soft and not sophisticated\" enough to properly represent the United States at the United Nations and expressed no anger when the United Nations General Assembly voted to expel Taiwan and give China's seat on the United Nations Security Council to the People's Republic.Kissinger's trips paved the way for the groundbreaking 1972 summit between Nixon, Zhou, and Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong, as well as the formalization of relations between the two countries, ending 23 years of diplomatic isolation and mutual hostility.", "The result was the formation of a tacit strategic anti-Soviet alliance between China and the United States.", "Kissinger's diplomacy led to economic and cultural exchanges between the two sides and the establishment of \"liaison offices\" in the Chinese and American capitals, though full normalization of relations with China would not occur until 1979.=== Vietnam War ===Kissinger and President Richard Nixon discussing the Vietnam situation in Camp David, 1972 (with Alexander Haig)Kissinger discussed being involved in Indochina prior to his appointment as National Security Adviser to Nixon.", "According to Kissinger, his friend Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., the Ambassador to Saigon, employed Kissinger as a consultant, leading to Kissinger visiting Vietnam once in 1965 and twice in 1966, where Kissinger realized that the United States \"knew neither how to win or how to conclude\" the Vietnam War.", "Kissinger also stated that in 1967, he served as an intermediary for negotiations between the United States and North Vietnam, with Kissinger providing the American position, while two Frenchmen provided the North Vietnamese position.When he came into office in 1969, Kissinger favored a negotiating strategy under which the United States and North Vietnam would sign an armistice and agreed to pull their troops out of South Vietnam while the South Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were to agree to a coalition government.", "Kissinger had doubts about Nixon's theory of \"linkage\", believing that this would give the Soviet Union leverage over the United States and unlike Nixon was less concerned about the ultimate fate of South Vietnam.", "Though Kissinger did not regard South Vietnam as important in its own right, he believed it was necessary to support South Vietnam to maintain the United States as a global power, believing that none of America's allies would trust the United States if South Vietnam were abandoned too quickly.In early 1969, Kissinger was opposed to the plans for Operation Menu, the bombing of Cambodia, fearing that Nixon was acting rashly with no plans for the diplomatic fall-out, but on March 16, 1969, Nixon announced the bombing would start the next day.", "As he saw the president was committed, he became more supportive.", "Kissinger played a key role in bombing Cambodia to disrupt raids into South Vietnam from Cambodia, as well as the 1970 Cambodian campaign and subsequent widespread bombing of Khmer Rouge targets in Cambodia.", "For his role in planning the U.S. bombing of Cambodia, scholars have stated that Kissinger bears substantial responsibility for the killing of between 50,000 and 150,000 Cambodian civilians and also the destabilization of Cambodia that the U.S. bombing campaign caused, which contributed to the Khmer Rouge's ascendance to power.", "The Paris peace talks had become stalemated by late 1969 owing to the obstructionism of the South Vietnamese delegation.", "The South Vietnamese president Nguyễn Văn Thiệu did not want the United States to withdraw from Vietnam, and out of frustration with him, Kissinger decided to begin secret peace talks with Le Duc Thọ in Paris parallel to the official talks that the South Vietnamese were unaware of.", "In June 1971, Kissinger supported Nixon's effort to ban the Pentagon Papers saying the \"hemorrhage of state secrets\" to the media was making diplomacy impossible.On August 1, 1972, Kissinger met Thọ again in Paris, and for first time, he seemed willing to compromise, saying that political and military terms of an armistice could be treated separately and hinted that his government was no longer willing to make the overthrow of Thiệu a precondition.", "On the evening of October 8, 1972, at a secret meeting of Kissinger and Thọ in Paris came the decisive breakthrough in the talks.", "Thọ began with \"a very realistic and very simple proposal\" for a ceasefire that would see the Americans pull all their forces out of Vietnam in exchange for the release of all the POWs in North Vietnam.", "Kissinger accepted Thọ's offer as the best deal possible, saying that the \"mutual withdrawal formula\" had to be abandoned as it been \"unobtainable through ten years of war ... We could not make it a condition for a final settlement.", "We had long passed that threshold\".", "In the fall of 1972, both Kissinger and Nixon were frustrated with Thiệu's refusal to accept any sort of peace deal calling for withdrawal of American forces.", "On October 21 Kissinger and the American ambassador Ellsworth Bunker arrived in Saigon to show Thiệu the peace agreement.", "Thiệu refused to sign the peace agreement and demanded very extensive amendments that Kissinger reported to Nixon \"verge on insanity\".Though Nixon had initially supported Kissinger against Thiệu, H.R.", "Haldeman and John Ehrlichman urged him to reconsider, arguing that Thiệu's objections had merit.", "Nixon wanted 69 amendments to the draft peace agreement included in the final treaty and ordered Kissinger back to Paris to force Thọ to accept them.", "Kissinger regarded Nixon's 69 amendments as \"preposterous\" as he knew Thọ would never accept them.", "As expected, Thọ refused to consider any of the 69 amendments, and on December 13, 1972, left Paris for Hanoi.", "Kissinger by this stage was worked up into a state of fury after Thọ walked out of the Paris talks and told Nixon: \"They're just a bunch of shits.", "Tawdry, filthy shits\".On January 8, 1973, Kissinger and Thọ met again in Paris and the next day reached an agreement, which in main points was essentially the same as the one Nixon had rejected in October with only cosmetic concessions to the Americans.", "Thiệu once again rejected the peace agreement, only to receive an ultimatum from Nixon which caused Thiệu to reluctantly accept the peace agreement.", "On January 27, 1973, Kissinger and Thọ signed a peace agreement that called for the complete withdrawal of all U.S. forces from Vietnam by March in exchange for North Vietnam freeing all the U.S. POWs.", "Along with Thọ, Kissinger was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on December 10, 1973, for their work in negotiating the ceasefires contained in the Paris Peace Accords on \"Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam\", signed the previous January.", "According to Irwin Abrams in 2001, this prize was the most controversial to date.", "For the first time in the history of the Peace Prize, two members left the Nobel Committee in protest.", "Thọ rejected the award, telling Kissinger that peace had not been restored in South Vietnam.", "Kissinger wrote to the Nobel Committee that he accepted the award \"with humility\", and \"donated the entire proceeds to the children of American service members killed or missing in action in Indochina\".", "After the Fall of Saigon in 1975, Kissinger attempted to return the award.President Ford, General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev, and Kissinger speaking informally at the Vladivostok Summit in 1974By the summer of 1974, the U.S. embassy reported that morale in the ARVN had fallen to dangerously low levels and it was uncertain how much longer South Vietnam would last.", "In August 1974, the U.S. Congress passed a bill limiting American aid to South Vietnam to $700 million annually.", "By November 1974, Kissinger lobbied Leonid Brezhnev to end Soviet military aid to North Vietnam.", "The same month, he also lobbied Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to end Chinese military aid to North Vietnam.", "On April 15, 1975, Kissinger testified before the Senate Appropriations Committee, urging Congress to increase the military aid budget to South Vietnam by another $700 million to save the ARVN as the PAVN was rapidly advancing on Saigon, which was refused.", "Kissinger maintained at the time, and until his death, that if only Congress had approved of his request for another $700 million South Vietnam would have been able to resist.In November 1975, seven months after the Khmer Rouge took power, Kissinger told the Thai foreign minister: \"You should tell the Cambodians that we will be friends with them.", "They are murderous thugs but we won't let that stand in our way.\"", "In a 1998 interview, Kissinger said: \"some countries, the Chinese in particular supported Pol Pot as a counterweight to the Vietnamese supported people and ''We'' at least tolerated it.\"", "Kissinger said he did not approve of this due to the genocide and said he \"would not have dealt with Pol Pot for any purpose whatsoever.\"", "He further said: \"The Thais and the Chinese did not want a Vietnamese-dominated Indochina.", "''We'' didn't want the Vietnamese to dominate.", "I don't believe we did anything for Pol Pot.", "But I suspect we closed our eyes when some others did something for Pol Pot.", "\"==== Interview with Oriana Fallaci ====On November 4, 1972, Kissinger agreed to an interview with Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci.", "Kissinger, who rarely engaged in one-on-one interviews with the press and knew very little about Fallaci, accepted her request after reportedly being impressed with her 1969 interview with Võ Nguyên Giáp.", "The interview turned out to be a political and public relations disaster for Kissinger as he agreed that Vietnam was a \"useless war\", implied that he preferred to have dinner with Lê Đức Thọ over Nguyễn Văn Thiệu (in her 1976 book ''Interview with History'', Fallaci recalled that Kissinger agreed with many of her negative sentiments towards Thiệu in a private discussion before the interview), and engaged in a now infamous exchange with the hard-pressing Fallaci, with Kissinger comparing himself to a cowboy leading the Nixon administration:Nixon was enraged by the interview, in particular the comedic \"cowboy\" comparison which infuriated and offended Nixon.", "For several weeks afterwards, he refused to see Kissinger and even contemplated firing him.", "At one point, Kissinger, in desperation, drove up unannounced to Nixon's San Clemente residence only to be rejected by Secret Service personnel at the gates.", "Kissinger later claimed that it was \"the single most disastrous conversation I have ever had with any member of the press\".", "Fallaci described the interview with the evasive, monotonous, non-expressive Kissinger as the most uncomfortable and most difficult she ever did, criticizing Kissinger as a \"intellectual adventurer\" and a self-styled Metternich.=== Bangladesh Liberation War ===Kissinger in the West Wing as National Security Adviser in April 1975.Nixon supported Pakistani dictator, General Yahya Khan, in the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.Kissinger sneered at people who \"bleed\" for \"the dying Bengalis\" and ignored the first telegram from the United States consul general in East Pakistan, Archer K. Blood, and 20 members of his staff, which informed the U.S. that their allies West Pakistan were undertaking, in Blood's words, \"a selective genocide\" targeting the Bengali intelligentsia, supporters of independence for East Pakistan, and the Hindu minority.", "In the second, more famous, Blood Telegram the word 'genocide' was again used to describe the events, and further that with its continuing support for West Pakistan the U.S. government had \"evidenced ... moral bankruptcy\".", "As a direct response to the dissent against U.S. policy, Kissinger and Nixon ended Archer Blood's tenure as United States consul general in East Pakistan and put him to work in the State Department's Personnel Office.", "Christopher Clary argues that Nixon and Kissinger were unconsciously biased, leading them to overestimate the likelihood of Pakistani victory against Bengali rebels.Kissinger was particularly concerned about the expansion of Soviet influence in the Indian subcontinent as a result of a treaty of friendship recently signed by India and the Soviet Union, and sought to demonstrate to China (Pakistan's ally and an enemy of both India and the Soviet Union) the value of a tacit alliance with the United States.Kissinger had also come under fire for private comments he made to Nixon during the Bangladesh–Pakistan War in which he described Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi as a \"bitch\" and a \"witch\".", "He also said \"the Indians are bastards\", shortly before the war.", "Kissinger later expressed his regret over the comments.===Europe===As National Security Adviser under Nixon, Kissinger pioneered the policy of ''détente'' with the Soviet Union, seeking a relaxation in tensions between the two superpowers.", "As a part of this strategy, he negotiated the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (culminating in the SALT I treaty) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party.", "Negotiations about strategic disarmament were originally supposed to start under the Lyndon Johnson administration but were postponed in protest upon the invasion by Warsaw Pact troops of Czechoslovakia in August 1968.Nixon felt his administration had neglected relations with the Western European states in his first term and in September 1972 decided that if he was reelected that 1973 would be the \"Year of Europe\" as the United States would focus on relations with the states of the European Economic Community (EEC) which had emerged as a serious economic rival by 1970.Applying his favorite \"linkage\" concept, Nixon intended henceforward economic relations with Europe would not be severed from security relations, and if the EEC states wanted changes in American tariff and monetary policies, the price would be defense spending on their part.", "Kissinger in particular as part of the \"Year of Europe\" wanted to \"revitalize\" NATO, which he called a \"decaying\" alliance as he believed that there was nothing at present to stop the Red Army from overrunning Western Europe in a conventional forces conflict.", "The \"linkage\" concept more applied to the question of security as Kissinger noted that the United States was going to sacrifice NATO for the sake of \"citrus fruits\".===Israeli policy and Soviet Jewry===Kissinger sits in the Oval Office with President Nixon and Israeli prime minister Golda Meir, 1973.Kissinger (right) during a 1961 visit to IsraelAccording to notes taken by H. R. Haldeman, Nixon \"ordered his aides to exclude all Jewish-Americans from policy-making on Israel\", including Kissinger.", "One note quotes Nixon as saying \"get K. Kissinger out of the play—Haig handle it\".In 1973, Kissinger did not feel that pressing the Soviet Union concerning the plight of Jews being persecuted there was in the interest of U.S. foreign policy.", "In conversation with Nixon shortly after a meeting with Israeli prime minister Golda Meir on March 1, 1973, Kissinger stated, \"The emigration of Jews from the Soviet Union is not an objective of American foreign policy, and if they put Jews into gas chambers in the Soviet Union, it is not an American concern.", "Maybe a humanitarian concern.\"", "He had a negative view of American Jews who lobbied for aid to Soviet Jews, calling them \"bastards\" and \"self-serving\".", "He went on to state that \"If it were not for the accident of my birth, I would be antisemitic\" and \"any people who has been persecuted for two thousand years must be doing something wrong.", "\"===Arab–Israeli conflict===In September 1973, Nixon fired William P. Rogers as Secretary of State and replaced him with Kissinger.", "He would later state he had not been given enough time to know the Middle East as he settled into the State Department.", "Kissinger later admitted that he was so engrossed with the Paris peace talks to end the Vietnam war that he and others in Washington missed the significance of the Egyptian-Saudi alliance.", "Egyptian president Anwar Sadat expelled Soviet advisors from Egypt in May 1972, attempting to signal to the U.S. that he was open to disentangling Egypt from the Soviet sphere of influence; Kissinger in turn offered secret talks on a settlement for the Middle East, though nothing came of the offer.", "By March 1973, Sadat had moved back towards the Soviets, closing the largest arms package between Egypt and the Soviet Union and allowing for the return of Soviet military personnel and advisors to Egypt.Kissinger delayed telling President Richard Nixon about the start of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 to keep him from interfering in the nascent conflict.", "On October 6, 1973, the Israelis informed Kissinger about the attack at 6 am; Kissinger waited nearly hours before he informed Nixon.", "According to Kissinger, he was notified at 6:30 a.m. (12:30 pm.", "Israel time) that war was imminent, and his urgent calls to the Soviets and Egyptians were ineffective.", "On October 12, under Nixon's direction, and against Kissinger's initial advice, while Kissinger was on his way to Moscow to discuss conditions for a cease-fire, Nixon sent a message to Brezhnev giving Kissinger full negotiating authority.", "Kissinger wanted to stall a ceasefire to gain more time for Israel to push across the Suez Canal to the African side, and wanted to be perceived as a mere presidential emissary who needed to consult the White House all the time as a stalling tactic.On October 31, 1973, Egyptian foreign minister Ismail Fahmi (left) meets with Richard Nixon (middle) and Henry Kissinger (right), about a week after the end of fighting in the Yom Kippur War.Kissinger promised the Israeli prime minister Golda Meir that the United States would replace its losses in equipment after the war, but sought initially to delay arms shipments to Israel, as he believed it would improve the odds of making peace along the lines of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242.In 1973, Meir requested $850 million worth of American arms and equipment to replace its materiel losses.", "Nixon instead sent some $2 billion worth.", "The arms lift enraged King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, and he retaliated on October 20, 1973, by placing a total embargo on oil shipments to the United States, to be joined by all of the other oil-producing Arab states except Iraq and Libya.On November 7, 1973, Kissinger flew to Riyadh to meet King Faisal and to ask him to end the oil embargo in exchange for promising to be \"even handed\" in the Arab-Israeli dispute.", "Despite all of Kissinger's efforts to charm him, Faisal refused to lift the oil embargo.", "Only on March 19, 1974, did the King end the oil embargo, after Sadat reported to him that the United States was being more \"even handed\" and after Kissinger had promised to sell Saudi Arabia weapons that it had previously denied under the grounds that they might be used against Israel.Kissinger pressured the Israelis to cede some of the newly captured land back to its Arab neighbors, contributing to the first phases of Israeli–Egyptian non-aggression.", "In 1973–1974, Kissinger engaged in \"shuttle diplomacy\" flying between Tel Aviv, Cairo, and Damascus in a bid to make the armistice the basis of a permanent peace.", "Kissinger's first meeting with Hafez al-Assad lasted 6 hours and 30 minutes, causing the press to believe for a moment that he had been kidnapped by the Syrians.", "In his memoirs, Kissinger described how, during the course of his 28 meetings in Damascus in 1973–74, Assad \"negotiated tenaciously and daringly like a riverboat gambler to make sure he had exacted the last sliver of available concessions\".", "As for the others Kissinger negotiated with, Kissinger viewed the Israeli politicians as rigid, while he had a good relationship and was able to develop a sense of assurance with Sadat.", "Kissinger's efforts resulted in two ceasefires between Egypt and Israel, ''Sinai I'' in January 1974, and ''Sinai II'' in September 1975.Kissinger had avoided involving France and the United Kingdom, the former European colonial powers of the Middle East, in the peace negotiations that followed the Yom Kippur War, being primarily focused on minimizing the Soviet Union's sway over the peace negotiations and on moderating the international influences on the Arab-Israeli conflict.", "President Pompidou of France was concerned and perturbed by this development, viewing it as an indication of the United States' ambitions of hegemonically domineering the region.===Persian Gulf===Kissinger and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia (left) in Riyadh on March 19, 1975.In the far background behind Faisal is his half-brother, the future King Fahd.A major concern for Kissinger was the possibility of Soviet influence in the Persian Gulf.", "In April 1969, Iraq came into conflict with Iran when Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi renounced the 1937 treaty governing the Shatt-al-Arab river.", "On December 1, 1971, after two years of skirmishes along the border, President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr broke off diplomatic relations with Iran.", "In May 1972, Nixon and Kissinger visited Tehran to tell the Shah that there would be no \"second-guessing of his requests\" to buy American weapons.", "At the same time, Nixon and Kissinger agreed to a plan of the Shah's that the United States together with Iran and Israel would support the Kurdish ''peshmerga'' guerrillas fighting for independence from Iraq.", "Kissinger later wrote that after Vietnam, there was no possibility of deploying American forces in the Middle East, and henceforward Iran was to act as America's surrogate in the Persian Gulf.", "Kissinger described the Ba'athist regime in Iraq as a potential threat to the United States and believed that building up Iran and supporting the ''peshmerga'' was the best counterweight.===Turkish invasion of Cyprus===Following a period of steady relations between the U.S. Government and the Greek military regime after 1967, Secretary of State Kissinger was faced with the coup by the Greek junta and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in July and August 1974.In an August 1974 edition of ''The New York Times'', it was revealed that Kissinger and State Department were informed in advance of the impending coup by the Greek junta in Cyprus.", "Indeed, according to the journalist, the official version of events as told by the State Department was that it felt it had to warn the Greek military regime not to carry out the coup.Kissinger was a target of anti-American sentiment which was a significant feature of Greek public opinion at the time—particularly among young people—viewing the U.S. role in Cyprus as negative.", "In a demonstration by students in Heraklion, Crete, soon after the second phase of the Turkish invasion in August 1974, slogans such as \"Kissinger, murderer\", \"Americans get out\", \"No to Partition\" and \"Cyprus is no Vietnam\" were heard.", "Some years later, Kissinger expressed the opinion that the Cyprus issue was resolved in 1974.", "''The New York Times'' and other major newspapers were highly critical, and even State Department officials did not hide their dissatisfaction with his alleged arrogance and ignorance of the basics.Kissinger was reported to have said, \"The Turkish tactics are right – grab what they want and then negotiate on the basis of possession\".However, Kissinger never felt comfortable with the way he handled the Cyprus issue.", "Journalist Alexis Papahelas stated that Kissinger's \"facial expression changes markedly when someone—usually Greek or Cypriot—refers to the crisis\".", "According to him, Kissinger had felt since the summer of 1974 that history would not treat him lightly in relation to his actions.===Latin American policy===Ford and Kissinger conversing on the White House grounds, August 1974In 1970, Kissinger parroted to Nixon the United States Department of Defense's position that the country should maintain control over the Panama Canal, which was a reversal of the commitment by the Lyndon Johnson administration.", "Later, in the face of international pressure, Kissinger changed his stance, viewing the past hardline position in the Panama Canal issue as a hindrance to American relations with Latin America and an international setback that the Soviet Union would approve of.", "Kissinger in 1973 called for \"new dialogue\" between the United States and Latin America, then in 1974, Kissinger met Panama military leader Omar Torrijos and an agreement on eight operating principles for an eventual handover of the Panama Canal to Panama was made between Kissinger and Panamanian foreign minister Juan Antonio Tack, which angered the United States Congress, but ultimately provided a framework for the 1977 U.S.–Panama treaties.Kissinger initially supported the normalization of United States–Cuba relations, broken since 1961 (all U.S.–Cuban trade was blocked in February 1962, a few weeks after the exclusion of Cuba from the Organization of American States because of U.S. pressure).", "However, he quickly changed his mind and followed Kennedy's policy.", "After the involvement of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces in the independence struggles in Angola and Mozambique, Kissinger said that unless Cuba withdrew its forces relations would not be normalized.", "Cuba refused.====Intervention in Chile====Augusto Pinochet shaking hands with Kissinger in 1976Chilean Socialist Party presidential candidate Salvador Allende was elected by a plurality of 36.2 percent in 1970, causing serious concern in Washington, D.C., due to his openly socialist and pro-Cuban politics.", "The Nixon administration, with Kissinger's input, authorized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to encourage a military coup that would prevent Allende's inauguration, but the plan was not successful.On September 11, 1973, Allende died during an army attack on the presidential palace that was an element of a military coup launched by Army Commander-in-Chief Augusto Pinochet, who then became president.", "In September 1976, Orlando Letelier, a Chilean opponent of the new Pinochet regime, was assassinated in Washington, D.C., with a car bomb.", "Previously, Kissinger had helped secure his release from prison, and had chosen to cancel an official U.S. letter to Chile warning them against carrying out any political assassinations.", "This murder was part of Operation Condor, a covert program of political repression and assassination carried out by Southern Cone nations that Kissinger has been accused of being involved in.On September 10, 2001, after recent declassification of documents, relatives and survivors of General René Schneider filed civil proceedings against Kissinger, in federal court in Washington, D.C., accusing him of collaborating in arranging Schneider's kidnapping which resulted in his death.", "The case was later dismissed by the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, citing separation of powers: \"The decision to support a coup of the Chilean government to prevent Dr. Allende from coming to power, and the means by which the United States Government sought to effect that goal, implicate policy makers in the murky realm of foreign affairs and national security best left to the political branches.\"", "Decades later, the CIA admitted its involvement in the kidnapping of General Schneider, but not his murder, and subsequently paid the group responsible for his death $35,000 \"to keep the prior contact secret, maintain the goodwill of the group, and for humanitarian reasons\".====Argentina====Kissinger took a similar line as he had toward Chile when the Argentine Armed Forces, led by Jorge Videla, toppled the elected government of Isabel Perón in 1976 with a process called the National Reorganization Process by the military, with which they consolidated power, launching brutal reprisals and \"disappearances\" against political opponents.", "An October 1987 investigative report in ''The Nation'' broke the story of how, in a June 1976 meeting in the Hotel Carrera in Santiago, Kissinger gave the military junta in neighboring Argentina the \"green light\" for their own clandestine repression against leftwing guerrillas and other dissidents, thousands of whom were kept in more than 400 secret concentration camps before they were executed.", "During a meeting with Argentine foreign minister César Augusto Guzzetti, Kissinger assured him that the United States was an ally but urged him to \"get back to normal procedures\" quickly before the U.S. Congress reconvened and had a chance to consider sanctions.As the article published in ''The Nation'' noted, as the state-sponsored terror mounted, conservative Republican U.S.", "Ambassador to Buenos Aires Robert C. Hill was shaken, he became very disturbed, by the case of the son of a thirty-year embassy employee, a student who was arrested, never to be seen again,' recalled Juan de Onis, former reporter for ''The New York Times''.", "'Hill took a personal interest.'", "He went to the Interior Minister, a general with whom he had worked on drug cases, saying, 'Hey, what about this?", "We're interested in this case.'", "He questioned (Foreign Minister Cesar) Guzzetti and, finally, President Jorge Videla himself.", "'All he got was stonewalling; he got nowhere.'", "de Onis said.", "'His last year was marked by increasing disillusionment and dismay, and he backed his staff on human rights right to the hilt.", "\"In a letter to ''The Nation'' editor Victor Navasky, protesting publication of the article, Kissinger claimed that: \"At any rate, the notion of Hill as a passionate human rights advocate is news to all his former associates.\"", "Yet Kissinger aide Harry W. Shlaudeman later disagreed with Kissinger, telling the oral historian William E. Knight of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training Foreign Affairs Oral History Project: \"It really came to a head when I was Assistant Secretary, or it began to come to a head, in the case of Argentina where the dirty war was in full flower.", "Bob Hill, who was Ambassador then in Buenos Aires, a very conservative Republican politician—by no means liberal or anything of the kind, began to report quite effectively about what was going on, this slaughter of innocent civilians, supposedly innocent civilians—this vicious war that they were conducting, underground war.", "He, at one time in fact, sent me a back-channel telegram saying that the Foreign Minister, who had just come for a visit to Washington and had returned to Buenos Aires, had gloated to him that Kissinger had said nothing to him about human rights.", "I don't know—I wasn't present at the interview.", "\"Navasky later wrote in his book about being confronted by Kissinger, Tell me, Mr. Navasky,' Kissinger said in his famous guttural tones, 'how is it that a short article in an obscure journal such as yours about a conversation that was supposed to have taken place years ago about something that did or didn't happen in Argentina resulted in sixty people holding placards denouncing me a few months ago at the airport when I got off the plane in Copenhagen?According to declassified state department files, Kissinger also hindered the Carter administration's efforts to halt the mass killings by the 1976–1983 military dictatorship by visiting the country as Videla's personal guest to attend the 1978 FIFA World Cup and praising the regime.==== Brazil's nuclear weapons program ====Kissinger was in favor of accommodating Brazil while it pursued a nuclear weapons program in the 1970s.", "Kissinger justified his position by arguing that Brazil was a U.S. ally and on the grounds that it would benefit private nuclear industry actors in the U.S. Kissinger's position on Brazil was out of sync with influential voices in the U.S. Congress, the State Department, and the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency.===Rhodesia===In September 1976, Kissinger was actively involved in negotiations regarding the Rhodesian Bush War.", "Kissinger, along with South Africa's prime minister John Vorster, pressured Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith to hasten the transition to black majority rule in Rhodesia.", "With FRELIMO in control of Mozambique and even the apartheid regime of South Africa withdrawing its support, Rhodesia's isolation was nearly complete.", "According to Smith's autobiography, Kissinger told Smith of Mrs. Kissinger's admiration for him, but Smith stated that he thought Kissinger was asking him to sign Rhodesia's \"death certificate\".", "Kissinger, bringing the weight of the United States, and corralling other relevant parties to put pressure on Rhodesia, hastened the end of white minority rule.===Portuguese Empire===In contrast to the unfriendly disposition of the previous Kennedy and Johnson administrations towards the Estado Novo regime of Portugal, particularly with regards to its attempts to maintain the Portuguese Colonial Empire by waging the Portuguese Colonial War against anti-colonial rebellions in defense of its empire, the Department of State under Kissinger adopted a more conciliatory attitude towards Portugal.", "In 1971, the administration of President Nixon successfully renewed the lease of the American military base in the Azores, despite condemnation from the Congressional Black Caucus and some members of the Senate.", "Though privately continuing to view Portugal contemptibly for its perceived atavistic foreign policy towards Africa, Kissinger publicly expressed thanks for Portugal's agreement to use its military base in Lajes in the Azores to resupply Israel in the Yom Kippur War.", "Following the fall of the far-right Portuguese regime in 1974, Kissinger worried that the new government's hasty decolonization plan might benefit radical factions such as the MPLA in Angola.", "He also expressed concern that the inclusion of the Portuguese Communist Party in the new Portuguese government could legitimize communist parties in other NATO member states, such as Italy.===East Timor===Suharto with Gerald Ford and Kissinger in Jakarta on December 6, 1975, one day before the Indonesian invasion of East TimorThe Portuguese decolonization process brought U.S. attention to the former Portuguese colony of East Timor, which declared its independence in 1975.Indonesian president Suharto regarded East Timor as rightfully part of Indonesia.", "In December 1975, Suharto discussed invasion plans during a meeting with Kissinger and President Ford in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta.", "Both Ford and Kissinger made clear that U.S. relations with Indonesia would remain strong and that it would not object to the proposed annexation.", "They only wanted it done \"fast\" and proposed that it be delayed until after they had returned to Washington.", "Accordingly, Suharto delayed the operation for one day.", "Finally on December 7, Indonesian forces invaded the former Portuguese colony.", "U.S. arms sales to Indonesia continued, and Suharto went ahead with the annexation plan.", "According to Ben Kiernan, the invasion and occupation resulted in the deaths of nearly a quarter of the Timorese population from 1975 to 1981.===Cuba===During the 1970 Cienfuegos Crisis, in which the Soviet Navy was strongly suspected of building a submarine base in the Cuban city of Cienfuegos, Kissinger met with Anatoly Dobrynin, Soviet Ambassador to the United States, informing him that the United States government considered this act a violation of the agreements made in 1962 by President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khrushchev in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis, prompting the Soviets to halt construction of their planned base in Cienfuegos.In February 1976, Kissinger considered launching air strikes against ports and military installations in Cuba, as well as deploying U.S. Marine Corps battalions based at the U.S. Navy base at Guantanamo Bay, in retaliation for Cuban president Fidel Castro's decision in late 1975 to send troops to newly independent Angola to help the MPLA in its fight against UNITA and South Africa during the start of the Angolan Civil War.===Western Sahara===Henry Kissinger meeting with President Mobutu Sese Seko and others at the Presidential Residence in Kinshasa, ZaireThe Kissingerian doctrine endorsed the forced concession of Spanish Sahara to Morocco.", "At the height of the 1975 Sahara crisis, Kissinger misled Gerald Ford into thinking the International Court of Justice had ruled in favor of Morocco.", "Kissinger was aware in advance of the Moroccan plans for the invasion of the territory, materialized on November 6, 1975, in the so-called Green March.===Zaire===Kissinger was involved in furthering cooperation between the U.S. and the Zairian dictator Mobutu Sese Seko and held multiple meetings with him.", "Kissinger later described these efforts as \"one of our policy successes in Africa\" and praised Mobutu as \"courageous, politically astute\" and \"relatively honest in a country where governmental corruption is a way of life\"." ], [ "Later roles", "Kissinger meeting with President Ronald Reagan in the White House family quarters, 1981After Nixon was forced to resign in the Watergate scandal, Kissinger's influence in the new presidential administration of Gerald R. Ford was diminished after he was replaced by Brent Scowcroft as National Security Advisor during the \"Halloween Massacre\" cabinet reshuffle of November 1975.Kissinger left office as Secretary of State when Democrat Jimmy Carter defeated Republican Gerald Ford in the 1976 presidential elections.Kissinger continued to participate in policy groups, such as the Trilateral Commission, and to maintain political consulting, speaking, and writing engagements.", "In 1978, he was secretly involved in thwarting efforts by the Carter administration to indict three Chilean intelligence agents for masterminding the 1976 assassination of Orlando Letelier.", "Kissinger was critical of the foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration, saying in 1980 that \"has managed the extraordinary feat of having, at one and the same time, the worst relations with our allies, the worst relations with our adversaries, and the most serious upheavals in the developing world since the end of the Second World War.", "\"After Kissinger left office in 1977, he was offered an endowed chair at Columbia University, which was met with student opposition.", "Kissinger instead accepted a position at Georgetown University's Center for Strategic and International Studies.", "He taught at Georgetown's Edmund Walsh School of Foreign Service for several years in the late 1970s.", "In 1982, with the help of a loan from the international banking firm of E.M. Warburg, Pincus and Company, Kissinger founded a consulting firm, Kissinger Associates, and was a partner in affiliate Kissinger McLarty Associates with Mack McLarty, former chief of staff to President Bill Clinton.", "He also served on the board of directors of Hollinger International, a Chicago-based newspaper group, and as of March 1999, was a director of Gulfstream Aerospace.Kissinger and U.S. vice president Joe Biden at the Munich Security Conference in February 2009In September 1989, ''The Wall Street Journal''s John Fialka disclosed that Kissinger took a direct economic interest in U.S.–China relations in March 1989 with the establishment of China Ventures, Inc., a Delaware limited partnership, of which he was chairman of the board and chief executive officer.", "A US$75 million investment in a joint venture with the Communist Party government's primary commercial vehicle at the time, China International Trust & Investment Corporation (CITIC), was its purpose.", "Board members were major clients of Kissinger Associates.", "Kissinger was criticized for not disclosing his role in the venture when called upon by ABC's Peter Jennings to comment the morning after the June 4, 1989, Tiananmen Square massacre.", "Kissinger's position was generally supportive of Deng Xiaoping's decision to use the military against the demonstrating students and he opposed economic sanctions.Kissinger with German chancellor Angela Merkel on June 21, 2017From 1995 to 2001, Kissinger served on the board of directors for Freeport-McMoRan, a multinational copper and gold producer with significant mining and milling operations in Papua, Indonesia.", "In February 2000, president of Indonesia Abdurrahman Wahid appointed Kissinger as a political advisor.", "He also served as an honorary advisor to the United States-Azerbaijan Chamber of Commerce.In 1998, in response to the 2002 Winter Olympic bid scandal, the International Olympic Committee formed a commission, called the \"2000 Commission\", to recommend reforms, which Kissinger served on.", "This service led in 2000 to his appointment as one of five IOC \"honor members\", a category the organization described as granted to \"eminent personalities from outside the IOC who have rendered particularly outstanding services to it\".Kissinger served as the 22nd Chancellor of the College of William and Mary from 2000 to 2005.He was preceded by former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and succeeded by Justice Sandra Day O'Connor.", "The College of William & Mary also owns a painted portrait of Kissinger that was painted by Ned Bittinger.From 2000 to 2006, Kissinger served as chairman of the board of trustees of Eisenhower Fellowships.", "In 2006, upon his departure from Eisenhower Fellowships, he received the Dwight D. Eisenhower Medal for Leadership and Service.In November 2002, he was appointed by President George W. Bush to chair the newly established National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States to investigate the September 11 attacks.", "Kissinger stepped down as chairman on December 13, 2002, rather than reveal his business client list, when queried about potential conflicts of interest.In January 2007 Kissinger delivered a eulogy for Gerald Ford, one of the U.S. presidents he served, at Ford's state funeral in the Washington National Cathedral.In April 2008 Kissinger gave a eulogy for the conservative author and founder of the National Review, William F. Buckley at the latter's memorial service at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City.", "In the Rio Tinto espionage case of 2009–2010, Kissinger was paid US$5 million to advise the multinational mining company how to distance itself from an employee who had been arrested in China for bribery.President Donald Trump meeting with Kissinger on May 10, 2017Kissinger—along with William Perry, Sam Nunn, and George Shultz—called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear weapons, and in three op-eds in ''The Wall Street Journal'' proposed an ambitious program of urgent steps to that end.", "The four created the Nuclear Threat Initiative to advance this agenda.", "In 2010, the four were featured in a documentary film entitled ''Nuclear Tipping Point''.", "The film is a visual and historical depiction of the ideas laid forth in ''The Wall Street Journal'' op-eds and reinforces their commitment to a world without nuclear weapons and the steps that can be taken to reach that goal.On November 17, 2016, Kissinger met with President-elect Donald Trump during which they discussed global affairs.", "Kissinger also met with President Trump at the White House in May 2017.In an interview with Charlie Rose on August 17, 2017, Kissinger said about President Trump: \"I'm hoping for an Augustinian moment, for St. Augustine ... who in his early life followed a pattern that was quite incompatible with later on when he had a vision, and rose to sainthood.", "One does not expect the president to become that, but it's conceivable\".", "Kissinger also argued that Russian president Vladimir Putin wanted to weaken Hillary Clinton, not elect Donald Trump.", "Kissinger said that Putin \"thought—wrongly incidentally—that she would be extremely confrontational ...", "I think he tried to weaken the incoming president Clinton\".===Views on U.S. foreign policy=======Yugoslav Wars====Kissinger, alongside President Barack Obama and other politicians, discussing the New START Treaty between the U.S. and Russia, 2010In several articles of his and interviews that he gave during the Yugoslav Wars, he criticized the United States' policies in Southeast Europe, among other things for the recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a sovereign state, which he described as a foolish act.", "Most importantly he dismissed the notion of Serbs and Croats being aggressors or separatist, saying that \"they can't be separating from something that has never existed\".", "In addition, he repeatedly warned the West against inserting itself into a conflict that has its roots at least hundreds of years back in time, and said that the West would do better if it allowed the Serbs and Croats to join their respective countries.", "Kissinger shared similarly critical views on Western involvement in Kosovo.", "In particular, he held a disparaging view of the Rambouillet Agreement:However, as the Serbs did not accept the Rambouillet text and NATO bombings started, he opted to support a continuation of the bombing as NATO's credibility was now at stake, but dismissed the use of ground forces in claiming that it was not worth it.====Iraq====Kissinger speaking during Gerald Ford's funeral in January 2007In 2006, it was reported in the book ''State of Denial'' by Bob Woodward that Kissinger met regularly with President George W. Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney to offer advice on the Iraq War.", "Kissinger confirmed in recorded interviews with Woodward that the advice was the same as he had given in a column in ''The Washington Post'' on August 12, 2005: \"Victory over the insurgency is the only meaningful exit strategy.\"", "Kissinger also frequently met with U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell, whom he warned that Coalition Provisional Authority Director L. Paul Bremer was \"a control freak\".In an interview on the BBC's ''Sunday AM'' on November 19, 2006, Kissinger was asked whether there was any hope left for a clear military victory in Iraq and responded, \"If you mean by 'military victory' an Iraqi government that can be established and whose writ runs across the whole country, that gets the civil war under control and sectarian violence under control in a time period that the political processes of the democracies will support, I don't believe that is possible. ...", "I think we have to redefine the course.", "But I don't believe that the alternative is between military victory as it had been defined previously, or total withdrawal.", "\"In an interview with Peter Robinson of the Hoover Institution on April 3, 2008, Kissinger reiterated that even though he supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, he thought that the George W. Bush administration rested too much of its case for war on Saddam's supposed weapons of mass destruction.", "Robinson noted that Kissinger had criticized the administration for invading with too few troops, for disbanding the Iraqi Army as part of de-Baathification, and for mishandling relations with certain allies.====India====Kissinger said in April 2008 that \"India has parallel objectives to the United States\", and he called the nation an ally of the U.S.====China====Angela Merkel and Kissinger attending the state funeral for former German chancellor Helmut Schmidt, November 23, 2015.Kissinger attended the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics.", "A few months before the Games opened, as controversy over China's human rights record was intensifying due to criticism by Amnesty International and other groups of the widespread use of the death penalty and other issues, Kissinger told China's official press agency Xinhua: \"I think one should separate Olympics as a sporting event from whatever political disagreements people may have had with China.", "I expect that the games will proceed in the spirit for which they were designed, which is friendship among nations, and that other issues are discussed in other forums.\"", "He said China had made huge efforts to stage the Games.", "\"Friends of China should not use the Olympics to pressure China now.\"", "He added that he would bring two of his grandchildren to watch the Games and planned to attend the opening ceremony.", "During the Games, he participated with Australian swimmer Ian Thorpe, film star Jackie Chan, and former British prime minister Tony Blair at a Peking University forum on the qualities that make a champion.", "He sat with his wife Nancy Kissinger, President George W. Bush, former president George H. W. Bush, and Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi at the men's basketball game between China and the U.S.In 2011, Kissinger published ''On China'', chronicling the evolution of Sino-American relations and laying out the challenges to a partnership of \"genuine strategic trust\" between the U.S. and China.", "In this book ''On China'' and his 2014 book ''World Order'', as well as in his 2018 interview with ''Financial Times'', Kissinger consistently stated that he believed that China wants to restore its historic role as the Middle Kingdom and be \"the principal adviser to all humanity\".In 2020, during a period of worsening Sino-American relations caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the Hong Kong protests, and the U.S.–China trade war, Kissinger expressed concerns that the United States and China are entering a Second Cold War and will eventually become embroiled in a military conflict similar to World War I.", "He called for Chinese leader Xi Jinping and the incoming U.S. president-elect Joe Biden to take a less confrontational foreign policy.", "Kissinger previously said that a potential war between China and the United States would be \"worse than the world wars that ruined European civilization\".In July 2023, Kissinger traveled to Beijing to meet with Chinese Defense Minister Li Shangfu, who was sanctioned by the U.S. government in 2018 for engaging in the purchase of combat aircraft from a Russian arms exporter.", "Kissinger emphasized Sino-American relations in the meeting, stating that \"the United States and China should eliminate misunderstandings, coexist peacefully, and avoid confrontation\".", "Later that trip, Kissinger met with Xi with the intention of defrosting relations between the U.S. and China.====Iran====Kissinger's position on this issue of U.S.–Iran talks was reported by the ''Tehran Times'' to be that \"Any direct talks between the U.S. and Iran on issues such as the nuclear dispute would be most likely to succeed if they first involved only diplomatic staff and progressed to the level of secretary of state before the heads of state meet.\"", "In 2016, Kissinger said that the biggest challenge facing the Middle East is the \"potential domination of the region by an Iran that is both imperial and jihadist\".", "He further wrote in August 2017 that if the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps of Iran and its Shiite allies were allowed to fill the territorial vacuum left by a militarily defeated Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, the region would be left with a land corridor extending from Iran to the Levant \"which could mark the emergence of an Iranian radical empire\".", "Commenting on the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, Kissinger said that he would not have agreed to it, but that Trump's plan to end the agreement after it was signed would \"enable the Iranians to do more than us\".====2014 Ukrainian crisis====Henry Kissinger on April 26, 2016On March 5, 2014, ''The Washington Post'' published an op-ed piece by Kissinger, 11 days before the Crimean referendum on whether Autonomous Republic of Crimea should officially rejoin Ukraine or join neighboring Russia.", "In it, he attempted to balance the Ukrainian, Russian, and Western desires for a functional state.", "He made four main points:# Ukraine should have the right to choose freely its economic and political associations, including with Europe;# Ukraine should not join NATO, a repetition of the position he took seven years before;# Ukraine should be free to create any government compatible with the expressed will of its people.", "Wise Ukrainian leaders would then opt for a policy of reconciliation between the various parts of their country.", "He imagined an international position for Ukraine like that of Finland.# Ukraine should maintain sovereignty over Crimea.Kissinger also wrote: \"The west speaks Ukrainian; the east speaks mostly Russian.", "Any attempt by one wing of Ukraine to dominate the other—as has been the pattern—would lead eventually to civil war or break up.", "\"Following the publication of his book titled ''World Order'', Kissinger participated in an interview with Charlie Rose and updated his position on Ukraine, which he saw as a possible geographical mediator between Russia and the West.", "In a question he posed to himself for illustration regarding re-conceiving policy regarding Ukraine, Kissinger stated: \"If Ukraine is considered an outpost, then the situation is that its eastern border is the NATO strategic line, and NATO will be within of Volgograd.", "That will never be accepted by Russia.", "On the other hand, if the Russian western line is at the border of Poland, Europe will be permanently disquieted.", "The Strategic objective should have been to see whether one can build Ukraine as a bridge between East and West, and whether one can do it as a kind of a joint effort.", "\"In December 2016, Kissinger advised President-elect Donald Trump to accept \"Crimea as a part of Russia\" in an attempt to secure a rapprochement between the United States and Russia, whose relations soured as a result of the Crimean crisis.", "When asked if he explicitly considered Russia's sovereignty over Crimea legitimate, Kissinger answered in the affirmative, reversing the position he took in his ''Washington Post'' op-ed.====Computers and nuclear weapons====In 2019, Kissinger wrote about the increasing tendency to give control of nuclear weapons to computers operating with artificial intelligence (AI) that: \"Adversaries' ignorance of AI-developed configurations will become a strategic advantage\".", "Kissinger argued that giving power to launch nuclear weapons to computers using algorithms to make decisions would eliminate the human factor and give the advantage to the state that had the most effective AI system as a computer can make decisions about war and peace far faster than any human ever could.", "Just as an AI-enhanced computer can win chess games by anticipating human decision-making, an AI-enhanced computer could be useful in a crisis as in a nuclear war, the side that strikes first would have the advantage by destroying the opponent's nuclear capacity.", "Kissinger also noted there was always the danger that a computer could make a decision to start a nuclear war before diplomacy had been exhausted, or for a reason that would not be understandable to the operators.", "Kissinger also warned the use of AI to control nuclear weapons would impose \"opacity\" on the decision-making process as the algorithms that control the AI system are not readily understandable, destabilizing the decision-making process:==== COVID-19 pandemic ====On April 3, 2020, Kissinger shared his diagnostic view of the COVID-19 pandemic, saying that it threatens the \"liberal world order\".", "Kissinger added that the virus does not know borders although global leaders are trying to address the crisis on a mainly national basis.", "He stressed that the key is not a purely national effort but greater international cooperation.====Russian invasion of Ukraine====In May 2022, speaking to the World Economic Forum on the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Kissinger advocated for a diplomatic settlement that would restore the ''status quo ante bellum'', effectively ceding Crimea and parts of Donbas to Russian control.", "Kissinger urged Ukrainians to \"match the heroism they have shown with wisdom\", arguing that \"pursuing the war beyond that point would not be about the freedom of Ukraine, but a new war against Russia itself.\"", "He spoke to Edward Luce and a ''Financial Times'' audience in the same month.", "Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy rejected Kissinger's suggestions, saying Ukraine would not agree to peace until Russia agreed to return Crimea and the Donbas region to Ukraine.On a book tour to sell ''Leadership: Six Studies in World Strategy'' in July 2022 he spoke to Judy Woodruff of PBS and he was still of the opinion that \"a negotiation is desirable\" and clarified his earlier statements, saying that he supported a ceasefire line on the borders of February 24 and that \"Russia should not gain anything from the war... Ukraine above all cannot give up territory that it had when the war started because this would be symbolically dangerous.", "\"On January 18, 2023, Kissinger was interviewed by Graham Allison for a World Economic Forum audience; he said that U.S. support should be intensified until either the February 24 borders are reached or the February 24 borders are recognized, upon which time under a ceasefire agreement negotiations would begin.", "Kissinger felt that Russia needs to be given an opportunity to rejoin the comity of nations while the sanctions are maintained until final settlement is reached.", "He expressed his admiration for President Zelenskyy and lauded the heroic conduct of the Ukrainian people.", "Kissinger felt that the invasion has ''ipso facto'' its logical outcome pointed to NATO membership for Ukraine at the end of the peace process.In September 2023, Kissinger met with Volodymyr Zelenskyy in New York City, on which occasion they discussed his change in position on Ukraine's NATO membership ambitions.==== 2023 Israel–Hamas war ====In a statement made a month before his death, Kissinger responded to the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel and outbreak of the 2023 Israel–Hamas war by saying that the goals of Hamas \"can only be to mobilize the Arab world against Israel and to get off the track of peaceful negotiations\".", "In response to celebrations of the attack by some Arabs in Germany, he issued a statement denouncing Muslim immigration into Germany: \"It was a grave mistake to let in so many people of totally different culture and religion and concepts, because it creates a pressure group inside each country that does that.\"" ], [ "Public perception", "Colin Powell, Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau, Secretary of State John Kerry, and Kissinger in March 2016A 2014 poll of American international relations scholars conducted by the College of William & Mary ranked Kissinger as the most effective Secretary of State in the 50 years prior to 2015.In 1972, ''Time'' commented that \"a streak of suspicion seems to underlie all that he does\" and \"His jokes about his paranoia have an uncomfortable edge of truth\".", "He was so often seen escorting Hollywood starlets that the ''Village Voice'' charged he was \"a secret square posing as a swinger\".", "The insight, \"Power is the ultimate aphrodisiac\", is widely attributed to him, although Kissinger was paraphrasing Napoleon Bonaparte.", "Critics on the right, such as Ray Takeyh, have faulted Kissinger for his role in the Nixon administration's opening to China and secret negotiations with North Vietnam.", "Takeyh writes that while rapprochement with China was a worthy goal, the Nixon administration failed to achieve any meaningful concessions from Chinese officials in return, as China continued to support North Vietnam and various \"revolutionary forces throughout the Third World\", \"nor does there appear to be even a remote, indirect connection between Nixon and Kissinger's diplomacy and the communist leadership's decision, after Mao's bloody rule, to move away from a communist economy towards state capitalism.", "\"Historian Jeffrey Kimball developed the theory that Kissinger and the Nixon administration accepted a South Vietnamese collapse provided a face-saving decent interval passed between U.S. withdrawal and defeat.", "In his first meeting with Zhou Enlai in 1971, Kissinger \"laid out in detail the settlement terms that would produce such a delayed defeat: total American withdrawal, return of all American POWs, and a ceasefire-in-place for '18 months or some period, in the words of historian Ken Hughes.", "On October 6, 1972, Kissinger told Nixon twice that the terms of the Paris Peace Accords would probably destroy South Vietnam: \"I also think that Thieu is right, that our terms will eventually destroy him.\"", "However, Kissinger denied using a \"decent interval\" strategy, writing \"All of us who negotiated the agreement of October 12 were convinced that we had vindicated the anguish of a decade not by a 'decent interval' but by a decent settlement.\"", "Johannes Kadura offers a positive assessment of Nixon and Kissinger's strategy, arguing that the two men \"simultaneously maintained a Plan A of further supporting Saigon and a Plan B of shielding Washington should their maneuvers prove futile.\"", "According to Kadura, the \"decent interval\" concept has been \"largely misrepresented\", in that Nixon and Kissinger \"sought to gain time, make the North turn inward, and create a perpetual equilibrium\" rather than acquiescing in the collapse of South Vietnam.Kissinger's record was brought up during the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries.", "Hillary Clinton had cultivated a close relationship with Kissinger, describing him as a \"friend\" and a source of \"counsel\".", "During the Democratic primary debates, Clinton touted Kissinger's praise for her record as secretary of state.", "In response, candidate Bernie Sanders criticized Kissinger and said: \"I am proud to say that Henry Kissinger is not my friend.", "I will not take advice from Henry Kissinger.", "\"Kissinger was an immensely beloved figure within China, with ''China News Service'' describing him in his obituary as someone \"who had a sharp vision and a thorough understanding of world affairs\".=== Legacy and reception ===Kissinger has generally received a polarizing reception; some have portrayed him as a strategic genius who was willing to act in a utilitarian manner, others have portrayed his foreign policy decisions as immoral and profoundly damaging in the long run.==== Positive views ====Historian Niall Ferguson has argued that Kissinger is one of the most effective secretaries of state in American history.The editorial board of ''The Wall Street Journal'' stated in the aftermath of his death \"Kissinger was a target of both the right and left in those perilous Cold War years, often unfairly...\" The article noted that he was often criticized by American conservatives for overlooking human rights in China, while saying \"he had no illusions about the Communist Party or its nationalist ambitions.", "His view was that the U.S. and China had to achieve some ''modus vivendi'' to avoid war despite their profound cultural and political differences\" while claiming that \"the alternatives then, as now, weren't usually democracy advocates of the left's imagining.", "They were often Communists who would have aligned themselves with the Soviets...", "The U.S. provided covert aid to Allende's political opponents, but declassified briefings from the time show the U.S. was unaware of the military coup that deposed him.", "Kissinger wasn't responsible for Augusto Pinochet's coup or its bloody excesses.", "Chile eventually became a democracy... Cuba remains a dictatorship.", "\"==== Negative views ====A number of journalists, activists, and human rights lawyers accused Kissinger of being responsible for war crimes during his tenure in government.", "Some sought civil and even criminal penalties against Kissinger, but none of these attempts were successful.In September 2001, relatives and survivors of General Rene Schneider filed civil proceedings in federal court in Washington, DC.", "The suit was later dismissed.", "In April 2002, a petition for Kissinger's arrest was filed in the High Court in London by human rights campaigner Peter Tatchell, citing the destruction of civilian populations and the environment in Indochina during the years 1969–1975.The petition was rejected one day after filing.", "One of his most prominent critics was American-British journalist and author Christopher Hitchens.", "Hitchens authored ''The Trial of Henry Kissinger'', in which he called for the prosecution of Kissinger \"for war crimes, for crimes against humanity, and for offenses against common or customary or international law, including conspiracy to commit murder, kidnap, and torture\".", "American chef and TV personality Anthony Bourdain wrote in ''A Cook's Tour'': \"Once you've been to Cambodia, you'll never stop wanting to beat Henry Kissinger to death with your bare hands...", "Witness what he did... and you will never understand why he's not sitting in the dock at The Hague next to Milošević.", "\"Author Robert D. Kaplan and historian Niall Ferguson have disputed these notions and argued that there is a double standard in how Kissinger is judged in comparison to others.", "They have defended Kissinger by arguing that American power to advocate for human rights in other nations is often counterproductive and limited, that taking into consideration geopolitical realities is an inevitable part of any effective foreign policy, and that there are utilitarian reasons to defend most of the decisions of his tenure.==== Other perspectives ====Several historians have rejected both prominent reputations of Kissinger.", "David Greenberg argued that each are exaggerated caricatures that overstate both his genius and immorality: \"In fact, if there's a single word I'd apply to Kissinger, it's 'overrated.'", "He was overrated as a scholar (famous mainly for writing a very long dissertation).", "He was overrated as a strategist (he often gave bad advice, as he did in urging George W. Bush not to withdraw troops from Iraq).", "He was even overrated as a villain – the 'Christopher Hitchenses' of the world loved to call him a 'war criminal,' but this was a fundamentally unserious charge.", "The Defense Department, not the State Department, prosecutes wars, and the president oversees it – but the Hitchenses preferred to go after Kissinger rather than (Defense Secretaries) Mel Laird or James Schlesinger or even Nixon.\"", "Similarly, Mario Del Pero argued: \"He was not particularly original or bold, once we scratch away from his writings the deliberately opaque and convoluted prose he often used, possibly to try to render more original thoughts and reflections that were in reality fairly conventional...", "In short, he wasn't a war criminal, he wasn't a very deep or sophisticated thinker, he rarely challenged the intellectual vogues of the time (even because it would have meant to challenge those in power, something he always was—and still is—reluctant to do), and once in government he displayed a certain intellectual laziness vis-à-vis the intricacies and complexities of a world that he still tended to see in black-and-white.\"" ], [ "Family and personal life", "Nancy and Henry Kissinger in their New York City apartment with their dog Tyler, 1978Kissinger married Anneliese \"Ann\" Fleischer (born November 6, 1925, in Fürth, Germany) on February 6, 1949.They had two children, Elizabeth and David, and divorced in 1964.In 1955, he met Austrian poet Ingeborg Bachmann during a symposium at Harvard; the two had a romantic relationship that lasted several years.", "On March 30, 1974, he married Nancy Maginnes.", "They lived in Kent, Connecticut, and in New York City.", "Kissinger's son David served as an executive with NBC Universal Television Studio before becoming head of Conaco, Conan O'Brien's production company, in 2005.In February 1982, at the age of 58, Henry Kissinger underwent coronary bypass surgery.", "On May 27, 2023, he turned 100.Kissinger described ''Diplomacy'' as his favorite game in a 1973 interview.===Soccer===Daryl Grove characterized Kissinger as one of the most influential people in the growth of soccer in the United States.", "Kissinger was named chairman of the North American Soccer League board of directors in 1978.Since his childhood, Kissinger had been a fan of his hometown's soccer club, SpVgg Fürth (now SpVgg Greuther Fürth).", "Even during his time in office, the German Embassy informed him about the team's results every Monday morning.", "He was an honorary member with lifetime season tickets.", "In September 2012, Kissinger attended a home game in which Greuther Fürth lost 0–2 against Schalke, after promising years previously that he would attend a Greuther Fürth home game if they were promoted to the Bundesliga (the top football league in Germany) from the 2.Bundesliga." ], [ "Death", "Henry and Nancy Kissinger at the Metropolitan Opera opening in 2008Kissinger died from heart failure at his home in Kent, Connecticut, on November 29, 2023, at the age of 100.At the time of his death, he was last living former U.S.", "Cabinet member who served in the Richard Nixon administration.", "He was survived by his wife, Nancy Maginnes Kissinger; two children, David and Elizabeth; and five grandchildren.", "His death was announced by Kissinger Associates, his consulting firm.", "Kissinger Associates announced that the funeral would be private; he will be buried in Arlington National Cemetery.=== International reactions ===Kissinger was widely admired within China and praised by the Chinese Communist Party.", "Government figures on state media uniformly released posts mourning his death.", "Chinese social media expressed widespread sorrow after news of his passing was released, and hashtags idolizing Kissinger became the most searched trend in China.", "''China News Service'' stated in its obituary for Kissinger that \"Today, this 'old friend of the Chinese people,' who had a sharp vision and a thorough understanding of world affairs, has completed his legendary life\".", "China Central Television, the state broadcaster, called Kissinger a \"legendary diplomat\" and a \"living fossil\" who had witnessed the development of China-U.S. relations.", "Shortly before his death, Chinese president Xi Jinping stated: \"The Chinese people never forget their old friends, and Sino-U.S. relations will always be linked with the name of Henry Kissinger\".Former British prime ministers mourned Kissinger.", "Tony Blair, the former leader of the Labour Party and prime minister of the United Kingdom, released a statement saying: \"There is no-one like Henry Kissinger... From the first time I met him as a new Labour Party opposition leader in 1994, struggling to form views on foreign policy, to the last occasion when I visited him in New York and, later, he spoke at my institute's annual gathering, I was in awe of him...", "If it is possible for diplomacy, at its highest level, to be a form of art, Henry was an artist.\"", "David Cameron stated \"He was a great statesman and a deeply respected diplomat who will be greatly missed on the world stage...", "Even at 100, his wisdom and thoughtfulness shone through\".", "Boris Johnson said: \"The world needs him now.", "If ever there was an author of peace and lover of concord, that man was Henry Kissinger\".European Council president Charles Michel called Kissinger a \"strategist with attention to the smallest detail\" and \"a kind human and a brilliant mind who, over 100 years, shaped the destinies of some of the most important events of the century.\"", "Russian president Vladimir Putin stated in a telegram to Kissinger's widow Nancy that he was a \"wise and farsighted statesman\".", "Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated that he \"had the privilege of meeting Dr. Kissinger on numerous occasions, the most recent being just two months ago in New York.", "Each meeting with him was not just a lesson in diplomacy but also a masterclass in statesmanship.", "His understanding of the complexities of international relations and his unique insights into the challenges facing our world were unparalleled.\"", "German chancellor Olaf Scholz stated: \"The world has lost a great diplomat\".Chile's ambassador to the United States, Juan Gabriel Valdés, released a statement saying he possessed \"brilliance\" but also \"profound moral wretchedness\".", "This statement was reposted by President Gabriel Boric.", "The Bangladeshi foreign minister AK Abdul Momen said that Kissinger did \"inhumane things\", adding that \"he should have apologized to the people of Bangladesh for what he has done\".=== Domestic reactions ===The announcement of Kissinger's death saw a widespread mix of tribute and criticism on American social media.Joe Biden praised Kissinger's \"fierce intellect\" while noting that they often \"disagreed strongly\".", "Former president George W. Bush stated: \"America has lost one of the most dependable and distinctive voices on foreign affairs with the passing of Henry Kissinger.", "I have long admired the man who fled the Nazis as a young boy from a Jewish family, then fought them in the United States Army\".", "Cindy McCain, the widow of John McCain, wrote: \"Henry Kissinger was ever present in my late husband's life.", "While John was a prisoner of war, and in the later years, as a senator and statesman.", "The McCain family will miss his wit, charm, and intelligence terribly\".Many negative reactions to Kissinger's death argued his decisions in government violated American values.", "House of Representative members Jim McGovern, Gerry Connolly, and Greg Casar issued critical reactions to his death, with Connolly stating Kissinger's \"indifference to human suffering will forever tarnish his name and shape his legacy\".", "The front page of ''HuffPost'' labeled him \"The Beltway Butcher\", while another ''HuffPost'' article described him as \"America's Most Notorious War Criminal\".", "''Teen Vogue'' mocked Kissinger with the headline: \"War Criminal Responsible for Millions of Deaths Dies at 100\", a statement similar to that of Nick Turse of ''The Intercept''.", "A CNN op-ed by Peter Bergen entitled \"Christopher Hitchens was right about Henry Kissinger\" stated that to Kissinger \"the ends almost always justified the means,\" referencing Hitchens's 2001 book ''The Trial of Henry Kissinger''.", "Socialist magazine ''Jacobin'' released a book-length anthology entitled ''The Good Die Young''.", "The introduction by historian Greg Grandin notes \"We all live now in the Kissingerian void.", "\"Kissinger was defended by conservative commentator David Harsanyi in an op-ed on the ''New York Post'', where he stated that \"the left disgustingly dances on Kissinger's grave because it hates America\".", "''The New York Sun'' also defended Kissinger, describing him as \"one of the most remarkable figures in American history\"." ], [ "Awards, honors, and associations", "Kissinger at the LBJ Library in 2016* Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ were jointly offered the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for their work on the Paris Peace Accords which prompted the withdrawal of American forces from the Vietnam war.", "Lê Đức Thọ declined to accept the award on the grounds that peace had not actually been achieved in Vietnam.", "Kissinger donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony and later offered to return his prize medal after the fall of South Vietnam to North Vietnamese forces 18 months later.", "* In 1973, Kissinger received the U.S.", "Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.", "* In 1976, Kissinger became the first honorary member of the Harlem Globetrotters.", "* On January 13, 1977, Kissinger received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Gerald Ford.", "* In 1980, Kissinger won the National Book Award in History (hardcover) for the first volume of his memoirs, ''The White House Years''.", "* In 1986, Kissinger was one of twelve recipients of the Medal of Liberty.", "* In 1995, Kissinger was made an honorary Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George.", "* In 2000, Kissinger received the Sylvanus Thayer Award at United States Military Academy at West Point.", "* In 2002, Kissinger became an honorary member of the International Olympic Committee.", "* On March 1, 2012, Kissinger was awarded Israel's President's Medal.", "* In October 2013, Kissinger was awarded the Henry A. Grunwald Award for Public Service by Lighthouse International.", "* Kissinger was a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute, University of Oxford.", "* Kissinger was a member of the following groups: Aspen Institute Atlantic Council Bilderberg Group Bohemian Club Council on Foreign Relations Center for Strategic and International Studies World.minds Bloomberg New Economy Forum* Kissinger served on the board of Theranos, a health technology company, from 2014 to 2017.", "* He received the Theodore Roosevelt American Experience Award from the Union League Club of New York in 2009.", "* He became the Honorary Chair of the advisory board for the Bloomberg New Economy Forum in 2018.", "* He also received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor.", "* In 2023, he received the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art from Minister-President of Bavaria Markus Söder.", "* He was an Honorary Member of Bayern Munich." ], [ "Notable works", "===Theses===* 1950.", "''The Meaning of History: Reflections on Spengler, Toynbee and Kant''.", "Bachelor's honors thesis.", "Harvard University.", "* 1957.", "''A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812–22''.", "PhD thesis, .===Memoirs===* 1979.", "''The White House Years''.", "(National Book Award, History hardcover)* 1982.", "''Years of Upheaval''.", "* 1999.", "''Years of Renewal''.", "===Public policy===* 1957.", "''Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy''.", "New York: Published for the Council on Foreign Relations by Harper & Brothers.", "Foreword by Gordon Dean (pp.", "vii–x).", "* 1961.", "''The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy''.", ".", "* 1965.", "''The Troubled Partnership: A Re-Appraisal of the Atlantic Alliance''.", "Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.", ".", "* 1969.", "''American Foreign Policy: Three Essays''.", ".", "* 1981.", "''For the Record: Selected Statements 1977–1980''.", ".", "* 1985.", "''Observations: Selected Speeches and Essays 1982–1984''.", "Boston: Little, Brown.", ".", "* 1994.''Diplomacy''.", ".", "* 1998.", "''Kissinger Transcripts: The Top Secret Talks With Beijing and Moscow'', edited by William Burr.", "New York: New Press.", ".", "* 2001.", "''Does America Need a Foreign Policy?", "Toward a Diplomacy for the 21st Century''.", ".", "* 2002.", "''Vietnam: A Personal History of America's Involvement in and Extrication from the Vietnam War''.", ".", "* 2003.", "''Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreign Policy Crises: Based on the Record of Henry Kissinger's Hitherto Secret Telephone Conversations''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster.", ".", "* 2011.", "''On China''.", "New York: Penguin Press.", ".", "* 2014.", "''World Order''.", "New York: Penguin Press.", ".===Other works===* 2021.", "''The Age of AI: And Our Human Future''.", "Boston: Little, Brown and Company.", ".", "* 2022.", "''Leadership: Six Studies in World Strategy''.", "Penguin Books Ltd. .=== Articles ===* 1994.", "\"Reflections on Containment,\" ''Foreign Affairs''* 1999.", "\"Between the Old Left and the New Right,\" ''Foreign Affairs''* 2001.", "\"The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction,\" ''Foreign Affairs''* 2012.", "\"The Future of U.S.-Chinese Relations,\" ''Foreign Affairs''* 2023.", "\"The Path to AI Arms Control,\" ''Foreign Affairs'' (co-authored with Graham Allison)" ], [ "See also", "* List of centenarians (politicians and civil servants)* List of foreign-born United States Cabinet members* List of Jewish Nobel laureates* List of secretaries of state of the United States" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited sources ===* * 2015.", "* * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "===Biographies=== 1973.Graubard, Stephen Richards.", "''Kissinger: Portrait of a Mind''.", ".", "* 1974.Kalb, Marvin L. and Kalb, Bernard.", "''Kissinger''.", ".", "* 1974.Schlafly, Phyllis, ''Kissinger on the Couch''.", "Arlington House Publishers.", "* 1983.Hersh, Seymour, ''The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House''.", "Summit Books.", ".", "(''Awards:'' National Book Critics Circle, General Non-Fiction Award.", "Best Book of the Year: ''New York Times Book Review''; ''Newsweek''; ''San Francisco Chronicle'')* 2004.Hanhimäki, Jussi.", "''The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy''.", ".", "* 2009.Kurz, Evi.", "''The Kissinger Saga: Walter and Henry Kissinger, Two Brothers from Fuerth, Germany''.", "London.", "Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", ".", "* 2020.Runciman, David, \"Don't be a Kerensky!\"", "(review of Barry Gewen, ''The Inevitability of Tragedy: Henry Kissinger and His World'', Norton, April 2020, , 452 pp.", "; and Thomas Schwartz, ''Henry Kissinger and American Power: A Political Biography'', Hill and Wang, September 2020, , 548 pp.", "), ''London Review of Books'', vol.", "42, no.", "23 (December 3, 2020), pp.", "13–16, 18.", "\"Kissinger was ... a political opportunist doing his best to keep one step ahead of the people determined to bring him down. ...", "Unelected, unaccountable, never really representing anyone but himself, he rose so high and resided so long in America's political consciousness because his shapeshifting allowed people to find in him what they wanted to find.\"", "(P. 18.", ")===Other===* * Avner, Yehuda, ''The Prime Ministers: An Intimate Narrative of Israeli Leadership'', 2010..* Bass, Gary.", "''The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide'', 2013..* Benedetti, Amedeo.", "''Lezioni di politica di Henry Kissinger: linguaggio, pensiero ed aforismi del più abile politico di fine Novecento'', Genova: Erga, 2005 .", ".", "* Berman, Larry, ''No peace, no honor: Nixon, Kissinger, and Betrayal in Vietnam'', New York: Free Press, 2001..* Dallek, Robert, ''Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power''.", "HarperCollins, 2007..* Gaddis, John Lewis.", "\"Rescuing Choice from Circumstance: The Statecraft of Henry Kissinger\".", "''The Diplomats, 1939–1979'' (Princeton UP, 1994) pp.", "564–592 .", "* Graebner, Norman A.", "\"Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy: A Contemporary Appraisal\" .", "''Conspectus of History'' 1.2 (1975).", "* Grandin, Greg, \"Kissinger Still at Large at 100\", ''The Nation'', vol.", "316, no.", "11 (May 29/June 5, 2023), pp. 16–19.", "\"We now know much more about Kissinger's crimes, the immense suffering he caused during his years in public office.\"", "(p. 19.", ")* Grandin, Greg, ''Kissinger's Shadow: The Long Reach of America's Most Controversial Statesman''.", "Metropolitan Books, 2015..* Groth, Alexander J, ''Henry Kissinger and the Limits of Realpolitik'', ''Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs'' 5#1 (2011)* Hanhimäki, Jussi M. Dr. Kissinger' or 'Mr.", "Henry'?", "Kissingerology, Thirty Years and Counting\".", "''Diplomatic History'' (November 2003), 27#5, pp. 637–676..", "Historiography.", "* Hanhimäki, Jussi.", "''The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy'' (Oxford University Press, 2004).", "* Hitchens, Christopher, ''The Trial of Henry Kissinger'', 2002..* Keys, Barbara, \"Henry Kissinger: The Emotional Statesman\", ''Diplomatic History'', 35#4, pp.", "587–609, .", "* Ki, Youn.", "\"Tweaking or Breaking of the International Order: Kissinger, Shultz, and Transatlantic Relations, 1971–1973\".", "''The Korean Journal of International Studies'' 19.1 (2021): 1–28..* Klitzing, Holger, ''The Nemesis of Stability: Henry A. Kissinger's Ambivalent Relationship with Germany''.", "Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier (WVT) 2007, .", "* Larson, Deborah Welch.", "\"Learning in US–Soviet Relations: The Nixon-Kissinger Structure of Peace\".", "in ''Learning in US and Soviet Foreign Policy'' (Routledge, 2019) pp. 350–399.", "* Lord, Winston, and Henry Kissinger.", "''Kissinger on Kissinger: Reflections on Diplomacy, Grand Strategy, and Leadership'' (All Points Books, 2019).", "* Mohan, Shannon E. Memorandum for Mr. Bundy': Henry Kissinger as Consultant to the Kennedy National Security Council\", ''Historian'', 71.2 (Summer 2009), 234–257..* Morris, Roger, ''Uncertain Greatness: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy''.", "Harper and Row (1977), .", "* Rabe, Stephen G. ''Kissinger and Latin America: Intervention, Human Rights, and Diplomacy'' (2020).", "* Qureshi, Lubna Z.", "''Nixon, Kissinger, and Allende: U.S. Involvement in the 1973 Coup in Chile''.", "Lexington Books, 2009..* Schulzinger, Robert D. ''Henry Kissinger: Doctor of Diplomacy''.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 1989..* Shawcross, William, ''Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon, and the Destruction of Cambodia'' (Revised edition October 2002) .", "* English translation (PDF).", "* Suri, Jeremi, ''Henry Kissinger and the American Century'' (Harvard, Belknap Press, 2007), .", "* Thornton, Richard C. ''The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping America's Foreign Policy'' (2001), ." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hydra (genus)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Hydra''''' ( ) is a genus of small freshwater hydrozoans of the phylum Cnidaria.", "They are native to the temperate and tropical regions.", "The genus was named by Linnaeus in 1758 after the Hydra, which was the many-headed beast of myth defeated by Heracles, as when the animal has a part severed, it will regenerate much like the mythical hydra’s heads.", "Biologists are especially interested in ''Hydra'' because of their regenerative ability; they do not appear to die of old age, or to age at all." ], [ "Morphology", "Schematic drawing of a discharging nematocyst''Hydra'' has a tubular, radially symmetric body up to long when extended, secured by a simple adhesive foot known as the basal disc.", "Gland cells in the basal disc secrete a sticky fluid that accounts for its adhesive properties.At the free end of the body is a mouth opening surrounded by one to twelve thin, mobile tentacles.", "Each tentacle, or cnida (plural: cnidae), is clothed with highly specialised stinging cells called cnidocytes.", "Cnidocytes contain specialized structures called nematocysts, which look like miniature light bulbs with a coiled thread inside.", "At the narrow outer edge of the cnidocyte is a short trigger hair called a cnidocil.", "Upon contact with prey, the contents of the nematocyst are explosively discharged, firing a dart-like thread containing neurotoxins into whatever triggered the release.", "This can paralyze the prey, especially if many hundreds of nematocysts are fired.", "''Hydra'' has two main body layers, which makes it \"diploblastic\".", "The layers are separated by mesoglea, a gel-like substance.", "The outer layer is the epidermis, and the inner layer is called the gastrodermis, because it lines the stomach.", "The cells making up these two body layers are relatively simple.", "Hydramacin is a bactericide recently discovered in ''Hydra''; it protects the outer layer against infection.", "A single ''Hydra'' is composed of 50,000 to 100,000 cells which consist of three specific stem cell populations that create many different cell types.", "These stem cells continually renew themselves in the body column''.''", "''Hydras'' have two significant structures on their body: the \"head\" and the \"foot\".", "When a ''Hydra'' is cut in half, each half regenerates and forms into a small ''Hydra''; the \"head\" regenerates a \"foot\" and the \"foot\" regenerates a \"head\".", "If the ''Hydra'' is sliced into many segments then the middle slices form both a \"head\" and a \"foot\".Respiration and excretion occur by diffusion throughout the surface of the epidermis, while larger excreta are discharged through the mouth." ], [ "Nervous system", "The nervous system of ''Hydra'' is a nerve net, which is structurally simple compared to more derived animal nervous systems.", "''Hydra'' does not have a recognizable brain or true muscles.", "Nerve nets connect sensory photoreceptors and touch-sensitive nerve cells located in the body wall and tentacles.The structure of the nerve net has two levels: level 1 – sensory cells or internal cells; andlevel 2 – interconnected ganglion cells synapsed to epithelial or motor cells.Some have only two sheets of neurons." ], [ "Motion and locomotion", "''Hydra'' attached to a substrateIf ''Hydra'' are alarmed or attacked, the tentacles can be retracted to small buds, and the body column itself can be retracted to a small gelatinous sphere.", "''Hydra'' generally react in the same way regardless of the direction of the stimulus, and this may be due to the simplicity of the nerve nets.", "''Hydra'' are generally sedentary or sessile, but do occasionally move quite readily, especially when hunting.", "They have two distinct methods for moving – 'looping' and 'somersaulting'.", "They do this by bending over and attaching themselves to the substrate with the mouth and tentacles and then relocate the foot, which provides the usual attachment, this process is called looping.", "In somersaulting, the body then bends over and makes a new place of attachment with the foot.", "By this process of \"looping\" or \"somersaulting\", a ''Hydra'' can move several inches (c. 100 mm) in a day.", "''Hydra'' may also move by amoeboid motion of their bases or by detaching from the substrate and floating away in the current." ], [ "Reproduction and life cycle", "''Hydra'' ''budding'': Most hydra species do not have any gender system.", "Instead, when food is plentiful, many ''Hydra'' reproduce asexually by budding.", "The buds form from the body wall, grow into miniature adults and break away when mature.When a hydra is well fed, a new bud can form every two days.", "When conditions are harsh, often before winter or in poor feeding conditions, sexual reproduction occurs in some ''Hydra''.", "Swellings in the body wall develop into either ovaries or testes.", "The testes release free-swimming gametes into the water, and these can fertilize the egg in the ovary of another individual.", "The fertilized eggs secrete a tough outer coating, and, as the adult dies (due to starvation or cold), these resting eggs fall to the bottom of the lake or pond to await better conditions, whereupon they hatch into nymph ''Hydra''.", "Some ''Hydra'' species, like ''Hydra circumcincta'' and ''Hydra viridissima'', are hermaphrodites and may produce both testes and ovaries at the same time.Many members of the Hydrozoa go through a body change from a polyp to an adult form called a medusa, which is usually the life stage where sexual reproduction occurs, but ''Hydra'' do not progress beyond the polyp phase." ], [ "Feeding", "''Hydra'' mainly feed on aquatic invertebrates such as ''Daphnia'' and ''Cyclops''.While feeding, ''Hydra'' extend their body to maximum length and then slowly extend their tentacles.", "Despite their simple construction, the tentacles of ''Hydra'' are extraordinarily extensible and can be four to five times the length of the body.", "Once fully extended, the tentacles are slowly maneuvered around waiting for contact with a suitable prey animal.", "Upon contact, nematocysts on the tentacle fire into the prey, and the tentacle itself coils around the prey.", "Most of the tentacles join in the attack within 30 seconds to subdue the struggling prey.", "Within two minutes, the tentacles surround the prey and move it into the open mouth aperture.", "Within ten minutes, the prey is engulfed within the body cavity, and digestion commences.", "''Hydra'' can stretch their body wall considerably.The feeding behaviour of ''Hydra'' demonstrates the sophistication of what appears to be a simple nervous system.Some species of ''Hydra'' exist in a mutual relationship with various types of unicellular algae.", "The algae are protected from predators by ''Hydra''; in return, photosynthetic products from the algae are beneficial as a food source to ''Hydra'''','' and even help to maintain the ''Hydra'' microbiome.===Measuring the feeding response===Reduction of glutathione causes reduction in the tentacle spread in hydra.The feeding response in ''Hydra'' is induced by glutathione (specifically in the reduced state as GSH) released from damaged tissue of injured prey.", "There are several methods conventionally used for quantification of the feeding response.", "In some, the duration for which the mouth remains open is measured.", "Other methods rely on counting the number of ''Hydra'' among a small population showing the feeding response after addition of glutathione.", "Recently, an assay for measuring the feeding response in hydra has been developed.", "In this method, the linear two-dimensional distance between the tip of the tentacle and the mouth of hydra was shown to be a direct measure of the extent of the feeding response.", "This method has been validated using a starvation model, as starvation is known to cause enhancement of the ''Hydra'' feeding response." ], [ "Predators", "The species ''Hydra oligactis'' is preyed upon by the flatworm ''Microstomum lineare''." ], [ "Tissue regeneration", "''Hydras'' undergo morphallaxis (tissue regeneration) when injured or severed.", "Typically, ''Hydras'' reproduce by just budding off a whole new individual; the bud occurs around two-thirds of the way down the body axis.", "When a ''Hydra'' is cut in half, each half regenerates and forms into a small ''Hydra''; the \"head\" regenerates a \"foot\" and the \"foot\" regenerates a \"head\".", "This regeneration occurs without cell division.", "If the ''Hydra'' is sliced into many segments, the middle slices form both a \"head\" and a \"foot\".", "The polarity of the regeneration is explained by two pairs of positional value gradients.", "There is both a head and foot activation and inhibition gradient.", "The head activation and inhibition works in an opposite direction of the pair of foot gradients.", "The evidence for these gradients was shown in the early 1900s with grafting experiments.", "The inhibitors for both gradients have shown to be important to block the bud formation.", "The location where the bud forms is where the gradients are low for both the head and foot.", "''Hydras'' are capable of regenerating from pieces of tissue from the body and additionally after tissue dissociation from reaggregates.", "This process takes place not only in the pieces of tissue excised from the body column, but also from re-aggregates of dissociated single cells.", "It was found that in these aggregates, cells initially distributed randomly undergo sorting and form two epithelial cell layers, in which the endodermal epithelial cells play more active roles in the process.", "Active mobility of these endodermal epithelial cells forms two layers in both the re-aggregate and the re-generating tip of the excised tissue.", "As these two layers are established, a patterning process takes place to form heads and feet." ], [ "Non-senescence", "Daniel Martinez claimed in a 1998 article in ''Experimental Gerontology'' that ''Hydra'' are biologically immortal.", "This publication has been widely cited as evidence that ''Hydra'' do not senesce (do not age), and that they are proof of the existence of non-senescing organisms generally.", "In 2010, Preston Estep published (also in ''Experimental Gerontology'') a letter to the editor arguing that the Martinez data refutes the hypothesis that ''Hydra'' do not senesce.The controversial unlimited lifespan of ''Hydra'' has attracted much attention from scientists.", "Research today appears to confirm Martinez' study.", "''Hydra'' stem cells have a capacity for indefinite self-renewal.", "The transcription factor \"forkhead box O\" (FoxO) has been identified as a critical driver of the continuous self-renewal of ''Hydra''.", "In experiments, a drastically reduced population growth resulted from FoxO down-regulation.In bilaterally symmetrical organisms (Bilateria), the transcription factor FoxO affects stress response, lifespan, and increase in stem cells.", "If this transcription factor is knocked down in bilaterian model organisms, such as fruit flies and nematodes, their lifespan is significantly decreased.", "In experiments on ''H.", "vulgaris'' (a radially symmetrical member of phylum Cnidaria), when FoxO levels were decreased, there was a negative effect on many key features of the ''Hydra'', but no death was observed, thus it is believed other factors may contribute to the apparent lack of aging in these creatures." ], [ "DNA repair", "Hydra are capable of two types of DNA repair: nucleotide excision repair and base excision repair.", "These repair pathways facilitate DNA replication by removing DNA damages.", "The identification of these pathways in hydra was based, in part, on the presence in the hydra genome of genes homologous to genes in other genetically well studied species that have been demonstrated to play key roles in these DNA repair pathways." ], [ "Genomics", "An ortholog comparison analysis done within the last decade demonstrated that ''Hydra'' share a minimum of 6,071 genes with humans.", "''Hydra'' is becoming an increasingly better model system as more genetic approaches become available.", "Transgenic hydra have become attractive model organisms to study the evolution of immunity.", "A draft of the genome of ''Hydra magnipapillata'' was reported in 2010.The genomes of cnidarians are usually less than 500 MB in size, as in the ''Hydra viridissima'', which has a genome size of approximately 300 MB.", "In contrast, the genomes of brown hydras are approximately 1 GB in size.", "This is because the brown hydra genome is the result of an expansion event involving LINEs, a type of transposable elements, in particular, a single family of the CR1 class.", "This expansion is unique to this subgroup of the genus ''Hydra'' and is absent in the green hydra, which has a repeating landscape similar to other cnidarians.", "These genome characteristics make ''Hydra'' attractive for studies of transposon-driven speciations and genome expansions.Due to the simplicity of their life cycle when compared to other hydrozoans, hydras have lost many genes that correspond to cell types or metabolic pathways of which the ancestral function is still unknown.Hydra genome shows a preference towards proximal promoters.", "Thanks to this feature, many reporter cell lines have been created with regions around 500 to 2000 bases upstream of the gene of interest.", "Its cis-regulatory elements (CRE) are mostly located less than 2000 base pairs upstream from the closest transcription initiation site, but there are CREs located further away.", "Its chromatin has a Rabl configuration.", "There are interactions between the centromeres of different chromosomes and the centromeres and telomeres of the same chromosome.", "It presents a great number of intercentromeric interactions when compared to other cnidarians, probably due to the loss of multiple subunits of condensin II.", "It is organized in domains that span dozens to hundreds of megabases, containing epigenetically co-regulated genes and flanked by boundaries located within heterochromatin." ], [ "Transcriptomics", "Different Hydra cell types express gene families of different evolutionary ages.", "Progenitor cells (stem cells, neuron and nematocyst precursors, and germ cells) express genes from families that predate metazoans.", "Among differentiated cells some express genes from families that date from the base of metazoans, like gland and neuronal cells, and others express genes from newer families, originating from the base of cnidaria or medusozoa, like nematocysts.", "Interstitial cells contain translation factors with a function that has been conserved for at least 400 million years." ], [ "See also", "* Lernaean Hydra, a Greek mythological aquatic creature after which the genus is named* ''Turritopsis dohrnii'', another cnidarian (a jellyfish) that scientists believe to be immortal" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hydrus''' is a small constellation in the deep southern sky.", "It was one of twelve constellations created by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman and it first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in late 1597 (or early 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius.", "The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted the brighter stars and gave their Bayer designations in 1756.Its name means \"male water snake\", as opposed to Hydra, a much larger constellation that represents a female water snake.", "It remains below the horizon for most Northern Hemisphere observers.The brightest star is the 2.8-magnitude Beta Hydri, also the closest reasonably bright star to the south celestial pole.", "Pulsating between magnitude 3.26 and 3.33, Gamma Hydri is a variable red giant 60 times the diameter of the Sun.", "Lying near it is VW Hydri, one of the brightest dwarf novae in the heavens.", "Four star systems in Hydrus have been found to have exoplanets to date, including HD 10180, which could bear up to nine planetary companions." ], [ "History", "Hydrus (lower right) in an extract from Johann Bayer's ''Uranometria'', its first appearance in a celestial atlas.Hydrus was one of the twelve constellations established by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius from the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the ''Eerste Schipvaart'', to the East Indies.", "It first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in late 1597 (or early 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius.", "The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in the German cartographer Johann Bayer's ''Uranometria'' of 1603.De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name ''De Waterslang'', \"The Water Snake\", it representing a type of snake encountered on the expedition rather than a mythical creature.", "The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille called it ''l’Hydre Mâle'' on the 1756 version of his planisphere of the southern skies, distinguishing it from the feminine Hydra.", "The French name was retained by Jean Fortin in 1776 for his ''Atlas Céleste'', while Lacaille Latinised the name to Hydrus for his revised ''Coelum Australe Stelliferum'' in 1763." ], [ "Characteristics", "Irregular in shape, Hydrus is bordered by Mensa to the southeast, Eridanus to the east, Horologium and Reticulum to the northeast, Phoenix to the north, Tucana to the northwest and west, and Octans to the south; Lacaille had shortened Hydrus' tail to make space for this last constellation he had drawn up.", "Covering 243 square degrees and 0.589% of the night sky, it ranks 61st of the 88 constellations in size.", "The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"Hyi\".", "The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 12 segments.", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −57.85° and −82.06°.", "As one of the deep southern constellations, it remains below the horizon at latitudes north of the 30th parallel in the Northern Hemisphere, and is circumpolar at latitudes south of the 50th parallel in the Southern Hemisphere.", "Herman Melville mentions it and Argo Navis in ''Moby Dick'' \"beneath effulgent Antarctic Skies\", highlighting his knowledge of the southern constellations from whaling voyages.", "A line drawn between the long axis of the Southern Cross to Beta Hydri and then extended 4.5 times will mark a point due south.", "Hydrus culminates at midnight around 26 October." ], [ "Features", "The constellation Hydrus as it can be seen by the naked eye===Stars===Keyzer and de Houtman assigned fifteen stars to the constellation in their Malay and Madagascan vocabulary, with a star that would be later designated as Alpha Hydri marking the head, Gamma the chest and a number of stars that were later allocated to Tucana, Reticulum, Mensa and Horologium marking the body and tail.", "Lacaille charted and designated 20 stars with the Bayer designations Alpha through to Tau in 1756.Of these, he used the designations Eta, Pi and Tau twice each, for three sets of two stars close together, and omitted Omicron and Xi.", "He assigned Rho to a star that subsequent astronomers were unable to find.Beta Hydri, the brightest star in Hydrus, is a yellow star of apparent magnitude 2.8, lying 24 light-years from Earth.", "It has about 104% of the mass of the Sun and 181% of the Sun's radius, with more than three times the Sun's luminosity.", "The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of G2 IV, with the luminosity class of 'IV' indicating this is a subgiant star.", "As such, it is a slightly more evolved star than the Sun, with the supply of hydrogen fuel at its core becoming exhausted.", "It is the nearest subgiant star to the Sun and one of the oldest stars in the solar neighbourhood.", "Thought to be between 6.4 and 7.1 billion years old, this star bears some resemblance to what the Sun may look like in the far distant future, making it an object of interest to astronomers.", "It is also the closest bright star to the south celestial pole.Located at the northern edge of the constellation and just southwest of Achernar is Alpha Hydri, a white sub-giant star of magnitude 2.9, situated 72 light-years from Earth.", "Of spectral type F0IV, it is beginning to cool and enlarge as it uses up its supply of hydrogen.", "It is twice as massive and 3.3 times as wide as the Sun and 26 times more luminous.", "A line drawn between Alpha Hydri and Beta Centauri is bisected by the south celestial pole.In the southeastern corner of the constellation is Gamma Hydri, a red giant of spectral type M2III located 214 light-years from Earth.", "It is a semi-regular variable star, pulsating between magnitudes 3.26 and 3.33.Observations over five years were not able to establish its periodicity.", "It is around 1.5 to 2 times as massive as the Sun, and has expanded to about 60 times the Sun's diameter.", "It shines with about 655 times the luminosity of the Sun.", "Located 3° northeast of Gamma is the VW Hydri, a dwarf nova of the SU Ursae Majoris type.", "It is a close binary system that consists of a white dwarf and another star, the former drawing off matter from the latter into a bright accretion disk.", "These systems are characterised by frequent eruptions and less frequent supereruptions.", "The former are smooth, while the latter exhibit short \"superhumps\" of heightened activity.", "One of the brightest dwarf novae in the sky, it has a baseline magnitude of 14.4 and can brighten to magnitude 8.4 during peak activity.", "BL Hydri is another close binary system composed of a low-mass star and a strongly magnetic white dwarf.", "Known as a polar or AM Herculis variable, these produce polarized optical and infrared emissions and intense soft and hard X-ray emissions to the frequency of the white dwarf's rotation period—in this case 113.6 minutes.There are two notable optical double stars in Hydrus.", "Pi Hydri, composed of Pi1 Hydri and Pi2 Hydri, is divisible in binoculars.", "Around 476 light-years distant, Pi1 is a red giant of spectral type M1III that varies between magnitudes 5.52 and 5.58.Pi2 is an orange giant of spectral type K2III and shining with a magnitude of 5.7, around 488 light-years from Earth.Eta Hydri is the other optical double, composed of Eta1 and Eta2.Eta1 is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B9V that was suspected of being variable, and is located just over 700 light-years away.", "Eta2 has a magnitude of 4.7 and is a yellow giant star of spectral type G8.5III around 218 light-years distant, which has evolved off the main sequence and is expanding and cooling on its way to becoming a red giant.", "Calculations of its mass indicate it was most likely a white A-type main sequence star for most of its existence, around twice the mass of the Sun.", "A planet, Eta2 Hydri b, greater than 6.5 times the mass of Jupiter was discovered in 2005, orbiting around Eta2 every 711 days at a distance of 1.93 astronomical units (AU).Three other systems have been found to have planets, most notably the Sun-like star HD 10180, which has seven planets, plus possibly an additional two for a total of nine—as of 2012 more than any other system to date, including the Solar System.", "Lying around from the Earth, it has an apparent magnitude of 7.33.GJ 3021 is a solar twin—a star very like the Sun—around 57 light-years distant with a spectral type G8V and magnitude of 6.7.It has a Jovian planet companion (GJ 3021 b).", "Orbiting about 0.5 AU from its star, it has a minimum mass 3.37 times that of Jupiter and a period of around 133 days.", "The system is a complex one as the faint star GJ 3021B orbits at a distance of 68 AU; it is a red dwarf of spectral type M4V.HD 20003 is a star of magnitude 8.37.It is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G8V a little cooler and smaller than the Sun around 143 light-years away.", "It has two planets that are around 12 and 13.5 times as massive as the Earth with periods of just under 12 and 34 days respectively.===Deep-sky objects===Hydrus contains only faint deep-sky objects.", "IC 1717 was a deep-sky object discovered by the Danish astronomer John Louis Emil Dreyer in the late 19th century.", "The object at the coordinate Dreyer observed is no longer there, and is now a mystery.", "It was very likely to have been a faint comet.", "PGC 6240, known as the White Rose Galaxy, is a giant spiral galaxy surrounded by shells resembling rose petals, located around 345 million light years from the Solar System.", "Unusually, it has cohorts of globular clusters of three distinct ages suggesting bouts of post-starburst formation following a merger with another galaxy.", "The constellation also contains a spiral galaxy, NGC 1511, which lies edge on to observers on Earth and is readily viewed in amateur telescopes.Located mostly in Dorado, the Large Magellanic Cloud extends into Hydrus.", "The globular cluster NGC 1466 is an outlying component of the galaxy, and contains many RR Lyrae-type variable stars.", "It has a magnitude of 11.59 and is thought to be over 12 billion years old.", "Two stars, HD 24188 of magnitude 6.3 and HD 24115 of magnitude 9.0, lie nearby in its foreground.", "NGC 602 is composed of an emission nebula and a young, bright open cluster of stars that is an outlying component on the eastern edge of the Small Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy to the Milky Way.", "Most of the cloud is located in the neighbouring constellation Tucana." ], [ "See also", "* Hydrus (Chinese astronomy)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Chandra information about Hydrus* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Hydrus* The clickable Hydrus" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hercules" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hercules''' (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena.", "In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.The Romans adapted the Greek hero's iconography and myths for their literature and art under the name ''Hercules''.", "In later Western art and literature and in popular culture, ''Hercules'' is more commonly used than ''Heracles'' as the name of the hero.", "Hercules is a multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him.", "This article provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in the later tradition." ], [ "Mythology", "===Birth and early life===In Roman mythology, although Hercules was seen as the champion of the weak and a great protector, his personal problems started at birth.", "Juno sent two witches to prevent the birth, but they were tricked by one of Alcmene's servants and sent to another room.", "Juno then sent serpents to kill him in his cradle, but Hercules strangled them both.", "In one version of the myth, Alcmene abandoned her baby in the woods in order to protect him from Juno's wrath, but he was found by the goddess Minerva who brought him to Juno, claiming he was an orphan child left in the woods who needed nourishment.", "Juno suckled Hercules at her own breast until the infant bit her nipple, at which point she pushed him away, spilling her milk across the night sky and so forming the Milky Way.", "She then gave the infant back to Minerva and told her to take care of the baby herself.", "In feeding the child from her own breast, the goddess inadvertently imbued him with further strength and power.===Death===" ], [ "Roman era", "Baby Hercules strangling a snake sent to kill him in his cradle (Roman marble, 2nd century CE, in the Capitoline Museums of Rome, Italy).The Latin name ''Hercules'' was borrowed through Etruscan, where it is represented variously as Heracle, Hercle, and other forms.", "Hercules was a favorite subject for Etruscan art, and appears often on bronze mirrors.", "The Etruscan form ''Herceler'' derives from the Greek ''Heracles'' via syncope.", "A mild oath invoking Hercules (''Hercule!''", "or ''Mehercle!'')", "was a common interjection in Classical Latin.Hercules had a number of myths that were distinctly Roman.", "One of these is Hercules' defeat of Cacus, who was terrorizing the countryside of Rome.", "The hero was associated with the Aventine Hill through his son Aventinus.", "Mark Antony considered him a personal patron god, as did the emperor Commodus.", "Hercules received various forms of religious veneration, including as a deity concerned with children and childbirth, in part because of myths about his precocious infancy, and in part because he fathered countless children.", "Roman brides wore a special belt tied with the \"knot of Hercules\", which was supposed to be hard to untie.", "The comic playwright Plautus presents the myth of Hercules' conception as a sex comedy in his play ''Amphitryon''; Seneca wrote the tragedy ''Hercules Furens'' about his bout with madness.", "During the Roman Imperial era, Hercules was worshipped locally from Hispania through Gaul.===Germanic association===A fresco from Herculaneum depicting Heracles and Achelous from Greco-Roman mythology, 1st century CE.Tacitus records a special affinity of the Germanic peoples for Hercules.", "In chapter 3 of his ''Germania'', Tacitus states:Some have taken this as Tacitus equating the Germanic ''Þunraz'' with Hercules by way of ''interpretatio romana''.In the Roman era Hercules' Club amulets appear from the 2nd to 3rd century, distributed over the empire (including Roman Britain, cf.", "Cool 1986), mostly made of gold, shaped like wooden clubs.", "A specimen found in Köln-Nippes bears the inscription \"DEO HERculi\", confirming the association with Hercules.In the 5th to 7th centuries, during the Migration Period, the amulet is theorized to have rapidly spread from the Elbe Germanic area across Europe.", "These Germanic \"Donar's Clubs\" were made from deer antler, bone or wood, more rarely also from bronze or precious metals.", "The amulet type is replaced by the Viking Age Thor's hammer pendants in the course of the Christianization of Scandinavia from the 8th to 9th century." ], [ "Medieval mythography", "Hercules and the Nemean lion in the 15th-century ''Histoires de Troyes''After the Roman Empire became Christianized, mythological narratives were often reinterpreted as allegory, influenced by the philosophy of late antiquity.", "In the 4th century, Servius had described Hercules' return from the underworld as representing his ability to overcome earthly desires and vices, or the earth itself as a consumer of bodies.", "In medieval mythography, Hercules was one of the heroes seen as a strong role model who demonstrated both valor and wisdom, while the monsters he battles were regarded as moral obstacles.", "One glossator noted that when Hercules became a constellation, he showed that strength was necessary to gain entrance to Heaven.Medieval mythography was written almost entirely in Latin, and original Greek texts were little used as sources for Hercules' myths." ], [ "Renaissance mythography", "King Henry IV of France depicted as Hercules vanquishing the Lernaean Hydra (i.e.", "the Catholic League), by Toussaint Dubreuil, The Renaissance and the invention of the printing press brought a renewed interest in and publication of Greek literature.", "Renaissance mythography drew more extensively on the Greek tradition of Heracles, typically under the Romanized name Hercules, or the alternate name Alcides.", "In a chapter of his book ''Mythologiae'' (1567), the influential mythographer Natale Conti collected and summarized an extensive range of myths concerning the birth, adventures, and death of the hero under his Roman name Hercules.", "Conti begins his lengthy chapter on Hercules with an overview description that continues the moralizing impulse of the Middle Ages:Hercules, who subdued and destroyed monsters, bandits, and criminals, was justly famous and renowned for his great courage.", "His great and glorious reputation was worldwide, and so firmly entrenched that he'll always be remembered.", "In fact the ancients honored him with his own temples, altars, ceremonies, and priests.", "But it was his wisdom and great soul that earned those honors; noble blood, physical strength, and political power just aren't good enough.In 1600, the citizens of Avignon bestowed on Henry of Navarre (the future King Henry IV of France) the title of the ''Hercule Gaulois'' (\"Gallic Hercules\"), justifying the extravagant flattery with a genealogy that traced the origin of the House of Navarre to a nephew of Hercules' son Hispalus." ], [ "Worship", "=== Road of Hercules ===The Road of Hercules is a route across Southern Gaul that is associated with the path Hercules took during his 10th labor of retrieving the Cattle of Geryon from the Red Isles.", "Hannibal took the same path on his march towards Italy and encouraged the belief that he was the second Hercules.", "Primary sources often make comparisons between Hercules and Hannibal.", "Hannibal further tried to invoke parallels between himself and Hercules by starting his march on Italy by visiting the shrine of Hercules at Gades.", "While crossing the alps, he performed labors in a heroic manner.", "A famous example was noted by Livy, when Hannibal fractured the side of a cliff that was blocking his march.=== Worship from women ===In ancient Roman society women were usually limited to two types of cults: those that addressed feminine matters such as childbirth, and cults that required virginal chastity.", "However, there is evidence suggesting there were female worshippers of Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Hercules.", "Some scholars believe that women were completely prohibited from any of Hercules's cults.", "Others believe it was only the \"Ara Maxima\" at which they were not allowed to worship.", "Macrobius in his first book of ''Saturnalia'' paraphrases from Varro: \"For when Hercules was bringing the cattle of Geryon through Italy, a woman replied to the thirsty hero that she could not give him water because it was the day of the Goddess Women and it was unlawful for a man to taste what had been prepared for her.", "Hercules, therefore, when he was about to offer a sacrifice forbid the presence of women and ordered Potitius and Pinarius who were in charge of his rites, not to allow any women from taking part\".", "Macrobius states that women were restricted in their participation in Hercules cults, but to what extent remains ambiguous.", "He mentions that women were not allowed to participate in Sacrum which is general term used to describe anything that was believed to have belonged to the gods.", "This could include anything from a precious item to a temple.", "Due to the general nature of a Sacrum, we can not judge the extent of the prohibition from Macrobius alone.", "There are also ancient writings on this topic from Aulus Gellius when speaking on how Romans swore oaths.", "He mentioned that Roman women do not swear on Hercules, nor do Roman men swear on Castor.", "He went on to say that women refrain from sacrificing to Hercules.", "Propertius in his poem 4.9 also mentions similar information as Macrobius.", "This is evidence that he was also using Varro as a source.=== Worship in myth ===There is evidence of Hercules worship in myth in the Latin epic poem, the ''Aeneid''.", "In the 8th book of the poem Aeneas finally reaches the future site of Rome, where he meets Evander and the Arcadians making sacrifices to Hercules on the banks of the Tiber river.", "They share a feast, and Evander tells the story of how Hercules defeated the monster Cascus, and describes him as a triumphant hero.", "Translated from the Latin text of Vergil, Evander stated: \"Time brought to us in our time of need the aid and arrival of a god.", "For there came that mightiest avenger, the victor Hercules, proud with the slaughter and the spoils of threefold Geryon, and he drove the mighty bulls here, and the cattle filled both valley and riverside.Hercules was also mentioned in the Fables of Gaius Julius Hyginus.", "For example, in his fable about Philoctetes he tells the story of how Philoctetes built a funeral pyre for Hercules so his body could be consumed and raised to immortality.=== Hercules and the Roman triumph===According to Livy (9.44.16) Romans were commemorating military victories by building statues to Hercules as early as 305 BCE.", "Also, philosopher Pliny the Elder dates Hercules worship back to the time of Evander, by accrediting him with erecting a statue in the Forum Boarium of Hercules.", "Scholars agree that there would have been 5–7 temples in Augustan Rome.", "There are believed to be related Republican ''triumphatores,'' however, not necessarily triumphal dedications.", "There are two temples located in the Campus Martius.", "One, being the Temple of Hercules Musarum, dedicated between 187 and 179 BCE by M. Fulvius Nobilior.", "And the other being the Temple of Hercules Custos, likely renovated by Sulla in the 80s BCE.===In art===In Roman works of art and in Renaissance and post-Renaissance art, Hercules can be identified by his attributes, the lion skin and the gnarled club (his favorite weapon); in mosaic he is shown tanned bronze, a virile aspect.In the twentieth century, the ''Farnese Hercules'' has inspired artists such as Jeff Koons, Matthew Darbyshire and Robert Mapplethorpe to reinterpret Hercules for new audiences.", "The choice of deliberately white materials by Koons and Darbyshire has been interpreted as perpetuation of colourism in how the classical world is viewed.", "Mapplethorpe's work with black model Derrick Cross can be seen as a reaction to Neo-classical colourism, resisting the portrayal of Hercules as white.===Roman era===File:Heracles Pio-Clementino Inv252.jpg\|''Hercules of the Forum Boarium'' (Hellenistic, 2nd century BCE)File:Affresco romano eracle ebbro e onfale.JPG\|Hercules drunk and Omphale.", "Fresco from House of the Prince of Montenegro, Pompeii, 25–35 CEFile:Hercules Nessus MAN Napoli Inv9001.jpg\|Hercules carrying his son Hyllus looks at the centaur Nessus, who is about to carry Deianira across the river on his back.", "Fresco from Pompeii, 30–45 CEFile:Herculaneum Collegio degli Augustali Ercole sull'Olimpo.jpg\|Hercules in Olympus with Juno and Minerva, fresco from Herculaneum, 1st century CEFile:Hercules and Iolaus mosaic - Anzio Nymphaeum.jpg\|Hercules and Iolaus (1st century CE mosaic from the Anzio Nymphaeum, Rome)File:Hercules Hatra Iraq Parthian period 1st 2nd century CE.jpg\|Hercules (Hatra, Iraq, Parthian period, 1st–2nd century CE)File:Muze 001.jpg\|Hercules bronze statuette, 2nd century CE (museum of Alanya, Turkey)File:Missorium Herakles lion Cdm Paris 56-345 n3.jpg\|Hercules and the Nemean Lion (detail), silver plate, 6th century (Cabinet des Médailles, Paris)File:Affresco romano - eracle ed onfale - area vesuviana.JPG\|Heracles and Omphale, Roman fresco, Pompeian Fourth Style (45–79 CE), Naples National Archaeological Museum, ItalyFile:Tesoro di hildesheim, argento, I sec ac-I dc ca., piatto da parata con ercole bambino e i serpenti 01.JPG\|A Roman gilded silver bowl depicting the boy Hercules strangling two serpents, from the Hildesheim Treasure, 1st century CE, Altes MuseumFile:Head from statue of Herakles (Hercules) Roman 117-188 CE from villa of the emperor Hadrian at Tivoli, Italy BM 2.jpg\|Head from statue of Herakles (Hercules) Roman 117–188 CE from villa of the emperor Hadrian at Tivoli, Italy at the British MuseumFile:Herakles with the Apples of the Hesperides Roman 1st century CE from a temple at Byblos Lebanon BM.jpg\|Hercules (Herakles) with the Apples of the Hesperides Roman 1st century CE from a temple at Byblos, Lebanon at the British MuseumFile:Hercules from Cappadocia or Caesarea 1st century BCE - 1st century CE Walters Art Museum.jpg\|Hercules from Cappadocia or Caesarea 1st century BCE – 1st century CE, Walters Art MuseumFile:Hercules slaying the Hydra Roman copy of 4th century BCE original by Lysippos Capitoline Museum.jpg\|Hercules slaying the Hydra Roman copy of 4th century BCE original by Lysippos, Capitoline MuseumFile:Hercules Roman 1st century BCE - 1st century CE Walters Art Museum.jpg\|Hercules Roman 1st century BCE – 1st century CE, Walters Art MuseumFile:Herakles and Telephos Louvre MR219.jpg\|Herakles and Telephos Louvre MR219File:Ercole seduto (epitrapezios), 50 ac-50 dc ca., con braccia, clava e gambe sotto il ginocchio di restauro 02.JPG\|Hercules, 50 BCE – 50 CE, MAN Florence===Modern era===File:Hendrik Goltzius, The Great Hercules, 1589, NGA 70311.jpg\|''The Giant Hercules'' (1589) by Hendrik GoltziusFile:Lucas Faydherbe, Buste van Hercules - Buste d'Hercule, KBS-FRB.jpg\|Lucas Faydherbe, Bust of Hercules – collection King Baudouin FoundationFile:Peter Paul Rubens cat01.jpg\|''The Drunken Hercules'' (1612–1614) by RubensFile:HerculeDejanire.jpg\|''Hercules and Deianira'' (18th century copy of a lost original), from I ModiFile:Brooklyn Museum - Les Écuries d'Augias - Honoré Daumier.jpg\|Hercules in the Augean stable (1842, Honoré Daumier)File:Hercules Comic Cover.JPG\|Comic book cover ()File:Bartholomäus Spranger - Hercules, Deianira and the Centaur Nessus - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Hercules, Deianira and the Centaur Nessus'', by Bartholomäus Spranger, 1580–1582File:Henry IV en Herculeus terrassant l Hydre de Lerne cad La ligue Catholique Atelier Toussaint Dubreuil circa 1600.jpg\|Henry IV of France, as Hercules vanquishing the Lernaean Hydra (i.e.", "the Catholic League), by Toussaint Dubreuil, .", "Louvre MuseumFile:Herakles pyre Coustou Louvre MR1809.jpg\|Hercules on the Pyre by Guillaume Coustou The Elder, 1704, Louvre MR1809===In numismatics===Hercules was among the earliest figures on ancient Roman coinage, and has been the main motif of many collector coins and medals since.", "One example is the Austrian 20 euro Baroque Silver coin issued on September 11, 2002.The obverse side of the coin shows the Grand Staircase in the town palace of Prince Eugene of Savoy in Vienna, currently the Austrian Ministry of Finance.", "Gods and demi-gods hold its flights, while Hercules stands at the turn of the stairs.File:Æ Triens 2710028.jpg\|Juno, with Hercules fighting a Centaur on reverse (Roman, 215–15 BCE)File:Denarius Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus 1 Obverse.jpg\|Club over his shoulder on a Roman denarius ()File:MAXIMINUS II-RIC VI 77-251201.jpg\|Maximinus II and Hercules with club and lionskin (Roman, 313 CE)File:5 French francs Hercule de Dupré 1996 F346-2 obverse.jpg\|Commemorative 5-franc piece (1996), Hercules in centerFile:Caracalla Denarius Hercules RIC192.jpg\|Hercules, as seen on a Denarius of the Roman Emperor Caracalla.", "Dated 212 CE===Military===Six successive ships of the British Royal Navy, from the 18th to the 20th century, bore the name HMS ''Hercules''.In the French Navy, there were no less than nineteen ships called ''Hercule'', plus three more named ''Alcide'' which is another name of the same hero.Hercules' name was also used for five ships of the US Navy, four ships of the Spanish Navy, four of the Argentine Navy and two of the Swedish Navy, as well as for numerous civilian sailing and steam ships.In modern aviation a military transport aircraft produced by Lockheed Martin carries the title Lockheed C-130 Hercules.Operation Herkules was the German code-name given to an abortive plan for the invasion of Malta during the Second World War.===Other cultural references===File:PillarsHerculesPeutingeriana.jpg\|Pillars of Hercules, representing the Strait of Gibraltar (19th-century conjecture of the ''Tabula Peutingeriana'')File:Maczuga Herkulesa (background Castle Pieskowa Skała).jpg\|''The Cudgel of Hercules'', a tall limestone rock formation, with Pieskowa Skała Castle in the backgroundFile:Royal Coat of Arms of Greece.svg\|Hercules as heraldic supporters in the royal arms of Greece, in use 1863–1973.The phrase \"Ηρακλείς του στέμματος\" (\"Defenders of the Crown\") has pejorative connotations (\"chief henchmen\") in Greek.===In films===A series of nineteen Italian Hercules movies were made in the late 1950s and early 1960s.", "The actors who played Hercules in these films were Steve Reeves, Gordon Scott, Kirk Morris, Mickey Hargitay, Mark Forest, Alan Steel, Dan Vadis, Brad Harris, Reg Park, Peter Lupus (billed as Rock Stevens) and Michael Lane.", "A number of English-dubbed Italian films that featured the name of Hercules in their title were not intended to be movies about Hercules." ], [ "See also", "* List of films featuring Hercules* Hercules (comics)* Hercules (constellation)* Hercules in popular culture of the 20th and 21st centuries* Sword-and-sandal* ''Hercules: The Legendary Journeys''* Strength (Tarot card)* Samson* Gilgamesh* Melqart* Cú Chulainn* Demigod" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Sources* Charlotte Coffin.", "\"Hercules\" in Peyré, Yves (ed.)", "''A Dictionary of Shakespeare's Classical Mythology'' (2009)* Bertematti, Richard (2014).", "\"The Heracliad: The Epic Saga of Hercules\" (Tridium Press)." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Poland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of Poland''' spans over a thousand years, from medieval tribes, Christianization and monarchy; through Poland's Golden Age, expansionism and becoming one of the largest European powers; to its collapse and partitions, two world wars, communism, and the restoration of democracy.The roots of Polish history can be traced to ancient times, when the territory of present-day Poland was settled by various tribes including Celts, Scythians, Germanic clans, Sarmatians, Slavs and Balts.", "However, it was the West Slavic Lechites, the closest ancestors of ethnic Poles, who established permanent settlements in the Polish lands during the Early Middle Ages.", "The Lechitic Western Polans, a tribe whose name means \"people living in open fields\", dominated the region and gave Poland - which lies in the North-Central European Plain - its name.The first ruling dynasty, the Piasts, emerged in the 10th century AD.", "Duke Mieszko I is considered the ''de facto'' creator of the Polish state and is widely recognized for his adoption of Western Christianity in 966 CE.", "Mieszko's dominion was formally reconstituted as a medieval kingdom in 1025 by his son Bolesław I the Brave, known for military expansion under his rule.", "The most successful and the last Piast monarch, Casimir III the Great, presided over a period of economic prosperity and territorial aggrandizement before his death in 1370 without male heirs.", "The period of the Jagiellonian dynasty in the 14th–16th centuries brought close ties with the Lithuania, a cultural Renaissance in Poland and continued territorial expansion as well as Polonization that culminated in the establishment of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, one of Europe's largest countries.The Commonwealth was able to sustain the levels of prosperity achieved during the Jagiellonian period, while its political system matured as a unique noble democracy with an elective monarchy.", "From the mid-17th century, however, the huge state entered a period of decline caused by devastating wars and the deterioration of its political system.", "Significant internal reforms were introduced in the late 18th century, such as Europe's first Constitution of 3 May 1791, but neighboring powers did not allow the reforms to advance.", "The existence of the Commonwealth ended in 1795 after a series of invasions and partitions of Polish territory carried out by the Russian Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Prussia in the west and the Habsburg monarchy in the south.", "From 1795 until 1918, no truly independent Polish state existed, although strong Polish resistance movements operated.", "The opportunity to regain sovereignty only materialized after World War I, when the three partitioning imperial powers were fatally weakened in the wake of war and revolution.The Second Polish Republic was established in 1918 and existed as an independent state until 1939, when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland, marking the beginning of World War II.", "Millions of Polish citizens of different faiths or identities perished in the course of the Nazi occupation of Poland between 1939 and 1945 through planned genocide and extermination.", "A Polish government-in-exile nonetheless functioned throughout the war, and the Poles contributed to the Allied victory through participation in military campaigns on both the eastern and western fronts.", "The westward advances of the Soviet Red Army in 1944 and 1945 compelled Nazi Germany's forces to retreat from Poland, which led to the establishment of a satellite communist country, known from 1952 as the Polish People's Republic.As a result of territorial adjustments mandated by the Allies at the end of World War II in 1945, Poland's geographic centre of gravity shifted towards the west, and the re-defined Polish lands largely lost their historic multi-ethnic character through the extermination, expulsion and migration of various ethnic groups during and after the war.", "By the late 1980s, the Polish reform movement Solidarity became crucial in bringing about a peaceful transition from a planned economy and a communist state to a capitalist economic system and a liberal parliamentary democracy.", "This process resulted in the creation of the modern Polish state, the Third Polish Republic, founded in 1989." ], [ "Prehistory and protohistory", "Reconstructed Biskupin fortified settlement of the Lusatian culture, 8th century BCIn prehistoric and protohistoric times, over a period of at least 600,000 years, the area of present-day Poland was intermittently inhabited by members of the genus ''Homo''.", "It went through the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age stages of development, along with the nearby regions.", "The Neolithic period ushered in the Linear Pottery culture, whose founders migrated from the Danube River area beginning about 5500 BC.", "This culture was distinguished by the establishment of the first settled agricultural communities in modern Polish territory.", "Later, between about 4400 and 2000 BC, the native post-Mesolithic populations would also adopt and further develop the agricultural way of life.", "Poland's Early Bronze Age began around 2400–2300 BC, whereas its Iron Age commenced c. 750–700 BC.", "One of the many cultures that have been uncovered, the Lusatian culture, spanned the Bronze and Iron Ages and left notable settlement sites.", "Around 400 BC, Poland was settled by Celts of the La Tène culture.", "They were soon followed by emerging cultures with a strong Germanic component, influenced first by the Celts and then by the Roman Empire.", "The Germanic peoples migrated out of the area by about 500 AD during the great Migration Period of the European Dark Ages.", "Wooded regions to the north and east were settled by Balts.According to some archaeological research, Slavs have resided in modern Polish territories for only 1,500 years.", "However, recent genetic studies determined that people who live in the current territory of Poland include the descendants of the people who inhabited the area for thousands of years, beginning in the early Neolithic period.", "And according to other archaeological and linguistic research, early Slavic peoples were likely present in parts of Poland much earlier, and may have been associated with the ancient Przeworsk and Zarubintsy cultures of the 3rd century BC, though some Slavic groups may have arrived from the east in later periods.", "It has been suggested that the early Slavic peoples and languages may have originated in the region of Polesia, which includes the area around the Belarus–Ukraine border, parts of Western Russia, and parts of far Eastern Poland.The West Slavic and Lechitic peoples as well as any remaining minority clans on ancient Polish lands were organized into tribal units, of which the larger ones were later known as the Polish tribes; the names of many tribes are found on the list compiled by the anonymous Bavarian Geographer in the 9th century.", "In the 9th and 10th centuries, these tribes gave rise to developed regions along the upper Vistula, the coast of the Baltic Sea and in Greater Poland.", "The latest tribal undertaking, in Greater Poland, resulted in the formation of a lasting political structure in the 10th century that became the state of Poland." ], [ "Piast period (10th century–1385)", "===Mieszko I===Mieszko I (992), whereas the light pink area represents territories added during the reign of Bolesław I (died 1025).", "The dark pink area in the northwest was lost during the same period.Poland was established as a state under the Piast dynasty, which ruled the country between the 10th and 14th centuries.", "Historical records referring to the Polish state begin with the rule of Duke Mieszko I, whose reign commenced sometime before 963 and continued until his death in 992.Mieszko converted to Christianity in 966, following his marriage to Princess Doubravka of Bohemia, a fervent Christian.", "The event is known as the \"baptism of Poland\", and its date is often used to mark a symbolic beginning of Polish statehood.", "Mieszko completed a unification of the Lechitic tribal lands that was fundamental to the new country's existence.", "Following its emergence, Poland was led by a series of rulers who converted the population to Christianity, created a strong kingdom and fostered a distinctive Polish culture that was integrated into the broader European culture.===Bolesław I the Brave===Mieszko's son, Duke Bolesław I the Brave (r. 992–1025), established a Polish Church structure, pursued territorial conquests and was officially crowned the first king of Poland in 1025, near the end of his life.", "Bolesław also sought to spread Christianity to parts of eastern Europe that remained pagan, but suffered a setback when his greatest missionary, Adalbert of Prague, was killed in Prussia in 997.During the Congress of Gniezno in the year 1000, Holy Roman Emperor Otto III recognized the Archbishopric of Gniezno, an institution crucial for the continuing existence of the sovereign Polish state.", "During the reign of Otto's successor, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II, Bolesław fought prolonged wars with the Kingdom of Germany between 1002 and 1018.===Piast monarchy under Casimir I, Bolesław II and Bolesław III===Bolesław I's expansive rule overstretched the resources of the early Polish state, and it was followed by a collapse of the monarchy.", "Recovery took place under Casimir I the Restorer (r. 1039–58).", "Casimir's son Bolesław II the Generous (r. 1058–79) became involved in a conflict with Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów that ultimately caused his downfall.", "Bolesław had the bishop murdered in 1079 after being excommunicated by the Polish church on charges of adultery.", "This act sparked a revolt of Polish nobles that led to Bolesław's deposition and expulsion from the country.", "Around 1116, Gallus Anonymus wrote a seminal chronicle, the ''Gesta principum Polonorum'', intended as a glorification of his patron Bolesław III Wrymouth (r. 1107–38), a ruler who revived the tradition of military prowess of Bolesław I's time.", "Gallus' work remains a paramount written source for the early history of Poland.===Fragmentation===After Bolesław III divided Poland among his sons in his Testament of 1138, internal fragmentation eroded the Piast monarchical structures in the 12th and 13th centuries.", "In 1180, Casimir II the Just, who sought papal confirmation of his status as a senior duke, granted immunities and additional privileges to the Polish Church at the Congress of Łęczyca.", "Around 1220, Wincenty Kadłubek wrote his ''Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae'', another major source for early Polish history.", "In 1226, one of the regional Piast dukes, Konrad I of Masovia, invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the Baltic Prussian pagans.", "The Teutonic Order destroyed the Prussians but kept their lands, which resulted in centuries of warfare between Poland and the Teutonic Knights, and later between Poland and the German Prussian state.", "The first Mongol invasion of Poland began in 1240; it culminated in the defeat of Polish and allied Christian forces and the death of the Silesian Piast Duke Henry II the Pious at the Battle of Legnica in 1241.In 1242, Wrocław became the first Polish municipality to be incorporated, as the period of fragmentation brought economic development and growth of towns.", "New cities were founded and existing settlements were granted town status per Magdeburg Law.", "In 1264, Bolesław the Pious granted Jewish liberties in the Statute of Kalisz.===Late Piast monarchy under Władysław I and Casimir III===Władysław I the Elbow-highAttempts to reunite the Polish lands gained momentum in the 13th century, and in 1295, Duke Przemysł II of Greater Poland managed to become the first ruler since Bolesław II to be crowned king of Poland.", "He ruled over a limited territory and was soon killed.", "In 1300–05 King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia also reigned as king of Poland.", "The Piast Kingdom was effectively restored under Władysław I the Elbow-high (r. 1306–33), who became king in 1320.In 1308, the Teutonic Knights seized Gdańsk and the surrounding region of Pomerelia.King Casimir III the Great (r. 1333–70), Władysław's son and the last of the Piast rulers, strengthened and expanded the restored Kingdom of Poland, but the western provinces of Silesia (formally ceded by Casimir in 1339) and most of Polish Pomerania were lost to the Polish state for centuries to come.", "Progress was made in the recovery of the separately governed central province of Mazovia, however, and in 1340, the conquest of Red Ruthenia began, marking Poland's expansion to the east.", "The Congress of Kraków, a vast convocation of central, eastern, and northern European rulers probably assembled to plan an anti-Turkish crusade, took place in 1364, the same year that the future Jagiellonian University, one of the oldest European universities, was founded.", "On 9 October 1334, Casimir III confirmed the privileges granted to Jews in 1264 by Bolesław the Pious and allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers.===Angevin transition===After the Polish royal line and Piast junior branch died out in 1370, Poland came under the rule of Louis I of Hungary of the Capetian House of Anjou, who presided over a union of Hungary and Poland that lasted until 1382.In 1374, Louis granted the Polish nobility the Privilege of Koszyce to assure the succession of one of his daughters in Poland.", "His youngest daughter Jadwiga (d. 1399) assumed the Polish throne in 1384." ], [ "Jagiellonian dynasty (1385–1572)", "===Dynastic union with Lithuania, Władysław II Jagiełło===A representation of the Battle of Grunwald, a great military contest of the Late Middle AgesIn 1386, Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania converted to Catholicism and married Queen Jadwiga of Poland.", "This act enabled him to become a king of Poland himself, and he ruled as Władysław II Jagiełło until his death in 1434.The marriage established a personal Polish–Lithuanian union ruled by the Jagiellonian dynasty.", "The first in a series of formal \"unions\" was the Union of Krewo of 1385, whereby arrangements were made for the marriage of Jogaila and Jadwiga.", "The Polish–Lithuanian partnership brought vast areas of Ruthenia controlled by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for the nationals of both countries, who coexisted and cooperated in one of the largest political entities in Europe for the next four centuries.", "When Queen Jadwiga died in 1399, the Kingdom of Poland fell to her husband's sole possession.", "In the Baltic Sea region, Poland's struggle with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated in the Battle of Grunwald (1410), a great victory that the Poles and Lithuanians were unable to follow up with a decisive strike against the main seat of the Teutonic Order at Malbork Castle.", "The Union of Horodło of 1413 further defined the evolving relationship between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.The privileges of the ''szlachta'' (nobility) kept expanding and in 1425 the rule of ''Neminem captivabimus'', which protected the noblemen from arbitrary royal arrests, was formulated.===Władysław III and Casimir IV Jagiellon===King Casimir IV Jagiellon was the central figure of the Jagiellonian periodThe reign of the young Władysław III (1434–44), who succeeded his father Władysław II Jagiełło and ruled as king of Poland and Hungary, was cut short by his death at the Battle of Varna against the forces of the Ottoman Empire.", "This disaster led to an interregnum of three years that ended with the accession of Władysław's brother Casimir IV Jagiellon in 1447.Critical developments of the Jagiellonian period were concentrated during Casimir IV's long reign, which lasted until 1492.In 1454, Royal Prussia was incorporated by Poland and the Thirteen Years' War of 1454–66 with the Teutonic state ensued.", "In 1466, the milestone Peace of Thorn was concluded.", "This treaty divided Prussia to create East Prussia, the future Duchy of Prussia, a separate entity that functioned as a fief of Poland under the administration of the Teutonic Knights.", "Poland also confronted the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Tatars in the south, and in the east helped Lithuania fight the Grand Duchy of Moscow.", "The country was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly dominant landed nobility.", "Kraków, the royal capital, was turning into a major academic and cultural center, and in 1473 the first printing press began operating there.", "With the growing importance of ''szlachta'' (middle and lower nobility), the king's council evolved to become by 1493 a bicameral General Sejm (parliament) that no longer represented exclusively top dignitaries of the realm.The ''Nihil novi'' act, adopted in 1505 by the Sejm, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the Sejm.", "This event marked the beginning of the period known as \"Golden Liberty\", when the state was ruled in principle by the \"free and equal\" Polish nobility.", "In the 16th century, the massive development of folwark agribusinesses operated by the nobility led to increasingly abusive conditions for the peasant serfs who worked them.", "The political monopoly of the nobles also stifled the development of cities, some of which were thriving during the late Jagiellonian era, and limited the rights of townspeople, effectively holding back the emergence of the middle class.===Early modern Poland under Sigismund I and Sigismund II===Nicolaus Copernicus formulated the heliocentric model of the solar system that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at its centerIn the 16th century, Protestant Reformation movements made deep inroads into Polish Christianity and the resulting Reformation in Poland involved a number of different denominations.", "The policies of religious tolerance that developed in Poland were nearly unique in Europe at that time and many who fled regions torn by religious strife found refuge in Poland.", "The reigns of King Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548) and King Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572) witnessed an intense cultivation of culture and science (a Golden Age of the Renaissance in Poland), of which the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) is the best known representative.", "Jan Kochanowski (1530–1584) was a poet and the premier artistic personality of the period.", "In 1525, during the reign of Sigismund I, the Teutonic Order was secularized and Duke Albert performed an act of homage before the Polish king (the Prussian Homage) for his fief, the Duchy of Prussia.", "Mazovia was finally fully incorporated into the Polish Crown in 1529.The Italian courtyard at Wawel Castle in Kraków, the former seat of Polish monarchsThe reign of Sigismund II ended the Jagiellonian period, but gave rise to the Union of Lublin (1569), an ultimate fulfillment of the union with Lithuania.", "This agreement transferred Ukraine from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to Poland and transformed the Polish–Lithuanian polity into a real union, preserving it beyond the death of the childless Sigismund II, whose active involvement made the completion of this process possible.Livonia in the far northeast was incorporated by Poland in 1561 and Poland entered the Livonian War against Russia.", "The executionist movement, which attempted to check the progressing domination of the state by the magnate families of Poland and Lithuania, peaked at the Sejm in Piotrków in 1562–63.On the religious front, the Polish Brethren split from the Calvinists, and the Protestant Brest Bible was published in 1563.The Jesuits, who arrived in 1564, were destined to make a major impact on Poland's history." ], [ "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent, after the Truce of Deulino of 1619===Establishment (1569–1648)=======Union of Lublin====The Union of Lublin of 1569 established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a federal state more closely unified than the earlier political arrangement between Poland and Lithuania.", "The union was run largely by the nobility through the system of central parliament and local assemblies, but was headed by elected kings.", "The formal rule of the nobility, who were proportionally more numerous than in other European countries, constituted an early democratic system (\"a sophisticated noble democracy\"), in contrast to the absolute monarchies prevalent at that time in the rest of Europe.The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with a period in Polish history when great political power was attained and advancements in civilization and prosperity took place.", "The Polish–Lithuanian Union became an influential participant in European affairs and a vital cultural entity that spread Western culture (with Polish characteristics) eastward.", "In the second half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous states in contemporary Europe, with an area approaching and a population of about ten million.", "Its economy was dominated by export-focused agriculture.", "Nationwide religious toleration was guaranteed at the Warsaw Confederation in 1573.====First elective kings====Henry de Valois, later Henry III of France, was the first elected Polish king in 1573After the rule of the Jagiellonian dynasty ended in 1572, Henry of Valois (later King Henry III of France) was the winner of the first \"free election\" by the Polish nobility, held in 1573.He had to agree to the restrictive ''pacta conventa'' obligations and fled Poland in 1574 when news arrived of the vacancy of the French throne, to which he was the heir presumptive.", "From the start, the royal elections increased foreign influence in the Commonwealth as foreign powers sought to manipulate the Polish nobility to place candidates amicable to their interests.", "The reign of Stephen Báthory of Hungary followed (r. 1576–1586).", "He was militarily and domestically assertive and is revered in Polish historical tradition as a rare case of a successful elective king.", "The establishment of the legal Crown Tribunal in 1578 meant a transfer of many appellate cases from the royal to noble jurisdiction.====First kings of the Vasa dynasty====Sigismund III Vasa enjoyed a long reign, but his actions against religious minorities, expansionist ideas and involvement in dynastic affairs of Sweden, destabilized the Commonwealth.A period of rule under the Swedish House of Vasa began in the Commonwealth in the year 1587.The first two kings from this dynasty, Sigismund III (r. 1587–1632) and Władysław IV (r. 1632–1648), repeatedly attempted to intrigue for accession to the throne of Sweden, which was a constant source of distraction for the affairs of the Commonwealth.", "At that time, the Catholic Church embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and the Counter-Reformation claimed many converts from Polish and Lithuanian Protestant circles.", "In 1596, the Union of Brest split the Eastern Christians of the Commonwealth to create the Uniate Church of the Eastern Rite, but subject to the authority of the pope.", "The Zebrzydowski rebellion against Sigismund III unfolded in 1606–1608.Seeking supremacy in Eastern Europe, the Commonwealth fought wars with Russia between 1605 and 1618 in the wake of Russia's Time of Troubles; the series of conflicts is referred to as the Polish–Muscovite War or the ''Dymitriads''.", "The efforts resulted in expansion of the eastern territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but the goal of taking over the Russian throne for the Polish ruling dynasty was not achieved.", "Sweden sought supremacy in the Baltic during the Polish–Swedish wars of 1617–1629, and the Ottoman Empire pressed from the south in the Battles at Cecora in 1620 and Khotyn in 1621.The agricultural expansion and serfdom policies in Polish Ukraine resulted in a series of Cossack uprisings.", "Allied with the Habsburg monarchy, the Commonwealth did not directly participate in the Thirty Years' War.", "Władysław's IV reign was mostly peaceful, with a Russian invasion in the form of the Smolensk War of 1632–1634 successfully repelled.", "The Orthodox Church hierarchy, banned in Poland after the Union of Brest, was re-established in 1635.===Decline (1648–1764)=======Deluge of wars====During the reign of John II Casimir Vasa (r. 1648–1668), the third and last king of his dynasty, the nobles' democracy fell into decline as a result of foreign invasions and domestic disorder.", "These calamities multiplied rather suddenly and marked the end of the Polish Golden Age.", "Their effect was to render the once powerful Commonwealth increasingly vulnerable to foreign intervention.John II Casimir Vasa reigned during the Commonwealth's most difficult period.", "Frustrated with his inability to reform the state, he abdicated in 1668.The Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 engulfed the south-eastern regions of the Polish crown; its long-term effects were disastrous for the Commonwealth.", "The first ''liberum veto'' (a parliamentary device that allowed any member of the Sejm to dissolve a current session immediately) was exercised by a deputy in 1652.This practice would eventually weaken Poland's central government critically.", "In the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654), the Ukrainian rebels declared themselves subjects of the Tsar of Russia.", "The Second Northern War raged through the core Polish lands in 1655–1660; it included a brutal and devastating invasion of Poland referred to as the Swedish Deluge.", "The war ended in 1660 with the Treaty of Oliva, which resulted in the loss of some of Poland's northern possessions.", "In 1657 the Treaty of Bromberg established the independence of the Duchy of Prussia.", "The Commonwealth forces did well in the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667), but the result was the permanent division of Ukraine between Poland and Russia, as agreed to in the Truce of Andrusovo (1667).", "Towards the end of the war, the Lubomirski's rebellion, a major magnate revolt against the king, destabilized and weakened the country.", "The large-scale slave raids of the Crimean Tatars also had highly deleterious effects on the Polish economy.", "''Merkuriusz Polski'', the first Polish newspaper, was published in 1661.In 1668, grief-stricken at the recent death of his wife and frustrated by the disastrous political setbacks of his reign, John II Casimir abdicated the throne and fled to France.====John III Sobieski and last military victories====King John III Sobieski with his son Jakub, whom he tried to position to be his successor.", "Sobieski led the Commonwealth to its last great military victories.King Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, a native Pole, was elected to replace John II Casimir in 1669.The Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76) broke out during his reign, which lasted until 1673, and continued under his successor, John III Sobieski (r. 1674–1696).", "Sobieski intended to pursue Baltic area expansion (and to this end he signed the secret Treaty of Jaworów with France in 1675), but was forced instead to fight protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire.", "By doing so, Sobieski briefly revived the Commonwealth's military might.", "He defeated the expanding Muslims at the Battle of Khotyn in 1673 and decisively helped deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught at the Battle of Vienna in 1683.Sobieski's reign marked the last high point in the history of the Commonwealth: in the first half of the 18th century, Poland ceased to be an active player in international politics.", "The Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1686) with Russia was the final border settlement between the two countries before the First Partition of Poland in 1772.The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered enormous population losses and massive damage to its economy and social structure.", "The government became ineffective in the wake of large-scale internal conflicts, corrupted legislative processes and manipulation by foreign interests.", "The nobility fell under the control of a handful of feuding magnate families with established territorial domains.", "The urban population and infrastructure fell into ruin, together with most peasant farms, whose inhabitants were subjected to increasingly extreme forms of serfdom.", "The development of science, culture and education came to a halt or regressed.====Saxon kings====Augustus II the Strong, the first Saxon ruler of Poland.", "His death sparked the War of the Polish Succession.The royal election of 1697 brought a ruler of the Saxon House of Wettin to the Polish throne: Augustus II the Strong (r. 1697–1733), who was able to assume the throne only by agreeing to convert to Roman Catholicism.", "He was succeeded by his son Augustus III (r. 1734–1763).", "The reigns of the Saxon kings (who were both simultaneously prince-electors of Saxony) were disrupted by competing candidates for the throne and witnessed further disintegration of the Commonwealth.The Great Northern War of 1700–1721, a period seen by the contemporaries as a temporary eclipse, may have been the fatal blow that brought down the Polish political system.", "Stanisław Leszczyński was installed as king in 1704 under Swedish protection, but lasted only a few years.", "The Silent Sejm of 1717 marked the beginning of the Commonwealth's existence as a Russian protectorate: the Tsardom would guarantee the reform-impeding Golden Liberty of the nobility from that time on in order to cement the Commonwealth's weak central authority and a state of perpetual political impotence.", "In a resounding break with traditions of religious tolerance, Protestants were executed during the Tumult of Thorn in 1724.In 1732, Russia, Austria and Prussia, Poland's three increasingly powerful and scheming neighbors, entered into the secret Treaty of the Three Black Eagles with the intention of controlling the future royal succession in the Commonwealth.", "The War of the Polish Succession was fought in 1733–1735 to assist Leszczyński in assuming the throne of Poland for a second time.", "Amidst considerable foreign involvement, his efforts were unsuccessful.", "The Kingdom of Prussia became a strong regional power and succeeded in wresting the historically Polish province of Silesia from the Habsburg monarchy in the Silesian Wars; .The personal union between the Commonwealth and the Electorate of Saxony did give rise to the emergence of a reform movement in the Commonwealth and the beginnings of the Polish Enlightenment culture, the major positive developments of this era.", "The first Polish public library was the Załuski Library in Warsaw, opened to the public in 1747.===Reforms and loss of statehood (1764–1795)=======Czartoryski reforms and Stanisław August Poniatowski====Stanisław August Poniatowski, the \"enlightened\" monarchDuring the later part of the 18th century, fundamental internal reforms were attempted in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as it slid into extinction.", "The reform activity, initially promoted by the magnate Czartoryski family faction known as the ''Familia'', provoked a hostile reaction and military response from neighboring powers, but it did create conditions that fostered economic improvement.", "The most populous urban center, the capital city of Warsaw, replaced Danzig (Gdańsk) as the leading trade center, and the importance of the more prosperous urban social classes increased.", "The last decades of the independent Commonwealth's existence were characterized by aggressive reform movements and far-reaching progress in the areas of education, intellectual life, art and the evolution of the social and political system.The royal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation of Stanisław August Poniatowski, a refined and worldly aristocrat connected to the Czartoryski family, but hand-picked and imposed by Empress Catherine the Great of Russia, who expected him to be her obedient follower.", "Stanisław August ruled the Polish–Lithuanian state until its dissolution in 1795.The king spent his reign torn between his desire to implement reforms necessary to save the failing state and the perceived necessity of remaining in a subordinate relationship to his Russian sponsors.The Bar Confederation (1768–1772) was a rebellion of nobles directed against Russia's influence in general and Stanisław August, who was seen as its representative, in particular.", "It was fought to preserve Poland's independence and the nobility's traditional interests.", "After several years, it was brought under control by forces loyal to the king and those of the Russian Empire.Following the suppression of the Bar Confederation, parts of the Commonwealth were divided up among Prussia, Austria and Russia in 1772 at the instigation of Frederick the Great of Prussia, an action that became known as the First Partition of Poland: the outer provinces of the Commonwealth were seized by agreement among the country's three powerful neighbors and only a rump state remained.", "In 1773, the \"Partition Sejm\" ratified the partition under duress as a ''fait accompli''.", "However, it also established the Commission of National Education, a pioneering in Europe education authority often called the world's first ministry of education.====The Great Sejm of 1788–1791 and the Constitution of 3 May 1791====The Great Sejm adopted the Constitution of 3 May 1791 at the Royal Castle, WarsawThe long-lasting session of parliament convened by King Stanisław August is known as the Great Sejm or Four-Year Sejm; it first met in 1788.Its landmark achievement was the passing of the Constitution of 3 May 1791, the first singular pronouncement of a supreme law of the state in modern Europe.", "A moderately reformist document condemned by detractors as sympathetic to the ideals of the French Revolution, it soon generated strong opposition from the conservative circles of the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Empress Catherine of Russia, who was determined to prevent the rebirth of a strong Commonwealth.", "The nobility's Targowica Confederation, formed in Russian imperial capital of Saint Petersburg, appealed to Catherine for help, and in May 1792, the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth.", "The Polish–Russian War of 1792, a defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth against Russian invaders, ended when the Polish king, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation.", "The Russian-allied confederation took over the government, but Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for the Second Partition of Poland anyway.", "The partition left the country with a critically reduced territory that rendered it essentially incapable of an independent existence.", "The Commonwealth's Grodno Sejm of 1793, the last Sejm of the state's existence, was compelled to confirm the new partition.====The Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 and the end of Polish–Lithuanian state====Tadeusz Kościuszko's call for a national uprising, Kraków 1794Radicalized by recent events, Polish reformers (whether in exile or still resident in the reduced area remaining to the Commonwealth) were soon working on preparations for a national insurrection.", "Tadeusz Kościuszko, a popular general and a veteran of the American Revolution, was chosen as its leader.", "He returned from abroad and issued Kościuszko's proclamation in Kraków on March 24, 1794.It called for a national uprising under his supreme command.", "Kościuszko emancipated many peasants in order to enroll them as ''kosynierzy'' in his army, but the hard-fought insurrection, despite widespread national support, proved incapable of generating the foreign assistance necessary for its success.", "In the end, it was suppressed by the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, with Warsaw captured in November 1794 in the aftermath of the Battle of Praga.Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772, 1793, and 1795)In 1795, a Third Partition of Poland was undertaken by Russia, Prussia and Austria as a final division of territory that resulted in the effective dissolution of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "King Stanisław August Poniatowski was escorted to Grodno, forced to abdicate, and retired to Saint Petersburg.", "Tadeusz Kościuszko, initially imprisoned, was allowed to emigrate to the United States in 1796.The response of the Polish leadership to the last partition is a matter of historical debate.", "Literary scholars found that the dominant emotion of the first decade was despair that produced a moral desert ruled by violence and treason.", "On the other hand, historians have looked for signs of resistance to foreign rule.", "Apart from those who went into exile, the nobility took oaths of loyalty to their new rulers and served as officers in their armies." ], [ "Partitioned Poland (1795–1918)", "===Armed resistance (1795–1864)=======Napoleonic wars====The death of Józef Poniatowski, Marshal of the French Empire, at the Battle of LeipzigAlthough no sovereign Polish state existed between 1795 and 1918, the idea of Polish independence was kept alive throughout the 19th century.", "There were a number of uprisings and other armed undertakings waged against the partitioning powers.", "Military efforts after the partitions were first based on the alliances of Polish émigrés with post-revolutionary France.", "Jan Henryk Dąbrowski's Polish Legions fought in French campaigns outside of Poland between 1797 and 1802 in hopes that their involvement and contribution would be rewarded with the liberation of their Polish homeland.", "The Polish national anthem, \"Poland Is Not Yet Lost\", or \"Dąbrowski's Mazurka\", was written in praise of his actions by Józef Wybicki in 1797.The Duchy of Warsaw, a small, semi-independent Polish state, was created in 1807 by Napoleon in the wake of his defeat of Prussia and the signing of the Treaties of Tilsit with Emperor Alexander I of Russia.", "The Army of the Duchy of Warsaw, led by Józef Poniatowski, participated in numerous campaigns in alliance with France, including the successful Austro-Polish War of 1809, which, combined with the outcomes of other theaters of the War of the Fifth Coalition, resulted in an enlargement of the duchy's territory.", "The French invasion of Russia in 1812 and the German Campaign of 1813 saw the duchy's last military engagements.", "The Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw abolished serfdom as a reflection of the ideals of the French Revolution, but it did not promote land reform.Napoleon Bonaparte establishing the Duchy of Warsaw under French protection, 1807====The Congress of Vienna====After Napoleon's defeat, a new European order was established at the Congress of Vienna, which met in the years 1814 and 1815.Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, a former close associate of Emperor Alexander I, became the leading advocate for the Polish national cause.", "The Congress implemented a new partition scheme, which took into account some of the gains realized by the Poles during the Napoleonic period.The Duchy of Warsaw was replaced in 1815 with a new Kingdom of Poland, unofficially known as Congress Poland.", "The residual Polish kingdom was joined to the Russian Empire in a personal union under the Russian tsar and it was allowed its own constitution and military.", "East of the kingdom, large areas of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth remained directly incorporated into the Russian Empire as the Western Krai.", "These territories, along with Congress Poland, are generally considered to form the Russian Partition.", "The Russian, Prussian, and Austrian \"partitions\" are informal names for the lands of the former Commonwealth, not actual units of administrative division of Polish–Lithuanian territories after partitions.", "The Prussian Partition included a portion separated as the Grand Duchy of Posen.", "Peasants under the Prussian administration were gradually enfranchised under the reforms of 1811 and 1823.The limited legal reforms in the Austrian Partition were overshadowed by its rural poverty.", "The Free City of Cracow was a tiny republic created by the Congress of Vienna under the joint supervision of the three partitioning powers.", "Despite the bleak political situation (from the standpoint of Polish patriots), economic progress was made in the lands taken over by foreign powers because the period after the Congress of Vienna witnessed a significant development in the building of early industry.Economic historians have made new estimates on GDP per capita, 1790–1910.They confirm the hypothesis of semi-peripheral development of Polish territories in the 19th century and the slow process of catching-up with the core economies.====The Uprising of November 1830====The capture of the Warsaw arsenal at the beginning of the November Uprising of 1830The increasingly repressive policies of the partitioning powers led to resistance movements in partitioned Poland, and in 1830 Polish patriots staged the November Uprising.", "This revolt developed into a full-scale war with Russia, but the leadership was taken over by Polish conservatives who were reluctant to challenge the empire and hostile to broadening the independence movement's social base through measures such as land reform.", "Despite the significant resources mobilized, a series of errors by several successive chief commanders appointed by the insurgent Polish National Government led to the defeat of its forces by the Russian army in 1831.Congress Poland lost its constitution and military, but formally remained a separate administrative unit within the Russian Empire.Chopin, a Romantic composer of piano works, including many inspired by Polish traditional dance musicAfter the defeat of the November Uprising, thousands of former Polish combatants and other activists emigrated to Western Europe.", "This phenomenon, known as the Great Emigration, soon dominated Polish political and intellectual life.", "Together with the leaders of the independence movement, the Polish community abroad included the greatest Polish literary and artistic minds, including the Romantic poets Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Cyprian Norwid, and the composer Frédéric Chopin.", "In occupied and repressed Poland, some sought progress through nonviolent activism focused on education and economy, known as organic work; others, in cooperation with the emigrant circles, organized conspiracies and prepared for the next armed insurrection.====Revolts of the era of the Spring of Nations====The planned national uprising failed to materialize because the authorities in the partitions found out about secret preparations.", "The Greater Poland uprising ended in a fiasco in early 1846.In the Kraków uprising of February 1846, patriotic action was combined with revolutionary demands, but the result was the incorporation of the Free City of Cracow into the Austrian Partition.", "The Austrian officials took advantage of peasant discontent and incited villagers against the noble-dominated insurgent units.", "This resulted in the Galician slaughter of 1846, a large-scale rebellion of serfs seeking relief from their post-feudal condition of mandatory labor as practiced in ''folwarks''.", "The uprising freed many from bondage and hastened decisions that led to the abolition of Polish serfdom in the Austrian Empire in 1848.A new wave of Polish involvement in revolutionary movements soon took place in the partitions and in other parts of Europe in the context of the Spring of Nations revolutions of 1848 (e.g.", "Józef Bem's participation in the revolutions in Austria and Hungary).", "The 1848 German revolutions precipitated the Greater Poland uprising of 1848, in which peasants in the Prussian Partition, who were by then largely enfranchised, played a prominent role.====The Uprising of January 1863====Romuald Traugutt, the last supreme commander of the 1863 UprisingAs a matter of continuous policy, the Russian autocracy kept assailing Polish national core values of language, religion and culture.", "In consequence, despite the limited liberalization measures allowed in Congress Poland under the rule of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, a renewal of popular liberation activities took place in 1860–1861.During large-scale demonstrations in Warsaw, Russian forces inflicted numerous casualties on the civilian participants.", "The \"Red\", or left-wing faction of Polish activists, which promoted peasant enfranchisement and cooperated with Russian revolutionaries, became involved in immediate preparations for a national uprising.", "The \"White\", or right-wing faction, was inclined to cooperate with the Russian authorities and countered with partial reform proposals.", "In order to cripple the manpower potential of the Reds, Aleksander Wielopolski, the conservative leader of the government of Congress Poland, arranged for a partial selective conscription of young Poles for the Russian army in the years 1862 and 1863.This action hastened the outbreak of hostilities.", "The January Uprising, joined and led after the initial period by the Whites, was fought by partisan units against an overwhelmingly advantaged enemy.", "The uprising lasted from January 1863 to the spring of 1864, when Romuald Traugutt, the last supreme commander of the insurgency, was captured by the tsarist police.On 2 March 1864, the Russian authority, compelled by the uprising to compete for the loyalty of Polish peasants, officially published an enfranchisement decree in Congress Poland along the lines of an earlier land reform proclamation of the insurgents.", "The act created the conditions necessary for the development of the capitalist system on central Polish lands.", "At the time when most Poles realized the futility of armed resistance without external support, the various sections of Polish society were undergoing deep and far-reaching evolution in the areas of social, economic and cultural development.===Formation of modern Polish society under foreign rule (1864–1914)=======Repression and organic work====Bolesław Prus (1847–1912), a leading novelist, journalist and philosopher of Poland's Positivism movementThe failure of the January Uprising in Poland caused a major psychological trauma and became a historic watershed; indeed, it sparked the development of modern Polish nationalism.", "The Poles, subjected within the territories under the Russian and Prussian administrations to still stricter controls and increased persecution, sought to preserve their identity in non-violent ways.", "After the uprising, Congress Poland was downgraded in official usage from the \"Kingdom of Poland\" to the \"Vistula Land\" and was more fully integrated into Russia proper, but not entirely obliterated.", "The Russian and German languages were imposed in all public communication, and the Catholic Church was not spared from severe repression.", "Public education was increasingly subjected to Russification and Germanisation measures.", "Illiteracy was reduced, most effectively in the Prussian partition, but education in the Polish language was preserved mostly through unofficial efforts.", "The Prussian government pursued German colonization, including the purchase of Polish-owned land.", "On the other hand, the region of Galicia (western Ukraine and southern Poland) experienced a gradual relaxation of authoritarian policies and even a Polish cultural revival.", "Economically and socially backward, it was under the milder rule of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and from 1867 was increasingly allowed limited autonomy.", "''Stańczycy'', a conservative Polish pro-Austrian faction led by great land owners, dominated the Galician government.", "The Polish Academy of Learning (an academy of sciences) was founded in Kraków in 1872.Social activities termed \"organic work\" consisted of self-help organizations that promoted economic advancement and work on improving the competitiveness of Polish-owned businesses, industrial, agricultural or other.", "New commercial methods of generating higher productivity were discussed and implemented through trade associations and special interest groups, while Polish banking and cooperative financial institutions made the necessary business loans available.", "The other major area of effort in organic work was educational and intellectual development of the common people.", "Many libraries and reading rooms were established in small towns and villages, and numerous printed periodicals manifested the growing interest in popular education.", "Scientific and educational societies were active in a number of cities.", "Such activities were most pronounced in the Prussian Partition.Positivism in Poland replaced Romanticism as the leading intellectual, social and literary trend.", "It reflected the ideals and values of the emerging urban bourgeoisie.", "Around 1890, the urban classes gradually abandoned the positivist ideas and came under the influence of modern pan-European nationalism.====Economic development and social change====Jews emigrated from the Polish–Lithuanian lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but most remained to form a large ethnic minorityUnder the partitioning powers, economic diversification and progress, including large-scale industrialisation, were introduced in the traditionally agrarian Polish lands, but this development turned out to be very uneven.", "Advanced agriculture was practiced in the Prussian Partition, except for Upper Silesia, where the coal-mining industry created a large labor force.", "The densest network of railroads was built in German-ruled western Poland.", "In Russian Congress Poland, a striking growth of industry, railways and towns took place, all against the background of an extensive, but less productive agriculture.", "The industrial initiative, capital and know-how were provided largely by entrepreneurs who were not ethnic Poles.", "Warsaw (a metallurgical center) and Łódź (a textiles center) grew rapidly, as did the total proportion of urban population, making the region the most economically advanced in the Russian Empire (industrial production exceeded agricultural production there by 1909).", "The coming of the railways spurred some industrial growth even in the vast Russian Partition territories outside of Congress Poland.", "The Austrian Partition was rural and poor, except for the industrialized Cieszyn Silesia area.", "Galician economic expansion after 1890 included oil extraction and resulted in the growth of Lemberg (Lwów, Lviv) and Kraków.Economic and social changes involving land reform and industrialization, combined with the effects of foreign domination, altered the centuries-old social structure of Polish society.", "Among the newly emergent strata were wealthy industrialists and financiers, distinct from the traditional, but still critically important landed aristocracy.", "The intelligentsia, an educated, professional or business middle class, often originated from lower gentry, landless or alienated from their rural possessions, and from urban people.", "Many smaller agricultural enterprises based on serfdom did not survive the land reforms.", "The industrial proletariat, a new underprivileged class, was composed mainly of poor peasants or townspeople forced by deteriorating conditions to migrate and search for work in urban centers in their countries of origin or abroad.", "Millions of residents of the former Commonwealth of various ethnic groups worked or settled in Europe and in North and South America.Social and economic changes were partial and gradual.", "The degree of industrialisation, relatively fast-paced in some areas, lagged behind the advanced regions of Western Europe.", "The three partitions developed different economies and were more economically integrated with their mother states than with each other.", "In the Prussian Partition, for example, agricultural production depended heavily on the German market, whereas the industrial sector of Congress Poland relied more on the Russian market.====Nationalism, socialism and other movements====Marie Curie, discoverer of radioactive elementsIn the 1870s–1890s, large-scale socialist, nationalist, agrarian and other political movements of great ideological fervor became established in partitioned Poland and Lithuania, along with corresponding political parties to promote them.", "Of the major parties, the socialist First Proletariat was founded in 1882, the Polish League (precursor of National Democracy) in 1887, the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Silesia in 1890, the Polish Socialist Party in 1892, the Marxist Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania in 1893, the agrarian People's Party of Galicia in 1895 and the Jewish socialist Bund in 1897.Christian democracy regional associations allied with the Catholic Church were also active; they united into the Polish Christian Democratic Party in 1919.Rosa Luxemburg, leader of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and LithuaniaThe main minority ethnic groups of the former Commonwealth, including Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Belarusians and Jews, were getting involved in their own national movements and plans, which met with disapproval on the part of those Polish independence activists who counted on an eventual rebirth of the Commonwealth or the rise of a Commonwealth-inspired federal structure (a political movement referred to as Prometheism).Around the start of the 20th century, the Young Poland cultural movement, centered in Austrian Galicia, took advantage of a milieu conducive to liberal expression in that region and was the source of Poland's finest artistic and literary productions.", "In this same era, Marie Skłodowska Curie, a pioneer radiation scientist, performed her groundbreaking research in Paris.====The Revolution of 1905====Roman Dmowski's National Democracy ideology proved highly influential in Polish politics.", "He favored the dominance of Polish-speaking Catholics in civic life without concern for the rights of ethnic minorities, in particular the Jews, whose emigration he advocated.The Revolution of 1905–1907 in Russian Poland, the result of many years of pent-up political frustrations and stifled national ambitions, was marked by political maneuvering, strikes and rebellion.", "The revolt was part of much broader disturbances throughout the Russian Empire associated with the general Revolution of 1905.In Poland, the principal revolutionary figures were Roman Dmowski and Józef Piłsudski.", "Dmowski was associated with the right-wing nationalist movement National Democracy, whereas Piłsudski was associated with the Polish Socialist Party.", "As the authorities re-established control within the Russian Empire, the revolt in Congress Poland, placed under martial law, withered as well, partially as a result of tsarist concessions in the areas of national and workers' rights, including Polish representation in the newly created Russian Duma.", "The collapse of the revolt in the Russian Partition, coupled with intensified Germanization in the Prussian Partition, left Austrian Galicia as the territory where Polish patriotic action was most likely to flourish.In the Austrian Partition, Polish culture was openly cultivated, and in the Prussian Partition, there were high levels of education and living standards, but the Russian Partition remained of primary importance for the Polish nation and its aspirations.", "About 15.5 million Polish-speakers lived in the territories most densely populated by Poles: the western part of the Russian Partition, the Prussian Partition and the western Austrian Partition.", "Ethnically Polish settlement spread over a large area further to the east, including its greatest concentration in the Vilnius Region, amounted to only over 20% of that number.", "Polish paramilitary organizations oriented toward independence, such as the Union of Active Struggle, were formed in 1908–1914, mainly in Galicia.", "The Poles were divided and their political parties fragmented on the eve of World War I, with Dmowski's National Democracy (pro-Entente) and Piłsudski's faction assuming opposing positions.===World War I and the issue of Poland's independence===\"The Commandant\" Józef Piłsudski with his legionaries in 1915The outbreak of World War I in the Polish lands offered Poles unexpected hopes for achieving independence as a result of the turbulence that engulfed the empires of the partitioning powers.", "All three of the monarchies that had benefited from the partition of Polish territories (Germany, Austria and Russia) were dissolved by the end of the war, and many of their territories were dispersed into new political units.", "At the start of the war, the Poles found themselves conscripted into the armies of the partitioning powers in a war that was not theirs.", "Furthermore, they were frequently forced to fight each other, since the armies of Germany and Austria were allied against Russia.", "Piłsudski's paramilitary units stationed in Galicia were turned into the Polish Legions in 1914 and as a part of the Austro-Hungarian Army fought on the Russian front until 1917, when the formation was disbanded.", "Piłsudski, who refused demands that his men fight under German command, was arrested and imprisoned by the Germans and became a heroic symbol of Polish nationalism.Ignacy Paderewski was a pianist and a statesmanDue to a series of German victories on the Eastern Front, the area of Congress Poland became occupied by the Central Powers of Germany and Austria; Warsaw was captured by the Germans on 5 August 1915.In the Act of 5th November 1916, a fresh incarnation of the Kingdom of Poland (''Królestwo Regencyjne'') was proclaimed by Germany and Austria on formerly Russian-controlled territories, within the German ''Mitteleuropa'' scheme.", "The sponsor states were never able to agree on a candidate to assume the throne, however; rather, it was governed in turn by German and Austrian governor-generals, a Provisional Council of State, and a Regency Council.", "This increasingly autonomous puppet state existed until November 1918, when it was replaced by the newly established Republic of Poland.", "The existence of this \"kingdom\" and its planned Polish army had a positive effect on the Polish national efforts on the Allied side, but in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of March 1918 the victorious in the east Germany imposed harsh conditions on defeated Russia and ignored Polish interests.", "Toward the end of the war, the German authorities engaged in massive, purposeful devastation of industrial and other economic potential of Polish lands in order to impoverish the country, a likely future competitor of Germany.Kingdom of Poland in 1918.The \"Kingdom\" was established to entice Poles to cooperate with the Central Powers.The independence of Poland had been campaigned for in Russia and in the West by Dmowski and in the West by Ignacy Jan Paderewski.", "Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, and then the leaders of the February Revolution and the October Revolution of 1917, installed governments who declared in turn their support for Polish independence.", "In 1917, France formed the Blue Army (placed under Józef Haller) that comprised about 70,000 Poles by the end of the war, including men captured from German and Austrian units and 20,000 volunteers from the United States.", "There was also a 30,000-men strong Polish anti-German army in Russia.", "Dmowski, operating from Paris as head of the Polish National Committee (KNP), became the spokesman for Polish nationalism in the Allied camp.", "On the initiative of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, Polish independence was officially endorsed by the Allies in June 1918.In all, about two million Poles served in the war, counting both sides, and about 400–450,000 died.", "Much of the fighting on the Eastern Front took place in Poland, and civilian casualties and devastation were high.Ignacy DaszyńskiThe final push for independence of Poland took place on the ground in October–November 1918.Near the end of the war, Austro-Hungarian and German units were being disarmed, and the Austrian army's collapse freed Cieszyn and Kraków at the end of October.", "Lviv was then contested in the Polish–Ukrainian War of 1918–1919.Ignacy Daszyński headed the first short-lived independent Polish government in Lublin from 7 November, the leftist Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland, proclaimed as a democracy.", "Germany, now defeated, was forced by the Allies to stand down its large military forces in Poland.", "Overtaken by the German Revolution of 1918–1919 at home, the Germans released Piłsudski from prison.", "He arrived in Warsaw on 10 November and was granted extensive authority by the Regency Council; Piłsudski's authority was also recognized by the Lublin government.", "On 22 November, he became the temporary head of state.", "Piłsudski was held by many in high regard, but was resented by the right-wing National Democrats.", "The emerging Polish state was internally divided, heavily war-damaged and economically dysfunctional." ], [ "Second Polish Republic (1918–1939)", "===Securing national borders, war with Soviet Russia===Greater Poland Uprising, a war with Germany, erupted in December 1918After more than a century of foreign rule, Poland regained its independence at the end of World War I as one of the outcomes of the negotiations that took place at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919.The Treaty of Versailles that emerged from the conference set up an independent Polish nation with an outlet to the sea, but left some of its boundaries to be decided by plebiscites.", "The largely German-inhabited Free City of Danzig was granted a separate status that guaranteed its use as a port by Poland.", "In the end, the settlement of the German-Polish border turned out to be a prolonged and convoluted process.", "The dispute helped engender the Greater Poland Uprising of 1918–1919, the three Silesian uprisings of 1919–1921, the East Prussian plebiscite of 1920, the Upper Silesia plebiscite of 1921 and the 1922 Silesian Convention in Geneva.Other boundaries were settled by war and subsequent treaties.", "A total of six border wars were fought in 1918–1921, including the Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts over Cieszyn Silesia in January 1919.Polish–Soviet War, defenses near Warsaw, August 1920As distressing as these border conflicts were, the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921 was the most important series of military actions of the era.", "Piłsudski had entertained far-reaching anti-Russian cooperative designs in Eastern Europe, and in 1919 the Polish forces pushed eastward into Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine by taking advantage of the Russian preoccupation with a civil war, but they were soon confronted with the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919.Western Ukraine was already a theater of the Polish–Ukrainian War, which eliminated the proclaimed West Ukrainian People's Republic in July 1919.In the autumn of 1919, Piłsudski rejected urgent pleas from the former Entente powers to support Anton Denikin's White movement in its advance on Moscow.", "The Polish–Soviet War proper began with the Polish Kiev offensive in April 1920.Allied with the Directorate of Ukraine of the Ukrainian People's Republic, the Polish armies had advanced past Vilnius, Minsk and Kiev by June.", "At that time, a massive Soviet counter-offensive pushed the Poles out of most of Ukraine.", "On the northern front, the Soviet army reached the outskirts of Warsaw in early August.", "A Soviet triumph and the quick end of Poland seemed inevitable.", "However, the Poles scored a stunning victory at the Battle of Warsaw (1920).", "Afterwards, more Polish military successes followed, and the Soviets had to pull back.", "They left swathes of territory populated largely by Belarusians or Ukrainians to Polish rule.", "The new eastern boundary was finalized by the Peace of Riga in March 1921.Wincenty Witos (right) and Ignacy Daszyński headed a wartime cabinet in 1920.Witos was an agrarian party leader and a centrist politician, later persecuted under the Sanation regime.The defeat of the Russian armies forced Vladimir Lenin and the Soviet leadership to postpone their strategic objective of linking up with the German and other European revolutionary leftist collaborators to spread communist revolution.", "Lenin also hoped for generating support for the Red Army in Poland, which failed to materialize.Wojciech Korfanty fought for a Polish Silesia and was the leader of the Polish Christian Democratic PartyPiłsudski's seizure of Vilnius in October 1920 (known as Żeligowski's Mutiny) was a nail in the coffin of the already poor Lithuania–Poland relations that had been strained by the Polish–Lithuanian War of 1919–1920; both states would remain hostile to one another for the remainder of the interwar period.", "Piłsudski's concept of Intermarium (an East European federation of states inspired by the tradition of the multiethnic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that would include a hypothetical multinational successor state to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) had the fatal flaw of being incompatible with his assumption of Polish domination, which would amount to an encroachment on the neighboring peoples' lands and aspirations.", "At the time of rising national movements, the plan thus ceased being a feature of Poland's politics.", "A larger federated structure was also opposed by Dmowski's National Democrats.", "Their representative at the Peace of Riga talks, Stanisław Grabski, opted for leaving Minsk, Berdychiv, Kamianets-Podilskyi and the surrounding areas on the Soviet side of the border.", "The National Democrats did not want to assume the lands they considered politically undesirable, as such territorial enlargement would result in a reduced proportion of citizens who were ethnically Polish.The Peace of Riga settled the eastern border by preserving for Poland a substantial portion of the old Commonwealth's eastern territories at the cost of partitioning the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuania and Belarus) and Ukraine.", "The Ukrainians ended up with no state of their own and felt betrayed by the Riga arrangements; their resentment gave rise to extreme nationalism and anti-Polish hostility.", "The Kresy (or borderland) territories in the east won by 1921 would form the basis for a swap arranged and carried out by the Soviets in 1943–1945, who at that time compensated the re-emerging Polish state for the eastern lands lost to the Soviet Union with conquered areas of eastern Germany.The successful outcome of the Polish–Soviet War gave Poland a false sense of its prowess as a self-sufficient military power and encouraged the government to try to resolve international problems through imposed unilateral solutions.", "The territorial and ethnic policies of the interwar period contributed to bad relations with most of Poland's neighbors and uneasy cooperation with more distant centers of power, especially France and Great Britain.===Democratic politics (1918–1926)===Bier of Gabriel Narutowicz, the first President of Poland, who was assassinated in 1922Among the chief difficulties faced by the government of the new Polish republic was the lack of an integrated infrastructure among the formerly separate partitions, a deficiency that disrupted industry, transportation, trade, and other areas.The first Polish legislative election for the re-established Sejm (national parliament) took place in January 1919.A temporary Small Constitution was passed by the body the following month.The rapidly growing population of Poland within its new boundaries was three-fourths agricultural and one-fourth urban; Polish was the primary language of only two thirds of the inhabitants of the new country.", "The minorities had very little voice in the government.", "The permanent March Constitution of Poland was adopted in March 1921.At the insistence of the National Democrats, who were concerned about how aggressively Józef Piłsudski might exercise presidential powers if he were elected to office, the constitution mandated limited prerogatives for the presidency.Władysław Grabski reformed the currency and introduced the Polish zloty to replace the markThe proclamation of the March Constitution was followed by a short and turbulent period of constitutional order and parliamentary democracy that lasted until 1926.The legislature remained fragmented, without stable majorities, and governments changed frequently.", "The open-minded Gabriel Narutowicz was elected president according to the Constitution by the National Assembly in 1922, without popular vote.", "However, members of the nationalist right-wing faction did not regard his elevation as legitimate.", "They viewed Narutowicz rather as a traitor whose election was pushed through by the votes of alien minorities.", "Narutowicz and his supporters were subjected to an intense harassment campaign, and the president was assassinated on 16 December 1922, after serving only five days in office.Land reform measures were passed in 1919 and 1925 under pressure from an impoverished peasantry.", "They were partially implemented, but resulted in the parcellation of only 20% of the great agricultural estates.", "Poland endured numerous economic calamities and disruptions in the early 1920s, including waves of workers' strikes such as the 1923 Kraków riot.", "The German–Polish customs war, initiated by Germany in 1925, was one of the most damaging external factors that put a strain on Poland's economy.", "On the other hand, there were also signs of progress and stabilization, for example a critical reform of finances carried out by the competent government of Władysław Grabski, which lasted almost two years.", "Certain other achievements of the democratic period having to do with the management of governmental and civic institutions necessary to the functioning of the reunited state and nation were too easily overlooked.", "Lurking on the sidelines was a disgusted army officer corps unwilling to subject itself to civilian control, but ready to follow the retired Piłsudski, who was highly popular with Poles and just as dissatisfied with the Polish system of government as his former colleagues in the military.===Piłsudski's coup and the Sanation Era (1926–1935)===May Coup of 1926 defined Poland's political reality in the years leading to World War IIOn 12 May 1926, Piłsudski staged the May Coup, a military overthrow of the civilian government mounted against President Stanisław Wojciechowski and the troops loyal to the legitimate government.", "Hundreds died in fratricidal fighting.", "Piłsudski was supported by several leftist factions who ensured the success of his coup by blocking the railway transportation of government forces.", "He also had the support of the conservative great landowners, a move that left the right-wing National Democrats as the only major social force opposed to the takeover.Following the coup, the new regime initially respected many parliamentary formalities, but gradually tightened its control and abandoned pretenses.", "The Centrolew, a coalition of center-left parties, was formed in 1929, and in 1930 called for the \"abolition of dictatorship\".", "In 1930, the Sejm was dissolved and a number of opposition deputies were imprisoned at the Brest Fortress.", "Five thousand political opponents were arrested ahead of the Polish legislative election of 1930, which was rigged to award a majority of seats to the pro-regime Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (BBWR).President Ignacy Mościcki and Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły were among top leaders of Sanation PolandThe authoritarian Sanation regime (\"sanation\" meant to denote \"healing\") that Piłsudski led until his death in 1935 (and would remain in place until 1939) reflected the dictator's evolution from his center-left past to conservative alliances.", "Political institutions and parties were allowed to function, but the electoral process was manipulated and those not willing to cooperate submissively were subjected to repression.", "From 1930, persistent opponents of the regime, many of the leftist persuasion, were imprisoned and subjected to staged legal processes with harsh sentences, such as the Brest trials, or else detained in the Bereza Kartuska prison and similar camps for political prisoners.", "About three thousand were detained without trial at different times at the Bereza internment camp between 1934 and 1939.In 1936 for example, 369 activists were taken there, including 342 Polish communists.", "Rebellious peasants staged riots in 1932, 1933 and the 1937 peasant strike in Poland.", "Other civil disturbances were caused by striking industrial workers (e.g.", "events of the \"Bloody Spring\" of 1936), nationalist Ukrainians and the activists of the incipient Belarusian movement.", "All became targets of ruthless police-military pacification.", "Besides sponsoring political repression, the regime fostered Józef Piłsudski's cult of personality that had already existed long before he assumed dictatorial powers.Piłsudski signed the Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact in 1932 and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression in 1934, but in 1933 he insisted that there was no threat from the East or West and said that Poland's politics were focused on becoming fully independent without serving foreign interests.", "He initiated the policy of maintaining an equal distance and an adjustable middle course regarding the two great neighbors, later continued by Józef Beck.", "Piłsudski kept personal control of the army, but it was poorly equipped, poorly trained and had poor preparations in place for possible future conflicts.", "His only war plan was a defensive war against a Soviet invasion.", "The slow modernization after Piłsudski's death fell far behind the progress made by Poland's neighbors and measures to protect the western border, discontinued by Piłsudski from 1926, were not undertaken until March 1939.Sanation deputies in the Sejm used a parliamentary maneuver to abolish the democratic March Constitution and push through a more authoritarian April Constitution in 1935; it reduced the powers of the Sejm, which Piłsudski despised.", "The process and the resulting document were seen as illegitimate by the anti-Sanation opposition, but during World War II, the Polish government-in-exile recognized the April Constitution in order to uphold the legal continuity of the Polish state.Between 1932 and 1933 Piłsudski and Beck initiated several incidents along the borders with Germany and Danzig, both to test whether Western powers would protect the Versailles arrangements (on which Polish security depended), and as preparation for a preventative war against Germany.", "At the same time they sent emissaries to London and Paris, looking for their support in stopping Germany's rearmament effort.", "An invasion to Danzig by Poland was scheduled for April 21, 1933, but the amassing of troops was discovered and the invasion was postponed.", "At the time an invasion by Poland would have posed a serious military threat to Germany, but with the British rejecting the idea (in favor of the Four-Power Pact), and with wavering support from the French, the Poles had eventually reneged on the idea of invasion.", "Between 1933 and 1934 Germany would increase its armament expenditures by 68%, and by January 1934 the two powers would sign a ten-year non-aggression pact.When Marshal Piłsudski died in 1935, he retained the support of dominant sections of Polish society even though he never risked testing his popularity in an honest election.", "His regime was dictatorial, but at that time only Czechoslovakia remained democratic in all of the regions neighboring Poland.", "Historians have taken widely divergent views of the meaning and consequences of the coup Piłsudski perpetrated and his personal rule that followed.===Social and economic trends of the interwar period===Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski promoted Poland's Central Industrial RegionIndependence stimulated the development of Polish culture in the Interbellum and intellectual achievement was high.", "Warsaw, whose population almost doubled between World War I and World War II, was a restless, burgeoning metropolis.", "It outpaced Kraków, Lwów and Wilno, the other major population centers of the country.Mainstream Polish society was not affected by the repressions of the Sanation authorities overall; many Poles enjoyed relative stability, and the economy improved markedly between 1926 and 1929, only to become caught up in the global Great Depression.", "After 1929, the country's industrial production and gross national income slumped by about 50%.The Great Depression brought low prices for farmers and unemployment for workers.", "Social tensions increased, including rising antisemitism.", "A major economic transformation and multi-year state plan to achieve national industrial development, as embodied in the Central Industrial Region initiative launched in 1936, was led by Minister Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski.", "Motivated primarily by the need for a native arms industry, the initiative was in progress at the time of the outbreak of World War II.", "Kwiatkowski was also the main architect of the earlier Gdynia seaport project.The prevalent in political circles nationalism was fueled by the large size of Poland's minority populations and their separate agendas.", "According to the language criterion of the Polish census of 1931, the Poles constituted 69% of the population, Ukrainians 15%, Jews (defined as speakers of the Yiddish language) 8.5%, Belarusians 4.7%, Germans 2.2%, Lithuanians 0.25%, Russians 0.25% and Czechs 0.09%, with some geographical areas dominated by a particular minority.", "In time, the ethnic conflicts intensified, and the Polish state grew less tolerant of the interests of its national minorities.", "In interwar Poland, compulsory free general education substantially reduced illiteracy rates, but discrimination was practiced in a way that resulted in a dramatic decrease in the number of Ukrainian language schools and official restrictions on Jewish attendance at selected schools in the late 1930s.The population grew steadily, reaching 35 million in 1939.However, the overall economic situation in the interwar period was one of stagnation.", "There was little money for investment inside Poland, and few foreigners were interested in investing there.", "Total industrial production barely increased between 1913 and 1939 (within the area delimited by the 1939 borders), but because of population growth (from 26.3 million in 1919 to 34.8 million in 1939), the ''per capita'' output actually decreased by 18%.Conditions in the predominant agricultural sector kept deteriorating between 1929 and 1939, which resulted in rural unrest and a progressive radicalization of the Polish peasant movement that became increasingly inclined toward militant anti-state activities.", "It was firmly repressed by the authorities.", "According to Norman Davies, the failures of the Sanation regime (combined with the objective economic realities) caused a radicalization of the Polish masses by the end of the 1930s, but he warns against drawing parallels with the incomparably more repressive regimes of Nazi Germany or the Stalinist Soviet Union.===Final Sanation years (1935–1939)===A year after Piłsudski's death, his former personal assistant General Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski became the Second Polish Republic's last prime ministerAfter Piłsudski's death in 1935, Poland was governed until (and initially during) the German invasion of 1939 by old allies and subordinates known as \"Piłsudski's colonels\".", "They had neither the vision nor the resources to cope with the perilous situation facing Poland in the late 1930s.", "The colonels had gradually assumed greater powers during Piłsudski's life by manipulating the ailing marshal behind the scenes.", "Eventually they achieved an overt politicization of the army that did nothing to help prepare the country for war.Foreign Minister Józef Beck rejected the proposed risky alliances with Nazi Germany and with the Soviet UnionForeign policy was the responsibility of Józef Beck, under whom Polish diplomacy attempted balanced approaches toward Germany and the Soviet Union, without success, on the basis of a flawed understanding of the European geopolitics of his day.", "Beck had numerous foreign policy schemes and harbored illusions of Poland's status as a great power.", "He alienated most of Poland's neighbors, but is not blamed by historians for the ultimate failure of relations with Germany.", "The principal events of his tenure were concentrated in its last two years.", "In the case of the 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania, the Polish action nearly resulted in a German takeover of southwest Lithuania, the Klaipėda Region (Memel Territory), which had a largely German population.", "Also in 1938, the Polish government opportunistically undertook a hostile action against the Czechoslovak state as weakened by the Munich Agreement and annexed a small piece of territory on its borders.", "In this case, Beck's understanding of the consequences of the Polish military move turned out to be completely mistaken, because in the end the German occupation of Czechoslovakia markedly weakened Poland's own position.", "Furthermore, Beck erroneously believed that Nazi-Soviet ideological contradictions would preclude their cooperation.At home, increasingly alienated and suppressed minorities threatened unrest and violence.", "Extreme nationalist circles such as the National Radical Camp grew more outspoken.", "One of the groups, the Camp of National Unity, combined many nationalists with Sanation supporters and was connected to the new strongman, Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły, whose faction of the Sanation ruling movement was increasingly nationalistic.In the late 1930s, the exile bloc Front Morges united several major Polish anti-Sanation figures, including Ignacy Paderewski, Władysław Sikorski, Wincenty Witos, Wojciech Korfanty and Józef Haller.", "It gained little influence inside Poland, but its spirit soon reappeared during World War II, within the Polish government-in-exile.Warsaw was one of Europe's chief cities before the Second World War, pictured in 1939In October 1938, Joachim von Ribbentrop first proposed German-Polish territorial adjustments and Poland's participation in the Anti-Comintern Pact against the Soviet Union.", "The status of the Free City of Danzig was one of the key bones of contention.", "Approached by Ribbentrop again in March 1939, the Polish government expressed willingness to address issues causing German concern, but effectively rejected Germany's stated demands and thus refused to allow Poland to be turned by Adolf Hitler into a German puppet state.", "Hitler, incensed by the British and French declarations of support for Poland, abrogated the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression in late April 1939.To protect itself from an increasingly aggressive Nazi Germany, already responsible for the annexations of Austria (in the Anschluss of 1938), Czechoslovakia (in 1939) and a part of Lithuania after the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania, Poland entered into a military alliance with Britain and France (the 1939 Anglo-Polish military alliance and the Franco-Polish alliance (1921), as updated in 1939).", "However, the two Western powers were defense-oriented and not in a strong position, either geographically or in terms of resources, to assist Poland.", "Attempts were therefore made by them to induce Soviet-Polish cooperation, which they viewed as the only militarily viable arrangement.Diplomatic manoeuvers continued in the spring and summer of 1939, but in their final attempts, the Franco-British talks with the Soviets in Moscow on forming an anti-Nazi defensive military alliance failed.", "Warsaw's refusal to allow the Red Army to operate on Polish territory doomed the Western efforts.", "The final contentious Allied-Soviet exchanges took place on 21 and 23 August 1939.The regime of Joseph Stalin was the target of an intense German counter-initiative and was concurrently involved in increasingly effective negotiations with Hitler's agents.", "On 23 August, an outcome contrary to the exertions of the Allies became a reality: in Moscow, Germany and the Soviet Union hurriedly signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into Nazi- and Soviet-controlled zones." ], [ "World War II", "===Invasions and resistance===German battleship shells Westerplatte, 1 September 1939On 1 September 1939, Hitler ordered an invasion of Poland, the opening event of World War II.", "Poland had signed an Anglo-Polish military alliance as recently as the 25th of August, and had long been in alliance with France.", "The two Western powers soon declared war on Germany, but they remained largely inactive (the period early in the conflict became known as the Phoney War) and extended no aid to the attacked country.", "The technically and numerically superior ''Wehrmacht'' formations rapidly advanced eastwards and engaged massively in the murder of Polish civilians over the entire occupied territory.", "On 17 September, a Soviet invasion of Poland began.", "The Soviet Union quickly occupied most of the areas of eastern Poland that were inhabited by a significant Ukrainian and Belarusian minority.", "The two invading powers divided up the country as they had agreed in the secret provisions of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.", "Poland's top government officials and military high command fled the war zone and arrived at the Romanian Bridgehead in mid-September.", "After the Soviet entry they sought refuge in Romania.Among the military operations in which Poles held out the longest (until late September or early October) were the Siege of Warsaw, the Battle of Hel and the resistance of the Independent Operational Group Polesie.", "Warsaw fell on 27 September after a heavy German bombardment that killed tens of thousands civilians and soldiers.", "Poland was ultimately partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union according to the terms of the German–Soviet Frontier Treaty signed by the two powers in Moscow on 29 September.German and Soviet invasions (1939)Gerhard Weinberg has argued that the most significant Polish contribution to World War II was sharing its code-breaking results.", "This allowed the British to perform the cryptanalysis of the Enigma and decipher the main German military code, which gave the Allies a major advantage in the conflict.", "As regards actual military campaigns, some Polish historians have argued that simply resisting the initial invasion of Poland was the country's greatest contribution to the victory over Nazi Germany, despite its defeat.", "The Polish Army of nearly one million men significantly delayed the start of the Battle of France, planned by the Germans for 1939.When the Nazi offensive in the West did happen, the delay caused it to be less effective, a possibly crucial factor in the victory of the Battle of Britain.After Germany invaded the Soviet Union as part of its Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the whole of pre-war Poland was overrun and occupied by German troops.Pilots of No.", "303 Polish Fighter Squadron won fame in the Battle of BritainGerman-occupied Poland was divided from 1939 into two regions: Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany directly into the German ''Reich'' and areas ruled under a so-called General Government of occupation.", "The Poles formed an underground resistance movement and a Polish government-in-exile that operated first in Paris, then, from July 1940, in London.", "Polish-Soviet diplomatic relations, broken since September 1939, were resumed in July 1941 under the Sikorski–Mayski agreement, which facilitated the formation of a Polish army (the Anders' Army) in the Soviet Union.", "In November 1941, Prime Minister Sikorski flew to the Soviet Union to negotiate with Stalin on its role on the Soviet-German front, but the British wanted the Polish soldiers in the Middle East.", "Stalin agreed, and the army was evacuated there.The organizations forming the Polish Underground State that functioned in Poland throughout the war were loyal to and formally under the Polish government-in-exile, acting through its Government Delegation for Poland.", "During World War II, hundreds of thousands of Poles joined the underground Polish Home Army (''Armia Krajowa''), a part of the Polish Armed Forces of the government-in-exile.", "About 200,000 Poles fought on the Western Front in the Polish Armed Forces in the West loyal to the government-in-exile, and about 300,000 in the Polish Armed Forces in the East under the Soviet command on the Eastern Front.", "The pro-Soviet resistance movement in Poland, led by the Polish Workers' Party, was active from 1941.It was opposed by the gradually forming extreme nationalistic National Armed Forces.Warsaw Ghetto UprisingBeginning in late 1939, hundreds of thousands of Poles from the Soviet-occupied areas were deported and taken east.", "Of the upper-ranking military personnel and others deemed uncooperative or potentially harmful by the Soviets, about 22,000 were secretly executed by them at the Katyn massacre.", "In April 1943, the Soviet Union broke off deteriorating relations with the Polish government-in-exile after the German military announced the discovery of mass graves containing murdered Polish army officers.", "The Soviets claimed that the Poles committed a hostile act by requesting that the Red Cross investigate these reports.From 1941, the implementation of the Nazi Final Solution began, and the Holocaust in Poland proceeded with force.", "Warsaw was the scene of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in April–May 1943, triggered by the liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto by German SS units.", "The elimination of Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland took place in many cities.", "As the Jewish people were being removed to be exterminated, uprisings were waged against impossible odds by the Jewish Combat Organization and other desperate Jewish insurgents.===Soviet advance 1944–1945, Warsaw Uprising===Gen.", "Władysław Sikorski, prime minister of the Polish government-in-exile and commander-in-chief of Polish armed forces, shortly before his death in 1943At a time of increasing cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union in the wake of the Nazi invasion of 1941, the influence of the Polish government-in-exile was seriously diminished by the death of Prime Minister Władysław Sikorski, its most capable leader, in a plane crash on 4 July 1943.Around that time, Polish-communist civilian and military organizations opposed to the government, led by Wanda Wasilewska and supported by Stalin, were formed in the Soviet Union.In July 1944, the Soviet Red Army and Soviet-controlled Polish People's Army entered the territory of future postwar Poland.", "In protracted fighting in 1944 and 1945, the Soviets and their Polish allies defeated and expelled the German army from Poland at a cost of over 600,000 Soviet soldiers lost.Surrender of the Warsaw UprisingThe greatest single undertaking of the Polish resistance movement in World War II and a major political event was the Warsaw Uprising that began on 1 August 1944.The uprising, in which most of the city's population participated, was instigated by the underground Home Army and approved by the Polish government-in-exile in an attempt to establish a non-communist Polish administration ahead of the arrival of the Red Army.", "The uprising was originally planned as a short-lived armed demonstration in expectation that the Soviet forces approaching Warsaw would assist in any battle to take the city.", "The Soviets had never agreed to an intervention, however, and they halted their advance at the Vistula River.", "The Germans used the opportunity to carry out a brutal suppression of the forces of the pro-Western Polish underground.The bitterly fought uprising lasted for two months and resulted in the death or expulsion from the city of hundreds of thousands of civilians.", "After the defeated Poles surrendered on 2 October, the Germans carried out a planned destruction of Warsaw on Hitler's orders that obliterated the remaining infrastructure of the city.", "The Polish First Army, fighting alongside the Soviet Red Army, entered a devastated Warsaw on 17 January 1945.===Allied conferences, Polish governments===Polish generals on the Eastern FrontFrom the time of the Tehran Conference in late 1943, there was broad agreement among the three Great Powers (the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union) that the locations of the borders between Germany and Poland and between Poland and the Soviet Union would be fundamentally changed after the conclusion of World War II.", "Stalin's view that Poland should be moved far to the west was accepted by Polish communists, whose organizations included the Polish Workers' Party and the Union of Polish Patriots.", "The communist-led State National Council, a quasi-parliamentary body, was in existence in Warsaw from the beginning of 1944.In July 1944, a communist-controlled Polish Committee of National Liberation was established in Lublin, to nominally govern the areas liberated from German control.", "The move prompted protests from Prime Minister Stanisław Mikołajczyk and his Polish government-in-exile.By the time of the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the communists had already established a Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland.", "The Soviet position at the conference was strong because of their decisive contribution to the war effort and as a result of their occupation of immense amounts of land in central and eastern Europe.", "The Great Powers gave assurances that the communist provisional government would be converted into an entity that would include democratic forces from within the country and active abroad, but the London-based government-in-exile was not mentioned.", "A Provisional Government of National Unity and subsequent democratic elections were the agreed stated goals.", "The disappointing results of these plans and the failure of the Western powers to ensure a strong participation of non-communists in the immediate post-war Polish government were seen by many Poles as a manifestation of Western betrayal.===War losses, extermination of Jews and Poles===Samuel Willenberg showing his drawings of the Treblinka extermination camp\|thumb\|rightA lack of accurate data makes it difficult to document numerically the extent of the human losses suffered by Polish citizens during World War II.", "Additionally, many assertions made in the past must be considered suspect due to flawed methodology and a desire to promote certain political agendas.", "The last available enumeration of ethnic Poles and the large ethnic minorities is the Polish census of 1931.Exact population figures for 1939 are therefore not known.According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, at least 3 million Polish Jews and at least 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians were killed.", "According to the historians Brzoza and Sowa, about 2 million ethnic Poles were killed, but it is not known, even approximately, how many Polish citizens of other ethnicities perished, including Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Germans.", "Millions of Polish citizens were deported to Germany for forced labor or to German extermination camps such as Treblinka, Auschwitz and Sobibór.", "Nazi Germany intended to exterminate the Jews completely, in actions that have come to be described collectively as the Holocaust.", "The Poles were to be expelled from areas controlled by Nazi Germany through a process of resettlement that started in 1939.Such Nazi operations matured into a plan known as the ''Generalplan Ost'' that amounted to displacement, enslavement and partial extermination of the Slavic people and was expected to be completed within 15 years.Warsaw destroyed, photo taken January 1945The majority of Poles remained indifferent to the Jewish plight, and neither assisted nor persecuted Jews.", "Of those who have helped rescue, shelter and protect Jews from the Nazi atrocity, Yad Vashem and the State of Israel have recognized 6,992 individuals as ''Righteous Among the Nations''.In an attempt to incapacitate Polish society, the Nazis and the Soviets executed tens of thousands of members of the intelligentsia and community leadership during events such as the German AB-Aktion in Poland, Operation Tannenberg and the Katyn massacre.", "Over 95% of the Jewish losses and 90% of the ethnic Polish losses were caused directly by Nazi Germany, whereas 5% of the ethnic Polish losses were caused by the Soviets and 5% by Ukrainian nationalists.", "The large-scale Jewish presence in Poland that had endured for centuries was rather quickly put to an end by the policies of extermination implemented by the Nazis during the war.", "Waves of displacement and emigration that took place both during and after the war removed from Poland a majority of the Jews who survived.", "Further significant Jewish emigration followed events such as the Polish October political thaw of 1956 and the 1968 Polish political crisis.Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, where at least 1.1 million people were murdered by the Nazi regimeIn 1940–1941, some 325,000 Polish citizens were deported by the Soviet regime.", "The number of Polish citizens who died at the hands of the Soviets is estimated at less than 100,000.In 1943–1944, Ukrainian nationalists associated with the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) and the Ukrainian Insurgent Army perpetrated the Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia.", "Estimates of the number of Polish civilian victims vary greatly, from tens to hundreds of thousands.Approximately 90% of Poland's war casualties were the victims of prisons, death camps, raids, executions, the annihilation of ghettos, epidemics, starvation, excessive work and ill treatment.", "The war left one million children orphaned and 590,000 persons disabled.", "The country lost 38% of its national assets (whereas Britain lost only 0.8%, and France only 1.5%).", "Nearly half of pre-war Poland was expropriated by the Soviet Union, including the two great cultural centers of Lwów and Wilno.The policies of Nazi Germany have been judged after the war by the International Military Tribunal at the Nuremberg trials and Polish genocide trials to be aimed at extermination of Jews, Poles and Roma, and to have \"all the characteristics of genocide in the biological meaning of this term\".===Changing boundaries and population transfers===The PKWN Manifesto, officially issued on 22 July 1944 in Soviet-liberated Poland.", "It heralded the arrival of a communist government imposed by the USSR.By the terms of the 1945 Potsdam Agreement signed by the three victorious Great Powers, the Soviet Union retained most of the territories captured as a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, including western Ukraine and western Belarus, and gained others.", "Lithuania and the Königsberg area of East Prussia were officially incorporated into the Soviet Union, in the case of the former without the recognition of the Western powers.Poland was compensated with the bulk of Silesia, including Breslau (Wrocław) and Grünberg (Zielona Góra), the bulk of Pomerania, including Stettin (Szczecin), and the greater southern portion of the former East Prussia, along with Danzig (Gdańsk), pending a final peace conference with Germany which eventually never took place.", "Collectively referred to by the Polish authorities as the \"Recovered Territories\", they were included in the reconstituted Polish state.", "With Germany's defeat Poland was thus shifted west in relation to its prewar location, to the area between the Oder–Neisse and Curzon lines, which resulted in a country more compact and with much broader access to the sea.", "The Poles lost 70% of their pre-war oil capacity to the Soviets, but gained from the Germans a highly developed industrial base and infrastructure that made a diversified industrial economy possible for the first time in Polish history.Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II: the gray territories were transferred from Poland to the Soviet Union, whereas the pink territories were transferred from Germany to Poland.", "Poland's new eastern border was adjusted in the following years.", "The flight and expulsion of Germans from what was eastern Germany prior to the war began before and during the Soviet conquest of those regions from the Nazis, and the process continued in the years immediately after the war.", "8,030,000 Germans were evacuated, expelled, or migrated by 1950.Early expulsions in Poland were undertaken by the Polish communist authorities even before the Potsdam Conference (the \"wild expulsions\" from June to mid July 1945, when the Polish military and militia expelled nearly all people from the districts immediately east of the Oder–Neisse line), to ensure the establishment of ethnically homogeneous Poland.", "About 1% (100,000) of the German civilian population east of the Oder–Neisse line perished in the fighting prior to the surrender in May 1945, and afterwards some 200,000 Germans in Poland were employed as forced labor prior to being expelled.", "Many Germans died in labor camps such as the Zgoda labour camp and the Potulice camp.", "Of those Germans who remained within the new borders of Poland, many later chose to emigrate to post-war Germany.On the other hand, 1.5–2 million ethnic Poles moved or were expelled from the previously Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union.", "The vast majority were resettled in the former German territories.", "At least one million Poles remained in what had become the Soviet Union, and at least half a million ended up in the West or elsewhere outside of Poland.", "However, contrary to the official declaration that the former German inhabitants of the Recovered Territories had to be removed quickly to house Poles displaced by the Soviet annexation, the Recovered Territories initially faced a severe population shortage.Many exiled Poles could not return to the country for which they had fought because they belonged to political groups incompatible with the new communist regimes, or because they originated from areas of pre-war eastern Poland that were incorporated into the Soviet Union (see Polish population transfers (1944–1946)).", "Some were deterred from returning simply on the strength of warnings that anyone who had served in military units in the West would be endangered.", "Many Poles were pursued, arrested, tortured and imprisoned by the Soviet authorities for belonging to the Home Army or other formations (see Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1946)), or were persecuted because they had fought on the Western front.German refugees fleeing from East Prussia, 1945Territories on both sides of the new Polish-Ukrainian border were also \"ethnically cleansed\".", "Of the Ukrainians and Lemkos living in Poland within the new borders (about 700,000), close to 95% were forcibly moved to the Soviet Ukraine, or (in 1947) to the new territories in northern and western Poland under Operation Vistula.", "In Volhynia, 98% of the Polish pre-war population was either killed or expelled; in Eastern Galicia, the Polish population was reduced by 92%.", "According to Timothy D. Snyder, about 70,000 Poles and about 20,000 Ukrainians were killed in the ethnic violence that occurred in the 1940s, both during and after the war.According to an estimate by historian Jan Grabowski, about 50,000 of the 250,000 Polish Jews who escaped the Nazis during the liquidation of ghettos survived without leaving Poland (the remainder perished).", "More were repatriated from the Soviet Union and elsewhere, and the February 1946 population census showed about 300,000 Jews within Poland's new borders.", "Of the surviving Jews, many chose to emigrate or felt compelled to because of the anti-Jewish violence in Poland.Because of changing borders and the mass movements of people of various nationalities, the emerging communist Poland ended up with a mainly homogeneous, ethnically Polish population (97.6% according to the December 1950 census).", "The remaining members of ethnic minorities were not encouraged, by the authorities or by their neighbors, to emphasize their ethnic identities." ], [ "Polish People's Republic (1945–1989)", "===Post-war struggle for power===Stanisław Mikołajczyk's Polish People's Party tried to outvote the communists in 1947, but the election process was rigged.", "Mikołajczyk had to flee to the West.In response to the February 1945 Yalta Conference directives, a Polish Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in June 1945 under Soviet auspices; it was soon recognized by the United States and many other countries.", "The Soviet domination was apparent from the beginning, as prominent leaders of the Polish Underground State were brought to trial in Moscow (the \"Trial of the Sixteen\" of June 1945).", "In the immediate post-war years, the emerging communist rule was challenged by opposition groups, including militarily by the so-called \"cursed soldiers\", of whom thousands perished in armed confrontations or were pursued by the Ministry of Public Security and executed.", "Such guerillas often pinned their hopes on expectations of an imminent outbreak of World War III and defeat of the Soviet Union.", "The Polish right-wing insurgency faded after the amnesty of February 1947.The Polish people's referendum of June 1946 was arranged by the communist Polish Workers' Party to legitimize its dominance in Polish politics and claim widespread support for the party's policies.", "Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, the Polish legislative election of January 1947 was controlled by the communists.", "Some democratic and pro-Western elements, led by Stanisław Mikołajczyk, former prime minister-in-exile, participated in the Provisional Government and the 1947 elections, but were ultimately eliminated through electoral fraud, intimidation and violence.", "In times of severe political confrontation and radical economic change, members of Mikołajczyk's agrarian movement (the Polish People's Party) attempted to preserve the existing aspects of mixed economy and protect property and other rights.", "However, after the 1947 elections, the Government of National Unity ceased to exist and the communists moved towards abolishing the post-war partially pluralistic \"people's democracy\" and replacing it with a state socialist system.", "The communist-dominated front Democratic Bloc of the 1947 elections, turned into the Front of National Unity in 1952, became officially the source of governmental authority.", "The Polish government-in-exile, lacking international recognition, remained in continuous existence until 1990.===Under Stalinism (1948–1955)===President Bolesław Bierut, leader of Stalinist PolandThe Polish People's Republic (''Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa'') was established under the rule of the communist Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR).", "The name change from the Polish Republic was not officially adopted, however, until the proclamation of the Constitution of the Polish People's Republic in 1952.The ruling PZPR was formed by the forced amalgamation in December 1948 of the communist Polish Workers' Party (PPR) and the historically non-communist Polish Socialist Party (PPS).", "The PPR chief had been its wartime leader Władysław Gomułka, who in 1947 declared a \"Polish road to socialism\" as intended to curb, rather than eradicate, capitalist elements.", "In 1948 he was overruled, removed and imprisoned by Stalinist authorities.", "The PPS, re-established in 1944 by its left wing, had since been allied with the communists.", "The ruling communists, who in post-war Poland preferred to use the term \"socialism\" instead of \"communism\" to identify their ideological basis, needed to include the socialist junior partner to broaden their appeal, claim greater legitimacy and eliminate competition on the political Left.", "The socialists, who were losing their organization, were subjected to political pressure, ideological cleansing and purges in order to become suitable for unification on the terms of the PPR.", "The leading pro-communist leaders of the socialists were the prime ministers Edward Osóbka-Morawski and Józef Cyrankiewicz.During the most oppressive phase of the Stalinist period (1948–1953), terror was justified in Poland as necessary to eliminate reactionary subversion.", "Many thousands of perceived opponents of the regime were arbitrarily tried and large numbers were executed.", "The People's Republic was led by discredited Soviet operatives such as Bolesław Bierut, Jakub Berman and Konstantin Rokossovsky.", "The independent Catholic Church in Poland was subjected to property confiscations and other curtailments from 1949, and in 1950 was pressured into signing an accord with the government.", "In 1953 and later, despite a partial thaw after the death of Stalin that year, the persecution of the Church intensified and its head, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński, was detained.", "A key event in the persecution of the Polish Church was the Stalinist show trial of the Kraków Curia in January 1953.In the Warsaw Pact, formed in 1955, the Polish Army was the second largest, after the Soviet Army.===Economic and social developments of the early communist era===Primate Stefan Wyszyński's leadership led to the exceptional strength of the Polish Catholic ChurchIn 1944, large agricultural holdings and former German property in Poland started to be redistributed through land reform, and industry started to be nationalized.", "Communist restructuring and the imposition of work-space rules encountered active worker opposition already in the years 1945–1947.The moderate Three-Year Plan of 1947–1949 continued with the rebuilding, socialization and socialist restructuring of the economy.", "It was followed by the Six-Year Plan of 1950–1955 for heavy industry.", "The rejection of the Marshall Plan in 1947 made aspirations for catching up with West European standards of living unrealistic.Communist aspirations were symbolized by the Palace of Culture and Science in WarsawThe government's highest economic priority was the development of heavy industry useful to the military.", "State-run or controlled institutions common in all the socialist countries of eastern Europe were imposed on Poland, including collective farms and worker cooperatives.", "The latter were dismantled in the late 1940s as not socialist enough, although they were later re-established; even small-scale private enterprises were eradicated.", "Stalinism introduced heavy political and ideological propaganda and indoctrination in social life, culture and education.Great strides were made, however, in the areas of employment (which became nearly full), universal public education (which nearly eradicated adult illiteracy), health care and recreational amenities.", "Many historic sites, including the central districts of Warsaw and Gdańsk, both devastated during the war, were rebuilt at great cost.The communist industrialization program led to increased urbanization and educational and career opportunities for the intended beneficiaries of the social transformation, along the lines of the peasants-workers-working intelligentsia paradigm.", "The most significant improvement was accomplished in the lives of Polish peasants, many of whom were able to leave their impoverished and overcrowded village communities for better conditions in urban centers.", "Those who stayed behind took advantage of the implementation of the 1944 land reform decree of the Polish Committee of National Liberation, which terminated the antiquated but widespread parafeudal socioeconomic relations in Poland.", "The Stalinist attempts at establishing collective farms generally failed.", "Due to urbanization, the national percentage of the rural population decreased in communist Poland by about 50%.", "A majority of Poland's residents of cities and towns still live in apartment blocks built during the communist era, in part to accommodate migrants from rural areas.===The Thaw and Gomułka's Polish October (1955–1958)===Władysław Gomułka addressing the crowd in Warsaw in October 1956In March 1956, after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in Moscow ushered in de-Stalinization, Edward Ochab was chosen to replace the deceased Bolesław Bierut as first secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party.", "As a result, Poland was rapidly overtaken by social restlessness and reformist undertakings; thousands of political prisoners were released and many people previously persecuted were officially rehabilitated.", "Worker riots in Poznań in June 1956 were violently suppressed, but they gave rise to the formation of a reformist current within the communist party.Amidst the continuing social and national upheaval, a further shakeup took place in the party leadership as part of what is known as the Polish October of 1956.While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime led by Władysław Gomułka, the new first secretary of the PZPR, liberalized internal life in Poland.", "The dependence on the Soviet Union was somewhat mollified, and the state's relationships with the Church and Catholic lay activists were put on a new footing.", "A repatriation agreement with the Soviet Union allowed the repatriation of hundreds of thousands of Poles who were still in Soviet hands, including many former political prisoners.", "Collectivization efforts were abandoned—agricultural land, unlike in other Comecon countries, remained for the most part in the private ownership of farming families.", "State-mandated provisions of agricultural products at fixed, artificially low prices were reduced, and from 1972 eliminated.The legislative election of 1957 was followed by several years of political stability that was accompanied by economic stagnation and curtailment of reforms and reformists.", "One of the last initiatives of the brief reform era was a nuclear weapons–free zone in Central Europe proposed in 1957 by Adam Rapacki, Poland's foreign minister.Culture in the Polish People's Republic, to varying degrees linked to the intelligentsia's opposition to the authoritarian system, developed to a sophisticated level under Gomułka and his successors.", "The creative process was often compromised by state censorship, but significant works were created in fields such as literature, theater, cinema and music, among others.", "Journalism of veiled understanding and varieties of native and Western popular culture were well represented.", "Uncensored information and works generated by émigré circles were conveyed through a variety of channels.", "The Paris-based ''Kultura'' magazine developed a conceptual framework for dealing with the issues of borders and the neighbors of a future free Poland, but for ordinary Poles Radio Free Europe was of foremost importance.===Stagnation and crackdown (1958–1970)===Apartment blocks built in communist Poland (these located in Poznań)One of the confirmations of the end of an era of greater tolerance was the expulsion from the communist party of several prominent \"Marxist revisionists\" in the 1960s.In 1965, the Conference of Polish Bishops issued the Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops, a gesture intended to heal bad mutual feelings left over from World War II.", "In 1966, the celebrations of the 1,000th anniversary of the Christianization of Poland led by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński and other bishops turned into a huge demonstration of the power and popularity of the Catholic Church in Poland.The post-1956 liberalizing trend, in decline for a number of years, was reversed in March 1968, when student demonstrations were suppressed during the 1968 Polish political crisis.", "Motivated in part by the Prague Spring movement, the Polish opposition leaders, intellectuals, academics and students used a historical-patriotic ''Dziady'' theater spectacle series in Warsaw (and its termination forced by the authorities) as a springboard for protests, which soon spread to other centers of higher education and turned nationwide.", "The authorities responded with a major crackdown on opposition activity, including the firing of faculty and the dismissal of students at universities and other institutions of learning.", "At the center of the controversy was also the small number of Catholic deputies in the Sejm (the Znak Association members) who attempted to defend the students.In an official speech, Gomułka drew attention to the role of Jewish activists in the events taking place.", "This provided ammunition to a nationalistic and antisemitic communist party faction headed by Mieczysław Moczar that was opposed to Gomułka's leadership.", "Using the context of the military victory of Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967, some in the Polish communist leadership waged an antisemitic campaign against the remnants of the Jewish community in Poland.", "The targets of this campaign were accused of disloyalty and active sympathy with Israeli aggression.", "Branded \"Zionists\", they were scapegoated and blamed for the unrest in March 1968, which eventually led to the emigration of much of Poland's remaining Jewish population (about 15,000 Polish citizens left the country).With the active support of the Gomułka regime, the Polish People's Army took part in the infamous Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, after the Brezhnev Doctrine was informally announced.In the final major achievement of Gomułka diplomacy, the governments of Poland and West Germany signed in December 1970 the Treaty of Warsaw, which normalized their relations and made possible meaningful cooperation in a number of areas of bilateral interest.", "In particular, West Germany recognized the post-World War II ''de facto'' border between Poland and East Germany.===Worker revolts, reforms of Gierek, the Polish pope and Solidarity (1970–1981)===1970 protests on the Baltic CoastPrice increases for essential consumer goods triggered the Polish protests of 1970.In December, there were disturbances and strikes in the Baltic Sea port cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin that reflected deep dissatisfaction with living and working conditions in the country.", "The activity was centered in the industrial shipyard areas of the three coastal cities.", "Dozens of protesting workers and bystanders were killed in police and military actions, generally under the authority of Gomułka and Minister of Defense Wojciech Jaruzelski.", "In the aftermath, Edward Gierek replaced Gomułka as first secretary of the communist party.", "The new regime was seen as more modern, friendly and pragmatic, and at first it enjoyed a degree of popular and foreign support.First Secretary Edward Gierek (second from left) was unable to reverse Poland's economic declineTo revitalize the economy, from 1971 the Gierek regime introduced wide-ranging reforms that involved large-scale foreign borrowing.", "These actions initially caused improved conditions for consumers, but in a few years the strategy backfired and the economy deteriorated.", "Another attempt to raise food prices resulted in the June 1976 protests.", "The Workers' Defence Committee (KOR), established in response to the crackdown that followed, consisted of dissident intellectuals determined to support industrial workers, farmers and students persecuted by the authorities.", "The opposition circles active in the late 1970s were emboldened by the Helsinki Conference processes.In October 1978, the Archbishop of Kraków, Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła, became Pope John Paul II, head of the Catholic Church.", "Catholics and others rejoiced at the elevation of a Pole to the papacy and greeted his June 1979 visit to Poland with an outpouring of emotion.Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s, but much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally planned economy was unable to use the new resources effectively.", "The 1973 oil crisis caused recession and high interest rates in the West, to which the Polish government had to respond with sharp domestic consumer price increases.", "The growing debt burden became insupportable in the late 1970s, and negative economic growth set in by 1979.Lech Wałęsa in 1980Around 1 July 1980, with the Polish foreign debt standing at more than $20 billion, the government made yet another attempt to increase meat prices.", "Workers responded with escalating work stoppages that culminated in the 1980 general strikes in Lublin.", "In mid-August, labor protests at the Gdańsk Shipyard gave rise to a chain reaction of strikes that virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of the month and, for the first time, closed most coal mines in Silesia.", "The Inter-Enterprise Strike Committee coordinated the strike action across hundreds of workplaces and formulated the 21 demands as the basis for negotiations with the authorities.", "The Strike Committee was sovereign in its decision-making, but was aided by a team of \"expert\" advisers that included the well-known dissidents Jacek Kuroń, Karol Modzelewski, Bronisław Geremek and Tadeusz Mazowiecki.agreement between leaders of striking workers and government representatives in Szczecin in August 1980On 31 August 1980, representatives of workers at the Gdańsk Shipyard, led by an electrician and activist Lech Wałęsa, signed the Gdańsk Agreement with the government that ended their strike.", "Similar agreements were concluded in Szczecin (the Szczecin Agreement) and in Silesia.", "The key provision of these agreements was the guarantee of the workers' right to form independent trade unions and the right to strike.", "Following the successful resolution of the largest labor confrontation in communist Poland's history, nationwide union organizing movements swept the country.Edward Gierek was blamed by the Soviets for not following their \"fraternal\" advice, not shoring up the communist party and the official trade unions and allowing \"anti-socialist\" forces to emerge.", "On 5 September 1980, Gierek was replaced by Stanisław Kania as first secretary of the PZPR.Delegates of the emergent worker committees from all over Poland gathered in Gdańsk on 17 September and decided to form a single national union organization named \"Solidarity\".While party–controlled courts took up the contentious issues of Solidarity's legal registration as a trade union (finalized by November 10), planning had already begun for the imposition of martial law.", "A parallel farmers' union was organized and strongly opposed by the regime, but Rural Solidarity was eventually registered (12 May 1981).", "In the meantime, a rapid deterioration of the authority of the communist party, disintegration of state power and escalation of demands and threats by the various Solidarity–affiliated groups were occurring.", "According to Kuroń, a \"tremendous social democratization movement in all spheres\" was taking place and could not be contained.", "Wałęsa had meetings with Kania, which brought no resolution to the impasse.General Wojciech Jaruzelski meeting Soviet security chief Yuri Andropov during the 1980 crisis.", "Jaruzelski was about to become the (last) leader of communist Poland.Following the Warsaw Pact summit in Moscow, the Soviet Union proceeded with a massive military build-up along Poland's border in December 1980, but during the summit Kania forcefully argued with Leonid Brezhnev and other allied communists leaders against the feasibility of an external military intervention, and no action was taken.", "The United States, under presidents Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan, repeatedly warned the Soviets about the consequences of a direct intervention, while discouraging an open insurrection in Poland and signaling to the Polish opposition that there would be no rescue by the NATO forces.In February 1981, Defense Minister General Wojciech Jaruzelski assumed the position of prime minister.", "The Solidarity social revolt had thus far been free of any major use of force, but in March 1981 in Bydgoszcz three activists were beaten up by the secret police.", "In a nationwide \"warning strike\" the 9.5-million-strong Solidarity union was supported by the population at large, but a general strike was called off by Wałęsa after the 30 March settlement with the government.", "Both Solidarity and the communist party were badly split and the Soviets were losing patience.", "Kania was re-elected at the Party Congress in July, but the collapse of the economy continued and so did the general disorder.At the first Solidarity National Congress in September–October 1981 in Gdańsk, Lech Wałęsa was elected national chairman of the union with 55% of the vote.", "An appeal was issued to the workers of the other East European countries, urging them to follow in the footsteps of Solidarity.", "To the Soviets, the gathering was an \"anti-socialist and anti-Soviet orgy\" and the Polish communist leaders, increasingly led by Jaruzelski and General Czesław Kiszczak, were ready to apply force.In October 1981, Jaruzelski was named first secretary of the PZPR.", "The Plenum's vote was 180 to 4, and he kept his government posts.", "Jaruzelski asked parliament to ban strikes and allow him to exercise extraordinary powers, but when neither request was granted, he decided to proceed with his plans anyway.===The martial law, Jaruzelski's rule and the end of communism (1981–1989)===Martial law enforced in December 1981On 12–13 December 1981, the regime declared martial law in Poland, under which the army and the ZOMO special police forces were used to crush Solidarity.", "The Soviet leaders insisted that Jaruzelski pacifies the opposition with the forces at his disposal, without Soviet involvement.", "Almost all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained.", "Nine workers were killed in the Pacification of Wujek.", "The United States and other Western countries responded by imposing economic sanctions against Poland and the Soviet Union.", "Unrest in the country was subdued, but continued.During martial law, Poland was ruled by the so-called Military Council of National Salvation.", "The open or semi-open opposition communications, as recently practiced, were replaced by underground publishing (known in the eastern bloc as Samizdat), and Solidarity was reduced to a few thousand underground activists.Having achieved some semblance of stability, the Polish regime relaxed and then rescinded martial law over several stages.", "By December 1982 martial law was suspended and a small number of political prisoners, including Wałęsa, were released.", "Although martial law formally ended in July 1983 and a partial amnesty was enacted, several hundred political prisoners remained in jail.", "Jerzy Popiełuszko, a popular pro-Solidarity priest, was abducted and murdered by security functionaries in October 1984.Pope John Paul II in Poland, 1987Further developments in Poland occurred concurrently with and were influenced by the reformist leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union (processes known as Glasnost and Perestroika).", "In September 1986, a general amnesty was declared and the government released nearly all political prisoners.", "However, the country lacked basic stability, as the regime's efforts to organize society from the top down had failed, while the opposition's attempts at creating an \"alternate society\" were also unsuccessful.", "With the economic crisis unresolved and societal institutions dysfunctional, both the ruling establishment and the opposition began looking for ways out of the stalemate.", "Facilitated by the indispensable mediation of the Catholic Church, exploratory contacts were established.Student protests resumed in February 1988.Continuing economic decline led to strikes across the country in April, May and August.", "The Soviet Union, increasingly destabilized, was unwilling to apply military or other pressure to prop up allied regimes in trouble.", "The Polish government felt compelled to negotiate with the opposition and in September 1988 preliminary talks with Solidarity leaders ensued in Magdalenka.", "Numerous meetings that took place involved Wałęsa and General Kiszczak, among others.", "In November, the regime made a major public relations mistake by allowing a televised debate between Wałęsa and Alfred Miodowicz, chief of the All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions, the official trade union organization.", "The fitful bargaining and intra-party squabbling led to the official Round Table Negotiations in 1989, followed by the Polish legislative election in June of that year, a watershed event marking the fall of communism in Poland." ], [ "Third Polish Republic (1989–today)", "===Systemic transition===Polish Round Table in the Presidential Palace where an agreement between the communists and the opposition was signed on 4 April 1989The Polish Round Table Agreement of April 1989 called for local self-government, policies of job guarantees, legalization of independent trade unions and many wide-ranging reforms.", "The current Sejm promptly implemented the deal and agreed to National Assembly elections that were set for 4 June and 18 June.", "Only 35% of the seats in the Sejm (national legislature's lower house) and all of the Senate seats were freely contested; the remaining Sejm seats (65%) were guaranteed for the communists and their allies.The failure of the communists at the polls (almost all of the contested seats were won by the opposition) resulted in a political crisis.", "The new April Novelization to the constitution called for re-establishment of the Polish presidency and on 19 July the National Assembly elected the communist leader, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, to that office.", "His election, seen at the time as politically necessary, was barely accomplished with tacit support from some Solidarity deputies, and the new president's position was not strong.", "Moreover, the unexpected definitiveness of the parliamentary election results created new political dynamics and attempts by the communists to form a government failed.On 19 August, President Jaruzelski asked journalist and Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to form a government; on 12 September, the Sejm voted approval of Prime Minister Mazowiecki and his cabinet.", "Mazowiecki decided to leave the economic reform entirely in the hands of economic liberals led by the new Deputy Prime Minister Leszek Balcerowicz, who proceeded with the design and implementation of his \"shock therapy\" policy.", "For the first time in post-war history, Poland had a government led by non-communists, setting a precedent soon to be followed by other Eastern Bloc nations in a phenomenon known as the Revolutions of 1989.Mazowiecki's acceptance of the \"thick line\" formula meant that there would be no \"witch-hunt\", i.e., an absence of revenge seeking or exclusion from politics in regard to former communist officials.In part because of the attempted indexation of wages, inflation reached 900% by the end of 1989, but was soon dealt with by means of radical methods.", "In December 1989, the Sejm approved the Balcerowicz Plan to transform the Polish economy rapidly from a centrally planned one to a free market economy.", "The Constitution of the Polish People's Republic was amended to eliminate references to the \"leading role\" of the communist party and the country was renamed the \"Republic of Poland\".", "The communist Polish United Workers' Party dissolved itself in January 1990.In its place, a new party, Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland, was created.", "\"Territorial self-government\", abolished in 1950, was legislated back in March 1990, to be led by locally elected officials; its fundamental unit was the administratively independent gmina.In October 1990, the constitution was amended to curtail the term of President Jaruzelski.", "In November 1990, the German–Polish Border Treaty, with unified Germany, was signed.In November 1990, Lech Wałęsa was elected president for a five-year term; in December, he became the first popularly elected president of Poland.", "Poland's first free parliamentary election was held in October 1991.18 parties entered the new Sejm, but the largest representation received only 12% of the total vote.===Democratic constitution, NATO and European Union memberships===There were several post-Solidarity governments between the 1989 election and the 1993 election, after which the \"post-communist\" left-wing parties took over.", "In 1993, the formerly Soviet Northern Group of Forces, a vestige of past domination, left Poland.In 1995, Aleksander Kwaśniewski of the Social Democratic Party was elected president and remained in that capacity for the next ten years (two terms).In 1997, the new Constitution of Poland was finalized and approved in a referendum; it replaced the Small Constitution of 1992, an amended version of the communist constitution.Poland joined NATO in 1999.Elements of the Polish Armed Forces have since participated in the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021).", "Poland joined the European Union as part of its enlargement in 2004.However, Poland has not adopted the euro as its currency and legal tender, but instead uses the Polish złoty.In April 2010, Polish president Lech Kaczynski and dozens of the country's top political and military leaders died in the Smolensk air disaster.After the election of the conservative Law and Justice party in 2015, the Polish government repeatedly clashed with EU institutions on the issue of judicial reform and was accused by the European Commission and the European Parliament of undermining \"European Values\" and eroding democratic standards.", "However, the Polish government headed by the Law and Justice party maintained that the reforms were necessary due to the prevalence of corruption within the Polish judiciary and the continued presence of holdover Communist era judges.In October 2019, Poland's governing Law and Justice party (PiS) won parliamentary election, keeping its majority in the lower house.", "The second was centrist Civic Coalition (KO).", "The government of Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki continued.", "However, PiS leader Jarosław Kaczyński was considered the most powerful political figure in Poland although not a member of government.", "In July 2020, President Andrzej Duda, supported by PiS, was re-elected.Poland has been one of neigbouring Ukraine’s most ardent supporters after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "As of November 2022, Poland had received more than 1.5 million Ukrainian refugees since the beginning of the war.", "In September 2023, however, Poland said that it will stop supplying arms to Ukraine and instead focus on its own defense.", "Poland's decision to ban importing Ukrainian grain, in order to protect its own farmers, had caused tension between the two countries.In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the largest share of the vote in the election, but lost its majority in parliament.", "In December 2023, Donald Tusk became the new Prime Minister to succeed Morawiecki, leading a coalition of three parliamentary groups made up of Civic Coalition, Third Way, and The Left.", "Law and Justice became the leading opposition party." ], [ "See also", "Historia narodu polskiegoHistory of EuropeHistory of the Jews in PolandList of Polish monarchsList of heads of state of PolandList of prime ministers of PolandHistory of the Polish ArmyPolish hussarsPolitics of Poland" ], [ "Notes", "''a.", "''Piłsudski's family roots in the Polonized gentry of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the resulting perspective of seeing himself and people like him as legitimate Lithuanians put him in conflict with modern Lithuanian nationalists (who in Piłsudski's lifetime redefined the scope and meaning of the \"Lithuanian\" identity), and, by extension, with other nationalists including the Polish modern nationalist movement.''b.", "''In 1938, Poland and Romania refused to agree to a Franco-British proposal that in the event of war with Nazi Germany, Soviet forces would be allowed to cross their territories to aid Czechoslovakia.", "The Polish ruling elites considered the Soviets in some ways more threatening than the Nazis.The Soviet Union repeatedly declared intention to fulfill its obligations under the 1935 treaty with Czechoslovakia and defend Czechoslovakia militarily.", "A transfer of land and air forces through Poland and/or Romania was required and the Soviets approached about it the French, who also had a treaty with Czechoslovakia (and with Poland and with the Soviet Union).", "Edward Rydz-Śmigły rebuked the French suggestion on that matter in 1936, and in 1938 Józef Beck pressured Romania not to allow even Soviet warplanes to fly over its territory.", "Like Hungary, Poland was looking into using the German-Czechoslovak conflict to settle its own territorial grievances, namely disputes over parts of Trans-Olza, Spiš and Orava.''c.''", "In October 1939, the British Foreign Office notified the Soviets that the United Kingdom would be satisfied with a postwar creation of small ethnic Poland, patterned after the Duchy of Warsaw.", "An establishment of Poland restricted to \"minimal size\", according to ethnographic boundaries (such as the lands common to both the prewar Poland and postwar Poland), was planned by the Soviet People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs in 1943–1944.Such territorial reduction was recommended by Ivan Maisky to Vyacheslav Molotov in early 1944, because of what Maisky saw as Poland's historically unfriendly disposition toward Russia and the Soviet Union, likely in some way to continue.", "Joseph Stalin opted for a larger version, allowing a \"swap\" (territorial compensation for Poland), which involved the eastern lands gained by Poland at the Peace of Riga of 1921 and now lost, and eastern Germany conquered from the Nazis in 1944–1945.In regard to the several major disputed areas: Lower Silesia west of the Oder and the Eastern Neisse rivers (the British wanted it to remain a part of the future German state), Stettin (in 1945 the German communists already established their administration there), \"Zakerzonia\" (western Red Ruthenia demanded by the Ukrainians), and the Białystok region (Białystok was claimed by the communists of the Byelorussian SSR), the Soviet leader made decisions that favored Poland.Other territorial and ethnic scenarios were also possible, generally with possible outcomes less advantageous to Poland than the form the country assumed.''d.", "''Timothy D. Snyder spoke of about 100,000 Jews killed by Poles during the Nazi occupation, the majority probably by members of the collaborationist Blue Police.", "This number would have likely been many times higher had Poland entered into an alliance with Germany in 1939, as advocated by some Polish historians and others.''e.", "''Some may have falsely claimed the Jewish identity hoping for permission to emigrate.", "The communist authorities, pursuing the concept of Poland of single ethnicity (in accordance with the recent border changes and expulsions), were allowing the Jews to leave the country.", "For a discussion of early communist Poland's ethnic politics, see Timothy D. Snyder, ''The Reconstruction of Nations'', chapters on modern \"Ukrainian Borderland\".''f.", "''A Communist Party of Poland had existed in the past, but was eliminated in Stalin's purges in 1938.''g.", "''The Soviet leadership, which had previously ordered the crushing of the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the Prague Spring in 1968, in late 1970 became worried about potential demoralizing effects that deployment against Polish workers would have on the Polish army, a crucial Warsaw Pact component.", "The Soviets withdrew their support for Gomułka, who insisted on the use of force; he and his close associates were subsequently ousted from the Polish Politburo by the Polish Central Committee.''h.", "''East of the Molotov-Ribbentrop line, the population was 43% Polish, 33% Ukrainian, 8% Belarusian and 8% Jewish.", "The Soviet Union did not want to appear as an aggressor, and moved its troops to eastern Poland under the pretext of offering protection to \"the kindred Ukrainian and Belorussian people\".''i.", "''Joseph Stalin at the 1943 Tehran Conference discussed with Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt new post-war borders in central-eastern Europe, including the shape of a future Poland.", "He endorsed the Piast Concept, which justified a massive shift of Poland's frontiers to the west.", "Stalin resolved to secure and stabilize the western reaches of the Soviet Union and disable the future military potential of Germany by constructing a compact and ethnically defined Poland (along with the Soviet ethnic Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania) and by radically altering the region's system of national borders.", "After 1945, the Polish communist regime wholeheartedly adopted and promoted the Piast Concept, making it the centerpiece of their claim to be the true inheritors of Polish nationalism.", "After all the killings and population transfers during and after the war, the country was 99% \"Polish\".''j.", "''\"All the currently available documents of Nazi administration show that, together with the Jews, the stratum of the Polish intelligentsia was marked for total extermination.", "In fact, Nazi Germany achieved this goal almost by half, since Poland lost 50 percent of her citizens with university diplomas and 35 percent of those with a gimnazium diploma.\"", "According to Brzoza and Sowa, 450,000 of Polish citizens had completed higher, secondary, or trade school education by the outbreak of the war.", "37.5% of people with higher education perished, 30% of those with general secondary education, and 53.3% of trade school graduates.''k.", "''Decisive political events took place in Poland shortly before the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.Władysław Gomułka, a reformist party leader, was reinstated to the Politburo of the PZPR and the Eighth Plenum of its Central Committee was announced to convene on 19 October 1956, all without seeking a Soviet approval.", "The Soviet Union responded with military moves and intimidation and its \"military-political delegation\", led by Nikita Khrushchev, quickly arrived in Warsaw.", "Gomułka tried to convince them of his loyalty but insisted on the reforms that he considered essential, including a replacement of Poland's Soviet-trusted minister of defense, Konstantin Rokossovsky.", "The disconcerted Soviets returned to Moscow, the PZPR Plenum elected Gomułka first secretary and removed Rokossovsky from the Politburo.", "On 21 October, the Soviet Presidium followed Khrushchev's lead and decided unanimously to \"refrain from military intervention\" in Poland, a decision likely influenced also by the ongoing preparations for the invasion of Hungary.", "The Soviet gamble paid off, because Gomułka in the coming years turned out to be a very dependable Soviet ally and an orthodox communist.However, unlike the other Warsaw Pact countries, Poland did not endorse the Soviet armed intervention in Hungary.", "The Hungarian Revolution was intensely supported by the Polish public.''l.", "''The delayed reinforcements were coming and the government military commanders General Tadeusz Rozwadowski and Władysław Anders wanted to keep on fighting the coup perpetrators, but President Stanisław Wojciechowski and the government decided to surrender to prevent the imminent spread of civil war.", "The coup brought to power the \"Sanation\" regime under Józef Piłsudski (Edward Rydz-Śmigły after Piłsudski's death).", "The Sanation regime persecuted the opposition within the military and in general.", "Rozwadowski died after abusive imprisonment, according to some accounts murdered.", "Another major opponent of Piłsudski, General Włodzimierz Zagórski, disappeared in 1927.According to Aleksandra Piłsudska, the marshal's wife, following the coup and for the rest of his life Piłsudski lost his composure and appeared over-burdened.At the time of Rydz-Śmigły's command, the Sanation camp embraced the ideology of Roman Dmowski, Piłsudski's nemesis.", "Rydz-Śmigły did not allow General Władysław Sikorski, an enemy of the Sanation movement, to participate as a soldier in the country's defense against the Invasion of Poland in September 1939.During World War II in France and then in Britain, the Polish government-in-exile became dominated by anti-Sanation politicians.", "The perceived Sanation followers were in turn persecuted (in exile) under prime ministers Sikorski and Stanisław Mikołajczyk.''m.", "''General Zygmunt Berling of the Soviet-allied First Polish Army attempted in mid-September a crossing of the Vistula and landing at Czerniaków to aid the insurgents, but the operation was defeated by the Germans and the Poles suffered heavy losses.''n.", "''The decision to launch the Warsaw Uprising resulted in the destruction of the city, its population and its elites and has been a source of lasting controversy.", "According to the historians Czesław Brzoza and Andrzej Leon Sowa, orders of further military offensives, issued at the end of August 1944 as a continuation of Operation Tempest, show a loss of the sense of responsibility for the country's fate on the part of the underground Polish leadership.''o.", "''One of the party leaders Mieczysław Rakowski, who abandoned his mentor Gomułka following the 1970 crisis, saw the demands of the demonstrating workers as \"exclusively socialist\" in character, because of the way they were phrased.", "Most people in communist Poland, including opposition activists, did not question the supremacy of socialism or the socialist idea; misconduct by party officials, such as not following the provisions of the constitution, was blamed.", "From the time of Gierek, this assumed standard of political correctness was increasingly challenged: pluralism, and then free market, became frequently used concepts.''p.", "''The Polish Sanation authorities were provoked by the independence-seeking Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).", "OUN engaged in political assassinations, terror and sabotage, to which the Polish state responded with a repressive campaign in the 1930s, as Józef Piłsudski and his successors imposed collective responsibility on the villagers in the affected areas.", "After the disturbances of 1933 and 1934, the Bereza Kartuska prison camp was established; it became notorious for its brutal regime.", "The government brought Polish settlers and administrators to parts of Volhynia with a centuries-old tradition of Ukrainian peasant rising against Polish land owners (and to Eastern Galicia).", "In the late 1930s, after Piłsudski's death, military persecution intensified and a policy of \"national assimilation\" was aggressively pursued.", "Military raids, public beatings, property confiscations and the closing and destruction of Orthodox churches aroused lasting enmity in Galicia and antagonized Ukrainian society in Volhynia at the worst possible moment, according to Timothy D. Snyder.", "However, he also notes that \"Ukrainian terrorism and Polish reprisals touched only part of the population, leaving vast regions unaffected\" and \"the OUN's nationalist prescription, a Ukrainian state for ethnic Ukrainians alone was far from popular\".", "Halik Kochanski wrote of the legacy of bitterness between the Ukrainians and Poles that soon exploded in the context of World War II.", "See also: History of the Ukrainian minority in Poland.''q.", "''In Poland, officials of central government (the provincial office of ''wojewoda'') can overrule elected territorial and municipal local governments.", "However, in such cases ''wojewoda'' decisions have sometimes been invalidated by courts.''r.", "''Foreign policy was one of the few governmental areas in which Piłsudski took an active interest.", "He saw Poland's role and opportunity as lying in Eastern Europe and advocated passive relations with the West.", "He felt that a German attack should not be feared, because even if this unlikely event were to take place, the Western powers would be bound to restrain Germany and come to Poland's rescue.''s.", "''According to the researcher Jan Sowa, the Commonwealth failed as a state because it was not able to conform to the emerging new European order established at the Peace of Westphalia of 1648.Poland's elective kings, restricted by the self-serving and short-sighted nobility, could not impose a strong and efficient central government with its characteristic post-Westphalian internal and external sovereignty.", "The inability of Polish kings to levy and collect taxes (and therefore sustain a standing army) and conduct independent foreign policy were among the chief obstacles to Poland competing effectively on the changed European scene, where absolutist power was a prerequisite for survival and became the foundation for the abolition of serfdom and gradual formation of parliamentarism.''t.", "''Besides the Home Army there were other major underground fighting formations: Bataliony Chłopskie, National Armed Forces (NSZ) and Gwardia Ludowa (later Armia Ludowa).", "From 1943, the leaders of the nationalistic NSZ collaborated with Nazi Germany in a case unique in occupied Poland.", "The NSZ conducted an anti-communist civil war.", "Before the arrival of the Soviets, the NSZ's Holy Cross Mountains Brigade left Poland under the protection of the German army.", "According to the historians Czesław Brzoza and Andrzej Leon Sowa, participation figures given for the underground resistance are often inflated.", "In the spring of 1944, the time of the most extensive involvement of the underground organizations, there were most likely considerably fewer than 500,000 military and civilian personnel participating, over the entire spectrum, from the right wing to the communists.''u.", "''According to Jerzy Eisler, about 1.1 million people may have been imprisoned or detained in 1944–1956 and about 50,000 may have died because of the struggle and persecution, including about 7,000 soldiers of the right-wing underground killed in the 1940s.", "According to Adam Leszczyński, up to 30,000 people were killed by the communist regime during the first several years after the war.''v.", "''According to Andrzej Stelmachowski, one of the key participants of the Polish systemic transformation, Minister Leszek Balcerowicz pursued extremely liberal economic policies, often extraordinarily painful for society.", "The December 1989 Sejm statute of credit relations reform introduced an \"incredible\" system of privileges for banks, which were allowed to unilaterally alter interest rates on already existing contracts.", "The exceedingly high rates they instantly introduced ruined many previously profitable enterprises and caused a complete breakdown of the apartment block construction industry, which had long-term deleterious effects on the state budget as well.", "Balcerowicz's policies also caused permanent damage to Polish agriculture, an area in which he lacked expertise, and to the often successful and useful Polish cooperative movement.According to Karol Modzelewski, a dissident and critic of the economic transformation, in 1989 Solidarity no longer existed, having been in reality eliminated during the martial law period.", "What the \"post-Solidarity elites\" did in 1989 amounted to a betrayal of the old Solidarity base, and the retribution was only a matter of time.''w.", "''Led by Władysław Anders, the Polish II Corps fought in 1944–1945 in the Allied Italian Campaign, where the corps' main engagement was the Battle of Monte Cassino.''x.", "''The Piast Concept, of which the chief proponent was Jan Ludwik Popławski (late 19th century), was based on the claim that the Piast homeland was inhabited by so-called \"native\" aboriginal Slavs and Slavonic Poles since time immemorial and only later was \"infiltrated\" by \"alien\" Celts, Germanic peoples, and others.", "After 1945, the so-called \"autochthonous\" or \"aboriginal\" school of Polish prehistory received official backing and a considerable degree of popular support in Poland.", "According to this view, the Lusatian Culture, which flourished between the Oder and the Vistula in the early Iron Age, was said to be Slavonic; all non-Slavonic tribes and peoples recorded in the area at various points in ancient times were dismissed as \"migrants\" and \"visitors\".", "In contrast, the critics of this theory, such as Marija Gimbutas, regarded it as an unproved hypotheses and for them the date and origin of the westward migration of the Slavs were largely uncharted; the Slavonic connections of the Lusatian Culture were entirely imaginary; and the presence of an ethnically mixed and constantly changing collection of peoples on the North European Plain was taken for granted.''y.", "''According to the count presented by Prime Minister and Internal Affairs Minister Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski before the Sejm committee in January 1938, 818 people were killed in police suppression of labor protests (industrial and agricultural) during the 1932–1937 period.''z.", "''John II Casimir Vasa is known for his remarkable and accurate prediction of the Partitions of Poland, made over a century before the event's occurrence.''a1.", "''According to war historian Ben Macintyre, \"The Polish contribution to allied victory in the Second World War was extraordinary, perhaps even decisive, but for many years it was disgracefully played down, obscured by the politics of the Cold War.\"''b1.", "''Piłsudski left the Polish Socialist Party in 1914 and severed his connections with the socialist movement, but many activists from the Left and of other political orientations presumed his continuing involvement there.''c1.", "''Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points program was subsequently weakened by internal developments in the US, Britain, France, and Germany.", "In the last case, Poland was denied the city of Danzig on the Baltic coast.''d1.", "''The government of Soviet Russia issued in August 1918 a decree strongly supportive of the independence of Poland, but at that time no Polish lands were under Russian control." ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Works cited ===************************************** *********************************************" ], [ "Bibliography", "'''Academic journals''''''More recent general history of Poland books in English''' Biskupski, M. B.", "''The History of Poland''.", "Greenwood, 2000.264 pp.", "online edition * Dabrowski, Patrice M. ''Poland: The First Thousand Years.''", "Northern Illinois University Press, 2016.506 pp.", "* Frucht, Richard.", "''Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism'' Garland Pub., 2000 online edition * Halecki, Oskar.", "''History of Poland'', New York: Roy Publishers, 1942.New York: Barnes and Noble, 1993, * Kenney, Padraic.", "\"After the Blank Spots Are Filled: Recent Perspectives on Modern Poland,\" ''Journal of Modern History'' Volume 79, Number 1, March 2007 pp 134–61, historiography* Kieniewicz, Stefan.", "''History of Poland'', Hippocrene Books, 1982, * Kloczowski, Jerzy.", "''A History of Polish Christianity''.", "Cambridge U.", "Pr., 2000.385 pp.", "* Lerski, George J.", "''Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945''.", "Greenwood, 1996.750 pp.", "online edition * Leslie, R. F. et al.", "''The History of Poland since 1863''.", "Cambridge U.", "Press, 1980.494 pp.", "* Lewinski-Corwin, Edward Henry.", "''The Political History of Poland'' (1917), well-illustrated; 650pp online at books.google.com* Litwin Henryk, ''Central European Superpower'', ''BUM '', 2016.", "* Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian.", "''Poland: An Illustrated History'', New York: Hippocrene Books, 2000, * Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian.", "''Poland: A Historical Atlas''.", "Hippocrene, 1987.321 pp.", "* Radzilowski, John.", "''A Traveller's History of Poland'', Northampton, Massachusetts: Interlink Books, 2007, * Reddaway, W. F., Penson, J. H., Halecki, O., and Dyboski, R.", "(Eds.).", "''The Cambridge History of Poland'', 2 vols., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1941 (1697–1935), 1950 (to 1696).", "New York: Octagon Books, 1971 online edition vol 1 to 1696 , old fashioned but highly detailed* Roos, Hans.", "''A History of Modern Poland'' (1966)* Sanford, George.", "''Historical Dictionary of Poland''.", "Scarecrow Press, 2003.291 pp.", "* Wróbel, Piotr.", "''Historical Dictionary of Poland, 1945–1996''.", "Greenwood, 1998.397 pp.", "* Zamoyski, Adam.", "''Poland: A History''.", "Hippocrene Books, 2012.426 pp.", "'''Published in Poland'''* ''History of Poland'', Aleksander Gieysztor et al.", "Warsaw: PWN, 1968* ''History of Poland'', Stefan Kieniewicz et al.", "Warsaw: PWN, 1979* ''An Outline History of Poland'', by Jerzy Topolski.", "Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1986, * ''An Illustrated History of Poland'', by Dariusz Banaszak, Tomasz Biber, Maciej Leszczyński.", "Poznań: Publicat, 2008, * ''Poland: History of Poland'', by Stanisław Kołodziejski, Roman Marcinek, Jakub Polit.", "Kraków: Wydawnictwo Ryszard Kluszczyński, 2005, 2009," ], [ "External links", "; Movie (on-line):* Animated history of Poland, (PARP, Expo 2010 Shanghai China)* Borders of Poland, A.D. 990–2008; Other:* Looking at Poland's History Through the Prism of Art* History of Poland, in paintings* History of Poland on Historycy.org forum* History of Poland: Primary Documents* Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage* \"Poland, Christianity in\" ''The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge'' (1910) vol 9 pp.", "104–8=== Maps ===* Poland and West-Slavs 800–950 * Poland 990–1040 * Poland 1040–1090 * Poland 1090–1140 * Poland 1140–1250 * Poland 1250–1290 * Poland 1290–1333 * Poland 1333–1350 * Poland 1350–1370 * Poland 1773* Poland 2004" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hradčany" ], [ "Introduction", "Hradčany from the Petřín Tower '''Hradčany''' (; ), the '''Castle District''', is the district of the city of Prague, Czech Republic surrounding Prague Castle.The castle is one of the biggest in the world at about in length and an average of about wide.", "Its history stretches back to the 9th century.", "St Vitus Cathedral is located in the castle area.Most of the district consists of noble historical palaces.", "There are many other attractions for visitors: romantic nooks, peaceful places and beautiful lookouts.Hradčany was an independent borough until 1784, when the four independent boroughs that had formerly constituted Prague were proclaimed a single city.", "The other three were Malá Strana (, Lesser Quarter), Staré Město (, Old Town) and Nové Město (, New Town)." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official Website of the City of Prague* Hradčany - Prague-wiki" ], [ "Photo gallery", "NearPrazhskyHrad.jpg\|The architecture of Hradčany NeighborhoodHradcany11.jpg\|In a quiet corner of Hradčany neighborhood.Hradcany1927.JPG\|The promenade at HradčanyNanebevzetí Panny Marie Na Strahově, Strahovský Klášter, Hradčany, Praha, Hlavní Město Praha, Česká Republika (48790717818).jpg\|Church at HradčanyHardcanyLittlePark.JPG\|A little park a few steps away from Prague Castle" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Houston" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Houston''' (; ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Texas and in the Southern United States.", "Houston is located in Southeast Texas near Galveston Bay and the Gulf of Mexico; it is the seat and largest city of Harris County and the principal city of the Greater Houston metropolitan area, which is the fifth-most populous metropolitan statistical area in the United States and the second-most populous in Texas after Dallas–Fort Worth.", "With a population of 2,302,878 in 2022, Houston is the fourth-most populous city in the United States after New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago, and the seventh-most populous city in North America.", "Houston is the southeast anchor of the greater megaregion known as the Texas Triangle.Comprising a land area of , Houston is the ninth-most expansive city in the United States (including consolidated city-counties).", "It is the largest city in the United States by total area whose government is not consolidated with a county, parish, or borough.", "Though primarily in Harris County, small portions of the city extend into Fort Bend and Montgomery counties, bordering other principal communities of Greater Houston such as Sugar Land and The Woodlands.Houston was founded by land investors on August 30, 1836, at the confluence of Buffalo Bayou and White Oak Bayou (a point now known as Allen's Landing) and incorporated as a city on June 5, 1837.The city is named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had won Texas's independence from Mexico at the Battle of San Jacinto east of Allen's Landing.", "After briefly serving as the capital of the Texas Republic in the late 1830s, Houston grew steadily into a regional trading center for the remainder of the 19th century.The arrival of the 20th century brought a convergence of economic factors that fueled rapid growth in Houston, including a burgeoning port and railroad industry, the decline of Galveston as Texas's primary port following a devastating 1900 hurricane, the subsequent construction of the Houston Ship Channel, and the Texas oil boom.", "In the mid-20th century, Houston's economy diversified, as it became home to the Texas Medical Center—the world's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions—and NASA's Johnson Space Center, home to the Mission Control Center.Since the late 19th century Houston's economy has had a broad industrial base, in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics, and transportation.", "Leading in healthcare sectors and building oilfield equipment, Houston has the second-most ''Fortune'' 500 headquarters of any U.S. municipality within its city limits (after New York City).", "The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled and second in total cargo tonnage handled.Nicknamed the \"Bayou City\", \"Space City\", \"H-Town\", and \"the 713\", Houston has become a global city, with strengths in culture, medicine, and research.", "The city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community.", "Houston is the most diverse metropolitan area in Texas and has been described as the most racially and ethnically diverse major city in the U.S.", "It is home to many cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than seven million visitors a year to the Museum District.", "The Museum District is home to nineteen museums, galleries, and community spaces.", "Houston has an active visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District, and offers year-round resident companies in all major performing arts." ], [ "History", "Present-day Houston sits on land that was once occupied by the Karankawa (kə rang′kə wä′,-wô′,-wə) and the Atakapa (əˈtɑːkəpə) indigenous peoples for at least 2,000 years before the first known settlers arrived.", "These tribes are almost nonexistent today; this was most likely caused by foreign disease, and competition with various settler groups in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "However, the land then remained largely uninhabited from the late 1700s until settlement in the 1830s.=== Early settlement to the 20th century ===The Allen brothers—Augustus Chapman and John Kirby—explored town sites on Buffalo Bayou and Galveston Bay.", "According to historian David McComb, \"The brothers, on August 26, 1836, bought from Elizabeth E. Parrott, wife of T.F.L.", "Parrott and widow of John Austin, the south half of the lower league tract granted to her by her late husband.", "They paid $5,000 total, but only $1,000 of this in cash; notes made up the remainder.", "\"The Allen brothers ran their first advertisement for Houston just four days later in the ''Telegraph and Texas Register'', naming the notional town in honor of Sam Houston, who would become President later that year.", "They successfully lobbied the Republic of Texas Congress to designate Houston as the temporary capital, agreeing to provide the new government with a state capitol building.", "About a dozen persons resided in the town at the beginning of 1837, but that number grew to about 1,500 by the time the Texas Congress convened in Houston for the first time that May.", "The Republic of Texas granted Houston incorporation on June 5, 1837, as James S. Holman became its first mayor.", "In the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County (now Harris County).In 1839, the Republic of Texas relocated its capital to Austin.", "The town suffered another setback that year when a yellow fever epidemic claimed about one life for every eight residents, yet it persisted as a commercial center, forming a symbiosis with its Gulf Coast port, Galveston.", "Landlocked farmers brought their produce to Houston, using Buffalo Bayou to gain access to Galveston and the Gulf of Mexico.", "Houston merchants profited from selling staples to farmers and shipping the farmers' produce to Galveston.The great majority of enslaved people in Texas came with their owners from the older slave states.", "Sizable numbers, however, came through the domestic slave trade.", "New Orleans was the center of this trade in the Deep South, but slave dealers were in Houston.", "Thousands of enslaved black people lived near the city before the American Civil War.", "Many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs.In 1840, the community established a chamber of commerce, in part to promote shipping and navigation at the newly created port on Buffalo Bayou.Houston, By 1860, Houston had emerged as a commercial and railroad hub for the export of cotton.", "Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston, where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and Beaumont.", "During the American Civil War, Houston served as a headquarters for Confederate Major General John B. Magruder, who used the city as an organization point for the Battle of Galveston.", "After the Civil War, Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city's extensive system of bayous so the city could accept more commerce between Downtown and the nearby port of Galveston.", "By 1890, Houston was the railroad center of Texas.In 1900, after Galveston was struck by a devastating hurricane, efforts to make Houston into a viable deep-water port were accelerated.", "The following year, the discovery of oil at the Spindletop oil field near Beaumont prompted the development of the Texas petroleum industry.", "In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt approved a $1 million improvement project for the Houston Ship Channel.", "By 1910, the city's population had reached 78,800, almost doubling from a decade before.", "African Americans formed a large part of the city's population, numbering 23,929 people, which was nearly one-third of Houston's residents.President Woodrow Wilson opened the deep-water Port of Houston in 1914, seven years after digging began.", "By 1930, Houston had become Texas's most populous city and Harris County the most populous county.", "In 1940, the U.S. Census Bureau reported Houston's population as 77.5% White and 22.4% Black.=== World War II to the late 20th century ===When World War II started, tonnage levels at the port decreased and shipping activities were suspended; however, the war did provide economic benefits for the city.", "Petrochemical refineries and manufacturing plants were constructed along the ship channel because of the demand for petroleum and synthetic rubber products by the defense industry during the war.", "Ellington Field, initially built during World War I, was revitalized as an advanced training center for bombardiers and navigators.", "The Brown Shipbuilding Company was founded in 1942 to build ships for the U.S. Navy during World War II.", "Due to the boom in defense jobs, thousands of new workers migrated to the city, both Black, and white people competing for the higher-paying jobs.", "President Roosevelt had established a policy of nondiscrimination for defense contractors, and Black people gained some opportunities, especially in shipbuilding, although not without resistance from white people and increasing social tensions that erupted into occasional violence.", "Economic gains of Black people who entered defense industries continued in the postwar years.In 1945, the M.D.", "Anderson Foundation formed the Texas Medical Center.", "After the war, Houston's economy reverted to being primarily port-driven.", "In 1948, the city annexed several unincorporated areas, more than doubling its size.", "Houston proper began to spread across the region.", "In 1950, the availability of air conditioning provided impetus for many companies to relocate to Houston, where wages were lower than those in the North; this resulted in an economic boom and produced a key shift in the city's economy toward the energy sector.The increased production of the expanded shipbuilding industry during World War II spurred Houston's growth, as did the establishment in 1961 of NASA's \"Manned Spacecraft Center\" (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973).", "This was the stimulus for the development of the city's aerospace industry.", "The Astrodome, nicknamed the \"Eighth Wonder of the World\", opened in 1965 as the world's first indoor domed sports stadium.During the late 1970s, Houston had a population boom as people from the Rust Belt states moved to Texas in large numbers.", "The new residents came for numerous employment opportunities in the petroleum industry, created as a result of the Arab oil embargo.", "With the increase in professional jobs, Houston has become a destination for many college-educated persons, most recently including African Americans in a reverse Great Migration from northern areas.In 1997, Houstonians elected Lee P. Brown as the city's first African American mayor.=== Early 21st century ===Tropical Storm Allison's effects in HoustonHouston has continued to grow into the 21st century, with the population increasing 15.7% from 2000 to 2022.Oil & gas have continued to fuel Houston's economic growth, with major oil companies including Phillips 66, ConocoPhillips, Occidental Petroleum, Halliburton, and ExxonMobil having their headquarters in the Houston area.", "In 2001, Enron Corporation, a Houston company with $100 billion in revenue, became engulfed in an accounting scandal which bankrupted the company in 2001.Health care has emerged as a major industry in Houston.", "The Texas Medical Center is now the largest medical complex in the world and employs over 120,000 people.Three new sports stadiums opened downtown in the first decade of the 21st century.", "In 2000, the Houston Astros opened their new baseball stadium, Minute Maid Park, in downtown adjacent to the old Union Station.", "The Houston Texans were formed in 2002 as an NFL expansion team, replacing the Houston Oilers, which had left the city in 1996.NRG Stadium opened the same year.", "In 2003, the Toyota Center opened as the home for the Houston Rockets.", "In 2005, the Houston Dynamo soccer team was formed.", "In 2017, the Houston Astros won their first World Series.Hurricane Harvey floodingFlooding has been a recurring problem in the Houston area, exacerbated by a lack of zoning laws, which allowed unregulated building of residential homes and other structures in flood-prone areas.", "In June 2001, Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to of rain on parts of Houston, causing what was then the worst flooding in the city's history and billions of dollars in damage, and killed 20 people in Texas.", "In August 2005, Houston became a shelter to more than 150,000 people from New Orleans, who evacuated from Hurricane Katrina.", "One month later, about 2.5 million Houston-area residents evacuated when Hurricane Rita approached the Gulf Coast, leaving little damage to the Houston area.", "This was the largest urban evacuation in the history of the United States.", "In May 2015, seven people died after 12 inches of rain fell in 10 hours during what is known as the Memorial Day Flood.", "Eight people died in April 2016 during a storm that dropped 17 inches of rain.", "The worst came in late August 2017, when Hurricane Harvey stalled over southeastern Texas, much like Tropical Storm Allison did sixteen years earlier, causing severe flooding in the Houston area, with some areas receiving over of rain.", "The rainfall exceeded 50 inches in several areas locally, breaking the national record for rainfall.", "The damage for the Houston area was estimated at up to $125 billion U.S. dollars, and was considered to be one of the worst natural disasters in the history of the United States, with the death toll exceeding 70 people." ], [ "Geography", "Satellite image of Houston, 2020Houston is east of Austin, west of the Louisiana border, and south of Dallas.", "The city has a total area of ; this comprises over of land and covered by water.", "Most of Houston is on the gulf coastal plain, and its vegetation is classified as Western Gulf coastal grasslands while further north, it transitions into a subtropical jungle, the Big Thicket.Much of the city was built on forested land, marshes, or swamps, and all are still visible in surrounding areas.", "Flat terrain and extensive greenfield development have combined to worsen flooding.", "Downtown stands about above sea level, and the highest point in far northwest Houston is about in elevation.", "The city once relied on groundwater for its needs, but land subsidence forced the city to turn to ground-level water sources such as Lake Houston, Lake Conroe, and Lake Livingston.", "The city owns surface water rights for of water a day in addition to a day of groundwater.Houston has four major bayous passing through the city that accept water from the extensive drainage system.", "Buffalo Bayou runs through Downtown and the Houston Ship Channel, and has three tributaries: White Oak Bayou, which runs through the Houston Heights community northwest of Downtown and then towards Downtown; Brays Bayou, which runs along the Texas Medical Center; and Sims Bayou, which runs through the south of Houston and Downtown Houston.", "The ship channel continues past Galveston and then into the Gulf of Mexico.===Geology===Aerial view of central Houston, showing Downtown and surrounding neighborhoods, March 2018Houston is a flat, marshy area where an extensive drainage system has been built.", "The adjoining prairie land drains into the city, which is prone to flooding.", "Underpinning Houston's land surface are unconsolidated clays, clay shales, and poorly cemented sands up to several miles deep.", "The region's geology developed from river deposits formed from the erosion of the Rocky Mountains.", "These sediments consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic marine matter, that over time, transformed into oil and natural gas.", "Beneath the layers of sediment is a water-deposited layer of halite, a rock salt.", "The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward.", "As it pushed upward, the salt dragged surrounding sediments into salt dome formations, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands.", "The thick, rich, sometimes black, surface soil is suitable for rice farming in suburban outskirts where the city continues to grow.The Houston area has over 150 active faults (estimated to be 300 active faults) with an aggregate length of up to , including the Long Point–Eureka Heights fault system which runs through the center of the city.", "Land in some areas southeast of Houston is sinking because water has been pumped out of the ground for many years.", "It may be associated with slip along the faults; however, the slippage is slow and not considered an earthquake, where stationary faults must slip suddenly enough to create seismic waves.", "These faults also tend to move at a smooth rate in what is termed \"fault creep\", which further reduces the risk of an earthquake.===Cityscape===Houston's superneighborhoodsThe city of Houston was incorporated in 1837 and adopted a ward system of representation shortly afterward, in 1840.The six original wards of Houston are the progenitors of the 11 modern-day geographically oriented Houston City Council districts, though the city abandoned the ward system in 1905 in favor of a commission government, and, later, the existing mayor–council government.Intersection of Bagby and McGowen streets in western Midtown, 2016Locations in Houston are generally classified as either being inside or outside the Interstate 610 loop.", "The \"Inner Loop\" encompasses a area which includes Downtown, pre–World War II residential neighborhoods and streetcar suburbs, and newer high-density apartment and townhouse developments.", "Outside the loop, the city's typology is more suburban, though many major business districts—such as Uptown, Westchase, and the Energy Corridor—lie well outside the urban core.", "In addition to Interstate 610, two additional loop highways encircle the city: Beltway 8, with a radius of approximately from Downtown, and State Highway 99 (the Grand Parkway), with a radius of .", "Approximately 470,000 people lived within the Interstate 610 loop, while 1.65 million lived between Interstate 610 and Beltway 8 and 2.25 million lived within Harris County outside Beltway 8 in 2015.Though Houston is the largest city in the United States without formal zoning regulations, it has developed similarly to other Sun Belt cities because the city's land use regulations and legal covenants have played a similar role.", "Regulations include mandatory lot size for single-family houses and requirements that parking be available to tenants and customers.", "In 1998, Houston relaxed its mandatory lot sizes from 5,000 square feet to 3,500 square feet, which spurred housing construction in the city dramatically.Such restrictions have had mixed results.", "Though some have blamed the city's low density, urban sprawl, and lack of pedestrian-friendliness on these policies, others have credited the city's land use patterns with providing significant affordable housing, sparing Houston the worst effects of the 2008 real estate crisis.", "The city issued 42,697 building permits in 2008 and was ranked first in the list of healthiest housing markets for 2009.In 2019, home sales reached a new record of $30 billion.In referendums in 1948, 1962, and 1993, voters rejected efforts to establish separate residential and commercial land-use districts.", "Consequently, rather than a single central business district as the center of the city's employment, multiple districts and skylines have grown throughout the city in addition to Downtown, which include Uptown, the Texas Medical Center, Midtown, Greenway Plaza, Memorial City, the Energy Corridor, Westchase, and Greenspoint.===Architecture===Houston had the fifth-tallest skyline in North America (after New York City, Chicago, Toronto and Miami) and 36th-tallest in the world in 2015.A seven-mile (11 km) system of tunnels and skywalks links Downtown buildings containing shops and restaurants, enabling pedestrians to avoid summer heat and rain while walking between buildings.", "In the 1960s, Downtown Houston consisted of a collection of mid-rise office structures.", "Downtown was on the threshold of an energy industryled boom in 1970.A succession of skyscrapers was built throughout the 1970s—many by real estate developer Gerald D. Hines—culminating with Houston's tallest skyscraper, the 75-floor, -tall JPMorgan Chase Tower (formerly the Texas Commerce Tower), completed in 1982.It is the tallest structure in Texas, 19th tallest building in the United States, and was previously 85th-tallest skyscraper in the world, based on highest architectural feature.", "In 1983, the 71-floor, -tall Wells Fargo Plaza (formerly Allied Bank Plaza) was completed, becoming the second-tallest building in Houston and Texas.", "Based on highest architectural feature, it is the 21st-tallest in the United States.", "In 2007, Downtown had over 43 million square feet (4,000,000 m2) of office space.Centered on Post Oak Boulevard and Westheimer Road, the Uptown District boomed during the 1970s and early 1980s when a collection of midrise office buildings, hotels, and retail developments appeared along Interstate 610 West.", "Uptown became one of the most prominent instances of an edge city.", "The tallest building in Uptown is the 64-floor, -tall, Philip Johnson and John Burgee designed landmark Williams Tower (known as the Transco Tower until 1999).", "At the time of construction, it was believed to be the world's tallest skyscraper outside a central business district.", "The new 20-story Skanska building and BBVA Compass Plaza are the newest office buildings built in Uptown after 30 years.", "The Uptown District is also home to buildings designed by noted architects I. M. Pei, César Pelli, and Philip Johnson.", "In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a mini-boom of midrise and highrise residential tower construction occurred, with several over 30 stories tall.", "Since 2000 over 30 skyscrapers have been developed in Houston; all told, 72 high-rises tower over the city, which adds up to about 8,300 units.", "In 2002, Uptown had more than 23 million square feet (2,100,000 m2) of office space with 16 million square feet (1,500,000 m2) of class A office space.File:Neils-Esperson Building Houston Texas.jpg\|The Niels Esperson Building stood as the tallest building in Houston from 1927 to 1929.File:JP Morgan Chase Tower in Houston - Dec 2013.JPG\|The JPMorgan Chase Tower is the tallest building in Texas and the tallest 5-sided building in the world.File:Williamstower.jpg\|The Williams Tower is the tallest building in the US outside a central business district.File:Bank of America Center Houston 1.jpg\|The Bank of America Center by Philip Johnson is an example of postmodern architecture.===Climate===Buffalo Bayou after Hurricane Harvey, August 2017Houston's climate is classified as humid subtropical (''Cfa'' in the Köppen climate classification system), typical of the Southern United States.", "While not in Tornado Alley, like much of Northern Texas, spring supercell thunderstorms sometimes bring tornadoes to the area.", "Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year, which bring heat and tropical moisture from the nearby Gulf of Mexico and Galveston Bay.During the summer, temperatures reach or exceed an average of 106.5 days per year, including a majority of days from June to September.", "Additionally, an average of 4.6 days per year reach or exceed .", "Houston's characteristic subtropical humidity often results in a higher apparent temperature, and summer mornings average over 90% relative humidity.", "Air conditioning is ubiquitous in Houston; in 1981, annual spending on electricity for interior cooling exceeded $600 million (equivalent to $ billion in ), and by the late 1990s, approximately 90% of Houston homes featured air conditioning systems.", "The record highest temperature recorded in Houston is at Bush Intercontinental Airport, during September 4, 2000, and again on August 27, 2011.Space Shuttle ''Independence'' replica covered in snow, 2017Houston has mild winters, with occasional cold spells.", "In January, the normal mean temperature at George Bush Intercontinental Airport is , with an average of 13 days per year with a low at or below , occurring on average between December 3 and February 20, allowing for a growing season of 286 days.", "Twenty-first century snow events in Houston include a storm on December 24, 2004, which saw of snow accumulate in parts of the metro area, and an event on December 7, 2017, which precipitated of snowfall.", "Snowfalls of at least on both December 10, 2008, and December 4, 2009, marked the first time measurable snowfall had occurred in two consecutive years in the city's recorded history.", "Overall, Houston has seen measurable snowfall 38 times between 1895 and 2018.On February 14 and 15, 1895, Houston received of snow, its largest snowfall from one storm on record.", "The coldest temperature officially recorded in Houston was on January 18, 1930.The last time Houston saw single digit temperatures was on December 23, 1989.The temperature dropped to at Bush Airport, marking the coldest temperature ever recorded there.", "1.7 inches of snow fell at George Bush Intercontinental Airport the previous day.Houston generally receives ample rainfall, averaging about annually based on records between 1981 and 2010.Many parts of the city have a high risk of localized flooding due to flat topography, ubiquitous low-permeability clay-silt prairie soils, and inadequate infrastructure.", "During the mid-2010s, Greater Houston experienced consecutive major flood events in 2015 (\"Memorial Day\"), 2016 (\"Tax Day\"), and 2017 (Hurricane Harvey).", "Overall, there have been more casualties and property loss from floods in Houston than in any other locality in the United States.", "The majority of rainfall occurs between April and October (the wet season of Southeast Texas), when the moisture from the Gulf of Mexico evaporates extensively over the city.Houston has excessive ozone levels and is routinely ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States.", "Ground-level ozone, or smog, is Houston's predominant air pollution problem, with the American Lung Association rating the metropolitan area's ozone level twelfth on the \"Most Polluted Cities by Ozone\" in 2017, after major cities such as Los Angeles, Phoenix, New York City, and Denver.", "The industries along the ship channel are a major cause of the city's air pollution.", "The rankings are in terms of peak-based standards, focusing strictly on the worst days of the year; the average ozone levels in Houston are lower than what is seen in most other areas of the country, as dominant winds ensure clean, marine air from the Gulf.", "Excessive man-made emissions in the Houston area led to a persistent increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the city.", "Such an increase, often regarded as \"CO2 urban dome\", is driven by a combination of strong emissions and stagnant atmospheric conditions.", "Moreover, Houston is the only metropolitan area with less than ten million citizens where such a CO2 dome can be detected by satellites.Flooded parking lot during Hurricane Harvey, August 2017Because of Houston's wet season and proximity to the Gulf Coast, the city is prone to flooding from heavy rains; the most notable flooding events include Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 and Hurricane Harvey in 2017, along with most recent Tropical Storm Imelda in 2019 and Tropical Storm Beta in 2020.In response to Hurricane Harvey, Mayor Sylvester Turner of Houston initiated plans to require developers to build homes that will be less susceptible to flooding by raising them two feet above the 500-year floodplain.", "Hurricane Harvey damaged hundreds of thousands of homes and dumped trillions of gallons of water into the city.", "In places this led to feet of standing water that blocked streets and flooded homes.", "The Houston City Council passed this regulation in 2018 with a vote of 9–7.Had these floodplain development rules had been in place all along, it is estimated that 84% of homes in the 100-year and 500-year floodplains would have been spared damage.In a recent case testing these regulations, near the Brickhouse Gulley, an old golf course that long served as a floodplain and reservoir for floodwaters, announced a change of heart toward intensifying development.", "A nationwide developer, Meritage Homes, bought the land and planned to develop the 500-year floodplain into 900 new residential homes.", "Their plan would bring in $360 million in revenue and boost city population and tax revenue.", "In order to meet the new floodplain regulations, the developers needed to elevate the lowest floors two feet above the 500-year floodplain, equivalent to five or six feet above the 100-year base flood elevation, and build a channel to direct stormwater runoff toward detention basins.", "Before Hurricane Harvey, the city had bought $10.7 million in houses in this area specifically to take them out of danger.", "In addition to developing new streets and single-family housing within a floodplain, a flowing flood-water stream termed a floodway runs through the development area, a most dangerous place to encounter during any future flooding event.", "Under Texas law Harris County, like other more rural Texas counties, cannot direct developers where to build or not build via land use controls such as a zoning ordinance, and instead can only impose general floodplain regulations for enforcement during subdivision approvals and building permit approvals." ], [ "Demographics", "Map of ethnic distribution in Houston, 2010 U.S. census.", "Each dot is 25 people: The 2020 U.S. census determined Houston had a population of 2,304,580.In 2017, the census-estimated population was 2,312,717, and in 2018 it was 2,325,502.An estimated 600,000 undocumented immigrants resided in the Houston area in 2017, comprising nearly 9% of the city's metropolitan population.", "At the 2010 United States census, Houston had a population of 2,100,263 residents, up from the city's 2,396 at the 1850 census.Per the 2019 American Community Survey, Houston's age distribution was 482,402 under 15; 144,196 aged 15 to 19; 594,477 aged 20 to 34; 591,561 aged 35 to 54; 402,804 aged 55 to 74; and 101,357 aged 75 and older.", "The median age of the city was 33.4.At the 2014-2018 census estimates, Houston's age distribution was 486,083 under 15; 147,710 aged 15 to 19; 603,586 aged 20 to 34; 726,877 aged 35 to 59; and 357,834 aged 60 and older.", "The median age was 33.1, up from 32.9 in 2017 and down from 33.5 in 2014; the city's youthfulness has been attributed to an influx of an African American New Great Migration, Hispanic and Latino American, and Asian immigrants into Texas.", "For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males.There were 987,158 housing units in 2019 and 876,504 households.", "An estimated 42.3% of Houstonians owned housing units, with an average of 2.65 people per household.", "The median monthly owner costs with a mortgage were $1,646, and $536 without a mortgage.", "Houston's median gross rent from 2015 to 2019 was $1,041.The median household income in 2019 was $52,338 and 20.1% of Houstonians lived at or below the poverty line.=== Race and ethnicity === Racial and ethnic composition 2020 2010 2000 1990 1970Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 44.0% 43.8% 37.4% 27.6% 11.3%Whites (Non-Hispanic)23.7% 25.6% 30.8% 40.6% 62.4%Black or African American22.1% 23.7% 25.3% 28.1% 25.7%Asian7.1% 6.0% 5.3% 4.1% 0.4%Houston is a majority-minority city.", "The Rice University Kinder Institute for Urban Research, a think tank, has described Greater Houston as \"one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse metropolitan areas in the country\".", "Houston's diversity, historically fueled by large waves of Hispanic and Latino Americans, and Asian immigrants, has been attributed to its relatively lower cost of living compared to most major cities, strong job market, and role as a hub for refugee resettlement.Houston has long been known as a popular destination for African Americans due to the city's well-established and influential African American community.", "Houston has become known as a Black mecca akin to Atlanta because it is a popular living destination for Black professionals and entrepreneurs.", "The Houston area is home to the largest African American community west of the Mississippi River.", "A 2012 Kinder Institute report found that, based on the evenness of population distribution between the four major racial groups in the United States (non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, Hispanic or Latino, and Asian), Greater Houston was the most ethnically diverse metropolitan area in the United States, ahead of New York City.In 2019, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, non-Hispanic whites made up 23.3% of the population of Houston proper, Hispanics and Latino Americans 45.8%, Blacks or African Americans 22.4%, and Asian Americans 6.5%.", "In 2018, non-Hispanic whites made up 20.7% of the population, Hispanics or Latino Americans 44.9%, Blacks or African Americans 30.3%, and Asian Americans 8.2%.", "The largest Hispanic or Latino American ethnic groups in the city were Mexican Americans (31.6%), Puerto Ricans (0.8%), and Cuban Americans (0.8%) in 2018.As documented, Houston has a higher proportion of minorities than non-Hispanic whites; in 2010, whites (including Hispanic whites) made up 57.6% of the city of Houston's population; 24.6% of the total population was non-Hispanic white.", "Blacks or African Americans made up 22.5% of Houston's population, American Indians made up 0.3% of the population, Asians made up 6.9% (1.7% Vietnamese, 1.3% Chinese, 1.3% Indian, 0.9% Pakistani, 0.4% Filipino, 0.3% Korean, 0.1% Japanese) and Pacific Islanders made up 0.1%.", "Individuals from some other race made up 15.69% of the city's population.", "Individuals from two or more races made up 2.1% of the city.At the 2000 U.S. census, the racial makeup of the city was 49.3% White, 25.3% Black or African American, 5.3% Asian, 0.7% American Indian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 16.5% from some other race, and 3.1% from two or more races.", "In addition, Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 37.4% of Houston's population in 2000, while non-Hispanic whites made up 30.8%.", "The proportion of non-Hispanic whites in Houston has decreased significantly since 1970, when it was 62.4%.=== Sexual orientation and gender identity ===MontroseHouston is home to one of the largest LGBT communities and pride parades in the United States.", "In 2018, the city scored a 70 out of 100 for LGBT friendliness.", "Jordan Blum of the ''Houston Chronicle'' stated levels of LGBT acceptance and discrimination varied in 2016 due to some of the region's traditionally conservative culture.Before the 1970s, the city's gay bars were spread around Downtown Houston and what is now midtown Houston.", "LGBT Houstonians needed to have a place to socialize after the closing of the gay bars.", "They began going to Art Wren, a 24-hour restaurant in Montrose.", "LGBT community members were attracted to Montrose as a neighborhood after encountering it while patronizing Art Wren, and they began to gentrify the neighborhood and assist its native inhabitants with property maintenance.", "Within Montrose, new gay bars began to open.", "By 1985, the flavor and politics of the neighborhood were heavily influenced by the LGBT community, and in 1990, according to Hill, 19% of Montrose residents identified as LGBT.", "Paul Broussard was murdered in Montrose in 1991.Before the legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States the marriage of Billie Ert and Antonio Molina, considered the first same-sex marriage in Texas history, took place on October 5, 1972.Houston elected the first openly lesbian mayor of a major city in 2009, and she served until 2016.During her tenure she authorized the Houston Equal Rights Ordinance which was intended to improve anti-discrimination coverage based on sexual orientation and gender identity in the city, specifically in areas such as housing and occupation where no anti-discrimination policy existed.=== Religion ===Houston and its metropolitan area are the third-most religious and Christian area by percentage of population in the United States, and second in Texas behind the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex.", "Historically, Houston has been a center of Protestant Christianity, being part of the Bible Belt.", "Other Christian groups including Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Christianity, and non-Christian religions did not grow for much of the city's history because immigration was predominantly from Western Europe (which at the time was dominated by Western Christianity and favored by the quotas in federal immigration law).", "The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 removed the quotas, allowing for the growth of other religions.According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, 73% of the population of the Houston area identified themselves as Christians, about 50% of whom claimed Protestant affiliations and about 19% claimed Roman Catholic affiliations.", "Nationwide, about 71% of respondents identified as Christians.", "About 20% of Houston-area residents claimed no religious affiliation, compared to about 23% nationwide.", "The same study says area residents who identify with other religions (including Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism) collectively made up about 7% of the area population.In 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute estimated 40% were Protestant and 29% Catholic; overall, Christianity represented 72% of the population.", "In 2020, the Association of Religion Data Archives determined the Catholic Church numbered 1,299,901 for the metropolitan area; the second-largest single Christian denomination (Southern Baptists) numbered 800,688; following, non-denominational Protestant churches represented the third-largest Christian cohort at 666,548.Altogether, however, Baptists of the Southern Baptist Convention, the American Baptist Association, American Baptist Churches USA, Full Gospel Baptist Church Fellowship, National Baptist Convention USA and National Baptist Convention of America, and the National Missionary Baptist Convention numbered 926,554.Non-denominational Protestants, the Disciples of Christ, Christian Churches and Churches of Christ, and the Churches of Christ numbered 723,603 altogether according to this study.Lakewood Church in Houston, led by Pastor Joel Osteen, is the largest church in the United States.", "A megachurch, it had 44,800 weekly attendees in 2010, up from 11,000 weekly in 2000.Since 2005, it has occupied the former Compaq Center sports stadium.", "In September 2010, ''Outreach'' magazine published a list of the 100 largest Christian churches in the United States, and on the list were the following Houston-area churches: Lakewood, Second Baptist Church Houston, Woodlands Church, Church Without Walls, and First Baptist Church.", "According to the list, Houston and Dallas were tied as the second-most popular city for megachurches.Co-Cathedral of the Sacred HeartThe Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston, the largest Catholic jurisdiction in Texas and fifth-largest in the United States, was established in 1847.The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston claimed approximately 1.7 million Catholics within its boundaries as of 2019.Its co-cathedral is located within the Houston city limits, while the diocesan see is in Galveston.", "Other prominent Catholic jurisdictions include the Eastern Catholic Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church and Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church as well as the Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter, whose cathedral is also in Houston.Debre Selam Medhanealem Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo ChurchA variety of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches can be found in Houston.", "Immigrants from Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Ethiopia, India, and other areas have added to Houston's Eastern and Oriental Orthodox population.", "As of 2011 in the entire state, 32,000 people actively attended Orthodox churches.", "In 2013 Father John Whiteford, the pastor of St. Jonah Orthodox Church near Spring, stated there were about 6,000-9,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians in Houston.", "The Association of Religion Data Archives numbered 16,526 Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Houstonians in 2020.The most prominent Eastern and Oriental Orthodox jurisdictions are the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.Houston's Jewish community, estimated at 47,000 in 2001, has been present in the city since the 1800s.", "Houstonian Jews have origins from throughout the United States, Israel, Mexico, Russia, and other places.", "As of 2016, over 40 synagogues were in Greater Houston.", "The largest synagogues are Congregation Beth Yeshurun, a Conservative Jewish temple, and the Reform Jewish congregations Beth Israel and Emanu-El.", "According to a study in 2016 by Berman Jewish DataBank, 51,000 Jews lived in the area, an increase of 4,000 since 2001.Houston has a large and diverse Muslim community; it is the largest in Texas and the Southern United States, as of 2012.It is estimated that Muslims made up 1.2% of Houston's population.", "As of 2016, Muslims in the Houston area included South Asians, Middle Easterners, Africans, Turks, and Indonesians, as well as a growing population of Latino Muslim converts.", "In 2000 there were over 41 mosques and storefront religious centers, with the largest being the ''Al-Noor'' Mosque (Mosque of Light) of the Islamic Society of Greater Houston.The Hindu, Sikh, and Buddhist communities form a growing sector of the religious demographic after Judaism and Islam.", "Large Hindu temples in the metropolitan area include the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Houston, affiliated with the Swaminarayan Sampradaya denomination in Fort Bend County, near the suburb of Stafford as well as the South Indian-style Sri Meenakshi Temple in suburban Pearland, in Brazoria County, which is the oldest Hindu temple in Texas and third-oldest Hindu temple in the United States.Of the irreligious community 16% practiced nothing in particular, 3% were agnostic, and 2% were atheist in 2014." ], [ "Economy", "'''Fortune 500 companies based in Houston''' Rank Company 27 Phillips 66 56 Sysco 93 ConocoPhillips 98 Plains GP Holdings 101 Enterprise Products Partners 129 Baker Hughes 142 Halliburton 148 Occidental Petroleum 186 EOG Resources 207 Waste Management 242 Kinder Morgan 260 CenterPoint Energy 261 Quanta Services 264 Group 1 Automotive 319 Calpine 329 Cheniere Energy 365 Targa Resources 374 NOV Inc. 391 Westlake Chemical 465 APA Corporation 496 Crown Castle 501 KBR''Companies in the petroleum industry''Houston is recognized worldwide for its energy industry—particularly for oil and natural gas—as well as for biomedical research and aeronautics.", "Renewable energy sources—wind and solar—are also growing economic bases in the city, and the City Government purchases 90% of its annual 1 TWh power mostly from wind, and some from solar.", "The city has also been a growing hub for technology startup firms and is the fastest growing sector of the city's economy.", "Major technology and software companies within Greater Houston include Crown Castle, KBR, FlightAware, Cybersoft, Houston Wire & Cable, and HostGator.", "Aylo, Go Daddy, and ByteDance have offices in the Houston area.", "On April 4, 2022, Hewlett Packard Enterprise relocated its global headquarters from California to the Greater Houston area.", "The Houston Ship Channel is also a large part of Houston's economic base.Because of these strengths, Houston is designated as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network and global management consulting firm A.T. Kearney.", "The Houston area is the top U.S. market for exports, surpassing New York City in 2013, according to data released by the U.S. Department of Commerce's International Trade Administration.", "In 2012, the Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land area recorded $110.3 billion in merchandise exports.", "Petroleum products, chemicals, and oil and gas extraction equipment accounted for roughly two-thirds of the metropolitan area's exports last year.", "The top three destinations for exports were Mexico, Canada, and Brazil.The Houston area is a leading center for building oilfield equipment.", "Much of its success as a petrochemical complex is due to its busy ship channel, the Port of Houston.", "In the United States, the port ranks first in international commerce and 16th among the largest ports in the world.", "Unlike most places, high oil and gasoline prices are beneficial for Houston's economy, as many of its residents are employed in the energy industry.", "Houston is the beginning or end point of numerous oil, gas, and products pipelines.The Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land metro area's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2022 was $633 billion, making it the seventh-largest of any metropolitan area in the United States and larger than Iran's, Colombia's, or the United Arab Emirates' GDP.", "Only 27 countries other than the United States have a gross domestic product exceeding Houston's regional gross area product (GAP).", "In 2010, mining (which consists almost entirely of exploration and production of oil and gas in Houston) accounted for 26.3% of Houston's GAP up sharply in response to high energy prices and a decreased worldwide surplus of oil production capacity, followed by engineering services, health services, and manufacturing.The University of Houston System's annual impact on the Houston area's economy equates to that of a major corporation: $1.1 billion in new funds attracted annually to the Houston area, $3.13 billion in total economic benefit, and 24,000 local jobs generated.", "This is in addition to the 12,500 new graduates the U.H.", "System produces every year who enter the workforce in Houston and throughout Texas.", "These degree-holders tend to stay in Houston.", "After five years, 80.5% of graduates are still living and working in the region.In 2019, the Houston metropolitan area ranked third in Texas within the category of \"Best Places for Business and Careers\" by ''Forbes'' magazine.", "Ninety-one foreign governments have established consular offices in Houston's metropolitan area, the third-highest in the nation.", "Forty foreign governments maintain trade and commercial offices here with 23 active foreign chambers of commerce and trade associations.", "Twenty-five foreign banks representing 13 nations operate in Houston, providing financial assistance to the international community.In 2008, Houston received top ranking on ''Kiplinger's Personal Finance'' \"Best Cities of 2008\" list, which ranks cities on their local economy, employment opportunities, reasonable living costs, and quality of life.", "The city ranked fourth for highest increase in the local technological innovation over the preceding 15 years, according to ''Forbes'' magazine.", "In the same year, the city ranked second on the annual ''Fortune'' 500 list of company headquarters, first for ''Forbes'' magazine's \"Best Cities for College Graduates\", and first on their list of \"Best Cities to Buy a Home\".", "In 2010, the city was rated the best city for shopping, according to ''Forbes''.In 2012, the city was ranked number one for paycheck worth by ''Forbes'' and in late May 2013, Houston was identified as America's top city for employment creation.In 2013, Houston was identified as the number one U.S. city for job creation by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics after it was not only the first major city to regain all the jobs lost in the preceding economic downturn, but also after the crash, more than two jobs were added for every one lost.", "Economist and vice president of research at the Greater Houston Partnership Patrick Jankowski attributed Houston's success to the ability of the region's real estate and energy industries to learn from historical mistakes.", "Furthermore, Jankowski stated that \"more than 100 foreign-owned companies relocated, expanded or started new businesses in Houston\" between 2008 and 2010, and this openness to external business boosted job creation during a period when domestic demand was problematically low.", "Also in 2013, Houston again appeared on ''Forbes'' list of \"Best Places for Business and Careers\"." ], [ "Culture", "Houston Art Car ParadeJohnson Space Center, 1989Fountain of the Downtown Aquarium, Houston, in 2012Located in the American South, Houston is a diverse city with a large and growing international community.", "The Greater Houston metropolitan area is home to an estimated 1.1 million (21.4 percent) residents who were born outside the United States, with nearly two-thirds of the area's foreign-born population from south of the United States–Mexico border since 2009.Additionally, more than one in five foreign-born residents are from Asia.", "The city is home to the nation's third-largest concentration of consular offices, representing 92 countries.Many annual events celebrate the diverse cultures of Houston.", "The largest and longest-running is the annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, held over 20 days from early to late March, and is the largest annual livestock show and rodeo in the world.", "Another large celebration is the annual night-time Houston Gay Pride Parade, held at the end of June.", "Other notable annual events include the Houston Greek Festival, Art Car Parade, the Houston Auto Show, the Houston International Festival, and the Bayou City Art Festival, which is considered to be one of the top five art festivals in the United States.Houston is highly regarded for its diverse food and restaurant culture.", "Several major publications have consistently named Houston one of \"America's Best Food Cities\".", "Houston received the official nickname of \"Space City\" in 1967 because it is the location of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.", "Other nicknames often used by locals include \"Bayou City\", \"Clutch City\", \"Crush City\", \"Magnolia City\", \"H-Town\", and \"Culinary Capital of the South\".===Arts and theater===Hobby Center for the Performing ArtsMuseum of Fine Arts, HoustonThe Houston Theater District, in Downtown, is home to nine major performing arts organizations and six performance halls.", "It is the second-largest concentration of theater seats in a Downtown area in the United States.Houston is one of the few United States cities with permanent, professional, resident companies in all major performing arts disciplines: opera (Houston Grand Opera), ballet (Houston Ballet), music (Houston Symphony Orchestra), and theater (The Alley Theatre, Theatre Under the Stars).", "Houston is also home to folk artists, art groups and various small progressive arts organizations.Houston attracts many touring Broadway acts, concerts, shows, and exhibitions for a variety of interests.", "Facilities in the Theater District include the Jones Hall—home of the Houston Symphony Orchestra and Society for the Performing Arts—and the Hobby Center for the Performing Arts.The Museum District's cultural institutions and exhibits attract more than 7 million visitors a year.", "Notable facilities include The Museum of Fine Arts, the Houston Museum of Natural Science, the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, the Station Museum of Contemporary Art, the Holocaust Museum Houston, the Children's Museum of Houston, and the Houston Zoo.Located near the Museum District are The Menil Collection, Rothko Chapel, the Moody Center for the Arts and the Byzantine Fresco Chapel Museum.Bayou Bend is a facility of the Museum of Fine Arts that houses one of America's most prominent collections of decorative art, paintings, and furniture.", "Bayou Bend is the former home of Houston philanthropist Ima Hogg.The National Museum of Funeral History is in Houston near the George Bush Intercontinental Airport.", "The museum houses the original Popemobile used by Pope John Paul II in the 1980s along with numerous hearses, embalming displays, and information on famous funerals.Venues across Houston regularly host local and touring rock, blues, country, dubstep, and Tejano musical acts.", "While Houston has never been widely known for its music scene, Houston hip hop has become a significant, independent music scene that is influential nationwide.", "Houston is the birthplace of the chopped and screwed remixing-technique in hip-hop which was pioneered by DJ Screw from the city.", "Some other notable hip-hop artists from the area include Destiny's Child, Don Toliver, Slim Thug, Paul Wall, Mike Jones, Bun B, Geto Boys, Trae tha Truth, Kirko Bangz, Z-Ro, South Park Mexican, Travis Scott and Megan Thee Stallion.===Tourism and recreation===The Theater District is a 17-block area in the center of Downtown Houston that is home to the Bayou Place entertainment complex, restaurants, movies, plazas, and parks.", "Bayou Place is a large multilevel building containing full-service restaurants, bars, live music, billiards, and Sundance Cinema.", "The Bayou Music Center stages live concerts, stage plays, and stand-up comedy.Space Center Houston is the official visitors' center of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.", "The Space Center has many interactive exhibits including Moon rocks, a Space Shuttle simulator, and presentations about the history of NASA's manned space flight program.", "Other tourist attractions include the Galleria (Texas's largest shopping mall, in the Uptown District), Old Market Square, the Downtown Aquarium, and Sam Houston Race Park.Houston's current Chinatown and the Mahatma Gandhi District are two major ethnic enclaves, reflecting Houston's multicultural makeup.", "Restaurants, bakeries, traditional-clothing boutiques, and specialty shops can be found in both areas.Houston is home to 337 parks, including Hermann Park, Terry Hershey Park, Lake Houston Park, Memorial Park, Tranquility Park, Sesquicentennial Park, Discovery Green, Buffalo Bayou Park and Sam Houston Park.", "Within Hermann Park are the Houston Zoo and the Houston Museum of Natural Science.", "Sam Houston Park contains restored and reconstructed homes which were originally built between 1823 and 1905.Of the 10 most populous U.S. cities, Houston has the largest total area of parks and green space, .", "The city also has over 200 additional green spaces—totaling over that are managed by the city—including the Houston Arboretum and Nature Center.", "The Lee and Joe Jamail Skatepark is a public skatepark owned and operated by the city of Houston, and is one of the largest skateparks in Texas consisting of a 30,000-ft2 (2,800 m2)in-ground facility.The Gerald D. Hines Waterwall Park in the Uptown District of the city serves as a popular tourist attraction and for weddings and various celebrations.", "A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Houston the 23rd most walkable of the 50 largest cities in the United States.=== Sports ===Toyota Center is home of the Houston Rockets.\|alt=Houston has sports teams for every major professional league except the National Hockey League.", "The Houston Astros are a Major League Baseball expansion team formed in 1962 (known as the \"Colt .45s\" until 1965) that have won the World Series in 2017 and 2022 and appeared in it in 2005, 2019, and 2021.It is the only MLB team to have won pennants in both modern leagues.", "The Houston Rockets are a National Basketball Association franchise based in the city since 1971.They have won two NBA Championships, one in 1994 and another in 1995, under star players Hakeem Olajuwon, Otis Thorpe, Clyde Drexler, Vernon Maxwell, and Kenny Smith.", "The Houston Texans are a National Football League expansion team formed in 2002.The Houston Dynamo is a Major League Soccer franchise that has been based in Houston since 2006, winning two MLS Cup titles in 2006 and 2007.The Houston Dash team plays in the National Women's Soccer League, who won their first title in 2020.The Houston SaberCats are a rugby team that plays in Major League Rugby.", "The Houston Roughnecks are a future UFL team starting operations in 2024.They were previously in the XFL before it was announced they were moving to the UFL in 2024.NRG Stadium is the home of the Houston Texans.\|alt=Minute Maid Park (home of the Astros) and Toyota Center (home of the Rockets), are in Downtown Houston.", "Houston has the NFL's first retractable-roof stadium with natural grass, NRG Stadium (home of the Texans).", "Minute Maid Park is also a retractable-roof stadium.", "Toyota Center also has the largest screen for an indoor arena in the United States built to coincide with the arena's hosting of the 2013 NBA All-Star Game.", "Shell Energy Stadium is a soccer-specific stadium for the Houston Dynamo, the Texas Southern Tigers football team, and Houston Dash, in East Downtown.", "Aveva Stadium (home of the SaberCats) is in south Houston.", "In addition, NRG Astrodome was the first indoor stadium in the world, built in 1965.Other sports facilities include Hofheinz Pavilion (Houston Cougars basketball), Rice Stadium (Rice Owls football), and NRG Arena.", "TDECU Stadium is where the University of Houston's Cougars football team plays.Houston has hosted several major sports events: the 1968, 1986 and 2004 Major League Baseball All-Star Games; the 1989, 2006 and 2013 NBA All-Star Games; Super Bowl VIII, Super Bowl XXXVIII, and Super Bowl LI, as well as hosting the 1981, 1986, 1994 and 1995 NBA Finals, winning the latter two, and hosting the 2005 World Series, 2017 World Series, 2019 World Series, 2021 World Series and 2022 World Series.", "The city won its first baseball championship during the 2017 event and won again 5 years later.", "NRG Stadium hosted Super Bowl LI on February 5, 2017.Houston will host multiple matches during the 2026 FIFA World Cup.The city has hosted several major professional and college sporting events, including the annual Houston Open golf tournament.", "Houston hosts the annual Houston College Classic baseball tournament every February, and the Texas Kickoff and Bowl in September and December, respectively.The Grand Prix of Houston, an annual auto race on the IndyCar Series circuit was held on a 1.7-mile temporary street circuit in NRG Park.", "The October 2013 event was held using a tweaked version of the 2006–2007 course.", "The event had a five-year race contract through 2017 with IndyCar.", "In motorcycling, the Astrodome hosted an AMA Supercross Championship round from 1974 to 2003 and the NRG Stadium since 2003.Houston is also one of the first cities in the world to have a major esports team represent it, in the form of the Houston Outlaws.", "The Outlaws play in the Overwatch League and are one of two Texan teams, the other being the Dallas Fuel." ], [ "Government", "Houston City HallHarris County Family Law CenterThe city of Houston has a strong mayoral form of municipal government.", "Houston is a home rule city and all municipal elections in Texas are nonpartisan.", "The city's elected officials are the mayor, city controller and 16 members of the Houston City Council.", "The current mayor of Houston is John Whitmire, a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot.", "Houston's mayor serves as the city's chief administrator, executive officer, and official representative, and is responsible for the general management of the city and for seeing all laws and ordinances are enforced.The original city council line-up of 14 members (nine district-based and five at-large positions) was based on a U.S. Justice Department mandate which took effect in 1979.At-large council members represent the entire city.", "Under the city charter, once the population in the city limits exceeded 2.1 million residents, two additional districts were to be added.", "The city of Houston's official 2010 census count was 600 shy of the required number; however, as the city was expected to grow beyond 2.1 million shortly thereafter, the two additional districts were added for, and the positions filled during, the August 2011 elections.The city controller is elected independently of the mayor and council.", "The controller's duties are to certify available funds prior to committing such funds and processing disbursements.", "The city's fiscal year begins on July 1 and ends on June 30.Chris Brown is the city controller, serving his first term .As the result of a 2015 referendum in Houston, a mayor is elected for a four-year term and can be elected to as many as two consecutive terms.", "The term limits were spearheaded in 1991 by conservative political activist Clymer Wright.", "During 1991–2015, the city controller and city council members were subjected to a two-year, three-term limitation–the 2015 referendum amended term limits to two four-year terms.", "some councilmembers who served two terms and won a final term will have served eight years in office, whereas a freshman councilmember who won a position in 2013 can serve up to two additional terms under the previous term limit law–a select few will have at least 10 years of incumbency once their term expires.Houston is considered to be a politically divided city whose balance of power often sways between Republicans and Democrats.", "According to the 2005 Houston Area Survey, 68 percent of non-Hispanic whites in Harris County are declared or favor Republicans while 89 percent of non-Hispanic blacks in the area are declared or favor Democrats.", "About 62 percent of Hispanics (of any nationality) in the area are declared or favor Democrats.", "The city has often been known to be the most politically diverse city in Texas, a state known for being generally conservative.", "As a result, the city is often a contested area in statewide elections.", "In 2009, Houston became the first U.S. city with a population over 1 million citizens to elect a gay mayor, by electing Annise Parker.Texas has banned sanctuary cities, but Houston Mayor Sylvester Turner said Houston will not assist ICE agents with immigration raids.===Crime===Houston Police Department headquartersHouston had 303 homicides in 2015 and 302 homicides in 2016.Officials predicted there would be 323 homicides in 2016.Instead, there was no increase in Houston's homicide rate between 2015 and 2016.Houston's murder rate ranked 46th of U.S. cities with a population over 250,000 in 2005 (per capita rate of 16.3 murders per 100,000 population).", "In 2010, the city's murder rate (per capita rate of 11.8 murders per 100,000 population) was ranked sixth among U.S. cities with a population of over 750,000 (behind New York City, Chicago, Detroit, Dallas, and Philadelphia) according to the Federal Bureau of Investigation.Murders fell by 37 percent from January to June 2011, compared with the same period in 2010.Houston's total crime rate including violent and nonviolent crimes decreased by 11 percent.", "The FBI's Uniform Crime Report (UCR) indicates a downward trend of violent crime in Houston over the ten- and twenty-year periods ending in 2016, which is consistent with national trends.", "This trend toward lower rates of violent crime in Houston includes the murder rate, though it had seen a four-year uptick that lasted through 2015.Houston's violent crime rate was 8.6% percent higher in 2016 than the previous year.", "However, from 2006 to 2016, violent crime was still down 12 percent in Houston.Houston is a significant hub for trafficking of cocaine, cannabis, heroin, MDMA, and methamphetamine due to its size and proximity to major illegal drug exporting nations.In the early 1970s, Houston, Pasadena and several coastal towns were the site of the Houston mass murders, which at the time were the deadliest case of serial killing in American history.In 1853, the first execution in Houston took place in public at Founder's Cemetery in the Fourth Ward; initially, the cemetery was the execution site, but post-1868 executions took place in the jail facilities.In the year 2023, the city of Houston made enforcement of an anti-food sharing ordinance a priority.", "This has resulted in volunteers receiving over 80 tickets, and a federal lawsuit to be filed against the city of Houston." ], [ "Education", "The first Hattie Mae White Administration Building; it has been sold and demolished.Nineteen school districts exist within the city of Houston.", "The Houston Independent School District (HISD) is the seventh-largest school district in the United States and the largest in Texas.", "HISD has over 100 campuses that serve as magnet or vanguard schools—specializing in such disciplines as health professions, visual and performing arts, and the sciences.", "There are also many charter schools that are run separately from school districts.", "In addition, some public school districts also have their own charter schools.The Houston area encompasses more than 300 private schools, many of which are accredited by Texas Private School Accreditation Commission recognized agencies.", "The Greater Houston metropolitan area's independent schools offer education from a variety of different religious as well as secular viewpoints.", "The Greater Houston area's Catholic schools are operated by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston.===Colleges and universities===Houston has four state universities.", "The University of Houston (UH) is a research university and the flagship institution of the University of Houston System.", "The university in Texas, the University of Houston has nearly 44,000 students on its campus in the Third Ward.", "The University of Houston–Clear Lake and the University of Houston–Downtown are universities within the University of Houston System; they are not branch campuses of the University of Houston.", "Slightly west of the University of Houston is Texas Southern University (TSU), one of the largest historically black universities in the United States with approximately 10,000 students.", "Texas Southern University is the first state university in Houston, founded in 1927.Several private institutions of higher learning are within the city.", "Rice University, the most selective university in Texas and one of the most selective in the United States, is a private, secular institution with a high level of research activity.", "Founded in 1912, Rice's historic, heavily wooded campus, adjacent to Hermann Park and the Texas Medical Center, hosts approximately 4,000 undergraduate and 3,000 post-graduate students.", "To the north in Neartown, the University of St. Thomas, founded in 1947, is Houston's only Catholic university.", "St. Thomas provides a liberal arts curriculum for roughly 3,000 students at its historic 19-block campus along Montrose Boulevard.", "In southwest Houston, Houston Christian University (formerly Houston Baptist University), founded in 1960, offers bachelor's and graduate degrees at its Sharpstown campus.", "The school is affiliated with the Baptist General Convention of Texas and has a student population of approximately 3,000.Three community college districts have campuses in and around Houston.", "The Houston Community College System (HCC) serves most of Houston proper; its main campus and headquarters are in Midtown.", "Suburban northern and western parts of the metropolitan area are served by various campuses of the Lone Star College System, while the southeastern portion of Houston is served by San Jacinto College, and a northeastern portion is served by Lee College.", "The Houston Community College and Lone Star College systems are among the 10 largest institutions of higher learning in the United States.Houston also hosts a number of graduate schools in law and healthcare.", "The University of Houston Law Center and Thurgood Marshall School of Law at Texas Southern University are public, ABA-accredited law schools, while the South Texas College of Law, in Downtown, serves as a private, independent alternative.", "The Texas Medical Center is home to a high density of health professions schools, including two medical schools: McGovern Medical School, part of The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, and Baylor College of Medicine, a highly selective private institution.", "Prairie View A&M University's nursing school is in the Texas Medical Center.", "Additionally, both Texas Southern University and the University of Houston have pharmacy schools, and the University of Houston hosts a medical school and a college of optometry.File:New library 35.jpg\|Texas Southern University, in the Third Ward, is the first public institution of higher education in Houston and the most comprehensive HBCU in Texas.File:University of Houston-Downtown Commerce Building.jpg\|The University of Houston–Downtown, in Downtown, is the second-largest institution of higher education in Houston.File:Roy Gustav Cullen Building.JPG\|The University of Houston, in the Third Ward, is a public research university and the third-largest institution of higher education in Texas.File:Lovett Hall.jpg\|Rice University, near the Museum District and Texas Medical Center, is the most selective private institution in Texas." ], [ "Media", "The current ''Houston Chronicle'' headquarters, formerly the ''Houston Post'' headquartersThe primary network-affiliated television stations are KPRC-TV channel 2 (NBC), KHOU channel 11 (CBS), KTRK-TV channel 13 (ABC), KTXH channel 20 (MyNetworkTV), KRIV channel 26 (Fox), KIAH channel 39 (The CW), KXLN-DT channel 45 (Univision), KTMD-TV channel 47 (Telemundo), KPXB-TV channel 49 (Ion Television), KYAZ channel 51 (MeTV) and KFTH-DT channel 67 (UniMás).", "KTRK-TV, KTXH, KRIV, KTXH, KIAH, KXLN-DT, KTMD-TV, KPXB-TV, KYAZ and KFTH-DT operate as owned-and-operated stations of their networks.The Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land metropolitan area is served by one public television station and two public radio stations.", "KUHT channel 8 (''Houston Public Media'') is a PBS member station and is the first public television station in the United States.", "Houston Public Radio is listener-funded and comprises one NPR member station, KUHF (''News 88.7'').", "The University of Houston System owns and holds broadcasting licenses to KUHT and KUHF.", "The stations broadcast from the Melcher Center for Public Broadcasting on the campus of the University of Houston.", "Houston additionally is served by the Pacifica Foundation public radio station KPFT.Houston and its metropolitan area are served by the ''Houston Chronicle'', its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution.", "Hearst Communications, which owns and operates the ''Houston Chronicle'', bought the assets of the ''Houston Post''—its long-time rival and main competition—when ''Houston Post'' ceased operations in 1995.The ''Houston Post'' was owned by the family of former Lieutenant Governor Bill Hobby of Houston.", "The only other major publication to serve the city is the ''Houston Press''—which was a free alternative weekly newspaper before the destruction caused by Hurricane Harvey resulted in the publication switching to an online-only format on November 2, 2017.Other notable publications include ''Houston Forward Times'', ''OutSmart'', and ''La Voz de Houston''.", "''Houston Forward Times'' is one of the largest black-owned newspapers in the metropolitan area and owned by Forward Times Publishing Company.", "''OutSmart'' is an LGBT magazine in Houston and was ranked \"Best Local Magazine\" by the ''Houston Press'' in 2008.", "''La Voz de Houston'' is the ''Houston Chronicle'''s Spanish-language newspaper and the largest in the area." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Healthcare===MD Anderson Cancer CenterHouston is the seat of the Texas Medical Center, which is the largest medical center in the world, and which describes itself as containing the world's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions.", "All 49 member institutions of the Texas Medical Center are non-profit organizations.", "They provide patient and preventive care, research, education, and local, national, and international community well-being.", "Employing more than 73,600 people, institutions at the medical center include 13 hospitals and two specialty institutions, two medical schools, four nursing schools, and schools of dentistry, public health, pharmacy, and virtually all health-related careers.", "It is where one of the first—and still the largest—air emergency service, Life Flight, was created, and an inter-institutional transplant program was developed.", "Around 2007, more heart surgeries were performed at the Texas Medical Center than anywhere else in the world.Some of the academic and research health institutions at the center include MD Anderson Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, UT Health Science Center, Memorial Hermann Hospital, Houston Methodist Hospital, Texas Children's Hospital, and University of Houston College of Pharmacy.In the 2000s, the Baylor College of Medicine was annually considered within the top ten medical schools in the nation; likewise, the MD Anderson Cancer Center had been consistently ranked as one of the top two U.S. hospitals specializing in cancer care by ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' since 1990.The Menninger Clinic, a psychiatric treatment center, is affiliated with Baylor College of Medicine and the Houston Methodist Hospital System.", "With hospital locations nationwide and headquarters in Houston, the Triumph Healthcare hospital system was the third largest long term acute care provider nationally in 2005.Harris Health System (formerly Harris County Hospital District), the hospital district for Harris County, operates public hospitals (Ben Taub General Hospital and Lyndon B. Johnson Hospital) and public clinics.", "The City of Houston Health Department also operates four clinics.", "the dental centers of Harris Health System take patients of ages 16 and up with patients under that age referred to the City of Houston's dental clinics.", "Montgomery County Hospital District (MCHD) serves as the hospital district for Houstonians living in Montgomery County.", "Fort Bend County, in which a portion of Houston resides, does not have a hospital district.", "OakBend Medical Center serves as the county's charity hospital which the county contracts with." ], [ "Transportation", "Houston is considered an automobile-dependent city, with an estimated 77.2% of commuters driving alone to work in 2016, up from 71.7% in 1990 and 75.6% in 2009.In 2016, another 11.4% of Houstonians carpooled to work, while 3.6% used public transit, 2.1% walked, and 0.5% bicycled.", "A commuting study estimated the median length of commute in the region was in 2012.According to the 2013 American Community Survey, the average work commute in Houston (city) takes 26.3 minutes.", "A 1999 Murdoch University study found Houston had both the lengthiest commute and lowest urban density of 13 large American cities surveyed, and a 2017 Arcadis study ranked Houston 22nd out of 23 American cities in transportation sustainability.", "Harris County is one of the largest consumers of gasoline in the United States, ranking second (behind Los Angeles County) in 2013.Despite the region's high rate of automobile usage, attitudes towards transportation among Houstonians indicate a growing preference for walkability.", "A 2017 study by the Rice University Kinder Institute for Urban Research found 56% of Harris County residents have a preference for dense housing in a mixed-use, walkable setting as opposed to single-family housing in a low-density area.", "A plurality of survey respondents also indicated traffic congestion was the most significant problem facing the metropolitan area.", "In addition, many households in the city of Houston have no car.", "In 2015, 8.3 percent of Houston households lacked a car, which was virtually unchanged in 2016 (8.1 percent).", "The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016.Houston averaged 1.59 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.===Roadways===Interstate 10/U.S.", "Route 90 and Interstate 45 stack interchange northwest of Downtown Houston\|alt=The eight-county Greater Houston metropolitan area contains over of roadway, of which 10%, or approximately , is limited-access highway.", "The Houston region's extensive freeway system handles over 40% of the regional daily vehicle miles traveled (VMT).", "Arterial roads handle an additional 40% of daily VMT, while toll roads, of which Greater Houston has , handle nearly 10%.Greater Houston possesses a hub-and-spoke limited-access highway system, in which a number of freeways radiate outward from Downtown, with ring roads providing connections between these radial highways at intermediate distances from the city center.", "The city is crossed by three Interstate highways, Interstate 10, Interstate 45, and Interstate 69 (commonly known as U.S. Route 59), as well as a number of other United States routes and state highways.", "Major freeways in Greater Houston are often referred to by either the cardinal direction or geographic location they travel towards.", "Highways that follow the cardinal convention include U.S. Route 290 (''Northwest Freeway''), Interstate 45 north of Downtown (''North Freeway''), Interstate 10 east of Downtown ''(East Freeway''), Texas State Highway 288 (''South'' ''Freeway''), and Interstate 69 south of Downtown (''Southwest Freeway'').", "Highways that follow the location convention include Interstate 10 west of Downtown (''Katy Freeway''), Interstate 69 north of Downtown (''Eastex Freeway''), Interstate 45 south of Downtown (''Gulf Freeway''), and Texas State Highway 225 (''Pasadena Freeway'').", "Three loop freeways provide north–south and east–west connectivity between Greater Houston's radial highways.", "The innermost loop is Interstate 610, commonly known as the ''Inner Loop'', which encircles Downtown, the Texas Medical Center, Greenway Plaza, the cities of West University Place and Southside Place, and many core neighborhoods.", "The State Highway Beltway 8, often referred to as ''the Beltway'', forms the middle loop at a radius of roughly .", "A third, loop with a radius of approximately , State Highway 99 (the ''Grand Parkway''), is currently under construction, with eight of eleven segments completed .", "Completed segments D through I-2 provide a continuous limited-access tollway connection between Sugar Land, Richmond, Katy, Cypress, Spring, Porter, New Caney, Cleveland, Dayton, Mont Belvieu, and Baytown .A system of toll roads, operated by the Harris County Toll Road Authority (HCTRA) and Fort Bend County Toll Road Authority (FBCTRA), provides additional options for regional commuters.", "The Sam Houston Tollway, which encompasses the mainlanes of Beltway 8 (as opposed to the frontage roads, which are untolled), is the longest tollway in the system, covering the entirety of the Beltway with the exception of a free section between Interstate 45 and Interstate 69 near George Bush Intercontinental Airport.", "The region is serviced by four spoke tollways: a set of managed lanes on the Katy Freeway; the Hardy Toll Road, which parallels Interstate 45 north of Downtown up to Spring; the Westpark Tollway, which services Houston's western suburbs out to Fulshear; and Fort Bend Parkway, which connects to Sienna Plantation.", "Westpark Tollway and Fort Bend Parkway are operated conjunctly with the Fort Bend County Toll Road Authority.Greater Houston's freeway system is monitored by Houston TranStar, a partnership of four government agencies which is responsible for providing transportation and emergency management services to the region.Greater Houston's arterial road network is established at the municipal level, with the City of Houston exercising planning control over both its incorporated area and extraterritorial jurisdiction (ETJ).", "Therefore, Houston exercises transportation planning authority over a area over five counties, many times larger than its corporate area.", "The ''Major Thoroughfare and Freeway Plan'', updated annually, establishes the city's street hierarchy, identifies roadways in need of widening, and proposes new roadways in unserved areas.", "Arterial roads are organized into four categories, in decreasing order of intensity: ''major thoroughfares'', ''transit corridor streets'', ''collector streets'', and ''local streets''.", "Roadway classification affects anticipated traffic volumes, roadway design, and right of way breadth.", "Ultimately, the system is designed to ferry traffic from neighborhood streets to major thoroughfares, which connect into the limited-access highway system.", "Notable arterial roads in the region include Westheimer Road, Memorial Drive, Texas State Highway 6, Farm to Market Road 1960, Bellaire Boulevard, and Telephone Road.===Transit===METRORail light railThe Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County (METRO) provides public transportation in the form of buses, light rail, high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, and paratransit to fifteen municipalities throughout the Greater Houston area and parts of unincorporated Harris County.", "METRO's service area covers containing a population of 3.6 million.METRO's local bus network services approximately 275,000 riders daily with a fleet of over 1,200 buses.", "The agency's 75 local routes contain nearly 8,900 stops and saw nearly 67 million boardings during the 2016 fiscal year.", "A park and ride system provides commuter bus service from 34 transit centers scattered throughout the region's suburban areas; these express buses operate independently of the local bus network and utilize the region's extensive system of HOV lanes.", "Downtown and the Texas Medical Center have the highest rates of transit use in the region, largely due to the park and ride system, with nearly 60% of commuters in each district utilizing public transit to get to work.METRO began light rail service in 2004 with the opening of the north-south Red Line connecting Downtown, Midtown, the Museum District, the Texas Medical Center, and NRG Park.", "In the early 2010s, two additional lines—the Green Line, servicing the East End, and the Purple Line, servicing the Third Ward—opened, and the Red Line was extended northward to Northline, bringing the total length of the system to .", "Two light rail lines outlined in a five-line system approved by voters in a 2003 referendum have yet to be constructed.", "The Uptown Line, which runs along Post Oak Boulevard in Uptown, was under construction as a bus rapid transit line—the city's first—while the University Line has been postponed indefinitely.", "The light rail system saw approximately 16.8 million boardings in fiscal year 2016.Amtrak's thrice-weekly Los Angeles–New Orleans serves Houston at a station northwest of Downtown.", "There were 14,891 boardings and alightings in FY2008, 20,327 in FY2012, and 20,205 in FY2018.A daily Amtrak Thruway connects Houston with Amtrak's Chicago–San Antonio at Longview.===Cycling===Houston has the largest number of bike commuters in Texas with over 160 miles of dedicated bikeways.", "The city is currently in the process of expanding its on and off street bikeway network.", "In 2015, Downtown Houston added a cycle track on Lamar Street, running from Sam Houston Park to Discovery Green.", "Houston City Council approved the Houston Bike Plan in March 2017, at that time entering the plan into the Houston Code of Ordinances.", "In August 2017, Houston City Council approved spending for construction of 13 additional miles of bike trails.Houston's bicycle sharing system started service with nineteen stations in May 2012.Houston Bcycle (also known as B-Cycle), a local non-profit, runs the subscription program, supplying bicycles and docking stations, while partnering with other companies to maintain the system.", "The network expanded to 29 stations and 225 bicycles in 2014, registering over 43,000 checkouts of equipment during the first half of the same year.", "In 2017, Bcycle logged over 142,000 check outs while expanding to 56 docking stations.===Airports===Terminal C, used exclusively by United Airlines, at George Bush Intercontinental Airport\|alt=The Houston Airport System, a branch of the municipal government, oversees the operation of three major public airports in the city.", "Two of these airports, George Bush Intercontinental Airport and William P. Hobby Airport, offer commercial aviation service to a variety of domestic and international destinations and served 55 million passengers in 2016.The third, Ellington Airport, is home to the Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base.", "The Federal Aviation Administration and the state of Texas selected the Houston Airport System as \"Airport of the Year\" in 2005, largely due to the implementation of a $3.1 billion airport improvement program for both major airports in Houston.George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH), north of Downtown Houston between Interstates 45 and 69, is the eighth busiest commercial airport in the United States (by total passengers and aircraft movements) and forty-third busiest globally.", "The five-terminal, five-runway, airport served 40 million passengers in 2016, including 10 million international travelers.", "In 2006, the United States Department of Transportation named IAH the fastest-growing of the top ten airports in the United States.", "The Houston Air Route Traffic Control Center is at Bush Intercontinental.Houston was the headquarters of Continental Airlines until its 2010 merger with United Airlines with headquarters in Chicago; regulatory approval for the merger was granted in October of that year.", "Bush Intercontinental is currently United Airlines' second largest hub, behind O'Hare International Airport.", "United Airlines' share of the Houston Airport System's commercial aviation market was nearly 60% in 2017 with 16 million enplaned passengers.", "In early 2007, Bush Intercontinental Airport was named a model \"port of entry\" for international travelers by U.S. Customs and Border Protection.William P. Hobby Airport (HOU), known as Houston International Airport until 1967, operates primarily short- to medium-haul domestic and international flights to 60 destinations.", "The four-runway, facility is approximately southeast of Downtown Houston.", "In 2015, Southwest Airlines launched service from a new international terminal at Hobby to several destinations in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.", "These were the first international flights flown from Hobby since the opening of Bush Intercontinental in 1969.Houston's aviation history is showcased in the 1940 Air Terminal Museum in the old terminal building on the west side of the airport.", "In 2009, Hobby Airport was recognized with two awards for being one of the top five performing airports globally and for customer service by Airports Council International.", "In 2022 Hobby Airport was certified as the first 5-Star Airport in North America by Skytrax.", "It became the first Airport in North America to do so and just the 16th airport worldwide to receive the accomplishment.Houston's third municipal airport is Ellington Airport, used by the military, government (including NASA) and general aviation sectors." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "International relations", "The Mayor's Office of Trade and International Affairs (MOTIA) is the city's liaison to Houston's sister cities and to the national governing organization, Sister Cities International.", "Through their official city-to-city relationships, these volunteer associations promote people-to-people diplomacy and encourage citizens to develop mutual trust and understanding through commercial, cultural, educational, and humanitarian exchanges.Houston's sister cities are:Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (2001)Baku, Azerbaijan (1976)Basrah, Iraq (2015)Chiba, Japan (1972)Grampian Region, Aberdeen, Scotland (1979)Guayaquil, Ecuador (1987)Huelva, Spain (1969)Istanbul, Turkey (1988)Karachi, Pakistan (2009)Leipzig, Germany (1992)Luanda, Angola (2003)Nice, France (1973)Perth, Australia (1984)Shenzhen, China (1986)Stavanger, Norway (1988)Taipei, Taiwan (1961)Tampico, Mexico (2003)Tyumen, Russia (1995)Ulsan Metropolitan City, Republic of Korea (2021)" ], [ "See also", "* List of people from Houston* List of U.S. cities with large Hispanic populations* USS ''Houston'', 4 ships" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* 174 Years of Historic Houston ''Houstonhistory.com''.", "2007.Retrieved on 2007-01-13.", "* .", "* * * * Phelps, Wesley G. ''A People's War on Poverty: Urban Politics and Grassroots Activists in Houston.''", "Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2014.", "* Pruitt, Bernadette.", "''The Other Great Migration: The Movement of Rural African-Americans to Houston, 1900–1941.''", "College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2013.", "* * * Digital republication by the Portal to Texas History Portal to Texas History.", "Reprinted in 2007 by Copano Bay Press.", "* Digital republication by the Portal to Texas History.", "Reprinted in 2007 by Copano Bay Press." ], [ "External links", "* * Greater Houston Convention & Visitors Bureau* Greater Houston Partnership (GHP) Houston Chamber* Greater Houston Transportation and Emergency Management Center*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Head (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''head''' is the part of an animal or human that usually includes the brain, eyes, ears, nose, and mouth.", "'''Head''' or '''Heads''' may also refer to:* Human head" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "=== Music ======= Albums ====* ''Heads'' (Bob James album), 1977* ''Head'' (The Jesus Lizard album), 1990* ''Head'' (The Monkees album), a 1968 soundtrack of the movie* ''Heads'' (Osibisa album), 1972==== Songs ====* \"Head\" (Julian Cope song), 1991* \"Head\" (Prince song)* \"Head\", a song by Mark Lanegan from ''Bubblegum''* \"Head\", a song by Static-X from ''Beneath...", "Between...", "Beyond...''* \"Head\", a song by Todd Sheaffer from ''The Black Bear Sessions'' and ''Elko''* \"Head\", a song by Lotion from ''full Isaac''* \"Head\", a song by Nicola Roberts from ''Cinderella's Eyes''* \"Head\", a song by The Cooper Temple Clause from the album ''Make This Your Own''* \"Head\", a song by Don Patterson from the album ''Mellow Soul''* \"Heads\", a song by Hawkwind from ''The Xenon Codex''* \"Heads\", a song by James from the album ''Living in Extraordinary Times''==== Other music ====* Head (band), an English rock band* The Head (band), an indie rock band from Atlanta, Georgia* Head (music), a main theme in jazz* Drumhead, a membrane on a drum* Headstock, a part of an instrument* Brian Welch (born 1970), American musician better known as Head=== Film and television ===* ''Head'' (film), a 1968 film starring The Monkees* ''Heads'' (film), a 1994 black comedy about a reporter investigating decapitations* ''The Head'' (1959 film), a German horror film directed by Victor Trivas''The Head'' (2003 film), a Russian black comedy ''The Head'' (1994 TV series), a 1994–1996 American animated television series* ''The Head'' (2020 TV series), a 2020 psychological thriller series* \"Head\" (''Blackadder''), a 1986 episode of ''Blackadder''* \"Head\" (''American Horror Story''), a 2013 episode of the anthology television series=== Other arts ===* ''Head'' (Csaky), a 1913 Cubist sculpture by Joseph Csaky* Head (DC Comics), a minor character in the fictional DC universe" ], [ "Companies and brands", "* Head (company), a manufacturer and marketer of sports equipment* Head Entertainment, a chain of retail stores* Head Shampoo, an American organic hair product" ], [ "Computing", "* head (Unix), a UNIX command* , an HTML document structure element* HEAD, an HTTP request method* Head, a reference to a commit object to a Repository" ], [ "Maritime", "* Head (watercraft), the toilet on a watercraft* Head (sail), the uppermost corner part of a sail* Head race or ''crew race'', a time-trial rowing competition and related events called 'Head of the __ River'* Headsail, any sail set forward of the foremost mast" ], [ "Science", "* Head (botany), a structure composed of numerous individual flowers* Head (geology), a recent near-surface deposit* Head (linguistics), the word that determines the syntactic type of the phrase of which it is a member* Head of tide, the highest point on a river affected by tidal fluctuations* Head (hydrology), the point on a watercourse, up to which it has been changed by damming* Headland, also known as a head, a type of peninsula* High Energy Astrophysics Division, a division of the American Astronomical Society* Hydraulic head, an elevation difference between two fluid surfaces that drives flow Pressure head, a term used in fluid mechanics to represent the internal energy of a fluid due to the pressure exerted on its container Total dynamic head, the total equivalent height that a fluid is to be pumped, taking into account friction losses in the pipe" ], [ "Technology", "* Cylinder head, a part of an internal combustion engine* Head (vessel), an end cap on a pressure vessel* Head unit, a component of an automobile or home stereo system* Recording head, the physical interface between a recording apparatus and a moving recording medium** Disk read-and-write head, part of a disk drive* Sprinkler head, a component of a fire sprinkler system" ], [ "Titles", "* Head coach, senior coach of an athletic team* Head girl and head boy, positions in student government* Head of government, the most senior executive of a cabinet and government* Head of mission, the senior diplomat in a foreign post* Head of state, the most senior public representative of a state* Head teacher, the most senior teacher and leader of a school* Head, a person who uses psychoactive drugs, such as a cokehead" ], [ "Other uses", "* Head (surname), a surname (and list of people with that name)* The Head, Queensland, Australia* Beer head, a frothy emulsion at the top of a serving of beer* Head of radius, part of the forearm bone* Sydney Heads or simply The Heads, headlands that form the entrance to Sydney Harbour* Viscount Head, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom* Head baronets, two titles, one extinct in the Baronetage of England, the other extant in the Baronetage of the UK* Head, the flat end of a barrel* Head, slang for fellatio* Heads, the obverse of a coin; as in \"heads or tails\"" ], [ "See also", "* Headed (disambiguation)* Header (disambiguation)* Heading (disambiguation)* Heads in heraldry* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hard disk drive" ], [ "Introduction", "2.5-inch hard disk drive with cover removedThe end of a 3.5 inch hard disk drive with a Serial ATA (SATA) interfaceAn overview of how HDDs workA '''hard disk drive''' ('''HDD'''), '''hard disk''', '''hard drive''', or '''fixed disk''', is an electro-mechanical data storage device that stores and retrieves digital data using magnetic storage with one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic material.", "The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces.", "Data is accessed in a random-access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored and retrieved in any order.", "HDDs are a type of non-volatile storage, retaining stored data when powered off.", "Modern HDDs are typically in the form of a small rectangular box.Hard disk drives were introduced by IBM in 1956, and were the dominant secondary storage device for general-purpose computers beginning in the early 1960s.", "HDDs maintained this position into the modern era of servers and personal computers, though personal computing devices produced in large volume, like mobile phones and tablets, rely on flash memory storage devices.", "More than 224 companies have produced HDDs historically, though after extensive industry consolidation, most units are manufactured by Seagate, Toshiba, and Western Digital.", "HDDs dominate the volume of storage produced (exabytes per year) for servers.", "Though production is growing slowly (by exabytes shipped), sales revenues and unit shipments are declining, because solid-state drives (SSDs) have higher data-transfer rates, higher areal storage density, somewhat better reliability, and much lower latency and access times.The revenues for SSDs, most of which use NAND flash memory, slightly exceeded those for HDDs in 2018.Flash storage products had more than twice the revenue of hard disk drives .", "Though SSDs have four to nine times higher cost per bit, they are replacing HDDs in applications where speed, power consumption, small size, high capacity and durability are important.", ", the cost per bit of SSDs is falling, and the price premium over HDDs has narrowed.The primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity and performance.", "Capacity is specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of : a 1-terabyte (TB) drive has a capacity of gigabytes (GB; where 1 gigabyte = 1 000 megabytes = 1 000 000 kilobytes (1 million) = 1 000 000 000 bytes (1 billion)).", "Typically, some of an HDD's capacity is unavailable to the user because it is used by the file system and the computer operating system, and possibly inbuilt redundancy for error correction and recovery.", "There can be confusion regarding storage capacity, since capacities are stated in decimal gigabytes (powers of 1000) by HDD manufacturers, whereas the most commonly used operating systems report capacities in powers of 1024, which results in a smaller number than advertised.", "Performance is specified as the time required to move the heads to a track or cylinder (average access time), the time it takes for the desired sector to move under the head (average latency, which is a function of the physical rotational speed in revolutions per minute), and finally, the speed at which the data is transmitted (data rate).The two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5-inch, for desktop computers, and 2.5-inch, primarily for laptops.", "HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as SATA (Serial ATA), USB, SAS (Serial Attached SCSI), or PATA (Parallel ATA) cables." ], [ "History", "Video of modern HDD operation (cover removed)Server HDD operation (cover removed)+ Improvement of HDD characteristics over time Parameter Started with (1957) Improved to Improvement Capacity(formatted) 3.75 megabytes 30 terabytes () 8-million-to-one Physical volume 56,000-to-one Weight 15,000-to-one Average access time approx.", "600 milliseconds 2.5 ms to 10 ms; RW RAM dependent about200-to-one Price per megabyte (1961; in 2022) US$14.4 per terabyte by end of 2022 6.8-billion-to-one Data density 2,000 bits per square inch 1.4 terabits per square inch in 2023 700-million-to-one Average lifespan c. 2000 hrs MTBF c. 2,500,000 hrs (~285 years) MTBF 1250-to-oneThe first production IBM hard disk drive, the 350 disk storage, shipped in 1957 as a component of the IBM 305 RAMAC system.", "It was approximately the size of two large refrigerators and stored five million six-bit characters (3.75 megabytes) on a stack of 52 disks (100 surfaces used).", "The 350 had a single arm with two read/write heads, one facing up and the other down, that moved both horizontally between a pair of adjacent platters and vertically from one pair of platters to a second set.", "Variants of the IBM 350 were the IBM 355, IBM 7300 and IBM 1405.In 1961, IBM announced, and in 1962 shipped, the IBM 1301 disk storage unit, which supersededthe IBM 350 and similar drives.", "The 1301 consisted of one (for Model 1) or two (for model 2) modules, each containing 25 platters, each platter about thick and in diameter.", "While the earlier IBM disk drives used only two read/write heads per arm, the 1301 used an array of 48 heads (comb), each array moving horizontally as a single unit, one head per surface used.", "Cylinder-mode read/write operations were supported, and the heads flew about 250 micro-inches (about 6 µm) above the platter surface.", "Motion of the head array depended upon a binary adder system of hydraulic actuators which assured repeatable positioning.", "The 1301 cabinet was about the size of three large refrigerators placed side by side, storing the equivalent of about 21 million eight-bit bytes per module.", "Access time was about a quarter of a second.Also in 1962, IBM introduced the model 1311 disk drive, which was about the size of a washing machine and stored two million characters on a removable disk pack.", "Users could buy additional packs and interchange them as needed, much like reels of magnetic tape.", "Later models of removable pack drives, from IBM and others, became the norm in most computer installations and reached capacities of 300 megabytes by the early 1980s.", "Non-removable HDDs were called \"fixed disk\" drives.In 1963, IBM introduced the 1302, with twice the track capacity and twice as many tracks per cylinder as the 1301.The 1302 had one (for Model 1) or two (for Model 2) modules, each containing a separate comb for the first 250 tracks and the last 250 tracks.Some high-performance HDDs were manufactured with one head per track, ''e.g.", "'', Burroughs B-475 in 1964, IBM 2305 in 1970, so that no time was lost physically moving the heads to a track and the only latency was the time for the desired block of data to rotate into position under the head.", "Known as fixed-head or head-per-track disk drives, they were very expensive and are no longer in production.In 1973, IBM introduced a new type of HDD code-named \"Winchester\".", "Its primary distinguishing feature was that the disk heads were not withdrawn completely from the stack of disk platters when the drive was powered down.", "Instead, the heads were allowed to \"land\" on a special area of the disk surface upon spin-down, \"taking off\" again when the disk was later powered on.", "This greatly reduced the cost of the head actuator mechanism, but precluded removing just the disks from the drive as was done with the disk packs of the day.", "Instead, the first models of \"Winchester technology\" drives featured a removable disk module, which included both the disk pack and the head assembly, leaving the actuator motor in the drive upon removal.", "Later \"Winchester\" drives abandoned the removable media concept and returned to non-removable platters.In 1974, IBM introduced the swinging arm actuator, made feasible because the Winchester recording heads function well when skewed to the recorded tracks.", "The simple design of the IBM GV (Gulliver) drive, invented at IBM's UK Hursley Labs, became IBM's most licensed electro-mechanical invention of all time, the actuator and filtration system being adopted in the 1980s eventually for all HDDs, and still universal nearly 40 years and 10 billion arms later.", "Like the first removable pack drive, the first \"Winchester\" drives used platters in diameter.", "In 1978, IBM introduced a swing arm drive, the IBM 0680 (Piccolo), with eight inch platters, exploring the possibility that smaller platters might offer advantages.", "Other eight inch drives followed, then drives, sized to replace the contemporary floppy disk drives.", "The latter were primarily intended for the then fledgling personal computer (PC) market.", "Over time, as recording densities were greatly increased, further reductions in disk diameter to 3.5\" and 2.5\" were found to be optimum.", "Powerful rare earth magnet materials became affordable during this period, and were complementary to the swing arm actuator design to make possible the compact form factors of modern HDDs.", "As the 1980s began, HDDs were a rare and very expensive additional feature in PCs, but by the late 1980s, their cost had been reduced to the point where they were standard on all but the cheapest computers.Most HDDs in the early 1980s were sold to PC end users as an external, add-on subsystem.", "The subsystem was not sold under the drive manufacturer's name but under the subsystem manufacturer's name such as Corvus Systems and Tallgrass Technologies, or under the PC system manufacturer's name such as the Apple ProFile.", "The IBM PC/XT in 1983 included an internal 10 MB HDD, and soon thereafter, internal HDDs proliferated on personal computers.External HDDs remained popular for much longer on the Apple Macintosh.", "Many Macintosh computers made between 1986 and 1998 featured a SCSI port on the back, making external expansion simple.", "Older compact Macintosh computers did not have user-accessible hard drive bays (indeed, the Macintosh 128K, Macintosh 512K, and Macintosh Plus did not feature a hard drive bay at all), so on those models, external SCSI disks were the only reasonable option for expanding upon any internal storage.HDD improvements have been driven by increasing areal density, listed in the table above.", "Applications expanded through the 2000s, from the mainframe computers of the late 1950s to most mass storage applications including computers and consumer applications such as storage of entertainment content.In the 2000s and 2010s, NAND began supplanting HDDs in applications requiring portability or high performance.", "NAND performance is improving faster than HDDs, and applications for HDDs are eroding.", "In 2018, the largest hard drive had a capacity of 15 TB, while the largest capacity SSD had a capacity of 100 TB.", ", HDDs were forecast to reach 100 TB capacities around 2025, but , the expected pace of improvement was pared back to 50 TB by 2026.Smaller form factors, 1.8-inches and below, were discontinued around 2010.The cost of solid-state storage (NAND), represented by Moore's law, is improving faster than HDDs.", "NAND has a higher price elasticity of demand than HDDs, and this drives market growth.", "During the late 2000s and 2010s, the product life cycle of HDDs entered a mature phase, and slowing sales may indicate the onset of the declining phase.The 2011 Thailand floods damaged the manufacturing plants and impacted hard disk drive cost adversely between 2011 and 2013.In 2019, Western Digital closed its last Malaysian HDD factory due to decreasing demand, to focus on SSD production.", "All three remaining HDD manufacturers have had decreasing demand for their HDDs since 2014." ], [ "Technology", "Magnetic cross section & frequency modulation encoded binary data=== Magnetic recording ===A modern HDD records data by magnetizing a thin film of ferromagnetic material on both sides of a disk.", "Sequential changes in the direction of magnetization represent binary data bits.", "The data is read from the disk by detecting the transitions in magnetization.", "User data is encoded using an encoding scheme, such as run-length limited encoding, which determines how the data is represented by the magnetic transitions.A typical HDD design consists of a '''' that holds flat circular disks, called platters, which hold the recorded data.", "The platters are made from a non-magnetic material, usually aluminum alloy, glass, or ceramic.", "They are coated with a shallow layer of magnetic material typically 10–20 nm in depth, with an outer layer of carbon for protection.", "For reference, a standard piece of copy paper is thick.Destroyed hard disk, glass platter visibleDiagram labeling the major components of a computer HDDRecording of single magnetisations of bits on a 200 MB HDD-platter (recording made visible using CMOS-MagView)Longitudinal recording (standard) & perpendicular recording diagramThe platters in contemporary HDDs are spun at speeds varying from 4,200 RPM in energy-efficient portable devices, to 15,000 rpm for high-performance servers.", "The first HDDs spun at 1,200 rpm and, for many years, 3,600 rpm was the norm.", ", the platters in most consumer-grade HDDs spin at 5,400 or 7,200 RPM.Information is written to and read from a platter as it rotates past devices called read-and-write heads that are positioned to operate very close to the magnetic surface, with their flying height often in the range of tens of nanometers.", "The read-and-write head is used to detect and modify the magnetization of the material passing immediately under it.In modern drives, there is one head for each magnetic platter surface on the spindle, mounted on a common arm.", "An actuator arm (or access arm) moves the heads on an arc (roughly radially) across the platters as they spin, allowing each head to access almost the entire surface of the platter as it spins.", "The arm is moved using a voice coil actuator or, in some older designs, a stepper motor.", "Early hard disk drives wrote data at some constant bits per second, resulting in all tracks having the same amount of data per track, but modern drives (since the 1990s) use zone bit recording, increasing the write speed from inner to outer zone and thereby storing more data per track in the outer zones.In modern drives, the small size of the magnetic regions creates the danger that their magnetic state might be lost because of thermal effects⁠ ⁠— thermally induced magnetic instability which is commonly known as the \"superparamagnetic limit\".", "To counter this, the platters are coated with two parallel magnetic layers, separated by a three-atom layer of the non-magnetic element ruthenium, and the two layers are magnetized in opposite orientation, thus reinforcing each other.", "Another technology used to overcome thermal effects to allow greater recording densities is perpendicular recording (PMR), first shipped in 2005, and , used in certain HDDs.", "Perpendicular recording may be accompanied by changes in the manufacturing of the read/write heads to increase the strength of the magnetic field created by the heads.In 2004, a higher-density recording media was introduced, consisting of coupled soft and hard magnetic layers.", "So-called ''exchange spring media'' magnetic storage technology, also known as ''exchange coupled composite media'', allows good writability due to the write-assist nature of the soft layer.", "However, the thermal stability is determined only by the hardest layer and not influenced by the soft layer.=== Components ===An HDD with disks and motor hub removed, exposing copper-colored stator coils surrounding a bearing in the center of the spindle motor.", "The orange stripe along the side of the arm is a thin printed-circuit cable, the spindle bearing is in the center and the actuator is in the upper left.Circuit board of a 2.5\" Samsung hard disk MP0402HA typical HDD has two electric motors: a spindle motor that spins the disks and an actuator (motor) that positions the read/write head assembly across the spinning disks.", "The disk motor has an external rotor attached to the disks; the stator windings are fixed in place.", "Opposite the actuator at the end of the head support arm is the read-write head; thin printed-circuit cables connect the read-write heads to amplifier electronics mounted at the pivot of the actuator.", "The head support arm is very light, but also stiff; in modern drives, acceleration at the head reaches 550 ''g''.Head stack with an actuator coil on the left and read/write heads on the rightread-write head, showing the side facing the platterThe '''' is a permanent magnet and moving coil motor that swings the heads to the desired position.", "A metal plate supports a squat neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) high-flux magnet.", "Beneath this plate is the moving coil, often referred to as the ''voice coil'' by analogy to the coil in loudspeakers, which is attached to the actuator hub, and beneath that is a second NIB magnet, mounted on the bottom plate of the motor (some drives have only one magnet).The voice coil itself is shaped rather like an arrowhead and is made of doubly coated copper magnet wire.", "The inner layer is insulation, and the outer is thermoplastic, which bonds the coil together after it is wound on a form, making it self-supporting.", "The portions of the coil along the two sides of the arrowhead (which point to the center of the actuator bearing) then interact with the magnetic field of the fixed magnet.", "Current flowing radially outward along one side of the arrowhead and radially inward on the other produces the tangential force.", "If the magnetic field were uniform, each side would generate opposing forces that would cancel each other out.", "Therefore, the surface of the magnet is half north pole and half south pole, with the radial dividing line in the middle, causing the two sides of the coil to see opposite magnetic fields and produce forces that add instead of canceling.", "Currents along the top and bottom of the coil produce radial forces that do not rotate the head.The HDD's electronics control the movement of the actuator and the rotation of the disk and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk controller.", "Feedback of the drive electronics is accomplished by means of special segments of the disk dedicated to servo feedback.", "These are either complete concentric circles (in the case of dedicated servo technology) or segments interspersed with real data (in the case of embedded servo, otherwise known as sector servo technology).", "The servo feedback optimizes the signal-to-noise ratio of the GMR sensors by adjusting the voice coil motor to rotate the arm.", "A more modern servo system also employs milli and/or micro actuators to more accurately position the read/write heads.", "The spinning of the disks uses fluid-bearing spindle motors.", "Modern disk firmware is capable of scheduling reads and writes efficiently on the platter surfaces and remapping sectors of the media that have failed.=== Error rates and handling ===Modern drives make extensive use of error correction codes (ECCs), particularly Reed–Solomon error correction.", "These techniques store extra bits, determined by mathematical formulas, for each block of data; the extra bits allow many errors to be corrected invisibly.", "The extra bits themselves take up space on the HDD, but allow higher recording densities to be employed without causing uncorrectable errors, resulting in much larger storage capacity.", "For example, a typical 1 TB hard disk with 512-byte sectors provides additional capacity of about 93 GB for the ECC data.In the newest drives, , low-density parity-check codes (LDPC) were supplanting Reed–Solomon; LDPC codes enable performance close to the Shannon limit and thus provide the highest storage density available.Typical hard disk drives attempt to \"remap\" the data in a physical sector that is failing to a spare physical sector provided by the drive's \"spare sector pool\" (also called \"reserve pool\"), while relying on the ECC to recover stored data while the number of errors in a bad sector is still low enough.", "The S.M.A.R.T (Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology) feature counts the total number of errors in the entire HDD fixed by ECC (although not on all hard drives as the related S.M.A.R.T attributes \"Hardware ECC Recovered\" and \"Soft ECC Correction\" are not consistently supported), and the total number of performed sector remappings, as the occurrence of many such errors may predict an HDD failure.The \"No-ID Format\", developed by IBM in the mid-1990s, contains information about which sectors are bad and where remapped sectors have been located.Only a tiny fraction of the detected errors end up as not correctable.", "Examples of specified uncorrected bit read error rates include:2013 specifications for enterprise SAS disk drives state the error rate to be one uncorrected bit read error in every 1016 bits read, 2018 specifications for consumer SATA hard drives state the error rate to be one uncorrected bit read error in every 1014 bits.Within a given manufacturers model the uncorrected bit error rate is typically the same regardless of capacity of the drive.The worst type of errors are silent data corruptions which are errors undetected by the disk firmware or the host operating system; some of these errors may be caused by hard disk drive malfunctions while others originate elsewhere in the connection between the drive and the host.=== Development ===Leading-edge hard disk drive areal densities from 1956 through 2009 compared to Moore's law.", "By 2016, progress had slowed significantly below the extrapolated density trend.The rate of areal density advancement was similar to Moore's law (doubling every two years) through 2010: 60% per year during 1988–1996, 100% during 1996–2003 and 30% during 2003–2010.Speaking in 1997, Gordon Moore called the increase \"flabbergasting\", while observing later that growth cannot continue forever.", "Price improvement decelerated to −12% per year during 2010–2017, as the growth of areal density slowed.", "The rate of advancement for areal density slowed to 10% per year during 2010–2016, and there was difficulty in migrating from perpendicular recording to newer technologies.As bit cell size decreases, more data can be put onto a single drive platter.", "In 2013, a production desktop 3 TB HDD (with four platters) would have had an areal density of about 500 Gbit/in2 which would have amounted to a bit cell comprising about 18 magnetic grains (11 by 1.6 grains).", "Since the mid-2000s, areal density progress has been challenged by a superparamagnetic trilemma involving grain size, grain magnetic strength and ability of the head to write.", "In order to maintain acceptable signal-to-noise, smaller grains are required; smaller grains may self-reverse (electrothermal instability) unless their magnetic strength is increased, but known write head materials are unable to generate a strong enough magnetic field sufficient to write the medium in the increasingly smaller space taken by grains.Magnetic storage technologies are being developed to address this trilemma, and compete with flash memory–based solid-state drives (SSDs).", "In 2013, Seagate introduced shingled magnetic recording (SMR), intended as something of a \"stopgap\" technology between PMR and Seagate's intended successor heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR).", "SMR utilises overlapping tracks for increased data density, at the cost of design complexity and lower data access speeds (particularly write speeds and random access 4k speeds).By contrast, HGST (now part of Western Digital) focused on developing ways to seal helium-filled drives instead of the usual filtered air.", "Since turbulence and friction are reduced, higher areal densities can be achieved due to using a smaller track width, and the energy dissipated due to friction is lower as well, resulting in a lower power draw.", "Furthermore, more platters can be fit into the same enclosure space, although helium gas is notoriously difficult to prevent escaping.", "Thus, helium drives are completely sealed and do not have a breather port, unlike their air-filled counterparts.Other recording technologies are either under research or have been commercially implemented to increase areal density, including Seagate's heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR).", "HAMR requires a different architecture with redesigned media and read/write heads, new lasers, and new near-field optical transducers.", "HAMR is expected to ship commercially in late 2020 or 2021.Technical issues delayed the introduction of HAMR by a decade, from earlier projections of 2009, 2015, 2016, and the first half of 2019.Some drives have adopted dual independent actuator arms to increase read/write speeds and compete with SSDs.", "HAMR's planned successor, bit-patterned recording (BPR), has been removed from the roadmaps of Western Digital and Seagate.", "Western Digital's microwave-assisted magnetic recording (MAMR), also referred to as energy-assisted magnetic recording (EAMR), was sampled in 2020, with the first EAMR drive, the Ultrastar HC550, shipping in late 2020.Two-dimensional magnetic recording (TDMR) and \"current perpendicular to plane\" giant magnetoresistance (CPP/GMR) heads have appeared in research papers.", "A 3D-actuated vacuum drive (3DHD) concept and 3D magnetic recording have been proposed.Depending upon assumptions on feasibility and timing of these technologies, Seagate forecasts that areal density will grow 20% per year during 2020–2034." ], [ "Capacity", "Two Seagate Barracuda drives from 2003 and 2009, respectively 160 GB and 1 TB.", ", Western Digital offers capacities up to 26 TB.mSATA SSD on top of a 2.5-inch hard driveThe highest-capacity HDDs shipping commercially in 2024 are 32 TB.", "The capacity of a hard disk drive, as reported by an operating system to the end user, is smaller than the amount stated by the manufacturer for several reasons, e.g.", "the operating system using some space, use of some space for data redundancy, space use for file system structures.", "Confusion of decimal prefixes and binary prefixes can also lead to errors.=== Calculation ===Modern hard disk drives appear to their host controller as a contiguous set of logical blocks, and the gross drive capacity is calculated by multiplying the number of blocks by the block size.", "This information is available from the manufacturer's product specification, and from the drive itself through use of operating system functions that invoke low-level drive commands.", "Older IBM and compatible drives, e.g.", "IBM 3390 using the CKD record format, have variable length records; such drive capacity calculations must take into account the characteristics of the records.", "Some newer DASD simulate CKD, and the same capacity formulae apply.The gross capacity of older sector-oriented HDDs is calculated as the product of the number of cylinders per recording zone, the number of bytes per sector (most commonly 512), and the count of zones of the drive.", "Some modern SATA drives also report cylinder-head-sector (CHS) capacities, but these are not physical parameters because the reported values are constrained by historic operating system interfaces.", "The C/H/S scheme has been replaced by logical block addressing (LBA), a simple linear addressing scheme that locates blocks by an integer index, which starts at LBA 0 for the first block and increments thereafter.", "When using the C/H/S method to describe modern large drives, the number of heads is often set to 64, although a typical modern hard disk drive has between one and four platters.", "In modern HDDs, spare capacity for defect management is not included in the published capacity; however, in many early HDDs, a certain number of sectors were reserved as spares, thereby reducing the capacity available to the operating system.", "Furthermore, many HDDs store their firmware in a reserved service zone, which is typically not accessible by the user, and is not included in the capacity calculation.For RAID subsystems, data integrity and fault-tolerance requirements also reduce the realized capacity.", "For example, a RAID 1 array has about half the total capacity as a result of data mirroring, while a RAID 5 array with drives loses of capacity (which equals to the capacity of a single drive) due to storing parity information.", "RAID subsystems are multiple drives that appear to be one drive or more drives to the user, but provide fault tolerance.", "Most RAID vendors use checksums to improve data integrity at the block level.", "Some vendors design systems using HDDs with sectors of 520 bytes to contain 512 bytes of user data and eight checksum bytes, or by using separate 512-byte sectors for the checksum data.Some systems may use hidden partitions for system recovery, reducing the capacity available to the end user without knowledge of special disk partitioning utilities like diskpart in Windows.=== Formatting ===Data is stored on a hard drive in a series of logical blocks.", "Each block is delimited by markers identifying its start and end, error detecting and correcting information, and space between blocks to allow for minor timing variations.", "These blocks often contained 512 bytes of usable data, but other sizes have been used.", "As drive density increased, an initiative known as Advanced Format extended the block size to 4096 bytes of usable data, with a resulting significant reduction in the amount of disk space used for block headers, error checking data, and spacing.The process of initializing these logical blocks on the physical disk platters is called ''low-level formatting'', which is usually performed at the factory and is not normally changed in the field.", "''High-level formatting'' writes data structures used by the operating system to organize data files on the disk.", "This includes writing partition and file system structures into selected logical blocks.", "For example, some of the disk space will be used to hold a directory of disk file names and a list of logical blocks associated with a particular file.Examples of partition mapping scheme include Master boot record (MBR) and GUID Partition Table (GPT).", "Examples of data structures stored on disk to retrieve files include the File Allocation Table (FAT) in the DOS file system and inodes in many UNIX file systems, as well as other operating system data structures (also known as metadata).", "As a consequence, not all the space on an HDD is available for user files, but this system overhead is usually small compared with user data.=== Units ===+ Decimal and binary unit prefixes interpretation Capacity advertised by manufacturers Capacity expected by some consumers Reported capacity Windows macOS ver 10.6+ With prefix Bytes Bytes Diff.", "100 GB 100,000,000,000 107,374,182,400 7.37% 93.1 GB 100 GB 1 TB 1,000,000,000,000 1,099,511,627,776 9.95% 931 GB 1,000 GB, 1,000,000 MBIn the early days of computing, the total capacity of HDDs was specified in seven to nine decimal digits frequently truncated with the idiom ''millions''.By the 1970s, the total capacity of HDDs was given by manufacturers using SI decimal prefixes such as megabytes (1 MB = 1,000,000 bytes), gigabytes (1 GB = 1,000,000,000 bytes) and terabytes (1 TB = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes).", "However, capacities of memory are usually quoted using a binary interpretation of the prefixes, i.e.", "using powers of 1024 instead of 1000.Software reports hard disk drive or memory capacity in different forms using either decimal or binary prefixes.", "The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems uses the binary convention when reporting storage capacity, so an HDD offered by its manufacturer as a 1 TB drive is reported by these operating systems as a 931 GB HDD.", "Mac OS X 10.6 (\"Snow Leopard\") uses decimal convention when reporting HDD capacity.", "The default behavior of the command-line utility on Linux is to report the HDD capacity as a number of 1024-byte units.The difference between the decimal and binary prefix interpretation caused some consumer confusion and led to class action suits against HDD manufacturers.", "The plaintiffs argued that the use of decimal prefixes effectively misled consumers, while the defendants denied any wrongdoing or liability, asserting that their marketing and advertising complied in all respects with the law and that no class member sustained any damages or injuries.", "In 2020, a California court ruled that use of the decimal prefixes with a decimal meaning was not misleading." ], [ "Form factors", "8-, 5.25-, 3.5-, 2.5-, 1.8- and 1-inch HDDs, together with a ruler to show the size of platters and read-write headsA newer 2.5-inch (63.5 mm) 6,495 MB HDD compared to an older 5.25-inch full-height 110 MB HDDIBM's first hard disk drive, the IBM 350, used a stack of fifty 24-inch platters, stored 3.75 MB of data (approximately the size of one modern digital picture), and was of a size comparable to two large refrigerators.", "In 1962, IBM introduced its model 1311 disk, which used six 14-inch (nominal size) platters in a removable pack and was roughly the size of a washing machine.", "This became a standard platter size for many years, used also by other manufacturers.", "The IBM 2314 used platters of the same size in an eleven-high pack and introduced the \"drive in a drawer\" layout, sometimes called the \"pizza oven\", although the \"drawer\" was not the complete drive.", "Into the 1970s, HDDs were offered in standalone cabinets of varying dimensions containing from one to four HDDs.Beginning in the late 1960s, drives were offered that fit entirely into a chassis that would mount in a 19-inch rack.", "Digital's RK05 and RL01 were early examples using single 14-inch platters in removable packs, the entire drive fitting in a 10.5-inch-high rack space (six rack units).", "In the mid-to-late 1980s, the similarly sized Fujitsu Eagle, which used (coincidentally) 10.5-inch platters, was a popular product.With increasing sales of microcomputers having built-in floppy-disk drives (FDDs), HDDs that would fit to the FDD mountings became desirable.", "Starting with the Shugart Associates SA1000, HDD ''form factors'' initially followed those of 8-inch, 5¼-inch, and 3½-inch floppy disk drives.", "Although referred to by these nominal sizes, the actual sizes for those three drives respectively are 9.5\", 5.75\" and 4\" wide.", "Because there were no smaller floppy disk drives, smaller HDD form factors such as 2½-inch drives (actually 2.75\" wide) developed from product offerings or industry standards., 2½-inch and 3½-inch hard disks are the most popular sizes.", "By 2009, all manufacturers had discontinued the development of new products for the 1.3-inch, 1-inch and 0.85-inch form factors due to falling prices of flash memory, which has no moving parts.", "While nominal sizes are in inches, actual dimensions are specified in millimeters." ], [ "Performance characteristics", "The factors that limit the time to access the data on an HDD are mostly related to the mechanical nature of the rotating disks and moving heads, including:* Seek time is a measure of how long it takes the head assembly to travel to the track of the disk that contains data.", "* Rotational latency is incurred because the desired disk sector may not be directly under the head when data transfer is requested.", "Average rotational latency is shown in the table, based on the statistical relation that the average latency is one-half the rotational period.", "* The bit rate or data transfer rate (once the head is in the right position) creates delay which is a function of the number of blocks transferred; typically relatively small, but can be quite long with the transfer of large contiguous files.Delay may also occur if the drive disks are stopped to save energy.Defragmentation is a procedure used to minimize delay in retrieving data by moving related items to physically proximate areas on the disk.", "Some computer operating systems perform defragmentation automatically.", "Although automatic defragmentation is intended to reduce access delays, performance will be temporarily reduced while the procedure is in progress.Time to access data can be improved by increasing rotational speed (thus reducing latency) or by reducing the time spent seeking.", "Increasing areal density increases throughput by increasing data rate and by increasing the amount of data under a set of heads, thereby potentially reducing seek activity for a given amount of data.", "The time to access data has not kept up with throughput increases, which themselves have not kept up with growth in bit density and storage capacity.=== Latency ===+Latency characteristics typical of HDDs Rotational speedrpm Average rotational latencyms 15,000 2 10,000 3 7,200 4.16 5,400 5.55 4,800 6.25=== Data transfer rate ===, a typical 7,200-rpm desktop HDD has a sustained \"disk-to-buffer\" data transfer rate up to 1,030 Mbit/s.", "This rate depends on the track location; the rate is higher for data on the outer tracks (where there are more data sectors per rotation) and lower toward the inner tracks (where there are fewer data sectors per rotation); and is generally somewhat higher for 10,000-rpm drives.", "A current, widely-used standard for the \"buffer-to-computer\" interface is 3.0 Gbit/s SATA, which can send about 300 megabyte/s (10-bit encoding) from the buffer to the computer, and thus is still comfortably ahead of today's disk-to-buffer transfer rates.", "Data transfer rate (read/write) can be measured by writing a large file to disk using special file-generator tools, then reading back the file.", "Transfer rate can be influenced by file system fragmentation and the layout of the files.HDD data transfer rate depends upon the rotational speed of the platters and the data recording density.", "Because heat and vibration limit rotational speed, advancing density becomes the main method to improve sequential transfer rates.", "Higher speeds require a more powerful spindle motor, which creates more heat.", "While areal density advances by increasing both the number of tracks across the disk and the number of sectors per track, only the latter increases the data transfer rate for a given rpm.", "Since data transfer rate performance tracks only one of the two components of areal density, its performance improves at a lower rate.=== Other considerations ===Other performance considerations include quality-adjusted price, power consumption, audible noise, and both operating and non-operating shock resistance." ], [ "Access and interfaces", "Seagate HDD that used the Parallel ATA interface2.5-inch SATA drive on top of 3.5-inch SATA drive, showing close-up of (7-pin) data and (15-pin) power connectorsCurrent hard drives connect to a computer over one of several bus types, including parallel ATA, Serial ATA, SCSI, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), and Fibre Channel.", "Some drives, especially external portable drives, use IEEE 1394, or USB.", "All of these interfaces are digital; electronics on the drive process the analog signals from the read/write heads.", "Current drives present a consistent interface to the rest of the computer, independent of the data encoding scheme used internally, and independent of the physical number of disks and heads within the drive.Typically, a DSP in the electronics inside the drive takes the raw analog voltages from the read head and uses PRML and Reed–Solomon error correction to decode the data, then sends that data out the standard interface.", "That DSP also watches the error rate detected by error detection and correction, and performs bad sector remapping, data collection for Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology, and other internal tasks.Modern interfaces connect the drive to the host interface with a single data/control cable.", "Each drive also has an additional power cable, usually direct to the power supply unit.", "Older interfaces had separate cables for data signals and for drive control signals.", "* Small Computer System Interface (SCSI), originally named SASI for Shugart Associates System Interface, was standard on servers, workstations, Commodore Amiga, Atari ST and Apple Macintosh computers through the mid-1990s, by which time most models had been transitioned to newer interfaces.", "The length limit of the data cable allows for external SCSI devices.", "The SCSI command set is still used in the more modern SAS interface.", "* Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE), later standardized under the name AT Attachment (ATA, with the alias PATA (Parallel ATA) retroactively added upon introduction of SATA) moved the HDD controller from the interface card to the disk drive.", "This helped to standardize the host/controller interface, reduce the programming complexity in the host device driver, and reduced system cost and complexity.", "The 40-pin IDE/ATA connection transfers 16 bits of data at a time on the data cable.", "The data cable was originally 40-conductor, but later higher speed requirements led to an \"ultra DMA\" (UDMA) mode using an 80-conductor cable with additional wires to reduce crosstalk at high speed.", "* EIDE was an unofficial update (by Western Digital) to the original IDE standard, with the key improvement being the use of direct memory access (DMA) to transfer data between the disk and the computer without the involvement of the CPU, an improvement later adopted by the official ATA standards.", "By directly transferring data between memory and disk, DMA eliminates the need for the CPU to copy byte per byte, therefore allowing it to process other tasks while the data transfer occurs.", "* Fibre Channel (FC) is a successor to parallel SCSI interface on enterprise market.", "It is a serial protocol.", "In disk drives usually the Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL) connection topology is used.", "FC has much broader usage than mere disk interfaces, and it is the cornerstone of storage area networks (SANs).", "Recently other protocols for this field, like iSCSI and ATA over Ethernet have been developed as well.", "Confusingly, drives usually use ''copper'' twisted-pair cables for Fibre Channel, not fibre optics.", "The latter are traditionally reserved for larger devices, such as servers or disk array controllers.", "* Serial Attached SCSI (SAS).", "The SAS is a new generation serial communication protocol for devices designed to allow for much higher speed data transfers and is compatible with SATA.", "SAS uses a mechanically compatible data and power connector to standard 3.5-inch SATA1/SATA2 HDDs, and many server-oriented SAS RAID controllers are also capable of addressing SATA HDDs.", "SAS uses serial communication instead of the parallel method found in traditional SCSI devices but still uses SCSI commands.", "* Serial ATA (SATA).", "The SATA data cable has one data pair for differential transmission of data to the device, and one pair for differential receiving from the device, just like EIA-422.That requires that data be transmitted serially.", "A similar differential signaling system is used in RS485, LocalTalk, USB, FireWire, and differential SCSI.", "SATA I to III are designed to be compatible with, and use, a subset of SAS commands, and compatible interfaces.", "Therefore, a SATA hard drive can be connected to and controlled by a SAS hard drive controller (with some minor exceptions such as drives/controllers with limited compatibility).", "However, they cannot be connected the other way round—a SATA controller cannot be connected to a SAS drive." ], [ "Integrity and failure", "Close-up of an HDD head resting on a disk platter; its mirror reflection is visible on the platter surface.", "Unless the head is on a landing zone, the heads touching the platters while in operation can be catastrophic.Due to the extremely close spacing between the heads and the disk surface, HDDs are vulnerable to being damaged by a head crash – a failure of the disk in which the head scrapes across the platter surface, often grinding away the thin magnetic film and causing data loss.", "Head crashes can be caused by electronic failure, a sudden power failure, physical shock, contamination of the drive's internal enclosure, wear and tear, corrosion, or poorly manufactured platters and heads.The HDD's spindle system relies on air density inside the disk enclosure to support the heads at their proper flying height while the disk rotates.", "HDDs require a certain range of air densities to operate properly.", "The connection to the external environment and density occurs through a small hole in the enclosure (about 0.5 mm in breadth), usually with a filter on the inside (the ''breather filter'').", "If the air density is too low, then there is not enough lift for the flying head, so the head gets too close to the disk, and there is a risk of head crashes and data loss.", "Specially manufactured sealed and pressurized disks are needed for reliable high-altitude operation, above about .", "Modern disks include temperature sensors and adjust their operation to the operating environment.", "Breather holes can be seen on all disk drives – they usually have a sticker next to them, warning the user not to cover the holes.", "The air inside the operating drive is constantly moving too, being swept in motion by friction with the spinning platters.", "This air passes through an internal recirculation (or \"recirc\") filter to remove any leftover contaminants from manufacture, any particles or chemicals that may have somehow entered the enclosure, and any particles or outgassing generated internally in normal operation.", "Very high humidity present for extended periods of time can corrode the heads and platters.", "An exception to this are hermetically sealed, helium filled HDDs that largely eliminate environmental issues that can arise due to humidity or atmospheric pressure changes.", "Such HDDs were introduced by HGST in their first successful high volume implementation in 2013.For giant magnetoresistive (GMR) heads in particular, a minor head crash from contamination (that does not remove the magnetic surface of the disk) still results in the head temporarily overheating, due to friction with the disk surface, and can render the data unreadable for a short period until the head temperature stabilizes (so called \"thermal asperity\", a problem which can partially be dealt with by proper electronic filtering of the read signal).When the logic board of a hard disk fails, the drive can often be restored to functioning order and the data recovered by replacing the circuit board with one of an identical hard disk.", "In the case of read-write head faults, they can be replaced using specialized tools in a dust-free environment.", "If the disk platters are undamaged, they can be transferred into an identical enclosure and the data can be copied or cloned onto a new drive.", "In the event of disk-platter failures, disassembly and imaging of the disk platters may be required.", "For logical damage to file systems, a variety of tools, including fsck on UNIX-like systems and CHKDSK on Windows, can be used for data recovery.", "Recovery from logical damage can require file carving.A common expectation is that hard disk drives designed and marketed for server use will fail less frequently than consumer-grade drives usually used in desktop computers.", "However, two independent studies by Carnegie Mellon University and Google found that the \"grade\" of a drive does not relate to the drive's failure rate.A 2011 summary of research, into SSD and magnetic disk failure patterns by Tom's Hardware summarized research findings as follows:* Mean time between failures (MTBF) does not indicate reliability; the annualized failure rate is higher and usually more relevant.", "* HDDs do not tend to fail during early use, and temperature has only a minor effect; instead, failure rates steadily increase with age.", "* S.M.A.R.T.", "warns of mechanical issues but not other issues affecting reliability, and is therefore not a reliable indicator of condition.", "* Failure rates of drives sold as \"enterprise\" and \"consumer\" are \"very much similar\", although these drive types are customized for their different operating environments.", "* In drive arrays, one drive's failure significantly increases the short-term risk of a second drive failing., Backblaze, a storage provider, reported an annualized failure rate of two percent per year for a storage farm with 110,000 off-the-shelf HDDs with the reliability varying widely between models and manufacturers.", "Backblaze subsequently reported that the failure rate for HDDs and SSD of equivalent age was similar.To minimize cost and overcome failures of individual HDDs, storage systems providers rely on redundant HDD arrays.", "HDDs that fail are replaced on an ongoing basis." ], [ "Market segments", "===Consumer segment===: Two high-end consumer SATA 2.5-inch 10,000 rpm HDDs, factory-mounted in 3.5-inch adapter frames; Desktop HDDs: Desktop HDDs typically have two to five internal platters, rotate at 5,400 to 10,000 rpm, and have a media transfer rate of 0.5 Gbit/s or higher (1 GB = 109 bytes; 1 Gbit/s = 109 bit/s).", "Earlier (1980–1990s) drives tend to be slower in rotation speed.", ", the highest-capacity desktop HDDs stored 16 TB, with plans to release 18 TB drives later in 2019.18 TB HDDs were released in 2020., the typical speed of a hard drive in an average desktop computer is 7,200 RPM, whereas low-cost desktop computers may use 5,900 RPM or 5,400 RPM drives.", "For some time in the 2000s and early 2010s some desktop users and data centers also used 10,000 RPM drives such as Western Digital Raptor but such drives have become much rarer and are not commonly used now, having been replaced by NAND flash-based SSDs.", "; Mobile (laptop) HDDs: Smaller than their desktop and enterprise counterparts, they tend to be slower and have lower capacity, because typically has one internal platter and were 2.5\" or 1.8\" physical size instead of more common for desktops 3.5\" form-factor.", "Mobile HDDs spin at 4,200 rpm, 5,200 rpm, 5,400 rpm, or 7,200 rpm, with 5,400 rpm being the most common; 7,200 rpm drives tend to be more expensive and have smaller capacities, while 4,200 rpm models usually have very high storage capacities.", "Because of smaller platter(s), mobile HDDs generally have lower capacity than their desktop counterparts.", "; Consumer electronics HDDsThese drives typically spin at 5400 RPM and include:* '''Video hard drives''', sometimes called \"'''surveillance hard drives'''\", are embedded into digital video recorders and provide a guaranteed streaming capacity, even in the face of read and write errors.", "* Drives embedded into automotive vehicles; they are typically built to resist larger amounts of shock and operate over a larger temperature range.", "; External and portable HDDs: Two 2.5\" external USB hard drives: Current external hard disk drives typically connect via USB-C; earlier models use USB-B (sometimes with using of a pair of ports for better bandwidth) or (rarely) eSATA connection.", "Variants using USB 2.0 interface generally have slower data transfer rates when compared to internally mounted hard drives connected through SATA.", "Plug and play drive functionality offers system compatibility and features large storage options and portable design.", ", available capacities for external hard disk drives ranged from 500 GB to 10 TB.", "External hard disk drives are usually available as assembled integrated products, but may be also assembled by combining an external enclosure (with USB or other interface) with a separately purchased drive.", "They are available in 2.5-inch and 3.5-inch sizes; 2.5-inch variants are typically called ''portable external drives'', while 3.5-inch variants are referred to as ''desktop external drives''.", "\"Portable\" drives are packaged in smaller and lighter enclosures than the \"desktop\" drives; additionally, \"portable\" drives use power provided by the USB connection, while \"desktop\" drives require external power bricks.", "Features such as encryption, Wi-Fi connectivity, biometric security or multiple interfaces (for example, FireWire) are available at a higher cost.", "There are pre-assembled external hard disk drives that, when taken out from their enclosures, cannot be used internally in a laptop or desktop computer due to embedded USB interface on their printed circuit boards, and lack of SATA (or Parallel ATA) interfaces.===Enterprise and business segment===; Server and workstation HDDs: Hot-swappable HDD enclosure: Typically used with multiple-user computers running enterprise software.", "Examples are: transaction processing databases, internet infrastructure (email, webserver, e-commerce), scientific computing software, and nearline storage management software.", "Enterprise drives commonly operate continuously (\"24/7\") in demanding environments while delivering the highest possible performance without sacrificing reliability.", "Maximum capacity is not the primary goal, and as a result the drives are often offered in capacities that are relatively low in relation to their cost.", ": The fastest enterprise HDDs spin at 10,000 or 15,000 rpm, and can achieve sequential media transfer speeds above 1.6 Gbit/s and a sustained transfer rate up to 1 Gbit/s.", "Drives running at 10,000 or 15,000 rpm use smaller platters to mitigate increased power requirements (as they have less air drag) and therefore generally have lower capacity than the highest capacity desktop drives.", "Enterprise HDDs are commonly connected through Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) or Fibre Channel (FC).", "Some support multiple ports, so they can be connected to a redundant host bus adapter.", ": Enterprise HDDs can have sector sizes larger than 512 bytes (often 520, 524, 528 or 536 bytes).", "The additional per-sector space can be used by hardware RAID controllers or applications for storing Data Integrity Field (DIF) or Data Integrity Extensions (DIX) data, resulting in higher reliability and prevention of silent data corruption.", ";Surveillance hard drives; : Video recording HDDs used in network video recorders." ], [ "Economy", "=== Price evolution ===HDD price per byte decreased at the rate of 40% per year during 1988–1996, 51% per year during 1996–2003 and 34% per year during 2003–2010.The price decrease slowed down to 13% per year during 2011–2014, as areal density increase slowed and the 2011 Thailand floods damaged manufacturing facilities and have held at 11% per year during 2010–2017.The Federal Reserve Board has published a quality-adjusted price index for large-scale enterprise storage systems including three or more enterprise HDDs and associated controllers, racks and cables.", "Prices for these large-scale storage systems decreased at the rate of 30% per year during 2004–2009 and 22% per year during 2009–2014.=== Manufacturers and sales ===Diagram of HDD manufacturer consolidationMore than 200 companies have manufactured HDDs over time, but consolidations have concentrated production to just three manufacturers today: Western Digital, Seagate, and Toshiba.", "Production is mainly in the Pacific rim.HDD unit shipments peaked at 651 million units in 2010 and have been declining since then to 166 million units in 2022.Seagate at 43% of units had the largest market share." ], [ "Competition from SSDs", "HDDs are being superseded by solid-state drives (SSDs) in markets where the higher speed (up to 7 gigabytes per second for M.2 (NGFF) NVMe drives and 2.5 gigabytes per second for PCIe expansion card drives)), ruggedness, and lower power of SSDs are more important than price, since the bit cost of SSDs is four to nine times higher than HDDs.", ", HDDs are reported to have a failure rate of 2–9% per year, while SSDs have fewer failures: 1–3% per year.", "However, SSDs have more un-correctable data errors than HDDs.SSDs offer larger capacities (up to 100 TB) than the largest HDD and/or higher storage densities (100 TB and 30 TB SSDs are housed in 2.5 inch HDD cases but with the same height as a 3.5-inch HDD), although their cost remains prohibitive.A laboratory demonstration of a 1.33-Tb 3D NAND chip with 96 layers (NAND commonly used in solid state drives (SSDs)) had 5.5 Tbit/in2 , while the maximum areal density for HDDs is 1.5 Tbit/in2.The areal density of flash memory is doubling every two years, similar to Moore's law (40% per year) and faster than the 10–20% per year for HDDs.", ", the maximum capacity was 16 terabytes for an HDD, and 100 terabytes for an SSD.", "HDDs were used in 70% of the desktop and notebook computers produced in 2016, and SSDs were used in 30%.", "The usage share of HDDs is declining and could drop below 50% in 2018–2019 according to one forecast, because SSDs are replacing smaller-capacity (less than one-terabyte) HDDs in desktop and notebook computers and MP3 players.The market for silicon-based flash memory (NAND) chips, used in SSDs and other applications, is growing faster than for HDDs.", "Worldwide NAND revenue grew 16% per year from $22 billion to $57 billion during 2011–2017, while production grew 45% per year from 19 exabytes to 175 exabytes." ], [ "See also", "* Automatic acoustic management* Cleanroom* Click of death* Comparison of disk encryption software* Data erasure* Drive mapping* Error recovery control* Hard disk drive performance characteristics* Hybrid drive* Microdrive* Network drive (file server, shared resource)* Object storage* Write precompensation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", " Hard Disk Drives Encyclopedia* Video showing an opened HD working* Average seek time of a computer disk* Timeline: 50 Years of Hard Drives * HDD from inside: Tracks and Zones.", "How hard it can be?", "* Hard disk hacking firmware modifications, in eight parts, going as far as booting a Linux kernel on an ordinary HDD controller board* Hiding Data in Hard Drive’s Service Areas, February 14, 2013, by Ariel Berkman* Rotary Acceleration Feed Forward (RAFF) Information Sheet, Western Digital, January 2013* PowerChoice Technology for Hard Disk Drive Power Savings and Flexibility, Seagate Technology, March 2010* Shingled Magnetic Recording (SMR), HGST, Inc., 2015* The Road to Helium, HGST, Inc., 2015* Research paper about perspective usage of magnetic photoconductors in magneto-optical data storage." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hebrew calendar" ], [ "Introduction", "Jewish calendar, showing Adar II between 1927 and 1948The '''Hebrew calendar''' (), also called the '''Jewish calendar''', is a lunisolar calendar used today for Jewish religious observance and as an official calendar of Israel.", "It determines the dates of Jewish holidays and other rituals, such as ''yahrzeits'' and the schedule of public Torah readings.", "In Israel, it is used for religious purposes, provides a time frame for agriculture, and is an official calendar for civil holidays alongside the Gregorian calendar.Like other lunisolar calendars, the Hebrew calendar consists of months of 29 or 30 days which begin and end at approximately the time of the new moon.", "As 12 such months comprise a total of just 354 days, an extra lunar month is added every 2 or 3 years so that the long-term average year length closely approximates the actual length of the solar year.Originally, the beginning of each month was determined based on physical observation of a new moon, while the decision of whether to add the leap month was based on observation of natural agriculture-related events in ancient Israel.", "Between the years 70 and 1178, these empirical criteria were gradually replaced with a set of mathematical rules.", "Month length now follows a fixed schedule which is adjusted based on the molad interval (a mathematical approximation of the mean time between new moons) and several other rules, while leap months are now added in 7 out of every 19 years according to the Metonic cycle.Nowadays, Hebrew years are generally counted according to the system of (Latin: \"in the year of the world\"; , \"from the creation of the world\", abbreviated AM).", "This system attempts to calculate the number of years since the creation of the world, according to the Genesis creation narrative and subsequent Biblical stories.", "The current Hebrew year, AM , began at sunset on and will end at sunset on ." ], [ "Components", "===Days===Based on the classic rabbinic interpretation of (\"There was evening and there was morning, one day\"), a day in the rabbinic Hebrew calendar runs from sunset (the start of \"the evening\") to the next sunset.", "Similarly Yom Kippur, Passover, and Shabbat are described in the Bible as lasting \"from evening to evening\".", "The days are therefore figured locally.Halachically, the exact time when days begin or end is uncertain: this time could be either sundown (''shekiah'') or else nightfall (''tzait ha'kochavim'', \"when the stars appear\").", "The time between sundown and nightfall (''bein hashmashot'') is of uncertain status.", "Thus (for example) observance of Shabbat begins before sundown on Friday and ends after nightfall on Saturday, to be sure that Shabbat is not violated no matter when the transition between days occurs.Instead of the international date line convention, there are varying opinions as to where the day changes.", "One opinion uses the antimeridian of Jerusalem (located at 144°47' W, passing through eastern Alaska).", "Other opinions exist as well.", "(See International date line in Judaism.", ")===Hours===Judaism uses multiple systems for dividing hours.", "In one system, the 24-hour day is divided into fixed hours equal to of a day, while each hour is divided into 1080 ''halakim'' (parts, singular: ''helek'').", "A part is seconds ( minute).", "The ultimate ancestor of the ''helek'' was a Babylonian time period called a ''barleycorn'', equal to of a Babylonian ''time degree'' (1° of celestial rotation).", "These measures are not generally used for everyday purposes; their best-known use is for calculating and announcing the molad.In another system, the daytime period is divided into 12 relative hours (''sha'ah z'manit'', also sometimes called \"halachic hours\").", "A relative hour is defined as of the time from sunrise to sunset, or dawn to dusk, as per the two opinions in this regard.", "Therefore, an hour can be less than 60 minutes in winter, and more than 60 minutes in summer; similarly, the 6th hour ends at solar noon, which generally differs from 12:00.Relative hours are used for the calculation of prayer times (zmanim); for example, the Shema must be recited in the first three relative hours of the day.Neither system is commonly used in ordinary life; rather, the local civil clock is used.", "This is even the case for ritual times (e.g.", "\"The latest time to recite Shema today is 9:38 AM\").===Weeks===The Hebrew week (, ) is a cycle of seven days, mirroring the seven-day period of the Book of Genesis in which the world is created.The names for the days of the week are simply the day number within the week.", "The week begins with Day 1 (Sunday) and ends with Shabbat (Saturday).", "(More precisely, since days begin in the evening, weeks begin and end on Saturday evening.", "Day 1 lasts from Saturday evening to Sunday evening, while Shabbat lasts from Friday evening to Saturday evening.", ")Since some calculations use division, a remainder of 0 signifies Saturday.In Hebrew, these names may be abbreviated using the numerical value of the Hebrew letters, for example (''Day 1'', or ''Yom Rishon'' ()): Hebrew name Abbreviation Translation English equivalent Yom Rishon (יום ראשון) First day Sunset on Saturday to sunset on Sunday Yom Sheni (יום שני) Second day Sunset on Sunday to sunset on Monday Yom Shlishi (יום שלישי) Third day Sunset on Monday to sunset on Tuesday Yom Revii (יום רביעי) Fourth day Sunset on Tuesday to sunset on Wednesday Yom Hamishi (יום חמישי) Fifth day Sunset on Wednesday to sunset on Thursday Yom Shishi (יום שישי) Sixth day Sunset on Thursday to sunset on Friday Yom Shabbat (יום שבת) Sabbath day Sunset on Friday to sunset on Saturday The names of the days of the week are modeled on the seven days mentioned in the Genesis creation account.", "For example, Genesis 1:8 \"... And there was evening and there was morning, a second day\" corresponds to ''Yom Sheni'' meaning \"second day\".", "(However, for days 1, 6, and 7 the modern name differs slightly from the version in Genesis.", ")The seventh day, Shabbat, as its Hebrew name indicates, is a day of rest in Judaism.", "In Talmudic Hebrew, the word ''Shabbat'' () can also mean \"week\", so that in ritual liturgy a phrase like \"Yom Reviʻi beShabbat\" means \"the fourth day in the week\".====Days of week of holidays====Jewish holidays can only fall on the weekdays shown in the following table:PurimPassover(first day)Shavuot(first day)17 Tammuz/Tisha B'AvRosh Hashanah/Sukkot/Shmini Atzeret(first day)Yom KippurChanukah(first day)10 TevetTu BishvatPurim Katan(only in leap years)ThuSatSunSunMonWedSun or MonSun or TueSat or MonSun or TueFriSunMonSunTueThuMonTueMonTueSunTueWedTueThuSatWed or ThuWed, Thu, or FriTue, Wed, or ThuWed or FriTueThuFriThuSatMonFri or SatFri or SunThu or SatFri or Sun Postponed from ShabbatThe period from 1 Adar (or Adar II, in leap years) to 29 Marcheshvan contains all of the festivals specified in the Bible (Purim, Passover, Shavuot, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, and Shemini Atzeret).", "The lengths of months in this period are fixed, meaning that the day of week of Passover dictates the day of week of the other Biblical holidays.", "However, the lengths of the months of Marcheshvan and Kislev can each vary by a day (due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules which are used to adjust the year length).", "As a result, the holidays falling after Marcheshvan (starting with Chanukah) can fall on multiple days for a given row of the table.===Months===The Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar, meaning that months are based on lunar months, but years are based on solar years.", "The calendar year features twelve lunar months of 29 or 30 days, with an additional lunar month (\"leap month\") added periodically to synchronize the twelve lunar cycles with the longer solar year.", "These extra months are added in seven years (3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19) out of a 19-year cycle, known as the Metonic cycle (See Leap months, below).The beginning of each Jewish lunar month is based on the appearance of the new moon.", "Although originally the new lunar crescent had to be observed and certified by witnesses (as is still done in Karaite Judaism and Islam), nowadays Jewish months have generally fixed lengths which approximate the period between new moons.", "For these reasons, a given month does not always begin on the same day as its astronomical conjunction.The mean period of the lunar month (precisely, the synodic month) is very close to 29.5 days.", "Accordingly, the basic Hebrew calendar year is one of twelve lunar months alternating between 29 and 30 days: Month number* Hebrew month Length Gregorian range for first day of monthRange for last day of month Ecclesiastical/Biblical Civil 1 7 Nisan 30 12 March to 11 April 10 April to 10 May 2 8 Iyar 29 11 April to 11 May 9 May to 8 June 3 9 Sivan 30 10 May to 9 June 8 June to 8 July 4 10 Tammuz 29 9 June to 9 July 7 July to 6 August 5 11 Av 30 8 July to 7 August 6 August to 5 September 6 12 Elul 29 7 August to 6 September 4 September to 4 October 7 1 Tishrei 30 5 September to 5 October 4 October to 3 November 8 2 Cheshvan (or Marcheshvan) 29 (or 30) 5 October to 4 November 3 November to 2 December 9 3 Kislev 30 (or 29) 4 November to 3 December 2 December to 31 December 10 4 Tevet 29 3 December to 1 January 31 December to 29 January 11 5 Shevat 30 1 January to 30 January 30 January to 28 February 12 6 Adar I (only in leap years) 30 31 January to 12 February 1 March to 12 March 12 6 Adar (Adar II in leap years) 29 11 February to 13 March 11 March to 10 April Total 354 (or 353 or 355) 30 days more in leap years * – For the distinction between numbering systems, see below.Thus, the year normally contains twelve months with a total of 354 days.", "In such a year, the month of Marcheshvan has 29 days and Kislev has 30 days.", "However, due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, in some years Kislev may lose a day to have 29 days, or Marcheshvan may acquire an additional day to have 30 days.Normally the 12th month is named Adar.", "During leap years, the 12th and 13th months are named Adar I and Adar II (Hebrew: ''Adar Aleph'' and ''Adar Bet''—\"first Adar\" and \"second adar\").", "Sources disagree as to which of these months is the \"real\" Adar, and which is the added leap month.====Justification for leap months====The Bible does not directly mention the addition of leap months (also known as \"embolismic\" or \"intercalary\" months).", "The insertion of the leap month is based on the requirement that Passover occur at the same time of year as the spring barley harvest (''aviv'').", "(Since 12 lunar months make up less than a solar year, the date of Passover would gradually move throughout the solar year if leap months were not occasionally added.)", "According to the rabbinic calculation, this requirement means that Passover (or at least most of Passover) should fall after the March equinox.", "Similarly, the holidays of Shavuot and Sukkot are presumed by the Torah to fall in specific agricultural seasons.Maimonides, discussing the calendrical rules in his Mishneh Torah (1178), notes:By how much does the solar year exceed the lunar year?", "By approximately 11 days.", "Therefore, whenever this excess accumulates to about 30 days, or a little more or less, one month is added and the particular year is made to consist of 13 months, and this is the so-called embolismic (intercalated) year.", "For the year could not consist of twelve months plus so-and-so many days, since it is said: \"throughout the months of the year\", which implies that we should count the year by months and not by days.===Years=======New year====A ''shofar'' made from a ram's horn is traditionally blown in observance of Rosh Hashanah, the beginning of the Jewish civic year.The Hebrew calendar year conventionally begins on Rosh Hashanah, the first day of Tishrei.", "However, the Jewish calendar also defines several additional new years, used for different purposes.", "The use of multiple starting dates for a year is comparable to different starting dates for civil \"calendar years\", \"tax or fiscal years\", \"academic years\", and so on.", "The ''Mishnah'' (c. 200 CE) identifies four new-year dates:The 1st of Nisan is the new year for kings and festivals.", "The 1st of Elul is the new year for the cattle tithe...", "The 1st of Tishri is the new year for years, of the Shmita and Jubilee years, for planting and for vegetables.", "The 1st of Shevat is the new year for trees—so the school of Shammai, but the school of Hillel say: On the 15th thereof.Two of these dates are especially prominent:* 1 Nisan is the ''ecclesiastical new year'', i.e.", "the date from which months and festivals are counted.", "Thus Passover (which begins on 15 Nisan) is described in the Torah as falling \"in the first month\", while Rosh Hashana (which begins on 1 Tishrei) is described as falling \"in the seventh month\".", "* 1 Tishrei is the ''civil new year'', and the date on which the year number advances.", "This date is known as Rosh Hashanah (lit.", "\"head of the year\").", "Tishrei marks the end of one ''agricultural'' year and the beginning of another, and thus 1 Tishrei is considered the new year for most agriculture-related commandments, including Shmita, Yovel, Maaser Rishon, Maaser Sheni, and Maaser Ani.For the dates of the Jewish New Year see Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050.====Anno Mundi====Creation of the world.The Jewish year number is generally given by '''' (from Latin \"in the year of the world\", often abbreviated ''AM'' or ''A.M.'').", "In this calendar era, the year number equals the number of years that have passed since the creation of the world, according to an interpretation of Biblical accounts of the creation and subsequent history.", "From the eleventh century, ''anno mundi'' dating became the dominant method of counting years throughout most of the world's Jewish communities, replacing earlier systems such as the Seleucid era.As with (A.D. or AD), the words or abbreviation for (A.M. or AM) for the era should properly ''precede'' the date rather than follow it.", "The reference junction of the Sun and the Moon (Molad 1) is considered to be at 5 hours and 204 halakim, or 11:11:20 p.m., on the evening of Sunday, 6 October 3761 BCE.", "According to rabbinic reckoning, this moment was ''not'' Creation, but about one year \"before\" Creation, with the new moon of its first month (Tishrei) called ''molad tohu'' (the mean new moon of chaos or nothing).", "It is about one year ''before'' the traditional Jewish date of Creation on 25 Elul AM 1, based upon the ''Seder Olam Rabbah''.", "Thus, adding 3760 before Rosh Hashanah or 3761 after to a Julian calendar year number starting from 1 CE will yield the Hebrew year.", "For earlier years there may be a discrepancy; ''see Missing years (Jewish calendar)''.In Hebrew there are two common ways of writing the year number: with the thousands, called (\"major era\"), and without the thousands, called (\"minor era\").", "Thus, the current year is written as '''''' ‎() using the \"major era\" and '''''' ‎() using the \"minor era\".====Cycles of years====Since the Jewish calendar has been fixed, leap months have been added according to the Metonic cycle of 19 years, of which 12 are common (non-leap) years of 12 months, and 7 are leap years of 13 months.", "This 19-year cycle is known in Hebrew as the ''Machzor Katan'' (\"small cycle\").Because the Julian years are 365 and 1/4 days long, every 28 years the weekday pattern repeats.", "This is called the sun cycle, or the ''Machzor Gadol'' (\"great cycle\") in Hebrew.", "The beginning of this cycle is arbitrary.", "Its main use is for determining the time of Birkat Hachama.Because every 50 years is a Jubilee year, there is a jubilee (''yovel'') cycle.", "Because every seven years is a sabbatical year, there is a seven-year release cycle.", "The placement of these cycles is debated.", "Historically, there is enough evidence to fix the sabbatical years in the Second Temple Period.", "But it may not match with the sabbatical cycle derived from the biblical period; and there is no consensus on whether or not the Jubilee year is the fiftieth year or the latter half of the forty ninth year.Every 247 years, or 13 cycles of 19 years, form a period known as an ''iggul'', or the ''Iggul of Rabbi Nahshon''.", "This period is notable in that the precise details of the calendar almost always (but not always) repeat over this period.", "This occurs because the ''molad'' interval (the average length of a Hebrew month) is 29.530594 days, which over 247 years results in a total of 90215.965 days.", "This is almost exactly 90216 days - a whole number and multiple of 7 (equalling the days of the week).", "So over 247 years, not only does the 19-year leap year cycle repeat itself, but the days of the week (and thus the days of Rosh Hashanah and the year length) typically repeat themselves." ], [ "Calculations", "===Leap year calculations===To determine whether a Jewish year is a leap year, one must find its position in the 19-year Metonic cycle.", "This position is calculated by dividing the Jewish year number by 19 and finding the remainder.", "(Since there is no year 0, a remainder of 0 indicates that the year is year 19 of the cycle.)", "For example, the Jewish year divided by 19 results in a remainder of , indicating that it is year of the Metonic cycle.", "The Jewish year used is the ''anno mundi'' year, in which the year of creation according to the Rabbinical Chronology (3761 BCE) is taken as year 1.Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of the Metonic cycle are leap years.", "The Hebrew mnemonic GUCHADZaT refers to these years, while another memory aid refers to musical notation.Whether a year is a leap year can also be determined by a simple calculation (which also gives the fraction of a month by which the calendar is behind the seasons, useful for agricultural purposes).", "To determine whether year ''n'' of the calendar is a leap year, find the remainder on dividing (7 × ''n'') + 1 by 19.If the remainder is 6 or less it is a leap year; if it is 7 or more it is not.", "For example, the The This works because as there are seven leap years in nineteen years the difference between the solar and lunar years increases by 7/19-month per year.", "When the difference goes above 18/19-month this signifies a leap year, and the difference is reduced by one month.The Hebrew calendar assumes that a month is uniformly of the length of an average synodic month, taken as exactly 29 days (about 29.530594 days, which is less than half a second from the modern scientific estimate); it also assumes that a tropical year is exactly 12 times that, i.e., about 365.2468 days.", "Thus it overestimates the length of the tropical year (365.2422 days) by 0.0046 days (about 7 minutes) per year, or about one day in 216 years.", "This error is less than the Julian years (365.2500 days) make (0.0078 days/year, or one day in 128 years), but much more than what the Gregorian years (365.2425 days/year) make (0.0003 days/year, or one day in 3333 years).===Rosh Hashanah postponement rules===Besides the adding of leap months, the year length is sometimes adjusted by adding one day to the month of Marcheshvan, or removing one day from the month of Kislev.", "Because each calendar year begins with Rosh Hashanah, adjusting the year length is equivalent to moving the day of the next Rosh Hashanah.", "Several rules are used to determine when this is performed.To calculate the day on which Rosh Hashanah of a given year will fall, the expected molad (moment of lunar conjunction or new moon) of Tishrei in that year is calculated.", "The molad is calculated by multiplying the number of months that will have elapsed since some (preceding) molad (whose weekday is known) by the mean length of a (synodic) lunar month, which is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (there are 1080 \"parts\" in an hour, so that one part is equal to seconds).", "The very first molad, the molad tohu, fell on Sunday evening at 11:11:20 PM in the local time of Jerusalem, 6 October 3761 BCE (Proleptic Julian calendar) 20:50:23.1 UTC, or in Jewish terms Day 2, 5 hours, and 204 parts.", "The exact time of a molad in terms of days after midnight between 29 and 30 December 1899 (the form used by many spreadsheets for date and time) is:-2067022+(23+34/3/60)/24+(29.5+793/1080/24)Nwhere N is the number of lunar months since the beginning.", "(N equals 71440 for the beginning of the 305th Machzor Katan on 1 October 2016.)", "Adding 0.25 to this converts it to the Jewish system in which the day begins at 6 PM.In calculating the number of months that will have passed since the known molad that one uses as the starting point, one must remember to include any leap months that falls within the elapsed interval, according to the cycle of leap years.", "A 19-year cycle of 235 synodic months has 991 weeks 2 days 16 hours 595 parts, a common year of 12 synodic months has 50 weeks 4 days 8 hours 876 parts, while a leap year of 13 synodic months has 54 weeks 5 days 21 hours 589 parts.Four conditions are considered to determine whether the date of Rosh Hashanah must be postponed.", "These are called the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, or .", "The two most important conditions are:If the molad occurs at or later than noon, Rosh Hashanah is postponed a day.", "This is called (, literally, \"old birth\", i.e., late new moon).", "This rule is mentioned in the Talmud, and is used nowadays to prevent the molad falling on the second day of the month.", "This ensures that the long-term average month length is 29.530594 days (equal to the molad interval), rather than the 29.5 days implied by the standard alternation between 29- and 30-day months.", "If the molad occurs on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, Rosh Hashanah is postponed a day.", "If the application of would place Rosh Hashanah on one of these days, then it must be postponed a second day.", "This is called (), an acronym that means \"not weekday one, four, or six\".", ":This rule is applied for religious reasons, so that Yom Kippur does not fall on a Friday or Sunday, and Hoshana Rabbah does not fall on Shabbat.", "Since Shabbat restrictions also apply to Yom Kippur, if either day feel immediately before the other, it would not be possible to make necessary preparations for the second day (such as candle lighting).", "Additionally, the laws of Shabbat override those of Hoshana Rabbah, so that if Hoshana Rabbah were to fall on Shabbat, the Hoshana Rabbah ''aravah'' ritual could not be performed.", ":Thus Rosh Hashanah can only fall on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday.", "The ''kevi'ah'' uses the letters ה ,ג ,ב and ז (representing 2, 3, 5, and 7, for Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday) to denote the starting day of Rosh Hashana and the year.Another two rules are applied much less frequently and serve to prevent impermissible year lengths.", "Their names are Hebrew acronyms that refer to the ways they are calculated: If the molad in a common year falls on a Tuesday, on or after 9 hours and 204 parts, Rosh Hashanah is postponed to Thursday.", "This is (, where the acronym stands for \"3 Tuesday, 9, 204\").", "* If the molad following a leap year falls on a Monday, on or after 15 hours and 589 parts after the Hebrew day began (for calculation purposes, this is taken to be 6 pm Sunday), Rosh Hashanah is postponed to Tuesday.", "This is (), where the acronym stands for \"2 Monday, 15, 589\".===Deficient, regular, and complete years===The rules of postponement of Rosh HaShanah make it that a Jewish common year will have 353, 354, or 355 days while a leap year (with the addition of Adar I which always has 30 days) has 383, 384, or 385 days.", "A year (Hebrew for \"deficient\" or \"incomplete\") is 353 or 383 days long.", "Both Cheshvan and Kislev have 29 days.", "A year (\"regular\" or \"in-order\") is 354 or 384 days long.", "Cheshvan has 29 days while Kislev has 30 days.", "A year (\"complete\" or \"perfect\", also \"abundant\") is 355 or 385 days long.", "Both Cheshvan and Kislev have 30 days.Whether a year is deficient, regular, or complete is determined by the time between two adjacent Rosh Hashanah observances and the leap year.A Metonic cycle equates to 235 lunar months in each 19-year cycle.", "This gives an average of 6,939 days, 16 hours, and 595 parts for each cycle.", "But due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules (preceding section) a cycle of 19 Jewish years can be either 6,939, 6,940, 6,941, or 6,942 days in duration.", "For any given year in the Metonic cycle, the molad moves forward in the week by 2 days, 16 hours, and 595 parts every 19 years.", "The greatest common divisor of this and a week is 5 parts, so the Jewish calendar repeats exactly following a number of Metonic cycles equal to the number of parts in a week divided by 5, namely 7×24×216 = 36,288 Metonic cycles, or 689,472 Jewish years.", "There is a near-repetition every 247 years, except for an excess of 50 minutes seconds (905 parts).Contrary to popular impression, one's Hebrew birthday does not necessarily fall on the same Gregorian date every 19 years, since the length of the Metonic cycle varies by several days (as does the length of a 19-year Gregorian period, depending whether it contains 4 or 5 leap years).===Keviah=== Days in year -> 353 354 355 383 384 385 Day of Rosh HaShanah English ''Kevi'ah'' symbol Monday (2) 2D3 2C5 2D5 2C7 Tuesday (3) 3R5 3R7 Thursday (5) 5R7 5C1 5D1 5C3 Saturday (7) 7D1 7C3 7D3 7C5There are three qualities that distinguish one year from another: whether it is a leap year or a common year; on which of four permissible days of the week the year begins; and whether it is a deficient, regular, or complete year.", "Mathematically, there are 24 (2×4×3) possible combinations, but only 14 of them are valid.Each of these patterns is known by a ( for 'a setting' or 'an established thing'), which is a code consisting of two numbers and a letter.", "In English, the code consists of the following: The left number is the day of the week of , Rosh Hashanah * The letter indicates whether that year is deficient (D, \"ח\", from ), regular (R, \"כ\", from ), or complete (C, \"ש\", from )* The right number is the day of the week of , the first day of Passover or Pesach , within the same Hebrew year (next Julian/Gregorian year)The in Hebrew letters is written right-to-left, so their days of the week are reversed, the right number for and the left for .The ''kevi'ah'' also determines the Torah reading cycle (which ''parshiyot'' are read together or separately.=== The four gates ===The ''keviah'', and thus the annual calendar, of a numbered Hebrew year can be determined by consulting the table of Four Gates, whose inputs are the year's position in the 19-year cycle and its molad Tishrei.", "In this table, the years of a 19-year cycle are organized into four groups (or \"gates\"): common years after a leap year but before a common year ; common years between two leap years ; common years after a common year but before a leap year ; and leap years .This table numbers the days of the week and hours for the limits of molad Tishrei in the Hebrew manner for calendrical calculations, that is, both begin at , thus is noon Saturday, with the week starting on (Saturday 6pm, i.e.", "the beginning of Sunday reckoned in the Hebrew manner).", "The oldest surviving table of Four Gates was written by Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi in 824.+ '''Four gates''' or '''Table of Limits''' molad Tishrei ≥ Year of 19-year cycle 1 4 9 12 15 7 18 2 5 10 13 16 3 6 8 11 14 17 19 7d 18h 0p '''2D3''' '''2D5''' 1d 9h 204p 1d 20h 491p '''2C5''' '''2C7''' 2d 15h 589p 2d 18h 0p '''3R5''' '''3R7''' 3d 9h 204p '''5R7''' 3d 18h 0p '''5D1''' 4d 11h 695p 5d 9h 204p '''5C1''' '''5C3''' 5d 18h 0p 6d 0h 408p '''7D1''' '''7D3''' 6d 9h 204p 6d 20h 491p '''7C3''' '''7C5''' ====Incidence====Comparing the days of the week of molad Tishrei with those in the shows that during 39% of years is not postponed beyond the day of the week of its molad Tishrei, 47% are postponed one day, and 14% are postponed two days.", "This table also identifies the seven types of common years and seven types of leap years.", "Most are represented in any 19-year cycle, except one or two may be in neighboring cycles.", "The most likely type of year is 5R7 in 18.1% of years, whereas the least likely is 5C1 in 3.3% of years.", "The day of the week of is later than that of by one, two or three days for common years and three, four or five days for leap years in deficient, regular or complete years, respectively.+Incidence (percentage)common yearsleap years'''5R7'''18.05'''5C3'''6.66'''7C3'''13.72'''7D3'''5.8'''2C5'''11.8'''2D5'''5.8'''3R5'''6.25'''3R7'''5.26'''2D3'''5.71'''2C7'''4.72'''7D1'''4.33'''7C5'''4.72'''5C1'''3.31'''5D1'''3.87===Worked example===Given the length of the year, the length of each month is fixed as described above, so the real problem in determining the calendar for a year is determining the number of days in the year.", "In the modern calendar, this is determined in the following manner.The day of Rosh Hashanah and the length of the year are determined by the time and the day of the week of the Tishrei ''molad'', that is, the moment of the average conjunction.", "Given the Tishrei ''molad'' of a certain year, the length of the year is determined as follows:First, one must determine whether each year is an ordinary or leap year by its position in the 19-year Metonic cycle.", "Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are leap years.Secondly, one must determine the number of days between the starting Tishrei ''molad'' (TM1) and the Tishrei ''molad'' of the next year (TM2).", "For calendar descriptions in general the day begins at 6 p.m., but for the purpose of determining Rosh Hashanah, a ''molad'' occurring on or after noon is treated as belonging to the next day (the first ''deḥiyyah'').", "All months are calculated as 29d, 12h, 44m, 3s long (MonLen).", "Therefore, in an ordinary year TM2 occurs 12 × MonLen days after TM1.This is usually 354 calendar days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after 3:11:20 a.m. and before noon, it will be 355 days.", "Similarly, in a leap year, TM2 occurs 13 × MonLen days after TM1.This is usually 384 days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after noon and before 2:27:16 p.m., TM2 will be only 383 days after TM1.In the same way, from TM2 one calculates TM3.Thus the four natural year lengths are 354, 355, 383, and 384 days.However, because of the holiday rules, Rosh Hashanah cannot fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, so if TM2 is one of those days, Rosh Hashanah in year 2 is postponed by adding one day to year 1 (the second ''deḥiyyah'').", "To compensate, one day is subtracted from year 2.It is to allow for these adjustments that the system allows 385-day years (long leap) and 353-day years (short ordinary) besides the four natural year lengths.But how can year 1 be lengthened if it is already a long ordinary year of 355 days or year 2 be shortened if it is a short leap year of 383 days?", "That is why the third and fourth ''deḥiyyah''s are needed.If year 1 is already a long ordinary year of 355 days, there will be a problem if TM1 is on a Tuesday, as that means TM2 falls on a Sunday and will have to be postponed, creating a 356-day year.", "In this case, Rosh Hashanah in year 1 is postponed from Tuesday (the third ''deḥiyyah'').", "As it cannot be postponed to Wednesday, it is postponed to Thursday, and year 1 ends up with 354 days.On the other hand, if year 2 is already a short year of 383 days, there will be a problem if TM2 is on a Wednesday.", "because Rosh Hashanah in year 2 will have to be postponed from Wednesday to Thursday and this will cause year 2 to be only 382 days long.", "In this case, year 2 is extended by one day by postponing Rosh Hashanah in year 3 from Monday to Tuesday (the fourth ''deḥiyyah''), and year 2 will have 383 days.=== Holidays ===For calculated dates of Jewish holidays, see Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050" ], [ "Accuracy", "===Molad interval===A \"new moon\" (astronomically called a lunar conjunction and, in Hebrew, a molad) is the moment at which the sun and moon have the same ecliptic longitude (i.e.", "they are aligned horizontally with respect to a north–south line).", "The period between two new moons is a synodic month.", "The actual length of a synodic month varies from about 29 days 6 hours and 30 minutes (29.27 days) to about 29 days and 20 hours (29.83 days), a variation range of about 13 hours and 30 minutes.", "Accordingly, for convenience, the Hebrew calendar uses a long-term average month length, known as the '''molad interval''', which equals the mean synodic month of ancient times.", "The molad interval is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 \"parts\" (1 \"part\" = 1/18 minute = 31/3 seconds) (i.e., 29.530594 days), and is the same value determined by the Babylonians in their System B about 300 BCE and was adopted by Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) and by Ptolemy in the ''Almagest'' (2nd century CE).", "Its remarkable accuracy (less than one second from the current true value) is thought to have been achieved using records of lunar eclipses from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE.", "In the Talmudic era, when the mean synodic month was slightly shorter than at present, the molad interval was even more accurate, being \"essentially a perfect fit\" for the mean synodic month at the time.Currently, the accumulated drift in the moladot since the Talmudic era has reached a total of approximately 97 minutes.", "This means that the molad of Tishrei lands one day later than it ought to in (97 minutes) ÷ (1440 minutes per day) = nearly 7% of years.", "Therefore, the seemingly small drift of the moladot is already significant enough to affect the date of Rosh Hashanah, which then cascades to many other dates in the calendar year, and sometimes (due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules) also interacts with the dates of the prior or next year.The rate of calendar drift is increasing with time, since the mean synodic month is progressively shortening due to gravitational tidal effects.", "Measured on a strictly uniform time scale (such as that provided by an atomic clock) the mean synodic month is becoming gradually longer, but since the tides slow Earth's rotation rate even more, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually shorter in terms of mean solar time.===Metonic cycle drift===A larger source of error is the inaccuracy of the Metonic cycle.", "Nineteen Jewish years average 6939d 16h 33m 03s, compared to the 6939d 14h 26m 15s of nineteen mean solar years.", "Thus, the Hebrew calendar drifts by just over 2 hours every 19 years, or approximately one day every 216 years.", "Due to accumulation of this discrepancy, the earliest date on which Passover can fall has drifted by roughly eight days since the 4th century, and the 15th of Nisan now falls only on or after 26 March (the date in 2013), five days after the actual equinox on 21 March.", "In the distant future, this drift is projected to move Passover much further in the year.", "If the calendar is not amended, then Passover will start to land on or after the summer solstice around approximately AM 16652 (12892 CE).===Implications for Jewish ritual===When the calendar was fixed in the 4th century, the earliest Passover (in year 16 of the Metonic cycle) began on the first full moon after the March equinox.", "This is still the case in about 80% of years; but, in about 20% of years, Passover is a month late by this criterion.", "Presently, this occurs after the \"premature\" insertion of a leap month in years 8, 11, and 19 of each 19-year cycle, which causes Passover to fall especially far after the March equinox in such years.", "Calendar drift also impacts the observance of Sukkot, which will shift into Israel's winter rainy season, making dwelling in the sukkah less practical, and affecting the logic of the Shemini Atzeret prayer for rain which will be more often recited once rains are already underway.Modern scholars have debated at which point the drift could become ritually problematic, and proposed adjustments to the fixed calendar to keep Passover in its proper season.", "The seriousness of the calendar drift is discounted by many, on the grounds that Passover will remain in the spring season for many millennia, and the Torah is generally not interpreted as having specified tight calendrical limits.", "However, some writers and researchers have proposed \"corrected\" calendars (with modifications to the leap year cycle, molad interval, or both) which would compensate for these issues:Dr. Irv Bromberg has proposed a 353-year cycle of 4,366 months, which would include 130 leap months, along with use of a progressively shorter ''molad'' interval, which would keep an amended fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar from drifting for more than seven millennia.", "The 353 years would consist of 18 Metonic cycles, as well as a 11-year period in which the last 8 years of the Metonic cycle are omitted.", "Other authors have proposed to use cycles of 334 or 687 years.", "Another suggestion is to delay the leap years gradually so that a whole intercalary month is taken out at the end of Iggul 26; while also changing the synodic month to be the more accurate 29.53058868 days.", "Thus the length of the year would be (2351326-1)/(191326) = 365.2422 days, very close to the actual tropical year.", "The result is the \"Hebrew Calendar\" in the program CalMaster2000.Religious questions abound about how such a system might be implemented and administered throughout the diverse aspects of the world Jewish community." ], [ "Usage", "===In Auschwitz===While imprisoned in Auschwitz, Jews made every effort to observe Jewish tradition in the camps, despite the monumental dangers in doing so.", "The Hebrew calendar, which is a tradition with great importance to Jewish practice and rituals was particularly dangerous since no tools of telling of time, such as watches and calendars, were permitted in the camps.", "The keeping of a Hebrew calendar was a rarity amongst prisoners and there are only two known surviving calendars that were made in Auschwitz, both of which were made by women.", "Before this, the tradition of making a Hebrew calendar was greatly assumed to be the job of a man in Jewish society.===In contemporary Israel===Early Zionist pioneers were impressed by the fact that the calendar preserved by Jews over many centuries in far-flung diasporas, as a matter of religious ritual, was geared to the climate of their original country: major Jewish holidays such as Sukkot, Passover, and Shavuot correspond to major points of the country's agricultural year such as planting and harvest.", "Accordingly, in the early 20th century the Hebrew calendar was re-interpreted as an agricultural rather than religious calendar.After the creation of the State of Israel, the Hebrew calendar became one of the official calendars of Israel, along with the Gregorian calendar.", "Holidays and commemorations not derived from previous Jewish tradition were to be fixed according to the Hebrew calendar date.", "For example, the Israeli Independence Day falls on 5 Iyar, Jerusalem Reunification Day on 28 Iyar, Yom HaAliyah on 10 Nisan, and the Holocaust Commemoration Day on 27 Nisan.The Hebrew calendar is still widely acknowledged, appearing in public venues such as banks (where it is legal for use on cheques and other documents), and on the mastheads of newspapers.The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah) is a two-day public holiday in Israel.", "However, since the 1980s an increasing number of secular Israelis celebrate the Gregorian New Year (usually known as \"Silvester Night\"—) on the night between 31 December and 1 January.", "Prominent rabbis have on several occasions sharply denounced this practice, but with no noticeable effect on the secularist celebrants.Wall calendars commonly used in Israel are hybrids.", "Most are organised according to Gregorian rather than Jewish months, but begin in September, when the Jewish New Year usually falls, and provide the Jewish date in small characters." ], [ "History", "=== Early formation ===Lunisolar calendars similar to the Hebrew calendar, consisting of twelve lunar months plus an occasional 13th intercalary month to synchronize with the solar/agricultural cycle, were used in all ancient Middle Eastern civilizations except Egypt, and likely date to the 3rd millennium BCE.", "While there is no mention of this 13th month anywhere in the Hebrew Bible, still most Biblical scholars hold that the intercalation process was almost certainly a regularly occurring aspect of the early Hebrew calendar keeping process.===Month names===Calendar for the year 1840/41.Printed by I. Lehrberger u.", "Comp., Rödelheim.", "In the collection of the Jewish Museum of Switzerland.Biblical references to the pre-exilic calendar include ten of the twelve months identified by number rather than by name.Prior to the Babylonian captivity, the names of only four months are referred to in the Tanakh: ''Aviv'' (first month), ''Ziv'' (second month), ''Ethanim'' (seventh month), and ''Bul'' (eighth month).", "All of these are believed to be Canaanite names.", "The last three of these names are only mentioned in connection with the building of the First Temple and Håkan Ulfgard suggests that the use of what are rarely used Canaanite (or in the case of Ethanim perhaps Northwest Semitic) names indicates that \"the author is consciously utilizing an archaizing terminology, thus giving the impression of an ancient story...\".", "Alternatively, these names may be attributed to the presence of Phoenician scribes in Solomon's court at the time of the building of the Temple.During the Babylonian captivity, the Jewish people adopted the Babylonian names for the months.", "The Babylonian calendar descended directly from the Sumerian calendar.", "These Babylonian month-names (such as Nisan, Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri and Adar) are shared with the modern Levantine solar calendar (currently used in the Arabic-speaking countries of the Fertile Crescent) and the modern Assyrian calendar, indicating a common origin.", "The origin is thought to be the Babylonian calendar.===Past methods of dividing years===According to some Christian and Karaite sources, the tradition in ancient Israel was that 1 Nisan would not start until the barley is ripe, being the test for the onset of spring.", "If the barley was not ripe, an intercalary month would be added before Nisan.In the 1st century, Josephus stated that while –Moses...appointed Nisan...as the first month for the festivals...the commencement of the year for everything relating to divine worship, but for selling and buying and other ordinary affairs he preserved the ancient order i. e. the year beginning with Tishrei.", "\"Edwin Thiele concluded that the ancient northern Kingdom of Israel counted years using the ecclesiastical new year starting on 1 Aviv/Nisan (Nisan-years), while the southern Kingdom of Judah counted years using the civil new year starting on 1 Tishrei (Tishri-years).", "The practice of the Kingdom of Israel was also that of Babylon, as well as other countries of the region.", "The practice of Judah is continued in modern Judaism and is celebrated as Rosh Hashana.===Past methods of numbering years===Before the adoption of the current ''Anno Mundi'' year numbering system, other systems were used.", "In early times, the years were counted from some significant event such as the Exodus.", "During the period of the monarchy, it was the widespread practice in western Asia to use era year numbers according to the accession year of the monarch of the country involved.", "This practice was followed by the united kingdom of Israel, kingdom of Judah, kingdom of Israel, Persia, and others.", "Besides, the author of Kings coordinated dates in the two kingdoms by giving the accession year of a monarch in terms of the year of the monarch of the other kingdom, though some commentators note that these dates do not always synchronise.", "Other era dating systems have been used at other times.", "For example, Jewish communities in the Babylonian diaspora counted the years from the first deportation from Israel, that of Jehoiachin in 597 BCE.", "The era year was then called \"year of the captivity of Jehoiachin\".During the Hellenistic Maccabean period, Seleucid era counting was used, at least in Land of Israel (under Greek influence at the time).", "The Books of the Maccabees used Seleucid era dating exclusively, as did Josephus writing in the Roman period.", "From the 1st-10th centuries, the center of world Judaism was in the Middle East (primarily Iraq and Palestine), and Jews in these regions also used Seleucid era dating, which they called the \"Era of Contracts or Documents\".", "The Talmud states:Rav Aha bar Jacob then put this question: How do we know that our Era of Documents is connected with the Kingdom of Greece at all?", "Why not say that it is reckoned from the Exodus from Egypt, omitting the first thousand years and giving the years of the next thousand?", "In that case, the document is really post-dated!Said Rav Nahman: In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used.He Rav Aha thought that Rav Nahman wanted to dispose of him anyhow, but when he went and studied it thoroughly he found that it is indeed taught in a Baraita: In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used.In the 8th and 9th centuries, as the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to Europe, counting using the Seleucid era \"became meaningless\", and thus was replaced by the ''anno mundi system''.", "The use of the Seleucid era continued till the 16th century in the East, and was employed even in the 19th century among Yemenite Jews.Occasionally in Talmudic writings, reference was made to other starting points for eras, such as destruction era dating, being the number of years since the 70 CE destruction of the Second Temple.", "There is indication that Jews of the Rhineland in the early Middle Ages used the \"years after the destruction of the Temple\".===Leap months===According to normative Judaism, requires that the months be determined by a proper court with the necessary authority to sanctify the months.", "Hence the court, not the astronomy, has the final decision.", "When the observational form of the calendar was in use, whether or not a leap month was added depended on three factors: 'aviv i.e., the ripeness of barley, fruits of trees, and the equinox.", "On two of these grounds it should be intercalated, but not on one of them alone.", "It may be noted that in the Bible the name of the first month, ''Aviv'', literally means \"spring\".", "Thus, if Adar was over and spring had not yet arrived, an additional month was observed.===Determining the new month in the Mishnaic period===The Trumpeting Place inscription, a stone (2.43×1 m) with Hebrew inscription \"To the Trumpeting Place\" is believed to be a part of the Second Temple.The Tanakh contains several commandments related to the keeping of the calendar and the lunar cycle, and records changes that have taken place to the Hebrew calendar.", "Numbers 10:10 stresses the importance in Israelite religious observance of the new month (Hebrew: , Rosh Chodesh, \"beginning of the month\"): \"... in your new moons, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt-offerings...\" Similarly in Numbers 28:11.", "\"The beginning of the month\" meant the appearance of a new moon, and in Exodus 12:2.", "\"This month is to you\".According to the ''Mishnah'' and Tosefta, in the Maccabean, Herodian, and Mishnaic periods, new months were determined by the sighting of a new crescent, with two eyewitnesses required to testify to the Sanhedrin to having seen the new lunar crescent at sunset.", "The practice in the time of Gamaliel II (c. 100 CE) was for witnesses to select the appearance of the moon from a collection of drawings that depicted the crescent in a variety of orientations, only a few of which could be valid in any given month.", "These observations were compared against calculations.At first the beginning of each Jewish month was signaled to the communities of Israel and beyond by fires lit on mountaintops, but after the Samaritans began to light false fires, messengers were sent.", "The inability of the messengers to reach communities outside Israel before mid-month High Holy Days (Succot and Passover) led outlying communities to celebrate scriptural festivals for two days rather than one, observing the second feast-day of the Jewish diaspora because of uncertainty of whether the previous month ended after 29 or 30 days.It has been noted that the procedures described in the Mishnah and Tosefta are all plausible procedures for regulating an empirical lunar calendar.", "Fire-signals, for example, or smoke-signals, are known from the pre-exilic Lachish ostraca.", "Furthermore, the Mishnah contains laws that reflect the uncertainties of an empirical calendar.", "Mishnah Sanhedrin, for example, holds that when one witness holds that an event took place on a certain day of the month, and another that the same event took place on the following day, their testimony can be held to agree, since the length of the preceding month was uncertain.", "Another Mishnah takes it for granted that it cannot be known in advance whether a year's lease is for twelve or thirteen months.", "Hence it is a reasonable conclusion that the Mishnaic calendar was actually used in the Mishnaic period.The accuracy of the Mishnah's claim that the Mishnaic calendar was also used in the late Second Temple period is less certain.", "One scholar has noted that there are no laws from Second Temple period sources that indicate any doubts about the length of a month or of a year.", "This led him to propose that the priests must have had some form of computed calendar or calendrical rules that allowed them to know in advance whether a month would have 30 or 29 days, and whether a year would have 12 or 13 months.===The fixing of the calendar===Between 70 and 1178 CE, the observation-based calendar was gradually replaced by a mathematically calculated one.The Talmuds indicate at least the beginnings of a transition from a purely empirical to a computed calendar.", "Samuel of Nehardea (c. 165–254) stated that he could determine the dates of the holidays by calculation rather than observation.", "According to a statement attributed to Yose (late 3rd century), Purim could not fall on a Sabbath nor a Monday, lest Yom Kippur fall on a Friday or a Sunday.", "This indicates that, by the time of the redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 CE), there were a fixed number of days in all months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the extra month was already a second Adar added before the regular Adar.", "Elsewhere, Shimon ben Pazi is reported to have counseled \"those who make the computations\" not to set Rosh Hashana or Hoshana Rabbah on Shabbat.", "This indicates that there was a group who \"made computations\" and controlled, to some extent, the day of the week on which Rosh Hashana would fall.There is a tradition, first mentioned by Hai Gaon (died 1038 CE), that Hillel II was responsible for the new calculated calendar with a fixed intercalation cycle \"in the year 670 of the Seleucid era\" (i.e., 358–359 CE).", "Later writers, such as Nachmanides, explained Hai Gaon's words to mean that the entire computed calendar was due to Hillel II in response to persecution of Jews.", "Maimonides (12th century) stated that the Mishnaic calendar was used \"until the days of Abaye and Rava\" (c. 320–350 CE), and that the change came when \"the land of Israel was destroyed, and no permanent court was left.\"", "Taken together, these two traditions suggest that Hillel II (whom they identify with the mid-4th-century Jewish patriarch Ioulos, attested in a letter of the Emperor Julian, and the Jewish patriarch Ellel, mentioned by Epiphanius) instituted the computed Hebrew calendar because of persecution.", "H. Graetz linked the introduction of the computed calendar to a sharp repression following a failed Jewish insurrection that occurred during the rule of the Christian emperor Constantius and Gallus.", "Saul Lieberman argued instead that the introduction of the fixed calendar was due to measures taken by Christian Roman authorities to prevent the Jewish patriarch from sending calendrical messengers.Both the tradition that Hillel II instituted the complete computed calendar, and the theory that the computed calendar was introduced due to repression or persecution, have been questioned.", "Furthermore, two Jewish dates during post-Talmudic times (specifically in 506 and 776) are impossible under the rules of the modern calendar, indicating that some of its arithmetic rules were established in Babylonia during the times of the Geonim (7th to 8th centuries).", "Most likely, the procedure established in 359 involved a fixed molad interval slightly different from the current one, Rosh Hashana postponement rules similar but not identical to current rules, and leap months were added based on when Passover preceded a fixed cutoff date rather than through a repeated 19-year cycle.", "The Rosh Hashana rules apparently reached their modern form between 629 and 648, the modern molad interval was likely fixed in 776, while the fixed 19-year cycle also likely dates to the late 8th century.Except for the epoch year number (the fixed reference point at the beginning of year 1, which at that time was one year later than the epoch of the modern calendar), the calendar rules reached their current form by the beginning of the 9th century, as described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi in 823.Al-Khwarizmi's study of the Jewish calendar describes the 19-year intercalation cycle, the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishrei shall fall, the interval between the Jewish era (creation of Adam) and the Seleucid era, and the rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Jewish calendar.", "Not all the rules were in place by 835.In 921, Aaron ben Meïr proposed changes to the calendar.", "Though the proposals were rejected, they indicate that all of the rules of the modern calendar (except for the epoch) were in place before that date.", "In 1000, the Muslim chronologist al-Biruni described all of the modern rules of the Hebrew calendar, except that he specified three different epochs used by various Jewish communities being one, two, or three years later than the modern epoch.In 1178, Maimonides included all the rules for the calculated calendar and their scriptural basis, including the modern epochal year, in his work ''Mishneh Torah''.", "He wrote that he had chosen the epoch from which calculations of all dates should be as \"the third day of Nisan in this present year ... which is the year 4938 of the creation of the world\" (22 March 1178).", "Today, these rules are generally used by Jewish communities throughout the world." ], [ "Other calendars", "Outside of Rabbinic Judaism, evidence shows a diversity of practice.===Karaite calendar===Karaites use the lunar month and the solar year, but the Karaite calendar differs from the current Rabbinic calendar in a number of ways.", "The Karaite calendar is identical to the Rabbinic calendar used before the Sanhedrin changed the Rabbinic calendar from the lunar, observation based, calendar to the current, mathematically based, calendar used in Rabbinic Judaism today.In the lunar Karaite calendar, the beginning of each month, the Rosh Chodesh, can be calculated, but is confirmed by the observation in Israel of the first sightings of the new moon.", "This may result in an occasional variation of a maximum of one day, depending on the inability to observe the new moon.", "The day is usually \"picked up\" in the next month.The addition of the leap month (Adar II) is determined by observing in Israel the ripening of barley at a specific stage (defined by Karaite tradition) (called aviv), rather than using the calculated and fixed calendar of rabbinic Judaism.", "Occasionally this results in Karaites being one month ahead of other Jews using the calculated rabbinic calendar.", "The \"lost\" month would be \"picked up\" in the next cycle when Karaites would observe a leap month while other Jews would not.Furthermore, the seasonal drift of the rabbinic calendar is avoided, resulting in the years affected by the drift starting one month earlier in the Karaite calendar.Also, the four rules of postponement of the rabbinic calendar are not applied, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh.", "This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one or two days.In the Middle Ages many Karaite Jews outside Israel followed the calculated rabbinic calendar, because it was not possible to retrieve accurate aviv barley data from the land of Israel.", "However, since the establishment of the State of Israel, and especially since the Six-Day War, the Karaite Jews that have made ''aliyah'' can now again use the observational calendar.===Samaritan calendar===The Samaritan community's calendar also relies on lunar months and solar years.", "Calculation of the Samaritan calendar has historically been a secret reserved to the priestly family alone, and was based on observations of the new crescent moon.", "More recently, a 20th-century Samaritan High Priest transferred the calculation to a computer algorithm.", "The current High Priest confirms the results twice a year, and then distributes calendars to the community.The epoch of the Samaritan calendar is year of the entry of the Children of Israel into the Land of Israel with Joshua.", "The month of Passover is the first month in the Samaritan calendar, but the year number increments in the sixth month.", "Like in the Rabbinic calendar, there are seven leap years within each 19-year cycle.", "However, the Rabbinic and Samaritan calendars' cycles are not synchronized, so Samaritan festivals—notionally the same as the Rabbinic festivals of Torah origin—are frequently one month off from the date according to the Rabbinic calendar.", "Additionally, as in the Karaite calendar, the Samaritan calendar does not apply the four rules of postponement, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh.", "This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one or two days.===The Qumran calendar===Many of the Dead Sea Scrolls have references to a unique calendar, used by the people there, who are often assumed to be Essenes.", "The year of this calendar used the ideal Mesopotamian calendar of twelve 30-day months, to which were added 4 days at the equinoxes and solstices (cardinal points), making a total of 364 days.With only 364 days, the calendar would be very noticeably different from the actual seasons after a few years, but there is nothing to indicate what was done about this problem.", "Various scholars have suggested that nothing was done and the calendar was allowed to change with respect to the seasons, or that changes were made irregularly when the seasonal anomaly was too great to be ignored any longer.===Other calendars used by ancient Jews===Calendrical evidence for the postexilic Persian period is found in papyri from the Jewish colony at Elephantine, in Egypt.", "These documents show that the Jewish community of Elephantine used the Egyptian and Babylonian calendars.The Sardica paschal table shows that the Jewish community of some eastern city, possibly Antioch, used a calendrical scheme that kept Nisan 14 within the limits of the Julian month of March.", "Some of the dates in the document are clearly corrupt, but they can be emended to make the sixteen years in the table consistent with a regular intercalation scheme.", "Peter, the bishop of Alexandria (early 4th century CE), mentions that the Jews of his city \"hold their Passover according to the course of the moon in the month of Phamenoth, or according to the intercalary month every third year in the month of Pharmuthi\", suggesting a fairly consistent intercalation scheme that kept Nisan 14 approximately between Phamenoth 10 (6 March in the 4th century CE) and Pharmuthi 10 (5 April).Jewish funerary inscriptions from Zoar (south of the Dead Sea), dated from the 3rd to the 5th century, indicate that when years were intercalated, the intercalary month was at least sometimes a repeated month of Adar.", "The inscriptions, however, reveal no clear pattern of regular intercalations, nor do they indicate any consistent rule for determining the start of the lunar month." ], [ "See also", " Biblical and Talmudic units of measurement* Chronology of the Bible* Gezer calendar* Hebrew astronomy* Jewish astrology* Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Ari Belenkiy.", "\"A Unique Feature of the Jewish Calendar – ''Dehiyot''\".", "''Culture and Cosmos'' '''6''' (2002) 3–22.", "* Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby.", "''Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan Calendars''.", "George Bell and Sons, London, 1901 – Internet Archive link.", "* Nathan Bushwick.", "''Understanding the Jewish Calendar''.", "Moznaim, New York/Jerusalem, 1989.", "* William Moses Feldman.", "''Rabbinical Mathematics and Astronomy'', 3rd edition, Sepher-Hermon Press, New York, 1978.", "* ''The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three, Treatise Eight: Sanctification of the New Moon''.", "Translated by Solomon Gandz.", "Yale Judaica Series Volume XI, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1956.", "* Edward M. Reingold and Nachum Dershowitz.", "''Calendrical Calculations: The Millennium Edition''.", "Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (2001).", "723–730.", "* Arthur Spier.", "''The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar: Twentieth to the Twenty-Second Century 5660–5860/1900–2100''.", "Feldheim Publishers, Jerusalem/New York, 1986.", "* * Ernest Wiesenberg.", "\"Appendix: Addenda and Corrigenda to Treatise VIII\".", "''The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three: The Book of Seasons''.", "Yale Judaica Series Volume XIV, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1961.pp. 557–602.", "* Francis Henry Woods.", "\"Calendar (Hebrew)\", ''Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics''.", "T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1910, vol.", "3, pp.", "108–109." ], [ "External links", "* Chabad.org: Introduction to the Jewish Calendar* Hebcal.com: Jewish Holiday Calendars & Hebrew Date Converter* Aish.com: Jewish Calendar* Tripod.com: Hebrew Calendar Science and Myths* Yeshiva.co: Jewish Calendar with Halachic times date converter and daf yomi* Illustrating the \"Four Gates\"===Date converters===* TorahCalc.com: Molad Calculator* Kaluach.org: Hebrew Date Converter* Hebcal Hebrew Date Converter* Chabad.org: Jewish/Hebrew Date Converter* University of Toronto: The \"Kalendis\" Calendar Calculator* Calendar-Converter.com: Jewish/Hebrew Calendar Converter" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "The Holocaust Industry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''The Holocaust Industry: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering''''' is a book by Norman Finkelstein arguing that the American Jewish establishment exploits the memory of the Nazi Holocaust for political and financial gain and to further Israeli interests.", "According to Finkelstein, this \"Holocaust industry\" has corrupted Jewish culture and the authentic memory of the Holocaust.The book was controversial, attracting praise and criticism.", "While supporters describe the book as a substantive engagement with issues such as the politics of memory, critics argue that it either reuses antisemitic tropes, empowers them, or does both, and that the book's style is harsh and not respectful enough considering the delicate subject." ], [ "Conception", "The book began as a journal review of ''The Holocaust in American Life'', by Peter Novick." ], [ "Finkelstein on the book", "Finkelstein states that his consciousness of \"the Nazi holocaust\" is rooted in his parents' experiences in the Warsaw Ghetto; with the exception of his parents themselves, \"every family member on both sides was exterminated by the Nazis\".", "Nonetheless, during his childhood, no one ever asked any questions about what his mother and father had suffered.", "He suggests, \"This was not a respectful silence.", "It was indifference.\"", "It was only after the establishment of \"the Holocaust industry\", he suggests, that outpourings of anguish over the plight of the Jews in World War II began.", "This ideology in turn served to endow Israel with a status as \"'victim' state\" despite its \"horrendous\" human rights record.According to Finkelstein, his book is \"an anatomy and an indictment of the Holocaust industry\".", "He argues that \"'The Holocaust' is an ideological representation of the Nazi holocaust\".In the foreword to the first paperback edition, Finkelstein notes that the first hardback edition had been a considerable hit in several European countries and many languages, but had been largely ignored in the United States.", "He sees ''The New York Times'' as the main promotional vehicle of the \"Holocaust industry\", and says that the 1999 Index listed 273 entries for the Holocaust and just 32 entries for the entire continent of Africa." ], [ "Chapters", "Chapter 1: ''Capitalizing The Holocaust'' - by the 1980s, Finkelstein states, the \"War against the Jews\" had become more important to American cultural life than the \"War Between the States\".", "(p. 11)Chapter 2: ''Hoaxers, Hucksters and History'' - in 1967, Finkelstein claims that two concepts appeared in public discourse: The uniqueness of the Holocaust, and the concept of the Holocaust as climax of a historical irrational anti-Semitic tendency in Europe.", "Finkelstein asserts that these concepts became central to the \"Holocaust Industry\", but that neither figures in scholarship of the Nazi Holocaust.", "(p. 13)Chapter 3: ''The Double Shakedown'' - in this chapter, Finkelstein claims that the number of Jewish survivors of the Holocaust recognized by relief groups increased from c. 100,000 in 1945 to nearly 1 million owing to definitional changes in who was considered to be a survivor.", "Because of this, Finkelstein repeatedly asserts that fraudulent claims were made on Switzerland, while accounts and assets in the US and Israel were ignored.", "Payments were made to organizations instead of to real individual survivors.The second (2003) edition contained 100 pages of new material, primarily in chapter 3 on the World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss banks.", "Finkelstein set out to provide a guide to the relevant sections of the case.", "He feels that the presiding judge elected not to docket crucial documents, and that the Claims Resolution Tribunal could no longer be trusted.", "Finkelstein claims the CRT was on course to vindicate the Swiss banks before it changed tack in order to \"protect the blackmailers' reputation\"." ], [ "Reviews and critiques", "The book has been controversial, receiving a number of both positive and negative reviews.", "The Holocaust historian Raul Hilberg praised Finkelstein's book:Israeli historian Moshe Zuckermann welcomed his book as an \"irreplaceable critique of the ‘instrumentalisation of the past’ and underlined its ‘liberating potential’\".Oren Baruch Stier reviewing the book for the journal ''Prooftexts'' summarized the book as a \"small and pungent manifesto\" and concluded his review by writing that \"there are worthwhile arguments here, if one can stomach the bile in which they float\".Enzo Traverso reviewing the book for the journal ''Historical Materialism'' wrote that the book has proven controversial, concluding that it \"contains a core of truth that must be recognised, but it lends itself, due to its style and several of its main arguments, to the worst uses and instrumentalisations.\"", "He suggested that the book should be seen as an opportunity for stimulating public debates about difficult topics related to \"the politics of memory and on the public uses of history\"Donald D. Denton reviewing the book for ''Terrorism and Political Violence'' journal noted that it \"will be valuable as an historical piece of research and of interest to those who now attempt to deal with the contemporary genocides and the subsequent generations of children of those who endured such horrors\".According to Israeli journalist Yair Sheleg, in August 2000, German historian Hans Mommsen called it \"a most trivial book, which appeals to easily aroused anti-Semitic prejudices.", "\"Wolfgang Benz stated to ''Le Monde'': \"It is impossible to learn anything from Finkelstein's book.", "At best, it is interesting for a psychotherapist.\"", "Jean Birnbaum publishing in the same venue added that Norman Finkelstein \"hardly cares about nuance\" and Rony Brauman wrote in the preface to the French edition (''L'Industrie de l'Holocauste'', Paris, La Fabrique, 2001) that some assertions of Finkelstein (especially on the impact of the Six-days war) are wrong, others being pieces of \"propaganda\".Historian Peter Novick, whose work Finkelstein described as providing the \"initial stimulus\" for ''The Holocaust Industry'', said in the July 28, 2000 issue of London's ''The Jewish Chronicle'' that Finkelstein's book is replete with \"false accusations\", \"egregious misrepresentations\", \"absurd claims\" and \"repeated mis-statements\" (\"A charge into darkness that sheds no light\").", "Finkelstein replied to the allegations by Novick on his website, replying to five \"specific charges\", and criticizing his opponents' \"intellectual standards\".", "Jonathan Freedland in a column for ''The Guardian'' wrote ''The Holocaust Industry'' does not share Novick's book's \"sensitivity or human empathy - surely prerequisites of any meaningful debate about the Holocaust\".", "Freedland accused Finkelstein of having constructed \"an elaborate conspiracy theory, in which the Jews were pushed from apathy to obsession about the Holocaust by a corrupt Jewish leadership bent on building international support for Israel\".Hasia Diner described Peter Novick and Finkelstein of being \"harsh critics of American Jewry from the left,\" and challenged the notion in their books that American Jews did not begin to commemorate the Holocaust until after 1967.Wolfgang Wippermann criticized Finkelstein as \"‘a useful idiot’ for all kinds of anti-semites.", "\"Andrew Ross, reviewing the book for ''Salon'', wrote:Alvin Hirsch Rosenfeld wrote that ''The Holocaust Industry'' \"is representative of a polemical engagement with the Holocaust\" that places it in line with a number of other works by \"critics of Holocaust consciousness, all of whom stress the utilitarian function of memory\", and who see many modern references to The Holocaust as \"means of enhancing ethnic identity and advancing political agendas of one kind or another\".", "Rosenfeld also noted that the book presents those ideas in a very \"harsh and inflammatory way.", "\"It has been suggested that the book \"probably cost Finkelstein ... tenure at DePaul University\".===Finkelstein's response to critics===Finkelstein responded to his critics in the foreword to the second edition (published in 2003), writing \"Mainstream critics allege that I conjured a 'conspiracy theory' while those on the Left ridicule the book as a defense of 'the banks'.", "None, so far as I can tell, question my actual findings.\"" ], [ "Selected publication history", " 2000; First edition, Verso Books (London) 150 p. Hardcover, * 2003; Second edition expanded, Verso Books (London) 286 p. Paperback," ], [ "See also", "* ''Image and Reality of the Israel–Palestine Conflict''* Jewish lobby* Nazi gold" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Author's web page for the book* Review by Tanweer Akram, an economist at Columbia University** \"The business of death\" (Extracted from The Holocaust Industry by Norman G Finkelstein), ''The Guardian'' (Wednesday July 12, 2000).", "* \"Swiss toll II\", (Extracted from The Holocaust Industry by Norman G Finkelstein), ''The Guardian'' (Thursday July 13, 2000).", "* \"It Takes an Enormous Amount of Courage to Speak the Truth When No One Else is Out There\" -- World-Renowned Holocaust, Israel Scholars Defend DePaul Professor Norman Finkelstein as He Fights for Tenure (Raul Hilberg and Avi Shlaim speak in support of Norman Finkelstein's scholarship and \"The Holocaust Industry\" specifically.)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn''' (), more commonly the '''Golden Dawn''' (), was a secret society devoted to the study and practice of occult Hermeticism and metaphysics during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Known as a magical order, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was active in Great Britain and focused its practices on theurgy and spiritual development.", "Many present-day concepts of ritual and magic that are at the centre of contemporary traditions, such as Wicca and Thelema, were inspired by the Golden Dawn, which became one of the largest single influences on 20th-century Western occultism.The three founders, William Robert Woodman, William Wynn Westcott, and Samuel Liddell Mathers, were Freemasons and members of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia.", "Westcott appears to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn.The Golden Dawn system was based on hierarchy and initiation (similar to Masonic lodges) and the grade structure was based on the S.R.I.A, however, women were admitted on an equal basis with men.The \"Golden Dawn\" was the first of three Orders, although all three are often collectively referred to as the \"Golden Dawn\".", "The First Order taught esoteric philosophy based on the Hermetic Qabalah and personal development through study and awareness of the four classical elements, as well as the basics of astrology, tarot divination, and geomancy.", "The Second or Inner Order, the , taught magic, including scrying, astral travel, and alchemy.", "The Third Order was that of the Secret Chiefs, who were said to be highly skilled; they supposedly directed the activities of the lower two orders by spirit communication with the Chiefs of the Second Order." ], [ "History", "===Cipher Manuscripts===Folio 13 of the Cipher ManuscriptsThe foundational documents of the original Order of the Golden Dawn, known as the Cipher Manuscripts, are written in English using the Trithemius cipher.", "The manuscripts give the specific outlines of the Grade Rituals of the Order and prescribe a curriculum of graduated teachings that encompass the Hermetic Qabalah, astrology, occult tarot, geomancy, and alchemy.According to the records of the Order, the manuscripts passed from Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie, a Masonic scholar, to the Rev.", "A. F. A. Woodford, whom British occult writer Francis King describes as the fourth founder (although Woodford died shortly after the Order was founded).", "The documents did not excite Woodford, and in February 1886 he passed them on to Freemason William Wynn Westcott, who managed to decode them in 1887.Westcott, pleased with his discovery, called on fellow Freemason Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers for a second opinion.", "Westcott asked for Mathers's help to turn the manuscripts into a coherent system for lodge work.", "Mathers, in turn, asked fellow Freemason William Robert Woodman to assist the two, and he accepted.", "Mathers and Westcott have been credited with developing the ritual outlines in the Cipher Manuscripts into a workable format.", "Mathers, however, is generally credited with the design of the curriculum and rituals of the Second Order, which he called the ''Rosae Rubae et Aureae Crucis'' (\"Ruby Rose and Golden Cross\" or the ''RR et AC'').Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers in Egyptian costume performing a ritual in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn===Founding of the First Temple===In October 1887, Westcott claimed to have written to a German countess and prominent Rosicrucian named Anna Sprengel, whose address was said to have been found in the decoded Cipher Manuscripts.", "According to Westcott, Sprengel claimed the ability to contact certain supernatural entities, known as the Secret Chiefs, that were considered the authorities over any magical order or esoteric organization.", "Westcott purportedly received a reply from Sprengel granting permission to establish a Golden Dawn temple and conferring honorary grades of Adeptus Exemptus on Westcott, Mathers, and Woodman.", "The temple was to consist of the five grades outlined in the manuscripts.In 1888, the Isis-Urania Temple was founded in London.", "In contrast to the S.R.I.A.", "and Masonry, women were allowed and welcome to participate in the Order in \"perfect equality\" with men.", "The Order was more of a philosophical and metaphysical teaching order in its early years.", "Other than certain rituals and meditations found in the Cipher manuscripts and developed further, \"magical practices\" were generally not taught at the first temple.For the first four years, the Golden Dawn was one cohesive group later known as the \"First Order\" or \"Outer Order\".", "A \"Second Order\" or \"Inner Order\" was established and became active in 1892.The Second Order consisted of members known as \"adepts\", who had completed the entire course of study for the First Order.", "The Second Order was formally established under the name ''Ordo Rosae Rubeae et Aureae Crucis'' (the Order of the Red Rose and the Golden Cross).Eventually, the Osiris temple in Weston-super-Mare, the Horus temple in Bradford (both in 1888), and the Amen-Ra temple in Edinburgh (1893) were founded.", "In 1893 Mathers founded the Ahathoor temple in Paris.===The Secret Chiefs===In 1890, Westcott's alleged correspondence with Anna Sprengel suddenly ceased.", "He claimed to have received word from Germany that she was dead and that her companions did not approve of the founding of the Order and no further contact was to be made.", "If the founders were to contact the Secret Chiefs, apparently, it had to be done on their own.", "In 1892, Mathers professed that a link to the Secret Chiefs had been established.", "Subsequently, he supplied rituals for the Second Order.", "The rituals were based on the tradition of the tomb of Christian Rosenkreuz, and a ''Vault of Adepts'' became the controlling force behind the Outer Order.", "Later in 1916, Westcott claimed that Mathers also constructed these rituals from materials he received from Frater Lux ex Tenebris, a purported ''Continental Adept''.Some followers of the Golden Dawn tradition believe that the Secret Chiefs were not human or supernatural beings, but rather symbolic representations of actual or legendary sources of spiritual esotericism.", "The term came to stand for a great leader or teacher of a spiritual path or practice that found its way into the teachings of the Order.===Golden Age===By the mid-1890s, the Golden Dawn was well established in Great Britain, with over one hundred members from every class of Victorian society.", "Many celebrities belonged to the Golden Dawn, such as the actress Florence Farr, the Irish revolutionary Maud Gonne, the Irish poet William Butler Yeats, the Welsh author Arthur Machen, and the English authors Evelyn Underhill and Aleister Crowley.In 1896 or 1897, Westcott broke all ties to the Golden Dawn, leaving Mathers in control.", "It has been speculated that his departure was due to his having lost a number of occult-related papers in a hansom cab.", "Apparently, when the papers were found, Westcott's connection to the Golden Dawn was discovered and brought to the attention of his employers.", "He may have been told to either resign from the Order or to give up his occupation as coroner.", "After Westcott's departure, Mathers appointed Florence Farr to be Chief Adept in Anglia.", "Dr. Henry B. Pullen Burry succeeded Westcott as Cancellarius—one of the three Chiefs of the Order.Mathers was the only active founding member after Westcott's departure.", "Due to personality clashes with other members and frequent absences from the center of Lodge activity in Great Britain, however, challenges to Mathers's authority as leader developed among the members of the Second Order.===Revolt===Towards the end of 1899, the Adepts of the Isis-Urania and Amen-Ra temples had become dissatisfied with Mathers's leadership, as well as his growing friendship with Aleister Crowley.", "They had also become anxious to make contact with the Secret Chiefs themselves, instead of relying on Mathers as an intermediary.", "Within the Isis-Urania temple, disputes were arising between Farr's ''The Sphere'', a secret society within the Isis-Urania, and the rest of the Adepti Minores.Crowley was refused initiation into the Adeptus Minor grade by the London officials.", "Mathers overrode their decision and quickly initiated him at the Ahathoor temple in Paris on 16 January 1900.Upon his return to the London temple, Crowley requested from Miss Cracknell, the acting secretary, the papers acknowledging his grade, to which he was now entitled.", "To the London Adepts, this was the final straw.", "Farr, already of the opinion that the London temple should be closed, wrote to Mathers expressing her wish to resign as his representative, although she was willing to carry on until a successor was found.", "Mathers believed Westcott was behind this turn of events and replied on 16 February.", "On 3 March a committee of seven Adepts was elected in London and requested a full investigation of the matter.", "Mathers sent an immediate reply, declining to provide proof, refusing to acknowledge the London temple, and dismissing Farr as his representative on 23 March.", "In response, a general meeting was called on 29 March in London to remove Mathers as chief and expel him from the Order.====Splinters====In 1901, W. B. Yeats privately published a pamphlet titled ''Is the Order of R. R. & A. C. to Remain a Magical Order?''", "After the Isis-Urania temple claimed its independence, there were even more disputes, leading to Yeats resigning.", "A committee of three was to temporarily govern, which included P. W. Bullock, M. W. Blackden and J. W. Brodie-Innes.", "After a short time, Bullock resigned, and Dr. Robert Felkin took his place.In 1903, A. E. Waite and Blackden joined forces to retain the name Isis-Urania, while Felkin and other London members formed the Stella Matutina.", "Yeats remained in the Stella Matutina until 1921, while Brodie-Innes continued his Amen-Ra membership in Edinburgh.===Reconstruction===Once Mathers realised that reconciliation was impossible, he made efforts to reestablish himself in London.", "The Bradford and Weston-super-Mare temples remained loyal to him, but their numbers were few.", "He then appointed Edward Berridge as his representative.", "According to Francis King, historical evidence shows that there were \"twenty three members of a flourishing Second Order under Berridge-Mathers in 1913.\"J.W.", "Brodie-Innes continued leading the Amen-Ra temple, deciding that the revolt was unjustified.", "By 1908, Mathers and Brodie-Innes were in complete accord.", "According to sources that differ regarding the actual date, sometime between 1901 and 1913 Mathers renamed the branch of the Golden Dawn remaining loyal to his leadership to Alpha et Omega.", "Brodie-Innes assumed command of the English and Scottish temples, while Mathers concentrated on building up his Ahathoor temple and extending his American connections.", "According to occultist Israel Regardie, the Golden Dawn had spread to the United States of America before 1900 and a Thoth-Hermes temple had been founded in Chicago.", "By the beginning of the First World War in 1914, Mathers had established two to three American temples.Most temples of the Alpha et Omega and Stella Matutina closed or went into abeyance by the end of the 1930s, with the exceptions of two Stella Matutina temples: Hermes Temple in Bristol, which operated sporadically until 1970, and the Smaragdum Thallasses Temple (commonly referred to as Whare Ra) in Havelock North, New Zealand, which operated regularly until its closure in 1978." ], [ "Structure and grades", "Much of the hierarchical structure for the Golden Dawn came from the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, which was itself derived from the Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross.", ";First Order:* Introduction—Neophyte 0=0* Zelator 1=10* Theoricus 2=9* Practicus 3=8* Philosophus 4=7* Intermediate—Portal Grade;Second Order:* Adeptus Minor 5=6* Adeptus Major 6=5* Adeptus Exemptus 7=4;Third Order:* Magister Templi 8=3* Magus 9=2* Ipsissimus 10=1The paired numbers attached to the Grades relate to positions on the Tree of Life.", "The Neophyte Grade of \"0=0\" indicates no position on the Tree.", "In the other pairs, the first numeral is the number of steps up from the bottom (Malkuth), and the second numeral is the number of steps down from the top (Kether).The First Order Grades were related to the four elements of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire, respectively.", "The Aspirant to a Grade received instruction on the metaphysical meaning of each of these Elements and had to pass a written examination and demonstrate certain skills to receive admission to that Grade." ], [ "Membership", "===Selected known members===* Charles Henry Allan Bennett (1872–1923), best known for introducing Buddhism to the West* Arnold Bennett (1867–1931), British novelist* Edward W. Berridge (ca.", "1843–1923), British homeopathic physician* Algernon Blackwood (1869–1951), British writer and radio broadcaster of supernatural stories* Gabrielle Borthwick (1866–1952), British pioneering motorist, mechanic, garage owner, and driving teacher* Anna de Brémont (1849–1922), American singer and writer* Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), occultist, writer and mountaineer, founder of his own magical society.", "* Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930), author of Sherlock Holmes, doctor, scientist, and spiritualist* Florence Farr (1860–1917), London stage actress and musician* Robert Felkin (1853–1925), medical missionary, explorer and anthropologist in Central Africa, author, founder of the New Zealand branch of the Golden Dawn and the Smaragdum Thalasses / Whare Ra temple* Frederick Leigh Gardner (1857–1930), British stockbroker and occultist; published three-volume bibliography ''Catalogue Raisonné of Works on the Occult Sciences'' (1912)* Annie Horniman (1860–1937), British repertory theatre producer and pioneer; member of the wealthy Horniman family of tea-traders* Arthur Machen (1863–1947), leading London writer of the 1890s, author of acclaimed works of imaginative and occult fiction, such as \"The Great God Pan\", \"The White People\" and \"The Hill of Dreams\".", "Welsh by birth and upbringing* Samuel Liddell MacGregor-Mathers (1854–1918), British Freemason, one of the three founders of the Golden Dawn, prolific writer, occultist, and researcher* Moina Mathers (1865–1928), London trained artist, wife of SL MacGregor-Mathers and sister of philosopher Henri Bergson* Alfred John Pearce (1840–1923), medic, writer, pioneering weather forecaster and celebrated astrologer known as \"Zadkiel\"* Sax Rohmer (1883–1959), novelist, creator of the Fu Manchu character* William Sharp (1855–1905), poet and author; alias Fiona MacLeod* Pamela Colman Smith (1878–1951), British artist and co-creator of the Rider–Waite tarot deck* Violet Tweedale (1862–1936), Scottish writer and spiritualist* A. E. Waite (1857–1942), British writer, Freemason and co-creator of the Rider–Waite tarot deck* William Wynn Westcott (1848–1925), founder of the Golden Dawn, doctor, London coroner, prolific writer, British Freemason, former Supreme Magus of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (SRIA)* William Robert Woodman (1828–1891), doctor, British Freemason, former Supreme Magus of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, one of the three founders of the Golden Dawn* W. B. Yeats (1865–1939), Irish poet, dramatist and writer.===Alleged members===* E. Nesbit (1858–1924), English author and political activist.", "According to biographer Eleanor Fitzsimons: \"Edith's reputed membership in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the foremost occult organization of the day, is intriguing.", "… Most biographical accounts suggest that Edith was a member of the Golden Dawn, but evidence to support this is rarely cited.", "The organization was of course secretive by nature, but eyewitness accounts never mentioned her as they did others, and her name does not appear on the rolls.\"" ], [ "Contemporary Golden Dawn orders", "While no temples in the original chartered lineage of the Golden Dawn survived past the 1970s, several organizations have since revived its teachings and rituals.", "Among these, the following are notable:* The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Inc.* Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn (closed in 2019)" ], [ "''The Golden Dawn'' book", "''The Golden Dawn'', by Israel Regardie; was published in 1937.The book is divided into several basic sections.", "First are the knowledge lectures, which describe the basic teaching of the Kabalah, symbolism, meditation, geomancy, etc.", "This is followed by the rituals of the Outer Order, consisting of five initiation rituals into the degrees of the Golden Dawn.", "The next section covers the rituals of the Inner Order including two initiation rituals and equinox ceremonies." ], [ "See also", "* * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited===* ** * *** ** * * * * * ** ****" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * .", "* * * * .", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " Term: Golden Dawn in ''Llewellyn Encyclopedia''* The Life and Work of WB Yeats.", "Material on display in exhibition includes Yeat's ritual notebooks.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hash function" ], [ "Introduction", "collision between keys \"John Smith\" and \"Sandra Dee\".A '''hash function''' is any function that can be used to map data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values, though there are some hash functions that support variable length output.", "The values returned by a hash function are called ''hash values'', ''hash codes'', ''hash digests'', ''digests'', or simply ''hashes''.", "The values are usually used to index a fixed-size table called a ''hash table''.", "Use of a hash function to index a hash table is called ''hashing'' or ''scatter storage addressing''.Hash functions and their associated hash tables are used in data storage and retrieval applications to access data in a small and nearly constant time per retrieval.", "They require an amount of storage space only fractionally greater than the total space required for the data or records themselves.", "Hashing is a computationally and storage space-efficient form of data access that avoids the non-constant access time of ordered and unordered lists and structured trees, and the often exponential storage requirements of direct access of state spaces of large or variable-length keys.Use of hash functions relies on statistical properties of key and function interaction: worst-case behaviour is intolerably bad but rare, and average-case behaviour can be nearly optimal (minimal collision).Hash functions are related to (and often confused with) checksums, check digits, fingerprints, lossy compression, randomization functions, error-correcting codes, and ciphers.", "Although the concepts overlap to some extent, each one has its own uses and requirements and is designed and optimized differently.", "The hash function differs from these concepts mainly in terms of data integrity." ], [ "Overview", "A hash function takes a key as an input, which is associated with a datum or record and used to identify it to the data storage and retrieval application.", "The keys may be fixed length, like an integer, or variable length, like a name.", "In some cases, the key is the datum itself.", "The output is a hash code used to index a hash table holding the data or records, or pointers to them.A hash function may be considered to perform three functions:Convert variable-length keys into fixed length (usually machine word length or less) values, by folding them by words or other units using a parity-preserving operator like ADD or XOR.", "Scramble the bits of the key so that the resulting values are uniformly distributed over the keyspace.", "Map the key values into ones less than or equal to the size of the tableA good hash function satisfies two basic properties: 1) it should be very fast to compute; 2) it should minimize duplication of output values (collisions).", "Hash functions rely on generating favourable probability distributions for their effectiveness, reducing access time to nearly constant.", "High table loading factors, pathological key sets and poorly designed hash functions can result in access times approaching linear in the number of items in the table.", "Hash functions can be designed to give the best worst-case performance, good performance under high table loading factors, and in special cases, perfect (collisionless) mapping of keys into hash codes.", "Implementation is based on parity-preserving bit operations (XOR and ADD), multiply, or divide.", "A necessary adjunct to the hash function is a collision-resolution method that employs an auxiliary data structure like linked lists, or systematic probing of the table to find an empty slot." ], [ "Hash tables", "Hash functions are used in conjunction with hash tables to store and retrieve data items or data records.", "The hash function translates the key associated with each datum or record into a hash code, which is used to index the hash table.", "When an item is to be added to the table, the hash code may index an empty slot (also called a bucket), in which case the item is added to the table there.", "If the hash code indexes a full slot, some kind of collision resolution is required: the new item may be omitted (not added to the table), or replace the old item, or it can be added to the table in some other location by a specified procedure.", "That procedure depends on the structure of the hash table: In ''chained hashing'', each slot is the head of a linked list or chain, and items that collide at the slot are added to the chain.", "Chains may be kept in random order and searched linearly, or in serial order, or as a self-ordering list by frequency to speed up access.", "In ''open address hashing'', the table is probed starting from the occupied slot in a specified manner, usually by linear probing, quadratic probing, or double hashing until an open slot is located or the entire table is probed (overflow).", "Searching for the item follows the same procedure until the item is located, an open slot is found or the entire table has been searched (item not in table).=== Specialized uses ===Hash functions are also used to build caches for large data sets stored in slow media.", "A cache is generally simpler than a hashed search table since any collision can be resolved by discarding or writing back the older of the two colliding items.Hash functions are an essential ingredient of the Bloom filter, a space-efficient probabilistic data structure that is used to test whether an element is a member of a set.A special case of hashing is known as geometric hashing or ''the grid method''.", "In these applications, the set of all inputs is some sort of metric space, and the hashing function can be interpreted as a partition of that space into a grid of ''cells''.", "The table is often an array with two or more indices (called a ''grid file'', ''grid index'', ''bucket grid'', and similar names), and the hash function returns an index tuple.", "This principle is widely used in computer graphics, computational geometry and many other disciplines, to solve many proximity problems in the plane or in three-dimensional space, such as finding closest pairs in a set of points, similar shapes in a list of shapes, similar images in an image database, and so on.Hash tables are also used to implement associative arrays and dynamic sets." ], [ "Properties", "=== Uniformity ===A good hash function should map the expected inputs as evenly as possible over its output range.", "That is, every hash value in the output range should be generated with roughly the same probability.", "The reason for this last requirement is that the cost of hashing-based methods goes up sharply as the number of ''collisions''—pairs of inputs that are mapped to the same hash value—increases.", "If some hash values are more likely to occur than others, a larger fraction of the lookup operations will have to search through a larger set of colliding table entries.This criterion only requires the value to be ''uniformly distributed'', not ''random'' in any sense.", "A good randomizing function is (barring computational efficiency concerns) generally a good choice as a hash function, but the converse need not be true.Hash tables often contain only a small subset of the valid inputs.", "For instance, a club membership list may contain only a hundred or so member names, out of the very large set of all possible names.", "In these cases, the uniformity criterion should hold for almost all typical subsets of entries that may be found in the table, not just for the global set of all possible entries.In other words, if a typical set of records is hashed to table slots, the probability of a bucket receiving many more than records should be vanishingly small.", "In particular, if is less than , very few buckets should have more than one or two records.", "A small number of collisions is virtually inevitable, even if is much larger than – see the birthday problem.In special cases when the keys are known in advance and the key set is static, a hash function can be found that achieves absolute (or collisionless) uniformity.", "Such a hash function is said to be ''perfect''.", "There is no algorithmic way of constructing such a function - searching for one is a factorial function of the number of keys to be mapped versus the number of table slots they're tapped into.", "Finding a perfect hash function over more than a very small set of keys is usually computationally infeasible; the resulting function is likely to be more computationally complex than a standard hash function and provides only a marginal advantage over a function with good statistical properties that yields a minimum number of collisions.", "See '''universal hash function'''.=== Testing and measurement ===When testing a hash function, the uniformity of the distribution of hash values can be evaluated by the chi-squared test.", "This test is a goodness-of-fit measure: it's the actual distribution of items in buckets versus the expected (or uniform) distribution of items.", "The formula is: where: is the number of keys, is the number of buckets, is the number of items in bucket A ratio within one confidence interval (0.95 - 1.05) is indicative that the hash function evaluated has an expected uniform distribution.Hash functions can have some technical properties that make it more likely that they'll have a uniform distribution when applied.", "One is the strict avalanche criterion: whenever a single input bit is complemented, each of the output bits changes with a 50% probability.", "The reason for this property is that selected subsets of the keyspace may have low variability.", "For the output to be uniformly distributed, a low amount of variability, even one bit, should translate into a high amount of variability (i.e.", "distribution over the tablespace) in the output.", "Each bit should change with a probability of 50% because if some bits are reluctant to change, the keys become clustered around those values.", "If the bits want to change too readily, the mapping is approaching a fixed XOR function of a single bit.", "Standard tests for this property have been described in the literature.", "The relevance of the criterion to a multiplicative hash function is assessed here.=== Efficiency ===In data storage and retrieval applications, the use of a hash function is a trade-off between search time and data storage space.", "If search time were unbounded, a very compact unordered linear list would be the best medium; if storage space were unbounded, a randomly accessible structure indexable by the key-value would be very large, very sparse, but very fast.", "A hash function takes a finite amount of time to map a potentially large keyspace to a feasible amount of storage space searchable in a bounded amount of time regardless of the number of keys.", "In most applications, the hash function should be computable with minimum latency and secondarily in a minimum number of instructions.Computational complexity varies with the number of instructions required and latency of individual instructions, with the simplest being the bitwise methods (folding), followed by the multiplicative methods, and the most complex (slowest) are the division-based methods.Because collisions should be infrequent, and cause a marginal delay but are otherwise harmless, it's usually preferable to choose a faster hash function over one that needs more computation but saves a few collisions.Division-based implementations can be of particular concern because the division is microprogrammed on nearly all chip architectures.", "Divide (modulo) by a constant can be inverted to become a multiply by the word-size multiplicative-inverse of the constant.", "This can be done by the programmer, or by the compiler.", "Divide can also be reduced directly into a series of shift-subtracts and shift-adds, though minimizing the number of such operations required is a daunting problem; the number of assembly instructions resulting may be more than a dozen, and swamp the pipeline.", "If the architecture has hardware multiply functional units, the multiply-by-inverse is likely a better approach.We can allow the table size to not be a power of and still not have to perform any remainder or division operation, as these computations are sometimes costly.", "For example, let be significantly less than .", "Consider a pseudorandom number generator function that is uniform on the interval .", "A hash function uniform on the interval is .", "We can replace the division by a (possibly faster) right bit shift: .If keys are being hashed repeatedly, and the hash function is costly, computing time can be saved by precomputing the hash codes and storing them with the keys.", "Matching hash codes almost certainly means the keys are identical.", "This technique is used for the transposition table in game-playing programs, which stores a 64-bit hashed representation of the board position.=== Universality ===A ''universal hashing'' scheme is a randomized algorithm that selects a hashing function among a family of such functions, in such a way that the probability of a collision of any two distinct keys is , where is the number of distinct hash values desired—independently of the two keys.", "Universal hashing ensures (in a probabilistic sense) that the hash function application will behave as well as if it were using a random function, for any distribution of the input data.", "It will, however, have more collisions than perfect hashing and may require more operations than a special-purpose hash function.===Applicability===A hash function that allows only certain table sizes, strings only up to a certain length, or can't accept a seed (i.e.", "allow double hashing) isn't as useful as one that does.A hash function is applicable in a variety of situations.", "Particularly within cryptography, notable applications include: Integrity check: Identical hash values for different files imply equality, providing a reliable means to detect file modifications.", "* Key derivation: Minor input changes result in a random-looking output alteration, known as the diffusion property.", "Thus, hash functions are valuable for key derivation functions.", "* Message Authentication Codes (MACs): Through the integration of a confidential key with the input data, hash functions can generate MACs ensuring the genuineness of the data, such as in HMACs.", "* Password storage: The password's hash value doesn't expose any password details, emphasizing the importance of securely storing hashed passwords on the server.", "* Signatures: Message hashes are signed rather than the whole message.=== Deterministic ===A hash procedure must be deterministic—meaning that for a given input value it must always generate the same hash value.", "In other words, it must be a function of the data to be hashed, in the mathematical sense of the term.", "This requirement excludes hash functions that depend on external variable parameters, such as pseudo-random number generators or the time of day.", "It also excludes functions that depend on the memory address of the object being hashed in cases that the address may change during execution (as may happen on systems that use certain methods of garbage collection), although sometimes rehashing of the item is possible.The determinism is in the context of the reuse of the function.", "For example, Python adds the feature that hash functions make use of a randomized seed that is generated once when the Python process starts in addition to the input to be hashed.", "The Python hash (SipHash) is still a valid hash function when used within a single run.", "But if the values are persisted (for example, written to disk) they can no longer be treated as valid hash values, since in the next run the random value might differ.=== Defined range ===It is often desirable that the output of a hash function have fixed size (but see below).", "If, for example, the output is constrained to 32-bit integer values, the hash values can be used to index into an array.", "Such hashing is commonly used to accelerate data searches.", "Producing fixed-length output from variable length input can be accomplished by breaking the input data into chunks of specific size.", "Hash functions used for data searches use some arithmetic expression that iteratively processes chunks of the input (such as the characters in a string) to produce the hash value.=== Variable range ===In many applications, the range of hash values may be different for each run of the program or may change along the same run (for instance, when a hash table needs to be expanded).", "In those situations, one needs a hash function which takes two parameters—the input data , and the number of allowed hash values.A common solution is to compute a fixed hash function with a very large range (say, to ), divide the result by , and use the division's remainder.", "If is itself a power of , this can be done by bit masking and bit shifting.", "When this approach is used, the hash function must be chosen so that the result has fairly uniform distribution between and , for any value of that may occur in the application.", "Depending on the function, the remainder may be uniform only for certain values of , e.g.", "odd or prime numbers.=== Variable range with minimal movement (dynamic hash function) ===When the hash function is used to store values in a hash table that outlives the run of the program, and the hash table needs to be expanded or shrunk, the hash table is referred to as a dynamic hash table.A hash function that will relocate the minimum number of records when the table is resized is desirable.What is needed is a hash function – where is the key being hashed and is the number of allowed hash values – such that with probability close to .Linear hashing and spiral hashing are examples of dynamic hash functions that execute in constant time but relax the property of uniformity to achieve the minimal movement property.", "Extendible hashing uses a dynamic hash function that requires space proportional to to compute the hash function, and it becomes a function of the previous keys that have been inserted.", "Several algorithms that preserve the uniformity property but require time proportional to to compute the value of have been invented.A hash function with minimal movement is especially useful in distributed hash tables.=== Data normalization ===In some applications, the input data may contain features that are irrelevant for comparison purposes.", "For example, when looking up a personal name, it may be desirable to ignore the distinction between upper and lower case letters.", "For such data, one must use a hash function that is compatible with the data equivalence criterion being used: that is, any two inputs that are considered equivalent must yield the same hash value.", "This can be accomplished by normalizing the input before hashing it, as by upper-casing all letters." ], [ "Hashing integer data types", "There are several common algorithms for hashing integers.", "The method giving the best distribution is data-dependent.", "One of the simplest and most common methods in practice is the modulo division method.=== Identity hash function ===If the data to be hashed is small enough, one can use the data itself (reinterpreted as an integer) as the hashed value.", "The cost of computing this ''identity'' hash function is effectively zero.", "This hash function is perfect, as it maps each input to a distinct hash value.The meaning of \"small enough\" depends on the size of the type that is used as the hashed value.", "For example, in Java, the hash code is a 32-bit integer.", "Thus the 32-bit integer Integer and 32-bit floating-point Float objects can simply use the value directly; whereas the 64-bit integer Long and 64-bit floating-point Double cannot use this method.Other types of data can also use this hashing scheme.", "For example, when mapping character strings between upper and lower case, one can use the binary encoding of each character, interpreted as an integer, to index a table that gives the alternative form of that character (\"A\" for \"a\", \"8\" for \"8\", etc.).", "If each character is stored in 8 bits (as in extended ASCII or ISO Latin 1), the table has only 28 = 256 entries; in the case of Unicode characters, the table would have 17×216 = entries.The same technique can be used to map two-letter country codes like \"us\" or \"za\" to country names (262 = 676 table entries), 5-digit zip codes like 13083 to city names ( entries), etc.", "Invalid data values (such as the country code \"xx\" or the zip code 00000) may be left undefined in the table or mapped to some appropriate \"null\" value.=== Trivial hash function ===If the keys are uniformly or sufficiently uniformly distributed over the key space, so that the key values are essentially random, they may be considered to be already 'hashed'.", "In this case, any number of any bits in the key may be extracted and collated as an index into the hash table.", "For example, a simple hash function might mask off the least significant ''m'' bits and use the result as an index into a hash table of size 2m.=== Folding ===A folding hash code is produced by dividing the input into n sections of m bits, where 2m is the table size, and using a parity-preserving bitwise operation such as ADD or XOR to combine the sections, followed by a mask or shifts to trim off any excess bits at the high or low end.", "For example, for a table size of 15 bits and key value of 0x0123456789ABCDEF, there are five sections consisting of 0x4DEF, 0x1357, 0x159E, 0x091A and 0x8.Adding, we obtain 0x7AA4, a 15-bit value.=== Mid-squares ===A mid-squares hash code is produced by squaring the input and extracting an appropriate number of middle digits or bits.", "For example, if the input is 123,456,789 and the hash table size 10,000, squaring the key produces 15,241,578,750,190,521, so the hash code is taken as the middle 4 digits of the 17-digit number (ignoring the high digit) 8750.The mid-squares method produces a reasonable hash code if there is not a lot of leading or trailing zeros in the key.", "This is a variant of multiplicative hashing, but not as good because an arbitrary key is not a good multiplier.=== Division hashing ===A standard technique is to use a modulo function on the key, by selecting a divisor which is a prime number close to the table size, so .", "The table size is usually a power of 2.This gives a distribution from .", "This gives good results over a large number of key sets.", "A significant drawback of division hashing is that division is microprogrammed on most modern architectures including x86 and can be 10 times slower than multiply.", "A second drawback is that it won't break up clustered keys.", "For example, the keys 123000, 456000, 789000, etc.", "modulo 1000 all map to the same address.", "This technique works well in practice because many key sets are sufficiently random already, and the probability that a key set will be cyclical by a large prime number is small.=== Algebraic coding ===Algebraic coding is a variant of the division method of hashing which uses division by a polynomial modulo 2 instead of an integer to map n bits to m bits.", "In this approach, and we postulate an th degree polynomial .", "A key can be regarded as the polynomial .", "The remainder using polynomial arithmetic modulo 2 is .", "Then .", "If is constructed to have or fewer non-zero coefficients, then keys which share less than bits are guaranteed to not collide.", "a function of , and , a divisor of , is constructed from the field.", "Knuth gives an example: for n=15, m=10 and t=7, .", "The derivation is as follows:Let be the smallest set of integers such that and .Define where and where the coefficients of are computed in this field.", "Then the degree of .", "Since is a root of whenever is a root, it follows that the coefficients of satisfy so they are all 0 or 1.If is any nonzero polynomial modulo 2 with at most nonzero coefficients, then is not a multiple of modulo 2.If follows that the corresponding hash function will map keys with fewer than bits in common to unique indices.The usual outcome is that either will get large, or will get large, or both, for the scheme to be computationally feasible.", "Therefore, it's more suited to hardware or microcode implementation.=== Unique permutation hashing ===See also unique permutation hashing, which has a guaranteed best worst-case insertion time.=== Multiplicative hashing ===Standard multiplicative hashing uses the formula which produces a hash value in .", "The value is an appropriately chosen value that should be relatively prime to ; it should be large and its binary representation a random mix of 1's and 0's.", "An important practical special case occurs when and are powers of 2 and is the machine word size.", "In this case this formula becomes .", "This is special because arithmetic modulo is done by default in low-level programming languages and integer division by a power of 2 is simply a right-shift, so, in C, for example, this function becomes unsigned hash(unsigned K) { return (aK) >> (w-m); }and for fixed and this translates into a single integer multiplication and right-shift making it one of the fastest hash functions to compute.Multiplicative hashing is susceptible to a \"common mistake\" that leads to poor diffusion—higher-value input bits do not affect lower-value output bits.", "A transmutation on the input which shifts the span of retained top bits down and XORs or ADDs them to the key before the multiplication step corrects for this.", "So the resulting function looks like: unsigned hash(unsigned K) { K ^= K >> (w-m); return (aK) >> (w-m); }=== Fibonacci hashing ===Fibonacci hashing is a form of multiplicative hashing in which the multiplier is , where is the machine word length and (phi) is the golden ratio (approximately 5/3).", "A property of this multiplier is that it uniformly distributes over the table space, blocks of consecutive keys with respect to any block of bits in the key.", "Consecutive keys within the high bits or low bits of the key (or some other field) are relatively common.", "The multipliers for various word lengths are:16: ''a'' = 9E3716 = 1032: ''a'' = 16 = 1048: ''a'' = 16 = 1064: ''a'' = 16 = 10The multiplier should be odd, so the least significant bit of the output is invertible modulo .", "The last two values given above are rounded (up and down, respectively) by more than 1/2 of a least-significant bit to achieve this.=== Zobrist hashing ===Tabulation hashing, more generally known as ''Zobrist hashing'' after Albert Zobrist, an American computer scientist, is a method for constructing universal families of hash functions by combining table lookup with XOR operations.", "This algorithm has proven to be very fast and of high quality for hashing purposes (especially hashing of integer-number keys).Zobrist hashing was originally introduced as a means of compactly representing chess positions in computer game-playing programs.", "A unique random number was assigned to represent each type of piece (six each for black and white) on each space of the board.", "Thus a table of 64×12 such numbers is initialized at the start of the program.", "The random numbers could be any length, but 64 bits was natural due to the 64 squares on the board.", "A position was transcribed by cycling through the pieces in a position, indexing the corresponding random numbers (vacant spaces were not included in the calculation), and XORing them together (the starting value could be 0, the identity value for XOR, or a random seed).", "The resulting value was reduced by modulo, folding or some other operation to produce a hash table index.", "The original Zobrist hash was stored in the table as the representation of the position.Later, the method was extended to hashing integers by representing each byte in each of 4 possible positions in the word by a unique 32-bit random number.", "Thus, a table of 28×4 of such random numbers is constructed.", "A 32-bit hashed integer is transcribed by successively indexing the table with the value of each byte of the plain text integer and XORing the loaded values together (again, the starting value can be the identity value or a random seed).", "The natural extension to 64-bit integers is by use of a table of 28×8 64-bit random numbers.This kind of function has some nice theoretical properties, one of which is called ''3-tuple independence'' meaning every 3-tuple of keys is equally likely to be mapped to any 3-tuple of hash values.=== Customised hash function ===A hash function can be designed to exploit existing entropy in the keys.", "If the keys have leading or trailing zeros, or particular fields that are unused, always zero or some other constant, or generally vary little, then masking out only the volatile bits and hashing on those will provide a better and possibly faster hash function.", "Selected divisors or multipliers in the division and multiplicative schemes may make more uniform hash functions if the keys are cyclic or have other redundancies." ], [ "Hashing variable-length data", "When the data values are long (or variable-length) character strings—such as personal names, web page addresses, or mail messages—their distribution is usually very uneven, with complicated dependencies.", "For example, text in any natural language has highly non-uniform distributions of characters, and character pairs, characteristic of the language.", "For such data, it is prudent to use a hash function that depends on all characters of the string—and depends on each character in a different way.=== Middle and ends ===Simplistic hash functions may add the first and last characters of a string along with the length, or form a word-size hash from the middle 4 characters of a string.", "This saves iterating over the (potentially long) string,but hash functions that do not hash on all characters of a string can readily become linear due to redundancies, clustering or other pathologies in the key set.", "Such strategies may be effective as a custom hash function if the structure of the keys is such that either the middle, ends or other fields are zero or some other invariant constant that doesn't differentiate the keys; then the invariant parts of the keys can be ignored.=== Character folding ===The paradigmatic example of folding by characters is to add up the integer values of all the characters in the string.", "A better idea is to multiply the hash total by a constant, typically a sizable prime number, before adding in the next character, ignoring overflow.", "Using exclusive 'or' instead of add is also a plausible alternative.", "The final operation would be a modulo, mask, or other function to reduce the word value to an index the size of the table.", "The weakness of this procedure is that information may cluster in the upper or lower bits of the bytes, which clustering will remain in the hashed result and cause more collisions than a proper randomizing hash.", "ASCII byte codes, for example, have an upper bit of 0 and printable strings don't use the first 32 byte codes, so the information (95-byte codes) is clustered in the remaining bits in an unobvious manner.The classic approach dubbed the PJW hash based on the work of Peter.", "J. Weinberger at ATT Bell Labs in the 1970s, was originally designed for hashing identifiers into compiler symbol tables as given in the \"Dragon Book\".", "This hash function offsets the bytes 4 bits before ADDing them together.", "When the quantity wraps, the high 4 bits are shifted out and if non-zero, XORed back into the low byte of the cumulative quantity.", "The result is a word size hash code to which a modulo or other reducing operation can be applied to produce the final hash index.Today, especially with the advent of 64-bit word sizes, much more efficient variable-length string hashing by word chunks is available.=== Word length folding ===Modern microprocessors will allow for much faster processing if 8-bit character strings are not hashed by processing one character at a time, but by interpreting the string as an array of 32 bit or 64-bit integers and hashing/accumulating these \"wide word\" integer values by means of arithmetic operations (e.g.", "multiplication by constant and bit-shifting).", "The final word, which may have unoccupied byte positions, is filled with zeros or a specified \"randomizing\" value before being folded into the hash.", "The accumulated hash code is reduced by a final modulo or other operation to yield an index into the table.=== Radix conversion hashing ===Analogous to the way an ASCII or EBCDIC character string representing a decimal number is converted to a numeric quantity for computing, a variable length string can be converted as .", "This is simply a polynomial in a radix that takes the components as the characters of the input string of length .", "It can be used directly as the hash code, or a hash function applied to it to map the potentially large value to the hash table size.", "The value of is usually a prime number at least large enough to hold the number of different characters in the character set of potential keys.", "Radix conversion hashing of strings minimizes the number of collisions.", "Available data sizes may restrict the maximum length of string that can be hashed with this method.", "For example, a 128-bit double long word will hash only a 26 character alphabetic string (ignoring case) with a radix of 29; a printable ASCII string is limited to 9 characters using radix 97 and a 64-bit long word.", "However, alphabetic keys are usually of modest length, because keys must be stored in the hash table.", "Numeric character strings are usually not a problem; 64 bits can count up to , or 19 decimal digits with radix 10.=== Rolling hash ===In some applications, such as substring search, one can compute a hash function for every -character substring of a given -character string by advancing a window of width characters along the string; where is a fixed integer, and is greater than .", "The straightforward solution, which is to extract such a substring at every character position in the text and compute separately, requires a number of operations proportional to .", "However, with the proper choice of , one can use the technique of rolling hash to compute all those hashes with an effort proportional to where is the number of occurrences of the substring.The most familiar algorithm of this type is Rabin-Karp with best and average case performance and worst case (in all fairness, the worst case here is gravely pathological: both the text string and substring are composed of a repeated single character, such as =\"AAAAAAAAAAA\", and =\"AAA\").", "The hash function used for the algorithm is usually the Rabin fingerprint, designed to avoid collisions in 8-bit character strings, but other suitable hash functions are also used.=== Fuzzy hash ====== Perceptual hash ===" ], [ "Analysis", "Worst case result for a hash function can be assessed two ways: theoretical and practical.", "Theoretical worst case is the probability that all keys map to a single slot.", "Practical worst case is expected longest probe sequence (hash function + collision resolution method).", "This analysis considers uniform hashing, that is, any key will map to any particular slot with probability , characteristic of universal hash functions.While Knuth worries about adversarial attack on real time systems, Gonnet has shown that the probability of such a case is \"ridiculously small\".", "His representation was that the probability of of keys mapping to a single slot is where is the load factor, ." ], [ "History", "The term ''hash'' offers a natural analogy with its non-technical meaning (to chop up or make a mess out of something), given how hash functions scramble their input data to derive their output.", "In his research for the precise origin of the term, Donald Knuth notes that, while Hans Peter Luhn of IBM appears to have been the first to use the concept of a hash function in a memo dated January 1953, the term itself would only appear in published literature in the late 1960s, in Herbert Hellerman's ''Digital Computer System Principles'', even though it was already widespread jargon by then." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Calculate hash of a given value by Timo Denk* The Goulburn Hashing Function (PDF) by Mayur Patel* Hash Function Construction for Textual and Geometrical Data Retrieval (PDF) Latest Trends on Computers, Vol.2, pp.", "483–489, CSCC Conference, Corfu, 2010" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "High jump" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''high jump''' is a track and field event in which competitors must jump unaided over a horizontal bar placed at measured heights without dislodging it.", "In its modern, most-practiced format, a bar is placed between two standards with a crash mat for landing.", "Since ancient times, competitors have introduced increasingly effective techniques to arrive at the current form, and the current universally preferred method is the Fosbury Flop, in which athletes run towards the bar and leap head first with their back to the bar.The discipline is, alongside the pole vault, one of two vertical clearance events in the Olympic athletics program.", "It is contested at the World Championships in Athletics and the World Athletics Indoor Championships, and is a common occurrence at track and field meets.", "The high jump was among the first events deemed acceptable for women, having been held at the 1928 Olympic Games.Javier Sotomayor (Cuba) is the current world record holder with a jump of set in 1993 – the longest-standing record in the history of the men's high jump.", "Stefka Kostadinova (Bulgaria) has held the women's world record of since 1987, also the longest-held record in the event." ], [ "Rules", "Yelena Slesarenko hitting the bar while using the Fosbury Flop techniqueThe rules set for the high jump by World Athletics (previously named the IAAF) are Technical Rules TR26 and TR27 (previously Rules 181 and 182).", "Jumpers must take off from one foot.", "A jump is considered a failure if the jumper dislodges the bar or touches the ground or any object behind the bar before clearance.Competitors may begin jumping at any height announced by the chief judge, or may pass at their own discretion.", "Most competitions state that three consecutive missed jumps, at any height or combination of heights, will eliminate the jumper from contention.", "The victory goes to the jumper who clears the greatest height during the final.===Tie breaking===If two or more jumpers tie for any place, the tie-breakers are: 1) the fewest misses at the height at which the tie occurred; and 2) the fewest misses throughout the competition.", "If the event remains tied for first place (or a limited-advancement position to a subsequent meet), the jumpers have a jump-off, beginning at the next height above their highest success.", "Jumpers have one attempt at each height.", "If only one succeeds, he or she wins; if more than one does, these try with the bar raised; if none does, all try with the bar lowered.", "This process was followed at the 2015 World Championship men's event.+Example jump-off Competitor Main competition Jump-off Place 1.75m 1.80m 1.84m 1.88m 1.91m 1.94m 1.97m 1.91m 1.89m 1.91m A o xo o xo x – xx x o x 2 B – xo – xo – - xxx x o o 1 C – o xo xo – xxx x x 3 D – xo xo xo xxx 4In the example jump-off above, the final cleared height is 1.88m, at which A B C and D each have one failure.", "D has two failures at lower heights compared to one each for the other three, who proceed to a jump-off at the next height above the final cleared height.", "C is eliminated in the second round of the jump-off 1.89m, then B wins in the third round.A 2009 rule-change makes the jump-off optional, so that first place can be shared by agreement among tied athletes.", "This rule led to shared gold in the 2020 Olympic men's event held in 2021." ], [ "History", "Konstantinos Tsiklitiras during the standing high jump competition at the 1912 Summer OlympicsThe first recorded high jump event took place in Scotland in the 19th century.", "Early jumpers used either an elaborate straight-on approach or a ''scissors'' technique.", "In later years, the bar was approached diagonally, and the jumper threw first the inside leg and then the other over the bar in a scissoring motion.Around the turn of the 20th century, techniques began to change, beginning with the Irish-American Michael Sweeney's ''Eastern cut-off'' as a variation of the scissors technique.", "By taking off as in the scissors method, extending his spine and flattening out over the bar, Sweeney raised the world record to in 1895.Even in 1948, John Winter of Australia won the gold medal of the 1948 London Olympics with this style.", "Besides, one of the most successful female high jumper, Iolanda Balaș of Romania, used this style to dominate women's high jump for about 10 years until her retirement at 1967.Another American, George Horine, developed an even more efficient technique, the ''Western roll''.", "In this style, the bar again is approached on a diagonal, but the inner leg is used for the take-off, while the outer leg is thrust up to lead the body sideways over the bar.", "Horine increased the world standard to in 1912.His technique was predominant through the 1936 Berlin Olympics, in which the event was won by Cornelius Johnson at .American and Soviet jumpers were the most successful for the next four decades, and they pioneered the straddle technique.", "Straddle jumpers took off as in the Western roll but rotated their torso, belly-down, around the bar, obtaining the most efficient and highest clearance up to that time.", "Straddle jumper Charles Dumas was the first to clear 7 ft (2.13m), in 1956.American John Thomas pushed the world mark to in 1960.Valeriy Brumel of the Soviet Union took over the event for the next four years, radically speeding up his approach run.", "He took the record up to and won the gold medal of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, before a motorcycle accident ended his career in 1965.Gold medal winner Ethel Catherwood of Canada ''scissors'' over the bar at the 1928 Summer Olympics.", "Her winning result was .", "Platt Adams during the standing high jump competition at the 1912 Summer OlympicsAmerican coaches, including two-time NCAA champion Frank Costello of the University of Maryland, flocked to Russia to learn from Brumel and his coaches like Vladimir Dyachkov.", "However, it would be a solitary innovator at Oregon State University, Dick Fosbury, who would bring the high jump into the next century.Taking advantage of the raised, softer, artificially-cushioned landing areas that were in use by then, Fosbury added a new twist to the outmoded Eastern cut-off.", "He directed himself over the bar head and shoulders first, going over on his back and landing in a fashion that would likely have resulted in serious injury in the old ground-level landing pits, which were usually filled with sawdust or sand mixtures.", "Around the same time, Debbie Brill independently came up with the same technique, which she called the 'Brill Bend'.Since Fosbury used his new style, called the Fosbury flop, to win the gold medal of the 1968 Mexico Olympics, its use spread quickly, and soon \"floppers\" were dominating international high jump competitions.", "The first flopper setting a world record was the American Dwight Stones, who cleared in 1973.In the female side, the 16-year-old flopper Ulrike Meyfarth from West Germany won the gold medal of the 1972 Munich Olympics at , which tied the women's world record at that time (held by the Austrian straddler Ilona Gusenbauer a year before).", "However, it was not until 1978 when a flopper, Sara Simeoni of Italy, broke the women's world record.Successful high jumpers following Fosbury's lead also included the rival of Dwight Stones, -tall Franklin Jacobs of Paterson, New Jersey, who cleared , over his head (a feat equalled 27 years later by Stefan Holm of Sweden); Chinese record-setters Ni-chi Chin and Zhu Jianhua; Germans Gerd Wessig and Dietmar Mögenburg; Swedish Olympic medalist and former world record holder Patrik Sjöberg; female jumpers Ulrike Meyfarth of West Germany and Sara Simeoni of Italy.In spite of this, the straddle technique did not disappear at once.", "In 1977, the 18-year-old Soviet straddler Vladimir Yashchenko set a new world record .", "In 1978, he raised the record to , and indoor, just before a knee injury effectively ended his career when he was only 20 years old.", "In the female side, the straddler Rosemarie Ackermann of East Germany, who was the first female jumper ever to clear , raised the world record from to during 1974 to 1977.In fact, from 2 June 1977 to 3 August 1978, almost 10 years after Fosbury's success, the men's and women's world records were still held by straddle jumpers Yashchenko and Ackermann respectively.", "However, they were the last world record holders using the straddle technique.", "Ackermann also won the gold medal of the 1976 Montreal Olympics, which was the last time for a straddle jumper (male or female) to win an Olympic medal.In 1980, the Polish flopper, 1976 Olympic gold medalist Jacek Wszoła, broke Yashchenko's world record at .", "Two years before, the female Italian flopper Sara Simeoni, the long-term rival of Ackermann, broke Ackermann's world record at and became the first female flopper to break the women's world record.", "She also won the gold medal of the 1980 Moscow Olympics, where Ackermann placed fourth.", "Since then, the flop style has been completely dominant.", "All other techniques were almost extinct in serious high jump competitions after late 1980s." ], [ "Technical aspects", "Technique and form have evolved greatly over the history of high jump.", "The Fosbury Flop is currently considered the most efficient way for competitors to propel themselves over the bar.===Approach===Spanish jumper Ruth Beitia approaching the bar from an angleFor a Fosbury Flop, depending on the athlete's jump foot, they start on the right or left of the high jump mat, placing their jump foot farthest away from the mat.", "They take an eight- to ten-step approach, with the first three to five steps being in a straight line and the last five being on a curve.", "Athletes generally mark their approach in order to find as much consistency as possible.The approach run can be more important than the takeoff.", "If a high jumper runs with bad timing or without enough aggression, clearing the bar becomes more of a challenge.", "The approach requires a certain shape or curve, the right amount of speed, and the correct number of strides.", "The approach angle is also critical for optimal height.The straight run builds the momentum and sets the tone for a jump.", "The athlete starts by pushing off their takeoff foot with slow, powerful steps, then begins to accelerate.", "They should be running upright by the end of the straight portion.The athlete's takeoff foot will be landing on the first step of the curve, and they will continue to accelerate, focusing their body towards the opposite back corner of the high jump mat.", "While staying erect and leaning away from the mat, the athlete takes their final two steps flat-footed, rolling from the heel to the toe.Most great straddle jumpers run at angles of about 30 to 40 degrees.", "The length of the run is determined by the speed of the approach.", "A slower run requires about eight strides, but a faster high jumper might need about 13 strides.", "Greater speed allows a greater part of the body's forward momentum to be converted upward.The '''J''' approach favored by Fosbury floppers allows for speed, the ability to turn in the air (centripetal force), and a good takeoff position, which helps turn horizontal momentum into vertical momentum.", "The approach should be a hard, controlled stride so that the athlete does not fall from running at an angle.", "Athletes should lean into the curve from their ankles, not their hips.", "This allows their hips to rotate during takeoff, which in turn allows their center of gravity to pass under the bar.===Takeoff===The takeoff can be double-arm or single-arm.", "In both cases, the plant foot should be the foot farthest from the bar, angled towards the opposite back corner of the mat, as they drive up the knee on their non-takeoff leg.", "This is accompanied by a one- or two-arm swing while driving the knee.Unlike the straddle technique, where the takeoff foot is \"planted\" in the same spot regardless of the height of the bar, flop-style jumpers must adjust their approach run as the bar is raised so that their takeoff spot is slightly farther out from the bar.", "Jumpers attempting to reach record heights commonly fail when most of their energy is directed into the vertical effort and they knock the bar off the standards with the backs of their legs as they stall.An effective approach shape can be derived from physics.", "For example, the rate of backward spin required as the jumper crosses the bar in order to facilitate shoulder clearance on the way up and foot clearance on the way down can be determined by computer simulation.", "This rotation rate can be back-calculated to determine the required angle of lean away from the bar at the moment of planting, based on how long the jumper is on the takeoff foot.", "This information, together with the jumper's speed, can be used to calculate the radius of the curved part of the approach.", "One can also work in the opposite direction by assuming a certain approach radius and determining the resulting backward rotation.", "Drills can be practiced to solidify the approach.", "One drill is to run in a straight line and then run two to three circles spiraling into one another.", "Another is to run or skip a circle of any size two to three times in a row.", "It is important to leap upwards without first leaning into the bar, allowing the momentum of the '''J''' approach to carry the body across the bar.===Flight===The knee on the athlete's non-takeoff leg naturally turns their body, placing them in the air with their back to the bar.", "The athlete then drives their shoulders towards the back of their feet, arching their body over the bar.", "They can look over their shoulder to judge when to kick both feet over their head, causing their body to clear the bar and land on the mat." ], [ "All-time top 25", ".===Men (outdoor)=== Mark Athlete Nation Date Place 1 1 Javier Sotomayor 27 July 1993 Salamanca 2 ''Sotomayor #2'' 29 July 1989 San Juan 3 ''Sotomayor #3'' 8 September 1988 Salamanca 2 3 Mutaz Essa Barshim 5 September 2014 Brussels 3 5 Patrik Sjöberg 30 June 1987 Stockholm 5 ''Sotomayor #4'' 5 June 1994 Seville 3 5 Bohdan Bondarenko 14 June 2014 New York City 5 ''Barshim #2'' 14 June 2014 New York City 5 9 Igor Paklin 4 September 1985 Kobe 9 ''Sotomayor #5'' 25 June 1994 Havana ''Sotomayor #6'' 15 July 1994 London ''Bondarenko #2'' 4 July 2013 Lausanne ''Bondarenko #3'' 15 August 2013 Moscow ''Barshim #3'' 5 June 2014 Rome ''Barshim #4'' 22 August 2014 Eberstadt ''Barshim #5'' 30 May 2015 Eugene 6 17 Rudolf Povarnitsyn 11 August 1985 Donetsk 17 ''Sotomayor #7'' 12 March 1989 Havana ''Sjöberg #2'' 5 August 1989 Brussels 17 ''Sotomayor #8'' 13 August 1989 Bogotá 6 17 Sorin Matei 20 June 1990 Bratislava 17 ''Sotomayor #9'' 19 July 1991 Paris 6 17 Charles Austin 7 August 1991 Zürich 17 ''Sotomayor #10'' 22 May 1993 Havana ''Sotomayor #11'' 23 July 1993 London ''Sotomayor #12'' 22 August 1993 Stuttgart ''Sotomayor #13'' 10 July 1994 Eberstadt ''Sotomayor #14'' 18 July 1994 Nice ''Sotomayor #15'' 29 July 1994 St. Petersburg ''Sotomayor #16'' 11 September 1994 London ''Sotomayor #17'' 25 March 1995 Mar del Plata 6 17 Vyacheslav Voronin 5 August 2000 London 17 ''Barshim #6'' 1 June 2013 Eugene 6 17 Derek Drouin 25 April 2014 Des Moines 17 ''Bondarenko #4'' 11 May 2014 Tokyo ''Bondarenko #5'' 3 July 2014 Lausanne 6 17 Andriy Protsenko 3 July 2014 Lausanne 17 ''Bondarenko #6'' 18 July 2014 Monaco ''Bondarenko #7'' 5 September 2014 Brussels ''Barshim #7'' 11 June 2016 Opole ''Barshim #8'' 20 August 2017 Birmingham ''Barshim #9'' 27 August 2017 Eberstadt ''Barshim #10'' 4 May 2018 Doha ''Barshim #11'' 2 July 2018 Székesfehérvár 12 Zhu Jianhua 10 June 1984 Eberstadt Hollis Conway 30 July 1989 Norman Ivan Ukhov 5 July 2012 Cheboksary Gianmarco Tamberi 15 July 2016 Monaco 16 Hennadiy Avdyeyenko 6 September 1987 Rome Sergey Malchenko 4 September 1988 Banská Bystrica Dragutin Topić 1 August 1993 Belgrade Troy Kemp 12 July 1995 Nice Artur Partyka 18 August 1996 Eberstadt Jacques Freitag 5 March 2005 Oudtshoorn Andriy Sokolovskyy 8 July 2005 Rome Andrey Silnov 25 July 2008 London Zhang Guowei 30 May 2015 Eugene Danil Lysenko 27 August 2017 Eberstadt ====Annulled marks====The following athletes have had their personal best annulled due to doping offences:MarkAthleteDatePlaceRef 10 May 2014 Doha 20 July 2018 Monaco ===Women (outdoor)=== Mark Athlete Nation Date Place 1 1 Stefka Kostadinova 30 August 1987 Rome 2 ''Kostadinova #2'' 31 May 1986 Sofia 2 2 Blanka Vlašić 31 August 2009 Zagreb 3 4 Lyudmila Andonova 20 July 1984 Berlin 4 ''Kostadinova #3'' 25 May 1986 Sofia ''Kostadinova #4'' 16 September 1987 Cagliari ''Kostadinova #5'' 3 September 1988 Sofia ''Vlašić #2'' 7 August 2007 Stockholm 3 4 Anna Chicherova 22 July 2011 Cheboksary 10 ''Kostadinova #6'' 18 August 1985 Moscow ''Kostadinova #7'' 15 June 1986 Fürth ''Kostadinova #8'' 14 September 1986 Cagliari ''Kostadinova #9'' 6 June 1987 Worrstadt ''Kostadinova #10'' 8 September 1987 Rieti 5 10 Kajsa Bergqvist 26 July 2003 Eberstadt Hestrie Cloete 31 August 2003 Paris Yelena Slesarenko 28 August 2004 Athens 10 ''Vlašić #3'' 30 July 2007 Thessaloniki ''Vlašić #4'' 22 June 2008 Istanbul ''Vlašić #5'' 5 July 2008 Madrid 5 10 Ariane Friedrich 14 June 2009 Berlin Mariya Lasitskene 6 July 2017 Lausanne 10 ''Lasitskene #2'' 20 June 2019 Ostrava 10 24 Tamara Bykova 22 June 1984 Kyiv 24 ''Kostadinova #11'' 14 June 1986 Worrstadt ''Kostadinova #12'' 7 September 1986 Rieti ''Kostadinova #13'' 4 July 1987 Oslo ''Kostadinova #14'' 13 September 1987 Padova ''Kostadinova #15'' 12 August 1988 Budapest 10 24 Heike Henkel 31 August 1991 Tokyo 24 ''Kostadinova #16'' 4 July 1992 San Marino ''Kostadinova #17'' 18 September 1993 Fukuoka 10 24 Inha Babakova 15 September 1995 Tokyo 24 ''Kostadinova #18'' 3 August 1996 Atlanta ''Bergqvist #2'' 18 August 2002 Poznan ''Cloete #2'' 10 August 2003 Berlin ''Bergqvist #3'' 28 July 2006 London ''Vlašić #6'' 21 July 2007 Madrid ''Vlašić #7'' 2 September 2007 Osaka ''Vlašić #8'' 12 June 2008 Ostrava ''Vlašić #9'' 1 July 2008 Bydgoszcz 10 24 Tia Hellebaut 23 August 2008 Beijing 24 ''Vlašić #10'' 23 August 2008 Beijing ''Vlašić #11'' 8 May 2009 Doha 10 24 Chaunté Lowe 26 June 2010 Des Moines 24 ''Vlašić #12'' 5 September 2010 Split ''Chicherova #2'' 16 September 2011 Brussels ''Chicherova #3'' 11 August 2012 London ''Lasitskene #3'' 21 July 2017 Monaco ''Lasitskene #4'' 8 September 2021 Zürich 1024 Yaroslava Mahuchikh 2 September 2022 Brussels 16 Silvia Costa 9 September 1989 Barcelona Venelina Veneva-Mateeva 2 June 2001 Kalamata Irina Gordeeva 19 August 2012 Eberstadt Brigetta Barrett 22 June 2013 Des Moines 20 Ulrike Meyfarth 21 August 1983 London Louise Ritter 8 July 1988 Austin Tatyana Motkova 30 May 1995 Bratislava Niki Bakoyianni 3 August 1996 Atlanta Antonietta Di Martino 24 June 2007 Milan Nicola Olyslagers 17 September 2023 Eugene ===Men (indoor)===RankMarkAthleteDatePlaceRef1 4 March 1989 Budapest 2 26 February 1988 Berlin 3 1 February 1987 Piraeus 18 February 2015 Athlone 5 10 March 1991 Seville 6 March 2005 Madrid 25 February 2009 Piraeus 8 February 2014 Arnstadt 9 24 February 1985 Cologne 1 March 1991 Berlin 11 7 March 1987 Indianapolis 7 March 1987 Indianapolis 4 February 1994 Wuppertal 18 March 1994 Weinheim 3 February 1995 Wuppertal 4 March 2000 Atlanta 15 February 2005 Stockholm 25 February 2007 Gothenburg 13 February 2016 Hustopeče 29 January 2023 Moscow 21 3 February 1991 Sulingen 13 March 1994 Paris 1 March 1996 Atlanta 5 March 2005 Glasgow 5 February 2000 Arnstadt 2 February 2008 Arnstadt 7 March 2021 Toruń ====Annulled marks====The following athletes have had their personal best annulled due to doping offences:MarkAthleteDatePlaceRef 25 February 2014 Prague ===Women (indoor)===RankMarkAthleteDatePlaceRef1 4 February 2006 Arnstadt 2 8 February 1992 Karlsruhe 3 20 February 1988 Athens 6 February 2010 Arnstadt 4 February 2012 Arnstadt 2 February 2021 Banská Bystrica 7 3 March 2007 Birmingham 15 February 2009 Karlsruhe 9 February 2020 Moscow 10 3 March 1995 Berlin 7 March 2004 Budapest 9 February 2011 Banská Bystrica 13 6 March 1983 Budapest 23 January 1999 Bucharest 2 March 2002 Vienna 16 8 March 1987 Indianapolis 2 February 2002 Łódź 26 February 2003 Moscow 26 February 2012 Albuquerque 21 February 2015 Toruń 21 31 January 1988 Stuttgart 5 March 1993 Berlin 28 February 1998 Atlanta 24 February 2007 Piraeus 9 March 2008 Valencia 28 January 2009 Cottbus 4 March 2017 Belgrade" ], [ "Olympic medalists", "===Men======Women===" ], [ "World Championships medalists", "===Men======Women===" ], [ "World Indoor Championships medalists", "===Men===1985 Paris1987 Indianapolis1989 Budapest1991 Seville1993 Toronto1995 Barcelona1997 Paris1999 Maebashi2001 Lisbon2003 Birmingham2004 Budapest2006 Moscow2008 Valencia2010 Doha2012 Istanbul2014 Sopot2016 Portland2018 Birmingham===Women===1985 Paris1987 Indianapolis1989 Budapest1991 Seville1993 Toronto1995 Barcelona1997 Paris1999 Maebashi2001 Lisbon2003 Birmingham2004 Budapest2006 Moscow2008 Valencia2010 Doha2012 Istanbul''none awarded''2014 Sopot''none awarded''2016 Portland2018 Birmingham2022 Belgrade Known as the ''World Indoor Games''." ], [ "Athletes with most medals", "Athletes who have won multiple titles at the two most important competitions, the Olympic Games and the World Championships:4 wins: Mariya Lasitskene (RUS) - Olympic Champion in 2020, World Champion in 2015, 2017 & 20194 wins: Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) - Olympic Champion in 2020, World Champion in 2017, 2019 & 20223 wins: Javier Sotomayor (CUB) - Olympic Champion in 1992, World Champion in 1993 & 19973 wins: Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) - Olympic Champion in 1996, World Champion in 1987 & 19952 wins: Gennadiy Avdeyenko (URS) - Olympic Champion in 1988, World Champion in 19832 wins: Charles Austin (USA) - Olympic Champion in 1996, World Champion in 19912 wins: Iolanda Balaș (ROU) - Olympic Champion in 1960 & 19642 wins: Ulrike Meyfarth (FRG) - Olympic Champion in 1972 & 19842 wins: Heike Henkel (GER) - Olympic Champion in 1992, World Champion in 19912 wins: Hestrie Cloete (RSA) - World Champion in 2001 & 20032 wins: Blanka Vlašić (CRO) - World Champion in 2007 & 20092 wins: Anna Chicherova (RUS) - Olympic Champion in 2012, World Champion in 20112 wins: Gianmarco Tamberi (ITA) - Olympic Champion in 2020, World Champion in 2023Kostadinova and Sotomayor are the only high jumpers to have been Olympic Champion, World Champion and broken the world record." ], [ "Season's bests", "===Men=== Year Mark Athlete Place 1970 Changsha 1971 Berkeley 1972 Moscow 1973 Munich 1974 Oslo 1975 New York 1976 Philadelphia 1977 Richmond 1978 Milan 1979 Ottawa 1980 Moscow 1981 Leningrad 1982 Delhi 1983 Shanghai 1984 Eberstadt 1985 Kobe 1986 Rieti 1987 Stockholm 1988 Salamanca 1989 San Juan 1990 Bratislava1991 Seville Saint-Denis Zürich 1992 Genoa 1993 Salamanca 1994 Seville 1995 Mar del Plata 1996 Atlanta 1997 Athens 1998 Maracaibo 1999 Seville 2000 London 2001 Eberstadt 2002 Durban2003 Arnstadt Bydgoszcz 2004 Stockholm 2005 Madrid2006 Arnstadt Moscow Arnstadt Monaco 2007 Moscow2008 Moscow London 2009 Piraeus 2010 Banská Bystrica2011 Hustopeče Banská Bystrica Paris2012 Cheboksary Lausanne2013 Lausanne Moscow 2014 Brussels2015 Athlone Eugene 2016 Opole2017 Birmingham Eberstadt2018 Doha Székesfehérvár 2019 Doha2020 Blacksburg Hustopeče Banská Bystrica Banská Bystrica Moscow Minsk2021 Toruń Székesfehérvár Tokyo Smolensk Tokyo Tokyo 2022 Eugene 2023 Moscow===Women=== Year Mark Athlete Place 1970 Kyiv 1971 Vienna 1972 Zagreb 1973 Warsaw 1974 Rome 1975 Nice 1976 Dresden 1977 Berlin 1978 Brescia 1979 Turin 1980 Turin 1981 Brussels 1982 Athens1983 Pisa Budapest 1984 Berlin 1985 Moscow 1986 Sofia 1987 Rome 1988 Sofia1989 Barcelona Pireás 1990 Seattle 1991 Tokyo 1992 Karlsruhe 1993 Fukuoka 1994 Berlin 1995 Tokyo 1996 Atlanta1997 Osaka Paris-Bercy Fukuoka 1998 Kalamata 1999 Monaco 2000 Villeneuve d'Ascq 2001 Kalamáta 2002 Poznań2003 Eberstadt Saint-Denis 2004 Athens 2005 Sheffield 2006 Arnstadt 2007 Stockholm2008 Istanbul Madrid 2009 Zagreb 2010 Arnstadt 2011 Cheboksary 2012 Arnstadt 2013 Des Moines2014 Stockholm Eugene Zürich 2015 Lausanne 2016 Eugene 2017 Lausanne2018 Paris London 2019 Ostrava 2020 Moscow 2021 Banská Bystrica2022Brussels2023EugeneEugene" ], [ "See also", " List of high jump national champions (men)* List of high jump national champions (women)* Standing high jump" ], [ "Sources", "* ''The Complete Book of Track and Field'', by Tom McNab* ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2000''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* IAAF high jump homepage* IAAF list of high-jump records in XML* Vertical Jump Resource" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heraclitus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heraclitus''' (; ; ) was an ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from the city of Ephesus, which was then part of the Persian Empire.Little is known of Heraclitus's life.", "He wrote a single work, only fragments of which have survived.", "Most of the ancient stories about him are thought to be later fabrications based on interpretations of the preserved fragments.", "His paradoxical philosophy and appreciation for wordplay and cryptic, oracular epigrams has earned him the epithets \"the dark\" and \"the obscure\" since antiquity.", "He was considered arrogant and depressed, a misanthrope who was subject to melancholia.", "Consequently, he became known as \"the weeping philosopher\" in contrast to the ancient philosopher Democritus, who was known as \"the laughing philosopher\".The central ideas of Heraclitus' philosophy are the unity of opposites and the concept of change.", "He also saw harmony and justice in strife.", "He viewed the world as constantly in flux, always \"becoming\" but never \"being\".", "He expressed this in sayings like \"Everything flows\" (, ''panta rei'') and \"No man ever steps in the same river twice\".", "This changing aspect of his philosophy is contrasted with that of the ancient philosopher Parmenides, who believed in \"being\" and in the static nature of reality.Like the Milesians before him – Thales with water, Anaximander with ''apeiron'', and Anaximenes with air – Heraclitus chose fire as the ''arche'', the fundamental element that gave rise to the other elements.", "He also saw the ''logos'' as giving structure to the world." ], [ "Life", "Theater in Ephesus on the coast of Asia Minor, birthplace of HeraclitusHeraclitus, the son of Blyson, was from the Ionian city of Ephesus, a port on the Kayster River, on the western coast of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey).", "In the 6th century BC, Ephesus, like other cities in Ionia, lived under the effects of both the rise of Lydia under Croesus and his overthrow by Cyrus the Great c. 547 BC.", "Ephesus appears to have subsequently cultivated a close relationship with the Persian Empire; during the suppression of the Ionian revolt by Darius the Great in 494 BC, Ephesus was spared and emerged as the dominant Greek city in Ionia.", "Miletus, the home to the previous philosophers, was sacked and captured.The main source for the life of Heraclitus is the doxographer Diogenes Laërtius.", "Although most of the information provided by Laertius is unreliable, the anecdote that Heraclitus relinquished the hereditary title of \"king\" to his younger brother may at least imply that Heraclitus was from an aristocratic family in Ephesus.", "Heraclitus appears to have had little sympathy for democracy or the masses.", "However, it is unclear whether he was \"an unconditional partisan of the rich,\" or if, like the sage Solon, he was \"withdrawn from competing factions\".Since antiquity, Heraclitus has been labeled an arrogant misanthrope.", "The skeptic Timon of Phlius called Heraclitus a \"mob-abuser\" (''ochloloidoros'').", "Heraclitus considered himself self-taught.", "He did not consider others incapable, but unwilling: \"And though reason is common, most people live as though they had an understanding peculiar to themselves.\"", "Heraclitus did not seem to like the prevailing religion of the time, criticizing the popular mystery cults.", "He also criticized Homer, Hesiod, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, and Hecataeus.", "He endorsed the sage Bias of Priene, who is quoted as saying \"Most men are bad\".", "He praised a man named Hermodorus as the best among the Ephesians, who he says should all kill themselves for exiling him.Heraclitus is traditionally considered to have flourished in the 69th Olympiad (504–501 BC), but this date may simply be based on a prior account synchronizing his life with the reign of Darius the Great.", "However, this date can be considered \"roughly accurate\" based on a fragment that references Pythagoras, Xenophanes, and Hecataeus as older contemporaries, placing him near the end of the sixth century BC.According to Diogenes Laertius, Heraclitus died covered in dung after failing to cure himself from dropsy.", "This may be to parody his doctrine that for souls it is death to become water, and that a dry soul is best." ], [ "''On Nature''", "A modern reconstruction of the Ephesian Temple of Artemis, located in modern Istanbul.", "According to Diogenes Laertius, Heraclitus deposited his book in the temple.Heraclitus is said to have produced a single work on papyrus, which has not survived; however, over 100 fragments of this work survive in quotations by other authors.", "The title is unknown, but many later writers refer to this work, and works by other pre-Socratics, as ''On Nature''.According to Diogenes Laërtius, Heraclitus deposited the book in the Artemision – one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World – as a dedication.", "Classicist Charles Kahn states: \"Down to the time of Plutarch and Clement, if not later, the little book of Heraclitus was available in its original form to any reader who chose to seek it out.\"", "Yet, by the time of Simplicius of Cilicia, a 6th century neoplatonic philosopher, who mentions Heraclitus 32 times but never quotes from him, Heraclitus' work was so rare that it was unavailable even to Simplicius and the other scholars at the Platonic Academy in Athens.=== Structure ===Diogenes Laertius wrote that the book was divided into three parts: the universe, politics, and theology, but, classicists have challenged that division.", "John Burnet has argued that \"it is not to be supposed that this division is due to Heraclitus himself; all we can infer is that the work fell naturally into these parts when the Stoic commentators took their editions of it in hand\".", "The Stoics divided their own philosophy into three parts: ethics, logic, and physics.", "Philologist Karl Deichgräber has argued that the Stoic Cleanthes divided philosophy into dialectics, rhetoric, ethics, politics, physics, and theology, with the last three the same as the alleged division of Heraclitus.", "The philosopher Paul Schuster has argued that the division came from the ''Pinakes''.Scholar Martin Litchfield West claims that while the existing fragments do not give much of an idea of the overall structure, the beginning of the discourse can probably be determined, starting with the opening lines, which are quoted by Sextus Empiricus: === Style === Heraclitus's writing style has been compared to a sibyl, as depicted here by Domenichino.Heraclitus's style has been compared to a Sibyl, who \"with raving lips uttering things mirthless, unbedizened, and unperfumed, reaches over a thousand years with her voice, thanks to the god in her\".", "Kahn characterized the main features of Heraclitus's writing as \"linguistic density\", meaning that single words and phrases have multiple meanings, and \"resonance\", meaning that expressions evoke one another.", "Heraclitus used literary devices like alliteration and chiasmus.", "Aristotle quotes part of the opening line in the ''Rhetoric'' to outline the difficulty in punctuating Heraclitus without ambiguity; he debated whether \"forever\" applied to \"being\" or to \"prove\".", "Theophrastus says that \"some parts of his work are half-finished, while other parts made a strange medley\".", "Theophrastus thought an inability to finish the work showed Heraclitus was melancholic.According to Diogenes Laërtius, Timon of Phlius called Heraclitus \"the Riddler\" (; ) a likely reference to an alleged similarity to Pythagorean riddles.", "Timon said Heraclitus wrote his book \"rather unclearly\" (''asaphesteron''); according to Timon, this was intended to allow only the \"capable\" to attempt it.", "By the time of Cicero, this epithet became \"The Dark\" (; ) or \"The Obscure\" as he had spoken ''nimis obscurē'' (\"too obscurely\") concerning nature and had done so deliberately in order to be misunderstood." ], [ "Philosophy", "Heraclitus has been the subject of numerous interpretations.", "According to the entry at the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Heraclitus has been seen as a \"material monist or a process philosopher; a scientific cosmologist, a metaphysician and a religious thinker; an empiricist, a rationalist, a mystic; a conventional thinker and a revolutionary; a developer of logic – one who denied the law of non-contradiction; the first genuine philosopher and an anti-intellectual obscurantist\".=== Unity of opposites and Flux ===The hallmarks of Heraclitus' philosophy are the unity of opposites and change, or flux.", "Diogenes Laërtius summarizes Heraclitus's philosophy as follows: \"All things come into being by conflict of opposites, and the sum of things ( ''ta hola'' ('the whole')) flows like a stream.\"", "According to Aristotle, Heraclitus was a dialetheist, or one who denies the law of noncontradiction.", "(a law of thought in logic which states that one cannot say of what is and that it is not at the same time)Several fragments seem to relate to these two concepts.", "For example, on the unity of opposites: \"The straight and the crooked path of the fuller's comb is one and the same\"; \"The way up is the way down\"; \"Beginning and end, on a circle's circumference, are common\"; and \"Thou shouldst unite things whole and things not whole, that which tends to unite and that which tends to separate, the harmonious and the discordant; from all things arises the one, and from the one all things.", "\"Over time, the opposites change into each other: \"Mortals are immortals and immortals are mortals, the one living the others' death and dying the others' life\"; \"As the same thing in us is living and dead, waking and sleeping, young and old.", "For these things having changed around are those, and those in turn having changed around are these\"; and \"Cold things warm up, the hot cools off, wet becomes dry, dry becomes wet.", "\"It also seems they change into each other depending on one's point of view, a case of relativism or perspectivism.", "Heraclitus states: \"Disease makes health sweet and good; hunger, satiety; toil, rest.\"", "While men drink and wash with water, fish prefer to drink saltwater, pigs prefer to wash in mud, and fowls prefer to wash in dust.", "\"Oxen are happy when they find bitter vetches to eat\" and \"asses would rather have refuse than gold.", "\"=== ''Panta rhei'' ===Jonathan Barnes states that \"'''''Panta rhei''''', 'everything flows' is probably the most familiar of Heraclitus' sayings, yet few modern scholars think he said it\".", "Barnes observes that although the ''exact'' phrase was not ascribed to Heraclitus until the 6th century by Simplicius, a similar saying expressing the same idea, ''panta chorei'', or \"everything moves\" is ascribed to Heraclitus by Plato in the ''Cratylus''.=== You cannot step into the same river twice ===The Halys River, Turkey's longest.Since Plato, Heraclitus's theory of flux has been associated with the metaphor of a flowing river, which cannot be stepped into twice.", "This fragment from Heraclitus's writings has survived in three different forms:Heraclitus illustrated the same point using the Sun: \"the Sun is new each day.\"", "The river fragments (especially the second \"we both are and are not\") seem to suggest not only is the river constantly changing, but we do as well, perhaps commenting on existential questions about humanity and personhood.The classicist Karl Reinhardt identified the first river quote as the genuine one.", "Scholars such as Reinhardt also interpreted the metaphor as illustrating what is stable, rather than the usual interpretation of illustrating change.", "Classicist has said: \"You will not find anything, in which the river remains constant ... Just the fact, that there is a particular river bed, that there is a source and an estuary etc.", "is something, that stays identical.", "And this is ... the concept of a river.", "\"Attempting to follow Aristotle, Guthrie interprets flux versus stability as a question of matter versus form.", "Thus, Heraclitus is a flux theorist because he is a materialist.", "Since there are no unchanging forms like Plato, but only the material world, then everything changes.", "According to American philosopher W. V. O. Quine, the river parable illustrates that the river is a process through time.", "One cannot step twice into the same river-stage.Professor M. M. McCabe has argued that the three statements on rivers should all be read as fragments from a discourse.", "McCabe suggests reading them as though they arose in succession.", "The three fragments \"could be retained, and arranged in an argumentative sequence\".", "In McCabe's reading of the fragments, Heraclitus can be read as a philosopher capable of sustained argument, rather than just aphorism.=== Strife is justice ===Dike depicted on the Vermont state house.", "Heraclitus considered strife fundamental to a just world.Heraclitus said \"strife is justice\" and \"all things take place by strife\".", "He called the opposites in conflict (), \"strife\", and theorized that the apparently unitary state, (), \"justice\", results in \"the most beautiful harmony\", in contrast to Anaximander, who described the same as injustice.Aristotle said Heraclitus disagreed with Homer because Homer wished that strife would leave the world, which according to Heraclitus would destroy the world; \"there would be no harmony without high and low notes, and no animals without male and female, which are opposites\".", "It may also explain why he disagreed with the Pythagorean emphasis on harmony, but not on strife.Heraclitus suggests that the world and its various parts are kept together through the tension produced by the unity of opposites, like the string of a bow or a lyre.", "On one account, this is the earliest use of the concept of force.", "A quote about the bow shows his appreciation for wordplay: \"The bow's name is life, but its work is death.\"", "Each substance contains its opposite, making for a continual circular exchange of generation, destruction, and motion that results in the stability of the world.", "This can be illustrated by the quote \"Even the barley-drink separates if it is not stirred.", "\"According to Abraham Schoener: \"War is the central principle in Heraclitus' thought.\"", "Another of Heraclitus' famous sayings highlights the idea that the unity of opposites is also a conflict of opposites: \"War is father of all and king of all; and some he manifested as gods, some as men; some he made slaves, some free\"; war is a creative tension that brings things into existence.", "Heraclitus says further \"Gods and men honour those slain in war\"; \"Greater deaths gain greater portions\"; and \"Every beast is tended by blows.", "\"Heraclitus may also have been the first advocate of natural law: \"People ought to fight to keep their law as to defend the city walls.", "For all human laws get nourishment from the one divine law.", "\"=== Cosmology ===Heraclitus (named outlined in red) in a fragment of Oxyrhynchus Papyri discusses the Moon.While considered an ancient cosmologist, Heraclitus did not seem as interested in astronomy, meteorology, or mathematics as his predecessors.", "It is surmised Heraclitus believed that the earth was flat and extended infinitely in all directions.", "He also believed that the Sun is as large as it looks, and that if it \"exceeds the due times of the year\" (the seasons), then \"Erinyes, the ministers of Justice, will find him out\".", "On one account, he believed the Sun and Moon were bowls containing fire, with lunar phases explained by the turning of the bowl.", "His study of the moon near the end of the month is contained in one of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the best evidence of Heraclitean astronomy.==== Fire as ''arche'' ====An Eternal flame from a Zoroastrian fire temple in Yazd, Iran.", "The role of fire in Heraclitean philosophy has been compared with fire worship in Zoroastrianism, the state religion of the Achaemenid Empire during Heraclitus' life.The Milesians before Heraclitus conceived of certain elements as the arche – Thales with water, Anaximander with apeiron, and Anaximenes with air – Many philosophers concluded that Heraclitus construed of fire as the ''arche'', the fundamental element that gave rise to the other elements.", "However, it is also argued by many that he never identified Fire as the arche rather, he only use fire to explain his notion of flux.", "Pre-Socratic scholar Eduard Zeller has argued that Heraclitus believed that heat in general and dry exhalation in particular, rather than visible fire, was the ''arche''.In one fragment, Heraclitus writes: This is the oldest extant quote using ''kosmos'', or order, to mean the world.", "Fire is the one thing eternal in the universe.", "From fire all things originate and all things return again in a process of never-ending cycles.", "He describes the transformations: On one interpretation, rejecting both the flux and stability interpretation, Heraclitus is not a material monist, but a revolutionary process philosopher who chooses fire in an attempt to say there is no ''arche''.", "Fire is a symbol or metaphor for change, rather than the basic stuff which changes the most.", "Perspectives of this sort emphasize his statements on change such as \"The way up is the way down\", as well as the quote \"All things are an exchange for Fire, and Fire for all things, even as wares for gold and gold for wares\", which has been understood as stating that while all can be transformed into fire, not everything comes from fire, just as not everything comes from gold.==== Foreign influence ====Heraclitus' description of a doctrine of purification of fire has also been investigated for influence from the Zoroastrian concept of ''Atar''.", "Many of the doctrines of Zoroastrian fire do not match exactly with those of Heraclitus, such as the relation of fire to earth, but he may have taken some inspiration from them.", "Zoroastrian parallels to Heraclitus are often difficult to identify specifically due to a lack of surviving Zoroastrian literature from the period and mutual influence with Greek philosophy.The interchange of other elements with fire also has parallels in Vedic literature from the same time period, such as the Kaushitaki Upanishad and Taittiriya Upanishad.", "West stresses that these doctrines of the interchange of elements were common throughout written works on philosophy that have survived from that period, so Heraclitus' doctrine of fire can not be definitively be said to have been influenced by any other particular Iranian or Indian influence, but may have been part of a mutual interchange of influence over time across the Ancient Near East.Zeus hurls a thunderbolt.Philosopher Gustav Teichmüller sought to prove Heraclitus was influenced by the Egyptians, either directly, by reading the Book of the Dead, or indirectly through the Greek mystery cults.", "\"As the sun of Heraclitus was daily generated from water, so Horus, as Ra of the sun, daily proceeded from Lotus the water.\"", "Paul Tannery took up Teichmüller's interpretation.", "They thought Heraclitus's book was an offering rather than deposited, and only for initiates.", "Edmund Pfleiderer argued that Heraclitus was influenced by the mystery cults.", "He interprets Heraclitus seeming condemning of the mysteries as the condemning of abuses rather than the idea itself.==== God and the soul ====Heraclitus said that the \"thunderbolt steers all things\", a rare comment on meteorology and likely a reference to Zeus as the supreme being.", "\"Wisdom is one thing: to understand the intelligence by which all things are steered through all things; it is willing and it is unwilling to be called by the name Zeus.\"", "He invokes relativism with the divine too: God sees man the same way man sees children and apes; and he seems to give a theodicy, \"for god all things are fair and good and just, but men suppose that some are unjust and others just\".Heraclitus regarded the soul (''psyche'') as a mixture of fire and water, and believed that fire was the noble part of the soul and water the ignoble part.", "He considered mastery of one's worldly desires to be a noble pursuit that purified the soul's fire, while drunkenness damages the soul by causing it to be moist.", "The Aristotelian tradition is responsible for a great part of the transmission of Heraclitus' conception of the soul from this physical point of view.Heraclitus also compares the soul to a spider and the body to the web.", "Heraclitus believed the soul is also what unifies the body and grants linguistic understanding, departing from Homer's conception of it as merely the breath of life.", "Heraclitus ridicules Homer's conception of the soul leaving the body out of the nose to become a shade by saying \"Souls smell in Hades\" and \"If all things should become smoke, then perception would be by the nostrils\".", "His own views on the afterlife remain unclear, but he did state: \"There await men after they are dead things which they do not expect or imagine.", "\"=== ''Logos'' ===Greek spelling of ''logos''A fundamental concept for Heraclitus is ''logos'', an ancient Greek word literally meaning \"word, speech, discourse, or meaning\", but with a wide variety of other uses, such that Heraclitus might have a different meaning of the word for each usage in his book.", "Kahn has argued that Heraclitus used the word in multiple senses, whereas Guthrie has argued that there is no evidence Heraclitus used it in a way that was significantly different from that in which it was used by contemporaneous speakers of Greek.For Heraclitus, the ''logos'' provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.", "''Logos'' was like a universal law that unites the cosmos, according to one fragment: \"Listening not to me but to the logos, it is wise to agree (homologein) that all things are one.\"", "Another fragment reads: \"hoi polloi ... do not know how to listen to Logos or how to speak the truth.", "\"Professor Michael Stokes interprets Heraclitus' use of ''logos'' as a public fact like a proposition or formula; like Guthrie, he views Heraclitus as a materialist, and he grants Heraclitus would not have considered these as abstract objects or immaterial things.", "Another possibility is the ''logos'' referred to the truth or the book itself.", "Classicist Walther Kranz translated it as \"sense\".=== ''Ethos'' ===The phrase ἦθος ἀνθρώπῳ δαίμων (''ethos anthropoi daimon'') is attributed to Heraclitus.", "It is variously translated as \"a man's character is his fate\", \"character is destiny\", or perhaps most literally as \"a man's character is his guardian divinity.\"", "The word ethos means \"character\", while daimon has various meanings, one of which being \"the power controlling the destiny of individuals: hence, one's lot or fortune.", "\"The meaning of the phrase is similar to the concept of karma, and a quotation from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad expresses a similar sentiment: \"As your will is, so is your deed.", "As your deed is, so is your destiny.", "\"=== Time ===Heraclitus said \"Time (''Aion'') is a child playing draughts, the kingly power is a child's.\"", "It is disputed whether this means time and life is determined by rules like a game, by conflict like a game, or by arbitrary whims of the gods like a child plays." ], [ "Legacy", "Plaque on 204x204pxHeraclitus' writings have exerted a wide influence on Western philosophy, including the works of Plato and Aristotle, who interpreted him in terms of their own doctrines.", "Heraclitus is also considered a potential source for understanding the Ancient Greek religion since the discovery of the Derveni papyrus.", "His influence also extends into art, literature, and medicine, as writings in the Hippocratic corpus show signs of Heraclitean themes.=== Ancient ======= Presocratics ====It is unknown whether or not Heraclitus had any students in his lifetime.", "In his dialogue ''Cratylus'', Plato presented Cratylus as a Heraclitean and as a linguistic naturalist who believed that names must apply naturally to their objects.", "According to Aristotle, Cratylus went a step beyond his master's doctrine and said that one cannot step into the same river once.", "He took the view that nothing can be said about the ever-changing world and \"ended by thinking that one need not say anything, and only moved his finger\".", "To explain both characterisations by Plato and Aristotle, Cratylus may have thought continuous change warrants skepticism because one cannot define a thing that does not have a permanent nature.", "Diogenes Laertius lists an otherwise historically obscure Antisthenes who wrote a commentary on Heraclitus.", "According to one author, \"there were no doubt other Heracliteans whose names are now lost to us\".===== Eleatics =====Parmenides, a contemporary who espoused a doctrine of unchanging Being, has been contrasted with Heraclitus and his doctrine of constant change.Parmenides of Elea, a philosopher and near-contemporary, proposed a doctrine of changelessness, in contrast to the doctrine of flux put forth by Heraclitus.", "He is generally agreed to either have influenced or been influenced by Heraclitus.", "Different philosophers have argued that either one of them may have substantially influenced each other, some taking Heraclitus to be responding to Parmenides, but more often Parmenides is seen as responding to Heraclitus.", "Some also argue that any direct chain of influence between the two is impossible to determine.", "Although Heraclitus refers to older figures such as Pythagoras, neither Parmenides or Heraclitus refer to each other by name in any surviving fragments, so any speculation on influence must be based on interpretation.===== Pluralists and atomists =====The surviving fragments of several other pre-Socratic philosophers show Heraclitean themes.", "Diogenes of Apollonia thought the action of one thing on another meant they were made of one substance.", "The pluralists may have been influenced by Heraclitus.", "The philosopher Anaxagoras refuses to separate the opposites in the \"one cosmos\".", "Empedocles has forces (arguably the first since Heraclitus's tension) which are in opposition, known as Love and Hate, or more accurately, Harmony and Strife.", "Democritus and the atomists were also influenced by Heraclitus.", "The atomists and Heraclitus both believed that everything was in motion.", "On one interpretation: \"Essentially what the atomists did was try to find a middle-way between the contradictory philosophical schemes of Heraclitus and Parmenides.", "\"Plato's 180px===== Sophists =====The sophists, including Protagoras of Abdera and Gorgias of Leontini, may also have been influenced by Heraclitus.", "One tradition associated their concern with politics and preventing party strife with Heraclitus.", "Gorgias seems to have been influenced by the Heraclitean idea of the ''logos'', when he argued in his work ''On Non-Being'', possibly parodying the Eleatics, that being cannot exist or be communicated.", "According to one author, Gorgias \"in a sense ... completes Heraclitus.", "\"==== Classical and Hellenistic philosophy ====Plato knew of the teachings of Heraclitus through the Heraclitean philosopher Cratylus.", "Plato held that for Heraclitus knowledge is made impossible by the flux of sensible objects, and thus the need for the imperceptible Forms as objects of knowledge.", "Aristotle accused Heraclitus of denying the law of noncontradiction, and that he thereby failed in his reasoning.", "However, Aristotle's material monist and world conflagration interpretation of Heraclitus also influenced the Stoics.===== Stoics =====200pxThe Stoics believed major tenets of their philosophy derived from the thought of Heraclitus; especially the ''logos,'' used to support their belief that rational law governs the universe.", "A four-volume work titled ''Interpretation of Heraclitus'' was written by the Stoic philosopher Cleanthes, but has not survived.", "In surviving stoic writings, this is most evident in the writings of Marcus Aurelius.", "According to one author, \"Heraclitus of Ephesus was the father of Stoic physics.\"", "Many of the later Stoics interpreted the ''logos'' as the ''arche'', as a creative fire that ran through all things; Marcus Aurelius understood the ''Logos'' as \"the account which governs everything.\"", "Heraclitus also states, \"We should not act and speak like children of our parents\", which Marcus Aurelius interpreted to mean one should not simply accept what others believe.", "West observes that Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Sextus Empiricus all make no mention of this doctrine, and concludes that the language and thought are \"obviously Stoic\" and not attributable to Heraclitus.", "Long concludes the earliest Stoic fragments are also \"modifications of Heraclitus\".", "Burnet cautions that these Stoic modifications of Heraclitus make it harder to interpret Heraclitus himself, as the Stoics ascribed their own interpretations of terms like ''logos'' and ''ekpyrosis'' to Heraclitus.left===== Cynics =====The Cynics were influenced by Heraclitus, such as by his condemnation of the mystery cults.", "Heraclitus is sometimes even depicted as a cynic.", "According to one source, \"the Cynic affinity with Heraclitus lies not so much in his philosophy as in his cultural criticism and (idealised) lifestyle.\"", "The Cynics attributed several of the later Cynic epistles to his authorship.", "Heraclitus wrote: \"Dogs bark at every one they do not know.\"", "Similarly, Diogenes the Cynic, when asked by Alexander why he considered himself a dog, responded that he \"barks at those who give me nothing\".", "===== Pyrrhonists =====The Pyrrhonists were also influenced by Heraclitus.", "He may be the predecessor to Pyrrho's doctrine \"No More This than That\".", "Aenesidemus, one of the major ancient Pyrrhonist philosophers, claimed in a now-lost work that Pyrrhonism was a way to Heraclitean philosophy because Pyrrhonist practice helps one to see how opposites appear to be the case about the same thing.", "Once one sees this, it leads to understanding the Heraclitean view of opposites being the case about the same thing.", "A later Pyrrhonist philosopher, Sextus Empiricus, disagreed, arguing opposites appearing to be the case about the same thing is not a dogma of the Pyrrhonists but a matter occurring to the Pyrrhonists, to the other philosophers, and to all of humanity.==== Early Christianity ====John in the King James Bible.Heraclitus was often read by early Christian philosophers, who following the Stoics, interpreted the ''logos'' as meaning the Christian \"Word of God\", such as in John 1:1: \"In the beginning was the Word (''logos'') and the Word was God.\"", "Hippolytus of Rome, one of the early Church Fathers of the Christian Church, identified Heraclitus along with the other Pre-Socratics and Academics as a source of heresy, in Heraclitus's case namely the heresy of Noetus.", "The Christian apologist Justin Martyr took a more positive view of Heraclitus.", "In his First Apology, he said both Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians before Christ: \"those who lived reasonably are Christians, even though they have been thought atheists; as, among the Greeks, Socrates and Heraclitus, and men like them.\"", "Modern scholars such as John Burnet have viewed the relationship between Heraclitean logos and Johannine logos as fallacious, saying; \"the Johannine doctrine of the ''logos'' has nothing to do with Herakleitos or with anything at all in Greek philosophy, but comes from the Hebrew Wisdom literature\".", "When Heraclitus speaks of \"God\" he does not mean a single deity as an omnipotent and omniscient or God as Creator, the universe being eternal; he meant the divine as opposed to human, the immortal as opposed to the mortal, and the cyclical as opposed to the transient.", "Thus, it is arguably more accurate to speak of \"the Divine\" and not of \"God\".==== Weeping philosopher ====Donato Bramante painted Heraclitus and Democritus as the weeping and laughing philosopher.Heraclitus's influence also extends outside of philosophy.", "A motif found in art and literature is Heraclitus as the \"weeping philosopher\" and Democritus as the \"laughing philosopher\", which may have originated with the Cynic philosopher Menippus, generally references their reactions to the folly of mankind.Heraclitus painted as the weeping philosopher by Hendrik ter Brugghen (1628)For example, in Lucian of Samosata's \"Philosophies for Sale\", Heraclitus is auctioned off as the \"weeping philosopher\" and Democritus as the \"laughing philosopher\".", "The Roman poet Juvenal wrote: \"Heraclitus, weep at life much more than you did while alive, for now life is more pitiable.", "\"Heraclitus also appears in painter Raphael's ''School of Athens,'' in which he is represented by Michelangelo, since they shared a \"sour temper and bitter scorn for all rivals\".=== Modern ===Heraclitus painted as the weeping philosopher by Johannes Moreelse Modern interest in early Greek philosophy can be traced back to 1573, when French printer Henri Estienne (also known as Henricus Stephanus) collected a number of pre-Socratic fragments, including those of Heraclitus, and published them in Latin in ''Poesis philosophica.''", "Renaissance skeptic Michel de Montaigne's essay ''On Democritus and Heraclitus,'' in which he sided with the laughing philosopher over the weeping philosopher, was probably written soon after.", "''The Merchant of Venice'' by William Shakespeare features the melancholic character of Antonio, who some critics contend is modeled after Heraclitus.", "Additionally, in one scene of the play Portia assesses her potential suitors, and says of one County Palatine: \"I fear he will prove the weeping philosopher when he grows old\".==== Cartesianism ====According to one author, Rene Descartes' anti-Aristotelianism was motivated by Protagoras and Heraclitus.", "According to Bernard Freyberg, \"both Parmenides and Heraclitus are direct if distant ancestors of Spinoza\", since they both said all is one.", "According to Heinrich Bluecher, \"If you read the whole system of Spinoza, it is nothing but the changed system of Heraclitus.", "\"==== British empiricism ====David Hume wrote while discussing personal identity: \"Thus as the nature of a river consists in the motion and change of parts; tho' in less than four and twenty hours these be totally alter'd; this hinders not the river from continuing the same during several ages.", "\"==== German idealism ====Schleiermacher was \"the pioneer of Heraclitean studies\".Since Kant, philosophers have sometimes been divided into rationalists and empiricists.", "Heraclitus has been considered each by different scholars.", "For rationalism, philosophers cite fragments like \"Poor witnesses for men are the eyes and ears of those who have barbarian souls.\"", "For empiricism, they cite fragments like \"The things that can be seen, heard, and learned are what I prize the most.\"", "Gottlob Mayer has argued that the philosophical pessimism of Arthur Schopenhauer recapitulated the thought of Heraclitus.The German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher was one of the first to collect the fragments of Heraclitus specifically and write them out in his native tongue, the \"pioneer of Heraclitean studies\".", "Schleiermacher was also one of the first to posit Persian influence upon Heraclitus, a question taken up by succeeding scholars Friedrich Creuzer and August Gladisch.The influence of Heraclitus on German idealist G. W. F. Hegel was so profound that he remarked in his ''Lectures on the History of Philosophy'': \"there is no proposition of Heraclitus which I have not adopted in my Logic.\"", "Hegel interpreted Heraclitus as a dialetheist and as a process philosopher, seeing the \"becoming\" in Heraclitus as a natural result of the ontology of \"being\" and \"non-being\" in Parmenides.", "He also doubted the world-conflagaration interpretation, which had been popular since Aristotle.Hegel said \"there is no proposition of Heraclitus which I have not adopted in my Logic.", "\"The Young Hegelian and socialist Ferdinand Lassalle wrote a book on Heraclitus.", "\"Lassalle follows Hegel in styling the doctrine of Heraclitus 'the philosophy of the logical law of the identity of contradictories.", "Lassalle also thought Persian theology influenced Heraclitus.", "Marx compared Lasalle's work to that of \"a schoolboy\" and Lenin accused him of \"sheer plagiarism\".Classical philologist Jakob Bernays also wrote a work on Heraclitus.", "Inspired by Bernays, the English scholar Ingram Bywater collected all fragments of Heraclitus in a critical edition, ''Heracliti Ephesii Reliquiae'' (1877).", "An English translation was provided by G. T. W. Patrick in 1889.Hermann Diels wrote \"Bywater's book has come to be accounted ... as the only reliable collection of the remains of that philosopher.\"", "Diels published the first edition of the authoritative ''Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker'' (''The Fragments of the Pre-Socratics'') in 1903, later revised and expanded three times, and finally revised in two subsequent editions by Walther Kranz.", "Diels–Kranz is used in academia to cite pre-Socratic philosophers.", "In Diels–Kranz, each ancient personality and each passage is assigned a number to uniquely identify it; Heraclitus is traditionally catalogued as philosopher number 22.==== Continental ====The existentialist and classical philologist Friedrich Nietzsche preferred Heraclitus above all the other pre-Socratics.", "The nationalist philosopher of history Oswald Spengler wrote his (failed) dissertation on Heraclitus.", "Existentialist and phenomenologist Martin Heidegger was also influenced by Heraclitus, as seen in his ''Introduction to Metaphysics''.", "Heidegger believed that the thinking of Heraclitus and Parmenides was the origin of philosophy and misunderstood by Plato and Aristotle, leading all of Western philosophy astray.The Irish author Oscar Wilde was influenced by Heraclitus.", "Wilde is credited with the saying \"expect the unexpected\", though Heraclitus said \"If you do not expect the unexpected, you will not find it; for it is hard to be sought out and difficult.", "\"In the 1950s, a term originating with Heraclitus, \"''idios kosmos''\", meaning \"private world\" as distinguished from the \"common world\" () was adopted by phenomenological and existential psychologists, such as Ludwig Binswanger and Rollo May, to refer to the experience of people with delusions, or other problems, who have trouble seeing beyond the limits of their own minds, or who confuse this private world with shared reality.", "It was an important part of novelist Philip K. Dick's views on schizophrenia.", "Those thinkers have relied on Heraclitus statement that \"The waking have one common world, but the sleeping turn aside each into a world of his own.", "\"==== Anglo-American ====The British philosopher A. N. Whitehead has been called a process philosopher in the tradition of Heraclitus.", "In Bertrand Russell's essay ''Mysticism and Logic'', he contends Heraclitus proves himself a metaphysician by his blending of mystical and scientific impulses.Ludwig Wittgenstein was known to read Plato and in his return to philosophy in 1929 he made several remarks resembling those of Heraclitus: \"The fundamental thing expressed grammatically: What about the sentence: One cannot step into the same river twice?\"", "He then seemed to make a dramatic shift by 1931, saying one can step twice into the same river.", "The philosopher Peter Geach was inspired by Heraclitus's comments on the river to formulate his idea of relative identity, which he also used to solve such issues as the Trinity.===== Philosophy of Time =====200x200pxThe British idealist J. M. E. McTaggart is best known for his paper \"The Unreality of Time\" (1908), in which he argues that time is unreal.", "His \"A series\", also known as presentism or \"temporal becoming\", which conceptualizes of time as tensed (''i.e.", "'', having the properties of being past, present, or future), has been described as Heraclitean.", "By contrast, his \" \"B-theory\", under which time is tenseless (''i.e.", "'', earlier than, simultaneous to, or later than), has been associated with Parmenides.", "Advocates of presentism include Arthur Prior and William Lane Craig.===== Contradiction =====Graham Priest is a dialetheist.Aristotle's arguments for the law of non contradiction have been in doubt ever since their criticism by Polish logician Jan Łukasiewicz.", "Recent approaches in logic, such as paraconsistent logic, have led to some philosophers advancing logical pluralism and dialetheism, such as Graham Priest and JC Beall.", "Priest agrees with G. W. F. Hegel's contradictory account of motion, based on Zeno of Elea's Paradox of the Arrow, which is arguably Heraclitus' account of flux.", "On this account of motion, to move is to be both here and not here.", "Beall argues for a contradictory account of Jesus Christ as both man and divine." ], [ "Notes", "===Explanatory notes======Fragment numbers======Citations===" ], [ "References", "===Ancient sources===This article uses the Diels–Kranz numbering system for testimony (labeled A), fragments (labeled B), and imitation (labeled C) of Pre-Socratic philosophy.==== Testimony ===='''A1.'''", "'''A2.'''", "'''A3.'''", "'''A4.'''", "* '''A5.'''", "* '''A6.'''", "* '''A7.'''", "* '''A8.'''", "* '''A9.'''", "* '''A10.'''", "* '''A11-14.'''", "* '''A15.'''", "* '''A16.'''", "* '''A17.'''", "* '''A18.'''", "* '''A19.'''", "* '''A20.'''", "* '''A21.'''", "* '''A22.'''", "* '''A23.'''", "====Fragments===='''B1-2.'''", "'''B3.'''", "'''B4.'''", "'''B5.'''", "'''B6.'''", "'''B7.'''", "'''B8-9.'''", "'''B10-11.'''", "'''B12.'''", "'''B13.'''", "'''B14-15.'''", "'''B16.'''", "'''B17-36.'''", "'''B37.'''", "'''B38.'''", "'''B39.'''", "'''B40-46.'''", "'''B47.'''", "'''B48.'''", "'''B49.'''", "'''B49a.'''", "'''B50-67.'''", "'''B67a.'''", "'''B68-69.'''", "'''B70.'''", "'''B71-76.'''", "'''B77.'''", "'''B78-80.'''", "'''B81.'''", "'''B82-83.'''", "'''B84a-84b.'''", "'''B85-86.'''", "'''B87.'''", "'''B88.'''", "'''B89.'''", "'''B90-91.'''", "'''B92-93.'''", "'''B94.'''", "'''B95-96.'''", "'''B97.'''", "'''B98.'''", "'''B99.'''", "'''B100.'''", "'''B101.'''", "'''B101a.'''", "'''B102.'''", "'''B103.'''", "'''B104.'''", "'''B105.'''", "'''B106.'''", "'''B107.'''", "'''B108-119.'''", "'''B120-121.'''", "'''B122.'''", "'''B123.'''", "'''B124-125.'''", "'''B125a.'''", "'''B126.'''", "====Imitation===='''C1.'''", "'''C2.'''", "'''C4.'''", "'''C5.'''", "===Modern scholarship===* *** * * * * * * * * * ** * * * Chapters 4-6 deal with Heraclitus" ], [ "Further reading", " * *** * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harrison Schmitt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harrison Hagan''' \"'''Jack'''\" '''Schmitt''' (born July 3, 1935) is an American geologist, retired NASA astronaut, university professor, former U.S. senator from New Mexico, and the most recent living person—and only person without a background in military aviation—to have walked on the Moon.In December 1972, as one of the crew on board Apollo 17, Schmitt became the first member of NASA's first scientist-astronaut group to fly in space.", "As Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo missions, he also became the twelfth and second-youngest person to set foot on the Moon and the second-to-last person to step off of the Moon (he boarded the Lunar Module shortly before commander Eugene Cernan).", "Schmitt also remains the only professional scientist to have flown beyond low Earth orbit and to have visited the Moon.", "He was influential within the community of geologists supporting the Apollo program and, before starting his own preparations for an Apollo mission, had been one of the scientists training those Apollo astronauts chosen to visit the lunar surface.Schmitt resigned from NASA in August 1975 to run for election to the United States Senate as a member from New Mexico.", "As the Republican candidate in the 1976 election, he defeated Democratic incumbent Joseph Montoya.", "In the 1982 election, Schmitt was defeated by Democrat Jeff Bingaman." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life and education ===Born July 3, 1935, in Santa Rita, New Mexico, Schmitt grew up in nearby Silver City, and is a graduate of the Western High School (class of 1953).", "He received a B.S.", "degree in geology from the California Institute of Technology in 1957 and then spent a year studying geology at the University of Oslo in Norway, as a Fulbright Scholar.", "He received a Ph.D. in geology from Harvard University in 1964, based on his geological field studies in Norway.=== NASA career ===Before joining NASA as a member of the first group of scientist-astronauts in June 1965, he worked at the U.S. Geological Survey's Astrogeology Center at Flagstaff, Arizona, developing geological field techniques that would be used by the Apollo crews.", "Following his selection, Schmitt spent his first year at Air Force UPT learning to become a jet pilot.", "Upon his return to the astronaut corps in Houston, he played a key role in training Apollo crews to be geologic observers when they were in lunar orbit and competent geologic field workers when they were on the lunar surface.", "After each of the landing missions, he participated in the examination and evaluation of the returned lunar samples and helped the crews with the scientific aspects of their mission reports.Schmitt spent considerable time becoming proficient in the CSM and LM systems.", "In March 1970 he became the first of the scientist-astronauts to be assigned to space flight, joining Richard F. Gordon Jr. (Commander) and Vance Brand (Command Module Pilot) on the Apollo 15 backup crew.", "The flight rotation put these three in line to fly as prime crew on the third following mission, Apollo 18.When Apollo 18 and Apollo 19 were canceled in September 1970, the community of lunar geologists supporting Apollo felt so strongly about the need to land a professional geologist on the Moon, that they pressured NASA to reassign Schmitt to a remaining flight.", "As a result, Schmitt was assigned in August 1971 to fly on the last mission, Apollo 17, replacing Joe Engle as Lunar Module Pilot.", "Schmitt landed on the Moon with commander Gene Cernan in December 1972.Schmitt claims to have taken the photograph of the Earth known as ''The Blue Marble'', one of the most widely distributed photographic images in existence.While on the Moon's surface, Schmitt – the only geologist in the astronaut corps – collected the rock sample designated Troctolite 76535, which has been called \"without doubt the most interesting sample returned from the Moon\".", "Among other distinctions, it is the central piece of evidence suggesting that the Moon once possessed an active magnetic field.As he returned to the Lunar Module before Cernan, Schmitt is the next-to-last person to have walked on the Moon's surface.", "Since the death of Cernan in 2017, Schmitt is the most recent person to have walked on the Moon who is still alive.", "After the completion of the Apollo 17 mission, Schmitt played an active role in documenting the Apollo geologic results and also took on the task of organizing NASA's Energy Program Office.On April 29, 2018, the Schmitt Space Communicator SC-1x named in his honor was carried aboard the Blue Origin New Shepard crew capsule in a project partly funded by NASA.", "It launched the first commercial two-way data and wi-fi hotspot service in space and sent the first commercial Twitter message from space.", "The three-pound device was developed by Solstar, which Schmitt joined as an advisor, and launched 66 miles above the Earth's surface as a technology demonstration.", "The device was admitted to the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.File:Astronaut Harrison 'Jack' Schmitt, American Flag, and Earth (Apollo 17 EVA-1).jpg\|Schmitt poses by the American flag, with Earth in the background, during Apollo 17's first EVA.File:Schmitt Covered with Lunar Dirt - GPN-2000-001124.jpg\|Schmitt collects lunar specimens during the Apollo 17 mission.File:Ap17 schmitt falls.ogv\|Schmitt falls while on a Moonwalk.File:Ap17 strolling.ogv\|Astronauts Harrison Schmitt and Eugene Cernan singing \"While Strolling Through the Park One Day\" on the Moon during the Apollo 17 missionFile:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg\|''The Blue Marble'', an iconic photograph of Earth, is credited to the three crewmen of Apollo 17=== Senate career ===Senator Schmitt with President Ronald Reagan in Roswell, New Mexico, October 1982Schmitt in 2009On August 30, 1975, Schmitt resigned from NASA to seek election as a Republican to the United States Senate representing New Mexico in the 1976 election.", "Schmitt campaigned for fourteen months, and his campaign focused on the future.", "In the Republican primary, held on June 1, 1976, Schmitt defeated Eugene Peirce.", "In the election, Schmitt opposed two-term Democratic incumbent Joseph Montoya.", "He defeated Montoya 57% to 42%.He served one term and, notably, was the chairman of the Science, Technology, and Space Subcommittee of the United States Senate Committee on Commerce.", "He sought a second term in 1982, facing state Attorney General Jeff Bingaman.", "Bingaman attacked Schmitt for not paying enough attention to local matters; his campaign slogan asked, \"What on Earth has he done for you lately?\"", "This, combined with the deep recession, proved too much for Schmitt to overcome; he was defeated, 54% to 46%.=== Post-Senate career ===Following his Senate term, Schmitt has been a consultant in business, geology, space, and public policy.", "Schmitt is an adjunct professor of engineering physics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and has long been a proponent of lunar resource utilization.", "In 1997 he proposed the Interlune InterMars Initiative, listing among its goals the advancement of private-sector acquisition and use of lunar resources, particularly lunar helium-3 as a fuel for notional nuclear fusion reactors.Schmitt (second from right) attends President Donald Trump's signing of Space Policy Directive-1, directing NASA to resume human flight to the Moon and beyondSchmitt was chair of the NASA Advisory Council, whose mandate is to provide technical advice to the NASA Administrator, from November 2005 until his abrupt resignation on October 16, 2008.In November 2008, he quit the Planetary Society over policy advocacy differences, citing the organization's statements on \"focusing on Mars as the driving goal of human spaceflight\" (Schmitt said that going back to the Moon would speed progress toward a crewed Mars mission), on \"accelerating research into global climate change through more comprehensive Earth observations\" (Schmitt voiced objections to the notion of a present \"scientific consensus\" on climate change as any policy guide), and on international cooperation (which he felt would retard rather than accelerate progress), among other points of divergence.Schmitt also serves as a visiting senior research scientist at the Florida Institute for Human & Machine Cognition.In January 2011, he was appointed as secretary of the New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources Department in the cabinet of Governor Susana Martinez, but was forced to give up the appointment the following month after refusing to submit to a required background investigation.", "''El Paso Times'' called him the \"most celebrated\" candidate for New Mexico energy secretary.Schmitt wrote a book entitled ''Return to the Moon: Exploration, Enterprise, and Energy in the Human Settlement of Space'' in 2006.Schmitt is also involved in several civic projects, including the improvement of the Senator Harrison H. Schmitt Big Sky Hang Glider Park in Albuquerque, New Mexico." ], [ "Views on climate change", "Schmitt has rejected the scientific consensus on climate change, which states that climate change is real, progressing, dangerous, and primarily human-caused.", "He has claimed that climate change is predominantly caused by natural factors, as opposed to human activity.", "Schmitt has argued that the risks posed by climate change are overstated and has instead supported the notion that climate change is a \"tool\" used to advocate for the expansion of the government.Schmitt resigned from the Planetary Society due to disagreements over their \"Roadmap to Space Exploration\", which recommended prioritizing earlier human missions to Mars over U.S. lunar expeditions.", "He believed lunar exploration was crucial for Mars missions, stating, \"The fastest way to get to Mars is by way of the Moon.\"", "Additionally, Schmitt criticized the society's stance on global warming, writing in his resignation letter that the \"'global warming scare' is being used as a political tool to increase government control over American lives, incomes and decision making,\" asserting it should not be part of the Society's activities.", "Schmitt spoke at the March 2009 International Conference on Climate Change, an anthropogenic climate change denier event hosted by the conservative Heartland Institute, where he said that climate change was a \"stalking horse for National Socialism.\"", "He appeared in December that year on the Fox Business Network, saying that \"the CO2 scare is a red herring\".", "In a 2009 interview with far-right conspiracy theorist and radio host Alex Jones, Schmitt asserted a link between the collapse of the Soviet Union and the American environmental movement: \"I think the whole trend really began with the fall of the Soviet Union.", "Because the great champion of the opponents of liberty, namely communism, had to find some other place to go and they basically went into the environmental movement.\"", "In 2013, Schmitt co-authored an opinion column in ''The Wall Street Journal'' with William Happer, contending that increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are not significantly correlated with global warming, attributing the \"single-minded demonization of this natural and essential atmospheric gas\" to advocates of government control of energy production.", "Noting a positive relationship between crop resistance to drought and increasing carbon dioxide levels, the authors argued, \"Contrary to what some would have us believe, increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will benefit the increasing population on the planet by increasing agricultural productivity.\"" ], [ "In popular culture", "* Schmitt was portrayed by Tom Amandes in the 1998 miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon''.", "* Schmitt appeared in a 1993 episode of ''Bill Nye the Science Guy''.", "Comedian Norm Macdonald mentioned Schmitt in his stand-up routine from at least 2015 until shortly before his death, joking about Schmitt's relative obscurity despite being one of only a few people to ever walk on the Moon." ], [ "Awards and honors", " NASA Distinguished Service Medal (1973)* He was made an honorary fellow of the Geological Society of America for his efforts in geoscience in 1984.", "* 1989 Recipient of the G. K. Gilbert Award* One of the elementary schools in Schmitt's hometown of Silver City, New Mexico was named in his honor in the mid-1970s.", "An image of the astronaut riding a rocket through space is displayed on the front of Harrison Schmitt Elementary School.", "* AAPG's Special Award has been changed to the Harrison Schmitt Award in 2011.It recognizes individuals or organizations that, for a variety of reasons, do not qualify for other Association honors or awards.", "Schmitt received the award in 1973 for his contribution as the first geologist to land on the Moon and study its geology.", "* 2015 Recipient of the Leif Erikson Exploration Award, awarded by The Exploration Museum, for his scientific work on the surface of the Moon in 1972, and for his part in the geology training of all the astronauts that walked on the Moon before him.Schmitt was one of five inductees into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1977.He was one of 24 Apollo astronauts who were inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1997." ], [ "Media", "Schmitt is one of the astronauts featured in the 2007 documentary ''In the Shadow of the Moon''.", "He also contributed to the 2006 book ''NASA's Scientist-Astronauts'' by David Shayler and Colin Burgess." ], [ "See also", "* The Astronaut Monument* Astronaut–politician" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Interview with Harrison Schmitt for NOVA series: To the Moon WGBH Educational Foundation, raw footage, 1998* Harrison Schmitt visits University of Malta in 2009 and Handaq School* Spacefacts biography of Harrison Schmitt* * Space Policy Directive-1, in ''The Federal Register''* Harrison Schmitt in Hyde Park Civilization on ČT24 10.12.2022 (moderator Daniel Stach)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hilaire Rouelle" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hilaire Marin Rouelle''' (15 February 1718 – 7 April 1779) was an 18th-century French chemist.", "Commonly cited as the 1773 discoverer of urea, he was not the first to do so.", "Dutch scientist Herman Boerhaave had discovered this chemical as early as 1727.Rouelle is known as \"le cadet\" (the younger) to distinguish him from his older brother, Guillaume-François Rouelle, who was also a chemist." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hammer" ], [ "Introduction", "A modern claw hammer suited to drive and remove nailsCartwheel mallets with heads of felt held between steel washers for use with timpani drumsDetail of the head of a war hammerA geologist's hammer used to break up rocks, as seen in archaeology and prospectingA '''hammer''' is a tool, most often a hand tool, consisting of a weighted \"head\" fixed to a long handle that is swung to deliver an impact to a small area of an object.", "This can be, for example, to drive nails into wood, to shape metal (as with a forge), or to crush rock.", "Hammers are used for a wide range of driving, shaping, breaking and non-destructive striking applications.", "Traditional disciplines include carpentry, blacksmithing, warfare, and percussive musicianship (as with a gong).", "'''Hammering''' is use of a hammer in its strike capacity, as opposed to prying with a secondary claw or grappling with a secondary hook.", "Carpentry and blacksmithing hammers are generally wielded from a stationary stance against a stationary target as gripped and propelled with one arm, in a lengthy downward planar arc—downward to add kinetic energy to the impact—pivoting mainly around the shoulder and elbow, with a small but brisk wrist rotation shortly before impact; for extreme impact, concurrent motions of the torso and knee can lower the shoulder joint during the swing to further increase the length of the swing arc (but this is tiring).", "War hammers are often wielded in non-vertical planes of motion, with a far greater share of energy input provided from the legs and hips, which can also include a lunging motion, especially against moving targets.", "Small mallets can be swung from the wrists in a smaller motion permitting a much higher cadence of repeated strikes.", "Use of hammers and heavy mallets for demolition must adapt the hammer stroke to the location and orientation of the target, which can necessitate a clubbing or golfing motion with a two-handed grip.The modern hammer head is typically made of steel which has been heat treated for hardness, and the handle (also known as a haft or helve) is typically made of wood or plastic.Ubiquitous in framing, the claw hammer has a \"claw\" to pull nails out of wood, and is commonly found in an inventory of household tools in North America.", "Other types of hammers vary in shape, size, and structure, depending on their purposes.", "Hammers used in many trades include sledgehammers, mallets, and ball-peen hammers.", "Although most hammers are hand tools, powered hammers, such as steam hammers and trip hammers, are used to deliver forces beyond the capacity of the human arm.", "There are over 40 different types of hammers that have many different types of uses.For hand hammers, the grip of the shaft is an important consideration.", "Many forms of hammering by hand are heavy work, and perspiration can lead to slippage from the hand, turning a hammer into a dangerous or destructive uncontrolled projectile.", "Steel is highly elastic and transmits shock and vibration; steel is also a good conductor of heat, making it unsuitable for contact with bare skin in frigid conditions.", "Modern hammers with steel shafts are almost invariably clad with a synthetic polymer to improve grip, dampen vibration, and to provide thermal insulation.", "A suitably contoured handle is also an important aid in providing a secure grip during heavy use.", "Traditional wooden handles were reasonably good in all regards, but lack strength and durability compared to steel, and there are safety issues with wooden handles if the head becomes loose on the shaft.The high elasticity of the steel head is important in energy transfer, especially when used in conjunction with an equally elastic anvil.In terms of human physiology, many uses of the hammer involve coordinated ballistic movements under intense muscular forces which must be planned in advance at the neuromuscular level, as they occur too rapidly for conscious adjustment in flight.", "For this reason, accurate striking at speed requires more practice than a tapping movement to the same target area.", "It has been suggested that the cognitive demands for pre-planning, sequencing and accurate timing associated with the related ballistic movements of throwing, clubbing, and hammering precipitated aspects of brain evolution in early hominids." ], [ "History", "The use of simple hammers dates to around 3.3 million years ago according to the 2012 find made by Sonia Harmand and Jason Lewis of Stony Brook University, who while excavating a site near Kenya's Lake Turkana discovered a very large deposit of various shaped stones including those used to strike wood, bone, or other stones to break them apart and shape them.", "The first hammers were made without handles.", "Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used as hammers with handles by about 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic Stone Age.", "The addition of a handle gave the user better control and less accidents.", "The hammer became the primary tool used for building, food, and protection.The hammer's archaeological record shows that it may be the oldest tool for which definite evidence exists.File:StoneHammerDoverMN.JPG\|A stone hammer found in Dover Township, Minnesota dated to 8000–3000 BCE, the North American Archaic period File:Hammer stone tapping.jpg\|Stone tapping hammerFile:Hammer stone head.jpg\|Perforated hammer head of stoneFile:Sacrificial hammer Dodona Louvre Br1183 n2.jpg\|Ancient Greek bronze sacrificial hammer, 7th century BCE, from DodonaFile:Melencolia I (Durero) hammer crop.jpg\|16th-century claw hammer; detail from Dürer's ''Melencolia I'' (c. 1514)" ], [ "Construction and materials", "A traditional hand-held hammer consists of a separate head and a handle, which can be fastened together by means of a special wedge made for the purpose, or by glue, or both.", "This two-piece design is often used to combine a dense metallic striking head with a non-metallic mechanical-shock-absorbing handle (to reduce user fatigue from repeated strikes).", "If wood is used for the handle, it is often hickory or ash, which are tough and long-lasting materials that can dissipate shock waves from the hammer head.", "Rigid fiberglass resin may be used for the handle; this material does not absorb water or decay but does not dissipate shock as well as wood.A loose hammer head is considered hazardous due to the risk of the head becoming detached from the handle while being swung becoming a dangerous uncontrolled projectile.", "Wooden handles can often be replaced when worn or damaged; specialized kits are available covering a range of handle sizes and designs, plus special wedges and spacers for secure attachment.Some hammers are one-piece designs made mostly of a single material.", "A one-piece metallic hammer may optionally have its handle coated or wrapped in a resilient material such as rubber for improved grip and to reduce user fatigue.The hammer head may be surfaced with a variety of materials including brass, bronze, wood, plastic, rubber, or leather.", "Some hammers have interchangeable striking surfaces, which can be selected as needed or replaced when worn out." ], [ "Designs and variations", "The parts of a hammer are the ''face'', ''head'' (includes the ''bell'' and ''neck'', which are not labeled), ''eye'' (where the ''handle'' fits into), ''peen'' (also spelled pein and pane).", "The side of a hammer is the ''cheek'' and some hammers have ''straps'' that extend down the handle for strength.", "Shown here are: A. Ball-peen hammer B. Straight-peen hammer C. Cross-peen hammerThe claw of a carpenter's hammer is frequently used to remove nails.A large hammer-like tool is a ''maul'' (sometimes called a \"beetle\"), a wood- or rubber-headed hammer is a ''mallet'', and a hammer-like tool with a cutting blade is usually called a ''hatchet''.", "The essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver a blow to the intended target without itself deforming.", "The impacting surface of the tool is usually flat or slightly rounded; the opposite end of the impacting mass may have a ball shape, as in the ball-peen hammer.", "Some upholstery hammers have a magnetized face, to pick up tacks.", "In the hatchet, the flat hammer head may be secondary to the cutting edge of the tool.The impact between steel hammer heads and the objects being hit can create sparks, which may ignite flammable or explosive gases.", "These are a hazard in some industries such as underground coal mining (due to the presence of methane gas), or in other hazardous environments such as petroleum refineries and chemical plants.", "In these environments, a variety of non-sparking metal tools are used, primarily made of aluminium or beryllium copper.", "In recent years, the handles have been made of durable plastic or rubber, though wood is still widely used because of its shock-absorbing qualities and repairability.===Hand-powered===* Ball-peen hammer, or mechanic's hammer* Boiler scaling hammer* Brass hammer, also known as non-sparking hammer or spark-proof hammer and used mainly in flammable areas like oil fields* Bricklayer's hammer* Carpenter's hammer (used for nailing), such as the framing hammer and the claw hammer, and pinhammers (ball-peen and cross-peen types)* Cow hammer – sometimes used for livestock slaughter, a practice now deprecated due to animal welfare objections* Cross-peen hammer, having one round face and one wedge-peen face.", "* Dead blow hammer delivers impact with very little recoil, often due to a hollow head filled with sand, lead shot or pellets* Demolition hammer* Drilling hammer – a short handled sledgehammer originally used for drilling in rock with a chisel.", "The name usually refers to a hammer with a head and a handle, also called a \"single-jack\" hammer because it was used by one person drilling, holding the chisel in one hand and the hammer in the other.", "In modern usage, the term is mostly interchangeable with \"engineer's hammer\", although it can indicate a version with a slightly shorter handle.", "* Engineer's hammer, a short-handled hammer, was originally an essential components of a railroad engineer's toolkit for working on steam locomotives.", "Typical weight is 2–4 lbs (0.9–1.8 kg) with a 12–14-inch (30–35 cm) handle.", "Originally these were often cross-peen hammers, with one round face and one wedge-peen face, but in modern usage the term primarily refers to hammers with two round faces.", "* Gavel, used by judges and presiding authorities to draw attention * Geologist's hammer or rock pick* Joiner's hammer, or Warrington hammer* Knife-edged hammer, its properties developed to aid a hammerer in the act of slicing whilst bludgeoning* Lathe hammer (also known as a lath hammer, lathing hammer, or lathing hatchet), a tool used for cutting and nailing wood lath, which has a small hatchet blade on one side (with a small, lateral nick for pulling nails) and a hammer head on the other* Lump hammer, or club hammer* Mallets, including versions made with hard rubber or rolled sheets of rawhide* Railway track keying hammer* Magnetic double-head hammer* Magnetic tack hammer* Rock climbing hammer* Rounding hammer, Blacksmith or farrier hammer.", "Round face generally for moving or drawing metal and flat for \"planishing\" or smoothing out the surface marks.", "* Shingler's hammer* Sledgehammer* Soft-faced hammer* Spiking hammer* Splitting maul* Strike Tack hammer* Stonemason's hammer* Tinner's hammer* Upholstery hammer* Welder's chipping hammer=== Mechanically powered ===Steam hammerMechanically powered hammers often look quite different from the hand tools, but nevertheless, most of them work on the same principle.", "They include:* Hammer drill, that combines a jackhammer-like mechanism with a drill* High Frequency Impact Treatment hammer – for after-treatment of weld transitions* Jackhammer* Steam hammer* Trip hammer* Nail gun* Staple gun" ], [ "Associated tools", "* Anvil* Chisel* Pipe drift (Blacksmithing – spreading a punched hole to proper size and/or shape)* Star drill* Punch* Woodsplitting maul – can be hit with a sledgehammer for splitting wood.", "* Woodsplitting wedge – hit with a sledgehammer for splitting wood." ], [ "Physics", "===As a force amplifier===A hammer is a simple force amplifier that works by converting mechanical work into kinetic energy and back.In the swing that precedes each blow, the hammer head stores a certain amount of kinetic energy—equal to the length ''D'' of the swing times the force ''f'' produced by the muscles of the arm and by gravity.", "When the hammer strikes, the head is stopped by an opposite force coming from the target, equal and opposite to the force applied by the head to the target.", "If the target is a hard and heavy object, or if it is resting on some sort of anvil, the head can travel only a very short distance ''d'' before stopping.", "Since the stopping force ''F'' times that distance must be equal to the head's kinetic energy, it follows that ''F'' is much greater than the original driving force ''f''—roughly, by a factor ''D''/''d''.", "In this way, great strength is not needed to produce a force strong enough to bend steel, or crack the hardest stone.===Effect of the head's mass===The amount of energy delivered to the target by the hammer-blow is equivalent to one half the mass of the head times the square of the head's speed at the time of impact .", "While the energy delivered to the target increases linearly with mass, it increases quadratically with the speed (see the effect of the handle, below).", "High tech titanium heads are lighter and allow for longer handles, thus increasing velocity and delivering the same energy with less arm fatigue than that of a heavier steel head hammer.", "A titanium head has about 3% recoil energy and can result in greater efficiency and less fatigue when compared to a steel head with up to 30% recoil.", "Dead blow hammers use special rubber or steel shot to absorb recoil energy, rather than bouncing the hammer head after impact.===Effect of the handle===The handle of the hammer helps in several ways.", "It keeps the user's hands away from the point of impact.", "It provides a broad area that is better-suited for gripping by the hand.", "Most importantly, it allows the user to maximize the speed of the head on each blow.", "The primary constraint on additional handle length is the lack of space to swing the hammer.", "This is why sledgehammers, largely used in open spaces, can have handles that are much longer than a standard carpenter's hammer.", "The second most important constraint is more subtle.", "Even without considering the effects of fatigue, the longer the handle, the harder it is to guide the head of the hammer to its target at full speed.Most designs are a compromise between practicality and energy efficiency.", "With too long a handle, the hammer is inefficient because it delivers force to the wrong place, off-target.", "With too short a handle, the hammer is inefficient because it does not deliver enough force, requiring more blows to complete a given task.", "Modifications have also been made with respect to the effect of the hammer on the user.", "Handles made of shock-absorbing materials or varying angles attempt to make it easier for the user to continue to wield this age-old device, even as nail guns and other powered drivers encroach on its traditional field of use.As hammers must be used in many circumstances, where the position of the person using them cannot be taken for granted, trade-offs are made for the sake of practicality.", "In areas where one has plenty of room, a long handle with a heavy head (like a sledgehammer) can deliver the maximum amount of energy to the target.", "It is not practical to use such a large hammer for all tasks, however, and thus the overall design has been modified repeatedly to achieve the optimum utility in a wide variety of situations.===Effect of gravity===Gravity exerts a force on the hammer head.", "If hammering downwards, gravity increases the acceleration during the hammer stroke and increases the energy delivered with each blow.", "If hammering upwards, gravity reduces the acceleration during the hammer stroke and therefore reduces the energy delivered with each blow.", "Some hammering methods, such as traditional mechanical pile drivers, rely entirely on gravity for acceleration on the down stroke." ], [ "Ergonomics and injury risks", "A hammer may cause significant injury if it strikes the body.", "Both manual and powered hammers can cause peripheral neuropathy or a variety of other ailments when used improperly.", "Awkward handles can cause repetitive stress injury (RSI) to hand and arm joints, and uncontrolled shock waves from repeated impacts can injure nerves and the skeleton.", "Additionally, striking metal objects with a hammer may produce small metallic projectiles which can become lodged in the eye.", "It is therefore recommended to wear safety glasses." ], [ "War hammers", "A war hammer is a late medieval weapon of war intended for close combat action." ], [ "Symbolism", "A T-shaped hammer in the upper left corner of the coat of arms of TampereThe hammer, being one of the most used tools by man, has been used very much in symbols such as flags and heraldry.", "In the Middle Ages, it was used often in blacksmith guild logos, as well as in many family symbols.", "The hammer and pick are used as a symbol of mining.In mythology, the gods Thor (Norse) and Sucellus (Celtic and Gallo-Roman), and the hero Hercules (Greek), all had hammers that appear in their lore and carried different meanings.", "Thor, the god of thunder and lightning, wields a hammer named Mjölnir.", "Many artifacts of decorative hammers have been found, leading modern practitioners of this religion to often wear reproductions as a sign of their faith.In American folklore, the hammer of John Henry represents the strength and endurance of a man.A political party in Singapore, Workers' Party of Singapore, based their logo on a hammer to symbolize the party's civic nationalism and social democracy ideology.A variant, well-known symbol with a hammer in it is the hammer and sickle, which was the symbol of the former Soviet Union and is strongly linked to communism and early socialism.", "The hammer in this symbol represents the industrial working class (and the sickle represents the agricultural working class).", "The hammer is used in some coats of arms in former socialist countries like East Germany.", "Similarly, the Hammer and Sword symbolizes Strasserism, a strand of Nazism seeking to appeal to the working class.", "Another variant of the symbol was used for the North Korean party, Workers' Party of Korea, incorporated with an ink brush on the middle, which symbolizes both Juche and Songun ideologies.In Pink Floyd – The Wall, two hammers crossed are used as a symbol for the fascist takeover of the concert during \"In the Flesh\".", "This also has the meaning of the hammer beating down any \"nails\" that stick out.The gavel, a small wooden mallet, is used to symbolize a mandate to preside over a meeting or judicial proceeding, and a graphic image of one is used as a symbol of legislative or judicial decision-making authority.Judah Maccabee was nicknamed \"The Hammer\", possibly in recognition of his ferocity in battle.", "The name \"Maccabee\" may derive from the Aramaic ''maqqaba''.", "(see .", ")The hammer in the song \"If I Had a Hammer\" represents a relentless message of justice broadcast across the land.", "The song became a symbol of the civil rights movement." ], [ "Image gallery", "File:Buck Knives Hammer (5075278861).jpg\|Ball-peen hammerFile:Stockhammer.JPG\|Bush hammerFile:Hammer2.jpg\|Claw hammerFile:Hammer-1.jpg\|Cross-peen hammerFile:Hammer dog-head.jpg\|Dog-head hammer (blacksmithing)File:Framing hammer.jpg\|Framing hammerFile:BrokenConcretion22.jpg\|Geologist's hammerFile:Hifit-hammer.jpg\|HiFIT-hammer for aftertreatment of weld transitionsFile:Hammer Long cross-face.jpg\|Long cross-face hammer (blacksmithing)File:Sledgehammer.jpg\|Post maulFile:Climbing Hammer.png\|Rock climbing hammerFile:Gummihammer.png\|Rubber malletFile:Sledgehammers-1.jpg\|SledgehammersFile:Hammer straight pane sledge.jpg\|Straight pane sledgehammerFile:Hammer twist.jpg\|Twist hammer (blacksmithing)File:Hammer tapissier.jpg\|Upholstery hammerFile:Mallet menuisier.jpg\|Wooden mallet" ], [ "See also", "Hammer Museum (Haines, Alaska)Mjölnir" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Types of Hammers (images and descriptions)* \"Choosing a Hammer\".", "''Popular Science'', June 1960, pp.", "164–167." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hiragana" ], [ "Introduction", " is a Japanese syllabary, part of the Japanese writing system, along with ''katakana'' as well as ''kanji''.It is a phonetic lettering system.", "The word ''hiragana'' literally means \"common\" or \"plain\" kana (originally also \"easy\", as contrasted with kanji).「平」とは平凡な、やさしいという意で、当時普通に使用する文字体系であったことを意味する。漢字は書簡文や重要な文章などを書く場合に用いる公的な文字であるのに対して、平仮名は漢字の知識に乏しい人々などが用いる私的な性格のものであった。Translation: 平 the \"hira\" part of \"hiragana\" means \"ordinary, common\" or \"easy, simple\" since at that time the time that the name was given it was a writing system for everyday use.", "While kanji was the official system used for letter-writing and important texts, hiragana was for personal use by people who had limited knowledge of kanji.Hiragana and katakana are both kana systems.", "With few exceptions, each mora in the Japanese language is represented by one character (or one digraph) in each system.", "This may be either a vowel such as /a/ (hiragana あ); a consonant followed by a vowel such as /ka/ (か); or /N/ (ん), a nasal sonorant which, depending on the context, sounds either like English ''m'', ''n'' or ''ng'' () when syllable-final or like the nasal vowels of French, Portuguese or Polish.", "Because the characters of the kana do not represent single consonants (except in the case of the aforementioned ん), the kana are referred to as syllabic symbols and not alphabetic letters.Hiragana is used to write ''okurigana'' (kana suffixes following a kanji root, for example to inflect verbs and adjectives), various grammatical and function words including particles, as well as miscellaneous other native words for which there are no kanji or whose kanji form is obscure or too formal for the writing purpose.", "Words that do have common kanji renditions may also sometimes be written instead in hiragana, according to an individual author's preference, for example to impart an informal feel.", "Hiragana is also used to write ''furigana'', a reading aid that shows the pronunciation of kanji characters.There are two main systems of ordering hiragana: the old-fashioned iroha ordering and the more prevalent gojūon ordering." ], [ "Writing system", "+ Basic hiragana characters ''a'' ''i'' ''u'' ''e'' ''o''∅あいうえお''k''かきくけこ''s''さしすせそ''t''たちつてと''n''なにぬねの''h''はひふへほ''m''まみむめも''y''やゆ\|よ''r''ら\|りるれろ''w''わゐゑをん '''(''n'')''' Main functional marks and diacriticsっゝ゛゜ Only used in some proper namesAfter the 1900 script reform, which deemed hundreds of characters hentaigana, the hiragana syllabary consists of 48 base characters, of which two (ゐ and ゑ) are only used in some proper names:* 5 singular vowels: あ /a/, い /i/, う /u/, え /e/, お /o/ (respectively pronounced , , , and )* 42 consonant–vowel unions: for example き /ki/, て /te/, ほ /ho/, ゆ /ju/, わ /wa/ (respectively pronounced , , , and )* 1 singular consonant (ん), romanized as ''n''.These are conceived as a 5×10 grid (''gojūon'', , \"Fifty Sounds\"), as illustrated in the adjacent table, read and so forth (but ''si''→''shi'', ''ti''→''chi'', ''tu''→''tsu'', ''hu''→''fu'', ''wi''→''i'', ''we''→''e'', ''wo''→''o'').", "Of the 50 theoretically possible combinations, ''yi'', ''ye'', and ''wu'' are completely unused.", "On the ''w'' row, ゐ and ゑ, pronounced and respectively, are uncommon in modern Japanese, while を, pronounced , is common as a particle but otherwise rare.", "Strictly speaking, the singular consonant is considered as outside the ''gojūon''.These basic characters can be modified in various ways.", "By adding a ''dakuten'' marker ( ゛), a voiceless consonant is turned into a voiced consonant: ''k''→''g'', ''ts/s''→''z'', ''t''→''d'', ''h/f''→''b'' and ''ch''/''sh''→''j'' (also ''u''→''v(u)'').", "For example, か (''ka'') becomes が (''ga'').", "Hiragana beginning with an ''h'' (or ''f'') sound can also add a ''handakuten'' marker ( ゜) changing the ''h'' (''f'') to a ''p''.", "For example, は (''ha'') becomes ぱ (''pa'').A small version of the hiragana for ''ya'', ''yu'', or ''yo'' (ゃ, ゅ or ょ respectively) may be added to hiragana ending in ''i''.", "This changes the ''i'' vowel sound to a glide (palatalization) to ''a'', ''u'' or ''o''.", "For example, き (''ki'') plus ゃ (small ''ya'') becomes (''kya'').", "Addition of the small ''y'' kana is called ''yōon''.A small ''tsu'' っ, called a ''sokuon'', indicates that the following consonant is geminated (doubled).", "In Japanese this is an important distinction in pronunciation; for example, compare , ''saka'', \"hill\" with , ''sakka'', \"author\".", "However, it cannot be used to double an ''n'' – for this purpose, the singular ''n'' (ん) is added in front of the syllable, as in みんな (''minna'', \"all\").", "The ''sokuon'' also sometimes appears at the end of utterances, where it denotes a glottal stop, as in (, \"Ouch!", "\").Two hiragana have pronunciations that depend on the context:* は is pronounced when used as a particle (otherwise, ).", "* へ is pronounced when used as a particle (otherwise, ).Hiragana usually spells long vowels with the addition of a second vowel kana; for example, おかあさん (''o-ka-a-sa-n'', \"mother\").", "The ''chōonpu'' (long vowel mark) (ー) used in katakana is rarely used with hiragana, for example in the word , ''rāmen'', but this usage is considered non-standard in Japanese.", "However, the Okinawan language uses chōonpu with hiragana.", "In informal writing, small versions of the five vowel kana are sometimes used to represent trailing off sounds (, ''haa'', , ''nee'').", "Plain (clear) and voiced iteration marks are written in hiragana as ゝ and ゞ, respectively.", "These marks are rarely used nowadays." ], [ "Table of hiragana", "The following table shows the complete hiragana together with the modified Hepburn romanization and IPA transcription, arranged in four categories, each of them displayed in the ''gojūon'' order.", "Those whose romanization are in '''bold''' do not use the initial consonant for that row.", "For all syllables besides ん, the pronunciation indicated is for word-initial syllables, for mid-word pronunciations see below.+Hiragana syllabogramsMonographs (gojūon) Digraphs (yōon) ''a'' ''i'' ''u'' ''e'' ''o'' ''ya'' ''yu'' ''yo''∅あ a い i う u え e お o ''K''か ka き ki く ku け ke こ ko きゃ kya きゅ kyu きょ kyo ''S''さ sa し '''shi''' す su せ se そ so しゃ '''sha''' しゅ '''shu''' しょ '''sho''' ''T''た ta ち '''chi''' つ '''tsu''' て te と to ちゃ '''cha''' ちゅ '''chu''' ちょ '''cho''' ''N''な na に ni ぬ nu ね ne の no にゃ nya にゅ nyu にょ nyo ''H''は ha (wa as particle)ひ hi ふ '''fu''' へ he (e as particle)ほ ho ひゃ hya ひゅ hyu ひょ hyo ''M''ま ma み mi む mu め me も mo みゃ mya みゅ myu みょ myo ''Y''や ya ゆ yu よ yo ''R''ら ra り ri る ru れ re ろ ro りゃ rya りゅ ryu りょ ryo ''W''わ wa ゐ '''i''' ゑ '''e''' を '''o''' Monographs (gojūon) with diacritics (dakuten, handakuten)Digraphs (yōon) with diacritics (dakuten, handakuten) ''a'' ''i'' ''u'' ''e'' ''o'' ''ya'' ''yu'' ''yo''''G''が ga ぎ gi ぐ gu げ ge ご go ぎゃ gya ぎゅ gyu ぎょ gyo ''Z''ざ za じ '''ji''' ず zu ぜ ze ぞ zo じゃ '''ja''' じゅ '''ju''' じょ '''jo''' ''D''だ da ぢ '''ji''' づ '''zu''' で de ど do ぢゃ '''ja''' ぢゅ '''ju''' ぢょ '''jo''' ''B''ば ba び bi ぶ bu べ be ぼ bo びゃ bya びゅ byu びょ byo ''P''ぱ pa ぴ pi ぷ pu ぺ pe ぽ po ぴゃ pya ぴゅ pyu ぴょ pyo Final nasal monograph (hatsuon) Polysyllabic monographs (obsolete) ''n'' ''kashiko'' ''koto'' ''sama'' ''nari'' ''mairasesoro'' ''yori''ん n 20px kashiko 20px koto 20px/20px sama 20px nari 20px/20px mairasesoro ゟ yori 20px゙ goto Functional graphemes sokuonfu chōonpu odoriji (monosyllable) odoriji (polysyllable)っ (indicates a geminate consonant)ー (indicates a long vowel)ゝ (reduplicates andunvoices syllable)〱 (reduplicates andunvoices syllable)ゞ (reduplicates andvoices syllable)〱゙ (reduplicates andvoices syllable)ゝ゚ (reduplicates andmoves a h- or b-row syllable to the p-row) 〱゚ (reduplicates andmoves a h- or b-row syllable to the p-row) === Spelling–phonology correspondence ===In the middle of words, the ''g'' sound (normally ) may turn into a velar nasal or velar fricative .", "For example, かぎ (''kagi'', key) is often pronounced .", "However, じゅうご (''jūgo'', fifteen) is pronounced as if it was ''jū'' and ''go'' stacked end to end: .In many accents, the ''j'' and ''z'' sounds are pronounced as affricates ( and , respectively) at the beginning of utterances and fricatives in the middle of words.", "For example, ''sūji'' 'number', ''zasshi'' 'magazine'.The singular ''n'' is pronounced before ''m'', ''b'' and ''p'', before ''t'', ''ch'', ''ts'', ''n'', ''r'', ''z'', ''j'' and ''d'', before ''k'' and ''g'', at the end of utterances, and some kind of high nasal vowel before vowels, palatal approximants (''y''), and fricative consonants (''s'', ''sh'', ''h'', ''f'' and ''w'').In kanji readings, the diphthongs ''ou'' and ''ei'' are usually pronounced (long o) and (long e) respectively.", "For example, (lit.", "''toukyou'') is pronounced 'Tokyo', and ''sensei'' is 'teacher'.", "However, ''tou'' is pronounced 'to inquire', because the ''o'' and ''u'' are considered distinct, ''u'' being the verb ending in the dictionary form.", "Similarly, ''shite iru'' is pronounced 'is doing'.In archaic forms of Japanese, there existed the ''kwa'' ( ) and ''gwa'' ( ) digraphs.", "In modern Japanese, these phonemes have been phased out of usage.For a more thorough discussion on the sounds of Japanese, please refer to Japanese phonology." ], [ "Spelling rules", "With a few exceptions, such as for the three particles は (pronounced instead of ), へ (pronounced instead of ) and (written を instead of お), Japanese when written in kana is phonemically orthographic, i.e.", "there is a one-to-one correspondence between kana characters and sounds, leaving only words' pitch accent unrepresented.", "This has not always been the case: a previous system of spelling, now referred to as historical kana usage, differed substantially from pronunciation; the three above-mentioned exceptions in modern usage are the legacy of that system.There are two hiragana pronounced ''ji'' (じ and ぢ) and two hiragana pronounced ''zu'' (ず and づ), but to distinguish them, particularly when typing Japanese, sometimes ぢ is written as ''di'' and づ is written as ''du''.", "These pairs are not interchangeable.", "Usually, ''ji'' is written as じ and ''zu'' is written as ず.", "There are some exceptions.", "If the first two syllables of a word consist of one syllable without a ''dakuten'' and the same syllable with a ''dakuten'', the same hiragana is used to write the sounds.", "For example, ''chijimeru'' ('to boil down' or 'to shrink') is spelled ちぢめる and ''tsuzuku'' ('to continue') is .For compound words where the dakuten reflects ''rendaku'' voicing, the original hiragana is used.", "For example, ''chi'' ( 'blood') is spelled ち in plain hiragana.", "When ''hana'' ('nose') and ''chi'' ('blood') combine to make ''hanaji'' ( 'nose bleed'), the sound of changes from ''chi'' to ''ji''.", "So ''hanaji'' is spelled .", "Similarly, ''tsukau'' (; 'to use') is spelled in hiragana, so ''kanazukai'' (; 'kana use', or 'kana orthography') is spelled in hiragana.", "However, there are cases where ぢ and づ are not used, such as the word for 'lightning', ''inazuma'' ().", "The first component, , meaning 'rice plant', is written いな (''ina'').", "The second component, (etymologically ), meaning 'spouse', is pronounced (''tsuma'') when standalone or often as づま (zuma) when following another syllable, such in (''hitozuma'', 'married woman').", "Even though these components of are etymologically linked to 'lightning', it is generally arduous for a contemporary speaker to consciously perceive ''inazuma'' as separable into two discrete words.", "Thus, the default spelling is used instead of .", "Other examples include ''kizuna'' () and ''sakazuki'' ().", "Although these rules were officially established by a Cabinet Notice in 1986 revising the modern kana usage, they have sometimes faced criticism due to their perceived arbitrariness.Officially, ぢ and づ do not occur word-initially pursuant to modern spelling rules.", "There were words such as ''jiban'' 'ground' in the historical kana usage, but they were unified under じ in the modern kana usage in 1946, so today it is spelled exclusively .", "However, ''zura'' 'wig' (from ''katsura'') and ''zuke'' (a sushi term for lean tuna soaked in soy sauce) are examples of word-initial づ today.No standard Japanese words begin with the kana ん (''n'').", "This is the basis of the word game shiritori.", "ん ''n'' is normally treated as its own syllable and is separate from the other ''n''-based kana (''na'', ''ni'' etc.", ").ん is sometimes directly followed by a vowel (''a'', ''i'', ''u'', ''e'' or ''o'') or a palatal approximant (''ya'', ''yu'' or ''yo'').", "These are clearly distinct from the ''na'', ''ni'' etc.", "syllables, and there are minimal pairs such as ''kin'en'' 'smoking forbidden', ''kinen'' 'commemoration', ''kinnen'' 'recent years'.", "In Hepburn romanization, they are distinguished with an apostrophe, but not all romanization methods make the distinction.", "For example, past prime minister Junichiro Koizumi's first name is actually ''Jun'ichirō'' pronounced There are a few hiragana that are rarely used.", "Outside of Okinawan orthography, ゐ ''wi'' and ゑ ''we'' are only used in some proper names.", "𛀁 ''e'' was an alternate version of え ''e'' before spelling reform, and was briefly reused for ''ye'' during initial spelling reforms, but is now completely obsolete.", "ゔ ''vu'' is a modern addition used to represent the /v/ sound in foreign languages such as English, but since Japanese from a phonological standpoint does not have a /v/ sound, it is pronounced as /b/ and mostly serves as a more accurate indicator of a word's pronunciation in its original language.", "However, it is rarely seen because loanwords and transliterated words are usually written in katakana, where the corresponding character would be written as ヴ.", "The digraphs , , for ''ja''/''ju''/''jo'' are theoretically possible in rendaku, but are nearly never used in modern kana usage; for example, the word , ''meoto-jawan'' (couple bowls), spelled , where alone is spelled (''chawan'').The ''myu'' kana is extremely rare in originally Japanese words; linguist Haruhiko Kindaichi raises the example of the Japanese family name Omamyūda and claims it is the only occurrence amongst pure Japanese words.", "Its katakana counterpart is used in many loanwords, however." ], [ "Obsolete kana", "=== Hentaigana ====== Polysyllabic kana ====== ''e'' and ''i'' ===On the row beginning with わ /wa/, the hiragana ゐ /wi/ and ゑ /we/ are both quasi-obsolete, only used in some names.", "They are usually respectively pronounced i and e. In modified Hepburn romanization, they are generally written ''i'' and ''e''.=== ''yi'', ''ye'' and ''wu'' ======= ''yi'' ====It has not been demonstrated whether the mora /ji/ existed in old Japanese.", "Though ''ye'' did appear in some textbooks during the Meiji period along with another kana for ''yi'' in the form of cursive 以.", "Today it is considered a Hentaigana by scholars and is encoded in Unicode 10 () This kana could have a colloquial use, to convert the combo yui (ゆい) into yii (い), due to other Japanese words having a similar change.==== ''ye'' ====An early, now obsolete, hiragana-esque form of ''ye'' may have existed (𛀁 ) in pre-Classical Japanese (prior to the advent of kana), but is generally represented for purposes of reconstruction by the kanji 江, and its hiragana form is not present in any known orthography.", "In modern orthography, ''ye'' can also be written as いぇ (イェ in katakana).衣江Hiraganaえ𛀁Katakana𛀀エIt is true that in early periods of kana, hiragana and katakana letters for \"ye\" were used, but soon after the distinction between /ye/ and /e/ went away, and letters and glyphs were not established.==== ''wu'' ====It has not been demonstrated whether the mora /wu/ existed in old Japanese.", "However, hiragana also appeared in different Meiji-era textbooks (29x29px).", "Although there are several possible source kanji, it is likely to have been derived from a cursive form of the , although a related variant sometimes listed (29x29px) is from a cursive form of .", "However, it was never commonly used.", "This character is included in Unicode 14 as HIRAGANA LETTER ARCHAIC WU (𛄟)." ], [ "History", "Hiragana originated as simplified forms of similar-sounding Chinese characters.cursive script (''sōsho'').", "Shown here is a sample of cursive script by 7th century calligrapher Sun Guoting.", "Note the character 為 (''wei''), indicated by the red arrow, closely resembles the hiragana character ゐ (''wi'').", "Hiragana developed from ''man'yōgana'', Chinese characters used for their pronunciations, a practice that started in the 5th century.", "The oldest examples of Man'yōgana include the Inariyama Sword, an iron sword excavated at the Inariyama Kofun.", "This sword is thought to be made in the year (most commonly taken to be C.E.", "471).The forms of the hiragana originate from the cursive script style of Chinese calligraphy.", "The table to the right shows the derivation of hiragana from manyōgana via cursive script.", "The upper part shows the character in the regular script form, the center character in red shows the cursive script form of the character, and the bottom shows the equivalent hiragana.", "The cursive script forms are not strictly confined to those in the illustration.When it was first developed, hiragana was not accepted by everyone.", "The educated or elites preferred to use only the kanji system.", "Historically, in Japan, the regular script (''kaisho'') form of the characters was used by men and called , \"men's writing\", while the cursive script (''sōsho'') form of the kanji was used by women.", "Hence hiragana first gained popularity among women, who were generally not allowed access to the same levels of education as men, thus hiragana was first widely used among court women in the writing of personal communications and literature.", "From this comes the alternative name of \"women's writing\".", "For example, ''The Tale of Genji'' and other early novels by female authors used hiragana extensively or exclusively.", "Even today, hiragana is felt to have a feminine quality.Male authors came to write literature using hiragana.", "Hiragana was used for unofficial writing such as personal letters, while katakana and kanji were used for official documents.", "In modern times, the usage of hiragana has become mixed with katakana writing.", "Katakana is now relegated to special uses such as recently borrowed words (i.e., since the 19th century), names in transliteration, the names of animals, in telegrams, and for emphasis.Originally, for all syllables there was more than one possible hiragana.", "In 1900, the system was simplified so each syllable had only one hiragana.", "The deprecated hiragana are now known as .The pangram poem ''Iroha-uta'' (\"ABC song/poem\"), which dates to the 10th century, uses every hiragana once (except ''n'' ん, which was just a variant of む before the Muromachi era)." ], [ "Stroke order and direction", "The following table shows the method for writing each hiragana character.", "The table is arranged in a traditional manner, beginning top right and reading columns down.", "The numbers and arrows indicate the stroke order and direction respectively.center" ], [ "Unicode", "Hiragana was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 1991 with the release of version 1.0.The Unicode block for Hiragana is U+3040–U+309F:The Unicode hiragana block contains precomposed characters for all hiragana in the modern set, including small vowels and yōon kana for compound syllables as well as the rare ゐ ''wi'' and ゑ ''we''; the archaic 𛀁 ''ye'' is included in plane 1 at U+1B001 (see below).", "All combinations of hiragana with ''dakuten'' and ''handakuten'' used in modern Japanese are available as precomposed characters (including the rare ゔ ''vu''), and can also be produced by using a base hiragana followed by the combining dakuten and handakuten characters (U+3099 and U+309A, respectively).", "This method is used to add the diacritics to kana that are not normally used with them, for example applying the dakuten to a pure vowel or the handakuten to a kana not in the h-group.Characters U+3095 and U+3096 are small か (''ka'') and small け (''ke''), respectively.", "U+309F is a ligature of より (''yori'') occasionally used in vertical text.", "U+309B and U+309C are spacing (non-combining) equivalents to the combining dakuten and handakuten characters, respectively.Historic and variant forms of Japanese kana characters were first added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2010 with the release of version 6.0, with significantly more added in 2017 as part of Unicode 10.The Unicode block for Kana Supplement is U+1B000–U+1B0FF, and is immediately followed by the Kana Extended-A block (U+1B100–U+1B12F).", "These blocks include mainly hentaigana (historic or variant hiragana):The Unicode block for Kana Extended-B is U+1AFF0–U+1AFFF:The Unicode block for Small Kana Extension is U+1B130–U+1B16F:In the following character sequences a kana from the /k/ row is modified by a ''handakuten'' combining mark to indicate that a syllable starts with an initial nasal, known as ''bidakuon''.", "As of Unicode , these character combinations are explicitly called out as Named Sequences: '''Hiragana named sequences''' Unicode Named Character Sequences Database Sequence name Codepoints Glyph HIRAGANA LETTER BIDAKUON NGA U+304B U+309A か゚ HIRAGANA LETTER BIDAKUON NGI U+304D U+309A き゚ HIRAGANA LETTER BIDAKUON NGU U+304F U+309A く゚ HIRAGANA LETTER BIDAKUON NGE U+3051 U+309A け゚ HIRAGANA LETTER BIDAKUON NGO U+3053 U+309A こ゚" ], [ "See also", "Bopomofo (Zhùyīn fúhào, \"phonetic symbols\"), a phonetic system of 37 characters for writing Chinese developed in the 1900s and which is more common in Taiwan.", "Iteration mark explains the iteration marks used with hiragana.", "Japanese phonology explains Japanese pronunciation in detail.", "Japanese typographic symbols gives other non-kana, non-kanji symbols.", "Japanese writing systemKatakanaNüshu, a syllabary writing system used by women in China's Hunan provinceShodō, Japanese calligraphy." ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Yujiro Nakata, ''The Art of Japanese Calligraphy'', , gives details of the development of ''onode'' and ''onnade''.=== Notes ===" ], [ "External links", "* Hiragana unicode chart* Hiragana table with strokes animations* Practice Hiragana" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hohenstaufen" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hohenstaufen''' dynasty (, , ), also known as the '''Staufer''', was a noble family of unclear origin that rose to rule the Duchy of Swabia from 1079, and to royal rule in the Holy Roman Empire during the Middle Ages from 1138 until 1254.The dynasty's most prominent rulers – Frederick I (1155), Henry VI (1191) and Frederick II (1220) – ascended the imperial throne and also reigned over Italy and Burgundy.", "The non-contemporary name of 'Hohenstaufen' is derived from the family's Hohenstaufen Castle on Hohenstaufen mountain at the northern fringes of the Swabian Jura, near the town of Göppingen.", "Under Hohenstaufen rule, the Holy Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent from 1155 to 1268." ], [ "Name", "The Hohenstaufen Castle ruinThe name Hohenstaufen was first used in the 14th century to distinguish the 'high' (''hohen'') conical hill named Staufen in the Swabian Jura (in the district of Göppingen) from the village of the same name in the valley below.", "The new name was applied to the hill castle of Staufen by historians only in the 19th century to distinguish it from other castles of the same name.", "The name of the dynasty followed suit, but in recent decades, the trend in German historiography has been to prefer the name 'Staufer', which is closer to contemporary usage.The name 'Staufen' itself derives from ''Stauf'' (OHG ''stouf'', akin to Early Modern English stoup), meaning 'chalice'.", "This term was commonly applied to conical hills in Swabia during the Middle Ages.", "It is a contemporary term for both the hill and the castle, although its spelling in the Latin documents of the time varies considerably: , etc.", "The castle was built or at least acquired by Duke Frederick I of Swabia in the latter half of the 11th century.Members of the family occasionally used the toponymic surname ''de Stauf'' or variants thereof.", "Only in the 13th century would the name come to be applied to the family as a whole.", "Around 1215, a chronicler referred to the \"emperors of Stauf\".", "In 1247, the Emperor Frederick II himself referred to his family as the ''domus Stoffensis'' (Staufer house), but this was an isolated instance.", "Otto of Freising (d. 1158) associated the Staufer with the town of Waiblingen, and around 1230, Burchard of Ursberg referred to the Staufer as of the \"royal lineage of the Waiblingens\" (''regia stirps Waiblingensium'').", "The exact connection between the family and Waiblingen is not clear, but as a name for the family, it became very popular.", "The pro-imperial Ghibelline faction of the Italian civic rivalries of the 13th and 14th centuries derived its name from Waiblingen.In Italian historiography, the Staufer are known as the ''Svevi'' (Swabians)." ], [ "Origins", "The origin remains unclear, however, Staufer counts are mentioned in a document of emperor Otto III in 987 as descendants of counts of the region of ''Riesgau'' near Nördlingen in the Duchy of Swabia, who were related to the Bavarian ''Sieghardinger'' family.", "A local count Frederick (d. about 1075) is mentioned as progenitor in a pedigree drawn up by Abbot Wibald of Stavelot at the behest of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1153.He held the office of a Swabian count palatine; his son Frederick of Büren (–1053) married Hildegard of Egisheim-Dagsburg (d. 1094/95), a niece of Pope Leo IX.", "Their son Frederick I was appointed Duke of Swabia at Hohenstaufen Castle by the Salian king Henry IV of Germany in 1079.At the same time, Duke Frederick I was engaged to the king's approximately seventeen-year-old daughter, Agnes.", "Nothing is known about Frederick's life before this event, but he proved to be an imperial ally throughout Henry's struggles against other Swabian lords, namely Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Frederick's predecessor, and the Zähringen and Welf lords.", "Frederick's brother Otto was elevated to the Strasbourg bishopric in 1082.Upon Frederick's death, he was succeeded by his son, Duke Frederick II, in 1105.Frederick II remained a close ally of the Salians, he and his younger brother Conrad were named the king's representatives in Germany when the king was in Italy.", "Around 1120, Frederick II married Judith of Bavaria from the rival House of Welf." ], [ "Ruling in Germany", "The Holy Roman Empire at its greatest extent in the middle 12th century under the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I.When the last male member of the Salian dynasty, Emperor Henry V, died without heirs in 1125, a controversy arose about the succession.", "Duke Frederick II and Conrad, the two current male Staufers, by their mother Agnes, were grandsons of late Emperor Henry IV and nephews of Henry V. Frederick attempted to succeed to the throne of the Holy Roman Emperor (formally known as the King of the Romans) through a customary election, but lost to the Saxon duke Lothair of Supplinburg.", "A civil war between Frederick's dynasty and Lothair's ended with Frederick's submission in 1134.After Lothair's death in 1137, Frederick's brother Conrad was elected King as Conrad III.Because the Welf duke Henry the Proud, son-in-law and heir of Lothair and the most powerful prince in Germany, who had been passed over in the election, refused to acknowledge the new king, Conrad III deprived him of all his territories, giving the Duchy of Saxony to Albert the Bear and that of Bavaria to Leopold IV, Margrave of Austria.", "In 1147, Conrad heard Bernard of Clairvaux preach the Second Crusade at Speyer, and he agreed to join King Louis VII of France in a great expedition to the Holy Land which failed.Conrad's brother Duke Frederick II died in 1147, and was succeeded in Swabia by his son, Duke Frederick III.", "When King Conrad III died without adult heir in 1152, Frederick also succeeded him, taking both German royal and Imperial titles.===Frederick Barbarossa===Frederick I (Reign 2 January 1155 – 10 June 1190), known as Frederick Barbarossa because of his red beard, struggled throughout his reign to restore the power and prestige of the German monarchy against the dukes, whose power had grown both before and after the Investiture Controversy under his Salian predecessors.", "As royal access to the resources of the church in Germany was much reduced, Frederick was forced to go to Italy to find the finances needed to restore the king's power in Germany.", "He was soon crowned emperor in Italy, but decades of warfare on the peninsula yielded scant results.", "The Papacy and the prosperous city-states of the Lombard League in northern Italy were traditional enemies, but the fear of Imperial domination caused them to join ranks to fight Frederick.", "Under the skilled leadership of Pope Alexander III, the alliance suffered many defeats but ultimately was able to deny the emperor a complete victory in Italy.", "Frederick returned to Germany.", "He had vanquished one notable opponent, his Welf cousin, Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony and Bavaria in 1180, but his hopes of restoring the power and prestige of the monarchy seemed unlikely to be met by the end of his life.During Frederick's long stays in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful colonization of Slavic lands.", "Offers of reduced taxes and manorial duties enticed many Germans to settle in the east in the course of the ''Ostsiedlung''.", "In 1163 Frederick waged a successful campaign against the Kingdom of Poland in order to re-install the Silesian dukes of the Piast dynasty.", "With the German colonization, the Empire increased in size and came to include the Duchy of Pomerania.", "A quickening economic life in Germany increased the number of towns and Imperial cities, and gave them greater importance.", "It was also during this period that castles and courts replaced monasteries as centers of culture.", "Growing out of this courtly culture, Middle High German literature reached its peak in lyrical love poetry, the Minnesang, and in narrative epic poems such as ''Tristan'', ''Parzival'', and the ''Nibelungenlied''.===Henry VI===Frederick V of Swabia, ''Welfenchronik'', 1167/79, Weingarten AbbeyFrederick died in 1190 while on the Third Crusade and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI.", "Elected king even before his father's death, Henry went to Rome to be crowned emperor.", "He married Princess Constance of Sicily, and deaths in his wife's family gave him claim of succession and possession of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1189 and 1194 respectively, a source of vast wealth.", "Henry failed to make royal and Imperial succession hereditary, but in 1196 he succeeded in gaining a pledge that his infant son Frederick would receive the German crown.", "Faced with difficulties in Italy and confident that he would realize his wishes in Germany at a later date, Henry returned to the south, where it appeared he might unify the peninsula under the Hohenstaufen name.", "After a series of military victories, however, he fell ill and died of natural causes in Sicily in 1197.His underage son Frederick could only succeed him in Sicily and Malta, while in the Empire the struggle between the House of Staufen and the House of Welf erupted once again.===Philip of Swabia===Because the election of a three-year-old boy to be German king appeared likely to make orderly rule difficult, the boy's uncle, Duke Philip of Swabia, brother of late Henry VI, was designated to serve in his place.", "Other factions however favoured a Welf candidate.", "In 1198, two rival kings were chosen: the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia and the son of the deprived Duke Henry the Lion, the Welf Otto IV.", "A long civil war began; Philip was about to win when he was murdered by the Bavarian count palatine Otto VIII of Wittelsbach in 1208.Pope Innocent III initially had supported the Welfs, but when Otto, now sole elected monarch, moved to appropriate Sicily, Innocent changed sides and accepted young Frederick II and his ally, King Philip II of France, who defeated Otto at the 1214 Battle of Bouvines.", "Frederick had returned to Germany in 1212 from Sicily, where he had grown up, and was elected king in 1215.When Otto died in 1218, Frederick became the undisputed ruler, and in 1220 was crowned Holy Roman Emperor.Philip changed the coat of arms from a black lion on a gold shield to three leopards, probably derived from the arms of his Welf rival Otto IV." ], [ "Ruling in Italy", "The conflict between the Staufer dynasty and the Welf had irrevocably weakened the Imperial authority and the Norman kingdom of Sicily became the base for Staufer rule.===Frederick II===Emperor Frederick II spent little time in Germany as his main concerns lay in Southern Italy.", "He founded the University of Naples in 1224 to train future state officials and reigned over Germany primarily through the allocation of royal prerogatives, leaving the sovereign authority and imperial estates to the ecclesiastical and secular princes.", "He made significant concessions to the German nobles, such as those put forth in an imperial statute of 1232, which made princes virtually independent rulers within their territories.", "These measures favoured the further fragmentation of the Empire.Castel del Monte, in Andria, Apulia, Italy.By the 1226 Golden Bull of Rimini, Frederick had assigned the military order of the Teutonic Knights to complete the conquest and conversion of the Prussian lands.", "A reconciliation with the Welfs took place in 1235, whereby Otto the Child, grandson of the late Saxon duke Henry the Lion, was named Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg.", "The power struggle with the popes continued and resulted in Frederick's excommunication in 1227.In 1239, Pope Gregory IX excommunicated Frederick again, and in 1245 he was condemned as a heretic by a church council.", "Although Frederick was one of the most energetic, imaginative, and capable rulers of the time, he was not concerned with drawing the disparate forces in Germany together.", "His legacy was thus that local rulers had more authority after his reign than before it.", "The clergy also had become more powerful.Frederick II with his falcon, from ''De arte venandi cum avibus'', c. 1240, Vatican LibraryBy the time of Frederick's death in 1250, little centralized power remained in Germany.", "The Great Interregnum, a period in which there were several elected rival kings, none of whom was able to achieve any position of authority, followed the death of Frederick's son King Conrad IV of Germany in 1254.The German princes vied for individual advantage and managed to strip many powers away from the diminished monarchy.", "Rather than establish sovereign states however, many nobles tended to look after their families.", "Their many male heirs created more and smaller estates, and from a largely free class of officials previously formed, many of these assumed or acquired hereditary rights to administrative and legal offices.", "These trends compounded political fragmentation within Germany.", "The period was ended in 1273 with the election of Rudolph of Habsburg, a godson of Frederick.===End of the Staufer dynasty ===Conrad IV was succeeded as duke of Swabia by his only son, two-year-old Conradin.", "By this time, the office of duke of Swabia had been fully subsumed into the office of the king, and without royal authority had become meaningless.", "In 1261, attempts to elect young Conradin king were unsuccessful.", "He also had to defend Sicily against an invasion, sponsored by Pope Urban IV (Jacques Pantaléon) and Pope Clement IV (Guy Folques), by Charles of Anjou, a brother of the French king.", "Charles had been promised by the popes the Kingdom of Sicily, where he would replace the relatives of Frederick II.", "Charles had defeated Conradin's uncle Manfred, King of Sicily, in the Battle of Benevento on 26 February 1266.The king himself, refusing to flee, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed.", "Conradin's campaign to retake control ended with his defeat in 1268 at the Battle of Tagliacozzo, after which he was handed over to Charles, who had him publicly executed at Naples.", "With Conradin, the direct line of the Dukes of Swabia finally ceased to exist, though most of the later emperors were descended from the Staufer dynasty indirectly.The last member of the dynasty was Manfred's son, Henry Enrico, who died in captivity at Castel dell'Ovo on 31 October 1318.During the political decentralization of the late Staufer period, the population had grown from an estimated 8 million in 1200 to about 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns increased tenfold.", "The most heavily urbanized areas of Germany were in the south and the west.", "Towns often developed a degree of independence, but many were subordinate to local rulers if not immediate to the emperor.", "Colonization of the east also continued in the thirteenth century, most notably through the efforts of the Teutonic Knights.", "German merchants also began trading extensively on the Baltic." ], [ "Legacy", "A Staufer stele in Cheb, Czech Republic (2013)The Kyffhäuser Monument was erected to commemorate Frederick I, and was inaugurated in 1896.On October 29, 1968, the 700th anniversary of the death of Konradin, a society known as \"Society for Staufer History\" (de) was founded in Göppingen.The Castel del Monte, Apulia which was built during the 1240s by the Emperor Frederick II was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1996.The German artist, Hans Kloss, painted his ''Staufer-Rundbild'' depicting in great detail the history of the House of Hohenstaufen, in Lorch Monastery.From 2000 to 2018, the Committee of Staufer Friends (de) has built thirty-eight Staufer steles (de) in Germany, France, Italy, Austria, Czech Republic and the Netherlands." ], [ "Members of the Hohenstaufen family", "Family tree of the Hohenstaufen emperors including their relation to succeeding dynastiesHenry II of Swabia (dated 1216) shows him as a mounted knight with a shield and banner displaying ''three leopards'' (''three lions passant guardant'')as the Hohenstaufen coat of arms; the three lions (later shown just ''passant'') would later become known as the Swabian coat of arms.===Holy Roman Emperors and Kings of the Romans===Conrad III, king 1138–1152Frederick Barbarossa, king 1152–1190, emperor after 1155Henry VI, king 1190–1197, emperor after 1191Philip of Swabia, king 1198–1208Frederick II, king 1208–1250, emperor after 1220Henry (VII), king 1220–1235 (under his father Emperor Frederick II)Conrad IV, king 1237–1254 (until 1250 under his father Emperor Frederick II)The first ruling Hohenstaufen, Conrad III, like the last one, Conrad IV, was never crowned emperor.", "After a 20-year period (Great interregnum 1254–1273), the first Habsburg was elected king.===Kings of Italy===''Note: The following kings are already listed above as German Kings''Conrad III 1128–1135Frederick I 1154–1190 Henry VI 1191–1197===Kings of Sicily===Arms of the Hohenstaufen Sicily''Note: Some of the following kings are already listed above as German Kings''Henry VI 1194–1197Frederick 1198–1250*Henry (VII) 1212–1217 (nominal king under his father)Conrad 1250–1254Conradin 1254–1258/1268Manfred 1258–1266Constance II (Queen) 1282–1285===Dukes of Swabia===''Note: Some of the following dukes are already listed above as German Kings'' Frederick I, Duke of Swabia (''Friedrich'') (r. 1079–1105)* Frederick II, Duke of Swabia (r. 1105–1147)* Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (Frederick III of Swabia)(r. 1147–1152) ''King in 1152 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1155''* Frederick IV, Duke of Swabia (r. 1152–1167)* Frederick V, Duke of Swabia (r. 1167–1170)* Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia (r. 1170–1191)* Conrad II, Duke of Swabia (r. 1191–1196)* Philip of Swabia (r. 1196–1208) ''King in 1198''* Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1212–1216) ''King in 1212 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1220''* Henry (VII) of Germany (r. 1216–1235), ''King 1220–1235''* Conrad IV (r. 1235–1254) ''King in 1237''* Conrad V (Conradin) (r. 1254–1268)" ], [ "Family tree of the House of Hohenstaufen", "The colors denotes the '''monarchs''' from the Houses of: - Hohenstaufen (1138–1208; 1215–1254) - Süpplinburg (1125–1137) - Welf (1208–1215) ----'''Notes:'''''For further detailed dynastic relationships, see also :Family tree of the German monarchs''." ], [ "See also", "* Dukes of Swabia family tree* Guelphs and Ghibellines" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Malaysia" ], [ "Introduction", "Malaysia is a modern concept, created in the second half of the 20th century.", "However, contemporary Malaysia regards the entire history of Malaya and Borneo, spanning thousands of years back to prehistoric times, as its own history.The first evidence for archaic human occupation can be dated to at least 1.83 million years ago, while the earliest remnants of an anatomically modern human are c. 40,000 years old.", "The ancestors of the present-day population of Malaysia entered the area in multiple waves in prehistorical and historical times.Hinduism and Buddhism from India and China dominated early regional history, reaching their peak from the 7th to the 13th centuries during the reign of the Sumatra-based Srivijaya civilisation.", "Islam made its initial presence in the Malay Peninsula as early as the 10th century, but it was during the 15th century that the religion firmly took root at least among the court elites, which saw the rise of several sultanates; the most prominent were the Sultanate of Malacca and the Sultanate of Brunei.The Portuguese were the first European colonial power to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511.This event led to the establishment of several sultanates such as Johor and Perak.", "Dutch hegemony over the Malay sultanates increased during the course of the 17th to 18th century, capturing Malacca in 1641 with the aid of Johor.", "In the 19th century, the English ultimately gained hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia.", "The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (which became Indonesia), and the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and Siam (which became Thailand).", "The fourth phase of foreign influence was a wave of immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs created by the colonial economy in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.The Japanese invasion during World War II ended British rule in Malaya.", "After the Empire of Japan was defeated by the Allies, the Malayan Union was established in 1946 and was reorganized as the Federation of Malaya in 1948.In the Peninsula, the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) took up arms against the British and the tension led to the declaration of emergency rule from 1948 to 1960.A forceful military response to the communist insurgency, followed by the Baling Talks in 1955, led to Malayan Independence on August 31, 1957, through diplomatic negotiation with the British.", "On 16 September 1963, the Federation of Malaysia was formed; in August 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation and became a separate independent country.", "A racial riot in 1969, brought about the imposition of emergency rule, the suspension of parliament and the proclamation of the Rukun Negara, a national philosophy promoting unity among citizens.", "The New Economic Policy (NEP) adopted in 1971 sought to eradicate poverty and restructure society to eliminate the identification of race with economic function.", "Under Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, there was a period of rapid economic growth and urbanization in the country beginning in the 1980s; the previous economic policy was succeeded by the National Development Policy (NDP) from 1991 to 2000.The late 1990s Asian financial crisis impacted the country, nearly causing their currency, stock, and property markets to crash; however, they later recovered.", "Early in 2020, Malaysia underwent a political crisis.", "This period, along with the COVID-19 pandemic caused a political, health, social and economic crisis.", "The 2022 general election resulted in the first-ever hung parliament in the country's history and Anwar Ibrahim became Malaysia's prime minister on November 24, 2022." ], [ "Prehistory", "Niah Caves, in Sarawak, has been identified as the earliest evidence for human settlement in Malaysian Borneo (photo December 1958).The Malay Peninsula, shown in the Ptolemy's map as the Golden KhersoneseStone hand axes from early hominoids, probably Homo erectus, have been unearthed in Lenggong.", "They date back 1.83 million years, one of the oldest pieces of evidence of hominid habitation in Southeast Asia.The earliest evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia is the 40,000-year-old skull excavated from the Niah Caves in today's Sarawak.", "This is also one of the oldest modern human skulls in Southeast Asia.", "The first foragers visited the West Mouth of Niah Caves (located southwest of Miri) 40,000 years ago when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia.", "Mesolithic and Neolithic burial sites have also been found in the area.", "The area around the Niah Caves has been designated the Niah National Park.A study of Asian genetics suggests the original humans in East Asia came from Southeast Asia.", "The oldest complete skeleton found in Malaysia is an 11,000-year-old Perak Man unearthed in 1991.The indigenous groups on the peninsula can be divided into three ethnicities: the Negritos, the Senoi, and the proto-Malays.", "The first inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula were most probably Negritos.", "These Mesolithic hunters were probably the ancestors of the Semang, an ethnic Negrito group.The Senoi appear to be a composite group, with approximately half of the maternal mitochondrial DNA lineages tracing back to the ancestors of the Semang and about half to later ancestral migrations from Indochina.", "Scholars suggest they are descendants of early Austroasiatic-speaking agriculturalists, who brought both their language and their technology to the southern part of the peninsula approximately 4,000 years ago.", "They united and coalesced with the indigenous population.The Proto Malays have a more diverse origin and had settled in Malaysia by 1000 BC as a result of Austronesian expansion.", "Although they show some connections with other inhabitants in Maritime Southeast Asia, some also have an ancestry in Indochina around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum about 20,000 years ago.", "Areas comprising what is now Malaysia participated in the Maritime Jade Road.", "The trading network existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BC to 1000 AD.The Klang Bell, dated 200 BC–200 AD Anthropologists support the notion that the Proto-Malays originated from what is today Yunnan, China.A history of Malaya and her neighbours – Page 21 – by Francis Joseph Moorhead, published by Longmans of Malaysia, 1965India and ancient Malaya (from the earliest times to circa A.D. 1400) – Page 3 – by D. Devahuti, Published by D. Moore for Eastern Universities Press, 1965The making of modern Malaya: a history from earliest times to independence – Page 5 – by N. J. Ryan, Oxford University Press, 1965The cultural heritage of Malaya – Page 2 – by N. J. Ryan published by Longman Malaysia, 1971A history of Malaysia and Singapore – Page 5 – by N. J. Ryan published by Oxford University Press, 1976\"How the dominoes fell\": Southeast Asia in perspective – Page 7 – by Mae H. Esterline, Hamilton Press, 1986A design guide of public parks in Malaysia – Page 38 – by Jamil Abu Bakar published by Penerbit UTM, 2002, , An introduction to the Malaysian legal system – Page 1 – by Min Aun Wu, Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1975A short history of Malaysia – Page 22 – by Harry Miller published by F.A.", "Praeger, 1966Malaya and its history – Page 14 – by Sir Richard Olaf Winstedt published by Hutchinson University Library, 1962Southeast Asia, past & present – Page 10 – by D. R. SarDesai published by Westview Press, 1994Malaya – Page 17 – by Norton Sydney Ginsburg, Chester F. Roberts published by University of Washington Press, 1958Asia: a social study – Page 43 – by David Tulloch published by Angus and Robertson, 1969Area handbook on Malaya University of Chicago, Chester F. Roberts, Bettyann Carner published by University of Chicago for the Human Relations Area Files, 1955Thailand into the 80's – Page 12 – by Samnak Nāyok Ratthamontrī published by the Office of the Prime Minister, Kingdom of Thailand, 1979Man in Malaya – Page 22 – by B. W. Hodder published by Greenwood Press, 1973The modern anthropology of South-East Asia: an introduction, Volume 1 of The modern anthropology of South-East Asia, RoutledgeCurzon Research on Southeast Asia Series – Page 54 – by Victor T. King, William D. Wilder published by Routledge, 2003, , Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society – Page 17 – by Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.", "Malaysian Branch, Singapore, 1936Malay and Indonesian leadership in perspective – Page 9 – by Ahmad Kamar 1984The Malay peoples of Malaysia and their languages – Page 36 – by Asmah Haji Omar published by Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 1983Encyclopedia of world cultures Volume 5 – Page 174 – by David Levinson – History – 1993 published by G.K. Hall, 1993Indigenous peoples of Asia – Page 274 – by Robert Harrison Barnes, Andrew Gray, Benedict Kingsbury published by the Association for Asian Studies, 1995Peoples of the Earth: Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia edited by Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard published by Danbury Press, 1973American anthropologist Vol 60 – Page 1228 – by American Anthropological Association, Anthropological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C.), American Ethnological Society, 1958Encyclopaedia of Southeast Asia (set of 5 Vols.)", "– Page 4 – by Brajendra Kumar published by Akansha Publishing House, 2006, , This was followed by an early-Holocene dispersal through the Malay Peninsula into the Malay Archipelago.", "Around 300 BC, they were pushed inland by the Deutero-Malays, an Iron Age or Bronze Age people descended partly from the Chams of Cambodia and Vietnam.", "The first group in the peninsula to use metal tools, the Deutero-Malays were the direct ancestors of today's Malaysian Malays and brought with them advanced farming techniques.", "The Malays remained politically fragmented throughout the Malay archipelago, although a common culture and social structure were shared." ], [ "Early Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms", "Historic Indosphere cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of religion, music, arts, and cuisineIn the first millennium AD, Malay became the dominant ethnicity on the peninsula.", "The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia.", "Indian influence in the region dates back to at least the 3rd century BC.", "South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the South Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th centuries.===Trade with India and China===In ancient Indian literature, the term ''Suvarnadvipa'' (''Golden Peninsula)'' is used in the ''Ramayana''; some argue that this is a reference to the Malay Peninsula.", "The ancient Indian text ''Vayu Purana'' also mentions a place named ''Malayadvipa''; this term may refer to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.", "The Malay Peninsula was shown on Ptolemy's map as the ''Golden Chersonese''.Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC.", "Shards of Chinese pottery have been found in Borneo dating from the 1st century following the southward expansion of the Han Dynasty.", "In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia.", "The Sanskrit writing system was used as early as the 4th century.=== Early kingdoms (3rd–7th centuries) ===The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating to the 4th–5th century AD, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant, Buddha Gupta.", "Found in Seberang Perai and kept in the National Museum, Calcutta, India.There were numerous Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, as many as 30, mainly based on the eastern side of the Malay peninsula.", "Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based in the Malay Peninsula is the ancient kingdom of Langkasuka, located in the northern Malay Peninsula and based somewhere on the west coast.", "It was closely tied to Funan in Cambodia, which also ruled parts of northern Malaysia until the 6th century.", "In the 5th century, the Kingdom of Pahang was mentioned in the ''Book of Song''.", "Besides this, Chi Tu and Pan Pan were old polities believed to be located in the northeast of the peninsula.====Gangga Negara====Gangga Negara is believed to be a semi-legendary Hindu kingdom mentioned in the ''Malay Annals'' that covered present-day Beruas, Dinding and Manjung in the state of Perak, Malaysia with Raja Gangga Shah Johan as one of its kings.", "According to the legendary ''Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa'', Gangga Negara was founded by Merong Mahawangsa's son Raja Ganji Sarjuna of Kedah, allegedly a descendant of Alexander the Great or by the Khmer royalties no later than the 2nd century.==== Old Kedah ====Built in the 6th century AD, Candi Bukit Batu Pahat is the most well-known ancient Hindu temple found in Bujang Valley.Ptolemy, a Greek geographer, had written about the Golden Chersonese, which indicated that trade with India and China had existed since the 1st century AD.", "During this time, coastal city-states that existed had a network which encompassed the southern part of the Indochinese peninsula and the western part of the Malay archipelago.", "These coastal cities had ongoing trade as well as tributary relations with China, at the same time being in constant contact with Indian traders.", "They seem to have shared a common indigenous culture.Gradually, the rulers of the western part of the archipelago adopted Indian cultural and political models.", "Three inscriptions found in Palembang (South Sumatra) and on Bangka Island, written in the form of Malay and in alphabets derived from the Pallava script, are proof that the archipelago had adopted Indian models while maintaining their indigenous language and social system.", "These inscriptions reveal the existence of a ''Dapunta Hyang'' (lord) of Srivijaya who led an expedition against his enemies and who curses those who does not obey his law.Being on the maritime trade route between China and South India, the Malay peninsula was involved in this trade.", "The Bujang Valley, being strategically located at the northwest entrance of the Strait of Malacca as well as facing the Bay of Bengal, was continuously frequented by Chinese and south Indian traders.", "Such was proven by the discovery of trade ceramics, sculptures, inscriptions and monuments dated from the 5th to 14th century.=== Srivijaya (7th–13th century) ===Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the Malay peninsula was under the Buddhist Srivijaya empire.", "The site Prasasti Hujung Langit, which sat at the centre of Srivijaya's empire, is thought to be at a river mouth in eastern Sumatra, based near what is now Palembang, Indonesia.", "In the 7th century, a new port called ''Shilifoshi'' is mentioned, believed to be a Chinese rendering of Srivijaya.", "For over six centuries the Maharajahs of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the archipelago.", "The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community leaders) that swore allegiance to a lord for mutual profit.", "In 1025, the Chola dynasty captured Palembang, the king and all members of his family, including courtiers had all their wealth taken away; by the end of the 12th century Srivijaya had been reduced to a kingdom, with the last ruler in 1288, Queen Sekerummong, who had been conquered and overthrown.", "Majapahit, a subordinate to Srivijaya, soon dominated the regional political scene.==== Relations with the Chola empire ====Bronze Avalokiteshvara statue found in Perak, 8th–9th centuryThe relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire invaded Srivijaya cities (see Chola invasion of Srivijaya).", "In 1025 and 1026, Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire, the Tamil emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to waste.", "Kedah (known as ''Kadaram'' in Tamil) was invaded by the Cholas in 1025.A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century.", "The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders.", "The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of Srivijaya, which had exerted influence over Kedah, Pattani and as far as Ligor.", "During the reign of Kulothunga Chola I, Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya province Kedah in the late 11th century.", "The expedition of the Chola Emperors had such a great impression on the Malay people of the medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya.", "Even today, the Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan.Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century AD, describes goods from Kedaram heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital.", "The Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after.", "Its king Chandrabhanu used it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and the Sri Lankan chronicles, ''Mahavamsa''.====Decline and breakup====At times, the Khmer Kingdom, the Siamese Kingdom, and even Cholas Kingdom tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states.", "The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th century as the relationship between the capital and its vassals broke down.", "Wars with the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and wars with Indian states are also suspected.", "In the 11th century, the centre of power shifted to Malayu, a port possibly located further up the Sumatran coast near the Jambi River.", "The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by the spread of Islam.", "Areas which were converted to Islam early, such as Aceh, broke away from Srivijaya's control.", "By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of Sukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule.", "In the 14th century, the Hindu Majapahit Empire came into possession of the peninsula.An excavation by Tom Harrisson in 1949 unearthed a series of Chinese ceramics at Santubong (near Kuching) that date to the Tang and Song dynasties.", "It is possible that Santubong was an important seaport in Sarawak during the period, but its importance declined during the Yuan dynasty, and the port was deserted during the Ming dynasty.According to the ''Malay Annals'', a new ruler named Sang Sapurba was promoted as the new paramount of the Srivijayan mandala.", "It was said that after he acceded to Seguntang Hill with his two younger brothers, Sang Sapurba entered into a sacred covenant with Demang Lebar Daun, the native ruler of Palembang.", "The newly installed sovereign afterwards descended from the hill of Seguntang into the great plain of the Musi River, where he married Wan Sendari, the daughter of the local chief, Demang Lebar Daun.", "Sang Sapurba was said to have reigned in Minangkabau lands.In 1324, a Srivijaya prince, Sang Nila Utama founded the Kingdom of Singapura (Temasek).", "According to tradition, he was related to Sang Sapurba.", "He maintained control over Temasek for 48 years.", "He was recognized as ruler over Temasek by an envoy of the Chinese Emperor sometime around 1366.He was succeeded by his son Paduka Sri Pekerma Wira Diraja (1372–1386) and grandson, Paduka Seri Rana Wira Kerma (1386–1399).", "In 1401, the last ruler, Paduka Sri Maharaja Parameswara, was expelled from Temasek by forces from Majapahit or Ayutthaya.", "He later headed north and founded the Sultanate of Malacca in 1402.The Sultanate of Malacca succeeded the Srivijaya Empire as a Malay political entity in the archipelago." ], [ "Rise of Muslim states", "Jawi.", "The stone monument is found in Terengganu.Islam came to the Malay Archipelago through the Arab and Indian traders in the 13th century, ending the age of Hinduism and Buddhism.", "It arrived in the region gradually and became the religion of the elite before it spread to the commoners.", "The syncretic form of Islam in Malaysia was influenced by previous religions and was originally not orthodox.===Malaccan Sultanate=======Establishment====The port of Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula was founded in 1400 by Parameswara, a Srivijayan prince fleeing Temasek (now Singapore).", "Parameswara sailed to Temasek to escape persecution.", "There he came under the protection of Temagi, a Malay chief from Patani who was appointed by the king of Siam as regent of Temasek.", "Within a few days, Parameswara killed Temagi and appointed himself regent.", "Some five years later he had to leave Temasek, due to threats from Siam.", "During this period, a Javanese fleet from Majapahit attacked Temasek.Parameswara headed north to find a new settlement, reaching a fishing village at the mouth of the Bertam River (former name of the Melaka River) where he founded what would become the Malacca Sultanate.", "Over time this developed into modern-day Malacca Town.", "According to the ''Malay Annals'', here Parameswara saw a mouse deer outwitting a dog resting under a Malacca tree.", "Taking this as a good omen, he decided to establish a kingdom called Malacca.", "He built and improved facilities for trade.", "The Malacca Sultanate is commonly considered the first independent state in the peninsula.The Zheng He monument, today, marks his stopover at the city.In 1404, the first official Chinese trade envoy led by Admiral Yin Qing arrived in Malacca.", "Later, Parameswara was escorted by Zheng He and other envoys on his successful visits.", "Malacca's relationships with Ming granted protection to Malacca against attacks from Siam and Majapahit and Malacca officially submitted as a protectorate of Ming China.", "This encouraged the development of Malacca into a major trade settlement on the trade route between China and India, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.", "To prevent the Malaccan empire from falling to the Siamese and Majapahit, he forged a relationship with Ming China for protection.", "Following the establishment of this relationship, the prosperity of the Malacca entrepôt was then recorded by the first Chinese visitor, Ma Huan, who travelled together with Admiral Zheng He.", "In Malacca during the early 15th century, Ming China actively sought to develop a commercial hub and a base of operation for their treasure voyages into the Indian Ocean.", "Malacca had been a relatively insignificant region, not even qualifying as a polity prior to the voyages according to both Ma Huan and Fei Xin, and was a vassal region of Siam.", "In 1405, the Ming court dispatched Admiral Zheng He with a stone tablet enfeoffing the Western Mountain of Malacca as well as an imperial order elevating the status of the port to a country.", "The Chinese also established a government depot (官廠) as a fortified cantonment for their soldiers.", "Ma Huan reported that Siam did not dare to invade Malacca thereafter.", "The rulers of Malacca, such as Parameswara in 1411, would pay tribute to the Chinese emperor in person.The emperor of Ming China was sending out fleets of ships to expand trade.", "Admiral Zheng He called at Malacca and brought Parameswara with him on his return to China, a recognition of his position as ruler of Malacca.", "In exchange for regular tribute, the Chinese emperor offered Melaka protection from the constant threat of a Siamese attack.", "Because of its strategic location, Malacca was an important stopping point for Zheng He's fleet.", "Due to Chinese involvement, Malacca had grown as a key alternative to other important and established ports.", "The Chinese and Indians who settled in the Malay Peninsula before and during this period are the ancestors of today's Baba-Nyonya and Chitty communities.", "According to one theory, Parameswara became a Muslim when he married a Princess of Pasai and he took the fashionable Persian title \"Shah\", calling himself Iskandar Shah.", "In 1414, Parameswara's son was then officially recognised as the second ruler of Melaka by the Chinese Emperor and styled Raja Sri Rama Vikrama, Raja of Parameswara of Temasek and Malacca and he was known to his Muslim subjects as Sultan Sri Iskandar Zulkarnain Shah (Megat Iskandar Shah).", "He ruled Malacca from 1414 to 1424.Through the influence of Indian Muslims and, to a lesser extent, Hui people from China, Islam became increasingly common during the 15th century.==== Rise of Malacca ====Malaccan Empire in the 15th century became the main point for the spreading of Islam in the Malay Archipelago.After an initial period paying tribute to the Ayutthaya, the kingdom rapidly assumed the place previously held by Srivijaya, establishing independent relations with China, and exploiting its position dominating the Straits to control the China-India maritime trade, which became increasingly important when the Mongol conquests closed the overland route between China and the west.Within a few years of its establishment, Malacca officially adopted Islam.", "Parameswara became a Muslim, and because Malacca was under a Muslim prince, the conversion of Malays to Islam accelerated in the 15th century.", "The political power of the Malacca Sultanate helped Islam's rapid spread through the archipelago.", "By the start of the 16th century, with the Malacca Sultanate in the Malay peninsula and parts of Sumatra, the Demak Sultanate in Java, and other kingdoms around the Malay archipelago increasingly converting to Islam, it had become the dominant religion among Malays, and reached as far as the modern-day Philippines, leaving Bali as an isolated outpost of Hinduism today.", "The government in Malacca was based on the feudal system.Malacca's reign lasted little more than a century, but during this time became the established centre of Malay culture.", "Most future Malay states originated from this period.", "Malacca became a cultural centre, creating the matrix of the modern Malay culture: a blend of indigenous Malay and imported Indian, Chinese and Islamic elements.", "Malacca's fashions in literature, art, music, dance and dress, and the ornate titles of its royal court, came to be seen as the standard for all ethnic Malays.", "The court of Malacca also gave great prestige to the Malay language, which had originally evolved in Sumatra and been brought to Malacca at the time of its foundation.", "In time Malay came to be the official language of all the Malaysian states, although local languages survived in many places.", "After the fall of Malacca, the Sultanate of Brunei became the major centre of Islam.=== Post-Malaccan sultanates ===16th century Portuguese sketch of Malacca.From the 15th century onwards, the Portuguese started seeking a maritime route towards Asia.", "In 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque led an expedition to Malaya which seized Malacca with the intent of using it as a base for activities in Southeast Asia.", "This was the first colonial claim on what is now Malaysia.", "The son of the last Sultan of Malacca, Alauddin Riayat Shah II fled to the southern tip of the peninsula, where he founded a state that which became the Sultanate of Johor in 1528.Another son established the Perak Sultanate to the north.", "Portuguese influence was strong, as they aggressively tried to convert the population of Malacca to Catholicism.", "In 1571, the Spanish captured Manila and established a colony in the Philippines, reducing the Sultanate of Brunei's power.After the fall of Malacca to Portugal, the Johor Sultanate on the southern Malay peninsula and the Sultanate of Aceh on northern Sumatra moved to fill the power vacuum left behind.", "The three powers struggled to dominate the Malay peninsula and the surrounding islands.", "Meanwhile, the importance of the Strait of Malacca as an east–west shipping route was growing, while the islands of Southeast Asia were themselves prized sources of natural resources (metals, spices, etc.)", "whose inhabitants were being further drawn into the global economy.In 1607, the Sultanate of Aceh rose as the most powerful and wealthiest state in the Malay archipelago.", "Under Sultan Iskandar Muda's reign, the sultanate's control was extended over a number of Malay states.", "During the Battle of Duyon River, Iskandar Muda's disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed to destroy all the ships of his formidable fleet and 19,000 troops according to a Portuguese account.The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the Dutch–Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control of MalaccaIn the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company (''Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie'', or VOC) was established.", "Backed by the Dutch, Johor established a loose hegemony over the Malay states, except Perak, which was able to play-off Johor against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence.", "The Dutch did not interfere in local matters in Malacca, but at the same time diverted most trade to its colonies on Java.==== Johor Sultanate ====At its height, the sultanate controlled modern-day Johor, several territories by the Klang and Linggi rivers, Singapore, Bintan, Riau, Lingga, Karimun, Bengkalis, Kampar and Siak in Sumatra.", "The Portuguese and Johor were frequently in conflict in the 16th century, most notably in the 1587 siege of Johor.", "During the Triangular war, Aceh launched multiple raids against both Johor and Portuguese forces to tighten its grip over the straits.", "The rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a short-lived truce.", "During the rule of Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615.In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia.", "At that time the Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor.", "Two treaties were signed between Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge and Raja Bongsu of Johor in 1606.The combined Johor-Dutch forces ultimately failed to capture Malacca in 1606.Finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Malacca.", "The Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with Johor.", "By the time the fortress at Malacca surrendered, the town's population had already been greatly decimated by famine and disease.With the fall of Portuguese Malacca in 1641 and the decline of Aceh due to the growing power of the Dutch, Johor started to re-establish itself as a power along the Straits of Malacca during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III (1623–1677).", "Jambi emerged as a regional economic and political power in Sumatra.", "Initially there was an attempt of an alliance between Johor and Jambi by way of a promised marriage.", "However, the alliance broke down and the Johor-Jambi war (1666–1679) ensued.", "After the sacking of Batu Sawar by Jambi in 1673, the capital of Johor was frequently moved to avoid the threat of attack.", "The sultan escaped to Pahang and died four years later.", "His successor, Sultan Ibrahim Shah (1677–1685), then engaged the help of the Bugis in the fight to defeat Jambi.", "Johor would eventually prevail in 1679, but also ended in a weakened position as the Bugis refused to return to Makassar where they came from.", "On top of this, the Minangkabaus of Sumatra also started to assert their influence.Johor-Dutch battle in the 1780sIn the 1690s the Bugis, who played an important role in defeating Jambi two decades earlier, had a major political influence in Johor.", "Both the Bugis and the Minangkabau realised how the death of Sultan Mahmud II in 1699 caused a power vacuum and allowed them to exert their power in Johor.", "The Minangkabau introduced a Minangkabau prince, Raja Kecil from Siak who claimed he was the posthumous son of Mahmud II.", "With the help of the Orang Laut, Raja Kecil then captured Riau in 1718, the then capital of the Johor Sultanate and installed himself as the new Johor Sultan, Jalil Rahmat Shah, without the knowledge of the Bugis.", "Raja Sulaiman of Johor dethroned Raja Kechil with help from the Bugis Daeng Parani and reclaimed the throne as Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah (1722–1760), but he was a weak ruler and became a puppet of the Bugis.", "During the reign of Sultan Mahmud Shah III, the mid-to-late 18th century saw the Bugis attempting to expand their influence in the region.", "This brought them into conflicts with the Dutch, which resulted in a final major battle in 1784 between the two, which ended Bugis and Johor dominance in the region.==== Perak Sultanate ====Based on the Perak Royal Genealogy (\"''Salasilah Raja-Raja Perak\"''), the Perak Sultanate was formed in the early 16th century on the banks of the Perak River by the eldest son of Malaccan Sultan Mahmud Shah.", "He ascended to the throne as Muzaffar Shah I (1528–1549), first sultan of Perak, after surviving the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511 and living quietly for a period in Siak.", "He became sultan through the efforts of Tun Saban, a local leader and trader between Perak and Klang.", "There had been no sultans in Perak when Tun Saban first arrived in the area from Kampar in Sumatra.", "Most of the area's residents were traders from Malacca, Selangor and Sumatra.", "Perak's administration became more organised after the Sultanate was established.", "With the opening up of Perak in the 16th century, the state became a source of tin ore.", "It appears that anyone was free to trade in the commodity, although the tin trade did not attract significant attention until the 1610s.Sultanate of Aceh's influence in Perak, Kedah, Pahang, and Terengganu on the Malay Peninsula, Throughout the early 17th century, the Sultanate of Aceh subjected most parts of the Malay Peninsula to continual harassment.", "Although Perak did fall under the authority of Aceh, it remained entirely independent of Siamese control for over 200 years from 1612, in contrast with its neighbour, Kedah, and other northern Malay sultanates.When the last Perak sultan of direct Malaccan lineage, Sallehuddin Riayat Shah died without an heir in 1635, a state of uncertainty prevailed in Perak.", "This was exacerbated by a deadly cholera epidemic.", "Perak chieftains were left with no alternative but to turn to Iskandar Thani of Aceh, who sent his relative, Raja Sulong, to become the new Perak Sultan, Muzaffar Shah II (1636–1653).Aceh's influence on Perak began to wane when the Dutch East India Company (VOC) arrived, in the mid-17th century.", "When Perak refused to enter into a contract with the VOC as its northern neighbours had done, a blockade of the Perak River halted the tin trade, causing suffering among Aceh's merchants.", "In 1650, Aceh's Sultana Taj ul-Alam ordered Perak to sign an agreement with the VOC, on condition that the tin trade would be conducted exclusively with Aceh's merchants.", "By the following year, the VOC had secured a monopoly over the tin trade, setting up a store in Perak.", "Following the long competition between Aceh and the VOC over Perak's tin trade, on 15 December 1653, the two parties jointly signed a treaty with Perak granting the Dutch exclusive rights to tin extracted from mines located in the state.In 1699, when Johor lost its last sultan of Malaccan lineage, Sultan Mahmud Shah II, Perak now had the sole claim of being the final heir of the old Sultanate of Malacca.", "However, Perak could not match the prestige and power of either the Malaccan or Johor Sultanates.", "Perak endured 40 years of civil war in the early 18th century, where rival princes were bolstered by local chiefs, the Bugis and Minang, all fighting for a share of tin revenues.", "The Bugis and several Perak chiefs were successful in ousting the Perak ruler, Sultan Muzaffar Riayat Shah III in 1743.In 1747, he only held power in north Perak and signed a treaty with the Dutch Commissioner Ary Verbrugge, under which Perak's ruler recognised Dutch monopoly over the tin trade and agreed to sell all the tin ore to Dutch traders.==== Pahang Sultanate ====The Old Pahang Sultanate centred in modern-day Pekan was established in the 15th century.", "At the height of its influence, the sultanate controlled the entire Pahang basin.", "The sultanate had its origins as a vassal to the Malaccan Sultanate.", "Its first sultan was a Malaccan prince, Muhammad Shah (1455–1475), himself the grandson of Dewa Sura, the last pre-Malaccan ruler of Pahang.", "Over the years, Pahang grew independent from Malaccan control and at one point even established itself as a rival state to Malacca until the latter's demise in 1511.In 1528, when the last Malaccan sultan died, the sultan at the time, Mahmud Shah I (c. 1519–1530) joined forces with the Sultan of Johor, Alauddin Riayat Shah II, and began to expel the Portuguese from the Malay Peninsula.", "Two attempts were made in 1547 at Muar and in 1551 at Portuguese Malacca.", "However, in the face of superior Portuguese arms and vessels, the Pahang and Johor forces were forced to retreat on both occasions.Photo of Sultan Ahmad Muʽazzam and his courtiers.", "Many years after the precolonial period.", "c. 1900.During the reign of Sultan Abdul Kadir (1560–1590), Pahang enjoyed a brief period of cordial relations with the Portuguese in the second half of the 16th century.", "However, in 1607, following a visit by Admiral Matelief de Jonge of the Dutch Empire, Pahang cooperated with them in an attempt to get rid of the Portuguese.", "There was an attempt to establish a Johor-Pahang alliance to assist the Dutch.", "However, a quarrel erupted between Sultan Abdul Ghafur of Pahang (1592–1614) and Alauddin Riayat Shah III of Johor (1597–1615).", "This resulted in Johor declaring war on Pahang in 1612; with the aid of Sultan Abdul Jalilul Akbar of Brunei, Pahang eventually defeated Johor in 1613.In 1615, the Acehnese Iskandar Muda invaded Pahang, forcing Alauddin Riayat Shah to retreat into the interior of Pahang.", "He nevertheless continued to exercise some ruling powers.", "His reign in exile is considered to have officially ended after the installation of a distant Johorean relative, Raja Bujang (Abdul Jalil Shah III) to the Pahang throne in 1615 with the support of the Portuguese.", "However, he was eventually deposed in the Acehnese invasion of 1617, but restored to the Pahang throne and also installed as the new Sultan of Johor following the death of his uncle, Sultan Abdullah Ma'ayat Shah in 1623.This event led to the union of the crown of Pahang and Johor, and the formal establishment of Pahang-ruled Johor.==== Selangor Sultanate ====During the 17th century Johor-Jambi war, Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III (r. 1623–1677) of Johor engaged the help of Bugis mercenaries from Sulawesi to fight against Jambi.", "After Johor won in 1679, the Bugis decided to stay and asserted their power in the region.", "Many Bugis began to migrate and settle along the coast of Selangor such as the estuaries of the Selangor and Klang rivers.", "Some Minangkabaus may have also settled in Selangor by the 17th century, perhaps earlier.", "The Bugis and the Minangkabaus from Sumatra struggled for control of Johor.", "Raja Kecil, backed by the Minangkabaus, invaded Selangor but were driven off by the Bugis in 1742.To establish a power base, the Bugis led by Raja Salehuddin (1705–1788) founded the present hereditary Selangor Sultanate with its capital at Kuala Selangor in 1766.Selangor is unique as its the only state on the Malay Peninsula that was founded by the Bugis.===Brunei Sultanate===Before its conversion to Islam, the oldest records of Brunei in Arabic sources defined it as \"Sribuza\" which was a Bornean Vassal-State to Srivijaya.", "The Arabic author Ya'qubi writing in the 9th century recorded that the kingdom of Musa (probably referring to Brunei) was in alliance with the kingdom of Mayd (either Ma-i or Madja-as in the Philippines), against the Tang dynasty.One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo was the 977 letter to the Song dynasty emperor from the ruler of Boni (Brunei).", "The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war.", "In 1225, the Chinese official Zhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom.", "In the 14th century, a Chinese annal (''Yuan Dade'' ''Nanhai zhi'') reported that Boni invaded or administered Sabah, some parts of Sarawak and ruled the kingdoms of Butuan, Sulu and Mayd, as well as Malilu and Wenduling in present-day Manila and Mindanao, at northern and southern Philippines, respectively.", "Later, the Sulu kingdom invaded and occupied ports in Boni-ruled Sabah.", "They were later evicted with the help of the Majapahit Empire, which Brunei became a vassal to in the late 14th century.", "Nevertheless the Sulus stole 2 Sacred Pearls from the Brunei king.By the 15th century, the empire became a Muslim state, when the king of Brunei converted to Islam, brought Muslim Indians and Arab merchants from other parts of Maritime Southeast Asia, who came to trade and spread Islam.", "During the rule of Bolkiah (1485–1524) the empire controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached the Philippines at Seludong (present-day Manila), the Sulu Archipelago and some parts of Mindanao which Brunei had incorporated via royal intermarriage with the rulers of Sulu, Manila and Maguindanao.==== 16th–18th century ====A view of a river from the anchorage off Sarawak, Borneo, .", "Painting from the National Maritime Museum of London.In the 16th century, the Brunei empire's influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan.", "Other sultanates in the area had close relations with the Brunei Monarchy, being in some cases effectively under the hegemony of the Brunei ruling family for periods of time, such as the Malay sultans of Pontianak, Samarinda and Banjarmasin.", "The Malay Sultanate of Sambas (present-day West Kalimantan), the Sultanate of Sulu and the Muslim Rajahs of precolonial Manila had developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei.", "The Sultanate of Sarawak (covering present day Kuching, known to the Portuguese cartographers as ''Cerava,'' and one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo), though under the influence of Brunei, was self-governed under Sultan Tengah before being fully integrated into the Bruneian Empire upon sultan Tengah's death in 1641.The Bruneian empire began to decline during the arrival of western powers.", "Spain sent several expeditions from Mexico to invade and colonise Brunei's territories in the Philippines.", "Eventually the Spanish, their Visayan allies and their Latin-American recruits assaulted Brunei itself during the Castilian War.", "Though there were rapes, sacks and pillaging, the invasion was only temporary as the Spanish retreated.", "Brunei was unable to regain the territory it lost in the Philippines, yet it still maintained sway in Borneo.==== 19th century ====By the early 19th century, Sarawak had become a loosely governed territory under the control of the Brunei Sultanate.", "Brunei only had authority along the coastal regions of Sarawak where it was held by semi-independent Malay leaders.", "Meanwhile, the interior of Sarawak suffered from tribal wars fought by Iban, Kayan, and Kenyah peoples, who aggressively fought to expand their territories.Following the discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region, Pangeran Indera Mahkota (a representative of the Sultan of Brunei) began to develop the territory between 1824 and 1830.When antimony production increased, the Brunei Sultanate demanded higher taxes from Sarawak, which led to civil unrest and chaos.", "In 1839, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852), ordered his uncle the Pengiran Muda Hashim to restore order.", "It was around this time that James Brooke arrived in Sarawak, and Pengiran Muda Hashim requested his assistance in the matter, but Brooke refused.", "However, he agreed to a further request during his next visit to Sarawak in 1840.On 24 September 1841, Pengiran Muda Hashim agreed to depose Pangeran Indera Mahkota and bestow the title of governor on James Brooke.", "This appointment was later confirmed by the Sultan of Brunei in 1842." ], [ "Struggles for hegemony", "The weakness of the small coastal Malay states led to the immigration of the Bugis, escaping from Dutch colonisation of Sulawesi, who established numerous settlements on the peninsula which they used to interfere with Dutch trade.", "They seized control of Johor following the assassination of the last Sultan of the old Melaka royal line in 1699.Bugis expanded their power in the states of Johor, Kedah, Perak, and Selangor.", "The Minangkabau from central Sumatra migrated into Malaya, and eventually established their own state in Negeri Sembilan.", "The fall of Johor left a power vacuum on the Malay Peninsula which was partly filled by the Siamese kings of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, who made the five northern Malay states—Kedah, Kelantan, Patani, Perlis, and Terengganu—their vassals.The economic importance of Malaya to Europe grew rapidly during the 18th century.", "The fast-growing tea trade between China and United Kingdom increased the demand for high-quality Malayan tin, which was used to line tea-chests.", "Malayan pepper also had a high reputation in Europe, while Kelantan and Pahang had gold mines.", "The growth of tin and gold mining and associated service industries led to the first influx of foreign settlers into the Malay world – initially Arabs and Indians, later Chinese.===Siamese expansion into Malaya===After the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Northern Malay Sultanates were freed from Siamese domination temporarily.", "In 1786, British trader Francis Light managed to obtain a lease of Penang Island from Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah II of Kedah on behalf of East India Company.", "Siam re-exerted control over Northern Malay Sultanates and sacked Pattani; Kedah came under Siamese suzerainty.", "King Rama II of Siam ordered Noi Na Nagara of Ligor to invade Kedah Sultanate in 1821.Under the Burney Treaty of 1826, the exiled Kedah Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin was not restored to his throne.", "He and his armed supporters then fought in a series of war known as Perang Musuh Bisik for his restoration over twelve years (1830–1842).", "When the Siamese army invaded and occupied Kedah between 1821 and 1842, local Arab families supported the Sultan's efforts to lead resistance.", "In 1842, Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin finally agreed to accept Siamese terms and was restored to his throne of Kedah.", "The following year, Syed Hussein Jamalullail was installed by the Siamese as the first Raja of Perlis, after the Sultan of Kedah gave his endorsement for the formation of Perlis, Siam separated Perlis into a separate principality directly vassal to Bangkok.Around 1760, Long Yunus, an aristocratic warlord of Patani origin succeeded in unifying the territory of present-day Kelantan and was succeeded in 1795 by his son-in-law, Tengku Muhammad by Sultan Mansur of Terengganu.", "The enthronement of Tengku Muhammad by a noble from Terengganu was opposed by Long Yunus' sons, thus triggering a war against Terengganu by Long Muhammad, the eldest son of Long Yunus.", "The pro-Terengganu faction was defeated in 1800 and Long Muhammad ruled Kelantan with the new title of sultan as Sultan Muhammad I.Terengganu experienced stability under the reign of Sultan Omar Riayat Shah, who was remembered as a devout ruler who promoted trade and stable government.", "Under Thai rule, Terengganu prospered, and was largely left alone by the authorities in Bangkok.", "However, in the Burney Treaty of 1826, the treaty acknowledged Siamese claims over several northern Malay states Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, Terengganu—the future Unfederated Malay States—and Patani.", "The treaty further guaranteed British possession of Penang and their rights to trade in Kelantan and Terengganu without Siamese interference.", "However, the five Malay-ethnic states were not represented in the treaty negotiation.", "In 1909 the parties of the agreement signed a new treaty that superseded the Burney Treaty and transferred four of the five Malay states from Siamese to British control, except for Patani.", "As Patani was not included in the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 and remained under Siamese rule, this led Patani to be excluded from the Federation of Malaya in 1957.===British influence===Statue of Francis Light in the Fort Cornwallis of Penang, marking the start of British rule in the Malay ArchipelagoBefore the mid-19th-century British interests in the region were predominantly economic, with little interest in territorial control.", "Already the strongest European power in India, the British were looking towards southeast Asia for new territories.", "The growth of the China trade in British ships increased the East India Company's desire for bases in the region.", "Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent acquisition was Penang, leased from the Sultan of Kedah in 1786.This was followed soon after by the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known as Province Wellesley).", "In 1795, during the Napoleonic Wars, the British with the consent of the French-occupied Netherlands occupied Dutch Melaka to forestall possible French encroachment.When Malacca was handed back to the Dutch in 1818, the British governor, Stamford Raffles, looked for an alternative base, and in 1819 he acquired Singapore from the Sultan of Johor.", "The exchange of the British colony of Bencoolen for Malacca with the Dutch left the British as the sole colonial power on the peninsula.", "The territories of the British were set up as free ports, attempting to break the monopoly held by the Dutch and French at the time, and making them large bases of trade.", "They allowed Britain to control all trade through the straits of Malacca.", "British influence was increased by Malayan fears of Siamese expansionism, to which Britain made a useful counterweight.", "During the 19th century the Malay Sultans aligned themselves with the British Empire, due to the benefits of associations with the British and their fear of Siamese or Burmese incursions.In 1824, British control in Malaya (before the name Malaysia) was formalised by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty, which divided the Malay archipelago between Britain and the Netherlands.", "The Dutch evacuated Melaka and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule over the rest of the East Indies.", "By 1846 the British controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements, administered first under the East India Company until 1867, when they were transferred to the Colonial Office in London." ], [ "Colonial era", "===British in Malaya===Initially, the British followed a policy of non-intervention in relations between the Malay states.", "The commercial importance of tin mining in the Malay states to merchants in the Straits Settlements led to infighting between the aristocracy on the peninsula.", "The destabilisation of these states damaged the commerce in the area.", "The wealth of Perak's tin mines made political stability there a priority for British investors, and Perak was thus the first Malay state to agree to the supervision of a British resident.", "The Royal Navy was employed to bring about a peaceful resolution to civil disturbances caused by Chinese and Malay gangs employed in a political fight between Ngah Ibrahim and Raja Muda Abdullah.", "The Pangkor Treaty of 1874 paved the way for the expansion of British influence in Malaya.", "The British concluded treaties with some Malay states, installing residents who advised the Sultans and soon became the de facto rulers of their states.", "These advisors held power in everything except to do with Malay religion and customs.Johor was the sole remaining state to maintain its independence, by modernising and giving British and Chinese investors legal protection.", "By the turn of the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Malay States, had British advisors.", "In 1909 the Siamese kingdom was compelled to cede Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu, which already had British advisors, over to the British.", "Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor and Queen Victoria were personal acquaintances who recognised each other as equals.", "It was not until 1914 that Sultan Abu Bakar's successor, Sultan Ibrahim, accepted a British adviser.", "The four previously Thai states and Johor were known as the Unfederated Malay States.", "The states under the most direct British control developed rapidly, becoming the largest suppliers in the world of first tin, then rubber.By 1910, the pattern of British rule in the Malay lands was established.", "The Straits Settlements were a Crown colony, ruled by a governor under the supervision of the Colonial Office in London.", "Their population was about roughly 50% Chinese-Malaysian, but all residents, regardless of race, were British subjects.", "The first four states to accept British residents, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang, were termed the Federated Malay States: while technically independent, they were placed under a Resident-General in 1895.The Unfederated Malay States (Johore, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, and Terengganu) had a slightly larger degree of independence.", "Johor, as Britain's closest ally in Malay affairs, had the privilege of a written constitution, which gave the Sultan the right to appoint his own Cabinet, but he was generally careful to consult the British first.===British in Borneo===British flag hoisted for the first time on the island of Labuan on 24 December 1846During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast of Borneo.", "Development on the Peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century.", "The eastern part of this region (now Sabah) was under the nominal control of the Sultan of Sulu, who later became a vassal of the Spanish East Indies.", "The rest was the territory of the Sultanate of Brunei.", "In 1840, British adventurer James Brooke helped suppress a revolt, and in return received the title of Raja and the right to govern the Sarawak River District in 1841.In 1843, his title was recognised as hereditary, and the \"White Rajahs\" began ruling Sarawak as a de facto independent state in 1846.The Brookes expanded Sarawak at the expense of Brunei.In 1881, the British North Borneo Company was granted control of the territory of British North Borneo, appointing a governor and legislature.", "Its status was similar to that of a British Protectorate, and like Sarawak it expanded at the expense of Brunei.", "Until the Philippine independence in 1946, seven British-controlled islands in the north-eastern part of Borneo named Turtle Islands and Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi were ceded to the Philippine government by Crown Colony of North Borneo.", "The Philippines then under its irredentism motive since the administration of President Diosdado Macapagal laying claim to eastern Sabah in a basis the territory was part of the present-defunct Sultanate of Sulu's territory.", "In 1888, what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in 1891 another Anglo-Dutch treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo.Evolution of Malaysia=== Race relations during colonial era ===In the pre-colonial period and in the first few decades after the imposition of formal colonial rule in British Malaya, 'Malay' was not a racial or even a fixed identity in the modern sense of these terms.", "The construct of race was imposed by the British on their colonial subjects.Unlike some colonial powers, the British always saw their empire as an economic concern, and its colonies were expected to turn a profit for shareholders in London.", "The colonial capitalist ideas of development were largely based on unlimited greed for profit.", "Initially, British colonisers were attracted by the Malay archipelago's tin and gold mines.", "But British planters soon began to experiment with tropical plantation crops—tapioca, gambier, pepper, and coffee.", "And, in 1877, the rubber plant was introduced from Brazil.", "Rubber soon became Malaya's staple export, stimulated by booming demand from European industry.", "Later, rubber was joined by palm oil as an export earner.", "All these industries required a large labour force, so the British sent people from the longer-established British colony in India, consisting mainly of Tamil-speakers from South India, to work on plantations as indentured labourers.", "The mines, mills and docks also attracted a flood of immigrant workers from southern China.", "Soon towns like Singapore, Penang, and Ipoh were majority Chinese, as was Kuala Lumpur, founded as a tin-mining centre in 1857.By 1891, when Malaya's first census was taken, Perak and Selangor, the main tin-mining states, had Chinese majorities.Workers were often treated violently by contractors, and sickness was frequent.", "Many Chinese labourers' debts increased through addictions to opium and gambling, which earned the British colonial government significant revenue, while Indian labourers' debts were increased through addiction to drink.", "Workers' debts acquired in this way meant that they were tied to their labour contracts for much longer.Some Chinese immigrant workers were connected with networks of mutual aid societies (run by \"Hui-Guan\" 會館, or non-profit organisations).", "In the 1890s Yap Ah Loy, who held the title of Kapitan China of Kuala Lumpur, was the richest man in Malaya, owning a chain of mines, plantations and shops.", "Malaya's banking and insurance industries were run by the Chinese from the start, and Chinese businesses, usually in partnership with London firms, soon had complete control of the Malayan economy.", "Chinese bankers also lent money to the Malay Sultans, which gave the Chinese political as well as economic leverage.", "At first the Chinese immigrants were mostly men.", "At first they married Malay women, producing a community of Sino-Malayans or baba people, but soon they began importing Chinese brides, establishing permanent communities and building schools and temples.An Indian commercial and professional class emerged during the early 20th century, but the majority of Indians remained poor and uneducated in rural ghettos in the rubber-growing areas.Traditional Malay society was greatly harmed by the loss of political sovereignty to the British colonisers.", "The Sultans, who were seen as collaborators with both the British and the Chinese, lost some of their traditional prestige, but the mass of rural Malays continued to revere the Sultans.", "A small class of Malay nationalist intellectuals began to emerge during the early 20th century, and there was also a revival of Islam in response to the perceived threat of other imported religions, particularly Christianity.", "In fact few Malays converted to Christianity, although many Chinese did.", "The northern regions, which were less influenced by western ideas, became strongholds of Islamic conservatism.The British gave elite Malays positions in the police and local military units, as well as a majority of those administrative positions open to non-Europeans.", "While the Chinese mostly built and paid for their own schools and colleges, importing teachers from China, the British aimed to control the education of young Malay elites and establish colonial ideas of race and class hierarchies.", "The colonial government opened Malay College in 1905 and created the Malay Administrative Service in 1910.", "(The college was dubbed \"Bab ud-Darajat\" – the Gateway to High Rank.)", "A Malay Teachers College followed in 1922, and a Malay Women's Training College in 1935.All this reflected the official policy of the colonial administration that Malaya belonged to the Malays, and that the other races were but temporary residents.", "This view was increasingly out of line with reality, and resulted in the formation of resistance movements against British Colonial rule.The Malay teacher's college had lectures and writings that nurtured Malay nationalist sentiments; it is known as the birthplace of Malay nationalism.", "In 1938, Ibrahim Yaacob, an alumnus of Sultan Idris College, established the Kesatuan Melayu Muda (Young Malays Union or KMM) in Kuala Lumpur.", "It was the first nationalist political organisation in British Malaya.", "A specific ideal the KMM held was ''Panji Melayu Raya'', which called for the unification of British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies.In the years before World War II, the colonial government were concerned with finding the balance between a centralised state and maintaining the power of the Sultans in Malaya.", "In 1935 the position of Resident-General of the Federated States was abolished, and its powers decentralised to the individual states.", "The colonial government regarded the Chinese as clever but dangerous—and indeed during the 1920s and 1930s, the Chinese Nationalist Party (the Kuomintang) and the Chinese Communist Party built rival clandestine organisations in Malaya, leading to regular disturbances in the Chinese towns.===World War II and the state of emergency===''Tugu Negara'', the Malaysian national monument, is dedicated to those who fell during World War II and the Malayan Emergency.Although a belligerent as part of the British Empire, Malaya saw little action during World War I, except for the sinking of the Russian cruiser ''Zhemchug'' by the German cruiser SMS Emden on 28 October 1914 during the Battle of Penang.Japanese troops landed on Malaya in 1941.The outbreak of war in the Pacific in December 1941 found the British in Malaya completely unprepared.", "During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had built a great naval base at Singapore, but never anticipated an invasion of Malaya from the north.", "There was virtually no British air capacity in the Far East.", "The Japanese were thus able to attack from their bases in French Indo-China with impunity, and despite resistance from British, Australian, and Indian forces, they overran Malaya in two months.", "Singapore, with no landward defences, no air cover, and no water supply, was forced to surrender in February 1942.British North Borneo and Brunei were also occupied.The Japanese colonial government regarded the Malays from a pan-Asian point of view, and fostered a limited form of Malay nationalism.", "The Malay nationalist Kesatuan Melayu Muda, advocates of ''Melayu Raya'', collaborated with the Japanese, based on the understanding that Japan would unite the Dutch East Indies, Malaya and Borneo and grant them independence.", "The occupiers regarded the Chinese, however, as enemy aliens, and treated them with great harshness: during the so-called ''sook ching'' (purification through suffering), up to 80,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore were killed.", "The Chinese, led by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), became the backbone of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA).", "With British assistance, the MPAJA became the most effective resistance force in the occupied Asian countries.Although the Japanese argued that they supported Malay nationalism, they offended Malay nationalism by allowing their ally Thailand to re-annex the four northern states, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu that had been transferred to British Malaya in 1909.The loss of Malaya's export markets soon produced mass unemployment which affected all races and made the Japanese increasingly unpopular.During occupation, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew.", "The Malayans were thus on the whole glad to see the British back in 1945, but things could not remain as they were before the war, and a stronger desire for independence grew.", "Britain was bankrupt and the new Labour government was keen to withdraw its forces from the East.", "But most Malays were more concerned with defending themselves against the MCP than with demanding independence from the British.Japanese troops moving through Kuala Lumpur during their advance through MalayaIn 1944, the British drew up plans for a Malayan Union, which would turn the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, plus Penang and Malacca (but not Singapore), into a single Crown colony, with a view towards independence.", "The Bornean territories and Singapore were left out as it was thought this would make union more difficult to achieve.", "There was however strong opposition from the Malays, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese and other minorities.", "The British had decided on legalised equality between all races as they perceived the Chinese and Indians as more loyal to the British during the war than the Malays.", "The Sultans, who had initially supported it, backed down and placed themselves at the head of the resistance.In 1946, the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) was founded by Malay nationalists led by Dato Onn bin Jaafar, the Chief Minister of Johor.", "UMNO favoured independence for Malaya, but only if the new state was run exclusively by the Malays.", "Faced with Malay opposition, the British dropped the plan for equal citizenship.", "The Malayan Union was thus established in 1946, and was dissolved in 1948 and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.Meanwhile, the Communists were moving towards open insurrection.", "The MPAJA had been disbanded in December 1945, and the MCP organised as a legal political party, but the MPAJA's arms were carefully stored for future use.", "The MCP policy was for immediate independence with full equality for all races.", "The Party's strength was in the Chinese-dominated trade unions, particularly in Singapore, and in the Chinese schools.", "In March 1947, reflecting the international Communist movement's \"turn to left\" as the Cold War set in, the MCP leader Lai Tek was purged and replaced by the veteran MPAJA guerrilla leader Chin Peng, who turned the party increasingly to direct action.", "These rebels, under the leadership of the MCP, launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya.", "In July, following a string of assassinations of plantation managers, the colonial government struck back, declaring a State of emergency, banning the MCP and arresting hundreds of its militants.", "The Party retreated to the jungle and formed the Malayan Peoples' Liberation Army, with about 13,000 men under arms, mostly ethnic Chinese.The war was precipitated by the new constitution desired by Britain, which condemned about 90 percent of ethnic Chinese to non-citizenship, and by the eviction of poor peasants to make way for plantations.", "But although the war was long portrayed in most analyses by British authorities as a struggle against communism in a Cold War context, the MNLA received very little support from either the Soviet or Chinese communists.", "Rather, the main concern of British governments was to protect their commercial interests in the colony.The Malayan Emergency lasted from 1948 to 1960 and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya.", "The British strategy, which proved ultimately successful, was to isolate the MCP from its support base by a combination of economic and political concessions to the Chinese and the resettlement of Chinese squatters into \"New Villages\", in reality, concentration camps, in \"white areas\" free of MCP influence.", "From 1949 the MCP campaign lost momentum and the number of recruits fell sharply.", "Although the MCP succeeded in assassinating the British High Commissioner, Sir Henry Gurney, in October 1951, this turn to terrorist tactics alienated many moderate Chinese from the Party.", "The arrival of Lt.-Gen Sir Gerald Templer as British commander in 1952 was the beginning of the end of the Emergency.", "Templer helped create the modern techniques of counter-insurgency warfare in Malaya and applied them against the MCP guerillas.", "The war was accompanied by abuses on both sides.", "The most notorious atrocity was committed in the village of Batang Kali, north of the capital Kuala Lumpur, in December 1948, when the British army massacred 24 Chinese before burning the village to the ground.", "Heavy bombers went to war, dropping thousands of bombs on insurgent positions.", "Britain conducted 4,500 air strikes in the first five years of the conflict.", "Although the insurgency was defeated Commonwealth troops remained with the backdrop of the Cold War against the Soviet Union.", "Against this backdrop, independence for the Federation within the Commonwealth was granted on 31 August 1957, with Tunku Abdul Rahman as the first prime minister." ], [ "Emergence of Malaysia", "===Struggle for independent Malaysia===Dataran Merdeka (Independence Square) in Kuala Lumpur, where Malaysians celebrate Independence Day on 31 August each yearChinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) in 1949 as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion.", "Its leader Tan Cheng Lock favoured a policy of collaboration with UMNO to win Malayan independence on a policy of equal citizenship, but with sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to ease nationalist fears.", "Tan formed a close collaboration with Tunku (Prince) Abdul Rahman, the Chief Minister of Kedah and from 1951 successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO.", "Both leaders were determined to forge an agreement their communities could live with as a basis for a stable independent state.", "The UMNO-MCA Alliance, which was later joined by the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC), won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese areas between 1952 and 1955.After Joseph Stalin's death in 1953, there was a split in the MCP leadership over the wisdom of continuing the armed struggle.", "Many MCP militants lost heart and went home, and by the time Templer left Malaya in 1954, the Emergency was over, although Chin Peng led a diehard group that lurked in the inaccessible country along the Thai border for many years.During 1955 and 1956 UMNO, the MCA and the British hammered out a constitutional settlement for a principle of equal citizenship for all races.", "In exchange, the MCA agreed that Malaya's head of state would be drawn from the ranks of the Malay Sultans, that Malay would be the official language, and that Malay education and economic development would be promoted and subsidised.", "In effect, this meant that Malaya would be run by the Malays, but that the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate representation in the Cabinet and the parliament, would run those states where they were the majority, and would have their economic position protected.", "The difficult issue of who would control the Education system was deferred until after independence.", "This came on 31 August 1957, when Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of independent Malaya.After the Japanese surrender the Brooke family and the British North Borneo Company gave up their control of Sarawak and North Borneo respectively, and these became British Crown Colonies.", "They were much less economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaderships were too weak to demand independence.", "Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in 1955, and in 1959 the young leader Lee Kuan Yew became Prime Minister.", "The Sultan of Brunei remained as a British client in his oil-rich enclave.", "Between 1959 and 1962 the British government orchestrated complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government.On 24 April 1961, Lee Kuan Yew proposed the idea of forming Malaysia during a meeting to Tunku Abdul Rahman.", "Deputy Malayan Prime Minister Abdul Razak supported the idea of the new federation and worked to convince Tunku to back it.", "On 27 May 1961, Abdul Rahman proposed the idea of forming \"Malaysia\", which would consist of Brunei, Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore, all except Malaya still under British rule.", "It was stated that this would allow the central government to better control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore.", "It was also feared that if Singapore became independent, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty.", "The proposed inclusion of British territories besides Singapore was intended to keep the ethnic composition of the new nation similar to that of Malaya, with the Malay and indigenous populations of the other territories canceling out the Chinese majority in Singapore.Although Lee Kuan Yew supported the proposal, his opponents from the Singaporean Socialist Front (Barisan Sosialis) resisted.", "In North Borneo, where there were no political parties, community representatives also stated their opposition.", "Although the Sultan of Brunei supported the merger, the Parti Rakyat Brunei opposed it as well.", "At the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference in 1961, Abdul Rahman explained his proposal further to its opponents.", "In October, he obtained agreement from the British government to the plan, provided that feedback be obtained from the communities involved in the merger.Members of the Cobbold Commission were formed to conduct a study in the British Borneo territories of Sarawak and Sabah to see whether the two were interested in the idea to form the Federation of Malaysia with Malaya and Singapore.The Cobbold Commission approved a merger with North Borneo and Sarawak; however, it was found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed merger.", "North Borneo drew up a list of points, referred to as the 20-point agreement, proposing terms for its inclusion in the new federation.", "Sarawak prepared a similar memorandum, known as the 18-point agreement.", "Some of the points in these agreements were incorporated into the eventual constitution, some were instead accepted orally.", "These memoranda are often cited by those who believe that Sarawak's and North Borneo's rights have been eroded over time.", "A referendum was conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and 70% supported merger with substantial autonomy given to the state government.", "The Sultanate of Brunei withdrew from the planned merger due to opposition from certain segments of its population as well as arguments over the payment of oil royalties and the status of the sultan in the planned merger.", "Additionally, the Bruneian Parti Rakyat Brunei staged an armed revolt, which, though it was put down, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation.After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the Landsdowne Commission to draft a constitution for Malaysia.", "The eventual constitution was essentially the same as the 1957 constitution, albeit with some rewording; for instance, giving recognition to the special position of the natives of the Borneo States.", "North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the states of Malaya.", "After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore.", "The date was to coincide with the independence day of Malaya and the British giving self-rule to Sarawak and North Borneo.", "However, Indonesia and the Philippines strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of \"neocolonialism\" and the Philippines claiming North Borneo as its territory.", "The opposition from the Indonesian government led by Sukarno and attempts by the Sarawak United People's Party delayed the formation of Malaysia.", "Due to these factors, an eight-member UN team was formed to re-ascertain whether North Borneo and Sarawak truly wanted to join Malaysia.", "Malaysia formally came into being on 16 September 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore.", "In 1963 the total population of Malaysia was about 10 million.===Challenges of independence===At the time of independence, Malaya had great economic advantages.", "It was among the world's leading producers of three valuable commodities, rubber, tin, and palm oil, and was also a significant iron ore producer.", "These export industries gave the Malayan government a healthy surplus to invest in industrial development and infrastructure projects.", "Like other developing nations in the 1950s and 1960s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) placed great stress on state planning, although UMNO was never a socialist party.", "The First and Second Malayan Plans (1956–1960 and 1961–1965 respectively) stimulated economic growth through state investment in industry and repairing infrastructure.", "The government was keen to reduce Malaya's dependence on commodity exports and was aware that demand for natural rubber was bound to fall as the production and use of synthetic rubber expanded.Both Indonesia and the Philippines withdrew their ambassadors from Malaya on 15 September 1963, the day before Malaysia's formation.", "In Jakarta the British and Malayan embassies were stoned, and the British consulate in Medan was ransacked with Malaya's consul taking refuge in the US consulate.", "Malaysia withdrew its ambassadors in response, and asked Thailand to represent Malaysia in both countries.Indonesian President Sukarno, backed by the powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), chose to regard Malaysia as a \"neocolonialist\" plot against his country, and backed a Communist insurgency in Sarawak, mainly involving elements of the local Chinese community.", "Indonesian irregular forces were infiltrated into Sarawak, where they were contained by Malaysian and Commonwealth of Nations forces.", "This period of ''Konfrontasi'', an economic, political, and military confrontation lasted until the downfall of Sukarno in 1966.The Philippines objected to the formation of the federation, claiming North Borneo was part of Sulu, and thus the Philippines.", "In 1966 the new president, Ferdinand Marcos, dropped the claim, although it has since been revived and is still a point of contention marring Philippine–Malaysian relations.====Racial strife====Federation of Malaysia by Lee Kuan Yew (top) for Singapore; Donald Stephens (centre) for North Borneo and Stephen Kalong Ningkan (bottom) for Sarawak.", "However, Singapore left the Federation less than two years after the merger due to racial issues.The Depression of the 1930s, followed by the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, had the effect of ending Chinese emigration to Malaya.", "At the time of independence in 1957, Malays comprised 55% of the population, Chinese 35% and Indians 10%.", "This balance was altered by the inclusion of the majority-Chinese Singapore, upsetting many Malays.", "The federation increased the Chinese proportion to close to 40%.", "Both UMNO and the MCA were nervous about the possible appeal of Lee's People's Action Party (then seen as a radical socialist party) to voters in Malaya and tried to organise a party in Singapore to challenge Lee's position there.", "Lee in turn threatened to run PAP candidates in Malaya at the 1964 federal elections, despite an earlier agreement that he would not do so (see PAP–UMNO Relations).", "Racial tensions intensified as PAP created an opposition alliance aiming for equality between races.", "This provoked Tunku Abdul Rahman to demand that Singapore withdraw from Malaysia.", "Despite last-ditch attempts by Singaporean leaders to keep Singapore as a part of the Federation, on 9 August 1965 the Malaysian Parliament voted 126–0 in favour of the expulsion of Singapore.The most vexed issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic power among the ethnic communities.", "The Malays felt unhappy with the wealth of the Chinese community, even after the expulsion of Singapore.", "Malay political movements emerged based around this.", "However, since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested mainly within the coalition government, which won all but one seat in the first post-independence Malayan Parliament.", "The two issues were related since the Chinese advantage in education played a large part in maintaining their control of the economy, which the UMNO leaders were determined to end.", "The MCA leaders were torn between the need to defend their own community's interests and the need to maintain good relations with UMNO.", "This produced a crisis in the MCA in 1959, in which a more assertive leadership under Lim Chong Eu defied UMNO over the education issue, only to be forced to back down when Tunku Abdul Rahman threatened to break up the coalition.The Education Act of 1961 put UMNO's victory on the education issue into legislative form.", "Henceforward Malay and English would be the only teaching languages in secondary schools, and state primary schools would teach in Malay only.", "Although the Chinese and Indian communities could maintain their own Chinese and Tamil-language primary schools, all their students were required to learn Malay, and to study an agreed \"Malayan curriculum\".", "Most importantly, the entrance exam to the University of Malaya (which moved from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur in 1963) would be conducted in Malay, even though most teachings at the university was in English until the 1970s.", "This had the effect of excluding many Chinese students.", "At the same time, Malay schools were heavily subsidised, and Malays were given preferential treatment.", "This obvious defeat for the MCA greatly weakened its support in the Chinese community.As in education, the UMNO government's unspoken agenda in the field of economic development aimed to shift economic power away from the Chinese and towards the Malays.", "The two Malayan Plans and the First Malaysian Plan (1966–1970) directed resources heavily into developments that would benefit the rural Malay community.", "Several agencies were set up to enable Malay smallholders to upgrade their production and to increase their incomes.", "The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) helped many Malays to buy or upgrade farms.", "The state also provided a range of incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses, and government tendering systematically favoured Malay companies, leading many Chinese-owned businesses to \"Malayanise\" their management.====Crisis of 1969 and Communist insurgency====The collaboration of the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their hold on the Chinese and Indian electorates.", "At the same time, the effects of the government's affirmative action policies of the 1950s and 1960s had been to create a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays.", "This led to the formation of a new party, the Malaysian People's Movement (Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia) in 1968.Gerakan was a deliberately non-communal party, bringing in Malay trade unionists and intellectuals as well as Chinese and Indian leaders.", "At the same time, an Islamist party, the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS) and a Democratic socialist party, the Democratic Action Party (DAP), gained increasing support, at the expense of UMNO and the MCA respectively.Following the end of the Malayan Emergency, the predominantly ethnic Chinese Malayan National Liberation Army, the armed wing of the Malayan Communist Party, had retreated to the Malaysian-Thailand border where it had regrouped and retrained for future offensives against the Malaysian government.", "The insurgency officially began when the MCP ambushed security forces in Kroh–Betong, in the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia, on 17 June 1968.Instead of declaring a \"state of emergency\" as the British had done previously, the Malaysian government responded to the insurgency by introducing several policy initiatives including the Security and Development Program (KESBAN), ''Rukun Tetangga'' (Neighbourhood Watch), and the RELA Corps (People's Volunteer Group).At the May 1969 federal elections, the UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance polled only 48% of the vote, although it retained a majority in the legislature.", "The MCA lost most of the Chinese-majority seats to Gerakan or DAP candidates.", "A Malay backlash resulted, leading rapidly to riots and inter-communal violence in which about 6,000 Chinese homes and businesses were burned and at least 184 people were killed, although Western diplomatic sources at the time suggested a toll of close to 600, with most of the victims are Chinese.", "The government declared a state of emergency, and a National Operations Council, headed by Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak, took power from the government of Tunku Abdul Rahman, who, in September 1970, was forced to retire in favour of Abdul Razak.Using the Emergency-era Internal Security Act (ISA), the new government suspended Parliament and political parties, imposed press censorship and placed severe restrictions on political activity.", "The ISA gave the government power to intern any person indefinitely without trial.", "These powers were widely used to silence the government's critics, and have never been repealed.", "The Constitution was changed to make illegal any criticism, even in Parliament, of the Malaysian monarchy, the special position of Malays in the country, or the status of Malay as the national language.In 1971, the Parliament reconvened, and a new government coalition, the Barisan Nasional, was formed in 1973 to replace the Alliance party.", "Abdul Razak held office until he passed away in 1976.On July 16, 1981, Malaysia ushered in Mahathir Mohamad, the longest-serving Prime Minister.", "He ruled the country for a total of 22 years.", "During this period, he led the rapid economic development of Malaysia and the construction of many large-scale projects.During these years policies were put in place which led to the rapid transformation of Malaysia's economy and society, such as the controversial New Economic Policy, which was intended to increase proportionally the share of the economic \"pie\" of the bumiputras as compared to other ethnic groups—was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak.", "Malaysia has since maintained a delicate ethno-political balance, with a system of government that has attempted to combine overall economic development with political and economic policies that promote equitable participation of all races." ], [ "Modern Malaysia", "Kuala Lumpur, a blend of old and newIn 1970 three-quarters of Malaysians living below the poverty line were Malays, the majority of Malays were still rural workers, and Malays were still largely excluded from the modern economy.", "The government's response was the New Economic Policy of 1971, which was to be implemented through a series of four five-year plans from 1971 to 1990.The plan had two objectives: the elimination of poverty, particularly rural poverty, and the elimination of the identification between race and prosperity.", "This latter policy was understood to mean a decisive shift in economic power from the Chinese to the Malays, who until then made up only 5% of the professional class.Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur was the tallest building in Southeast Asia.To provide jobs for all these new Malay graduates, the government created several agencies for intervention in the economy.", "The most important of these were PERNAS (National Corporation Ltd.), PETRONAS (National Petroleum Ltd.), and HICOM (Heavy Industry Corporation of Malaysia), which not only directly employed many Malays but also invested in growing areas of the economy to create new technical and administrative jobs which were preferentially allocated to Malays.", "As a result, the share of Malay equity in the economy rose from 1.5% in 1969 to 20.3% in 1990.===Mahathir administration===Mahathir Mohamad was the leading force in making Malaysia into a major industrial power.Mahathir Mohamad was sworn in as prime minister on 16 July 1981.One of his first acts was to release 21 detainees held under the Internal Security Act.", "He appointed Musa Hitam as deputy prime minister.The expiry of the Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1990 allowed Mahathir to outline his economic vision for Malaysia.", "In 1991, he announced Vision 2020, under which Malaysia would aim to become a fully developed country within 30 years.", "The target would require average economic growth of approximately seven per cent of the gross domestic product per annum.", "Vision 2020 was accompanied by the NEP's replacement, the National Development Policy (NDP), under which some government programs designed to benefit the Bumiputera exclusively were opened up to other ethnicities.", "The NDP achieved success in one of its main aims, poverty reduction.", "By 1995, less than nine per cent of Malaysians lived in poverty, and income inequality had narrowed.", "Mahathir's government cut corporate taxes and liberalised financial regulations to attract foreign investment.", "The economy grew by over nine per cent per annum until 1997, prompting other developing countries to emulate Mahathir's policies.Mahathir initiated a series of major infrastructure projects in the 1990s.", "One of the largest was the Multimedia Super Corridor, an area south of Kuala Lumpur, in the mould of Silicon Valley, designed to cater for the information technology industry.", "Other Mahathir's projects included the development of Putrajaya as the home of Malaysia's public service and bringing a Formula One Grand Prix to Sepang.", "One of the most controversial developments was the Bakun Dam in Sarawak.", "The ambitious hydroelectric project was intended to carry electricity across the South China Sea to satisfy electricity demand in peninsular Malaysia.", "Work on the dam was eventually suspended due to the Asian financial crisis.central business district in Kuala LumpurIn 1997, the Asian financial crisis threatened to devastate Malaysia.", "The value of the ringgit plummeted due to currency speculation, foreign investment fled, and the main stock exchange index fell by over 75%.", "At the urging of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the government cut government spending.", "It raised interest rates, which only served to exacerbate the economic situation.", "In 1998, in a controversial approach, Mahathir increased government spending and fixed the ringgit to the US dollar.", "Malaysia recovered from the crisis faster than its Southeast Asian neighbours.In the domestic sphere, it was a political triumph.", "Anwar Ibrahim and his supporters initiated the ''Reformasi'' movement.", "It consisted of several mass demonstrations and rallies against the long-standing Barisan Nasional coalition government.", "He was jailed in April 1999 after a trial for sodomy that was criticised by human rights groups and several foreign governments.Having spent over 22 years in office, Mahathir was the world's longest-serving elected leader when he retired in October 2003.===Abdullah administration===Abdullah Ahmad Badawi promised to combat corruption when he became the fifth Prime Minister, thus empowering anti-corruption agencies and providing more avenues for the public to expose corrupt practices.", "He advocated an interpretation of Islam known as Islam Hadhari, which advocates the intercompatibility between Islam and economic and technological development.", "His administration also placed a strong emphasis on reviving Malaysia's agriculture industry and ensuring the country's food security.", "At the 2004 general election, the Barisan Nasional led by Abdullah Badawi had a massive victory.", "2007 Bersih Rally that was held in Kuala LumpurIn November 2007, Malaysia saw two anti-government rallies.", "The 2007 Bersih Rally was held in Kuala Lumpur on 10 November 2007, to campaign for electoral reform.", "It was precipitated by allegations of corruption and discrepancies in the Malaysian election system that heavily favoured the ruling political party, Barisan Nasional.", "Another rally was held in the same month, on 25 November 2007, in Kuala Lumpur led by Hindu Rights Action Force (HINDRAF) over alleged discriminatory policies favouring ethnic Malays.", "On 15 October 2008, HINDRAF was banned when the government labelled the organisation as a threat to national security.Abdullah Badawi was re-elected as the prime minister in the 2008 general election.", "Abdullah came under growing criticism, primarily because of his failure to combat corruption and his subpar performance in the election.", "Hence, in October 2008, he announced his intention to resign.", "Abdullah was succeeded in office by his deputy, Najib Razak (son of Abdul Razak), in April 2009.===Najib administration===1Malaysia campaign was introduced by Najib Razak in the summer of 2009.On 15 September 2011, Najib announced that the Internal Security Act 1960 will be repealed and replaced by two new laws.", "The ISA was replaced and repealed by the Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012 which has been passed by Parliament and given royal assent on 18 June 2012.The Act came into force on 31 July 2012.Najib's government has come under criticism after SOSMA was misused to unfairly detain dissidents.In early February 2013, there was an incursion in Lahad Datu, a military conflict that began when hundreds of militants, some of whom were armed, arrived by boats in Lahad Datu District, Sabah, Malaysia from Simunul Island, Tawi-Tawi, in the southern Philippines.", "The group was sent by Jamalul Kiram III, one of the claimants to the throne of the Sultanate of Sulu.", "In response to the incursion, Malaysian security forces launched a major operation to repel the militants, resulting in a decisive Malaysian victory which ended the conflict in late March 2013.Following the elimination of militants, the Eastern Sabah Security Command (ESSCOM) was established.1MDB corruption scandal tainted the tenure of Prime Minister, Najib Razak.On March 8, 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 vanished en route from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing.", "Just four months later, 298 people were killed when Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down by a surface-to-air missile while flying over territory controlled by Russian-backed militants in Eastern Ukraine.On 1 April 2015, Najib passed a controversial 6 per cent tax on goods and services.", "Later that year, his administration was engulfed in scandal when Najib and other officials were implicated in a multibillion-dollar embezzlement and money-laundering scheme involving 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB), a state-owned investment fund masterminded by Low Taek Jho, triggering widespread calls and protests from most Malaysians including the opposition parties for Najib's resignation.", "These protests culminated in the Malaysian Citizens' Declaration.The Bersih movement also held four rallies from 2011 to 2016 during the Najib administration intending to reform Malaysia's electoral system.", "The movement expanded its demands to include issues such as clean governance and human rights.", "In response to accusations of corruption, Najib tightened his hold on power by removing Muhyiddin Yassin, the deputy prime minister at the time, suspending two newspapers, and forcing through the parliaments the controversial National Security Council Bill, which gives the prime minister unprecedented powers.", "Living costs have skyrocketed as a result of Najib's numerous subsidy cuts, while the Malaysian ringgit declined.", "After Barisan Nasional lost the 2018 general elections, these came to an end.Relations between Malaysia and North Korea deteriorated in 2017, in the aftermath of the assassination of Kim Jong-nam in Malaysia, which made global headlines and sparked a major diplomatic row.===Second Mahathir administration===Mahathir Mohamad was sworn in as the seventh Prime Minister after winning the election on 10 May 2018.A number of issues contributed to Najib Razak's defeat, including the ongoing 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) scandal, the 6% Goods and Services Tax, and the rising cost of living.Mahathir promised to \"restore the rule of law\", and make elaborate and transparent investigations into the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal.Anwar Ibrahim was given a full royal pardon and was released from prison on 16 May 2018.He was designated to take over the reins from Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad as planned and agreed by the coalition before GE14.Malacanang Palace in 2019The unpopular tax was reduced to 0% on 1 June 2018.The government of Malaysia under Mahathir tabled the first reading Bill to repeal GST in Parliament on 31 July 2018 (Dewan Rakyat).", "GST was successfully replaced with Sales Tax and Service Tax starting 1 September 2018.Mahathir's administration promised to review all Belt and Road Initiative projects in Malaysia that were initiated by the previous government.", "He characterised these as \"unequal treaties\", and said some were linked to misappropriated funds from the 1MDB scandal.", "The government suspended work on the East Coast Rail Link and continued it after terms had been renegotiated.", "Mahathir cancelled approximately $2.8 billion worth of deals with China Petroleum Pipeline Bureau altogether, saying Malaysia would not be able to repay its obligations to China.Mahathir was supportive of the 2018–19 Korean peace process and announced that Malaysia would reopen its embassy in North Korea and resume relations.On 28 September 2018, Mahathir addressed the United Nations General Assembly that his government would promise to ratify the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD).", "However, after weeks of receiving racially and religiously charged demonstrations against the convention, particularly from Bumiputras, the Pakatan Harapan government chose not to accede to the ICERD on November 23, 2018.Mahathir announced the Shared Prosperity Vision 2030 in October 2019, which set out to increase the incomes of all ethnic groups, to increase focus on the technology sector and for Malaysia to become a high-income country by 2030.Malaysia's freedom of the press improved slightly under Mahathir's tenure, and the country's rank rose in the Press Freedom Index.Political infightings within the Pakatan Harapan coalition, as well as the uncertainty of the date of the transition of power to his designated successor, Anwar Ibrahim, soon culminated in a political crisis known as Sheraton Move in February 2020.===Muhyiddin administration===Lim Chong Eu Expressway and its surroundings in Penang deserted throughout the Malaysian movement control order, as seen on 22 March 2020, to combat COVID-19 pandemic.On 1 March 2020, a week after the country was thrown into a political crisis, Muhyiddin Yassin was appointed as the eighth Prime Minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, following the abrupt resignation of Mahathir Mohamad.", "The fallen government was replaced by the new Perikatan Nasional (PN) coalition government, led by BERSATU leader Muhyiddin.", "During his administration, COVID-19 spread throughout the nation.", "In response, Muhyiddin implemented the Malaysian movement control order (MCO) on 18 March 2020.On 28 July 2020, the High Court convicted former Prime Minister Najib Razak of abuse of power, money laundering and criminal breach of trust, becoming the first Prime Minister of Malaysia to be convicted of corruption.", "After failing several appeals, he entered Kajang Prison on August 23, 2022 to serve his sentence.In mid-January 2021, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong declared a national state of emergency until at least 1 August in response to the COVID-19 crisis and political infighting.", "Parliament and elections were suspended while the Malaysian government was empowered to introduce laws without approval.Muhyiddin commenced the country's vaccination programme against COVID-19 in late February 2021.On 19 March 2021, North Korea announced the severance of diplomatic ties with Malaysia, after the Kuala Lumpur High Court rejected North Korean businessman Mun Chol Myong's appeal from extradition to the United States.Muhyiddin officially resigned as prime minister on August 16, 2021, after losing the majority in parliament support due to the country's political crisis, as well as calls for his resignation due to economic stagnation and the government's failure to prevent COVID-19 infections and deaths.", "He was afterwards appointed back as caretaker Prime Minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong until a replacement can be selected.===Ismail Sabri administration===Ismail Sabri Yaakob was sworn in as the ninth Prime Minister on August 21, 2021.During his inaugural speech as prime minister on 22 August 2021, Ismail Sabri introduced the ''Keluarga Malaysia'' idea.", "During his tenure, he lifted the Movement Control Order (MCO) following the expansion of the vaccination programme and oversaw the Twelfth Malaysia Plan.In late 2022, a constitutional amendment was passed, that prohibits members of parliament from switching political parties.", "Several UMNO lawmakers called for a snap election before the end of 2022 to resolve ongoing infighting in the party and obtain a stronger mandate.", "This led to an earlier general election in November 2022, which resulted in a hung parliament, the first federal election to have such a result in the nation's history.=== Anwar administration ===Anwar Ibrahim, the chairman of Pakatan Harapan (PH), was appointed and sworn in as the 10th Prime Minister on 24 November 2022 by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as Anwar has obtained support for a grand coalition government.Anwar Ibrahim launched the Malaysia Madani concept as a national policy on January 19, 2023, in Putrajaya which replaced the ''Keluarga Malaysia'' concept from the previous administration of Ismail Sabri Yaakob." ], [ "See also", "* The formation of Malaysia* History of Singapore* History of Brunei* History of the Philippines* History of Southeast Asia* Japanese occupation of Malaya* Japanese occupation of British Borneo" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya.", "(2016) ''A history of Malaysia'' (2nd ed.", "Macmillan International Higher Education, 2016).", "* Baker, Jim.", "(2020) ''Crossroads: a popular history of Malaysia and Singapore'' (4th ed.", "Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, 2020) excerpt* * * Goh, Cheng Teik (1994).", "''Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics''.", "Pelanduk Publications.", ".", "* Hack, Karl.", "\"Decolonisation and the Pergau Dam affair.\"", "''History Today'' (Nov 1994), 44#11 pp. 9–12.", "* Hooker, Virginia Matheson.", "(2003) ''A Short History of Malaysia: Linking East and West'' (2003) excerpt* Kheng, Cheah Boon.", "(1997) \"Writing Indigenous History in Malaysia: A Survey on Approaches and Problems\", ''Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies'' 10#2 (1997): 33–81.", "* Milner, Anthony.", "''Invention of Politics in Colonial Malaya'' (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996).", "* Musa, M. Bakri (1999).", "''The Malay Dilemma Revisited''.", "Merantau Publishers.", ".", "* Roff, William R. ''Origins of Malay Nationalism'' (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1967).", "* Shamsul, Amri Baharuddin.", "(2001) \"A history of an identity, an identity of a history: the idea and practice of 'Malayness' in Malaysia reconsidered.\"", "''Journal of Southeast Asian Studies'' 32.3 (2001): 355–366.online* Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003).", "''The Chinese Dilemma''.", "East West Publishing.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Economic History of Malaysia* \"Malaysia\" entry at Library of Congress" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Israel" ], [ "Introduction", "''Visual History of Israel'' by Arthur Szyk, 1948The '''history of Israel''' covers an area of the Southern Levant also known as Canaan, Palestine or the Holy Land, which is the geographical location of the modern states of Israel and Palestine.", "From a prehistory as part of the critical Levantine corridor, which witnessed waves of early humans out of Africa, to the emergence of Natufian culture c. 10th millennium BCE, the region entered the Bronze Age c. 2,000 BCE with the development of Canaanite civilization, before being vassalized by Egypt in the Late Bronze Age.", "In the Iron Age, the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were established, entities that were central to the origins of the Jewish and Samaritan peoples as well as the Abrahamic faith tradition.", "This has given rise to Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, Islam, Druzism, Baha'ism, and a variety of other religious movements.", "Throughout the course of human history, the Land of Israel has come under the sway or control of various polities and, as a result, it has historically hosted a wide variety of ethnic groups.In the following centuries, the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires conquered the region.", "The Ptolemies and the Seleucids vied for control over the region during the Hellenistic period.", "However, with the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty, the local Jewish population maintained independence for a century before being incorporated into the Roman Republic.", "As a result of the Jewish-Roman Wars in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, many Jews were killed, displaced or sold into slavery.", "Following the advent of Christianity, which was adopted by the Greco-Roman world under the influence of the Roman Empire, the region's demographics shifted towards newfound Christians, who replaced Jews as the majority of the population by the 4th century.", "However, shortly after Islam was consolidated across the Arabian Peninsula under Muhammad, Byzantine Christian rule over the Land of Israel was superseded by the Arab conquest of the Levant in the 7th century.", "From the 11th century to the 13th century, the Land of Israel became the centre for intermittent religious wars between Christian and Muslim armies as part of the Crusades.", "In the 13th century, the Land of Israel became subject to the Mongol invasions and conquests, though these were locally routed by the Mamluk Sultanate, under whose rule it remained until the 16th century.", "The Mamluks were eventually defeated by the Ottoman Empire, and the region became an Ottoman province until the 20th century.The late 19th century saw the widespread consolidation of a Jewish nationalist movement known as Zionism, as part of which ''aliyah'' (Jewish return to the Land of Israel from the diaspora) increased.", "During World War I, the Sinai and Palestine campaign of the Allies led to the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire.", "Britain was granted control of the region by League of Nations mandate, in what became known as Mandatory Palestine.", "The British government publicly committed itself to the creation of a Jewish homeland.", "Arab nationalism opposed this design, asserting Arab rights over the former Ottoman territories and seeking to prevent Jewish migration.", "As a result, Arab–Jewish tensions grew in the succeeding decades of British administration.In 1948, the Israeli Declaration of Independence sparked the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, which resulted in the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight and subsequently led to waves of Jewish emigration from other parts of the Middle East.", "Today, approximately 43 percent of the global Jewish population resides in Israel.", "In 1979, the Egypt–Israel peace treaty was signed, based on the Camp David Accords.", "In 1993, Israel signed the Oslo I Accord with the Palestine Liberation Organization, which was followed by the establishment of the Palestinian National Authority.", "In 1994, the Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed.", "Despite efforts to finalize the peace agreement, the conflict continues to play a major role in Israeli and international political, social, and economic life." ], [ "Prehistory", "Es Skhul caveThe oldest evidence of early humans in the territory of modern Israel, dating to 1.5 million years ago, was found in Ubeidiya near the Sea of Galilee.", "Flint tool artefacts have been discovered at Yiron, the oldest stone tools found anywhere outside Africa.", "Other groups include 1.4 million years old Acheulean industry, the Bizat Ruhama group and Gesher Bnot Yaakov.In the Mount Carmel area at el-Tabun, and Es Skhul, Neanderthal and early modern human remains were found, showing the longest stratigraphic record in the region, spanning 600,000 years of human activity, from the Lower Paleolithic to the present day, representing roughly a million years of human evolution.", "Other notable Paleolithic sites include caves Qesem and Manot.", "The oldest fossils of anatomically modern humans found outside Africa are the Skhul and Qafzeh hominids, who lived in northern Israel 120,000 years ago.", "Around 10th millennium BCE, the Natufian culture existed in the area." ], [ "Canaan", "The Canaanites are archaeologically attested in the Middle Bronze Age (2100–1550 BCE).", "There were probably independent or semi-independent city-states.", "Cities were often surrounded by massive earthworks, resulting in the archaeological mounds, or 'tells' common in the region today.", "In the late Middle Bronze Age, the Nile Delta in Egypt was settled by Canaanites who maintained close connections with Canaan.", "During that period, the Hyksos, dynasties of Canaanite/Asiatic origin, ruled much of Lower Egypt before being overthrown in the 16th century BCE.During the Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BCE), there were Canaanite vassal states paying tribute to the New Kingdom of Egypt, which governed from Gaza.", "In 1457 BCE, Egyptian forces under the command of Pharaoh Thutmose III defeated a rebellious coalition of Canaanite vassal states led by Kadesh's king at the Battle of Megiddo.In the Late Bronze Age there was a period of civilizational collapse in the Middle East, Canaan fell into chaos, and Egyptian control ended.", "There is evidence that urban centers such as Hazor, Beit She'an, Megiddo, Ekron, Isdud and Ascalon were damaged or destroyed.", "Two groups appear at this time, and are associated with the transition to the Iron Age (they used iron weapons/tools which were better than earlier bronze): the Sea Peoples, particularly the Philistines, who migrated from the Aegean world and settled on the southern coast, and the Israelites, whose settlements dotted the highlands.Some 2nd millennium inscriptions about the semi-nomadic Habiru people are believed to be connected to the Hebrews, who were generally synonymous with the Biblical Israelites.", "Many scholars regard this connection to be plausible since the two ethnonyms have similar etymologies, although others argue that Habiru refers to a social class found in every Near Eastern society, including Hebrew societies." ], [ "Ancient Israel and Judah", "===Early Israelites (Iron Age I)===The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel (as '''') occurs in the Egyptian Merneptah Stele, erected for Pharaoh Merneptah (son of Ramesses II) c. 1209 BCE, which states \"Israel is laid waste and his seed is not.", "\"The Merneptah Stele.", "According to mainstream archeology, it represents the first instance of the name \"Israel\" in the historical record.", "Archeological evidence indicates that during the early Iron Age I, hundreds of small villages were established on the highlands of Canaan on both sides of the Jordan River, primarily in Samaria, north of Jerusalem.", "These villages had populations of up to 400, were largely self-sufficient and lived from herding, grain cultivation, and growing vines and olives with some economic interchange.", "The pottery was plain and undecorated.", "Writing was known and available for recording, even in small sites.", "William G. Dever sees this \"Israel\" in the central highlands as a cultural and probably political entity, more an ethnic group rather than an organized state.Modern scholars believe that the Israelites and their culture branched out of the Canaanite peoples and their cultures through the development of a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion centred on a national god Yahweh.", "According to McNutt, \"It is probably safe to assume that sometime during Iron Age I a population began to identify itself as 'Israelite'\", differentiating itself from the Canaanites through such markers as the prohibition of intermarriage, an emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion.Philistine cooking tools and the prevalence of pork in their diets, and locally made Mycenaean pottery—which later evolved into bichrome Philistine pottery—all support their foreign origin.", "Their cities were large and elaborate, which—together with the findings—point out to a complex, hierarchical society.A stele of Seti I found in Beth-She'an, dating to ca.", "1289 BCE, revealed that a Raham tribe lived in Israel.", "They were named after the biblical Abraham.", "Israel Finkelstein believes that the oldest Abraham traditions originated in the Iron Age, which focus on the themes of land and offspring and possibly, his altars in Hebron.", "Abraham's Mesopotamian heritage is not discussed.===Israel and Judah (Iron Age II)===In the 10th century BCE, the Israelite kingdoms of Judah and Israel emerged.", "The Hebrew Bible states that these were preceded by a single kingdom ruled by Saul, David and Solomon, who is said to have built the First Temple.", "Archaeologists have debated whether the united monarchy ever existed, with those in favor of such a polity existing further divided between maximalists who support the Biblical accounts, and minimalists who argue that any such polity was likely smaller than suggested.Israel and JudahHistorians and archaeologists agree that the northern Kingdom of Israel existed by 900 BCE and the Kingdom of Judah existed by 850 BCE.", "The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power; during the days of the Omride dynasty, it controlled Samaria, Galilee, the upper Jordan Valley, the Sharon and large parts of the Transjordan.", "Samaria, the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age structures in the Levant.", "The Kingdom of Israel's capital moved between Shechem, Penuel and Tirzah before Omri settled it in Samaria, and the royal succession was often settled by a military coup d'état.", "The Kingdom of Judah was smaller but more stable; the Davidic dynasty ruled the kingdom for the four centuries of its existence, with the capital always in Jerusalem, controlling the Judaean Mountains, most of the Shephelah and the Beersheba valley in the northern Negev.In 854 BCE, according to Assyrian records (the Kurkh Monoliths), an alliance between Ahab of Israel and Ben Hadad II of Aram-Damascus managed to repulse the incursions of the Assyrians, with a victory at the Battle of Qarqar.", "This is not reported in the Bible which describes conflict between Ahab and Ben Hadad.", "Another important discovery of the period is the Mesha Stele, a Moabite stele found in Dhiban when Emir Sattam Al-Fayez led Henry Tristram to it as they toured the lands of the vassals of the Bani Sakher.", "The stele is now in the Louvre.", "In the stele, Mesha, king of Moab, tells how Chemosh, the god of Moab, had been angry with his people and had allowed them to be subjugated to the Kingdom of Israel, but at length, Chemosh returned and assisted Mesha to throw off the yoke of Israel and restore the lands of Moab.", "It refers to Omri, king of Israel, to the god Yahweh, and may contain another early reference to the House of David.", "Jehu, son of Omri, is referenced by the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III.====Assyrian invasions====Neo-Assyrian Empire at its greatest territorial extent.Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria invaded Israel in around 732 BCE.", "The Kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians following a long siege of the capital Samaria around 720 BCE.", "The records of Sargon II of Assyria indicate that he captured Samaria and deported 27,290 inhabitants to Mesopotamia.", "It is likely that Shalmaneser captured the city since both the Babylonian Chronicles and the Hebrew Bible viewed the fall of Israel as the signature event of his reign.", "The Assyrian deportations became the basis for the Jewish idea of the Ten Lost Tribes.", "Foreign groups were settled by the Assyrians in the territories of the fallen kingdom.", "The Samaritans claim to be descended from Israelites of ancient Samaria who were not expelled by the Assyrians.Detail of the Siloam inscriptionIt is believed that refugees from the destruction of Israel moved to Judah, massively expanding Jerusalem and leading to construction of the Siloam Tunnel during the rule of King Hezekiah (ruled 715–686 BCE).", "The tunnel could provide water during a siege and its construction is described in the Bible.", "The Siloam inscription, a plaque written in Hebrew left by the construction team, was discovered in the tunnel in 1880s, and is today held by the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.During Hezekiah's rule, Sennacherib, the son of Sargon, attempted but failed to capture Judah.", "Assyrian records say that Sennacherib levelled 46 walled cities and besieged Jerusalem, leaving after receiving extensive tribute.", "Sennacherib erected the Lachish reliefs in Nineveh to commemorate a second victory at Lachish.", "\"Hezekiah ... king of Judah\" – Royal seal written in the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, unearthed in JerusalemThe writings of four different \"prophets\" are believed to date from this period: Hosea and Amos in Israel and Micah and Isaiah of Judah.", "These men were mostly social critics who warned of the Assyrian threat and acted as religious spokesmen.", "They exercised some form of free speech and may have played a significant social and political role in Israel and Judah.", "They urged rulers and the general populace to adhere to god-conscious ethical ideals, seeing the Assyrian invasions as a divine punishment of the collective resulting from ethical failures.Under King Josiah (ruler from 641–619 BCE), the Book of Deuteronomy was either rediscovered or written.", "The Book of Joshua and the accounts of the kingship of David and Solomon in the Book of Kings are believed to have the same author.", "The books are known as Deuteronomist and considered to be a key step in the emergence of monotheism in Judah.", "They emerged at a time that Assyria was weakened by the emergence of Babylon and may be a committing to text of pre-writing verbal traditions.===Babylonian period (587–538 BCE)=======First revolt, 597 defeat====During the late 7th century BCE, Judah became a vassal state of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.", "In 601 BCE, Jehoiakim of Judah allied with Babylon's principal rival, Egypt, despite the strong remonstrances of the prophet Jeremiah.", "As a punishment, the Babylonians besieged Jerusalem in 597 BCE, and the city surrendered.", "The defeat was recorded by the Babylonians.", "Nebuchadnezzar pillaged Jerusalem and deported king Jechoiachin (Jeconiah), along with other prominent citizens, to Babylon; Zedekiah, his uncle, was installed as king.A few years later, Zedekiah launched another revolt against Babylon, and an army was sent to conquer Jerusalem.====Second revolt, 587/86 defeat====The route of the exiles to BabylonIn 587 or 586 BCE, King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon conquered Jerusalem, destroyed the First Temple and razed the city.", "The Kingdom of Judah was abolished, and many of its citizens were exiled to Babylon.", "The former territory of Judah became a Babylonian province called Yehud with its center in Mizpah, north of the destroyed Jerusalem.====Babylonian diaspora after 587/86 BCE====Tablets that describe King Jehoiachin's rations were found in the ruins of Babylon.", "He was eventually released by the Babylonians.", "According to both the Bible and the Talmud, the Davidic dynasty continued as head of Babylonian Jewry, called the \"Rosh Galut\" (exilarch or head of exile).", "Arab and Jewish sources show that the ''Rosh Galut'' continued to exist for another 1,500 years in what is now Iraq, ending in the eleventh century." ], [ "Second Temple period", "===Persian period (538–332 BCE)===Yehud silver coinSilver coin (''gerah'') minted in the Persian province of Yehud, dated c. 375-332 BCE.", "''Obv'': Bearded head wearing crown, possibly representing the Persian Great King.", "''Rev'': Falcon facing, head right, with wings spread; Paleo-Hebrew ''YHD'' to right.In 538 BCE, Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylon and took over its empire.", "Cyrus issued a proclamation granting religious freedom to all peoples subjugated by the Babylonians (see the Cyrus Cylinder).", "According to the Bible, Jewish exiles in Babylon, including 50,000 Judeans led by Zerubabel, returned to Judah to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem.", "The Second Temple was subsequently completed c. 515 BCE.", "A second group of 5,000, led by Ezra and Nehemiah, returned to Judah in 456 BCE.", "The first was empowered by the Persian king to enforce religious rules, the second had the status of governor and a royal mission to restore the walls of the city.", "The country remained a province of the Achaemenid empire called Yehud until 332 BCE.The final text of the Torah (the first five books of the Bible) is thought to have been written during the Persian period (probably 450–350 BCE).", "The text was formed by editing and unifying earlier texts.", "The returning Israelites adopted an Aramaic script (also known as the Ashuri alphabet), which they brought back from Babylon; this is the current Hebrew script.", "The Hebrew calendar closely resembles the Babylonian calendar and probably dates from this period.The Bible describes tension between the returnees, the elite of the First Temple period, and those who had remained in Judah.", "It is possible that the returnees, supported by the Persian monarchy, became large landholders at the expense of the people who had remained to work the land in Judah, whose opposition to the Second Temple would have reflected a fear that exclusion from the cult would deprive them of land rights.", "Judah had become in practice a theocracy, ruled by hereditary High Priests and a Persian-appointed governor, frequently Jewish, charged with keeping order and seeing that tribute was paid.A Judean military garrison was placed by the Persians on Elephantine Island near Aswan in Egypt.", "In the early 20th century, 175 papyrus documents recording activity in this community were discovered, including the \"Passover Papyrus\", a letter instructing the garrison on how to correctly conduct the Passover feast.===Hellenistic period (333–64 BCE)===In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great of Macedon conquered the region as part of his campaign against the Persian Empire.", "After his death in 322 BCE, his generals divided the empire and Judea became a frontier region between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt.", "Following a century of Ptolemaic rule, Judea was conquered by the Seleucid Empire in 200 BCE at the battle of Panium.", "Hellenistic rulers generally respected Jewish culture and protected Jewish institutions.", "Judea was ruled by the hereditary office of the High Priest of Israel as a Hellenistic vassal.", "Nevertheless, the region underwent a process of Hellenization, which heightened tensions between Greeks, Hellenized Jews, and observant Jews.", "These tensions escalated into clashes involving a power struggle for the position of high priest and the character of the holy city of Jerusalem.When Antiochus IV Epiphanes consecrated the temple, forbade Jewish practices, and forcibly imposed Hellenistic norms on the Jews, several centuries of religious tolerance under Hellenistic control came to an end.", "In 167 BCE, the Maccabean revolt erupted after Mattathias, a Jewish priest of the Hasmonean lineage, killed a Hellenized Jew and a Seleucid official who participated in sacrifice to the Greek gods in Modi'in.", "His son Judas Maccabeus defeated the Seleucids in several battles, and in 164 BCE, he captured Jerusalem and restored temple worship, an event commemorated by the Jewish festival of Hannukah.After Judas' death, his brothers Jonathan Apphus and Simon Thassi were able to establish and consolidate a vassal Hasmonean state in Judea, capitalizing on the Seleucid Empire's decline as a result of internal instability and wars with the Parthians, and by forging ties with the rising Roman Republic.", "Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus was able to gain independence, doubling Judea's territories.", "He took control of Idumaea, where he converted the Edomites to Judaism, and invaded Scythopolis and Samaria, where he demolished the Samaritan Temple.", "Hyrcanus was also the first Hasmonean leader to mint coins.", "Under his sons, kings Aristobulus I and Alexander Jannaeus, Hasmonean Judea became a kingdom, and its territories continued to expand, now also covering the coastal plain, Galilee and parts of the Transjordan.", "Some scholars argue that the Hasmonean dynasty also institutionalized the final Jewish biblical canon.Under Hasmonean rule, the Pharisees, Sadducees and the mystic Essenes emerged as the principal Jewish social movements.", "The Pharisee sage Simeon ben Shetach is credited with establishing the first schools based around meeting houses.", "This was a key step in the emergence of Rabbinical Judaism.", "After Jannaeus' widow, queen Salome Alexandra, died in 67 BCE, her sons Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II engaged in a civil war over succession.", "The conflicting parties requested Pompey's assistance on their behalf, which paved the way for a Roman takeover of the kingdom.===Early Roman period (64 BCE–2nd century CE)===Portion of the Temple Scroll, one of the Dead Sea Scrolls written by the EssenesIn 64 BCE the Roman general Pompey conquered Syria and intervened in the Hasmonean civil war in Jerusalem, restoring Hyrcanus II as High Priest and making Judea a Roman vassal kingdom.", "During the siege of Alexandria in 47 BCE, the lives of Julius Caesar and his protégé Cleopatra were saved by 3,000 Jewish troops sent by Hyrcanus II and commanded by Antipater, whose descendants Caesar made kings of Judea.", "From 37 BCE to 6 CE, the Herodian dynasty, Jewish-Roman client kings of Edomite origin, descended from Antipater, ruled Judea.", "Herod the Great considerably enlarged the temple (see Herod's Temple), making it one of the largest religious structures in the world.", "At this time, Jews formed as much as 10% of the population of the entire Roman Empire, with large communities in North Africa and Arabia.Augustus made Judea a Roman province in 6 CE, deposing the last Jewish king, Herod Archelaus, and appointing a Roman governor.", "There was a small revolt against Roman taxation led by Judas of Galilee and over the next decades tensions grew between the Greco-Roman and Judean population centered on attempts to place effigies of emperor Caligula in synagogues and in the Jewish temple.", "In 64 CE, the Temple High Priest Joshua ben Gamla introduced a religious requirement for Jewish boys to learn to read from the age of six.", "Over the next few hundred years this requirement became steadily more ingrained in Jewish tradition.", "The latter part of the Second Temple period was marked by social unrest and religious turmoil, and messianic expectations filled the atmosphere.===Jewish–Roman wars===The Arch of Titus in Rome depicts the Roman triumph celebrating the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CEIn 66 CE, the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 CE) broke out due to the repressive rule of Roman governors, growing hostility between the wealthy nobles and the impoverished masses, clashes between Jews and pagans in mixed cities, and tensions between the Roman and Jewish religions.", "The revolting Jews named their state \"Israel\".", "Despite early Jewish victories, the provisional government quickly collapsed, and Jews were split up into several warrying factions with conflicting agendas.", "Eventually, the Roman army under the command of future emperors Vespasian and his son Titus besieged and destroyed the major Jewish strongholds one by one, including the cities of Yodfat, Gamla and the fortress of Masada.", "After a brutal five-month siege in 70 CE, Jerusalem and the Second Temple were completely destroyed.The revolt's failure had profound demographic, theological, political, and economic consequences.", "Many Jews died fighting and under siege during the revolt, and a sizable portion of the population was either expelled from the country or displaced.", "Without the Temple, Judaism had to change to ensure its survival.", "Judaism's Temple-based sects, most notably the Sadducees, vanished.", "The Pharisees, led by Yochanan ben Zakai, obtained Roman permission to establish a school at Yavne.", "Their teachings became the foundational, liturgical, and ritualistic basis for Rabbinic Judaism, which eventually became the mainstream form of Judaism.From 115 to 117, tensions and attacks on Jews around the Roman Empire led to a massive Jewish uprising against Rome, known as the Kitos War.", "Jews in Libya, Egypt, Cyprus and Mesopotamia fought against Rome.", "This conflict was accompanied by large-scale massacres of both sides.", "Cyprus was so severely depopulated that new settlers were imported and Jews banned from living there.In 132 CE, the Bar Kokhba revolt erupted.", "The uprising was led by a Jew named Simon Bar Kokhba, who ruled as ''nasi'', and was viewed by some of the rabbis of the period as the long-awaited messiah.", "Based on the Bar Kokhba revolt coinage, the independent Jewish state was named \"Israel\".", "It has been suggested that a rabbinical assembly which convened during the revolt decided which books could be regarded as part of the Hebrew Bible; the Jewish apocrypha and Christian books were excluded.", "As a result, the original text of some Hebrew texts, including the Books of Maccabees, were lost (Greek translations survived).", "A rabbi of this period, Simeon bar Yochai, is regarded as the author of the Zohar, the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought.", "However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.", "Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.The Bar Kokhba revolt was eventually crushed by emperor Hadrian himself, with serious losses.", "Today, it is viewed by modern scholars as having decisive historic importance.", "According to Cassius Dio, writing in the century following the revolt, \"50 of the Jews most important outposts and 985 of their most famous villages were razed to the ground.", "580,000 men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out, thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate.\"", "While scholars debate whether these numbers are accurate, archaeological surveys and excavations appear to confirm the claim of Cassius Dio that the district of Judaea was largely depopulated.", "Most scholars agree that, in contrast to the aftermath of the First Jewish–Roman War, Judea was devastated after the Bar Kokhba revolt, with many Jews killed, exiled, or sold into slavery.Around the time of the revolt, the province of Judaea (Iudaea) was renamed Syria Palaestina.", "The commonly-held view is that it was implemented as punishment for the Bar Kokhba revolt or to \"disassociate the Jewish people from their historical homeland\" and hold Hadrian accountable.", "However, no evidence exists for this narrative, and it has been disputed by scholars in recent years.", "No other revolt led to a province being renamed." ], [ "Late Roman and Byzantine periods", "===Late Roman period (136–390)===As a result of the disastrous effects of the Bar Kokhba revolt, Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled.", "Over the next centuries, more Jews left to communities in the Diaspora, especially the large, speedily growing Jewish communities in Babylonia and Arabia.", "Others remained in the Land of Israel, where the spiritual and demographic center shifted from the depopulated Judea to Galilee.", "Jewish presence also continued in the southern Hebron Hills, in Ein Gedi, and on the coastal plain.", "The Mishnah and the Jerusalem Talmud, huge compendiums of Rabbinical discussions, were compiled during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Tiberias and Jerusalem.Following the revolt, Judea's countryside was penetrated by pagan populations, including migrants from the nearby provinces of Syria, Phoenicia, and Arabia, whereas Aelia Capitolina, its immediate vicinity, and administrative centers were now inhabited by Roman veterans and settlers from the western parts of the empire.The Romans permitted a hereditary Rabbinical Patriarch from the House of Hillel, called the \"Nasi\", to represent the Jews in dealings with the Romans.", "One prominent figure was Judah ha-Nasi, credited with compiling the final version of the Mishnah, a vast collection of Jewish oral traditions.", "He also emphasized the importance of education in Judaism, leading to requirements that illiterate Jews be treated as outcasts.", "This might have contributed to some illiterate Jews converting to Christianity.", "Jewish seminaries, such as those at Shefaram and Bet Shearim, continued to produce scholars.", "The best of these became members of the Sanhedrin, which was located first at Sepphoris and later at Tiberias.", "In the Galillee, many synagogues have been found dating from this period, and the burial site of the Sanhedrin leaders was discovered in Beit She'arim.", "In the 3rd century, the Roman Empire faced an economic crisis and imposed heavy taxation to fund wars of imperial succession.", "This situation prompted additional Jewish migration from Syria Palaestina to the Sasanian Empire, known for its more tolerant environment; there, a flourishing Jewish community with important Talmudic academies thrived in Babylonia, engaging in a notable rivalry with the Talmudic academies of Palaestina.Early in the 4th century, the Emperor Constantine made Constantinople the capital of the East Roman Empire and made Christianity an accepted religion.", "His mother Helena made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (326–328) and led the construction of the Church of the Nativity (birthplace of Jesus in Bethlehem), the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (burial site of Jesus in Jerusalem) and other key churches that still exist.", "The name Jerusalem was restored to Aelia Capitolina and became a Christian city.", "Jews were still banned from living in Jerusalem, but were allowed to visit and worship at the site of the ruined temple.", "Over the course of the next century Christians worked to eradicate \"paganism\", leading to the destruction of classical Roman traditions and eradication of their temples.", "In 351–2, another Jewish revolt in the Galilee erupted against a corrupt Roman governor.===Byzantine period (390–634)===Heraclius returning the True Cross to Jerusalem, 15th-century painting by Miguel XiménezThe Roman Empire split in 390 CE and the region became part of the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire.", "Under Byzantine rule, much of the region and its non-Jewish population were won over by Christianity, which eventually became the dominant religion in the region.", "The presence of holy sites drew Christian pilgrims, some of whom chose to settle, contributing to the rise of a Christian majority.", "Christian authorities encouraged this pilgrimage movement and appropriated lands, constructing magnificent churches at locations linked to biblical narratives.", "Additionally, monks established monasteries near pagan settlements, encouraging the conversion of local pagans.During the Byzantine period, the Jewish presence in the region declined, and it is believed that Jews lost their majority status in Palestine in the fourth century.", "While Judaism remained the sole non-Christian religion tolerated, restrictions on Jews gradually increased, prohibiting the construction of new places of worship, holding public office, or owning Christian slaves.", "In 425, after the death of the last ''Nasi'', Gamliel VI, the ''Nasi'' office and the Sanhedrin were officially abolished, and the standing of yeshivot weakened.", "The leadership void was gradually filled by the Jewish center in Babylonia, which would assume a leading role in the Jewish world for generations after the Byzantine period.During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, the region witnessed a series of Samaritan revolts against Byzantine rule.", "Their suppression resulted in the decline of Samaritan presence and influence, and further consolidated Christian domination.", "Though it is acknowledged that some Jews and Samaritans converted to Christianity during the Byzantine period, the reliable historical records are limited, and they pertain to individual conversions rather than entire communities.In 611, Khosrow II, ruler of Sassanid Persia, invaded the Byzantine Empire.", "He was helped by Jewish fighters recruited by Benjamin of Tiberias and captured Jerusalem in 614.The \"True Cross\" was captured by the Persians.", "The Jewish Himyarite Kingdom in Yemen may also have provided support.", "Nehemiah ben Hushiel was made governor of Jerusalem.", "Christian historians of the period claimed the Jews massacred Christians in the city, but there is no archeological evidence of destruction, leading modern historians to question their accounts.", "In 628, Kavad II (son of Kosrow) returned Palestine and the True Cross to the Byzantines and signed a peace treaty with them.", "Following the Byzantine re-entry, Heraclius massacred the Jewish population of Galilee and Jerusalem, while renewing the ban on Jews entering the latter." ], [ "Early Muslim period", "Aerial view of the Temple Mount showing the Dome of the Rock in the center and the al-Aqsa mosque to the southThe Levant was conquered by an Arab army under the command of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb in 635, and became the province of Bilad al-Sham of the Rashidun Caliphate.", "Two military districts—Jund Filastin and Jund al-Urdunn—were established in Palestine.", "A new city called Ramlah was built as the Muslim capital of Jund Filastin, while Tiberias served as the capital of Jund al-Urdunn.", "The Byzantine ban on Jews living in Jerusalem came to an end.In 661, Muawiyah was crowned Caliph in Jerusalem, becoming the first of the (Damascus-based) Umayyad dynasty.", "In 691, Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik (685–705) constructed the Dome of the Rock shrine on the Temple Mount, where the two Jewish temples had been located.", "A second building, the Al-Aqsa Mosque, was also erected on the Temple Mount in 705.Both buildings were rebuilt in the 10th century following a series of earthquakes.In 750, Arab discrimination against non-Arab Muslims led to the Abbasid Revolution and the Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasid Caliphs who built a new city, Baghdad, to be their capital.", "This period is known as the Islamic Golden Age, the Arab Empire was the largest in the world and Baghdad the largest and richest city.", "Both Arabs and minorities prospered across the region and much scientific progress was made.", "There were however setbacks: During the 8th century, the Caliph Umar II introduced a law requiring Jews and Christians to wear identifying clothing.", "Jews were required to wear yellow stars round their neck and on their hats, Christians had to wear Blue.", "Clothing regulations arose during repressive periods of Arab rule and were more designed to humiliate then persecute non-Muslims.", "A poll tax was imposed on all non-Muslims by Islamic rulers and failure to pay could result in imprisonment or worse.In 982, Caliph Al-Aziz Billah of the Cairo-based Fatimid dynasty conquered the region.", "The Fatimids were followers of Isma'ilism, a branch of Shia Islam and claimed descent from Fatima, Mohammed's daughter.", "Around the year 1010, the Church of Holy Sepulchre (believed to be Jesus burial site), was destroyed by Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim, who relented ten years later and paid for it to be rebuilt.", "In 1020 al-Hakim claimed divine status and the newly formed Druze religion gave him the status of a messiah.===Demographic changes===Although the Arab conquest was relatively peaceful and did not cause widespread destruction, it did alter the country's demographics significantly.", "Over the ensuing several centuries, the region experienced a drastic decline in its population, from an estimated 1 million during Roman and Byzantine times to some 300,000 by the early Ottoman period.", "This demographic collapse was accompanied by a slow process of Islamization, that resulted from the flight of non-Muslim populations, immigration of Muslims, and local conversion.", "The majority of the remaining populace belonged to the lowest classes.", "While the Arab conquerors themselves left the area after the conquest and moved on to other places, the settlement of Arab tribes in the area both before and after the conquest also contributed to the Islamization.", "As a result, the Muslim population steadily grew and the area became gradually dominated by Muslims on a political and social level.During the early Islamic period, many Christians and Samaritans, belonging to the Byzantine upper class, migrated from the coastal cities to northern Syria and Cyprus, which were still under Byzantine control, while others fled to the central highlands and the Transjordan.", "As a result, the coastal towns, formerly important economic centers connected with the rest of the Byzantine world, were emptied of most of their residents.", "Some of these cities—namely Ashkelon, Acre, Arsuf, and Gaza—now fortified border towns, were resettled by Muslim populations, who developed them into significant Muslim centers.", "The region of Samaria also underwent a process of Islamization as a result of waves of conversion among the Samaritan population and the influx of Muslims into the area.", "The predominantly Jacobite Monophysitic Christian population had been hostile to Byzantium orthodoxy, and at times for that reason welcomed Muslim rule.", "There is no strong evidence for forced conversion, or for possibility that the jizya tax significantly affected such changes.The demographic situation in Palestine was further altered by urban decline under the Abbasids, and it is thought that the 749 earthquake hastened this process by causing an increase in the number of Jews, Christians, and Samaritans who emigrated to diaspora communities while also leaving behind others who remained in the devastated cities and poor villages until they converted to Islam.", "Historical records and archeological evidence suggest that many Samaritans converted under Abbasid and Tulunid rule, after suffering through severe difficulties such droughts, earthquakes, religious persecution, heavy taxes and anarchy.", "The same region also saw the settlement of Arabs.", "Over the period, the Samaritan population drastically decreased, with the rural Samaritan population converting to Islam, and small urban communities remaining in Nablus and Caesarea, as well as in Cairo, Damascus, Aleppo and Sarepta.", "Nevertheless, the Muslim population remained a minority in a predominantly Christian area, and it is likely that this status persisted until the Crusader period." ], [ "Crusades and Mongols", "siege of Jerusalem during the First Crusade (1099)In 1095, Pope Urban II called upon Christians to wage a holy war and recapture Jerusalem from Muslim rule.", "Responding to this call, Christians launched the First Crusade in the same year, a military campaign aimed at retaking the Holy Land, ultimately resulting in the successful siege and conquest of Jerusalem in 1099.In the same year, the Crusaders conquered Beit She'an and Tiberias, and in the following decade, they captured coastal cities with the support of Italian city-state fleets, establishing these coastal ports as crucial strongholds for Crusader rule in the region.Following the First Crusade, several Crusader states were established in the Levant, with the Kingdom of Jerusalem (''Regnum Hierosolymitanum'') assuming a preeminent position and enjoying special status among them.", "The population consisted predominantly of Muslims, Christians, Jews, and Samaritans, while the Crusaders remained a minority and relied on the local population who worked the soil.", "The region saw the construction of numerous robust castles and fortresses, yet efforts to establish permanent European villages proved unsuccessful.Around 1180, Raynald of Châtillon, ruler of Transjordan, caused increasing conflict with the Ayyubid Sultan Saladin (Salah-al-Din), leading to the defeat of the Crusaders in the 1187 Battle of Hattin (above Tiberias).", "Saladin was able to peacefully take Jerusalem and conquered most of the former Kingdom of Jerusalem.", "Saladin's court physician was Maimonides, a refugee from Almohad (Muslim) persecution in Córdoba, Spain, where all non-Muslim religions had been banned.The Christian world's response to the loss of Jerusalem came in the Third Crusade of 1190.After lengthy battles and negotiations, Richard the Lionheart and Saladin concluded the Treaty of Jaffa in 1192 whereby Christians were granted free passage to make pilgrimages to the holy sites, while Jerusalem remained under Muslim rule.", "In 1229, Jerusalem peacefully reverted into Christian control as part of a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid sultan al-Kamil that ended the Sixth Crusade.", "In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tatars who decimated the city's Christian population, drove out the Jews and razed the city.", "The Khwarezmians were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247." ], [ "Mamluk period", "The Bahri Mamluk dynasty 1250–1382Between 1258 and 1291, the area was the frontier between Mongol invaders (occasional Crusader allies) and the Mamluks of Egypt.", "The conflict impoverished the country and severely reduced the population.", "In Egypt a caste of warrior slaves, known as the Mamluks, gradually took control of the kingdom.", "The Mamluks were mostly of Turkish origin, and were bought as children and then trained in warfare.", "They were highly prized warriors, who gave rulers independence of the native aristocracy.", "In Egypt they took control of the kingdom following a failed invasion by the Crusaders (Seventh Crusade).", "The first Mamluk Sultan, Qutuz of Egypt, defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut (\"Goliath's spring\" near Ein Harod), ending the Mongol advances.", "He was assassinated by one of his Generals, Baibars, who went on to eliminate most of the Crusader outposts.", "The Mamluks ruled Palestine until 1516, regarding it as part of Syria.", "In Hebron, Jews were banned from worshipping at the Cave of the Patriarchs (the second-holiest site in Judaism); they were only allowed to enter 7 steps inside the site and the ban remained in place until Israel assumed control of the West Bank in the Six Days War.", "The Egyptian Mamluk sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil conquered the last outpost of Crusader rule in 1291.The Mamluks, continuing the policy of the Ayyubids, made the strategic decision to destroy the coastal area and to bring desolation to many of its cities, from Tyre in the north to Gaza in the south.", "Ports were destroyed and various materials were dumped to make them inoperable.", "The goal was to prevent attacks from the sea, given the fear of the return of the Crusaders.", "This had a long-term effect on those areas, which remained sparsely populated for centuries.", "The activity in that time concentrated more inland.With the 1492 expulsion of Jews from Spain and 1497 persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal, many Jews moved eastward, with some deciding to settle in the Mamluk Palestine.", "As a consequence, the local Jewish community underwent significant rejuvenation.", "The influx of Sephardic Jews began under Mamluk rule in the 15th century, and continued throughout the 16th century and especially after the Ottoman conquest.", "As city-dwellers, the majority of Sephardic Jews preferred to settle in urban areas, mainly in Safed but also in Jerusalem, while the Musta'arbi community comprised the majority of the villagers' Jews." ], [ "Ottoman period", "Under the Mamluks, the area was a province of Bilad a-Sham (Syria).", "It was conquered by Turkish Sultan Selim I in 1516–17, becoming a part of the province of Ottoman Syria for the next four centuries, first as the Damascus Eyalet and later as the Syria Vilayet (following the Tanzimat reorganization of 1864).===Old Yishuv===16th-century Safed rabbi Joseph Karo, author of the Jewish law bookWith the more favorable conditions that followed the Ottoman conquest, the immigration of Jews fleeing Catholic Europe, which had already begun under Mamluk rule, continued, and soon an influx of exiled Sephardic Jews came to dominate the Jewish community in the area.In 1558, Selim II (1566–1574), successor to Suleiman, whose wife Nurbanu Sultan was Jewish, gave control of Tiberias to Doña Gracia Mendes Nasi, one of the richest women in Europe and an escapee from the Inquisition.", "She encouraged Jewish refugees to settle in the area and established a Hebrew printing press.", "Safed became a centre for study of the Kabbalah.", "Doña Nasi's nephew, Joseph Nasi, was made governor of Tiberias and he encouraged Jewish settlement from Italy.In 1660, a Druze power struggle led to the destruction of Safed and Tiberias.", "In the late 18th century a local Arab ''sheikh'' Zahir al-Umar created a ''de facto'' independent Emirate in the Galilee.", "Ottoman attempts to subdue the Sheikh failed, but after Zahir's death the Ottomans restored their rule in the area.In 1799, Napoleon briefly occupied the country and planned a proclamation inviting Jews to create a state.", "The proclamation was shelved following his defeat at Acre.", "In 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, an Ottoman ruler who left the Empire and tried to modernize Egypt, conquered Ottoman Syria and imposed conscription, leading to the Arab revolt.Jewish workers in Kerem Avraham neighbourhood of Jerusalem (c. 1850s)In 1838, there was another Druze revolt.", "In 1839 Moses Montefiore met with Muhammed Pasha in Egypt and signed an agreement to establish 100–200 Jewish villages in the Damascus Eyalet of Ottoman Syria, but in 1840 the Egyptians withdrew before the deal was implemented, returning the area to Ottoman governorship.", "In 1844, Jews constituted the largest population group in Jerusalem.", "By 1896 Jews constituted an absolute majority in Jerusalem, but the overall population in Palestine was 88% Muslim and 9% Christian.===Birth of Zionism===Between 1882 and 1903, approximately 35,000 Jews moved to Palestine, known as the First Aliyah.", "In the Russian Empire, Jews faced growing persecution and legal restrictions.", "Half the world's Jews lived in the Russian Empire, where they were restricted to living in the Pale of Settlement.", "Severe pogroms in the early 1880s and legal repression led to 2 million Jews emigrating from the Russian Empire.", "1.5 million went to the United States.", "Popular destinations were also Germany, France, England, Holland, Argentina and Palestine.Russian Jews established the Bilu and Hovevei Zion (\"Lovers of Zion\") movements with the aim of settling in Palestine.", "In 1878, Russian Jewish emigrants established the village of Petah Tikva (\"The Beginning of Hope\"), followed by Rishon LeZion (\"First to Zion\") in 1882.The existing Ashkenazi-Jewish communities were concentrated in the Four Holy Cities, extremely poor and relied on donations (halukka) from groups abroad, while the new settlements were small farming communities, but still relied on funding by the French Baron, Edmond James de Rothschild, who sought to establish profitable enterprises.", "Many early migrants could not find work and left, but despite the problems, more settlements arose and the community grew.", "After the Ottoman conquest of Yemen in 1881, a large number of Yemenite Jews also emigrated to Palestine, often driven by Messianism.In 1896 Theodor Herzl published ''Der Judenstaat'' (''The Jewish State''), in which he asserted that the solution to growing antisemitism in Europe (the so-called \"Jewish Question\") was to establish a Jewish state.", "In 1897, the World Zionist Organization was founded and the First Zionist Congress proclaimed its aim \"to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law.\"", "The Congress chose Hatikvah (\"The Hope\") as its anthem.Between 1904 and 1914, around 40,000 Jews settled in the area now known as Israel (the Second Aliyah).", "In 1908 the World Zionist Organization set up the Palestine Bureau (also known as the \"Eretz Israel Office\") in Jaffa and began to adopt a systematic Jewish settlement policy.", "In 1909 residents of Jaffa bought land outside the city walls and built the first entirely Hebrew-speaking town, Ahuzat Bayit (later renamed Tel Aviv).In 1915-1916 Talaat Pasha of the Young Turks forced around a million Armenian Christians from their homes in Eastern Turkey, marching them south through Syria, in what is now known as the Armenian genocide.", "The number of dead is thought to be around 700,000.Hundreds of thousands were forcibly converted to Islam.", "A community of survivors settled in Jerusalem, one of whom developed the now iconic Armenian pottery.===World War I===Occupied Enemy Territory Administration, 1918During World War I, most Jews supported the Germans because they were fighting the Russians who were regarded as the Jews' main enemy.", "In Britain, the government sought Jewish support for the war effort for a variety of reasons including an antisemitic perception of \"Jewish power\" in the Ottoman Empire's Young Turks movement which was based in Thessaloniki, the most Jewish city in Europe (40% of the 160,000 population were Jewish).", "The British also hoped to secure American Jewish support for US intervention on Britain's behalf.There was already sympathy for the aims of Zionism in the British government, including the Prime Minister Lloyd George.", "Over 14,000 Jews were expelled by the Ottoman military commander from the Jaffa area in 1914–1915, due to suspicions they were subjects of Russia, an enemy, or Zionists wishing to detach Palestine from the Ottoman Empire, and when the entire population, including Muslims, of both Jaffa and Tel Aviv was subject to an expulsion order in April 1917, the affected Jews could not return until the British conquest ended in 1918, which drove the Turks out of Southern Syria.", "A year prior, in 1917, the British foreign minister, Arthur Balfour, sent a public letter to the British Lord Rothschild, a leading member of his party and leader of the Jewish community.", "The letter subsequently became known as the Balfour Declaration.", "It stated that the British Government \"viewed with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people\".", "The declaration provided the British government with a pretext for claiming and governing the country.", "New Middle Eastern boundaries were decided by an agreement between British and French bureaucrats.A Jewish Legion composed largely of Zionist volunteers organized by Ze'ev Jabotinsky and Joseph Trumpeldor participated in the British invasion.", "It also participated in the failed Gallipoli Campaign.", "The Nili Zionist spy network provided the British with details of Ottoman plans and troop concentrations.After pushing out the Ottomans, Palestine came under martial law.", "The British, French and Arab Occupied Enemy Territory Administration governed the area shortly before the armistice with the Ottomans until the promulgation of the mandate in 1920." ], [ "Mandatory Palestine", "===First years===The British Mandate (in effect, British rule) of Palestine, including the Balfour Declaration, was confirmed by the League of Nations in 1922 and came into effect in 1923.The territory of Transjordan was also covered by the Mandate but under separate rules that excluded it from the Balfour Declaration.", "Britain signed a treaty with the United States (which did not join the League of Nations) in which the United States endorsed the terms of the Mandate, which was approved unanimously by both the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives.The Balfour declaration was published on the 2nd of November 1917 and the Bolsheviks seized control of Russia a week later.", "This led to civil war in the Russian Empire.", "Between 1918 and 1921, a series of pogroms led to the death of at least 100,000 Jews (mainly in what is now Ukraine), and the displacement as refugees of a further 600,000.This led to further migration to Palestine.", "Between 1919 and 1923, some 40,000 Jews arrived in Palestine in what is known as the Third Aliyah.", "Many of the Jewish immigrants of this period were Socialist Zionists and supported the Bolsheviks.", "The migrants became known as pioneers (''halutzim''), experienced or trained in agriculture who established self-sustaining communes called kibbutzim.", "Malarial marshes in the Jezreel Valley and Hefer Plain were drained and converted to agricultural use.", "Land was bought by the Jewish National Fund, a Zionist charity that collected money abroad for that purpose.The opening ceremony of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem visited by Arthur Balfour, 1 April 1925After the French victory over the Arab Kingdom of Syria ended hopes of Arab independence, there were clashes between Arabs and Jews in Jerusalem during the 1920 Nebi Musa riots and in Jaffa the following year, leading to the establishment of the Haganah underground Jewish militia.A Jewish Agency was created which issued the entry permits granted by the British and distributed funds donated by Jews abroad.", "Between 1924 and 1929, over 80,000 Jews arrived in the Fourth Aliyah, fleeing antisemitism and heavy tax burdens imposed on trade in Poland and Hungary, inspired by Zionism and motivated by the closure of United States borders by the Immigration Act of 1924 which severely limited immigration from Eastern and Southern Europe.Pinhas Rutenberg, a former Commissar of St Petersburg in Russia's pre-Bolshevik Kerensky Government, built the first electricity generators in Palestine.", "In 1925 the Jewish Agency established the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and the Technion (technological university) in Haifa.", "British authorities introduced the Palestine pound (worth 1000 \"mils\") in 1927, replacing the Egyptian pound as the unit of currency in the Mandate.From 1928, the democratically elected Va'ad Leumi (Jewish National Council or JNC) became the main administrative institution of the Palestine Jewish community (Yishuv) and included non-Zionist Jews.", "As the Yishuv grew, the JNC adopted more government-type functions, such as education, health care, and security.", "With British permission, the Va'ad Leumi raised its own taxes and ran independent services for the Jewish population.In 1929 tensions grew over the Kotel (Wailing Wall), the holiest spot in the world for modern Judaism, which was then a narrow alleyway where the British banned Jews from using chairs or curtains: Many of the worshippers were elderly and needed seats; they also wanted to separate women from men.", "The Mufti of Jerusalem said it was Muslim property and deliberately had cattle driven through the alley.", "He alleged that the Jews were seeking control of the Temple Mount.", "This provided the spark for the August 1929 Palestine riots.", "The main victims were the (non-Zionist) ancient Jewish community at Hebron, who were massacred.", "The riots led to right-wing Zionists establishing their own militia in 1931, the Irgun Tzvai Leumi (National Military Organization, known in Hebrew by its acronym \"Etzel\"), which was committed to a more aggressive policy towards the Arab population.During the interwar period, the perception grew that there was an irreconciliable tension between the two Mandatory functions, of providing for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and the goal of preparing the country for self-determination.", "The British rejected the principle of majority rule or any other measure that would give the Arab population, who formed the majority of the population, control over Palestinian territory.===Increase in Jewish immigration===Between 1929 and 1938, 250,000 Jews arrived in Palestine (Fifth Aliyah).", "In 1933, the Jewish Agency and the Nazis negotiated the Ha'avara Agreement (transfer agreement), under which 50,000 German Jews would be transferred to Palestine.", "The Jews' possessions were confiscated and in return the Nazis allowed the Ha'avara organization to purchase 14 million pounds worth of German goods for export to Palestine and use it to compensate the immigrants.", "Although many Jews wanted to leave Nazi Germany, the Nazis prevented Jews from taking any money and restricted them to two suitcases so few could pay the British entry tax and many were afraid to leave.", "The agreement was controversial and the Labour Zionist leader who negotiated the agreement, Haim Arlosoroff, was assassinated in Tel Aviv in 1933.The assassination was used by the British to create tension between the Zionist left and the Zionist right.", "Arlosoroff had been the boyfriend of Magda Ritschel some years before she married Joseph Goebbels.", "There has been speculation that he was assassinated by the Nazis to hide the connection but there is no evidence for it.Between 1933 and 1936, 174,000 arrived despite the large sums the British demanded for immigration permits: Jews had to prove they had 1,000 pounds for families with capital (), 500 pounds if they had a profession and 250 pounds if they were skilled labourers.===Arab revolt and the White Paper===Jewish Settlement Police members watching the settlement Nesher during 1936–1939 Arab revoltJewish immigration and Nazi propaganda contributed to the large-scale 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, a largely nationalist uprising directed at ending British rule.", "The head of the Jewish Agency, Ben-Gurion, responded to the Arab Revolt with a policy of \"Havlagah\"—self-restraint and a refusal to be provoked by Arab attacks in order to prevent polarization.", "The Etzel group broke off from the Haganah in opposition to this policy.The British responded to the revolt with the Peel Commission (1936–37), a public inquiry that recommended that an exclusively Jewish territory be created in the Galilee and western coast (including the population transfer of 225,000 Arabs); the rest becoming an exclusively Arab area.", "The two main Jewish leaders, Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion, had convinced the Zionist Congress to approve equivocally the Peel recommendations as a basis for more negotiation.", "The plan was rejected outright by the Palestinian Arab leadership and they renewed the revolt, which caused the British to appease the Arabs, and to abandon the plan as unworkable.Testifying before the Peel Commission, Weizmann said \"There are in Europe 6,000,000 people ... for whom the world is divided into places where they cannot live and places where they cannot enter.\"", "In 1938, the US called an international conference to address the question of the vast numbers of Jews trying to escape Europe.", "Britain made its attendance contingent on Palestine being kept out of the discussion.", "No Jewish representatives were invited.", "The Nazis proposed their own solution: that the Jews of Europe be shipped to Madagascar (the Madagascar Plan).", "The agreement proved fruitless, and the Jews were stuck in Europe.With millions of Jews trying to leave Europe and every country in the world closed to Jewish migration, the British decided to close Palestine.", "The White Paper of 1939, recommended that an independent Palestine, governed jointly by Arabs and Jews, be established within 10 years.", "The White Paper agreed to allow 75,000 Jewish immigrants into Palestine over the period 1940–44, after which migration would require Arab approval.", "Both the Arab and Jewish leadership rejected the White Paper.", "In March 1940 the British High Commissioner for Palestine issued an edict banning Jews from purchasing land in 95% of Palestine.", "Jews now resorted to illegal immigration: (Aliyah Bet or \"Ha'apalah\"), often organized by the Mossad Le'aliyah Bet and the Irgun.", "With no outside help and no countries ready to admit them, very few Jews managed to escape Europe between 1939 and 1945.Those caught by the British were mostly imprisoned in Mauritius.===World War II and the Holocaust===Jewish Brigade headquarters under both Union Flag and Jewish flagDuring the Second World War, the Jewish Agency worked to establish a Jewish army that would fight alongside the British forces.", "Churchill supported the plan but British Military and government opposition led to its rejection.", "The British demanded that the number of Jewish recruits match the number of Arab recruits.In June 1940, Italy declared war on the British Commonwealth and sided with Germany.", "Within a month, Italian planes bombed Tel Aviv and Haifa, inflicting multiple casualties.", "In May 1941, the Palmach was established to defend the Yishuv against the planned Axis invasion through North Africa.", "The British refusal to provide arms to the Jews, even when Rommel's forces were advancing through Egypt in June 1942 (intent on occupying Palestine), and the 1939 White Paper led to the emergence of a Zionist leadership in Palestine that believed conflict with Britain was inevitable.", "Despite this, the Jewish Agency called on Palestine's Jewish youth to volunteer for the British Army (both men and women).", "30,000 Palestinian Jews and 12,000 Palestinian Arabs enlisted in the British armed forces during the war.", "In June 1944 the British agreed to create a Jewish Brigade that would fight in Italy.Approximately 1.5 million Jews around the world served in every branch of the allied armies, mainly in the Soviet and US armies.", "200,000 Jews died serving in the Soviet army alone.A small group (about 200 activists), dedicated to resisting the British administration in Palestine, broke away from the Etzel (which advocated support for Britain during the war) and formed the \"Lehi\" (Stern Gang), led by Avraham Stern.", "In 1942, the USSR released the Revisionist Zionist leader Menachem Begin from the Gulag and he went to Palestine, taking command of the Etzel organization with a policy of increased conflict against the British.", "At about the same time Yitzhak Shamir escaped from the camp in Eritrea where the British were holding Lehi activists without trial, taking command of the Lehi (Stern Gang).Jews in the Middle East were also affected by the war.", "Most of North Africa came under Nazi control and many Jews were used as slaves.", "The 1941 pro-Axis coup in Iraq was accompanied by massacres of Jews.", "The Jewish Agency put together plans for a last stand in the event of Rommel invading Palestine (the Nazis planned to exterminate Palestine's Jews).Between 1939 and 1945, the Nazis, aided by local forces, led systematic efforts to kill every person of Jewish extraction in Europe (The Holocaust), causing the deaths of approximately 6 million Jews.", "A quarter of those killed were children.", "The Polish and German Jewish communities, which played an important role in defining the pre-1945 Jewish world, mostly ceased to exist.", "In the United States and Palestine, Jews of European origin became disconnected from their families and roots.", "As the Holocaust mainly affected Ashkenazi Jews, Sepharadi and Mizrahi Jews, who had been a minority, became a much more significant factor in the Jewish world.", "Those Jews who survived in central Europe, were displaced persons (refugees); an Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, established to examine the Palestine issue, surveyed their ambitions and found that over 95% wanted to migrate to Palestine.In the Zionist movement the moderate Pro-British (and British citizen) Weizmann, whose son died flying in the RAF, was undermined by Britain's anti-Zionist policies.", "Leadership of the movement passed to the Jewish Agency in Palestine, now led by the anti-British Socialist-Zionist party (Mapai) led by David Ben-Gurion.===Illegal Jewish immigration and insurgency===The British Empire was severely weakened by the war.", "In the Middle East, the war had made Britain conscious of its dependence on Arab oil.", "British firms controlled Iraqi oil and Britain ruled Kuwait, Bahrain and the Emirates.", "Shortly after VE Day, the Labour Party won the general election in Britain.", "Although Labour Party conferences had for years called for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, the Labour government now decided to maintain the 1939 White Paper policies.Buchenwald survivors arrive in Haifa to be arrested by the British, 15 July 1945Illegal migration (Aliyah Bet) became the main form of Jewish entry into Palestine.", "Across Europe Bricha (\"flight\"), an organization of former partisans and ghetto fighters, smuggled Holocaust survivors from Eastern Europe to Mediterranean ports, where small boats tried to breach the British blockade of Palestine.", "Meanwhile, Jews from Arab countries began moving into Palestine overland.", "Despite British efforts to curb immigration, during the 14 years of the Aliyah Bet, over 110,000 Jews entered Palestine.", "By the end of World War II, the Jewish population of Palestine had increased to 33% of the total population.In an effort to win independence, Zionists now waged a guerrilla war against the British.", "The main underground Jewish militia, the Haganah, formed an alliance called the Jewish Resistance Movement with the Etzel and Stern Gang to fight the British.", "In June 1946, following instances of Jewish sabotage, such as in the Night of the Bridges, the British launched Operation Agatha, arresting 2,700 Jews, including the leadership of the Jewish Agency, whose headquarters were raided.", "Those arrested were held without trial.On 4 July 1946 a massive pogrom in Poland led to a wave of Holocaust survivors fleeing Europe for Palestine.", "Three weeks later, Irgun bombed the British Military Headquarters of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, killing 91 people.", "In the days following the bombing, Tel Aviv was placed under curfew and over 120,000 Jews, nearly 20% of the Jewish population of Palestine, were questioned by the police.", "In the US, Congress criticized British handling of the situation and considered delaying loans that were vital to British post-war recovery.", "The alliance between Haganah and Etzel was dissolved after the King David bombings.Between 1945 and 1948, 100,000–120,000 Jews left Poland.", "Their departure was largely organized by Zionist activists in Poland under the umbrella of the semi-clandestine organization ''Berihah'' (\"Flight\").", "''Berihah'' was also responsible for the organized emigration of Jews from Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, totalling 250,000 (including Poland) Holocaust survivors.", "The British imprisoned the Jews trying to enter Palestine in the Atlit detainee camp and Cyprus internment camps.", "Those held were mainly Holocaust survivors, including large numbers of children and orphans.", "In response to Cypriot fears that the Jews would never leave (since they lacked a state or documentation) and because the 75,000 quota established by the 1939 White Paper had never been filled, the British allowed the refugees to enter Palestine at a rate of 750 per month.By 1947 the Labour Government in Britain was ready to refer the Palestine problem to the newly created United Nations.===United Nations Partition Plan===United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, 1947On 2 April 1947, the United Kingdom requested that the question of Palestine be handled by the General Assembly.", "The General Assembly created a committee, United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP), to report on \"the question of Palestine\".", "In July 1947 the UNSCOP visited Palestine and met with Jewish and Zionist delegations.", "The Arab Higher Committee boycotted the meetings.", "During the visit the British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin ordered that passengers from an Aliyah Bet ship, SS ''Exodus'' ''1947'', to be sent back to Europe.", "The Holocaust surviving migrants on the ship were forcibly removed by British troops at Hamburg, Germany.The principal non-Zionist Orthodox Jewish (or Haredi) party, Agudat Israel, recommended to UNSCOP that a Jewish state be set up after reaching a religious status quo agreement with Ben-Gurion regarding the future Jewish state.", "The agreement granted an exemption from military service to a quota of yeshiva (religious seminary) students and to all Orthodox women, made the Sabbath the national weekend, guaranteed kosher food in government institutions and allowed Orthodox Jews to maintain a separate education system.The majority report of UNSCOP proposed \"an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem\", the last to be under \"an International Trusteeship System\".", "On 29 November 1947, in Resolution 181 (II), the General Assembly adopted the majority report of UNSCOP, but with slight modifications.", "The Plan also called for the British to allow \"substantial\" Jewish migration by 1 February 1948.Neither Britain nor the UN Security Council took any action to implement the recommendation made by the resolution and Britain continued detaining Jews attempting to enter Palestine.", "Concerned that partition would severely damage Anglo-Arab relations, Britain denied UN representatives access to Palestine during the period between the adoption of Resolution 181 (II) and the termination of the British Mandate.", "The British withdrawal was finally completed in May 1948.However, Britain continued to hold (formerly illegal) Jewish immigrants of \"fighting age\" and their families on Cyprus until March 1949.===Civil War===besieged Jerusalem, April 1948The General Assembly's vote caused joy in the Jewish community and anger in the Arab community.", "Violence broke out between the sides, escalating into civil war.", "From January 1948, operations became increasingly militarized, with the intervention of a number of Arab Liberation Army regiments inside Palestine, each active in a variety of distinct sectors around the different coastal towns.", "They consolidated their presence in Galilee and Samaria.", "Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni came from Egypt with several hundred men of the Army of the Holy War.", "Having recruited a few thousand volunteers, he organized the blockade of the 100,000 Jewish residents of Jerusalem.", "The Yishuv tried to supply the city using convoys of up to 100 armoured vehicles, but largely failed.", "By March, almost all Haganah's armoured vehicles had been destroyed, the blockade was in full operation, and hundreds of Haganah members who had tried to bring supplies into the city were killed.Up to 100,000 Arabs, from the urban upper and middle classes in Haifa, Jaffa and Jerusalem, or Jewish-dominated areas, evacuated abroad or to Arab centres eastwards.", "This situation caused the US to withdraw their support for the Partition plan, thus encouraging the Arab League to believe that the Palestinian Arabs, reinforced by the Arab Liberation Army, could put an end to the plan for partition.", "The British, on the other hand, decided on 7 February 1948 to support the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by Transjordan.", "The Jordanian army was commanded by the British.David Ben-Gurion proclaiming the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948David Ben-Gurion reorganized the Haganah and made conscription obligatory.", "Every Jewish man and woman in the country had to receive military training.", "Thanks to funds raised by Golda Meir from sympathisers in the United States, and Stalin's decision to support the Zionist cause, the Jewish representatives of Palestine were able to purchase important arms in Eastern Europe.Ben-Gurion gave Yigael Yadin the responsibility to plan for the announced intervention of the Arab states.", "The result of his analysis was Plan Dalet, in which Haganah passed from the defensive to the offensive.", "The plan sought to establish Jewish territorial continuity by conquering mixed zones.", "Tiberias, Haifa, Safed, Beisan, Jaffa and Acre fell, resulting in the flight of more than 250,000 Palestinian Arabs.", "The situation was one of the catalysts for the intervention of neighbouring Arab states.On 14 May 1948, on the day the last British forces left from Haifa, the Jewish People's Council gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum and proclaimed the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel." ], [ "State of Israel", "===Arab–Israeli War===Avraham Adan raising the Ink Flag marking the end of the 1948 Arab–Israeli WarImmediately following the declaration of the new state, both superpower leaders, US President Harry S. Truman and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, recognized the new state.The Arab League members Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq refused to accept the UN partition plan and proclaimed the right of self-determination for the Arabs across the whole of Palestine.", "The Arab states marched their forces into what had, until the previous day, been the British Mandate for Palestine, starting the first Arab–Israeli War.", "After an initial loss of territory by the Jewish state, the tide turned in the Israelis' favour and they pushed the Arab armies back beyond the borders of the proposed Arab state.On 29 May 1948, the British initiated United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 declaring an arms embargo on the region.", "Czechoslovakia violated the resolution, supplying the Jewish state with critical military hardware to match the (mainly British) heavy equipment and planes already owned by the invading Arab states.", "On 11 June, a month-long UN truce was put into effect.Following independence, the Haganah became the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).", "The Palmach, Etzel and Lehi were required to cease independent operations and join the IDF.", "During the ceasefire, Etzel attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called \"Altalena\".", "When they refused to hand the arms to the government, Ben-Gurion ordered that the ship be sunk.", "Several Etzel members were killed in the fighting.Large numbers of Jewish immigrants, many of them World War II veterans and Holocaust survivors, now began arriving in the new state of Israel, and many joined the IDF.After an initial loss of territory by the Jewish state and its occupation by the Arab armies, from July the tide gradually turned in the Israelis' favour and they pushed the Arab armies out and conquered some of the territory that had been included in the proposed Arab state.", "At the end of November, tenuous local ceasefires were arranged between the Israelis, Syrians and Lebanese.", "On 1 December King Abdullah announced the union of Transjordan with Arab Palestine west of the Jordan; only Britain and Pakistan recognized the annexation.https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/martinkramer/files/the_west_bank_was_annexed_once_before._it_ended_in_regret._.pdf====Armistice Agreements====Israel signed armistices with Egypt (24 February), Lebanon (23 March), Jordan (3 April) and Syria (20 July).", "No actual peace agreements were signed.", "With permanent ceasefire coming into effect, Israel's new borders, later known as the Green Line, were established.", "These borders were not recognized by the Arab states as international boundaries.", "Israel was in control of the Galilee, Jezreel Valley, West Jerusalem, the coastal plain and the Negev.", "The Syrians remained in control of a strip of territory along the Sea of Galilee originally allocated to the Jewish state, the Lebanese occupied a tiny area at Rosh Hanikra, and the Egyptians retained the Gaza strip and still had some forces surrounded inside Israeli territory.", "Jordanian forces remained in the West Bank, where the British had stationed them before the war.", "Jordan annexed the areas it occupied while Egypt kept Gaza as an occupied zone.1949 Green LineFollowing the ceasefire declaration, Britain released over 2,000 Jewish detainees it was still holding in Cyprus and recognized the state of Israel.", "On 11 May 1949, Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations.", "Out of an Israeli population of 650,000, some 6,000 men and women were killed in the fighting, including 4,000 soldiers in the IDF (approximately 1% of the Jewish population).", "According to United Nations figures, 726,000 Palestinians had fled or were expelled by the Israelis between 1947 and 1949.===1948–1955: Ben-Gurion I; Sharett===A 120-seat parliament, the Knesset, met first in Tel Aviv then moved to Jerusalem after the 1949 ceasefire.", "In January 1949, Israel held its first elections.", "The Socialist-Zionist parties Mapai and Mapam won the most seats (46 and 19 respectively).", "Mapai's leader, David Ben-Gurion, was appointed Prime Minister, he formed a coalition which did not include Mapam who were Stalinist and loyal to the USSR (another Stalinist party, non-Zionist Maki won 4 seats).", "This was a significant decision, as it signaled that Israel would not be in the Soviet bloc.", "The Knesset elected Chaim Weizmann as the first (largely ceremonial) President of Israel.", "Hebrew and Arabic were made the official languages of the new state.", "All governments have been coalitions—no party has ever won a majority in the Knesset.", "From 1948 until 1977 all governments were led by Mapai and the Alignment, predecessors of the Labour Party.", "In those years Labour Zionists, initially led by David Ben-Gurion, dominated Israeli politics and the economy was run on primarily socialist lines.Within three years (1948 to 1951), immigration doubled the Jewish population of Israel and left an indelible imprint on Israeli society.", "Overall, 700,000 Jews settled in Israel during this period.", "Some 300,000 arrived from Asian and North African nations as part of the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries.", "Among them, the largest group (over 100,000) was from Iraq.", "The rest of the immigrants were from Europe, including more than 270,000 who came from Eastern Europe, mainly Romania and Poland (over 100,000 each).", "Nearly all the Jewish immigrants could be described as refugees, however only 136,000 who immigrated to Israel from Central Europe, had international certification because they belonged to the 250,000 Jews registered by the allies as displaced after World War II and living in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria and Italy.In 1950 the Knesset passed the Law of Return, which granted to all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry (Jewish grandparent), and their spouses, the right to settle in Israel and gain citizenship.", "That year, 50,000 Yemenite Jews (99%) were secretly flown to Israel in Operation Magic Carpet.", "In 1951 Iraqi Jews were granted temporary permission to leave the country and 120,000 (over 90%) opted to move to Israel as part of Operation Ezra and Nehemiah.", "Jews also fled from Lebanon, Syria and Egypt.", "By the late sixties, about 500,000 Jews had left Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.", "Over the course of twenty years, some 850,000 Jews from Arab countries (99%) relocated to Israel (680,000), France and the Americas.", "The land and property left behind by the Jews (much of it in Arab city centres) is still a matter of some dispute.", "Today there are about 9,000 Jews living in Arab states, of whom 75% live in Morocco and 15% in Tunisia.", "Vast assets, approximately $150 billion worth of goods and property (before inflation) were left behind in these countries.Menachem Begin addressing a mass demonstration in Tel Aviv against negotiations with Germany in 1952Between 1948 and 1958, the population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million.", "During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as the Austerity Period (''Tkufat haTsena'').", "Immigrants were mostly refugees with no money or possessions and many were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot.", "By 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in tents or prefabricated shacks built by the government.", "Israel received financial aid from private donations from outside the country (mainly the United States).", "The pressure on the new state's finances led Ben-Gurion to sign a controversial reparations agreement with West Germany.", "During the Knesset debate some 5,000 demonstrators gathered and riot police had to cordon the building.", "Israel received several billion marks and in return agreed to open diplomatic relations with Germany.In 1949, education was made free and compulsory for all citizens until the age of 14.The state now funded the party-affiliated Zionist education system and a new body created by the Haredi Agudat Israel party.", "A separate body was created to provide education for the remaining Palestinian-Arab population.", "The major political parties now competed for immigrants to join their education systems.", "The government banned the existing educational bodies from the transit camps and tried to mandate a unitary secular socialist education under the control of \"camp managers\" who also had to provide work, food and housing for the immigrants.", "There were attempts to force orthodox Yemenite children to adopt a secular life style by teachers, including many instances of Yemenite children having their side-curls cut by teachers.", "The Yemenite Children Affair led to the first Israeli public inquiry (the Fromkin Inquiry), the collapse of the coalition, and an election in 1951.In its early years Israel sought to maintain a non-aligned position between the super-powers.", "However, in 1952, an antisemitic public trial was staged in Moscow in which a group of Jewish doctors were accused of trying to poison Stalin (the Doctors' plot), followed by a similar trial in Czechoslovakia (Slánský trial).", "This, and the failure of Israel to be included in the Bandung Conference of 1955 (of non-aligned states), effectively ended Israel's pursuit of non-alignment.On 19 May 1950, in contravention of international law, Egypt announced that the Suez Canal was closed to Israeli ships and commerce.", "In 1952 a military coup in Egypt brought Abdel Nasser to power.", "The United States pursued close relations with the new Arab states, particularly the Nasser-led Egyptian Free Officers Movement and Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia.", "Israel's solution to diplomatic isolation was to establish good relations with newly independent states in Africa and with France, which was engaged in the Algerian War.In the January 1955 elections Mapai won 40 seats and the Labour Party 10, Moshe Sharett became prime minister of Israel at the head of a left-wing coalition.", "Between 1953 and 1956, there were intermittent clashes along all of Israel's borders as Arab terrorism and breaches of the ceasefire resulting in Israeli counter-raids.", "Palestinian fedayeen attacks, often organized and sponsored by the Egyptians, were made from (Egyptian) occupied Gaza.", "Fedayeen attacks led to a growing cycle of violence as Israel launched reprisal attacks against Gaza.", "In 1954 the Uzi submachine gun first entered use by the Israel Defense Forces.", "In 1955 the Egyptian government began recruiting former Nazi rocket scientists for a missile program.Sharett's government was brought down by the Lavon Affair, a crude plan to disrupt US–Egyptian relations, involving Israeli agents planting bombs at American sites in Egypt.", "The plan failed when eleven agents were arrested.", "Defense Minister Lavon was blamed despite his denial of responsibility.", "The Lavon affair led to Sharett's resignation and Ben-Gurion returned to the post of prime minister.===1955–1963: Ben-Gurion II===In 1955 Egypt concluded a massive arms deal with Czechoslovakia, upsetting the balance of power in the Middle East.", "In 1956, the increasingly pro-Soviet President Nasser of Egypt, announced the nationalization of the (French and British owned) Suez Canal, which was Egypt's main source of foreign currency.", "Egypt also blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba preventing Israeli access to the Red Sea.", "Israel made a secret agreement with the French at Sèvres to co-ordinate military operations against Egypt.", "Britain and France had already begun secret preparations for military action.", "It has been alleged that the French also agreed to build a nuclear plant for the Israelis and that by 1968 this was able to produce nuclear weapons.", "Britain and France arranged for Israel to give them a pretext for seizing the Suez Canal.", "Israel was to attack Egypt, and Britain and France would then call on both sides to withdraw.", "When, as expected, the Egyptians refused, Anglo-French forces would invade to take control of the Canal.Israeli paratroopers dig in near the Mitla Pass, 31 October 1956Israeli forces, commanded by General Moshe Dayan, launched Operation Kadesh against Egypt on 29 October 1956.On 30 October Britain and France made their pre-arranged call for both sides to stop fighting and withdraw from the Canal area, and for them to be allowed to take up positions at key points on the Canal.", "Egypt refused and the allies commenced air strikes on 31 October aimed at neutralizing the Egyptian air force.", "By 5 November the Israelis had overrun the Sinai.", "The Anglo-French invasion began that day.", "There was uproar in the UN, with the United States and USSR for once in agreement in denouncing the actions of Israel, Britain and France.", "A demand for a ceasefire was reluctantly accepted on 7 November.At Egypt's request, the UN sent an Emergency Force (UNEF), consisting of 6,000 peacekeeping troops from 10 nations to supervise the ceasefire.", "This was the first ever UN peacekeeping operation.", "From 15 November the UN troops marked out a zone across the Sinai to separate the Israeli and Egyptian forces.", "Upon receiving US guarantees of Israeli access to the Suez Canal, freedom of access out of the Gulf of Aqaba and Egyptian action to stop Palestinian raids from Gaza, the Israelis withdrew to the Negev.", "In practice the Suez Canal remained closed to Israeli shipping.", "The conflict marked the end of West-European dominance in the Middle East.", "Nasser emerged as the victor in the conflict, having won the political battle.In 1956, two modern-orthodox (and religious-zionist) parties, Mizrachi and Hapoel HaMizrachi, joined to form the National Religious Party.", "The party was a component of every Israeli coalition until 1992, usually running the Ministry of Education.", "Mapai was once again victorious in the 1959 elections, increasing its number of seats to 47, Labour had 7.Ben-Gurion remained Prime Minister.Trial of Adolf EichmannRudolph Kastner, a minor political functionary, was accused of collaborating with the Nazis and sued his accuser.", "Kastner lost the trial and was assassinated two years later.", "In 1958 the Supreme Court exonerated him.", "In May 1960 Adolf Eichmann, one of the chief administrators of the Nazi Holocaust, was located in Argentina by the Mossad, later kidnapping him and bringing him to Israel.", "In 1961 he was put on trial, and after several months found guilty and sentenced to death.", "He was hanged in 1962 and is the only person ever sentenced to death by an Israeli court.", "Testimonies by Holocaust survivors at the trial and the extensive publicity that surrounded it has led the trial to be considered a turning point in public awareness of the Holocaust.In 1961 a Herut no-confidence motion over the resurfaced Lavon affair led to Ben-Gurion's resignation.", "Ben-Gurion declared that he would only accept office if Lavon was fired from the position of the head of Histadrut, Israel's labour union organization.", "His demands were accepted and Mapai won the 1961 election (42 seats keeping Ben-Gurion as PM) with a slight reduction in its share of the seats.", "Menachem Begin's Herut party and the Liberals came next with 17 seats each.", "In 1962 the Mossad began assassinating German rocket scientists working in Egypt in Operation Damocles after one of them reported the missile program was designed to carry chemical warheads.", "This action was condemned by Ben-Gurion and led to the Mossad director, Isser Harel, resignation.", "In 1963 Ben-Gurion quit again over the Lavon affair.", "His attempts to make his party Mapai support him over the issue failed.", "Levi Eshkol became leader of Mapai and the new prime minister.===1963–1969: Eshkol===In 1963 Yigael Yadin began excavating Masada.", "In 1964, Egypt, Jordan and Syria developed a unified military command.", "Israel completed work on a national water carrier, a huge engineering project designed to transfer Israel's allocation of the Jordan river's waters towards the south of the country in realization of Ben-Gurion's dream of mass Jewish settlement of the Negev desert.", "The Arabs responded by trying to divert the headwaters of the Jordan, leading to growing conflict between Israel and Syria.Ben-Gurion quit Mapai to form the new party Rafi, he was joined by Shimon Peres and Moshe Dayan.", "Begin's Herut party joined with the Liberals to form Gahal.", "Mapai and Labour united for the 1965 elections, winning 45 seats and maintaining Levi Eshkol as Prime Minister.", "Ben-Gurion's Rafi party received 10 seats, Gahal got 26 seats becoming the second largest party.Until 1966, Israel's principal arms supplier was France, however in 1966, following the withdrawal from Algeria, Charles de Gaulle announced France would cease supplying Israel with arms (and refused to refund money paid for 50 warplanes).", "On 5 February 1966, the United States announced that it was taking over the former French and West German obligations, to maintain military \"stabilization\" in the Middle East.", "Included in the military hardware would be over 200 M48 tanks.", "In May of that year the US also agreed to provide A-4 Skyhawk tactical aircraft to Israel.", "In 1966 security restrictions placed on Arab-Israelis were eased and efforts made to integrate them into Israeli life.In 1966, black-and-white TV broadcasts began.", "On 15 May 1967, the first public performance of Naomi Shemer's classic song \"Jerusalem of Gold\" took place and over the next few weeks it dominated the Israeli airwaves.", "Two days later Syria, Egypt and Jordan amassed troops along the Israeli borders, and Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping.", "Nasser demanded that the UNEF leave Sinai, threatening escalation to a full war.", "Egyptian radio broadcasts talked of a coming genocide.", "On 26 May Nasser declared, \"''The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel''\".", "Israel considered the Straits of Tiran closure a Casus belli.", "Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq signed defence pacts and Iraqi troops began deploying to Jordan, Syria and Egypt.", "Algeria also announced that it would send troops to Egypt.", "Between 1963 and 1967 Egyptian troops had tested chemical weapons on Yemenite civilians as part of an Egyptian intervention in support of rebels.Gen.", "Uzi Narkiss, Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, Chief of staff Yitzhak Rabin and Gen. Rehavam Ze'evi in the Old City of Jerusalem, 7 June 1967On the morning before Dayan was sworn in, 5 June 1967, the Israeli air force launched Operation Focus, a series of pre-emptive attacks in which it pre-emptively attacked the Egyptian air force, kicking off the Six-Day War, and then, later the same day, struck the air forces of Jordan and Syria.", "By 11 June the Arab forces were routed and all parties had accepted the cease-fire called for by UN Security Council Resolutions 235 and 236.Israel gained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights, and the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River.", "East Jerusalem was annexed by Israel.The result of the 29 August 1967 Arab League summit was the Khartoum Resolution, which according to Abd al Azim Ramadan, left only one option -a war with Israel.In 1968 Moshe Levinger led a group of Religious Zionists who created the first Jewish settlement, a town near Hebron called Kiryat Arba.", "There were no other religious settlements until after 1974.Ben-Gurion's Rafi party merged with the Labour-Mapai alliance.", "Ben-Gurion remained outside as an independent.", "In 1968, compulsory education was extended until the age of 16 for all citizens (it had been 14) and the government embarked on an extensive program of integration in education.", "In the major cities children from mainly Sephardi/Mizrahi neighbourhoods were bused to newly established middle schools in better areas.", "The system remained in place until after 2000.In March 1968, Israeli forces attacked the Palestinian militia, Fatah, at its base in the Jordanian town of Karameh.", "The attack was in response to land mines placed on Israeli roads.", "The Israelis retreated after destroying the camp, however the Israelis sustained unexpectedly high casualties and the attack was not viewed as a success.", "Despite heavy casualties, the Palestinians claimed victory, while Fatah and the PLO (of which it formed part) became famous across the Arab world.", "In early 1969, fighting broke out between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal.", "In retaliation for repeated Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions along the Suez Canal, Israeli planes made deep strikes into Egypt in the 1969–1970 \"War of Attrition\".===1969–1974: Meir===In early 1969, Levi Eshkol died in office of a heart attack and Golda Meir became Prime Minister with the largest percentage of the vote ever won by an Israeli party, winning 56 of the 120 seats after the 1969 election.", "Meir was the first female prime minister of Israel and the first woman to have headed a Middle Eastern state in modern times.", "Gahal retained its 26 seats, and was the second largest party.In September 1970 King Hussein of Jordan drove the Palestine Liberation Organization out of his country.", "On 18 September 1970, Syrian tanks invaded Jordan, intending to aid the PLO.", "At the request of the US, Israel moved troops to the border and threatened Syria, causing the Syrians to withdraw.", "The centre of PLO activity then shifted to Lebanon, where the 1969 Cairo agreement gave the Palestinians autonomy within the south of the country.", "The area controlled by the PLO became known by the international press and locals as \"Fatahland\" and contributed to the 1975–1990 Lebanese Civil War.", "The event also led to Hafez al-Assad taking power in Syria.", "Egyptian President Nasser died of a heart attack immediately after and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat.Increased Soviet antisemitism and enthusiasm generated by the 1967 victory led to a wave of Soviet Jews applying to emigrate to Israel.", ".", "Most Jews were refused exit visas and persecuted by the authorities.", "Some were arrested, becoming known as Prisoners of Zion.", "During 1971, violent demonstrations by the Israeli Black Panthers, made the Israeli public aware of resentment among Mizrahi Jews at ongoing discrimination and social gaps.", "In 1972 the US Jewish Mafia leader, Meyer Lansky, who had taken refuge in Israel, was deported to the United States.At the 1972 Munich Olympics, two members of the Israeli team were killed, and nine members taken hostage by Palestinian terrorists.", "A botched German rescue attempt led to the death of the rest along with five of the eight hijackers.", "The three surviving Palestinians were released by the West German authorities eight weeks later without charge, in exchange for the hostages of hijacked Lufthansa Flight 615.The Israeli government responded with an air raid, a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon (led by future Prime Minister, Ehud Barak) and an assassination campaign against the organizers of the massacre.In 1972 the new Egyptian President Anwar Sadat expelled the Soviet advisers from Egypt.", "This and frequent invasion exercises by Egypt and Syria led to Israeli complacency about the threat from these countries.", "In addition the desire not to be held responsible for initiating conflict and an election campaign highlighting security, led to an Israeli failure to mobilize, despite receiving warnings of an impending attack.143rd Division crossing the Suez Canal in the direction of Cairo during the Yom Kippur War, 15 October 1973The Yom Kippur War (also known as the October War) began on 6 October 1973, with the Syrian and Egyptian armies launching a surprise attack against the unprepared Israeli Defense Forces.", "Both the Soviets and the Americans (at the orders of Henry Kissinger) rushed arms to their allies in Operation Nickel Grass.", "The Syrians were repulsed at the Valley of Tears on the Golan and, while the Egyptians captured a strip of territory in Sinai, but were outflanked by Israeli forces over the Suez Canal in the Battle of Ismailia, which trapped the Egyptian Third Army in Sinai.", "On 18 January 1974, US diplomatic efforts led to a Disengagement of Forces agreement with the Egyptian government and on 31 May with the Syrian government.The war was the catalyst for the 1973 oil crisis, a Saudi-led oil embargo in conjunction with OPEC against countries trading with Israel.", "Severe shortages led to massive increases in the price of oil, and as a result, many countries broke off relations with Israel or downgraded relations, and Israel was banned from participation in the Asian Games and other Asian sporting events.Prior to the December 1973 elections, Gahal and a number of right-wing parties united to form the Likud (led by Begin).", "In the December 1973 elections, Labour won 51 seats, leaving Golda Meir as Prime Minister.", "The Likud won 39 seats.In May 1974, Palestinians attacked a school in Ma'alot, holding 102 children hostage.", "Twenty-two children were killed.", "In November 1974 the PLO was granted observer status at the UN and Yasser Arafat addressed the General Assembly.", "Later that year, the Agranat Commission, appointed to assess responsibility for Israel's lack of preparedness for the war, exonerated the government of responsibility, and held the Chief of Staff and head of military intelligence responsible.", "Despite the report, public anger at the Government led to Golda Meir's resignation.===1974–1977: Rabin I===Following Meir's resignation, Yitzhak Rabin became prime minister.", "Religious Zionist followers of the teachings of Abraham Isaac Kook, formed the Gush Emunim movement, and began an organized drive to settle the West Bank and Gaza Strip.", "In November 1975, the United Nations General Assembly, under the guidance of Austrian Secretary General Kurt Waldheim, adopted Resolution 3379, which asserted Zionism to be a form of racism.", "The General Assembly rescinded this resolution in December 1991 with Resolution 46/86.In March 1976, there was a massive strike by Israeli-Arabs in protest at a government plan to expropriate land in the Galilee.In July 1976, Rabin ordered Operation Entebbe to rescue kidnapped Jewish passengers from an Air France flight hijacked by PFLP militants and German revolutionaries and flown to Uganda.In January 1977, French authorities arrested Abu Daoud, the planner of the Munich massacre, releasing him a few days later.", "In March 1977 Anatoly Sharansky, a prominent Refusenik and spokesman for the Moscow Helsinki Group, was sentenced to 13 years' hard labour.Rabin resigned in April 1977 after it emerged that his wife maintained a dollar account in the United States (illegal at the time), which had been opened while Rabin was Israeli ambassador.", "The incident became known as the Dollar Account affair.", "Shimon Peres informally replaced him as prime minister, leading the Alignment in the subsequent elections.===1977–1983: Begin===In a surprise result, the Likud led by Menachem Begin won 43 seats in the 1977 elections.", "This was the first time in Israeli history that the government was not led by the left.", "In November 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat visited Jerusalem and spoke at the Knesset at the invitation of Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin.", "Sadat recognized Israel's right to exist and established the basis for direct negotiations between Egypt and Israel.", "Following Sadat's visit, 350 Yom Kippur War veterans organized the Peace Now movement to encourage Israeli governments to make peace with the Arabs.In March 1978, eleven armed Lebanese Palestinians reached Israel in boats and carried out the Coastal Road Massacre in opposition to the Egyptian–Israeli peace process.", "Three days later, Israeli forces crossed into Lebanon beginning Operation Litani.", "After passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 425, calling for Israeli withdrawal and the creation of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) peace-keeping force, Israel withdrew its troops.Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter and Anwar Sadat celebrating the signing of the Camp David AccordsIn September 1978, US President Jimmy Carter invited President Sadat and Prime Minister Begin to meet with him at Camp David, and on 11 September they agreed on a framework for peace between Israel and Egypt, and a comprehensive peace in the Middle East.", "It set out broad principles to guide negotiations between Israel and the Arab states.", "It also established guidelines for a West Bank–Gaza transitional regime of full autonomy for the Palestinians residing in these territories, and for a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel.", "The treaty was signed 26 March 1979 by Begin and Sadat, with President Carter signing as witness.", "Under the treaty, Israel returned the Sinai peninsula to Egypt in April 1982.The Arab League reacted to the peace treaty by suspending Egypt from the organization and moving its headquarters from Cairo to Tunis.", "Sadat was assassinated in 1981 by Islamic fundamentalist members of the Egyptian army who opposed peace with Israel.", "Following the agreement Israel and Egypt became the two largest recipients of US military and financial aid (Iraq and Afghanistan have now overtaken them).In December 1978 the Israeli Merkava battle tank entered use with the IDF.", "In 1979, over 40,000 Iranian Jews migrated to Israel, escaping the Islamic Revolution there.", "On 30 June 1981, the Israeli air force destroyed the Osirak nuclear reactor in Operation Opera that France was building for Iraq.", "Three weeks later, Begin won again, in the 1981 elections (48 seats Likud, 47 Labour).", "Ariel Sharon was made defence minister.", "The new government annexed the Golan Heights and banned the national airline from flying on Shabbat.", "By the 1980s a diverse set of high-tech industries had developed in Israel.In the decades following the 1948 war, Israel's border with Lebanon was quiet compared to its borders with other neighbours.", "But the 1969 Cairo agreement gave the PLO a free hand to attack Israel from South Lebanon.", "The area was governed by the PLO independently of the Lebanese Government and became known as \"Fatahland\" (Fatah was the largest faction in the PLO).", "Palestinian irregulars constantly shelled the Israeli north, especially the town of Kiryat Shmona, which was a Likud stronghold inhabited primarily by Jews who had fled the Arab world.", "Lack of control over Palestinian areas was an important factor in causing civil war in Lebanon.In June 1982, the attempted assassination of Shlomo Argov, the ambassador to Britain, was used as a pretext for an Israeli invasion aiming to drive the PLO out of the southern half of Lebanon.", "Sharon agreed with Chief of Staff Raphael Eitan to expand the invasion deep into Lebanon even though the cabinet had only authorized a 40 kilometre deep invasion.", "The invasion became known as the 1982 Lebanon War and the Israeli army occupied Beirut, the only time an Arab capital has been occupied by Israel.", "Some of the Shia and Christian population of South Lebanon welcomed the Israelis, as PLO forces had maltreated them, but Lebanese resentment of Israeli occupation grew over time and the Shia became gradually radicalized under Iranian guidance.", "Constant casualties among Israeli soldiers and Lebanese civilians led to growing opposition to the war in Israel.In August 1982, the PLO withdrew its forces from Lebanon (moving to Tunisia).", "Bashir Gemayel was elected President of Lebanon, and reportedly agreed to recognize Israel and sign a peace treaty.", "However, Gemayal was assassinated before an agreement could be signed, and one day later Phalangist Christian forces led by Elie Hobeika entered two Palestinian refugee camps and massacred the occupants.", "The massacres led to the biggest demonstration ever in Israel against the war, with as many as 400,000 people (almost 10% of the population) gathering in Tel Aviv.", "In 1983, an Israeli public inquiry found that Israel's defence minister, Sharon, was indirectly but personally responsible for the massacres.", "It also recommended that he never again be allowed to hold the post (it did not forbid him from being Prime Minister).", "In 1983, the May 17 Agreement was signed between Israel and Lebanon, paving the way for an Israeli withdrawal from Lebanese territory through a few stages.", "Israel continued to operate against the PLO until its eventual departure in 1985, and kept a small force stationed in Southern Lebanon in support of the South Lebanon Army until May 2000.===1983–1992: Shamir I; Peres I; Shamir II===Patriot missiles launched to intercept an Iraqi Scud over Tel Aviv during the Gulf WarIn September 1983, Begin resigned and was succeeded by Yitzhak Shamir as prime minister.", "The 1984 election was inconclusive, and led to a power sharing agreement between Shimon Peres of the Alignment and Shamir of Likud.", "Peres was prime minister from 1984 to 1986 and Shamir from 1986 to 1988.In 1984, continual discrimination against Sephardi Ultra-Orthodox Jews by the Ashkenazi Ultra-Orthodox establishment led political activist Aryeh Deri to leave the Agudat Israel party and join former chief Rabbi Ovadia Yosef in forming Shas, a new party aimed at the non-Ashkenazi Ultra-Orthodox vote.In June 1985, Israel withdrew most of its troops from Lebanon, leaving a residual Israeli force and an Israeli-supported militia in southern Lebanon as a \"security zone\" and buffer against attacks on its northern territory.", "Since then, the IDF fought for many years against the Shia organization Hezbollah, which became a growing threat to Israel.", "By July 1985, Israel's inflation, buttressed by complex index linking of salaries, had reached 480% per annum and was the highest in the world.", "Peres introduced emergency control of prices and cut government expenditure successfully bringing inflation under control.", "The currency (known as the old Israeli shekel) was replaced and renamed the Israeli new shekel at a rate of 1,000 old shkalim = 1 new shekel.Growing Israeli settlement and continuing occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip led to the First Intifada in 1987, which lasted until the Oslo accords of 1993, despite Israeli attempts to suppress it.", "Human rights abuses by Israeli troops led a group of Israelis to form B'Tselem, an organization devoted to improving awareness and compliance with human rights requirements in Israel.The Alignment and Likud remained neck and neck in the 1988 elections.", "Shamir successfully formed a national unity coalition with the Labour Alignment.", "In March 1990, Alignment leader Shimon Peres engineered a defeat of the government in a non-confidence vote and then tried to form a new government.", "The attempt, which became known as \"the dirty trick\", failed and Shamir became prime minister at the head of a right-wing coalition.In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, triggering the Gulf War between Iraq and a large allied force, led by the United States.", "Iraq attacked Israel with 39 Scud missiles.", "Israel did not retaliate at request of the US, fearing that if Israel responded against Iraq, other Arab nations might desert the allied coalition.The coalition's victory in the Gulf War opened new possibilities for regional peace, and in October 1991 the US president, George H. W. Bush, and Soviet Union Premier, Mikhail Gorbachev, jointly convened a historic meeting in Madrid of Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders.", "Shamir opposed the idea but agreed in return for loan guarantees to help with absorption of immigrants from the former Soviet Union.", "His participation in the conference led to the collapse of his (right-wing) coalition.===1992–1996: Rabin II; Peres II===In the 1992 elections, the Labour Party, led by Yitzhak Rabin, won a significant victory (44 seats) promising to pursue peace while promoting Rabin as a \"tough general\" and pledging not to deal with the PLO in any way.", "The left Zionist party Meretz won 12 seats, and the Arab and communist parties a further 5, meaning that parties supporting a peace treaty had a full (albeit small) majority in the Knesset.Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton, and Yasser Arafat during the Oslo Accords signing ceremony at the White House on 13 September 1993On 25 July 1993, Israel carried out a week-long military operation in Lebanon to attack Hezbollah positions dubbed Operation Accountability.", "On 13 September 1993, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed the Oslo Accords (a Declaration of Principles) on the South Lawn of the White House.", "The principles established objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian Authority, as a prelude to a final treaty establishing a Palestinian state, in exchange for mutual recognition.", "The DOP established May 1999 as the date by which a permanent status agreement for the West Bank and Gaza Strip would take effect.", "In February 1994, Baruch Goldstein, a follower of the Kach party, killed 29 Palestinians and wounded 125 at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, which became known as the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre.", "Kach had been barred from participation in the 1992 elections (on the grounds that the movement was racist).", "It was subsequently made illegal.", "Israel and the PLO signed the Gaza–Jericho Agreement in May 1994, and the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities in August, which began the process of transferring authority from Israel to the Palestinians.", "On 25 July 1994, Jordan and Israel signed the Washington Declaration, which formally ended the state of war that had existed between them since 1948 and on 26 October the Israel–Jordan Treaty of Peace, witnessed by US President Bill Clinton.Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat signed the Israeli–Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip on 28 September 1995 in Washington.", "The agreement was witnessed by President Bill Clinton on behalf of the United States and by Russia, Egypt, Norway and the European Union, and incorporates and supersedes the previous agreements, marking the conclusion of the first stage of negotiations between Israel and the PLO.", "The agreement allowed allowed the PLO leadership to relocate to the occupied territories and granted autonomy to the Palestinians with talks to follow regarding final status.", "In return the Palestinians promised to abstain from use of terror and changed the Palestinian National Covenant, which had called for the expulsion of all Jews who migrated after 1917 and the elimination of Israel.The agreement was opposed by Hamas and other Palestinian factions, which launched suicide bomber attacks at Israel.", "Rabin had a barrier constructed around Gaza to prevent attacks.", "The growing separation between Israel and the \"Palestinian Territories\" led to a labour shortage in Israel, mainly in the construction industry.", "Israeli firms began importing labourers from the Philippines, Thailand, China and Romania; some of these labourers stayed on without visas.", "In addition, a growing number of Africans began illegally migrating to Israel.", "On 4 November 1995, a far-right-wing religious Zionist opponent of the Oslo Accords assassinated Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.", "In February 1996 Rabin's successor, Shimon Peres, called early elections.", "In April 1996, Israel launched Operation Grapes of Wrath in southern Lebanon as a result of Hezbollah's Katyusha rocket attacks on Israeli population centres along the border.===1996–2001: Netanyahu I; Barak===The May 1996 elections were the first featuring direct election of the prime minister and resulted in a narrow election victory for Likud leader Binyamin Netanyahu.", "A spate of suicide bombings reinforced the Likud position for security.", "Hamas claimed responsibility for most of the bombings.", "Despite his stated differences with the Oslo Accords, Prime Minister Netanyahu continued their implementation, but his prime ministership saw a marked slow-down in the Peace Process.", "Netanyahu also pledged to gradually reduce US aid to Israel.In September 1996, a Palestinian riot broke out against the creation of an exit in the Western Wall tunnel.", "Over the subsequent few weeks, around 80 people were killed as a result.", "In January 1997 Netanyahu signed the Hebron Protocol with the Palestinian Authority, resulting in the redeployment of Israeli forces in Hebron and the turnover of civilian authority in much of the area to the Palestinian Authority.In the election of July 1999, Ehud Barak of the Labour Party became Prime Minister.", "His party was the largest in the Knesset with 26 seats.", "In September 1999 the Supreme Court of Israel ruled that the use of torture in interrogation of Palestinian prisoners was illegal.", "On 21 March 2000, Pope John Paul II arrived in Israel for an historic visit.On 25 May 2000, Israel unilaterally withdrew its remaining forces from the \"security zone\" in southern Lebanon.", "Several thousand members of the South Lebanon Army (and their families) left with the Israelis.", "The UN Secretary-General concluded that, as of 16 June 2000, Israel had withdrawn its forces from Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425.Lebanon claims that Israel continues to occupy Lebanese territory called \"Sheba'a Farms\" (however this area was governed by Syria until 1967 when Israel took control).", "The Sheba'a Farms provided Hezbollah with a pretext to maintain warfare with Israel.", "The Lebanese government, in contravention of the UN Security Council resolution, did not assert sovereignty in the area, which came under Hezbollah control.", "In the Fall of 2000, talks were held at Camp David to reach a final agreement on the Israel/Palestine conflict.", "Ehud Barak offered to meet most of the Palestinian teams requests for territory and political concessions, including Arab parts of east Jerusalem; however, Arafat abandoned the talks without making a counterproposal.Following its withdrawal from South Lebanon, Israel became a member of the Western European and Others Group at the United Nations.", "Prior to this Israel was the only nation at the UN which was not a member of any group (the Arab states would not allow it to join the Asia group), which meant it could not be a member of the Security Council or appoint anyone to the International Court and other key UN roles.", "Since December 2013 it has been a permanent member of the group.", "Since December 2013 it has been a permanent member of the group.On 28 September 2000, Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visited the Al-Aqsa compound, or Temple Mount, the following day the Palestinians launched the al-Aqsa Intifada.", "David Samuels and Khaled Abu Toameh have stated that the uprising was planned much earlier.In 2001, with the Peace Process increasingly in disarray, Ehud Barak called a special election for Prime Minister.", "Barak hoped a victory would give him renewed authority in negotiations with the Palestinians.", "Instead opposition leader Ariel Sharon was elected PM.", "After this election, the system of directly electing the Premier was abandoned.===2001–2006: Sharon===The Gaza–Israel barrier route built (red), under construction (pink) and proposed (white), The failure of the peace process, increased Palestinian terror and occasional attacks by Hezbollah from Lebanon, led much of the Israeli public and political leadership to lose confidence in the Palestinian Authority as a peace partner.", "Most felt that many Palestinians viewed the peace treaty with Israel as a temporary measure only.", "Many Israelis were thus anxious to disengage from the Palestinians.", "In response to a wave of suicide bomb attacks, culminating in the Passover massacre (see List of Israeli civilian casualties in the Second Intifada), Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield in March 2002, and Sharon began the construction of a barrier around the West Bank.", "Around the same time, the Israeli town of Sderot and other Israeli communities near Gaza became subject to constant shelling and mortar bomb attacks from Gaza.Thousands of Jews from Latin America began arriving in Israel due to economic crises in their countries of origin.", "In January 2003 separate elections were held for the Knesset.", "Likud won the most seats (27).", "An anti-religion party, Shinui, led by media pundit Tommy Lapid, won 15 seats on a secularist platform, making it the third largest party (ahead of orthodox Shas).", "Internal fighting led to Shinui's demise at the next election.", "In 2004, the Black Hebrews were granted permanent residency in Israel.", "The group had begun migrating to Israel 25 years earlier from the United States, but had not been recognized as Jews by the state and hence not granted citizenship under Israel's Law of Return.", "They had settled in Israel without official status.", "From 2004 onwards, they received citizen's rights.In 2005, all Jewish settlers were evacuated from Gaza (some forcibly) and their homes demolished.", "Disengagement from the Gaza Strip was completed on 12 September 2005.Military disengagement from the northern West Bank was completed ten days later.In 2005 Sharon left the Likud and formed a new party called Kadima, which accepted that the peace process would lead to creation of a Palestinian state.", "He was joined by many leading figures from both Likud and Labour.Hamas won the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, the first and only genuinely free Palestinian elections.", "Hamas' leaders rejected all agreements signed with Israel, refused to recognize Israel's right to exist, refused to abandon terror, and occasionally claimed the Holocaust was a Jewish conspiracy.", "The withdrawal and Hamas victory left the status of Gaza unclear, as Israel asserted it was no longer an occupying power but continued to control air and sea access to Gaza although it did not exercise sovereignty on the ground.", "Egypt insisted that it was still occupied and refused to open border crossings with Gaza, although it was free to do so.In April 2006 Ariel Sharon was incapacitated by a severe hemorrhagic stroke and Ehud Olmert became Prime Minister.===2006–2009: Olmert===Ehud Olmert was elected Prime Minister after his party, Kadima, won the most seats (29) in the 2006 Israeli legislative election.", "In 2005 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was officially elected president of Iran; since then, Iranian policy towards Israel has grown more confrontational.On 14 March 2006, Israel carried out Operation Bringing Home the Goods in the Palestinian Authority prison of Jericho in order to capture Ahmad Sa'adat and several Palestinian Arab prisoners located there who assassinated Israeli politician Rehavam Ze'evi in 2001.The operation was conducted as a result of the expressed intentions of the newly elected Hamas government to release these prisoners.", "On 25 June 2006, a Hamas force crossed the border from Gaza and attacked a tank, capturing Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit, sparking clashes in Gaza.Nahal Brigade soldiers returning after the 2006 Lebanon WarOn 12 July, Hezbollah attacked Israel from Lebanon, shelled Israeli towns and attacked a border patrol, taking two dead or badly wounded Israeli soldiers.", "These incidents led Israel to initiate the Second Lebanon War, which lasted through August 2006.Israeli forces entered some villages in Southern Lebanon, while the air force attacked targets all across the country.", "Israel only made limited ground gains until the launch of Operation Changing Direction 11, which lasted for 3 days with disputed results.", "Shortly before a UN ceasefire came into effect, Israeli troops captured Wadi Saluki.", "The war concluded with Hezbollah evacuating its forces from Southern Lebanon, while the IDF remained until its positions could be handed over to the Lebanese Armed Forces and UNIFIL.In June 2007 Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip in the course of the Battle of Gaza, seizing government institutions and replacing Fatah and other government officials with its own.", "Following the takeover, Egypt and Israel imposed a partial blockade, on the grounds that Fatah had fled and was no longer providing security on the Palestinian side, and to prevent arms smuggling by terrorist groups.", "On 6 September 2007, the Israeli Air Force destroyed a nuclear reactor in Syria in Operation Orchard.", "On 28 February 2008, Israel launched Operation Hot Winter in Gaza in response to the constant firing of Qassam rockets by Hamas militants.", "On 16 July 2008, Hezbollah swapped the bodies of Israeli soldiers Ehud Goldwasser and Eldad Regev, kidnapped in 2006, in exchange for the Lebanese terrorist Samir Kuntar, four Hezbollah prisoners, and the bodies of 199 Palestinian Arab and Lebanese fighters.Olmert came under investigation for corruption and this led him to announce on 30 July 2008, that he would be stepping down as Prime Minister following election of a new leader of the Kadima party in September 2008.Tzipi Livni won the election, but was unable to form a coalition and Olmert remained in office until the general election.", "Israel carried out Operation Cast Lead in the Gaza Strip from 27 December 2008 to 18 January 2009 in response to rocket attacks from Hamas militants, leading to a decrease of Palestinian rocket attacks.===2009–2021: Netanyahu II===In the 2009 legislative election Likud won 27 seats and Kadima 28; however, the right-wing camp won a majority of seats, and President Shimon Peres called on Netanyahu to form the government.", "Russian immigrant-dominated Yisrael Beiteinu came third with 15 seats, and Labour was reduced to fourth place with 13 seats.", "In 2009, Israeli billionaire Yitzhak Tshuva announced the discovery of huge natural gas reserves off the coast of Israel.On 31 May 2010, an international incident broke out in the Mediterranean Sea when foreign activists trying to break the maritime blockade over Gaza, clashed with Israeli troops.", "During the struggle, nine Turkish activists were killed.", "In late September 2010 took place direct negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians without success.", "As a defensive countermeasure to the rocket threat against Israel's civilian population, at the end of March 2011 Israel began to operate the advanced mobile air defence system \"Iron Dome\" in the southern region of Israel and along the border with the Gaza Strip.Protest in Tel Aviv on 6 August 2011\tOn 14 July 2011, the 2011 Israeli housing protests, in which hundreds of thousands of protesters from a variety of socio-economic and religious backgrounds in Israel protested against the continuing rise in the cost of living (particularly housing) and the deterioration of public services in the country (such as health and education).", "It was the largest social protest in the history of Israel, and peaked on 3 September 2011, when about 400,000 people demonstrated across the country.In October 2011, a deal was reached between Israel and Hamas, by which the kidnapped Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit was released in exchange for 1,027 Palestinians and Arab-Israeli prisoners.", "In March 2012, Secretary-general of the Popular Resistance Committees, Zuhir al-Qaisi, a senior PRC member and two additional Palestinian militants were assassinated during a targeted killing carried out by Israeli forces in Gaza.In May 2012, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu reached an agreement with the Head of Opposition Shaul Mofaz for Kadima to join the government, thus cancelling the early election supposed to be held in September.", "However, in July, the Kadima party left Netanyahu's government due to a dispute concerning military conscription for ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel.In response to over a hundred rocket attacks on southern Israeli cities, Israel began Operation Pillar of Defense in Gaza on 14 November 2012, with the targeted killing of Ahmed Jabari, chief of Hamas military wing, and airstrikes against twenty underground sites housing long-range missile launchers capable of striking Tel Aviv.", "In January 2013, construction of the barrier on the Israeli–Egyptian border was completed in its main section.Benjamin Netanyahu was elected Prime Minister again after the Likud Yisrael Beiteinu alliance won the most seats (31) in the 2013 legislative election and formed a coalition government with secular centrist Yesh Atid party (19), rightist The Jewish Home (12) and Livni's Hatnuah (6), excluding Haredi parties.", "Labour came in third with 15 seats.", "In July 2013, as a \"good will gesture\" to restart peace talks with the Palestinian Authority, Israel agreed to release 104 Palestinian prisoners, most of whom had been in jail since before the 1993 Oslo Accords, including militants who had killed Israeli civilians.", "In April 2014, Israel suspended peace talks after Hamas and Fatah agreed to form a unity government.Following an escalation of rocket attacks by Hamas, Israel started Operation Protective Edge in the Gaza Strip on 8 July 2014, which included a ground incursion aimed at destroying the cross-border tunnels.", "Differences over the budget and a \"Jewish state\" bill triggered early elections in December 2014.After the 2015 Israeli elections, Netanyahu renewed his mandate as Prime Minister when Likud obtained 30 seats and formed a right-wing coalition government with Kulanu (10), The Jewish Home (8), and Orthodox parties Shas (7) and United Torah Judaism (6), the bare minimum of seats required to form a coalition.", "The Zionist Union alliance came second with 24 seats.", "A wave of lone-wolf attacks by Palestinians took place in 2015 and 2016, particularly stabbings.Embassy of the United States in Jerusalem in 2018On 6 December 2017, President Donald Trump formally announced United States recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, which was followed by the United States recognition of the Golan Heights as part of Israel on 25 March 2019.In March 2018, Palestinians in Gaza initiated \"the Great March of Return,\" a series of weekly protests along the Gaza–Israel border.The COVID-19 pandemic began in Israel with the first case detected in February 2020 and the first death being that of a Holocaust survivor in March 2020.Israel Shield was the government's program to combat against the virus.", "Nationwide lockdowns and mask mandates were present throughout the country for much of 2020 into 2021, with the vaccination campaign beginning in December 2020 along with green passes.In late 2020, Israel normalised relations with four Arab League countries: the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain in September (known as the Abraham Accords), Sudan in October, and Morocco in December.", "In May 2021, after tensions escalated in Jerusalem, Israel launched Operation Guardian of the Walls, trading blows with Hamas for eleven days.The 2019–2022 political crisis featured political instability in Israel leading to five elections to the Knesset over a 4 year time period.", "The April 2019 and September 2019 elections saw no party able to form a coalition leading to the March 2020 election.", "This election again looked to result in deadlock, but due to the worsening COVID-19 pandemic, Netanyahu, and Blue and White leader, Benny Gantz, were able to establish a unity government with a planned rotating prime ministership where Netanyahu would serve first and later be replaced by Gantz.", "The coalition failed by December due to a dispute over the budget and new elections were called for March 2021.===2021–present: Bennett; Lapid; Netanyahu III===Following the March 2021 election, Naftali Bennett signed a coalition agreement with Yair Lapid and different parties opposed to Netanyahu on the right, center and left whereby Bennett would serve as Prime Minister until September 2023 and then Lapid would assume the role until November 2025.An Israeli Arab party, Ra'am, was included in the government coalition for the first time in decades.", "In June 2022, following several legislative defeats for the governing coalition, Bennett announced the introduction of a bill to dissolve the Knesset and call for new elections to be held in November.", "Yair Lapid became the new interim Prime Minister.", "After the 2022 elections, Netanyahu was able to return as Prime Minister under a coalition that included Likud, Shas, United Torah Judaism, Religious Zionist Party, Otzma Yehudit and Noam, in what was described as the most right-wing government in the country's history.", "The government has overseen an uptick in violence in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, driven by military actions such as the July 2023 Jenin incursion as well as Palestinian political violence, producing a death toll in 2023 that is the highest in the conflict since 2005.In October 2023, the 2023 Israel–Hamas war started." ], [ "Demographics", "+ Population of the Land of Israel 65–650 65 100 150 300 550 650 Estimated Jewish Population (thousands) 2,500 1,800 1,200 500 200 100 Estimated Total Population 3,000 2,300 1,800 1,100 1,500 1,500+ Development of Israel by decade 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Population (thousands) 1,370.1 2,150.4 3,022.1 3,921.7 4,821.7 6,369.3 7,695.1 9,097.0 World Jewry percentage 6% 15% 20% 25% 30% 38% 42% 44% GDP per capita (current US$) 1,366 1,806 5,617 11,264 19,859 28,522 34,788" ], [ "See also", "* Archaeology of Israel* Hebrew calendar* History of the Arab–Israeli conflict* History of the Israel Defense Forces* History of Jerusalem* History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel* History of the Middle East* History of Palestine* History of Zionism* Jewish history* Jewish military history* Levantine archaeology* LGBT history in Israel* List of Israeli museums* List of Jewish leaders in the Land of Israel* List of years in Israel* Politics of Israel* Postage stamps and postal history of Israel* Time periods in the Palestine region* Timeline of Israeli history* Timeline of the Palestine region" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Berger, Earl ''The Covenant and the Sword: Arab–Israeli Relations, 1948–56'', London, Routledge K. Paul, 1965.", "* Bregman, Ahron ''A History of Israel'', Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 .", "* * Butler, L. J.", "''Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World'' I.B.", "Tauris 2002 * Caspit, Ben.", "''The Netanyahu Years'' (2017) excerpt * Darwin, John ''Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World'' Palgrave Macmillan 1988 * Davis, John, ''The Evasive Peace: a Study of the Zionist-Arab Problem'', London: J. Murray, 1968.", "* Eytan, Walter ''The First Ten Years: a Diplomatic History of Israel'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1958* Feis, Herbert.", "''The birth of Israel: the tousled diplomatic bed'' (1969) online* * Gilbert, Martin ''Israel: A History'', New York: Morrow, 1998 .", "* Horrox, James ''A Living Revolution: Anarchism in the Kibbutz Movement'', Oakland: AK Press, 2009* Herzog, Chaim ''The Arab–Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the War of Independence to Lebanon'', London: Arms and Armour; Tel Aviv, Israel: Steimatzky, 1984 .", "* Israel Office of Information ''Israel's Struggle for Peace'', New York, 1960.", "* Klagsbrun, Francine.", "''Lioness: Golda Meir and the Nation of Israel'' (Schocken, 2017) excerpt .", "* Laqueur, Walter ''Confrontation: the Middle-East War and World Politics'', London: Wildwood House, 1974, .", "* * Lucas, Noah ''The Modern History of Israel'', New York: Praeger, 1975.", "* * Morris, Benny ''1948: A History of the First Arab–Israeli War'', Yale University Press, 2008..* O'Brian, Conor Cruise ''The Siege: the Saga of Israel and Zionism'', New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 .", "* Oren, Michael ''Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 .", "* Pfeffer, Anshel.", "''Bibi: The Turbulent Life and Times of Benjamin Netanyahu'' (2018).", "* Rabinovich, Itamar.", "''Yitzhak Rabin: Soldier, Leader, Statesman'' (Yale UP, 2017).", "excerpt * Rubinstein, Alvin Z.", "(editor) ''The Arab–Israeli Conflict: Perspectives'', New York: Praeger, 1984 .", "* Lord Russell of Liverpool, ''If I Forget Thee; the Story of a Nation's Rebirth'', London, Cassell 1960.", "* Samuel, Rinna ''A History of Israel: the Birth, Growth and Development of Today's Jewish State'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989 .", "* Schultz, Joseph & Klausner, Carla ''From Destruction to Rebirth: The Holocaust and the State of Israel'', Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1978 .", "* Segev, Tom ''The Seventh Million: the Israelis and the Holocaust'', New York: Hill and Wang, 1993 .", "* Shapira Anita.", "‘'Israel: A History'’ (Brandeis University Press/University Press of New England; 2012) 502 pages;* Sharon, Assaf, \"The Long Paralysis of the Israeli Left\" (review of Dan Ephron, ''Killing a King: The Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin and the Remaking of Israel'', Norton, 290 pp.", "; and Itamar Rabinovich, ''Yitzhak Rabin: Soldier, Leader, Statesman'', Yale University Press, 272 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXVI, no.", "17 (7 November 2019), pp. 32–34.", "* Shatz, Adam, \"We Are Conquerors\" (review of Tom Segev, ''A State at Any Cost: The Life of David Ben-Gurion'', Head of Zeus, 2019, 804 pp., ), ''London Review of Books'', vol.", "41, no.", "20 (24 October 2019), pp.", "37–38, 40–42.", "\"Segev's biography... shows how central exclusionary nationalism, war and racism were to Ben-Gurion's vision of the Jewish homeland in Palestine, and how contemptuous he was not only of the Arabs but of Jewish life outside Zion.", "Liberal Jews may look at the state that Ben-Gurion built, and ask if the cost has been worth it.\"", "(p. 42 of Shatz's review.", ")* Shlaim, Avi, ''The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World ''(2001)* Talmon, Jacob L. ''Israel Among the Nations'', London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970 .", "* Wolffsohn, Michael ''Eternal Guilt?", ": Forty years of German-Jewish-Israeli Relations'', New York: Columbia University Press, 1993 .===Primary sources===* Laqueur, Walter, and Dan Schueftan, eds.", "''The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict'' (8th ed.", "Penguin, 2016).", "online 2001 edition" ], [ "External links", "* Facts About Israel: History at the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs* Israel profile – Timeline at the BBC News Online* History of Israel at the Knesset website* Official website of the Israel State Archives*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harvey Mudd College" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harvey Mudd College''' ('''HMC''') is a private liberal arts college in Claremont, California, focused on science and engineering.", "It is part of the Claremont Colleges, which share adjoining campus grounds and resources.", "The college enrolled 902 undergraduate students and awards the Bachelor of Science degree.", "Admission to Harvey Mudd is highly competitive, and the college maintains a competitive academic culture.The college was funded by the friends and family of Harvey Seeley Mudd, one of the initial investors in the Cyprus Mines Corporation.", "Although involved in planning of the new institution, Mudd died before it opened in 1955.The campus was designed by Edward Durell Stone in a modernist brutalist style." ], [ "History", "Harvey Mudd College was founded in 1955.Classes began in 1957, with a founding class of 48 students, 7 faculty and one building–Mildred E. Mudd Hall, a dormitory.", "Classes and meals took place at then-Claremont Men’s College, now Claremont McKenna College, and labs in the Baxter Science Building until additional buildings could be built: Jacobs Science Building (1959), Thomas-Garett Hall (1961) and Platt Campus Center (1963).", "By 1966, the campus had grown to 283 students and 43 faculty.Under the presidency of Maria Klawe, begun in 2006, Harvey Mudd became a leading advocate for women in STEM in higher education.In April 2017, all classes were canceled for two days in response to tensions on campus over workload, race issues, and mistrust of faculty.", "Contributing events included the deaths of two Mudd students and a Scripps student that year and the leak of the Wabash Report on teaching, learning, and workload at Mudd.On July 1, 2023, Harriet Nembhard began her term as the sixth President of Harvey Mudd College." ], [ "Campus", "The former Norman F. Sprague Memorial LibraryOutdoor classes at Harvey MuddThe original buildings of the campus, designed by Edward Durell Stone and completed in 1959, feature \"knobbly concrete squares that students of Harvey Mudd affectionately call \"warts\" and use as hooks for skateboards.\"", "The school's unofficial mascot \"Wally the Wart\" is an anthropomorphic concrete wart.In 2013, ''Travel and Leisure'' named the college as one of \"America's ugliest college campuses\" and noted that while Stone regarded his design as a \"Modernist masterpiece,\" the result was \"layering drab, slab-sided buildings with Beaux-Arts decoration.", "\"=== Academic buildings ===The official names for the academic buildings of Harvey Mudd College are:* F.W.", "Olin Science Center (\"Olin\") - 1992* Parsons Engineering Building (\"Parsons\") - 1972* R. Michael Shanahan Center for Teaching and Learning (\"Shan\") - 2013* Jacobs Science Center (\"Jacobs\") - 1959* W.M.", "Keck Laboratories (\"Keck\") * Scott A. McGregor Computer Science Center (\"Greg\") - 2021===Dormitories===View of central campus, looking out of the former Norman F. Sprague Memorial LibraryThe official names for the dormitories of Harvey Mudd College are (listed in order of construction):* Mildred E. Mudd Hall (\"East\") - 1957* West Hall (\"West\") - 1958* North Hall (\"North\") - 1959* Marks Residence Hall (\"South\") - 1968* J. L. Atwood Residence Hall (\"Atwood\") - 1981* Case Residence Hall (\"Case\") - 1985* Ronald and Maxine Linde Residence Hall (\"Linde\") - 1993* Frederick and Susan Sontag Residence Hall (\"Sontag\") - 2004* Wayne and Julie Drinkward Residence Hall (\"Drinkward\") - 2015* Garrett House - completed in 1959 as the president's house, converted to a dorm in 2023Galileo Hall and Hixon CourtyardUntil the addition of the Linde and Sontag dorms, Atwood and Case dorms were occasionally referred to as New Dorm and New Dorm II; Mildred E. Mudd Hall and Marks Hall are almost invariably referred to as East dorm and South dorm.During the construction of Case Dorm some students decided as a prank to move all of the survey stakes exactly six inches in one direction.", "\"East\" was the first dorm, but it wasn't until \"West\" was built west of it that it was actually referred to as \"East\".", "Then, \"North\" was built, directly north of \"East\".", "When the fourth dorm, Marks Hall, was built, there was one corner of the quad available (the northwest) and one directional name, \"South\", remaining.", "To this day, \"South\" dorm is the northernmost HMC inner dorm.The fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth dorms built are Atwood, Case, Linde, Sontag, and Drinkward, respectively.", "They were initially referred to as \"the colonies\" by some students, a reference to the fact that they were newer and at the farthest end of the campus; these dorms are now more commonly referred to as \"the outer dorms,” with the four directional dorms referred to as “the inner dorms.” The college had initially purchased an apartment building adjacent to the newer dorms to house additional students, but it was demolished to make room for Sontag.Since any HMC student, regardless of class year, can live in any of the dormitories, several of the dorms have accumulated long-standing traditions and so-called \"personalities.\"" ], [ "Academics", "Harvey Mudd College entrance on Dartmouth Ave.HMC offers four-year degrees in chemistry, mathematics, physics, computer science, biology, and engineering, interdisciplinary degrees in mathematical and computational biology, and joint majors in computer science and mathematics; computer science and physics; physics and mathematics; and biology and chemistry.", "Students may also elect an Individual Program of Study (IPS) or an off-campus major offered by any of the other Claremont Colleges, provided one also completes a minor in one of the technical fields that Harvey Mudd offers as a major.All HMC students are required to take the college's Common Core Curriculum, typically throughout their freshman and sophomore years.", "This includes courses in computer science, engineering, biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, writing, a critical inquiry course, and a social impact course.Its most popular majors, by 2023 graduates, were:# Computer Science (55)# Engineering (53)# Computer Science & Mathematics (44)# Mathematics (16)In 2018, the ''Chronicle of Higher Education'' reported that, in response to student \"complaints first to mental-health counselors and then to outside evaluators,\" the college was \"considering how to ease pressure on students without sacrificing rigor.", "\"=== Admissions ===For the class of 2026, the college received 4,440 applications and admitted 593 applicants (a 13.4% acceptance rate).", "Of the 237 freshmen who enrolled, the middle 50% of SAT scores reported were 760–790 in mathematics and 720–770 in reading and writing, while the ACT Composite range was 34–36.Harvey Mudd, along with Wake Forest University, long held out as the last four-year colleges or universities in the U.S. to accept only SAT and not ACT test scores for admission.", "In August 2007, at the beginning of the application process for the class of 2012, HMC began accepting ACT results, a year after Wake Forest abandoned its former SAT-only policy.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Harvey Mudd waived the requirement for SAT or ACT scores for the graduating classes of 2021 or 2022.This policy was extended to the classes of 2023 and 2024.The college is need-blind for domestic applicants.===Rankings===''Washington Monthly'' ranked Harvey Mudd fifth in 2020 among 218 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.", "''Money'' magazine ranked Harvey Mudd 136th out of 744 in its \"Best Colleges For Your Money 2019\" report.In ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' 2021 \"America's Best Colleges\" report, Harvey Mudd College is tied for the 25th best U.S. liberal arts college, is second among undergraduate engineering schools in the U.S. whose highest degree is a Master's, and is ranked as tied for sixth \"Most Innovative School\" among 50 liberal arts colleges evaluated.", "''Forbes'' in 2019 rated it 23rd in its \"America's Top Colleges\" ranking of 650 military academies, national universities and liberal arts colleges." ], [ "Tuition and other costs", "In 2021, Harvey Mudd's total annual cost of attendance (tuition, fees, and room and board) was $82,236.About 70% of freshmen receive financial aid." ], [ "Student life", "improv show by Harvey Mudd's \"Duck!", "\"=== Athletics ===Athletes from Harvey Mudd compete alongside athletes from Claremont McKenna College and Scripps College as the Claremont-Mudd-Scripps Stags and Athenas (CMS).", "The teams participate in NCAA Division III in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC).", "The mascot for the men's teams is Stanley the Stag, and the women's teams are the Athenas.", "Their colors are cardinal and gold.According to the Division III Fall Learfield Director's Cup Standings for the 2016-2017 year, CMS ranks 12th among all Division III programs, and first among SCIAC colleges.The other sports combination of the Claremont Colleges, and CMS' primary rival, is the team made up of Pomona College and Pitzer College known as the Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens (PP).", "This is known to students as the Sixth Street Rivalry.==== Athletic facilities ====* Baseball — Bill Arce Field* Basketball and Volleyball — Roberts Pavilion* Football and Lacrosse — John Zinda Field* Softball — Softball Field* Soccer — John Pritzlaff Field* Aquatics — Matt M. Axelrood Pool* Tennis — Biszantz Family Tennis Center* Track and Field — Burns Track Complex=== Relations with Caltech ===The California Institute of Technology (Caltech), another university with strength in the natural sciences and engineering, is located away from Harvey Mudd College.", "Mudders occasionally amuse themselves by pranking Caltech.", "For example, in 1986, students from Mudd stole a memorial cannon from Fleming House at Caltech (originally from the National Guard) by dressing as maintenance people and carting it off on a flatbed truck for \"cleaning.\"", "Harvey Mudd eventually returned the cannon after Caltech threatened to take legal action.", "In 2006, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) replicated the prank and moved the same cannon to their campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts." ], [ "Notable alumni", "Notable Harvey Mudd College alumni include:* Donald D. Chamberlin (1966), co-inventor of SQL* Richard H. Jones (1972), diplomat, U.S. ambassador to Israel* Stan Love (1987), astronaut* George \"Pinky\" Nelson (1972), astronaut* Sean \"Day9\" Plott, esports commentator and game designer* Jennifer Holmgren, CEO of LanzaTech" ], [ "See also", "* Association of Independent Technological Universities" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "External links", " * Website of ''The Student Life'', the 5C newspaper* Official athletics website*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heaven" ], [ "Introduction", "Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highest heavens; from Gustave Doré's illustrations to the ''Divine Comedy''.", "'''Heaven''', or '''the heavens''', is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside.", "According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife or, in exceptional cases, enter Heaven without dying.Heaven is often described as a \"highest place\", the holiest place, a Paradise, in contrast to hell or the Underworld or the \"low places\" and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or simply divine will.", "Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a ''world to come''.Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld.", "In Indian religions, heaven is considered as ''Svargaloka'', and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its ''karma''.", "This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves ''Moksha'' or ''Nirvana''.", "Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as the ''otherworld''.At least in the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity, Islam, and some schools of Judaism, as well as Zoroastrianism, heaven is the realm of afterlife where good actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity (hell being the place where bad behavior is punished)." ], [ "Etymology", "\"heofones\", an ancient Anglo-Saxon word for heavens in ''Beowulf''The modern English word ''heaven'' is derived from the earlier (Middle English) ''heven'' (attested 1159); this in turn was developed from the previous Old English form ''heofon''.", "By about 1000, ''heofon'' was being used in reference to the Christianized \"place where God dwells\", but originally, it had signified \"sky, firmament\" (e.g.", "in ''Beowulf'', c. 725).", "The English term has cognates in the other Germanic languages: Old Saxon ''heƀan'' \"sky, heaven\" (hence also Middle Low German ''heven'' \"sky\"), Old Icelandic ''himinn'', Gothic ''himins''; and those with a variant final ''-l'': Old Frisian ''himel, himul'' \"sky, heaven\", Old Saxon and Old High German ''himil'', Old Saxon and Middle Low German ''hemmel'', Old Dutch and Dutch ''hemel'', and modern German ''Himmel''.", "All of these have been derived from a reconstructed Proto-Germanic form ''hemina-''.", "or ''hemō''.The further derivation of this form is uncertain.", "A connection to Proto-Indo-European ''ḱem-'' \"cover, shroud\", via a reconstructed ''k̑emen-'' or ''k̑ōmen-'' \"stone, heaven\", has been proposed.", "Others endorse the derivation from a Proto-Indo-European root ''h₂éḱmō'' \"stone\" and, possibly, \"heavenly vault\" at the origin of this word, which then would have as cognates ancient Greek ἄκμων (ákmōn \"anvil, pestle; meteorite\"), Persian آسمان (''âsemân, âsmân'' \"stone, sling-stone; sky, heaven\") and Sanskrit अश्मन् (''aśman'' \"stone, rock, sling-stone; thunderbolt; the firmament\").", "In the latter case English ''hammer'' would be another cognate to the word." ], [ "Ancient Near East", "=== Mesopotamia ===Ruins of the Ekur temple in Nippur, believed by the ancient Mesopotamians to be the \"Dur-an-ki\", the \"mooring rope\" of heaven and earthThe ancient Mesopotamians regarded the sky as a series of domes (usually three, but sometimes seven) covering the flat Earth.", "Each dome was made of a different kind of precious stone.", "The lowest dome of heaven was made of jasper and was the home of the stars.", "The middle dome of heaven was made of ''saggilmut'' stone and was the abode of the Igigi.", "The highest and outermost dome of heaven was made of ''luludānītu'' stone and was personified as An, the god of the sky.", "The celestial bodies were equated with specific deities as well.", "The planet Venus was believed to be Inanna, the goddess of sex and war.", "The Sun was her brother Utu, the god of justice, and the Moon was their father Nanna.In ancient Near Eastern cultures in general and in Mesopotamia in particular, humans had little to no access to the divine realm.", "Heaven and Earth were separated by their very nature; humans could see and be affected by elements of the lower heaven, such as stars and storms, but ordinary mortals could not go to Heaven because it was the abode of the gods alone.", "In the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', Gilgamesh says to Enkidu, \"Who can go up to heaven, my friend?", "Only the gods dwell with Shamash forever.\"", "Instead, after a person died, his or her soul went to Kur (later known as Irkalla), a dark shadowy underworld, located deep below the surface of the earth.All souls went to the same afterlife, and a person's actions during life had no impact on how he would be treated in the world to come.", "Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that Inanna had the power to bestow special favors upon her devotees in the afterlife.", "Despite the separation between heaven and earth, humans sought access to the gods through oracles and omens.", "The gods were believed to live in Heaven, but also in their temples, which were seen as the channels of communication between Earth and Heaven, which allowed mortal access to the gods.", "The Ekur temple in Nippur was known as the \"Dur-an-ki\", the \"mooring rope\" of heaven and earth.", "It was widely thought to have been built and established by Enlil himself.=== Hurrians and Hittites ===The ancient Hittites believed that some deities lived in Heaven while others lived in remote places on Earth, such as mountains, where humans had little access.", "In the Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is the abode of the gods.", "In the Song of Kumarbi, Alalu was king in Heaven for nine years before giving birth to his son, Anu.", "Anu was himself overthrown by his son, Kumarbi.=== Canaanites ===Almost nothing is known of Bronze Age (pre-1200 BC) Canaanite views of heaven and the archaeological findings at Ugarit (destroyed c. 1200 BC) have not provided information.", "The first century Greek author Philo of Byblos may preserve elements of Iron Age Phoenician religion in his ''Sanchuniathon''.=== Zoroastrians ===Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian prophet who introduced the Gathas, spoke of the existence of Heaven and Hell.Historically, the unique features of Zoroastrianism, such as its conception of heaven, hell, angels, monotheism, belief in free will, and the day of judgement, among other concepts, may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including the Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Northern Buddhism, and Greek philosophy." ], [ "Abrahamic and Abrahamic-inspired religions", "=== Hebrew Bible ===As in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, in the Hebrew Bible, the universe is commonly divided into two realms: heaven (''šāmayim'') and earth (''’ereṣ'').", "Sometimes a third realm is added: either \"sea\", \"water under the earth\", or sometimes a vague \"land of the dead\" that is never described in depth.", "The structure of heaven itself is never fully described in the Hebrew Bible, but the fact that the Hebrew word ''šāmayim'' is plural has been interpreted by scholars as an indication that the ancient Israelites envisioned the heavens as having multiple layers, much like the ancient Mesopotamians.", "This reading is also supported by the use of the phrase \"heaven of heavens\" in verses such as Deuteronomy 10:14, King 8:27, and 2 Chronicles 2:6.In line with the typical view of most Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible depicts Heaven as a place that is inaccessible to humans.", "Although some prophets are occasionally granted temporary visionary access to heaven, such as in 1 Kings 22:19–23, Job 1:6–12 and 2:1–6, and Isaiah, they hear only God's deliberations concerning the Earth and learn nothing of what Heaven is like.", "There is almost no mention in the Hebrew Bible of Heaven as a possible afterlife destination for human beings, who are instead described as \"resting\" in Sheol.", "The only two possible exceptions to this are Enoch, who is described in Genesis 5:24 as having been \"taken\" by God, and the prophet Elijah, who is described in 2 Kings 2:11 as having ascended to Heaven in a chariot of fire.", "According to Michael B. Hundley, the text in both of these instances is ambiguous regarding the significance of the actions being described and in neither of these cases does the text explain what happened to the subject afterwards.The God of the Israelites is described as ruling both Heaven and Earth.", "Other passages, such as 1 Kings 8:27 state that even the vastness of Heaven cannot contain God's majesty.", "A number of passages throughout the Hebrew Bible indicate that Heaven and Earth will one day come to an end.", "This view is paralleled in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, which also regarded Heaven and Earth as vulnerable and subject to dissolution.", "However, the Hebrew Bible differs from other ancient Near Eastern cultures in that it portrays the God of Israel as independent of creation and unthreatened by its potential destruction.", "Because most of the Hebrew Bible concerns the God of Israel's relationship with his people, most of the events described in it take place on Earth, not in Heaven.", "The Deuteronomistic source, Deuteronomistic History, and Priestly source all portray the Temple in Jerusalem as the sole channel of communication between Earth and Heaven.=== Second Temple Judaism ===During the period of the Second Temple ( 515 BC – 70 AD), the Hebrew people lived under the rule of first the Persian Achaemenid Empire, then the Greek kingdoms of the Diadochi, and finally the Roman Empire.", "Their culture was profoundly influenced by those of the peoples who ruled them.", "Consequently, their views on existence after death were profoundly shaped by the ideas of the Persians, Greeks, and Romans.", "The idea of the immortality of the soul is derived from Greek philosophy and the idea of the resurrection of the dead is thought to be derived from Persian cosmology, although the later claim has been recently questioned.", "By the early first century AD, these two seemingly incompatible ideas were often conflated by Hebrew thinkers.", "The Hebrews also inherited from the Persians, Greeks, and Romans the idea that the human soul originates in the divine realm and seeks to return there.", "The idea that a human soul belongs in Heaven and that Earth is merely a temporary abode in which the soul is tested to prove its worthiness became increasingly popular during the Hellenistic period (323–31 BC).", "Gradually, some Hebrews began to adopt the idea of Heaven as the eternal home of the righteous dead.=== Christianity ===Assumption of the Virgin'', 1475–1476, by Francesco Botticini (National Gallery London), shows three hierarchies and nine orders of angels, each with different characteristics.Descriptions of Heaven in the New Testament are more fully developed than those in the Old Testament, but are still generally vague.", "As in the Old Testament, in the New Testament God is described as the ruler of Heaven and Earth, but his power over the Earth is challenged by Satan.", "The Gospels of Mark and Luke speak of the \"Kingdom of God\" (; ), while the Gospel of Matthew more commonly uses the term \"Kingdom of heaven\" (; ).", "Both phrases are thought to have the same meaning, but the author of the Gospel of Matthew changed the name \"Kingdom of God\" to \"Kingdom of Heaven\" in most instances because it was the more acceptable phrase in his own cultural and religious context in the late first century.Modern scholars agree that the Kingdom of God was an essential part of the teachings of the historical Jesus.", "In spite of this, none of the gospels ever record Jesus as having explained exactly what the phrase \"Kingdom of God\" means.", "The most likely explanation for this apparent omission is that the Kingdom of God was a commonly understood concept that required no explanation.", "Jews in Judea during the early first century believed that God reigns eternally in Heaven, but many also believed that God would eventually establish his kingdom on earth as well.", "This belief is referenced in the first petition of the Lord's Prayer, taught by Jesus to his disciples and recorded in both Matthew and Luke 11:2: \"Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven.", "\"Because God's Kingdom was believed to be superior to any human kingdom, this meant that God would necessarily drive out the Romans, who ruled Judea, and establish his own direct rule over the Jewish people.", "In the teachings of the historical Jesus, people are expected to prepare for the coming of the Kingdom of God by living moral lives.", "Jesus's commands for his followers to adopt lifestyles of moral perfectionism are found in many passages throughout the Synoptic Gospels, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7.Jesus also taught that, in the Kingdom of Heaven, there would be a reversal of roles in which \"the last will be first and the first will be last.\"", "This teaching recurs throughout the recorded teachings of Jesus, including in the admonition to be like a child, the Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus in Luke 16, the Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard in Matthew 20, the Parable of the Great Banquet in Matthew 22, and the Parable of the Prodigal Son in Luke 15.Traditionally, Christianity has taught that Heaven is the location of the throne of God as well as the holy angels, although this is in varying degrees considered metaphorical.", "In traditional Christianity, it is considered a state or condition of existence (rather than a particular place somewhere in the cosmos) of the supreme fulfillment of theosis in the beatific vision of the Godhead.", "In most forms of Christianity, Heaven is also understood as the abode for the redeemed dead in the afterlife, usually a temporary stage before the resurrection of the dead and the saints' return to the New Earth.The resurrected Jesus is said to have ascended to Heaven where he now sits at the Right Hand of God and will return to Earth in the Second Coming.", "Various people have been said to have entered Heaven while still alive, including Enoch, Elijah and Jesus himself, after his resurrection.", "According to Roman Catholic teaching, Mary, mother of Jesus, is also said to have been assumed into Heaven and is titled the Queen of Heaven.In the second century AD, Irenaeus of Lyons recorded a belief that, in accordance with John 14, those who in the afterlife see the Saviour are in different mansions, some dwelling in the heavens, others in paradise and others in \"the city\".While the word used in all these writings, in particular the New Testament Greek word οὐρανός (''ouranos''), applies primarily to the sky, it is also used metaphorically of the dwelling place of God and the blessed.", "Similarly, though the English word \"heaven\" still keeps its original physical meaning when used, for instance, in allusions to the stars as \"lights shining through from heaven\", and in phrases such as heavenly body to mean an astronomical object, the heaven or happiness that Christianity looks forward to is, according to Pope John Paul II, \"neither an abstraction nor a physical place in the clouds, but a living, personal relationship with the Holy Trinity.", "It is our meeting with the Father which takes place in the risen Christ through the communion of the Holy Spirit.", "\"=== Rabbinical Judaism ===While the concept of Heaven (''malkuth hashamaim'' מלכות השמים, the Kingdom of Heaven) is much discussed in Christian thought, the Jewish concept of the afterlife, sometimes known as ''olam haba'', the World-to-come, is not discussed so often.", "The Torah has little to say on the subject of survival after death, but by the time of the rabbis two ideas had made inroads among the Jews: one, which is probably derived from Greek thought, is that of the immortal soul which returns to its creator after death; the other, which is thought to be of Persian origin, is that of resurrection of the dead.Jewish writings refer to a \"new earth\" as the abode of mankind following the resurrection of the dead.", "Originally, the two ideas of immortality and resurrection were different but in rabbinic thought they are combined: the soul departs from the body at death but is returned to it at the resurrection.", "This idea is linked to another rabbinic teaching, that men's good and bad actions are rewarded and punished not in this life but after death, whether immediately or at the subsequent resurrection.", "Around 1 CE, the Pharisees believed in an afterlife but the Sadducees did not.The Mishnah has many sayings about the World to Come, for example, \"Rabbi Yaakov said: This world is like a lobby before the World to Come; prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall.", "\"Judaism holds that the righteous of all nations have a share in the World-to-come.According to Nicholas de Lange, Judaism offers no clear teaching about the destiny which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after death has been expressed as follows: \"For the future is inscrutable, and the accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or reason, or revelation, offer no clear guidance about what is to come.", "The only certainty is that each man must die – beyond that we can only guess.", "\"=== Islam ===19th century Persian miniature depicting the artist's impression of heavenSimilar to Jewish traditions such as the Talmud, the Qur'an and Hadith frequently mention the existence of seven ''samāwāt'' (سماوات), the plural of ''samāʾ'' (سماء), meaning 'heaven, sky, celestial sphere', and cognate with Hebrew ''shamāyim'' (שמים).", "Some of the verses in the Qur'an mentioning the ''samaawat'' are , and .", "Sidrat al-Muntaha, a large enigmatic Lote tree, marks the end of the seventh heaven and the utmost extremity for all of God's creatures and heavenly knowledge.One interpretation of \"heavens\" is that all the stars and galaxies (including the Milky Way) are all part of the \"first heaven\", and \"beyond that six still bigger worlds are there,\" which have yet to be discovered by scientists.According to Shi'ite sources, Ali mentioned the names of the seven heavens as below:#'''Rafi'''' (رفیع) the least heaven (سماء الدنیا)#'''Qaydum''' (قیدوم)#'''Marum''' (ماروم)#'''Arfalun''' (أرفلون)#'''Hay'oun''' (هيعون)#'''Arous''' (عروس)#'''Ajma'''' (عجماء)Still an afterlife destination of the righteous is conceived in Islam as ''Jannah'' ( \"Garden of Eden\" translated as \"paradise\").", "Regarding Eden or paradise the Quran says, \"The description of the Paradise promised to the righteous is that under it rivers flow; eternal is its fruit as well as its shade.", "That is the ˹ultimate˺ outcome for the righteous.", "But the outcome for the disbelievers is the Fire!\"", "Islam rejects the concept of original sin, and Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure.", "Children automatically go to paradise when they die, regardless of the religion of their parents.Paradise is described primarily in physical terms as a place where every wish is immediately fulfilled when asked.", "Islamic texts describe immortal life in Jannah as happy, without negative emotions.", "Those who dwell in Jannah are said to wear costly apparel, partake in exquisite banquets, and recline on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones.", "Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses, and children.", "In Islam if one's good deeds outweigh one's sins then one may gain entrance to paradise.", "Conversely, if one's sins outweigh their good deeds they are sent to hell.", "The more good deeds one has performed the higher the level of Jannah one is directed to.Mystic Ibn Arabi's (13th century) depiction of Seven Paradises (Different from seven heavens).", "Diagram of Jannat Futuhat al-Makkiyya, ca.", "1238 (photo: after Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).Quran verses which describe paradise include: 13:15, 18:31, 38:49–54, 35:33–35 and 52:17.The Quran refers to Jannah with different names: ''Al-Firdaws'', ''Jannātu-′Adn'' (\"Garden of Eden\" or \"Everlasting Gardens\"), ''Jannatu-n-Na'īm'' (\"Garden of Delight\"), ''Jannatu-l-Ma'wa'' (\"Garden of Refuge\"), ''Dāru-s-Salām'' (\"Abode of Peace\"), ''Dāru-l-Muqāma'' (\"Abode of Permanent Stay\"), ''al-Muqāmu-l-Amin'' (\"The Secure Station\") and ''Jannātu-l-Khuld'' (\"Garden of Immortality\").", "In the Hadiths, these are the different regions in paradise.==== Ahmadiyya ====According to the Ahmadiyya view, much of the imagery presented in the Quran regarding Heaven, but also Hell, is metaphorical.", "They propound the verse which describes, according to them, how the life to come after death is different from the life on Earth.", "The ''Quran'' says: \"From bringing in your place others like you, and from developing you into a form which at present you know not.\"", "According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth.", "On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires.", "With this, an \"embryonic soul\" begins to take shape.", "Different tastes are said to be born in which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment.", "For example, sacrifice of one's own's rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature.", "In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.=== Baháʼí Faith ===The Baháʼí Faith regards the conventional description of heaven (and hell) as a specific place as symbolic.", "The Baháʼí writings describe heaven as a \"spiritual condition\" where closeness to God is defined as heaven; conversely hell is seen as a state of remoteness from God.", "Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, has stated that the nature of the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond comprehension in the physical plane, but has stated that the soul will retain its consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be able to recognize other souls and communicate with them.For Baháʼís, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy.", "Bahá'u'lláh likened death to the process of birth.", "He explains: \"The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother.\"", "The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Baháʼí view of earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world provides for the development of the individual soul.", "Accordingly, Baháʼís view life as a preparatory stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life.", "The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the current Manifestation of God, which Baháʼís believe is currently Bahá'u'lláh.", "Bahá'u'lláh wrote, \"Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved.", "\"The Baháʼí teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in the afterlife, where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those above.", "Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's development is not entirely dependent on its own conscious efforts, the nature of which we are not aware, but also augmented by the grace of God, the prayers of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of that person.===Mandaeism===Mandaeans believe in an afterlife or heaven called ''Alma d-Nhura'' (World of Light).", "The World of Light is the primeval, transcendent world from which Tibil and the World of Darkness emerged.", "The Great Living God (''Hayyi Rabbi'') and his uthras (angels or guardians) dwell in the World of Light.", "The World of Light is also the source of Piriawis, the Great ''Yardena'' (or Jordan River) of Life.=== Gnosticism ===The cosmological description of the universe in the Gnostic codex On the Origin of the World presents seven heavens created by the lesser god or Demiurge called Yaldabaoth, which are individually ruled over by one of his Archons.", "Above these realms is the eighth heaven, where the benevolent, higher divinities dwell.", "During the end of days, the seven heavens of the Archons will collapse on each other.", "The heaven of Yaldabaoth will split in two and cause the stars in his celestial sphere to fall." ], [ "Chinese religions", "Chinese Zhou Dynasty Oracle script for ''tian'', the character for \"heaven\" or \"sky\"Chinese painting of the Jade Emperor and the Heavenly Kings of Taoist cosmology.In the native Chinese Confucian traditions, heaven (Tian) is an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic propaganda, for example.Heaven is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophies, and religions, and is on one end of the spectrum a synonym of ''Shangdi'' (\"Supreme Deity\") and on the other naturalistic end, a synonym for nature and the sky.", "The Chinese term for \"heaven\", ''Tian'' (天), derives from the name of the supreme deity of the Zhou dynasty.", "After their conquest of the Shang dynasty in 1122 BC, the Zhou people considered their supreme deity ''Tian'' to be identical with the Shang supreme deity ''Shangdi''.", "The Zhou people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes, evidenced in the etymology of the Chinese character for heaven or sky, which originally depicted a person with a large cranium.", "Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over all people.", "Heaven is affected by people's doings, and having personality, is happy and angry with them.", "Heaven blesses those who please it and sends calamities upon those who offend it.", "Heaven was also believed to transcend all other spirits and gods, with Confucius asserting, \"He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray.", "\"Other philosophers born around the time of Confucius such as Mozi took an even more theistic view of heaven, believing that heaven is the divine ruler, just as the Son of Heaven (the King of Zhou) is the earthly ruler.", "Mozi believed that spirits and minor gods exist, but their function is merely to carry out the will of heaven, watching for evil-doers and punishing them.", "Thus they function as angels of heaven and do not detract from its monotheistic government of the world.", "With such a high monotheism, it is not surprising that Mohism championed a concept called \"universal love\" (''jian'ai'', 兼愛), which taught that heaven loves all people equally and that each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and those of others.", "In Mozi's ''Will of Heaven'' (天志), he writes:Mozi criticized the Confucians of his own time for not following the teachings of Confucius.", "By the time of the later Han dynasty, however, under the influence of Xunzi, the Chinese concept of heaven and Confucianism itself had become mostly naturalistic, though some Confucians argued that Heaven was where ancestors reside.", "Worship of heaven in China continued with the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers.", "The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to heaven, usually by slaughtering two healthy bulls as a sacrifice." ], [ "Indian religions", "=== Buddhism ===Devas sporting in Heaven.", "Mural in Wat BowonniwetIn Buddhism there are several heavens, all of which are still part of ''samsara'' (illusionary reality).", "Those who accumulate good karma may be reborn in one of them.", "However, their stay in heaven is not eternal—eventually they will use up their good karma and will undergo rebirth into another realm, as a human, animal or other beings.", "Because heaven is temporary and part of ''samsara'', Buddhists focus more on escaping the cycle of rebirth and reaching enlightenment (''nirvana'').", "Nirvana is not a heaven but a mental state.According to Buddhist cosmology the universe is impermanent and beings transmigrate through several existential \"planes\" in which this human world is only one \"realm\" or \"path\".", "These are traditionally envisioned as a vertical continuum with the heavens existing above the human realm, and the realms of the animals, hungry ghosts and hell beings existing beneath it.", "According to Jan Chozen Bays in her book, ''Jizo: Guardian of Children, Travelers, and Other Voyagers'', the realm of the ''asura'' is a later refinement of the heavenly realm and was inserted between the human realm and the heavens.", "One important Buddhist heaven is the ''Trāyastriṃśa'', which resembles Olympus of Greek mythology.In the Mahayana world view, there are also pure lands which lie outside this continuum and are created by the Buddhas upon attaining enlightenment.", "Rebirth in the pure land of Amitabha is seen as an assurance of Buddhahood, for once reborn there, beings do not fall back into cyclical existence unless they choose to do so to save other beings, the goal of Buddhism being the obtainment of enlightenment and freeing oneself and others from the birth-death cycle.The Tibetan word ''Bardo'' means literally \"intermediate state\".", "In Sanskrit the concept has the name ''antarabhāva''.The lists below are classified from highest to lowest of the heavenly worlds.====Theravada========= According to the Aṅguttara Nikāya====='''Brahmāloka'''Here the denizens are Brahmās, and the ruler is MahābrahmāAfter developing the four Brahmavihāras, King Makhādeva rebirths here after death.", "The monk Tissa and Brāhmana Jānussoni were also reborn here.The lifespan of a Brahmās is not stated but is not eternal.", "'''Parinirmita-vaśavartin''' (Pali: '''Paranimmita-vasavatti''')The heaven of devas \"with power over (others') creations\".", "These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who wish for their favor.", "The ruler of this world is called Vaśavartin (Pāli: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater beauty, more power and happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of his world.", "This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of a divine race) called Māra, who endeavors to keep all beings of the Kāmadhātu in the grip of sensual pleasures.", "Māra is also sometimes called Vaśavartin, but in general these two dwellers in this world are kept distinct.", "The beings of this world are 3 lǐ () tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition).", "'''Nirmāṇarati''' (Pali: '''Nimmānaratī''')The world of devas \"delighting in their creations\".", "The devas of this world are capable of making any appearance to please themselves.", "The lord of this world is called Sunirmita (Pāli Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth of Visākhā, formerly the chief upāsikā (female lay devotee) of the Buddha.", "The beings of this world are lǐ () tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition).''''''", "(Pali: '''Tusita''')The world of the \"joyful\" devas.", "This world is best known for being the world in which a Bodhisattva lives before being reborn in the world of humans.", "Until a few thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva of this world was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu), who was reborn as Siddhārtha, who would become the Buddha Śākyamuni; since then the Bodhisattva has been Nātha (or Nāthadeva) who will be reborn as Ajita and will become the Buddha Maitreya (Pāli Metteyya).", "While this Bodhisattva is the foremost of the dwellers in , the ruler of this world is another deva called (Pāli: Santusita).", "The beings of this world are 2 lǐ () tall and live for 576,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition).", "Anāthapindika, a Kosālan householder and benefactor to the Buddha's order was reborn here.", "'''Yāma'''The denizens here have a lifespan of 144,000,000 years.", "'''Trāyastriṃśa''' (Pali: '''Tāvatimsa''')The ruler of this heaven is Indra or Shakra, and the realm is also called Trayatrimia.Each denizen addresses other denizens as the title \"mārisa\".The governing hall of this heaven is called Sudhamma Hall.This heaven has a garden Nandanavana with damsels, as its most magnificent sight.Ajita the Licchavi army general was reborn here.", "Gopika the Sākyan girl was reborn as a male god in this realm.Any Buddhist reborn in this realm can outshine any of the previously dwelling denizens because of the extra merit acquired for following the Buddha's teachings.The denizens here have a lifespan of 36,000,000 years.", "'''Cātummahārājika'''The heaven \"of the Four Great Kings\".", "Its rulers are the four Great Kings of the name, , , , and their leader .", "The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also considered part of this world, as are the retinues of the four kings, composed of (dwarfs), Gandharva गन्धर्वs (fairies), Nāgas (snakes) and (goblins).", "The beings of this world are tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition).====Mahayana=========According to the Śūraṅgama Sūtra====='''The Form Realm'''The First Dhyana, the Second Dhyana, the Third Dhyana and the Fourth Dhyana.", "'''The Third Dhyana''':'''The Heaven of Pervasive Purity'''::Those for whom the world, the body, and the mind are all perfectly pure have accomplished the virtue of purity, and a superior level emerges.", "They return to the bliss of still extinction, and they are among those in the Heaven of Pervasive Purity.", ":'''The Heaven of Limitless Purity'''::Those in whom the emptiness of purity manifests are led to discover its boundlessness.", "Their bodies and minds experience light ease, and they accomplish the bliss of still extinction.", "They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Purity.", ":'''The Heaven of Lesser Purity'''::The heavenly beings for whom the perfection of light has become sound and who further open out the sound to disclose its wonder discover a subtler level of practice.", "They penetrate to the bliss of still extinction and are among those in the Heaven of Lesser Purity.", "'''The Second Dhyana''':Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by worries or vexations.", "Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point that they have subdued their coarser outflows:'''The Light-Sound Heaven'''::Those who take in and hold the light to perfection accomplish the substance of the teaching.", "Creating and transforming the purity into endless responses and functions, they are among those in the Light-Sound Heaven.", ":'''The Heaven of Limitless Light'''::Those whose lights illumine each other in an endless dazzling blaze shine throughout the realms of the ten directions so that everything becomes like crystal.", "They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Light.", ":'''The Heaven of Lesser Light'''::Those beyond the Brahma heavens gather in and govern the Brahma beings, for their Brahma conduct is perfect and fulfilled.", "Unmoving and with settled minds, they produce light in profound stillness, and they are among those in the Heaven of Lesser Light.", "'''The First Dhyana''':Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by any suffering or affliction.", "Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point that they are not moved by outflows.", ":'''The Great Brahma Heaven'''::Those whose bodies and minds are wonderfully perfect, and whose awesome deportment is not in the least deficient, are pure in the prohibitive precepts and have a thorough understanding of them as well.", "At all times these people can govern the Brahma multitudes as great Brahma lords, and they are among those in the Great Brahma Heaven.", ":'''The Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma'''::Those whose hearts of desire have already been cast aside, the mind apart from desire manifests.", "They have a fond regard for the rules of discipline and delight in being in accord with them.", "These people can practice the Brahma virtue at all times, and they are among those in the Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma.", ":'''The Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma'''::Those in the world who cultivate their minds but do not avail themselves of dhyana and so have no wisdom, can only control their bodies so as to not engage in sexual desire.", "Whether walking or sitting, or in their thoughts, they are totally devoid of it.", "Since they do not give rise to defiling love, they do not remain in the realm of desire.", "These people can, in response to their thoughts, assume the bodies of Brahma beings.", "They are among those in the Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma.", "'''The Six Desire Heavens'''The cause for birth in the Six Desire Heavens are the ten virtuous actions.", "'''The Heaven of the Comfort from Others’ Transformations''':Those who have no kind of worldly thoughts while doing what worldly people do, who are lucid and beyond such activity while involved in it, are capable at the end of their lives of entirely transcending states where transformations may be present and may be lacking.", "They are among those born in the Heaven of the Comfort from Others’ Transformations.", "'''The Heaven of Bliss by Transformation''':Those who are devoid of desire, but who will engage in it for the sake of their partner, even though the flavor of doing so is like the flavor of chewing wax, are born at the end of their lives in a place of transcending transformations.", "They are among those born in the Heaven of Bliss by Transformation.", "'''The Tushita Heaven''':Those who practice constant silence, but who are not yet able to control their impulses when stimulated by contact, ascend at the end of their lives to a subtle and ethereal place; they will not be drawn into the lower realms.", "The destruction of the realms of humans and gods and the obliteration of the kalpas by the three disasters will not reach them.", "They are among those born in the Tushita Heaven.", "'''The Suyama Heaven''':Those who become temporarily involved when they meet with desire but who forget about it when it is finished.", "While in the human realm, one is less active and more quiet, abiding in light and emptiness where the illumination of sun and moon does not reach.", "By the end of their lives, these beings have their own light.", "They are among those born in the Suyama Heaven.", "'''The Trayastrimsha Heaven''':Those whose sexual love for their wives is slight, but who have not yet obtained the entire flavor of dwelling in purity, transcend the light of the sun and moon at the end of their lives, and reside at the summit of the human realm.", "They are among those born in the Trayastrimsha Heaven.", "'''The Heaven of the Four Kings ''':Those with no interest in deviant sexual activity and develop a purity such that one produces light.", "When their life ends, they draw near to the sun and moon and are among those born in the Heaven of the Four Kings.Ou Yi Zhixu explains that the Shurangama sutra only emphasizes avoidance of deviant sexual desire, but one would naturally need to abide by the 10 good conducts to be born in these heavens.==== Tibetan Buddhism ====Tibetan literature classifies the heavenly worlds into 5 major types:# '''Akanishtha''' or '''Ghanavyiiha''' This is the most supreme heaven wherein beings that have achieved Nirvana live for eternity.# '''Heaven of the Jinas'''# '''Heavens of Formless Spirits''' These are 4 in number.# '''Brahmaloka''' These are 16 in number, and are free from sensuality.# '''Devaloka''' These are 6 in number, and contain sensuality.=== Hinduism ===Attaining heaven is not the final pursuit in Hinduism as heaven itself is ephemeral and related to physical body.", "Only being tied by the bhoot-tatvas, heaven cannot be perfect either and is just another name for pleasurable and mundane material life.", "According to Hindu cosmology, above the earthly plane, are other planes: (1) Bhuva Loka, (2) Swarga Loka, meaning Good Kingdom, is the general name for heaven in Hinduism, a heavenly paradise of pleasure, where most of the Hindu Devatas (Deva) reside along with the king of Devas, Indra, and beatified mortals.", "Some other planes are Mahar Loka, Jana Loka, Tapa Loka and Satya Loka.", "Since heavenly abodes are also tied to the cycle of birth and death, any dweller of heaven or hell will again be recycled to a different plane and in a different form per the karma and \"maya\" i.e.", "the illusion of Samsara.", "This cycle is broken only by self-realization by the Jivatma.", "This self-realization is Moksha (Turiya, Kaivalya).The concept of moksha is unique to Hinduism.", "Moksha stands for liberation from the cycle of birth and death and final communion with Brahman.", "With moksha, a liberated soul attains the stature and oneness with Brahman or Paramatma.", "Different schools such as Vedanta, Mimansa, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Yoga offer subtle differences in the concept of Brahman, obvious Universe, its genesis and regular destruction, Jivatma, Nature (Prakriti) and also the right way in attaining perfect bliss or moksha.In the Vaishnava traditions the highest heaven is Vaikuntha, which exists above the six heavenly lokas and outside of the mahat-tattva or mundane world.", "It's where eternally liberated souls who have attained moksha reside in eternal sublime beauty with Lakshmi and Narayana (a manifestation of Vishnu).In the Nasadiya Sukta, the heavens/sky Vyoman is mentioned as a place from which an overseeing entity surveys what has been created.", "However, the Nasadiya Sukta questions the omniscience of this overseer.=== Jainism ===Structure of Universe per the Jain ScripturesThe shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown alongside.", "Unlike the current convention of using North direction as the top of map, this uses South as the top.", "The shape is similar to a part of human form standing upright.The ''Deva Loka'' (heavens) are at the symbolic \"chest\", where all souls enjoying the positive karmic effects reside.", "The heavenly beings are referred to as ''devas'' (masculine form) and ''devis'' (feminine form).", "According to Jainism, there is not one heavenly abode, but several layers to reward appropriately the souls of varying degree of karmic merits.", "Similarly, beneath the \"waist\" are the ''Narka Loka'' (hell).", "Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on the middle.The pure souls (who reached Siddha status) reside at the very south end (top) of the Universe.", "They are referred to in Tamil literature as தென்புலத்தார் (Kural 43).=== Sikh religion ===Sikhs believe that heaven and hell are also both in this world where everyone reaps the fruit of karma.", "They refer to good and evil stages of life respectively and can be lived now and here during our life on Earth.", "Bhagat Kabir in the ''Guru Granth Sahib'' rejects the otherworldly heaven and says that one can experience heaven on this Earth through the company of holy people." ], [ "Mesoamerican religions", "The Nahua people such as the Aztecs, Chichimecs and the Toltecs believed that the heavens were constructed and separated into 13 levels.", "Each level had from one to many Lords living in and ruling these heavens.", "Most important of these heavens was Omeyocan (Place of Two).", "The Thirteen Heavens were ruled by Ometeotl, the dual Lord, creator of the Dual-Genesis who, as male, takes the name Ometecuhtli (Two Lord), and as female is named Omecihuatl (Two Lady)." ], [ "Polynesia", "In the creation myths of Polynesian mythology are found various concepts of the heavens and the underworld.", "These differ from one island to another.", "What they share is the view of the universe as an egg or coconut that is divided between the world of humans (earth), the upper world of heavenly gods, and the underworld.", "Each of these is subdivided in a manner reminiscent of Dante's Divine Comedy, but the number of divisions and their names differs from one Polynesian culture to another.=== Māori ===In Māori mythology, the heavens are divided into a number of realms.", "Different tribes number the heaven differently, with as few as two and as many as fourteen levels.", "One of the more common versions divides heaven thus:# Kiko-rangi, presided over by the gods Toumau# Waka-maru, the heaven of sunshine and rain# Nga-roto, the heaven of lakes where the god Maru rules# Hauora, where the spirits of newborn children originate# Nga-Tauira, home of the servant gods# Nga-atua, which is ruled over by the hero Tawhaki# Autoia, where human souls are created# Aukumea, where spirits live# Wairua, where spirit gods live while waiting on those in# Naherangi or Tuwarea, where the great gods live presided over by RehuaThe Māori believe these heavens are supported by pillars.", "Other Polynesian peoples see them being supported by gods (as in Hawaii).", "In one Tahitian legend, heaven is supported by an octopus.=== Paumotu, Tuamotus ===Tuomatuan chief portraying nine heavensThe Polynesian conception of the universe and its division is nicely illustrated by a famous drawing made by a Tuomotuan chief in 1869.Here, the nine heavens are further divided into left and right, and each stage is associated with a stage in the evolution of the earth that is portrayed below.", "The lowest division represents a period when the heavens hung low over the earth, which was inhabited by animals that were not known to the islanders.", "In the third division is shown the first murder, the first burials, and the first canoes, built by Rata.", "In the fourth division, the first coconut tree and other significant plants are born." ], [ "Theosophy", "It is believed in Theosophy, founded mainly by Helena Blavatsky, that each religion (including Theosophy) has its own individual heaven in various regions of the upper astral plane that fits the description of that heaven that is given in each religion, which a soul that has been good in their previous life on Earth will go to.", "The area of the upper astral plane of Earth in the upper atmosphere where the various heavens are located is called ''Summerland'' (Theosophists believe hell is located in the lower astral plane of Earth which extends downward from the surface of the earth down to its center).", "However, Theosophists believe that the soul is recalled back to Earth after an average of about 1400 years by the ''Lords of Karma'' to incarnate again.", "The final heaven that souls go to billions of years in the future after they finish their cycle of incarnations is called ''Devachan''." ], [ "Criticism of the belief in heaven", "Anarchist Emma Goldman expressed this view when she wrote, \"Consciously or unconsciously, most theists see in gods and devils, heaven and hell, reward and punishment, a whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and contentment.", "\"Some have argued that a belief in a reward after death is poor motivation for moral behavior while alive.", "Sam Harris wrote, \"It is rather more noble to help people purely out of concern for their suffering than it is to help them because you think the Creator of the Universe wants you to do it, or will reward you for doing it, or will punish you for not doing it.", "The problem with this linkage between religion and morality is that it gives people bad reasons to help other human beings when good reasons are available.\"" ], [ "Neuroscience", "Many neuroscientists and neurophilosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, believe that consciousness is dependent upon the functioning of the brain and death is a cessation of consciousness, which would rule out heaven.", "Scientific research has discovered that some areas of the brain, like the reticular activating system or the thalamus, appear to be necessary for consciousness, because dysfunction of or damage to these structures causes a loss of consciousness.In ''Inside the Neolithic Mind'' (2005), Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue that many cultures around the world and through history neurally perceive a tiered structure of heaven, along with similarly structured circles of hell.", "The reports match so similarly across time and space that Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue for a neuroscientific explanation, accepting the percepts as real neural activations and subjective percepts during particular altered states of consciousness.Many people who come close to death and have near-death experiences report meeting relatives or entering \"the Light\" in an otherworldly dimension, which shares similarities with the religious concept of heaven.", "Even though there are also reports of distressing experiences and negative life-reviews, which share some similarities with the concept of hell, the positive experience of meeting or entering \"the Light\" is reported as an immensely intense feeling of a state of love, peace and joy beyond human comprehension.", "Together with this intensely positive-feeling state, people who have near-death experiences also report that consciousness or a heightened state of awareness seems as if it is at the heart of experiencing a taste of \"heaven\"." ], [ "Representations in arts", "Works of fiction have included numerous different conceptions of Heaven and Hell.", "The two most famous descriptions of Heaven are given in Dante Alighieri's ''Paradiso'' (of the ''Divine Comedy'') and John Milton's ''Paradise Lost''." ], [ "See also", " Baptism* Beatification* Death* God* Hell* Indulgence* List of angels in theology* Paradise* Penance* Purgatory* Redemption* Saint* Salvation* Servant of God* Venerable* World of Light" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * ''Catholic Encyclopedia'': Heaven* ''Jewish Encyclopedia'': Heaven* ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' entry on heaven and hell* Heaven: A fool's paradise, ''The Independent'', April 21, 2010* Maps of heaven at the \"Hell and heaven\" subject, the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library* Collection: Heaven, Hell, and Afterlives from the University of Michigan Museum of Art" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Libya" ], [ "Introduction", "Libya's history involves its rich mix of ethnic groups, including the indigenous Berbers/Amazigh people.", "Amazigh have been present throughout the entire history of the country.", "For most of its history, Libya has been subjected to varying degrees of foreign control, from Europe, Asia, and Africa.The History of '''Libya''' comprises six distinct periods: Ancient Libya, the Roman era, the Islamic era, Ottoman rule, Italian rule, and the Modern era." ], [ "Prehistoric and Berber Libya", "Prehistoric Libyan rock paintings in Tadrart Acacus reveal a Sahara once lush in vegetation and wildlife.Tens of thousands of years ago, the Sahara Desert, which now covers roughly 90% of Libya, was lush with green vegetation.", "It was home to lakes, forests, diverse wildlife and a temperate Mediterranean climate.", "Archaeological evidence indicates that the coastal plain was inhabited by Neolithic peoples from as early as 8000 BCE.", "These peoples were perhaps drawn by the climate, which enabled their culture to grow, subsisting on the domestication of cattle and the cultivation of crops.Egyptian inscriptions from the Old Kingdom are the oldest available documentation of the Berber people.", "The inscriptions record Berber tribes raiding the Nile Delta.", "Rock paintings at Wadi Mathendous and the mountainous region of Jebel Acacus are the best sources of information about prehistoric Libya, and the pastoralist culture that settled there.", "The paintings reveal that the Libyan Sahara contained rivers, grassy plateaus and an abundance of wildlife such as giraffes, elephants and crocodiles.The onset of the Piora Oscillation's intense aridification resulted in the \"green Sahara\" rapidly transforming into the Sahara Desert.", "Dispersal in Africa from the Atlantic coast to the Siwa Oasis in Egypt seems to have followed, due to climatic changes which caused increasing desertification.The African ancestors of the Berber people are assumed to have spread into the area by the Late Bronze Age.", "The earliest known name of such a tribe is that of the Garamantes, who were based in Germa, southern Libya.", "The Garamantes were a Saharan people of Berber origin who used an elaborate underground irrigation system; they were probably present as tribal people in the Fezzan by about 1000 BCE, and were a local power in the Sahara between 500 BCE and 500 CE.", "By the time of contact with the Phoenicians, the first of the Semitic civilizations to arrive in Libya from the East, the Lebu, Garamantes, Berbers and other tribes that lived in the Sahara were already well established." ], [ "Phoenician and Greek Libya", "The temple of Zeus in the ancient Greek city of Cyrene.", "Libya has a number of World Heritage Sites from the ancient Greek era.The Phoenicians were some of the first to establish coastal trading posts in Libya, when the merchants of Tyre (in present-day Lebanon) developed commercial relations with the various Berber tribes and made treaties with them to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials.", "By the 5th century BCE, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, Carthage, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being.", "Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (later Tripoli), Libdah (later Leptis Magna) and Sabratha.", "These cities were in an area that was later called Tripolis, or \"Three Cities\", from which Libya's modern capital Tripoli takes its name.In 630 BCE, the Ancient Greeks colonized Eastern Libya and founded the city of Cyrene.", "Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as Cyrenaica: Barce (later Marj); Euhesperides (later Berenice, present-day Benghazi); Taucheira (later Arsinoe, present-day Taucheria); Balagrae (later Bayda and Beda Littoria under Italian occupation, present-day Bayda); and Apollonia (later Susa), the port of Cyrene.", "Together with Cyrene, they were known as the Pentapolis (Five Cities).", "Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, and was famous for its medical school, learned academies, and architecture.", "The Greeks of the Pentapolis resisted encroachments by the Ancient Egyptians from the East, as well as by the Carthaginians from the West." ], [ "Achaemenid and Ptolemaic Libya", "Libyan soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE.", "Xerxes I tomb relief.In 525 BCE the Persian army of Cambyses II overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule.", "Alexander was greeted by the Greeks when he entered Cyrenaica in 331 BCE, and Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.", "Later, a federation of the Pentapolis was formed that was customarily ruled by a king drawn from the Ptolemaic royal house." ], [ "Roman Libya", "After the fall of Carthage the Romans did not occupy immediately Tripolitania (the region around Tripoli), but left it under control of the Berber kings of Numidia, until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection.", "Ptolemy Apion, the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BCE and joined it to Crete as a Roman province.", "During the Roman civil wars Tripolitania (still not formally annexed) and Cyrenaica sustained Pompey and Marc Antony against respectively Caesar and Octavian.", "The Romans completed the conquest of the region under Augustus, occupying northern Fezzan (\"Fasania\") with Cornelius Balbus Minor.", "As part of the Africa Nova province, Tripolitania was prosperous, and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of Leptis Magna, home to the Severan dynasty, was at its height.", "On the other side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by the time of the Emperor Claudius but was heavily devastated during the Kitos War and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike, and, although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies, from then started its decadence.The Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna.", "The patronage of Roman emperor Septimus Severus allowed the city to become one of the most prominent in Roman Africa.Regardless, for more than 400 years Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were part of a cosmopolitan state whose citizens shared a common language, legal system, and Roman identity.", "Roman ruins like those of Leptis Magna and Sabratha, extant in present-day Libya, attest to the vitality of the region, where populous cities and even smaller towns enjoyed the amenities of urban life—the forum, markets, public entertainments, and baths—found in every corner of the Roman Empire.", "Merchants and artisans from many parts of the Roman world established themselves in North Africa, but the character of the cities of Tripolitania remained decidedly Punic and, in Cyrenaica, Greek.", "Tripolitania was a major exporter of olive oil, as well as a center for the trade of ivory and wild animals conveyed to the coast by the Garamantes, while Cyrenaica remained an important source of wines, drugs, and horses.", "The bulk of the population in the countryside consisted of Berber farmers, who in the west were thoroughly \"romanized\" in language and customs.", "Until the 10th century the African Romance remained in use in some Tripolitanian areas, mainly near the Tunisian border.The decline of the Roman Empire saw the classical cities fall into ruin, a process hastened by the Vandals' destructive sweep though North Africa in the 5th century.", "The region's prosperity had shrunk under Vandal domination, and the old Roman political and social order, disrupted by the Vandals, could not be restored.", "In outlying areas neglected by the Vandals, the inhabitants had sought the protection of tribal chieftains and, having grown accustomed to their autonomy, resisted re-assimilation into the imperial system.When the Empire returned (now as East Romans) as part of Justinian's reconquests of the 6th century, efforts were made to strengthen the old cities, but it was only a last gasp before they collapsed into disuse.", "Cyrenaica, which had remained an outpost of the Byzantine Empire during the Vandal period, also took on the characteristics of an armed camp.", "Unpopular Byzantine governors imposed burdensome taxation to meet military costs, while the towns and public services—including the water system—were left to decay.", "Byzantine rule in Africa did prolong the Roman ideal of imperial unity there for another century and a half however, and prevented the ascendancy of the Berber nomads in the coastal region.", "By the beginning of the 7th century, Byzantine control over the region was weak, Berber rebellions were becoming more frequent, and there was little to oppose Muslim invasion." ], [ "Islamic Libya", "Atiq Mosque in Awjila is the oldest mosque in the Sahara.Tenuous Byzantine control over Libya was restricted to a few poorly defended coastal strongholds, and as such, the Arab horsemen who first crossed into the Pentapolis of Cyrenaica in September 643 CE encountered little resistance.", "Under the command of 'Amr ibn al-'As, the armies of Islam conquered Cyrenaica, and renamed the Pentapolis, Barqa.", "They took also Tripoli, but after destroying the Roman walls of the city and getting a tribute they withdrew.", "In 647 an army of 40,000 Arabs, led by Abdullah ibn Saad, the foster-brother of Caliph Uthman, penetrated deep into Western Libya and took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively.", "From Barqa, the Fezzan (Libya's Southern region) was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 663 and Berber resistance was overcome.", "During the following centuries Libya came under the rule of several Islamic dynasties, under various levels of autonomy from Ummayad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates of the time.", "Arab rule was easily imposed in the coastal farming areas and on the towns, which prospered again under Arab patronage.", "Townsmen valued the security that permitted them to practice their commerce and trade in peace, while the Punicized farmers recognized their affinity with the Semitic Arabs to whom they looked to protect their lands.", "In Cyrenaica, Monophysite adherents of the Coptic Church had welcomed the Muslim Arabs as liberators from Byzantine oppression.", "The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political rule.For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus until the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad.", "When Caliph Harun al-Rashid appointed Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as his governor of Ifriqiya in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty.", "The Aghlabids were among the most attentive Islamic rulers of Libya; they brought about a measure of order to the region, and restored Roman irrigation systems, which brought prosperity to the area from the agricultural surplus.", "By the end of the 9th century, the Shiite Fatimids controlled Western Libya from their capital in Mahdia, before they ruled the entire region from their new capital of Cairo in 972 and appointed Bologhine ibn Ziri as governor.", "During Fatimid rule, Tripoli thrived on the trade in slaves and gold brought from the Sudan and on the sale of wool, leather, and salt shipped from its docks to Italy in exchange for wood and iron goods.", "Ibn Ziri's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs.", "In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from two troublesome Arab Bedouin tribes, the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal to North Africa.", "This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.", "Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.King Roger II of Sicily was the first Norman King to rule Tripoli when he captured it in 1146.Zirid rule in Tripolitania was short-lived though, and already in 1001 the Berbers of the Banu Khazrun broke away.", "Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the Normans of Sicily.", "It was not until 1159 that the Moroccan Almohad leader Abd al-Mu'min reconquered Tripoli from European rule.", "For the next 50 years, Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles between the Almohad rulers and insurgents of the Banu Ghaniya.", "Later, a general of the Almohads, Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of a Tunisian Hafsid dynasty independent from the Almohads.", "The Hafsids ruled Tripolitania for nearly 300 years, and established significant trade with the city-states of Europe.", "Hafsid rulers also encouraged art, literature, architecture and scholarship.", "Ahmad Zarruq was one of the most famous Islamic scholars to settle in Libya, and did so during this time.", "By the 16th century however, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire.", "After a successful invasion of Tripoli by Habsburg Spain in 1510, and its handover to the Knights of St. John, the Ottoman admiral Sinan Pasha finally took control of Libya in 1551." ], [ "Ottoman Libya", "Siege of Tripoli in 1551 allowed the Ottomans to capture the city from the Knights of St. John.After a successful invasion by the Habsburgs of Spain in the early 16th century, Charles V entrusted its defense to the Knights of St. John in Malta.", "Lured by the piracy that spread through the Maghreb coastline, adventurers such as Barbarossa and his successors consolidated Ottoman control in the central Maghreb.", "The Ottoman Turks conquered Tripoli in 1551 under the command of Sinan Pasha.", "In the next year his successor Turgut Reis was named the Bey of Tripoli and later Pasha of Tripoli in 1556.As Pasha, he adorned and built up Tripoli, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African coast.", "By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a ''pasha'' appointed directly by the ''sultan'' in Constantinople.", "In the 1580s, the rulers of Fezzan gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in Cyrenaica, a ''bey'' was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli.In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of janissaries, a self-governing military guild, and in time the pasha's role was reduced to that of ceremonial head of state.", "Mutinies and coups were frequent, and in 1611 the ''deys'' staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government.", "For the next hundred years, a series of ''deys'' effectively ruled Tripolitania, some for only a few weeks, and at various times the dey was also pasha-regent.", "The regency governed by the dey was autonomous in internal affairs and, although dependent on the sultan for fresh recruits to the corps of janissaries, his government was left to pursue a virtually independent foreign policy as well.", "The two most important Deys were Mehmed Saqizli (r. 1631–49) and Osman Saqizli (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region.", "The latter conquered also Cyrenaica.An elevation of the city of Ottoman Tripoli in 1675Tripoli was the only city of size in Ottoman Libya (then known as Tripolitania Eyalet) at the end of the 17th century and had a population of about 30,000.The bulk of its residents were Moors, as city-dwelling Arabs were then known.", "Several hundred Turks and renegades formed a governing elite, a large portion of which were ''kouloughlis'' (lit.", "sons of servants—offspring of Turkish soldiers and Arab women); they identified with local interests and were respected by locals.", "Jews and Moriscos were active as merchants and craftsmen and a small number of European traders also frequented the city.", "European slaves and large numbers of enslaved blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli.", "In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, some 6,300 people, sending them to Libya.", "The most pronounced slavery activity involved the enslavement of black Africans who were brought via trans-Saharan trade routes.", "Even though the slave trade was officially abolished in Tripoli in 1853, in practice it continued until the 1890s.Enterprise'' of the Mediterranean Squadron capturing Tripolitan Corsair during the First Barbary War, 1801Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year.", "One such coup was led by Turkish officer Ahmed Karamanli.", "The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1735 mainly in Tripolitania, but had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid 18th century.", "Ahmed was a Janissary and popular cavalry officer.", "He murdered the Ottoman Dey of Tripolitania and seized the throne in 1711.After persuading Sultan Ahmed III to recognize him as governor, Ahmed established himself as pasha and made his post hereditary.", "Though Tripolitania continued to pay nominal tribute to the Ottoman padishah, it otherwise acted as an independent kingdom.", "Ahmed greatly expanded his city's economy, particularly through the employment of corsairs (pirates) on crucial Mediterranean shipping routes; nations that wished to protect their ships from the corsairs were forced to pay tribute to the pasha.", "Ahmad's successors proved to be less capable than himself, however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli to survive several dynastic crises without invasion.", "The Libyan Civil War of 1791–1795 occurred in those years.", "In 1793, Turkish officer Ali Pasha deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule.", "However, Hamet's brother Yusuf (r. 1795–1832) reestablished Tripolitania's independence.In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War.", "By 1819, the various treaties of the Napoleonic Wars had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble.", "As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons; though Yusuf abdicated in 1832 in favor of his son Ali II, civil war soon resulted.", "Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, but instead deposed and exiled Ali II, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania.", "Anyway, order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858.The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and what seemed as greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya.", "It would not be long before the Scramble for Africa and European colonial interests set their eyes on the marginal Turkish provinces of Libya.", "The Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II twice sent his aide-de-camp Azmzade Sadik El Mueyyed to meet Sheikh Senussi to cultivate positive relations and counter the West European scramble for Africa.", "Reunification came about through the unlikely route of an invasion (Italo-Turkish War, 1911–1912) and occupation starting from 1911 when Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies." ], [ "Italian Libya", "Territorial growth of Italian Libya: Territory ceded by Ottoman Empire 1912 (dark-green) but effectively Italy controlled only five ports (black), territories ceded by France and Britain 1919 and 1926 (light-green), territories ceded by France and Britain 1934/35 (red)Australian infantry at Tobruk during World War II.", "Beginning on 10 April 1941, the Siege of Tobruk lasted for 240 days.From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa.", "From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania, run by Italian governors.", "Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population.Omar Mukhtar was the leader of Libyan resistance in Cyrenaica against the Italian colonization.In 1934, Italy adopted the name \"Libya\" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, except Egypt) as the official name of the colony (made up of the three provinces of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan).", "Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I), Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two world wars.Ilan Pappe estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military \"killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in camps).\"", "Italian historian Emilio Gentile sets to about 50,000 the number of victims of the repression.In 1934, the political entity called \"Libya\" was created by governor Balbo with capital Tripoli.", "The Italians emphasized infrastructure improvements and public works.", "In particular, they hugely expanded Libyan railway and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometers of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of new agricultural villages.During WW2, since June 1940 Libya was at the center of destructive fighting between the Axis and the British empire: the Allies conquered from Italy all of Libya only by February 1943.From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British military administration, while the French controlled Fezzan.", "In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947.Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya." ], [ "Kingdom", "King Idris I announced Libya's independence on 24 December 1951, and was King until the 1969 coup that overthrew his government.On 21 November 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before 1 January 1952.Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations.", "On 24 December 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris, Libya's only monarch.1951 also saw the enactment of the first Libyan Constitution.", "The Libyan National Assembly drafted the Constitution and passed a resolution accepting it in a meeting held in the city of Benghazi on Sunday, 6th Muharram, Hegiras 1371: 7 October 1951.Mohamed Abulas’ad El-Alem, President of the National Assembly and the two Vice-Presidents of the National Assembly, Omar Faiek Shennib and Abu Baker Ahmed Abu Baker executed and submitted the Constitution to King Idris following which it was published in the Official Gazette of Libya.The enactment of the Libyan Constitution was significant in that it was the first piece of legislation to formally entrench the rights of Libyan citizens following the post-war creation of the Libyan nation state.", "Following on from the intense UN debates during which Idris had argued that the creation of a single Libyan state would be of benefit to the regions of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica, the Libyan government was keen to formulate a constitution which contained many of the entrenched rights common to European and North American nation states.", "Though not creating a secular state – Article 5 proclaims Islam the religion of the State – the Libyan Constitution did formally set out rights such as equality before the law as well as equal civil and political rights, equal opportunities, and an equal responsibility for public duties and obligations, \"without distinction of religion, belief, race, language, wealth, kinship or political or social opinions\" (Article 11).During this period, Britain was involved in extensive engineering projects in Libya and was also the country's biggest supplier of arms.", "The United States also maintained the large Wheelus Air Base in Libya." ], [ "Arab Republic and ''Jamahiriya''", "On 1 September 1969, a small group of military officers led by 27-year-old army officer Muammar Gaddafi staged a coup d'état against King Idris, launching the Libyan Revolution.", "Gaddafi was referred to as the \"Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution\" in government statements and the official Libyan press.Muammar Gaddafi, former leader of Libya, in 2009.On the birthday of Muhammad in 1973, Gaddafi delivered a \"Five-Point Address\".", "He announced the suspension of all existing laws and the implementation of Sharia.", "He said that the country would be purged of the \"politically sick\".", "A \"people's militia\" would \"protect the revolution\".", "There would be an administrative revolution, and a cultural revolution.", "Gaddafi set up an extensive surveillance system.", "10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for the Revolutionary committees, which monitored activities in government, in factories, and in the education sector.", "Gaddafi executed dissidents publicly and the executions were often rebroadcast on state television channels.", "Gaddafi employed his network of diplomats and recruits to assassinate dozens of critical refugees around the world.", "Amnesty International listed at least 25 assassinations between 1980 and 1987.", "\"الله أكبر\" (English: Allahu Akbar=god (is) great)In 1977, Libya officially became the \"Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya\".", "Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People's Committees and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead, but domestic and international critics claimed the reforms gave him virtually unlimited power.", "Dissidents against the new system were not tolerated, with punitive actions including capital punishment authorized by Gaddafi himself.", "The new \"''jamahiriya''\" governance structure he established was officially referred to as a form of direct democracy, though the government refused to publish election results.", "Later that same year, Libya and Egypt fought a four-day border war that came to be known as the Libyan-Egyptian War, both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the Algerian president Houari Boumediène.", "In February 1977, Libya began to provide military supplies to Goukouni Oueddei and the People's Armed Forces in Chad.", "The Chadian–Libyan conflict began in earnest when Libya's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an invasion.", "Much of the country's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of rebels groups around the world.", "An airstrike failed to kill Gaddafi in 1986.Libya was accused in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland and the 1989 bombing of UTA Flight 772 over Chad and Niger; Libya was finally put under United Nations sanctions in 1992.Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions.From 1977 onward, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa, while the Human Development Index became the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia.", "This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans, keeping Libya debt-free.", "In addition, the country's literacy rate rose from 10% to 90%, life expectancy rose from 57 to 77 years, employment opportunities were established for migrant workers, and welfare systems were introduced that allowed access to free education, free healthcare, and financial assistance for housing.", "The Great Manmade River was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country.", "In addition, financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs.Gaddafi doubled the minimum wage, introduced statutory price controls, and implemented compulsory rent reductions of between 30 and 40%.", "Gaddafi also wanted to combat the strict social restrictions that had been imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the Revolutionary Women's Formation to encourage reform.", "In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and insisting on wage parity.", "In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation.", "In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of any females under the age of sixteen and ensuring that a woman's consent was a necessary prerequisite for a marriage.Gaddafi assumed the honorific title of \"King of Kings of Africa\" in 2008 as part of his campaign for a United States of Africa.", "By the early 2010s, in addition to attempting to assume a leadership role in the African Union, Libya was also viewed as having formed closer ties with Italy, one of its former colonial rulers, than any other country in the European Union.", "The eastern parts of the country have been \"ruined\" due to Gaddafi's economic theories, according to ''The Economist''." ], [ "2011 uprising and the First Civil War", "Bayda, on 22 July 2011After popular movements overturned the rulers of Tunisia and Egypt, its immediate neighbors to the west and east, Libya experienced a full-scale revolt beginning on 17 February 2011.By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli.", "In the early hours of 21 February 2011, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, oldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, spoke on Libyan television of his fears that the country would fragment and be replaced by \"15 Islamic fundamentalist emirates\" if the uprising engulfed the entire state.", "He admitted that \"mistakes had been made\" in quelling recent protests and announced plans for a constitutional convention, but warned that the country's economic wealth and recent prosperity was at risk and warned of \"rivers of blood\" if the protests continued.On 27 February 2011, the National Transitional Council was established under the stewardship of Mustafa Abdul Jalil, Gaddafi's former justice minister, to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control.", "This marked the first serious effort to organize the broad-based opposition to the Gaddafi regime.", "While the council was based in Benghazi, it claimed Tripoli as its capital.", "Hafiz Ghoga, a human rights lawyer, later assumed the role of spokesman for the council.", "On 10 March 2011, France became the first state to officially recognise the council as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people.By early March 2011, some parts of Libya had tipped out of Gaddafi's control, coming under the control of a coalition of opposition forces, including soldiers who decided to support the rebels.", "Eastern Libya, centered on the port city of Benghazi, was said to be firmly in the hands of the opposition, while Tripoli and its environs remained in dispute.", "Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in Western Libya and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi, the ''de facto'' centre of the uprising.", "The town of Zawiya, from Tripoli, was bombarded by Air Force planes and Army tanks and seized by Jamahiriya troops, \"exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict.", "\"In several public appearances, Gaddafi threatened to destroy the protest movement, and Al Jazeera and other agencies reported his government was arming pro-Gaddafi militiamen to kill protesters and defectors against the regime in Tripoli.", "Organs of the United Nations, including United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and the United Nations Human Rights Council, condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action urged by Libya's own delegation to the UN.", "The United States imposed economic sanctions against Libya, followed shortly by Australia, Canada and the United Nations Security Council, which also voted to refer Gaddafi and other government officials to the International Criminal Court for investigation.On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973 with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions.", "The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a no-fly zone and the use of \"all means necessary\" to protect civilians within Libya.Shortly afterwards, Libyan Foreign Minister Moussa Koussa stated that \"Libya has decided an immediate ceasefire and an immediate halt to all military operations\".On 19 March, the first Allied act to secure the no-fly zone began when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on a reconnaissance mission heralding attacks on enemy targets.", "Allied military action to enforce the ceasefire commenced the same day when a French aircraft opened fire and destroyed a vehicle on the ground.", "French jets also destroyed five tanks belonging to the Gaddafi regime.", "The United States and United Kingdom launched attacks on over 20 \"integrated air defense systems\" using more than 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles during operations Odyssey Dawn and Ellamy.On 27 June 2011, the International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for Gaddafi, alleging that Gaddafi had been personally involved in planning and implementing \"a policy of widespread and systematic attacks against civilians and demonstrators and dissidents\".Tripoli's Martyrs' Square, 29 August 2011By 22 August 2011, rebel fighters had entered Tripoli and occupied Green Square, which they renamed to its original name, Martyrs' Square in honour of those killed during the Italian occupation.", "Meanwhile, Gaddafi asserted that he was still in Libya and would not concede power to the rebels.On 16 September 2011, the U.N. General Assembly approved a request from the National Transitional Council to accredit envoys of the country's interim controlling body as Tripoli's sole representatives at the UN, effectively recognising the National Transitional Council as the legitimate holder of that country's UN seat.The National Transitional Council had been plagued by internal divisions during its tenure as Libya's interim governing authority.", "It postponed the formation of a caretaker, or \"interim\" government on several occasions during the period prior to the death of Muammar Gaddafi in his hometown of Sirte on 20 October 2011.Mustafa Abdul Jalil led the National Transitional Council and was generally considered to be the principal leadership figure.", "Mahmoud Jibril served as the NTC's ''de facto'' head of government from 5 March 2011 through the end of the war, but he announced he would resign after Libya was declared to have been \"liberated\" from Gaddafi's rule.The \"liberation\" of Libya was celebrated on 23 October 2011, and Jibril announced that consultations were under way to form an interim government within one month, followed by elections for a constitutional assembly within eight months and parliamentary and presidential elections to be held within a year after that.", "He stepped down as expected the same day and was succeeded by Ali Tarhouni.", "At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war." ], [ "Transition and the Second Civil War", "After the First Civil War, the National Transitional Council (NTC) has been responsible for the transition of the administration of the governing of Libya.", "The \"liberation\" of Libya was celebrated on 23 October 2011.Then Jibril announced that consultations were under way to form an interim government within one month, followed by elections for a constitutional assembly within eight months and parliamentary and presidential elections to be held within a year after that.", "He stepped down as expected the same day and was succeeded by Ali Tarhouni.On 24 November, Tarhouni was replaced by Abdurrahim El-Keib.", "El-Keib formed a provisional government, filling it with independent or CNT politicians, including women.After the fall of Gaddafi, Libya has been faced with internal struggles.", "A protest started against the new regime of NTC.", "The loyalists of Gaddafi rebelled and fought with the new Libyan army.Because the Constitutional Declaration allowed a multi-party system, the political parties, like Democratic Party, Party of Reform and Development, National Gathering for Freedom, Justice and Development appeared.", "The Islamist movement started.", "To stop it, the CNT (NTC) government denied power to parties based on religion, tribal and ethnic bases.On 7 July 2012, Libyans voted in their first parliamentary elections since the end of Gaddafi's rule.", "The election, in which more than 100 political parties registered, formed an interim 200-member national assembly.", "This will replace the unelected National Transitional Council, name a prime minister, and form a committee to draft a constitution.", "The vote was postponed several times to resolve logistical and technical problems, and to give more time to register to vote, and to investigate candidates.On 8 August 2012, the National Transitional Council officially handed power to the wholly elected General National Congress, which is tasked with the formation of an interim government and the drafting of a new Libyan Constitution to be approved in a general referendum.On 25 August 2012, in what \"appears to be the most blatant sectarian attack\" since the end of the civil war, unnamed organized assailants bulldozed a Sufi mosque with graves, in broad daylight in the center of the Libyan capital Tripoli.", "It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days.On 7 October 2012, Libya's Prime Minister-elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur stepped down after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet.", "On 14 October 2012, the General National Congress elected former GNC member and human rights lawyer Ali Zeidan as prime minister-designate.Libyan Constitutional Assembly elections took place in Libya on 20 February 2014.Ali Zidan was ousted by the parliament committee and fled from Libya on 14 March 2014 after rogue oil tanker Morning Glory left the rebel port of Sidra, Libya with Libyan oil that had been confiscated by the rebels.", "Ali Zeidan had promised to stop the departure, but failed.On 30 March 2014 General National Congress voted to replace itself with new House of Representatives.Abdullah al-Thani served as the prime minister since 11 March 2014 in interim capacity.", "He resigned on 13 April 2014, after he and his family were victims of a \"traitorous attack\" but continued to remain prime minister since there was no replacement.", "Ahmed Maiteeq was elected Prime Minister of Libya in May 2014 but his election as prime minister took place under disputed circumstances, Libyan Supreme Court ruled on 9 June that Maiteeq's appointment was illegal and Maiteeq resigned the same day., the parliament building was reported to have been stormed by troops loyal to General Khalifa Haftar, reportedly including the Zintan Brigade, in what the Libyan government described as an attempted coup.House of Representatives elections were held in Libya on 25 June 2014.On 14 July, the United States Support Mission in Libya evacuated its staff after 13 people were killed in clashes in Tripoli and Benghazi.", "The fighting, between government forces and rival militia groups, also forced Tripoli International Airport to close.", "A militia, including members of the Libya Revolutionaries Operations Room (LROR), tried to seize control of the airport from the Zintan militia, which has controlled it since Gaddafi was toppled.", "Both militias are believed to be on the official payroll.", "In addition Misrata Airport was closed, due to its dependence on Tripoli International Airport for its operations.", "Government spokesman, Ahmed Lamine, stated that approximately 90% of the planes stationed at Tripoli International Airport were destroyed or made inoperable in the attack, and that the government may make an appeal for international forces to assist in reestablishing security.In December 2015, the Libyan Political Agreement was signed after talks in Skhirat, as the result of protracted negotiations between rival political camps based in Tripoli, Tobruk, and elsewhere which agreed to unite as the Government of National Accord (GNA).", "On 30 March 2016, Fayez Sarraj, the head of GNA, arrived in Tripoli and began working from there despite opposition from GNC.On 4 April 2019, Khalifa Haftar, the commander of the Libyan National Army, called on his military forces to advance on Tripoli, the capital of the internationally recognized government of Libya, in the 2019–20 Western Libya campaign This was met with reproach from United Nations Secretary General António Guterres and the United Nations Security Council.On 23 October 2020, the ''5+5 Joint Libyan Military Commission'' representing the Libyan National Army and the GNA reached a \"permanent ceasefire agreement in all areas of Libya\".", "The agreement, effective immediately, required that all foreign fighters leave Libya within three months while a joint police force would patrol disputed areas.", "The first commercial flight between Tripoli and Benghazi took place that same day.", "On 10 March 2021, an interim unity government was formed, which was slated to remain in place until the next Libyan presidential election scheduled for 10 December.", "However, the election has been delayed several times since, effectively rendering the unity government in power indefinitely, causing tensions which threaten to reignite the war.On September 10, 2023, catastrophic floods due to dam failures generated by Storm Daniel devastated the port city of Derna, killing nearly 7,000 and leaving over 10,000 missing.", "The floods were the worst natural disaster in Libya's modern history." ], [ "See also", "Arab Spring History of North AfricaHistory of the Jews in LibyaList of heads of state of LibyaMilitary history of LibyaPolitics of Libya* Tripoli history and timeline* Benghazi history and timeline" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "****** Tuccimei, Ercole (1999).", "''La Banca d'Italia in Africa'', Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri, Laterza, Bari.", "* Pierre Schill, Réveiller l’archive d’une guerre coloniale.", "Photographies et écrits de Gaston Chérau, correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo-turc pour la Libye (1911–1912), Créaphis, 2018, 480 pages and 230 photographs.", "." ], [ "External links", "* History of Libya Libya Connected (archived 20 April 2007)* Libya in Crisis: Modern History of Libya (archived 17 March 2013) from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Afghanistan" ], [ "Introduction", " Present-day location of Afghanistan in AsiaThe '''history of Afghanistan''', preceding the establishment of the Emirate of Afghanistan in 1823 is shared with that of neighbouring Iran, central Asia and Indian subcontinent.", "The Sadozai monarchy ruled the Afghan Durrani Empire, considered the founding state of modern Afghanistan.Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic era, and the country's strategic location along the historic Silk Road has led it to being described, picturesquely, as the ‘roundabout of the ancient world’.", "The land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and most recently by a US-led coalition.", "The various conquests and periods in both the Indian and Iranian cultural spheres made the area a center for, Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and later Islam throughout history.The Durrani Empire is considered to be the foundational polity of the modern nation-state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad Shah Durrani being credited as its Father of the Nation.", "However, Dost Mohammad Khan is sometimes considered to be the founder of the first modern Afghan state.", "Following the Durrani Empire's decline and the death of Ahmad Shah Durrani and Timur Shah, it was divided into multiple smaller independent kingdoms, including but not limited to Herat, Kandahar and Kabul.", "Afghanistan would be reunited in the 19th century after seven decades of civil war from 1793 to 1863, with wars of unification led by Dost Mohammad Khan from 1823 to 1863, where he conquered the independent principalities of Afghanistan under the Emirate of Kabul.", "Dost Mohammad died in 1863, days after his last campaign to unite Afghanistan, and Afghanistan was consequently thrown back into civil war with fighting amongst his successors.", "During this time, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between the British Raj in South Asia and the Russian Empire.", "The British Raj attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but was repelled in the First Anglo-Afghan War.", "However, the Second Anglo-Afghan War saw a British victory and the successful establishment of British political influence over Afghanistan.", "Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in June 1926 under Amanullah Khan.", "This monarchy lasted almost half a century, until Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973, following which the Republic of Afghanistan was established.Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars.", "The conflict began in 1978 when a communist revolution established a socialist state, and subsequent infighting prompted the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in 1979.Mujahideen fought against the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan War and continued fighting amongst themselves following the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989.The Islamic fundamentalist Taliban controlled most of the country by 1996, but their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 US invasion of Afghanistan.", "The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after capturing Kabul and overthrowing the government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, thus bringing an end to the 2001–2021 war.", "Although initially claiming it would form an inclusive government for the country, in September 2021 the Taliban re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan with an interim government made up entirely of Taliban members.", "The Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized." ], [ "Prehistory", "Afghan nomads in the northern Badghis province of Afghanistan.", "Early peasant farming villages came into existence in Afghanistan about 7,000 years ago.Excavations of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree and others at Darra-e Kur in 1966 where 800 stone implements were recovered along with a fragment of Neanderthal right temporal bone, suggest that early humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 52,000 years ago.", "A cave called Kara Kamar contained Upper Paleolithic blades Carbon-14 dated at 34,000 years old.", "Farming communities in Afghanistan were among the earliest in the world.", "Artifacts indicate that the indigenous people were small farmers and herdsmen, very probably grouped into tribes, with small local kingdoms rising and falling through the ages.", "Urbanization may have begun as early as 3000 BCE.", "Gandhara is the name of an ancient kingdom from the Vedic period and its capital city located between the Hindukush and Sulaiman Mountains (mountains of Solomon), although Kandahar in modern times and the ancient Gandhara are not geographically identical.Early inhabitants, around 3000 BCE were likely to have been connected through culture and trade to neighboring civilizations like Jiroft and Tappeh Sialk and the Indus Valley civilization.", "Urban civilization may have begun as early as 3000 BCE and it is possible that the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar) was a part of Helmand culture.", "The first known people were Indo-Iranians, but their date of arrival has been estimated widely from as early as about 3000 BCE to 1500 BCE.", "(For further detail see Indo-Aryan migration.", ")===Indus Valley civilization=== The extent of the Indus Valley Civilization during its mature phaseThe Indus Valley civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from present-day northwest Pakistan to present-day northwest India and present-day northeast Afghanistan.", "An Indus Valley trading colony has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan.", "Apart from Shortughai, Mundigak is another known site.", "There are several other smaller IVC sites to be found in Afghanistan as well.===Bactria-Margiana===The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex became prominent between 2200 and 1700 BCE (approximately).", "The city of Balkh (Bactra) was founded about this time (c. 2000–1500 BCE)." ], [ "Ancient period (c. 1500 – 250 BCE)", "The Mahajanapadas, including the Gandhara and Kambojas kingdoms and Achaemenid Empire in West, around c. 500 BCE=== Gandhara Kingdom (c. 1500 – 535 BCE) ===Early Vedic Period, around 1500 BCEThe Gandhara region centered around the Peshawar Valley and Swat river valley, though the cultural influence of \"Greater Gandhara\" extended across the Indus river to the Taxila region in Potohar Plateau and westwards into the Kabul and Bamiyan valleys in Afghanistan, and northwards up to the Karakoram range.During the 6th century BCE, Gandhāra was an important imperial power in north-west South Asia, with the valley of Kaśmīra being part of the kingdom, while the other states of the Punjab region, such as the Kekayas, Madrakas, Uśīnaras, and Shivis being under Gāndhārī suzerainty.", "The Gāndhārī king Pukkusāti, who reigned around 550 BCE, engaged in expansionist ventures which brought him into conflict with the king Pradyota of the rising power of Avanti.", "Pukkusāti was successful in this struggle with Pradyota.By the later 6th century BCE, the founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus, soon after his conquests of Media, Lydia, and Babylonia, marched into Gandhara and annexed it into his empire.", "The scholar Kaikhosru Danjibuoy Sethna advanced that Cyrus had conquered only the trans-Indus borderlands around Peshawar which had belonged to Gandhāra while Pukkusāti remained a powerful king who maintained his rule over the rest of Gandhāra and the western Punjab.=== Kamboja Kingdom (c. 700 – 200 BCE) ===The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia.", "The Macedonian conqueror made short shrift of the arrangements of Darius and after over-running the Achaemenid Empire he dashed into today's eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan.", "There he encountered resistance from the Kamboja ''Aspasioi'' and ''Assakenoi'' tribes.", "The Region of the Hindukush that was inhabitanted by the Kambojas has gone through many rules such as Vedic Mahajanapada, Pali Kapiśi, Indo-Greeks, Kushan and Gandharans to Paristan and modern day being split between Pakistan and Eastern Afghanistan.The descendants of Kambojas have mostly been assimilated into newer identities, however, some tribes remain today that still retain the names of their ancestors.", "The Yusufzai Pashtuns are said to be the Esapzai/Aśvakas from the Kamboja age.", "The Kom/Kamoz people of Nuristan retain their Kamboj name.", "The Ashkun of Nuristan also retain the name of Aśvakas.", "The Yashkun Shina dards are another group that retain the name of the Kamboja Aśvakans.", "The Kamboj of Punjab are another group that still retain the name however have integrated into new identity.", "The country of Cambodia derives its name from the Kamboja.=== Achaemenid Empire ===Much of the area corresponding to modern-day Afghanistan was subordinated to the Achaemenid EmpireArachosia, Aria and Bactria were the ancient satraps of the Achaemenid Empire that made up most of what is now Afghanistan during 500 BCE.Afghanistan fell to the Achaemenid Empire after it was conquered by Darius I of Persia.", "The area was divided into several provinces called satrapies, which were each ruled by a governor, or satrap.", "These ancient satrapies included: Aria: The region of Aria was separated by mountain ranges from the Paropamisadae in the east, Parthia in the west and Margiana and Hyrcania in the north, while a desert separated it from Carmania and Drangiana in the south.", "It is described in a very detailed manner by Ptolemy and Strabo and corresponds, according to that, almost to the Herat Province of today's Afghanistan; Arachosia, corresponds to the modern-day Kandahar, Lashkar Gah, and Quetta.", "Arachosia bordered Drangiana to the west, Paropamisadae (i.e.", "Gandahara) to the north and to the east, and Gedrosia to the south.", "The inhabitants of Arachosia were Iranian peoples, referred to as Arachosians or Arachoti.", "It is assumed that they were called ''Paktyans'' by ethnicity, and that name may have been in reference to the ethnic ''Paṣtun'' (Pashtun) tribes;Bactriana was the area north of the Hindu Kush, west of the Pamirs and south of the Tian Shan, with the Amu Darya flowing west through the center (Balkh); Sattagydia was the easternmost regions of the Achaemenid Empire, part of its Seventh tax district according to Herodotus, along with Gandārae, Dadicae and Aparytae.", "It is believed to have been situated east of the Sulaiman Mountains up to the Indus River in the basin around Bannu.", "(Ghazni); and Gandhara which corresponds to modern day Kabul, Jalalabad, and Peshawar.=== Alexander and the Seleucus ===Alexander Empire in South AsiaAlexander's troops beg to return home from India in plate3 of 11 by Antonio Tempesta of Florence, 1608.Alexander the Great arrived in the area of Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a year earlier at the Battle of Gaugamela.", "His army faced very strong resistance in the Afghan tribal areas where he is said to have commented that Afghanistan is \"easy to march into, hard to march out of.\"", "Although his expedition through Afghanistan was brief, Alexander left behind a Hellenic cultural influence that lasted several centuries.", "Several great cities were built in the region named \"Alexandria,\" including: Alexandria-of-the-Arians (modern-day Herat); Alexandria-on-the-Tarnak (near Kandahar); Alexandria-ad-Caucasum (near Begram, at Bordj-i-Abdullah); and finally, Alexandria-Eschate (near Kojend), in the north.", "After Alexander's death, his loosely connected empire was divided.", "Seleucus, a Macedonian officer during Alexander's campaign, declared himself ruler of his own Seleucid Empire, which also included present-day Afghanistan.=== Mauryan Empire ===Maurya empire in 265 BCE.jpg\|Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great.Mes Aynak stupa.jpg\|Newly excavated Buddhist stupa at Mes Aynak in Logar Province of Afghanistan.", "Similar stupas have been discovered in neighboring Ghazni Province, including in the northern Samangan Province.Aramaic inscription of Laghman.jpg\|Aramaic Inscription of Laghman is an inscription on a slab of natural rock in the area of Laghmân, Afghanistan, written in Aramaic by the Indian emperor Ashoka about 260 BCE, and often categorized as one of Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka.Kandahar Greek inscription.jpg\|Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka is among the Major Rock Edicts of the Indian Emperor Ashoka (reigned 269-233 BCE), which were written in the Greek language and Prakrit language.The territory fell to the Maurya Empire, which was led by Chandragupta Maurya.", "The Mauryas further entrenched Hinduism and introduced Buddhism to the region, and were planning to capture more territory of Central Asia until they faced local Greco-Bactrian forces.", "Seleucus is said to have reached a peace treaty with Chandragupta by giving control of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to the Mauryas upon intermarriage and 500 elephants.Having consolidated power in the northwest, Chandragupta pushed east towards the Nanda Empire.", "Afghanistan's significant ancient tangible and intangible Buddhist heritage is recorded through wide-ranging archeological finds, including religious and artistic remnants.", "Buddhist doctrines are reported to have reached as far as Balkh even during the life of the Buddha (563 BCE to 483 BCE), as recorded by Husang Tsang." ], [ "Classical Period (c. 250 BCE – 565 CE)", "===Greco-Bactrian Kingdom===Approximate maximum extent of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom circa 180 BCE, including the regions of Tapuria and Traxiane to the West, Sogdiana and Ferghana to the north, Bactria and Arachosia to the south.The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was a Hellenistic kingdom, founded when Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria (and probably the surrounding provinces) seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250 BCE.The Greco-Bactria Kingdom continued until c. 130 BCE, when Eucratides I's son, King Heliocles I, was defeated and driven out of Bactria by the Yuezhi tribes from the east.", "The Yuezhi now had complete occupation of Bactria.", "It is thought that Eucratides' dynasty continued to rule in Kabul and Alexandria of the Caucasus until 70 BCE when King Hermaeus was also defeated by the Yuezhi.===Indo-Greek Kingdom===One of Demetrius I's successors, Menander I, brought the Indo-Greek Kingdom (now isolated from the rest of the Hellenistic world after the fall of Bactria) to its height between 165 and 130 BCE, expanding the kingdom in Afghanistan and Pakistan to even larger proportions than Demetrius.", "After Menander's death, the Indo-Greeks steadily declined and the last Indo-Greek kings (Strato II and Strato III) were defeated in c. 10 CE.", "The Indo-Greek Kingdom was succeeded by the Indo-Scythians.===Indo-Scythians===The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddha surrounded by Brahma (left) and Śakra (right) was found inside a stupa with coins of Azes inside.", "British Museum.The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia to Pakistan and Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE.", "They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura.", "The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty.", "Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire from eastern India in the 4th century.===Indo-Parthians===Gandhara Buddhist reliquary with content, including Indo-Parthian coins.", "1st century CE.\|alt=The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first ruler Gondophares.", "They ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India, during or slightly before the 1st century CE.", "For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present Punjab province of Pakistan) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar.", "These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title ''Gondophares'', which means \"Holder of Glory\", were even related.", "Christian writings claim that the Apostle Saint Thomas – an architect and skilled carpenter – had a long sojourn in the court of king Gondophares, had built a palace for the king at Taxila and had also ordained leaders for the Church before leaving for the Indus Valley in a chariot, for sailing out to eventually reach Malabar Coast.===Kushans===Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription.The Kushan Empire expanded out of Bactria (Central Asia) into the northwest of the subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE.", "They came from an Indo-European language speaking Central Asian tribe called the Yuezhi, a branch of which was known as the Kushans.", "By the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan, and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares).Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority.They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent and its spread to Central Asia and China.Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome.", "The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara Art, which reached its peak during Kushan Rule.H.", "G. Rowlinson commented:By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.BuddhistTriad.JPG\|Early Mahayana Buddhist triad.", "From left to right, a Kushan devotee, Maitreya, the Buddha, Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk.", "2nd–3rd century, Gandhara.Kumara, The Divine General LACMA M.85.279.3.jpg\|Kumara or Kartikeya with a Kushan devotee, 2nd century CE.Gandhara, omaggio di un re kushana al bodhisattva, II-III sec.JPG\|Kushan prince, said to be Huvishka, making a donation to a Boddhisattva.Relief Showing Shiva Linga Worshipped by Saka Devotees - Kushan Period - Dampier Nagar - ACCN 36-2661 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5614.JPG\|Shiva Linga worshipped by Kushan devotees, circa 2nd century CE.=== Sassanian Empire ===The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent c. 620, under Khosrow IIAfter the Kushan Empire's rule was ended by Sassanids— officially known as the Empire of Iranians— was the last kingdom of the Persian Empire before the rise of Islam.", "Named after the House of Sasan, it ruled from 224 to 651 AD.", "In the east around 325, Shapur II regained the upper hand against the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom and took control of large territories in areas now known as Afghanistan and Pakistan.", "Much of modern-day Afghanistan became part of the Sasanian Empire, since Shapur I extended his authority eastwards into Afghanistan and the previously autonomous Kushans were obliged to accept his suzerainty.From around 370, however, towards the end of the reign of Shapur II, the Sassanids lost the control of Bactria to invaders from the north.", "These were the Kidarites, the Hephthalites, the Alchon Huns, and the Nezaks: The four Huna tribes to rule Afghanistan.", "These invaders initially issued coins based on Sasanian designs.===Huna===The Hunas were peoples who were of a group of Central Asian tribes.", "Four of the Huna tribe conquered and ruled Afghanistan: the Kidarites, Hepthalites, Alchon Huns and the Nezaks.====Kidarites====The Kidarites were a nomadic clan, the first of the four Huna people in Afghanistan.", "They are supposed to have originated in Western China and arrived in Bactria with the great migrations of the second half of the 4th century.====Alchon Huns====Vishnu Nicolo Seal representing Vishnu with a worshipper (probably Mihirakula), 4th–6th century CE.", "The inscription in cursive Bactrian reads: \"Mihira, Vishnu and Shiva\".", "British Museum.The Alchons are one of the four Huna people that ruled in Afghanistan.", "A group of Central Asian tribes, Hunas or Huna, via the Khyber Pass, entered India at the end of the 5th or early 6th century and successfully occupied areas as far as Eran and Kausambi, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire.", "The 6th-century Roman historian Procopius of Caesarea (Book I. ch.", "3), related the Huns of Europe with the Hephthalites or \"White Huns\" who subjugated the Sassanids and invaded northwestern India, stating that they were of the same stock, \"in fact as well as in name\", although he contrasted the Huns with the Hephthalites, in that the Hephthalites were sedentary, white-skinned, and possessed \"not ugly\" features.Song Yun and Hui Zheng, who visited the chief of the Hephthalite nomads at his summer residence in Badakshan and later in Gandhara, observed that they had no belief in the Buddhist law and served a large number of divinities.", "\"====The White Huns====The Hephthalites (or Ephthalites), also known as the White Huns and one of the four Huna people in Afghanistan, were a nomadic confederation in Central Asia during the late antiquity period.", "The White Huns established themselves in modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century.", "Led by the Hun military leader Toramana, they overran the northern region of Pakistan and North India.", "Toramana's son Mihirakula, a Saivite Hindu, moved up to near Pataliputra to the east and Gwalior to central India.", "Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned.", "The Huns were defeated by the Indian kings Yasodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta in the 6th century.", "Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society.====Nezak Huns====The Nezaks are one of the four Huna people that ruled in Afghanistan." ], [ "Middle Ages (565–1504 CE)", "Map of the region during the 7th centuryFrom the Middle Ages to around 1750 the eastern regions of Afghanistan such as Kabulistan and Zabulistan (now Kabul, Kandahar and Ghazni) were recognized as being part of Indian subcontinent (''Al-Hind''), while its western parts were included in Khorasan, Tokharistan and Sistan.", "Two of the four main capitals of Khorasan (Balkh and Herat) are now located in Afghanistan.", "The countries of Kandahar, Ghazni and Kabul formed the frontier region between Khorasan and the Indus.", "This land, inhabited by the Afghan tribes (i.e.", "ancestors of Pashtuns), was called Afghanistan, which loosely covered a wide area between the Hindu Kush and the Indus River, principally around the Sulaiman Mountains.", "The earliest record of the name ''\"Afghan\"'' (''\"Abgân\"'') being mentioned is by Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire during the 3rd century CE which is later recorded in the form of ''\"Avagānā\"'' by the Vedic astronomer Varāha Mihira in his 6th century CE Brihat-samhita.", "It was used to refer to a common legendary ancestor known as ''\"Afghana\"'', grandson of King Saul of Israel.", "Hiven Tsiang, a Chinese pilgrim, visiting the Afghanistan area several times between 630 and 644 CE also speaks about them.", "Ancestors of many of today's Turkic-speaking Afghans settled in the Hindu Kush area and began to assimilate much of the culture and language of the Pashtun tribes already present there.", "Among these were the Khalaj people which are known today as Ghilzai.===Kabul Shahi===The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul Valley and Gandhara from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.", "The Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870.The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 to 670, when the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as Hund for its new capital.The Hindu Shahis under ruler Jayapala, is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom against the Ghaznavids in the modern-day eastern Afghanistan region.", "Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in the reign of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud, which initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahi struggles.", "Sebuktigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity.", "Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more.", "Jayapala however, lost control of the entire region between the Kabul Valley and Indus River.Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus.", "When Jaipal went to the Punjab region, his army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable host of foot soldiers.", "According to Ferishta:However, the army was hopeless in battle against the western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of Ghazni.", "In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanids north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more and suffered yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day Peshawar.", "After the Battle of Peshawar, he committed suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi dynasty.Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala, who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahiya dynasty took part in various campaigns against the advancing Ghaznavids but were unsuccessful.", "The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik Hills.===Islamic conquest===In 642 CE, Rashidun Arabs had conquered most of West Asia from the Sassanids and Byzantines, and from the western city of Herat they introduced the religion of Islam as they entered new cities.", "Afghanistan at that period had a number of different independent rulers, depending on the area.", "Ancestors of Abū Ḥanīfa, including his father, were from the Kabul region.The early Arab forces did not fully explore Afghanistan due to attacks by the mountain tribes.", "Much of the eastern parts of the country remained independent, as part of the Hindu Shahi kingdoms of Kabul and Gandhara, which lasted that way until the forces of the Muslim Saffarid dynasty followed by the Ghaznavids conquered them.===Ghaznavids===Ghaznavid Empire at its greatest extent in 1030 CEThe Ghaznavid dynasty ruled from the city of Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan.", "From 997 to his death in 1030, Mahmud of Ghazni turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which covered most of today's Afghanistan, eastern and central Iran, Pakistan, parts of India, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.", "Mahmud of Ghazni (Mahmude Ghaznavi in local pronunciation) consolidated the conquests of his predecessors and the city of Ghazni became a great cultural centre as well as a base for frequent forays into the Indian subcontinent.", "The Nasher Khans became princes of the Kharoti until the Soviet invasion.===Ghorids===Map of Ghurid territory, before the assassination of Muhammad of Ghor.", "In the west, Ghurid territory extended to Nishapur and Merv, while Ghurid troops reached as far as Gorgan on the shores of the Caspian Sea.", "Eastward, the Ghurids invaded as far as Bengal.The Ghaznavid dynasty was defeated in 1148 by the Ghurids from Ghor, but the Ghaznavid Sultans continued to live in Ghazni as the 'Nasher' until the early 20th century.", "The empire was established by three brothers from Ghor region of Afghanistan Qutb al-Din, Sayf al-Din, Baha al-Din which all them fought against Ghaznavid emperor Bahram Shah of Ghazni but were not successful and killed in the process.", "Initially Ala al-Din Husayn, the son of Baha al-Din defeated the Ghazanavid ruler Bahram Shah and to take revenge of his father and uncle's death ordered the city to be sacked.", "The Ghorids or Ghurids lost the northern territory of Transoxiana and northern Great Korasan especially their capital Ghor province due to the invasion of Seljucks but Sultan Ala al-Din's successors consolidated their power in India by defeating the remainder of Ghaznavid rulers.", "At their largest extent they ruled east of Iran, much of the Indian subcontinent like Pakistan, and north and central part of modern India.===Mongol invasion===Mongol invasions and conquests seriously depopulated large areas of AfghanistanThe Mongols invaded Afghanistan in 1221 having defeated the Khwarazmian armies.", "The Mongols invasion had long-term consequences with many parts of Afghanistan never recovering from the devastation.", "The towns and villages suffered much more than the nomads who were able to avoid attack.", "The destruction of irrigation systems maintained by the sedentary people led to the shift of the weight of the country towards the hills.", "The city of Balkh was destroyed and even 100 years later Ibn Battuta described it as a city still in ruins.", "While the Mongols were pursuing the forces of Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu they besieged the city of Bamyan.", "In the course of the siege a defender's arrow killed Genghis Khan's grandson Mutukan.", "The Mongols razed the city and massacred its inhabitants in revenge, with its former site known as the City of Screams.", "Herat, located in a fertile valley, was destroyed as well but was rebuilt under the local Kart dynasty.", "After the Mongol Empire splintered, Herat eventually became part of the Ilkhanate while Balkh and the strip of land from Kabul through Ghazni to Kandahar went to the Chagatai Khanate.", "The Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush were usually either allied with the Khalji dynasty of northern India or independent.===Timurids===Timurid Empire at its greatest extent in 1405Timur (Tamerlane) incorporated much of the area into his own vast Timurid Empire.", "The city of Herat became one of the capitals of his empire, and his grandson Pir Muhammad held the seat of Kandahar.", "Timur rebuilt most of Afghanistan's infrastructure which was destroyed by his early ancestor.", "The area was progressing under his rule.", "Timurid rule began declining in the early 16th century with the rise of a new ruler in Kabul, Babur.Timur, a descendant of Genghis Khan, created a vast new empire across Russia and Persia which he ruled from his capital in Samarkand in present-day Uzbekistan.", "Timur captured Herat in 1381 and his son, Shah Rukh moved the capital of the Timurid empire to Herat in 1405.The Timurids, a Turkic people, brought the Turkic nomadic culture of Central Asia within the orbit of Persian civilisation, establishing Herat as one of the most cultured and refined cities in the world.", "This fusion of Central Asian and Persian culture was a major legacy for the future Afghanistan.", "Under the rule of Shah Rukh the city served as the focal point of the Timurid Renaissance, whose glory matched Florence of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth.", "A century later, the emperor Babur, a descendant of Timur, visited Herat and wrote, \"the whole habitable world had not such a town as Herat.\"", "For the next 300 years the eastern Afghan tribes periodically invaded India creating vast Indo-Afghan empires.", "In 1500 CE, Babur was driven out of his home in the Ferghana valley.", "By the 16th century western Afghanistan again reverted to Persian rule under the Safavid dynasty." ], [ "Modern era (1504–1973)", "=== Mughals, Uzbeks, and Safavids ===miniature from Padshahnama depicting the surrender of the Shia Safavid garrison of Kandahar in 1638 to the Mughal army of Shah Jahan commanded by Kilij Khan.In 1504, Babur, a descendant of Timur, arrived from present-day Uzbekistan and moved to the city of Kabul.", "He began exploring new territories in the region, with Kabul serving as his military headquarters.", "Instead of looking towards the powerful Safavids towards the Persian west, Babur was more focused on the Indian subcontinent.", "In 1526, he left with his army to capture the seat of the Delhi Sultanate, which at that point was possessed by the Afghan Lodi dynasty of India.", "After defeating Ibrahim Lodi and his army, Babur turned (Old) Delhi into the capital of his newly established Mughal Empire.From the 16th century to the 17th century CE, Afghanistan was divided into three major areas.", "The north was ruled by the Khanate of Bukhara, the west was under the rule of the Iranian Shia Safavids, and the eastern section was under the Sunni Mughals of northern India, who under Akbar established in Kabul one of the original twelve subahs (imperial top-level provinces), bordering Lahore, Multan and Kashmir (added to Kabul in 1586, later split-off) and short-lived Balkh Subah and Badakhshan Subah (only 1646–47).", "The Kandahar region in the south served as a buffer zone between the Mughals (who shortly established a Qandahar subah 1638–1648) and Persia's Safavids, with the native Afghans often switching support from one side to the other.", "Babur explored a number of cities in the region before his campaign into India.", "In the city of Kandahar, his personal epigraphy can be found in the Chilzina rock mountain.", "Like in the rest of the territories that used to make part of the Indian Mughal Empire, Afghanistan holds tombs, palaces, and forts built by the Mughals.===Hotak dynasty===Map of the Hotak Empire during the Reign of Mirwais Hotak, 1715.Hotaki Empire, 1728In 1704, the Safavid Shah Husayn appointed George XI (''Gurgīn Khān''), a ruthless Georgian subject, to govern their easternmost territories in the Greater Kandahar region.", "One of Gurgīn's main objectives was to crush the rebellions started by native Afghans.", "Under his rule the revolts were successfully suppressed and he ruled Kandahar with uncompromising severity.", "He began imprisoning and executing the native Afghans, especially those suspected in having taken part in the rebellions.", "One of those arrested and imprisoned was Mirwais Hotak who belonged to an influential family in Kandahar.", "Mirwais was sent as a prisoner to the Persian court in Isfahan, but the charges against him were dismissed by the king, so he was sent back to his native land as a free man.In April 1709, Mirwais along with his militia under Saydal Khan Naseri revolted.", "The uprising began when George XI and his escort were killed after a banquet that had been prepared by Mirwais at his house outside the city.", "Around four days later, an army of well-trained Georgian troops arrived in the city after hearing of Gurgīn's death, but Mirwais and his Afghan forces successfully held the city against the troops.", "Between 1710 and 1713, the Afghan forces defeated several large Persian armies that were dispatched from Isfahan by the Safavids, which included Qizilbash and Georgian/Circassian troops.Modern-day sketch work of Mahmud HotakiSouthern Afghanistan was made into an independent local Pashtun kingdom.", "Refusing the title of king, Mirwais was called \"Prince of Qandahár and general of the national troops\" by his Afghan countrymen.", "He died of natural causes in November 1715 and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz Hotak.", "Aziz was killed about two years later by Mirwais' son Mahmud Hotaki, allegedly for planning to give Kandahar's sovereignty back to Persia.", "Mahmud led an Afghan army into Persia in 1722 and defeated the Safavids at the Battle of Gulnabad.", "The Afghans captured Isfahan (Safavid capital) and Mahmud briefly became the new Persian Shah.", "He was known after that as Shah Mahmud.Mahmud began a short-lived reign of terror against his Persian subjects who defied his rule from the very start, and he was eventually murdered in 1725 by his own cousin, Shah Ashraf Hotaki.", "Some sources say he died of madness.", "Ashraf became the new Afghan Shah of Persia soon after Mahmud's death, while the home region of Afghanistan was ruled by Mahmud's younger brother Shah Hussain Hotaki.", "Ashraf was able to secure peace with the Ottoman Empire in 1727 (''See'' ''Treaty of Hamedan''), winning against a superior Ottoman army during the Ottoman-Hotaki War, but the Russian Empire took advantage of the continuing political unrest and civil strife to seize former Persian territories for themselves, limiting the amount of territory under Shah Mahmud's control.The short lived Hotaki dynasty was a troubled and violent one from the very start as internecine conflict made it difficult for them to establish permanent control.", "The dynasty lived under great turmoil due to bloody succession feuds that made their hold on power tenuous.", "There was a massacre of thousands of civilians in Isfahan; including more than three thousand religious scholars, nobles, and members of the Safavid family.", "The vast majority of the Persians rejected the Afghan regime which they considered to have been usurping power from the very start.", "Hotaki's rule continued in Afghanistan until 1738 when Shah Hussain was defeated and banished by Nader Shah of Persia.The Hotakis were eventually removed from power in 1729, after a very short lived reign.", "They were defeated in the October 1729 by the Iranian military commander Nader Shah, head of the Afsharids, at the Battle of Damghan.", "After several military campaigns against the Afghans, he effectively reduced the Hotaki's power to only southern Afghanistan.", "The last ruler of the Hotaki dynasty, Shah Hussain, ruled southern Afghanistan until 1738 when the Afsharids and the Abdali Pashtuns defeated him at the long Siege of Kandahar.===Afsharid Invasion and Durrani Empire===Nader Shah and his Afsharid army arrived in the town of Kandahar in 1738 and defeated Hussain Hotaki subsequently absorbing all of Afghanistan in his empire and renaming Kandahar as Naderabad.", "Around this time, a young teenager Ahmad Shah joined Nader Shah's army for his invasion of India.", "The Afghan Durrani Empire at its height in 1761.Nadir Shah was assassinated on 19 June 1747 by several of his Persian officers, and the Afsharid empire fell to pieces.", "At the same time the 25-year-old Ahmad Khan was busy in Afghanistan calling for a loya jirga (\"grand assembly\") to select a leader among his people.", "The Afghans gathered near Kandahar in October 1747 and chose Ahmad Shah from among the challengers, making him their new head of state.", "After the inauguration or coronation, he became known as Ahmad Shah Durrani.", "He adopted the title ''padshah durr-i dawran'' ('King, \"pearl of the age\") and the Abdali tribe became known as the Durrani tribe after this.", "Ahmad Shah not only represented the Durranis but he also united all the Pashtun tribes.", "By 1751, Ahmad Shah Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and for a short time, subjugated large swathes of the Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with Delhi in India.", "He defeated the Maratha Empire in 1761 at the Battle of Panipat.In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home in Kandahar where he died peacefully and was buried at a site that is now adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak.", "He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah Durrani, who transferred the capital of their Afghan Empire from Kandahar to Kabul.", "Timur died in 1793 and his son Zaman Shah Durrani took over the reign.Zaman Shah and his brothers had a weak hold on the legacy left to them by their famous ancestor.", "They sorted out their differences through a \"round robin of expulsions, blindings and executions,\" which resulted in the deterioration of the Afghan hold over far-flung territories, such as Attock and Kashmir.", "Durrani's other grandson, Shuja Shah Durrani, fled the wrath of his brother and sought refuge with the Sikhs.", "Not only had Durrani invaded the Punjab region many times, but had destroyed the holiest shrine of the Sikhs – the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar, defiling its ''sarowar'' with the blood of cows and decapitating Baba Deep Singh in 1757.The Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, eventually wrested a large part of the Durrani Kingdom (present day Pakistan, but not including Sindh) from the Afghans while they were in civil war.===Barakzai dynasty and British influence===Emirate) and surrounding nations, dated 1860.Map of Afghanistan 1839–1863, showing the First Anglo-Afghan war, and unification of Afghanistan by Dost Mohammad KhanKing Yaqub Khan with Britain's Sir Pierre Louis Napoleon Cavagnari, 26 May 1879, on the occasion of the signing of the Treaty of GandamakThe Emir Dost Mohammed Khan (1793–1863) gained control in Kabul in 1826 after toppling his brother, Sultan Mohammad Khan, and founded () the Barakzai dynasty.", "In 1837, the Afghan army descended through the Khyber Pass on Sikh forces at Jamrud killed the Sikh general Hari Singh Nalwa but could not capture the fort.", "Rivalry between the expanding British and Russian Empires in what became known as \"The Great Game\" significantly influenced Afghanistan during the 19th century.", "British concern over Russian advances in Central Asia and over Russia's growing influence in West Asia and in Persia in particular culminated in two Anglo-Afghan wars and in the Siege of Herat (1837–1838), in which the Persians, trying to retake Afghanistan and throw out the British, sent armies into the country and fought the British mostly around and in the city of Herat.", "The first Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842) resulted in the destruction of a British army; causing great panic throughout British India and the dispatch of a second British invasion army.", "Following the British defeat in the First Anglo-Afghan War, where they tried to re-establish the Durrani Kingdom as a de facto vassal, Dost Mohammad could focus on reuniting Afghanistan, which was divided following the Durrani-Barakzai civil wars.", "Dost Mohammad began his conquest while only ruling the major cities of Kabul, Ghazni, Jalalabad, and Bamyan.", "By the time of his death in 1863, Dost Mohammad had reunited most of Afghanistan.", "Following Dost Mohammad's death, a civil war broke out amongst his sons, leading to Sher Ali succeeding and beginning his rule.", "The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880) resulted from the refusal by Emir Shir Ali (reigned 1863 to 1866 and from 1868 to 1879) to accept a British diplomatic mission in Kabul.", "In the wake of this conflict Shir Ali's nephew, Emir Abdur Rahman, known as \"Iron Emir\",came to the Afghan throne.", "During his reign (1880–1901), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what would become modern Afghanistan.", "The British retained effective control over Kabul's foreign affairs.", "Abdur Rahman's reforms of the army, legal system and structure of government gave Afghanistan a degree of unity and stability which it had not before known.", "This, however, came at the cost of strong centralisation, of harsh punishments for crime and corruption, and of a certain degree of international isolation.Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman's son, came to the throne in 1901 and kept Afghanistan neutral during World War I, despite encouragement by Central Powers of anti-British feelings and of Afghan rebellion along the borders of India.", "His policy of neutrality was not universally popular within the country, and Habibullah was assassinated in 1919, possibly by family members opposed to British influence.", "His third son, Amanullah (), regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the Third Anglo-Afghan War (May to August 1919) with an attack on India.", "During the ensuing conflict the war-weary British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the Treaty of Rawalpindi in August 1919.In commemoration of this event Afghans celebrate 19 August as their Independence Day.===Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war===King Amanullah Khan moved to end his country's traditional isolation in the years following the Third Anglo-Afghan war.", "After quelling the Khost rebellion in 1925, he established diplomatic relations with most major countries and, following a 1927 tour of Europe and Turkey (during which he noted the modernization and secularization advanced by Atatürk), introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan.", "A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, Amanullah Khan's Foreign Minister and father-in-law — and an ardent supporter of the education of women.", "He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's first constitution (declared through a Loya Jirga), which made elementary education compulsory.", "Some of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional Muslim veil for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, which led to the revolt of the Shinwari in November 1928, marking the beginning of the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929).", "Although the Shinwari revolt was quelled, a concurrent Saqqawist uprising in the north eventually managed to depose Amanullah, leading to Habibullāh Kalakāni taking control of Kabul.===Reigns of Nadir Khan and Zahir Khan===alt=Mohammed Nadir Khan became King of Afghanistan on 15 October 1929 after he took control of Afghanistan by defeating the Habibullah Kalakani.", "He then executed him in 1 November of same year.", "He began consolidating power and regenerating the country.", "He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favour of a more gradual approach to modernisation.", "In 1933, however, he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a student from Kabul.Mohammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973.The Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 saw Zahir Shah's reign being challenged by Zadran, Safi and Mangal tribesmen led by Mazrak Zadran and Salemai among others.", "Until 1946 Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Khan.", "In 1946, another of Zahir Shah's uncles, Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected.", "In 1953, he was replaced as Prime Minister by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law.", "Daoud looked for a closer relationship with the Soviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan.", "However, disputes with Pakistan led to an economic crisis and he was asked to resign in 1963.From 1963 until 1973, Zahir Shah took a more active role.In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a bicameral legislature to which the king appointed one-third of the deputies.", "The people elected another third, and the remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies.", "Although Zahir's \"experiment in democracy\" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of parties on both the left and the right.", "This included the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union.", "In 1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: the Khalq (Masses) was headed by Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin who were supported by elements within the military, and the Parcham (Banner) led by Babrak Karmal." ], [ "Contemporary era (1973–present)", "1973 film about contemporary events in Afghanistan===Republic of Afghanistan and the end of the monarchy===Amid corruption charges and malfeasance against the royal family and the poor economic conditions created by the severe 1971–72 drought, former Prime Minister Mohammad Sardar Daoud Khan seized power in a non-violent coup on July 17, 1973, while Zahir Shah was receiving treatment for eye problems and therapy for lumbago in Italy.", "Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first President and Prime Minister.", "His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success, and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability.As disillusionment set in, in 1978 a prominent member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), Mir Akbar Khyber (or \"Kaibar\"), was killed by the government.", "The leaders of PDPA apparently feared that Daoud was planning to exterminate them all, especially since most of them were arrested by the government shortly after.", "Nonetheless, Hafizullah Amin and a number of military wing officers of the PDPA's Khalq faction managed to remain at large and organize a military coup.===Democratic Republic and Soviet war (1978–1989)===Outside the Presidential Palace in Kabul, a day after the Marxist revolution on April 28, 1978.The day after the Marxist revolution on April 28, 1978On 28 April 1978, the PDPA, led by Nur Mohammad Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Amin Taha overthrew the government of Mohammad Daoud, who was assassinated along with all his family members in a bloody military coup.", "The coup became known as the Saur Revolution.", "On 1 May, Taraki became head of state, head of government and General Secretary of the PDPA.", "The country was then renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), and the PDPA regime lasted, in some form or another, until April 1992.In March 1979, Hafizullah Amin took over as prime minister, retaining the position of field marshal and becoming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Council.", "Taraki remained General Secretary, Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and in control of the Army.", "On 14 September, Amin overthrew Taraki, who was killed.", "Amin stated that \"the Afghans recognize only crude force.\"", "Afghanistan expert Amin Saikal writes: \"As his powers grew, so apparently did his craving for personal dictatorship ... and his vision of the revolutionary process based on terror.", "\"Once it was in power, the PDPA implemented a Marxist–Leninist agenda.", "It moved to replace religious and traditional laws with secular and Marxist–Leninist ones.", "Men were obliged to cut their beards, women could not wear chadors, and mosques were declared off limits.", "The PDPA made a number of reforms on women's rights, banning forced marriages and giving state recognition of women's right to vote.", "A prominent example was Anahita Ratebzad, who was a major Marxist leader and a member of the Revolutionary Council.", "Ratebzad wrote the famous ''New Kabul Times'' editorial (May 28, 1978) which declared: \"Privileges which women, by right, must have are equal education, job security, health services, and free time to rear a healthy generation for building the future of the country ...", "Educating and enlightening women is now the subject of close government attention.\"", "The PDPA also carried out socialist land reforms and moved to promote state atheism.", "They also prohibited usury.", "The PDPA invited the Soviet Union to assist in modernizing its economic infrastructure (predominantly its exploration and mining of rare minerals and natural gas).", "The Soviet Union also sent contractors to build roads, hospitals and schools and to drill water wells; they also trained and equipped the Afghan Armed Forces.", "Upon the PDPA's ascension to power, and the establishment of the DRA, the Soviet Union promised monetary aid amounting to at least $1.262 billion.Ethnolinguistic groups in Afghanistan in 1982At the same time, the PDPA imprisoned, tortured or murdered thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia.", "The government launched a campaign of violent repression, killing some 10,000 to 27,000 people and imprisoning 14,000 to 20,000 more, mostly at Pul-e-Charkhi prison.", "In December 1978 the PDPA leadership signed an agreement with the Soviet Union which would allow military support for the PDPA in Afghanistan if needed.", "The majority of people in the cities including Kabul either welcomed or were ambivalent to these policies.", "However, the Marxist–Leninist and secular nature of the government as well as its heavy dependence on the Soviet Union made it unpopular with a majority of the Afghan population.", "Repressions plunged large parts of the country, especially the rural areas, into open revolt against the new Marxist–Leninist government.", "By spring 1979 unrests had reached 24 out of 28 Afghan provinces including major urban areas.", "Over half of the Afghan army would either desert or join the insurrection.", "Most of the government's new policies clashed directly with the traditional Afghan understanding of Islam, making religion one of the only forces capable of unifying the tribally and ethnically divided population against the unpopular new government, and ushering in the advent of Islamist participation in Afghan politics.To bolster the Parcham faction, the Soviet Union decided to intervene on December 27, 1979, when the Red Army invaded its southern neighbor.", "Over 100,000 Soviet troops took part in the invasion, which was backed by another 100,000 Afghan military men and supporters of the Parcham faction.", "In the meantime, Hafizullah Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal.The Carter administration started providing limited assistance to rebels before the Soviet invasion.", "After the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. began arming the Afghan mujahideen, thanks in large part to the efforts of Charlie Wilson and CIA officer Gust Avrakotos.", "Early reports estimated that $6–20 billion had been spent by the U.S. and Saudi Arabia but more recent reports state that the U.S. and Saudi Arabia provided as much as up to $40 billion in cash and weapons, which included over two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles, for building up Islamic groups against the Soviet Union.", "The U.S. handled most of its support through Pakistan's ISI.Scholars such as W. Michael Reisman, Charles Norchi and Mohammed Kakar, believe that the Afghans were victims of a genocide which was committed against them by the Soviet Union.", "Soviet forces and their proxies killed between 562,000 and 2 million Afghans and Russian soldiers also engaged in abductions and rapes of Afghan women.", "About 6 million fled as Afghan refugees to Pakistan and Iran, and from there over 38,000 made it to the United States and many more to the European Union.", "The Afghan refugees in Iran and Pakistan brought with them verifiable stories of murder, collective rape, torture and depopulation of civilians by the Soviet forces.", "Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989.Their withdrawal from Afghanistan was seen as an ideological victory in the United States, which had backed some Mujahideen factions through three U.S. presidential administrations to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich Persian Gulf.", "The USSR continued to support Afghan leader Mohammad Najibullah (former head of the Afghan secret service, ''KHAD'') until 1992.===Foreign interference and civil war (1989–1996)===Kabul during civil war in 1993.Pakistan's spy agency Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), headed by Hamid Gul at the time, was interested in a trans-national Islamic revolution which would cover Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.", "For this purpose the ISI masterminded an attack on Jalalabad in March 1989, for the Mujahideen to establish their own government in Afghanistan, but this failed in three months.With the crumbling of the Najibullah regime early in 1992, Afghanistan fell into further disarray and civil war.", "A U.N.-supported attempt to have the mujahideen parties and armies form a coalition government shattered.", "Mujahideen did not abide by the mutual pledges and Ahmad Shah Masood forces because of his proximity to Kabul captured the capital before Mujahideen Govt was established.", "So the elected prime minister and warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, started war on his president and Massod force entrenched in Kabul.", "This ignited civil war, because the other mujahideen parties would not settle for Hekmatyar ruling alone or sharing actual power with him.", "Within weeks, the still frail unity of the other mujahideen forces also evaporated, and six militias were fighting each other in and around Kabul.Sibghatuallah Mojaddedi was elected as Afghanistan's elected interim president for two months and then professor Burhanuddin Rabbani a well known Kabul university professor and the leader of Jamiat-e-Islami party of Mujahiddin who fought against Russians during the occupation was chosen by all of the Jahadi leaders except Gulbuddin Hekmatyar.", "Rabbani reigned as the official and elected president of Afghanistan by Shurai Mujahiddin Peshawer (Peshawer Mujahiddin Council) from 1992 until 2001 when he officially handed over the presidency post to Hamid Karzai the next US appointed interim president.", "During Rabbani's presidency some parts of the country including a few provinces in the north such as Mazar e-Sharif, Jawzjan, Faryab, Shuburghan and some parts of Baghlan provinces were ruled by general Abdul Rashid Dostum.During Rabbani's first five years illegal term before the emergence of the Taliban, the eastern and western provinces and some of the northern provinces such as Badakhshan, Takhar, Kunduz, the main parts of Baghlan Province, and some parts of Kandahar and other southern provinces were under the control of the central government while the other parts of southern provinces did not obey him because of his Tajik ethnicity.", "During the 9 year presidency of Burhanuddin Rabani, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar was directed, funded and supplied by the Pakistani army.", "Afghanistan analyst Amin Saikal concludes in his book ''Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival'':There was no time for the interim government to create working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability.", "Saudi Arabia and Iran also armed and directed Afghan militias.", "A publication by the George Washington University describes: According to Human Rights Watch, numerous Iranian agents were assisting the Shia Hezb-i Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari, as Iran was attempting to maximize Wahdat's military power and influence.", "Saudi Arabia was trying to strengthen the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction.", "Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project.", "Again, Human Rights Watch writes: The main forces involved during that period in Kabul, northern, central and eastern Afghanistan were the Hezb-i Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar directed by Pakistan, the Hezb-i Wahdat of Abdul Ali Mazari directed by Iran, the Ittehad-i Islami of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf supported by Saudi Arabia, the Junbish-i Milli of Abdul Rashid Dostum backed by Uzbekisten, the Harakat-i Islami of Hussain Anwari and the Shura-i Nazar operating as the regular Islamic State forces (as agreed upon in the Peshawar Accords) under the Defence Ministry of Ahmad Shah Massoud.Meanwhile, the southern city of Kandahar was a centre of lawlessness, crime and atrocities fuelled by complex Pashtun tribal rivalries.", "In 1994, the Taliban (a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local governor.", "Mullah Omar started his movement with fewer than 50 armed madrassah students in his hometown of Kandahar.", "As Gulbuddin Hekmatyar remained unsuccessful in conquering Kabul, Pakistan started supporting the Taliban.", "Many analysts like Amin Saikal describe the Taliban as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests.", "In 1994 the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan.In 1995 the Hezb-i Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, the Iranian-backed Hezb-i Wahdat as well as Rashid Dostum's Junbish forces were defeated militarily in the capital Kabul by forces of the interim government under Massoud who subsequently tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the process.", "The Taliban declined.===Taliban and the United Front (1996–2001)===Former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf sent more troops against the United Front of Ahmad Shah Massoud than the Afghan Taliban.Massoud (red), Dostum (green) and Taliban (yellow) territories.Ethno-linguistic map of Afghanistan 1997Map of the situation in Afghanistan in August 2001 until October 2001The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 but were defeated by forces of the Islamic State government under Ahmad Shah Massoud.", "Amnesty International, referring to the Taliban offensive, wrote in a 1995 report:On September 26, 1996, as the Taliban, with military support by Pakistan and financial support by Saudi Arabia, prepared for another major offensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul.", "The Taliban seized Kabul on September 27, 1996, and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.", "They imposed on the parts of Afghanistan under their control their political and judicial interpretation of Islam, issuing edicts forbidding women from working outside the home, attending school or leaving their homes unless accompanied by a male relative.", "Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) said:After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban on September 27, 1996, Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum, two former enemies, created the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban, who were preparing offensives against the remaining areas under the control of Massoud and Dostum.", "The United Front included beside the dominantly Tajik forces of Massoud and the Uzbek forces of Dostum, Hazara factions and Pashtun forces under the leadership of commanders such as Abdul Haq, Haji Abdul Qadir, Qari Baba or diplomat Abdul Rahim Ghafoorzai.", "From the Taliban conquest in 1996 until November 2001 the United Front controlled roughly 30% of Afghanistan's population in provinces such as Badakhshan, Kapisa, Takhar and parts of Parwan, Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, Samangan, Kunduz, Ghōr and Bamyan.According to a 55-page report by the United Nations, the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians.", "UN officials stated that there had been \"15 massacres\" between 1996 and 2001.They also said, that \"these have been highly systematic and they all lead back to the Taliban Ministry of Defense or to Mullah Omar himself.\"", "The Taliban especially targeted people of Shia religious or Hazara ethnic background.", "Upon taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998, about 4,000 civilians were executed by the Taliban and many more reported torture.", "Among those killed in Mazari Sharif were several Iranian diplomats.", "Others were kidnapped by the Taliban, touching off a hostage crisis that nearly escalated to a full-scale war, with 150,000 Iranian soldiers massed on the Afghan border at one time.", "It was later admitted that the diplomats were killed by the Taliban, and their bodies were returned to Iran.The documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistani support troops in these killings.", "Osama bin Laden's so-called 055 Brigade was responsible for mass-killings of Afghan civilians.", "The report by the United Nations quotes eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arab fighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats and skinning people.Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf – then as Chief of Army Staff – was responsible for sending thousands of Pakistanis to fight alongside the Taliban and Bin Laden against the forces of Massoud.", "In total there were believed to be 28,000 Pakistani nationals fighting inside Afghanistan.", "20,000 were regular Pakistani soldiers either from the Frontier Corps or army and an estimated 8,000 were militants recruited in madrassas filling regular Taliban ranks.", "The estimated 25,000 Taliban regular force thus comprised more than 8,000 Pakistani nationals.", "A 1998 document by the U.S. State Department confirms that \"20–40 percent of regular Taliban soldiers are Pakistani.\"", "The document further states that the parents of those Pakistani nationals \"know nothing regarding their child's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan.\"", "A further 3,000 fighter of the regular Taliban army were Arab and Central Asian militants.", "From 1996 to 2001 the Al Qaeda of Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri became a state within the Taliban state.", "Bin Laden sent Arab recruits to join the fight against the United Front.", "Of roughly 45,000 Pakistani, Taliban and Al Qaeda soldiers fighting against the forces of Massoud only 14,000 were Afghan.According to Human Rights Watch in 1997 Taliban soldiers were summarily executed in and around Mazar-i Sharif by Dostum's Junbish forces.", "Dostum was defeated by the Taliban in 1998 with the fall of Mazar-i-Sharif.", "Massoud remained the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan.In the areas under his control Ahmad Shah Massoud set up democratic institutions and signed the Women's Rights Charter.", "Human Rights Watch cites no human rights crimes for the forces under direct control of Massoud for the period from October 1996 until the assassination of Massoud in September 2001.As a consequence many civilians fled to the area of Ahmad Shah Massoud.", "National Geographic concluded in its documentary ''Inside the Taliban'':The Taliban repeatedly offered Massoud a position of power to make him stop his resistance.", "Massoud declined for he did not fight to obtain a position of power.", "He said in one interview:andMassoud wanted to convince the Taliban to join a political process leading towards democratic elections in a foreseeable future.", "Massoud stated that:In early 2001 Massoud employed a new strategy of local military pressure and global political appeals.", "Resentment was increasingly gathering against Taliban rule from the bottom of Afghan society including the Pashtun areas.", "Massoud publicized their cause \"popular consensus, general elections and democracy\" worldwide.", "At the same time he was very wary not to revive the failed Kabul government of the early 1990s.", "Already in 1999 he started the training of police forces which he trained specifically to keep order and protect the civilian population in case the United Front would be successful.In early 2001 Massoud addressed the European Parliament in Brussels asking the international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan.", "He stated that the Taliban and Al Qaeda had introduced \"a very wrong perception of Islam\" and that without the support of Pakistan the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year.=== NATO's presence, the Emergency Loya Jirga, the Taliban's takeover and the Panjshir uprising===Afghan President Hamid Karzai speaking before U.S. Congress in June 2004On 9 September 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers inside Afghanistan.", "Two days later about 3,000 people became victims of the September 11 attacks in the United States, when Afghan-based Al-Qaeda suicide bombers hijacked planes and flew them into four targets in the Northeastern United States.", "Then US President George W. Bush accused Osama bin Laden and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed as the faces behind the attacks.", "When the Taliban refused to hand over bin Laden to US authorities and to disband al-Qaeda bases in Afghanistan, Operation Enduring Freedom was launched in which teams of American and British special forces worked with commanders of the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban.", "At the same time the US-led forces were bombing Taliban and al-Qaeda targets everywhere inside Afghanistan with cruise missiles.", "These actions led to the fall of Mazar-i-Sharif in the north followed by all the other cities, as the Taliban and al-Qaeda crossed over the porous Durand Line border into Pakistan.", "In December 2001, after the Taliban government was toppled and the new Afghan government under Hamid Karzai was formed, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and provide basic security to the Afghan people.", "The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country.Soldiers of the Afghan National Army in 2010, including the ANA Commando Battalion standing in the front.\|alt=While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistan kicked off in 2002 (see also War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)).", "The Afghan nation was able to build democratic structures over the years by the creation of an emergency loya jirga to set up the modern Afghan government, and some progress was made in key areas such as governance, economy, health, education, transport, and agriculture.", "NATO had been training the Afghan armed forces as well its national police.", "ISAF and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them.", "By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in many parts of the country complete with their own version of mediation court.", "After U.S. President Barack Obama announced the deployment of another 30,000 soldiers in 2010 for a period of two years, ''Der Spiegel'' published images of the US soldiers who killed unarmed Afghan civilians.In 2009, the United States resettled 328 refugees from Afghanistan.", "Over five million Afghan refugees were repatriated in the last decade, including many who were forcefully deported from NATO countries.", "This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Pakistani-backed Taliban insurgency.", "The United States also accuses neighboring Iran of providing small level of support to the Taliban insurgents.", "According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011.A report titled ''Body Count'' concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.NATO's military terminal at Kabul International AirportIn October 2008 U.S. Defense Secretary Gates had asserted that a political settlement with the Taliban was the endgame for the Afghanistan war.", "\"There has to be ultimately – and I'll underscore ultimately – reconciliation as part of a political outcome to this,\" Gates stated.", "By 2010 peace efforts began.", "In early January, Taliban commanders held secret exploratory talks with a United Nations special envoy to discuss peace terms.", "Regional commanders on the Taliban's leadership council, the Quetta Shura, sought a meeting with the UN special representative in Afghanistan, Kai Eide, and it took place in Dubai on January 8.It was the first such meeting between the UN and senior members of the Taliban.", "On 26 January 2010, at a major conference in London which brought together some 70 countries and organizations, Afghan President Hamid Karzai said he intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership (including Mullah Omar, Sirajuddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar).", "Supported by NATO, Karzai called on the group's leadership to take part in a loya jirga meeting to initiate peace talks.", "These steps have resulted in an intensification of bombings, assassinations and ambushes.", "Some Afghan groups (including the former intelligence chief Amrullah Saleh and opposition leader Dr. Abdullah Abdullah) believe that Karzai plans to appease the insurgents' senior leadership at the cost of the democratic constitution, the democratic process and progress in the field of human rights especially women's rights.", "Dr. Abdullah stated:From left to right: Abdullah Abdullah, John Kerry and Ashraf Ghani during the 2014 Afghan presidential electionAfghan President Hamid Karzai told world leaders during the London conference that he intends to reach out to the top echelons of the Taliban within a few weeks with a peace initiative.", "Karzai set the framework for dialogue with Taliban leaders when he called on the group's leadership to take part in a \"loya jirga\" – or large assembly of elders – to initiate peace talks.", "Karzai also asked for creation of a new peacemaking organization, to be called the National Council for Peace, Reconciliation and Reintegration.", "Karzai's top adviser on the reconciliation process with the insurgents said that the country must learn to forgive the Taliban.", "In March 2010, the Karzai government held preliminary talks with Hezb-i-Islami, who presented a plan which included the withdrawal of all foreign troops by the end of 2010.The Taliban declined to participate, saying \"The Islamic Emirate has a clear position.", "We have said this many, many times.", "There will be no talks when there are foreign troops on Afghanistan's soil killing innocent Afghans on daily basis.\"", "In June 2010 the Afghan Peace Jirga 2010 took place.", "In September 2010 General David Petraeus commented on the progress of peace talks to date, stating, \"The prospect for reconciliation with senior Taliban leaders certainly looms out there...and there have been approaches at (a) very senior level that hold some promise.", "\"After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan figures began being assassinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmad Wali Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, Burhanuddin Rabbani and others.", "Also in the same year, the Pakistani-Afghan border skirmishes intensified and many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-based Haqqani network took place across Afghanistan.", "This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action against the Haqqanis in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.", "The U.S. blamed Pakistan's government, mainly Pakistani Army and its ISI spy network as the masterminds behind all of this.A map of Afghanistan showing the 2021 Taliban offensiveThe U.S. ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Radio Pakistan that \"The attack that took place in Kabul a few days ago, that was the work of the Haqqani network.", "There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government.", "This is something that must stop.\"", "Other top U.S. officials such as Hillary Clinton and Leon Panetta made similar statements.", "On October 16, 2011, \"Operation Knife Edge\" was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani network in south-eastern Afghanistan.", "Afghan Defense Minister, Abdul Rahim Wardak, explained that the operation will \"help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the troubled frontier\".", "In November 2011, NATO forces attacked Pakistani soldiers in the Pakistan border region.", "In 2014, Ashraf Ghani was elected to be the president of Afghanistan.", "Taliban fighters patrolling Kabul in a Humvee, 17 August 2021In 2021, the United States forces and allies withdrew from Afghanistan, which allowed the Taliban to intensify their insurgency.", "On 15 August 2021, as the Taliban entered Kabul, President Ghani fled to Tajikistan, and the U.S.-backed Afghan government collapsed.", "Anti-Taliban forces formed the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan and launched an uprising from the Panjshir Valley.On 7 September 2021 Taliban announced an interim government headed by Mohammad Hassan Akhund, although the government remained unrecognized internationally.Western countries have suspended most humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021.The United States has frozen about $9 billion in assets belonging to the Afghan central bank, blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in U.S. bank accounts.", "In October 2021, more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage.", "On 11 November 2021, the ''Human Rights Watch'' reported that Afghanistan is facing widespread famine due to collapsed economy and broken banking system.", "The UN World Food Program has also issued multiple warnings of worsening food insecurity.", "In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered the expulsion of Afghans from Pakistan.", "Iran also decided to deport Afghan refugees back to Afghanistan.", "Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an \"inhuman act.\"", "In December 2023, speaking about the situation in Afghanistan, WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said that 30% of the Afghan population was facing acute food insecurity, adding that \"Close to 1 million children are severely malnourished and 2.3 million are suffering from moderate acute malnutrition.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Fall of Kabul (2021)* Invasions of Afghanistan* List of Pashtun empires and dynasties* List of heads of state of Afghanistan* Politics of Afghanistan* Timeline of Kabul* Timeline of Herat" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adamec, Ludwig W. ''Historical dictionary of Afghanistan'' (Scarecrow Press, 2011).", "* Adamec, Ludwig W. ''Historical dictionary of Afghan wars, revolutions, and insurgencies'' (Scarecrow Press, 2005).", "* Adamec, Ludwig W. ''Afghanistan's foreign affairs to the mid-twentieth century: relations with the USSR, Germany, and Britain'' (University of Arizona Press, 1974).", "* Banting, Erinn. ''", "Afghanistan the People''.", "Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003..* Barfield, Thomas.", "''Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History'' (Princeton U.P.", "2010) excerpt and text search * Bleaney, C. H; María Ángeles Gallego. ''", "Afghanistan: a bibliography ''.", "Brill, 2006..* Caroe, Olaf (1958). ''", "The Pathans: 500 B.C.–A.D.", "1957 ''.", "Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints.", "Oxford University Press, 1983..* Clements, Frank. ''", "Conflict in Afghanistan: a historical encyclopedia ''.", "ABC-CLIO, 2003..* Dupree, Louis. ''", "Afghanistan''.", "Princeton University Press, 1973..* Dupree, Nancy Hatch. ''", "An Historical Guide to Afghanistan ''.", "2nd Edition.", "Revised and Enlarged.", "Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization, 1977.", "* Ewans, Martin.", "''Afghanistan – a new history'' (Routledge, 2013).", "* Fowler, Corinne. ''", "Chasing tales: travel writing, journalism and the history of British ideas about Afghanistan ''.", "Rodopi, 2007.Amsterdam and New York.", ".", "* Griffiths, John C. (1981). ''", "Afghanistan: a history of conflict ''.", "Carlton Books, 2001..* Gommans, Jos J. L. '' The rise of the Indo-Afghan empire, c. 1710–1780''.", "Brill, 1995..* Gregorian, Vartan. ''", "The emergence of modern Afghanistan: politics of reform and modernization, 1880–1946''.", "Stanford University Press, 1969.", "* Habibi, Abdul Hai. ''", "Afghanistan: An Abridged History''.", "Fenestra Books, 2003..* Harmatta, János. ''", "History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations, 700 B.C.", "to A.D. 250''.", "Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999..* Hiebert, Fredrik Talmage. ''", "Afghanistan: hidden treasures from the National Museum, Kabul''.", "National Geographic Society, 2008..* Hill, John E.", "2003.", "\"Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the ''Hou Hanshu''.\"", "2nd Draft Edition.", "* Holt, Frank. ''", "Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan''.", "University of California Press, 2006..* Hopkins, B. D.", "2008.''", "The Making of Modern Afghanistan ''.", "Palgrave Macmillan, 2008..* Jabeen, Mussarat, Prof Dr Muhammad Saleem Mazhar, and Naheed S. Goraya.", "\"US Afghan Relations: A Historical Perspective of Events of 9/11.\"", "''South Asian Studies'' 25.1 (2020).", "* Kakar, M. Hassan.", "''A Political and Diplomatic History of Afghanistan, 1863-1901'' (Brill, 2006) online * Leake, Elisabeth.", "''Afghan Crucible: The Soviet Invasion and the Making of Modern Afghanistan'' (Oxford University Press.", "2022) online book review* Malleson, George Bruce (1878). ''", "History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878 ''.", "Elibron Classic Replica Edition.", "Adamant Media Corporation, 2005..* Olson, Gillia M. '' Afghanistan''.", "Capstone Press, 2005..* Omrani, Bijan & Leeming, Matthew '' Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide ''.", "Odyssey Publications, 2nd Edition, 2011..* Reddy, L. R. '' Inside Afghanistan: end of the Taliban era?", "''.", "APH Publishing, 2002..* Romano, Amy. ''", "A Historical Atlas of Afghanistan ''.", "The Rosen Publishing Group, 2003..* Runion, Meredith L. '' The history of Afghanistan ''.", "Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007..* Saikal, Amin, A.G. Ravan Farhadi, and Kirill Nourzhanov.", "''Modern Afghanistan: a history of struggle and survival'' (IB Tauris, 2012).", "* Shahrani, M Nazif, ed.", "''Modern Afghanistan: The Impact of 40 Years of War'' (Indiana UP, 2018)* Siddique, Abubakar.", "''The Pashtun Question The Unresolved Key to the Future of Pakistan and Afghanistan'' (Hurst, 2014)* Tanner, Stephen.", "''Afghanistan: a military history from Alexander the Great to the war against the Taliban'' (Da Capo Press, 2009).", "* Wahab, Shaista; Barry Youngerman. ''", "A brief history of Afghanistan''.", "Infobase Publishing, 2007.", "* Vogelsang, Willem. ''", "The Afghans ''.", "Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.Oxford, UK & Massachusetts, US.", ".===Primary sources===* \"Durand's Curse: A Line Across the Pathan Heart\" by Rajiv Dogra, Publisher: Rupa Publications India* Green, Nile, ed.", "''Afghan History Through Afghan Eyes'' (Oxford University Press, 2016) online edition for libraries: * Elliot, Henry Miers. ''", "The history of India, as told by its own historians: The Muhammadan period''.", "Elibron.com, 1952.Volume 8.", "* Elphinstone, Mountstuart.", "1819.''", "An account of the kingdom of Caubul, and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India: Comprising a view of the Afghaun nation, and a history of the Dooraunee monarchy''.", "Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, and J. Murry, 1819.", "* Hill, John E.", "2004.", "''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.''", "Draft annotated English translation.", "* Levi, Peter.", "1972.''", "The light garden of the angel king: journeys in Afghanistan''.", "Collins, 1972..* Wood, John (1872). ''", "A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''.", "New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the \"Geography of the Valley of the Oxus\" by Henry Yule.", "John Murray, London.", "Gregg Division McGraw-Hill, 1971, ." ], [ "External links", "* * A Country Study: Afghanistan – Library of Congress Country Studies* Video on Afghan-Soviet War from the Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives* Encyclopædia Britannica – History of Afghanistan* UNESCO Sites in Afghanistan - Travel and Gears * Afghanistan (Southern Khorasan / Arachosia)* Afghanistan's Importance From the Perspective of the History by Abdul Hai Habibi* An Historical Guide to Kabul by Nancy Hatch Dupree* Afghanistan Online – History of Afghanistan* * British Museum Lecture: An Introduction to the History of Afghanistan by Bijan Omrani * Ten Myths about Afghanistan—''The Guardian''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of modern Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of modern Greece''' covers the history of Greece from the recognition by the Great Powers — Britain, France and Russia — of its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1828 to the present day." ], [ "Background", "The Byzantine Empire had ruled most of the Greek-speaking world since late Antiquity, but experienced a decline as a result of Muslim Arab and Seljuk Turkish invasions and was fatally weakened by the sacking of Constantinople by the Latin Crusaders in 1204.The establishment of Catholic Latin states on Greek soil, and the struggles of the Orthodox Byzantine Greeks against them, led to the emergence of a distinct Greek national identity.", "The Byzantine Empire was restored by the Palaiologos dynasty in 1261, but it was a shadow of its former self, and constant civil wars and foreign attacks in the 14th century brought about its terminal decline.", "As a result, most of Greece gradually became part of the Ottoman Empire in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the conquest of the Duchy of Athens in 1458, and of the Despotate of the Morea in 1460.The flag of Filiki EteriaOttoman control was largely absent in the mountainous interior of Greece, and many fled there, often becoming brigands.", "Otherwise, only the islands of the Aegean and a few coastal fortresses on the mainland, under Venetian and Genoese rule, remained free from Ottoman rule, but by the mid-16th century, the Ottomans had conquered most of them as well.", "Rhodes fell in 1522, Cyprus in 1571, and the Venetians retained Crete until 1670.The Ionian Islands were only briefly ruled by the Ottomans (Kefalonia from 1479 to 1481 and from 1485 to 1500), and remained primarily under the rule of Venice.The first large-scale insurrection against Ottoman rule was the Orlov Revolt of the early 1770s, but it was brutally repressed.", "The same time, however, also marks the start of the Modern Greek Enlightenment, as Greeks who studied in Western Europe brought knowledge and ideas back to their homeland, and as Greek merchants and shipowners increased their wealth.", "As a result, especially in the aftermath of the French Revolution, liberal and nationalist ideas began to spread across the Greek lands.In 1821, the Greeks rose up against the Ottoman Empire.", "Initial successes were followed by infighting, which almost caused the Greek struggle to collapse; nevertheless, the prolongation of the fight forced the Great Powers (Britain, Russia and France) to recognize the claims of the Greek rebels to separate statehood (Treaty of London) and intervene against the Ottomans at the Battle of Navarino.", "Greece was initially to be an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty, but by 1832, in the Treaty of Constantinople, it was recognized as a fully independent kingdom.", "In the meantime, the 3rd National Assembly of the Greek insurgents called upon Ioannis Kapodistrias, a former foreign minister of Russia, to take over the governance of the fledgling state in 1827." ], [ "Administration of Ioannis Kapodistrias", "Ioannis KapodistriasOn his arrival, Kapodistrias launched a major reform and modernisation programme that covered all areas.", "He re-established military unity by bringing an end to the second phase of the civil war; re-organised the military, which was then able to reconquer territory lost to the Ottoman military during the civil wars; and introduced the first modern quarantine system in Greece, which brought diseases such as typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery under control for the first time since the start of the War of Independence.Kapodistrias also negotiated with the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire to establish the borders and degree of independence of the Greek state; signed the peace treaty that ended the War of Independence with the Ottomans; introduced the ''phoenix'', the first modern Greek currency; organised local administration; and, in an effort to raise the living standards of the population, introduced the cultivation of the potato into Greece.Phoenix coin.Furthermore, he tried to undermine the authority of the traditional clans (or dynasties) that he considered the useless legacy of a bygone and obsolete era.", "However, he underestimated the political and military strength of the ''capetanei'' (καπεταναίοι – commanders) who had led the revolt against Ottoman Empire in 1821, and who had expected a leadership role in the post-revolution Government.", "When a dispute between the ''capetanei'' of Laconia and the appointed governor of the province escalated into an armed conflict, he called in Russian troops to restore order, because much of the army was controlled by ''capetanei'' who had been part of the rebellion.George Finlay's 1861 ''History of Greek Revolution'' records that by 1831 Kapodistrias's government had become hated, chiefly by the independent Maniots, but also by the Roumeliotes and the rich and influential merchant families of Hydra, Spetses and Psara.", "The customs dues of the inhabitants of Hydra were the chief source of revenue for these municipalities, and they refused to hand these over to Kapodistrias.", "It appears that Kapodistrias had refused to convene the National Assembly and was ruling as a despot, possibly influenced by his Russian experiences.", "The municipality of Hydra instructed Admiral Miaoulis and Alexandros Mavrokordatos to go to Poros and seize the Hellenic Navy's fleet there.", "This Miaoulis did so with the intention of preventing a blockade of the islands, so for a time it seemed as if the National Assembly would be called.Kapodistrias called on the British and French residents to support him in putting down the rebellion, but this they refused to do.", "Nonetheless, an Admiral Rikord (or Ricord) took his ships north to Poros.", "Colonel (later General) Kallergis took a half-trained force of Greek Army regulars and a force of irregulars in support.", "With less than 200 men, Miaoulis was unable to make much of a fight; Fort Heidek on Bourtzi Island was overrun by the regulars and the brig ''Spetses'' (once Laskarina Bouboulina's ''Agamemnon'') sunk by Ricord's force.", "Encircled by the Russians in the harbor and Kallergis' force on land, Poros surrendered.", "Miaoulis was forced to set charges in the flagship ''Hellas'' and the corvette ''Hydra'' to blow them up when he and his handful of followers returned to Hydra.", "Kallergis' men were enraged by the loss of the ships and sacked Poros, carrying off plunder to Nauplion.The loss of the best ships in the fleet crippled the Hellenic Navy for many years, but it also weakened Kapodistrias' position.", "He did finally call the National Assembly, but his other actions triggered more opposition and that led to his downfall." ], [ "Assassination of Kapodistrias and the creation of the Kingdom of Greece", "''The murder of Ioannis Kapodistrias'' by Charalambos Pachis.King Otto in Athens'' by Peter von Hess.In 1831, Kapodistrias ordered the imprisonment of Petrobey Mavromichalis, the Bey of the Mani Peninsula, one of the wildest and most rebellious parts of Greece.", "This was a mortal offence to the Mavromichalis family, and on 9 October 1831 (27 September in the Julian Calendar) Kapodistrias was assassinated by Petros' brother Konstantis and son Georgios on the steps of the church of Saint Spyridon in Nafplio.Ioannis Kapodistrias was succeeded as Governor by his younger brother, Augustinos Kapodistrias.", "Augustinos ruled only for six months, during which the country was very much plunged into chaos.", "Under the protocol signed at the London Conference of 1832 on 7 May 1832 between Bavaria and the protecting Powers, Greece was defined as an independent kingdom, free of Ottoman control, with the Arta-Volos line as its northern frontier.", "The protocol also dealt with the way in which a Regency was to be managed until Otto of Bavaria reached his majority to assume the throne of Greece.", "The Ottoman Empire was indemnified in the sum of 40,000,000 piastres for the loss of territory in the new kingdom." ], [ "Reign of King Otto, 1833–1863", "Otto, the first King of modern Greece.Otto's reign would prove troubled, but he managed to hang on for 30 years before he and his wife, Queen Amalia, left the same way they came, aboard a British warship.", "During the early years of his reign, a group of Bavarian regents ruled in his name, and they made themselves very unpopular by trying to impose German ideas of rigid hierarchical government on the Greeks, while keeping most significant state offices away from them.", "Nevertheless, they laid the foundations of a Greek administration, army, justice system and education system.", "Otto was sincere in his desire to give Greece good government, but he suffered from two great handicaps: his Roman Catholic faith and his childless marriage to Queen Amalia.", "This meant he could neither be crowned as King of Greece under the Orthodox rite nor establish a dynasty.Otto came of age in 1835 and assumed the reins of government, but Bavarians remained as heads of the government until 1837.Otto thereafter appointed Greek ministers, although Bavarian officials still ran much of the army.", "At this time, Greece still had no legislature and no constitution.", "Discontent at the continued \"Bavarocracy\" grew until the 3 September 1843 Revolution broke out in Athens.", "Otto agreed to grant a constitution and convened a National Assembly that met in November of the same year.", "The Greek Constitution of 1844 then created a bicameral parliament consisting of an Assembly (''Vouli'') and a Senate (''Gerousia'').", "Power then passed into the hands of a group of Greek politicians, most of whom who had been commanders in the War of Independence against the Ottomans.Greek politics in the 19th century was dominated by the \"national question\".", "The majority of Greeks continued to live under Ottoman rule, and Greeks dreamed of liberating them all and reconstituting a state embracing all the Greek lands, with Constantinople as its capital.", "This was called the Great Idea (''Megali Idea''), and it was sustained by almost continuous rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greek-speaking territories, particularly Crete, Thessaly and Macedonia.When the Crimean War broke out in 1854, Greece saw an opportunity to gain Ottoman-controlled territory that had large Greek populations.", "Greece, an Orthodox nation, had considerable support in Russia, but the Russian government decided it was too dangerous to help Greece expand its holdings.", "When the Russians attacked the Ottoman forces, Greece invaded Thessaly and Epirus.", "To block further Greek moves, the British and French occupied the main Greek port at Piraeus from April 1854 to February 1857.The Greeks, gambling on a Russian victory, incited the large-scale Epirus Revolt of 1854 as well as uprisings in Crete.", "The revolts failed and Greece made no gains during the Crimean War, which Russia lost.A new generation of Greek politicians was growing increasingly intolerant of King Otto's continuing interference in government.", "In 1862, the King dismissed his prime minister, the former admiral Konstantinos Kanaris, the most prominent politician of the period.", "This provoked a military rebellion, forcing Otto to accept the inevitable and leave the country.The Greeks then asked Britain to send Queen Victoria's son Prince Alfred as their new king, but this was vetoed by the other Powers.", "Instead, a young Danish Prince became King George I. George was a very popular choice as a constitutional monarch, and he agreed that his sons would be raised in the Greek Orthodox faith.", "As a reward to the Greeks for adopting a pro-British King, Britain ceded the Ionian Islands to Greece." ], [ "Reign of King George I, 1864–1913", "King George I of the Hellenes in Hellenic Navy uniform.At the urging of Britain and King George, Greece adopted the much more democratic Greek Constitution of 1864.The powers of the King were reduced, the Senate was abolished, and the franchise was extended to all adult males.", "Approval voting was used in elections, with one urn for each candidate divided into \"yes\" and \"no\" portions into which voters dropped lead beads.", "Nevertheless, Greek politics remained heavily dynastic, as it has always been.", "Family names such as Zaimis, Rallis and Trikoupis occurred repeatedly as prime ministers.Although parties were centered around the individual leaders, often bearing their names, two broad political tendencies existed: the liberals, led first by Charilaos Trikoupis and later by Eleftherios Venizelos, and the conservatives, led initially by Theodoros Deligiannis and later by Thrasivoulos Zaimis.", "Trikoupis and Deligiannis dominated Greek politics in the later 19th century, alternating in office.", "Trikoupis favoured co-operation with Great Britain in foreign affairs, the creation of infrastructure and an indigenous industry, raising protective tariffs and progressive social legislation, while the more populist Deligiannis depended on the promotion of Greek nationalism and the ''Megali Idea''.Greece remained a very poor country throughout the 19th century.", "The country lacked raw materials, infrastructure and capital.", "Agriculture was mostly at the subsistence level, and the only important export commodities were currants, raisins and tobacco.", "Some Greeks grew rich as merchants and shipowners, and Piraeus became a major port, but little of this wealth found its way to the Greek peasantry.", "Greece remained hopelessly in debt to London finance houses.By the 1890s, Greece was virtually bankrupt.", "Poverty was rife in the rural areas and the islands, and was eased only by large-scale emigration to the United States.", "There was little education in the rural areas.", "Nevertheless, there was progress in building communications and infrastructure, and fine public buildings were erected in Athens.", "The capital staged the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896, which proved a great success.The Hellenic Parliament in the 1880s, with PM Charilaos Trikoupis standing at the podium.The parliamentary process developed greatly in Greece during the reign of George I.", "Initially, the royal prerogative in choosing his prime minister remained and contributed to governmental instability, until the introduction of the ''dedilomeni'' principle of parliamentary confidence in 1875 by the reformist Charilaos Trikoupis.", "Clientelism and frequent electoral upheavals however remained the norm in Greek politics, and frustrated the country's development.Corruption and Trikoupis' increased spending (to create necessary infrastructure such as the Corinth Canal) overtaxed the weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of public insolvency in 1893 and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Control authority to pay off the country's creditors.Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was the Greek language question.", "The Greek people spoke a form of Greek called Demotic.", "Many of the educated elite saw this as a peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek.", "Government documents and newspapers were consequently published in ''Katharevousa'' (purified) Greek, a form that few ordinary Greeks could read.", "Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the extent that when the New Testament was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in Athens and the government fell (the ''Evangeliaka'').", "This issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the 1970s.Map of the Kingdom of Greece, the Cretan State and the Principality of Samos in 1903, before the Balkan Wars.All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire.", "Especially in Crete, the Cretan Revolt (1866–1869) raised nationalist fervour.", "When war broke out between Russian and the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Greek popular sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor and too concerned about British intervention to enter the war officially.", "Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece as part of the Treaty of Berlin.Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government under Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans.", "In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans.", "Through the intervention of the Great Powers however, Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state under Prince George of Greece as the Cretan State.Goudi pronunciamiento of 1909 as a national rebirth.Nationalist sentiment among Greeks in the Ottoman Empire continued to grow, and by the 1890s there were constant disturbances in Macedonia.", "Here, the Greeks were in competition not only with the Ottomans, but also with the Bulgarians, in an armed propaganda struggle for the hearts and minds of the ethnically mixed local population, the so-called \"Macedonian Struggle\".In July 1908, the Young Turk Revolution broke out in the Ottoman Empire.", "Taking advantage of the Ottoman internal turmoil, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire.", "On Crete, the local population, led by a young politician named Eleftherios Venizelos, declared ''Enosis'', Union with Greece, provoking another crisis.", "The fact that the Greek government, led by Dimitrios Rallis, proved unable to likewise take advantage of the situation and bring Crete into the fold, rankled many Greeks, especially young military officers.", "These formed a secret society, the \"Military League\", with the purpose of emulating their Ottoman colleagues to seek governmental reforms.The resulting Goudi coup on 15 August 1909 marked a watershed in modern Greek history: as the military conspirators were inexperienced in politics, they asked Venizelos, who had impeccable liberal credentials, to come to Greece as their political adviser.", "Venizelos quickly established himself as a powerful political figure, and his allies won the August 1910 elections.", "Venizelos became prime minister in October 1910, ushering a period of 25 years where his personality would dominate Greek politics.Venizelos initiated a major reform program, including a new and more liberal constitution and reforms in the spheres of public administration, education and economy.", "French and British military missions were invited for the army and navy respectively, and arms purchases were made.", "In the meantime, the Ottoman Empire's weaknesses were revealed by the ongoing Italo-Turkish War in Libya.===Balkan Wars===Greek lithograph of the Battle of Kilkis–LachanasThrough the spring of 1912, a series of bilateral agreements between the Christian Balkan states (Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Serbia) formed the Balkan League, which in October 1912 declared war on the Ottoman Empire.", "In the First Balkan War, the Ottomans were defeated on all fronts, and the four allies rushed to grab as much territory as they could.", "The Greeks occupied Thessaloniki just ahead of the Bulgarians, and also took much of Epirus with Ioannina, as well as Crete and the Aegean Islands.The Treaty of London (1913) ended the war, but no one was left satisfied, and soon, the four allies fell out over the partition of Macedonia.", "In June 1913, Bulgaria attacked Greece and Serbia, beginning the Second Balkan War, but was beaten back.", "The Treaty of Bucharest (1913), which concluded the Second Balkan War, left Greece with southern Epirus, the southern half of Macedonia (known as Greek Macedonia), Crete and the Aegean islands, except for the Dodecanese, which had been occupied by Italy since 1911.These gains nearly doubled Greece's area and population.In March 1913, an anarchist, Alexandros Schinas, assassinated King George in Thessaloniki, and his son came to the throne as Constantine I. Constantine was the first Greek king born in Greece and the first to be Greek Orthodox by birth.", "His very name had been chosen in the spirit of romantic Greek nationalism (the ''Megali Idea''), evoking the Byzantine emperors of that name.", "In addition, as the Commander-in-chief of the Greek Army during the Balkan Wars, his popularity was enormous, rivalled only by that of Venizelos, his prime minister." ], [ "World War I and subsequent crises, 1914-1922", "When World War I broke out in 1914, the King and his prime minister Venizelos both preferred to maintain a neutral stance, in spite of Greece's treaty of alliance with Serbia, which had been attacked by Austria-Hungary as the first belligerent action of the conflict.", "But when the Allies asked for Greek help in the Dardanelles campaign of 1915, offering Cyprus in exchange, their diverging views became apparent: Constantine had been educated in Germany, was married to Sophia of Prussia, sister of Kaiser Wilhelm, and was convinced of the Central Powers' victory.", "Venizelos, on the other hand, was an ardent anglophile, and believed in an Allied victory.Since Greece, a maritime country, could not oppose the mighty British navy, and citing the need for a respite after two wars, King Constantine favored continued neutrality, while Venizelos actively sought Greek entry in the war on the Allied side.", "Venizelos resigned, but won the Greek elections of 1915 and again formed the government.", "When Bulgaria entered the war as a German ally in October 1915, Venizelos invited Allied forces into Greece (the Salonika front), for which he was again dismissed by Constantine.Macedonian front during the First World War, 1917.He is accompanied by Admiral Pavlos Koundouriotis (left) and General Maurice Sarrail (right).In August 1916, after several incidents in which both sides in the war had encroached upon the still theoretically neutral Greek territory, Venizelist officers rose up in Allied-controlled Thessaloniki and Venizelos established a separate government there known as the result of a so-called Movement of National Defence.", "Constantine was now ruling only in what was Greece before the Balkan Wars (\"Old Greece\"), and his government was subject to repeated humiliations from the Allies.", "In November 1916 the French occupied Piraeus, bombarded Athens and forced the Greek fleet to surrender.", "The royalist troops fired at them, leading to a battle between French and Greek royalist troops.", "There were also riots against supporters of Venizelos in Athens (the ''Noemvriana'').Following the February Revolution in Russia in 1917, the Tsar's support for his cousin Constantine was eliminated, and he was forced to leave the country, without actually abdicating, in June 1917.His second son Alexander became King, while the remaining royal family and the most prominent royalists followed him into exile.", "Venizelos now led a superficially united Greece into the war on the Allied side, but underneath the surface, the division of Greek society into Venizelists and anti-Venizelists, the so-called National Schism, became more entrenched.===Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)===The Greek Kingdom and the Greek diaspora in the Balkans and western Asia Minor, according to a 1919 map submitted to the Paris Peace Conference.With the end of the war in November 1918, the moribund Ottoman Empire was ready to be carved up among the victors, and Greece now expected the Allies to deliver on their promises.", "In no small measure through the diplomatic efforts of Venizelos, Greece secured Western Thrace in the Treaty of Neuilly in November 1919 and Eastern Thrace and a zone around Smyrna in western Anatolia (already under Greek administration as the Occupation of Smyrna since May 1919) in the Treaty of Sèvres of August 1920.The future of Constantinople was left to be determined.", "But at the same time, a Turkish National Movement rose in Turkey led by Mustafa Kemal (later Kemal Atatürk), who set up a rival government in Ankara and was engaged in fighting the Greek army.Map of the military developments during the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922).At this point, the fulfillment of the ''Megali Idea'' seemed near.", "Yet so deep was the rift in Greek society that on his return to Greece, an assassination attempt was made on Venizelos by two royalist former officers.", "Even more surprisingly, Venizelos' Liberal Party lost the Greek elections of November 1920, and in the Greek plebescite of 1920, the Greek people voted for the return of King Constantine from exile after the sudden death of King Alexander.The United Opposition, which had campaigned on the slogan of an end to the Asia Minor Campaign in Anatolia, instead intensified it.", "But the royalist restoration had dire consequences: many veteran Venizelist officers were dismissed or left the army, while Italy and France found the return of the hated Constantine a useful pretext for switching their support to Kemal.", "Finally, in August 1922, the Turkish army shattered the Greek front, and took Smyrna in an operation that led to the disastrous Great Fire of Smyrna.The Greek army evacuated not only Anatolia, but also Eastern Thrace and the islands of Imbros and Tenedos in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923).", "A population exchange between Greece and Turkey was agreed between the two countries, with over 1.5 million Christians and almost half a million Muslims being uprooted.", "This catastrophe marked the end of the ''Megali Idea'', and left Greece financially exhausted, demoralized, and having to house and feed a proportionately huge number of Greek refugees." ], [ "Republic and Monarchy (1922–1940)", "Greek territorial changes between 1821 and 1947, showing territories awarded to Greece in 1919 and those lost in 1923.The catastrophe deepened the political crisis, with the returning army rising up under Venizelist officers and forcing King Constantine to abdicate again, in September 1922, in favour of his firstborn son, George II.", "The \"Revolutionary Committee\" headed by Colonels Stylianos Gonatas (soon to become Prime Minister) and Nikolaos Plastiras engaged in a witch-hunt against the royalists, culminating in the \"Trial of the Six\".The Greek election of 1923 was held to form a National Assembly with powers to draft a new constitution.", "Following a failed royalist Leonardopoulos-Gargalidis coup attempt, the monarchist parties abstained, leading to a landslide for the Liberals and their allies.", "King George II was asked to leave the country, and on 25 March 1924, Alexandros Papanastasiou proclaimed the Second Hellenic Republic, ratified by the Greek plebiscite of 1924 a month later.However, the new Republic was built on unstable foundations.", "The National Schism lived on, as the monarchists, with the exception of Ioannis Metaxas, did not acknowledge the Venizelist-sponsored Republican regime.", "The army, which had power and provided many of the leading proponents of both sides, became a factor to be reckoned with, prone to intervene in politics.Republic, 1924, with placards of republican leaders Papanastasiou, Hatzikyriakos and Kondylis.Greece was diplomatically isolated and vulnerable, as the Corfu incident of 1923 showed, and the economic foundations of the state were in ruins after a decade of war and the sudden increase of the country's population by a quarter.", "The refugees, however, also brought a new air into Greece.", "They were impoverished now, but before 1922 many had been entrepreneurs and well-educated.", "Staunch supporters of Venizelos and the Republic, many would radicalize and play a leading role in the nascent Communist Party of Greece.In June 1925, General Theodoros Pangalos launched a coup and ruled as a dictator for a year until a counter-coup by another General, Georgios Kondylis, unseated him and restored the Republic.", "In the meantime, Pangalos managed to embroil Greece in a short-lived war with Bulgaria precipitated by the Incident at Petrich and make unacceptable concessions in Thessaloniki and its hinterland to Yugoslavia in an effort to gain its support for his revanchist policies against Turkey.In 1928, Venizelos returned from exile.", "After a landslide victory in the Greek election of 1928, he formed a government.", "This was the only cabinet of the Second Republic to run its full four-year term, and the work it left behind was considerable.", "Alongside domestic reforms, Venizelos restored Greece's frayed international relations, even initiating a Greco-Turkish reconciliation with a visit to Ankara and the signing of a Friendship Agreement in 1930.The Great Depression hit Greece, an already poor country dependent on agricultural exports, particularly hard.", "Matters were made worse by the closing off of emigration to the United States, the traditional safety valve of rural poverty.", "High unemployment and consequent social unrest resulted, and the Communist Party of Greece made rapid advances.", "Venizelos was forced to default on Greece's national debt in 1932, and he fell from office after the Greek elections of 1932.He was succeeded by a monarchist coalition government led by Panagis Tsaldaris of the People's Party.Two failed Venizelist military coups followed in 1933 and 1935 in an effort to preserve the Republic, but they had the opposite effect.", "On 10 October 1935, a few months after he suppressed the 1935 Greek coup d'état attempt, Georgios Kondylis, the former Venizelist stalwart, abolished the Republic in another coup, and declared the monarchy restored.", "The rigged Greek plebiscite of 1935 confirmed the regime change (with an unsurprising 97.88% of votes), and King George II returned.The conservative regime of Ioannis Metaxas (4th of August Regime) adopted many of the ideas and symbolism of Italian Fascism.", "Here members of the National Organisation of Youth give the Roman salute to Metaxas.King George II immediately dismissed Kondylis and appointed professor Konstantinos Demertzis as interim prime minister.", "Venizelos meanwhile, in exile, urged an end to the conflict over the monarchy in view of the threat to Greece from the rise of Fascist Italy.", "His successors as Liberal leader, Themistoklis Sophoulis and Georgios Papandreou, agreed, and the restoration of the monarchy was accepted.", "The Greek elections of 1936 resulted in a hung parliament, with the Communists holding the balance.", "As no government could be formed, Demertzis continued on.", "At the same time, a series of deaths left the Greek political scene in disarray: Kondylis died in February, Venizelos in March, Demertzis in April and Tsaldaris in May.", "The road was now clear for Ioannis Metaxas, who had succeeded Demertzis as interim prime minister.Metaxas, a retired royalist general, believed that an authoritarian government was necessary to prevent social conflict and quell the rising power of the Communists.", "On 4 August 1936, with the King's support, he suspended parliament and established the 4th of August Regime.", "The Communists were suppressed and the Liberal leaders went into internal exile.", "Patterning itself after Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy, Metaxas' regime promoted various concepts such as the \"Third Hellenic Civilization\", the Roman salute, a National Organisation of Youth, and introduced measures to gain popular support, such as the Greek Social Insurance Institute (IKA), still the biggest social security institution in Greece.Despite these efforts, the regime lacked a broad popular base or a mass movement supporting it.", "The Greek people were generally apathetic, without actively opposing Metaxas.", "Metaxas also improved the country's defenses in preparation for the forthcoming European war, constructing, among other defensive measures, the \"Metaxas Line\".", "Despite his aping of Fascism, and the strong economic ties with resurgent Nazi Germany, Metaxas followed a policy of neutrality, given Greece's traditionally strong ties to Britain, reinforced by King George II's personal anglophilia.", "In April 1939, the Italian threat suddenly loomed closer when Italy annexed Albania, whereupon Britain publicly guaranteed Greece's borders.", "Thus, when World War II broke out in September 1939, Greece remained neutral." ], [ "World War II", "The three occupation zones.", "The Italian zone was taken over by the Germans in September 1943.ELASDespite this declared neutrality, Greece became a target for Mussolini's expansionist policies.", "Provocations against Greece included the sinking of the Greek cruiser ''Elli'' on 15 August 1940.Italian troops crossed the border on 28 October 1940, beginning the Greco-Italian War, but were stopped by a determined Greek defence that ultimately drove them back into Albania.Metaxas died suddenly in January 1941.His death raised hopes for a liberalization of his regime and the restoration of parliamentary rule, but King George quashed these hopes when he retained the regime's machinery in place.", "In the meantime, Adolf Hitler was reluctantly forced to divert German troops to rescue Mussolini from defeat, and attacked Greece through Yugoslavia and Bulgaria on 6 April 1941.Despite British assistance, the Germans overran most of the country by the end of May.", "The King and the government escaped to Crete, where they stayed until the end of the Battle of Crete.", "They then transferred to Egypt, where a Greek government in exile was established.Greece was divided into German, Italian and Bulgarian zones and in Athens, a puppet regime was established.", "The members were either conservatives or nationalists with fascist leanings.", "The three quisling prime ministers were Georgios Tsolakoglou, the general who had signed the armistice with the Wehrmacht, Konstantinos Logothetopoulos, and Ioannis Rallis, who took office when the German defeat was inevitable and aimed primarily at combating the left-wing Resistance movement.", "To this end, he created the collaborationist Security Battalions.Occupation: German soldiers raising the German War Flag over the Acropolis.", "It would be taken down in one of the first acts of the Greek Resistance.Greece suffered terrible privations during World War II as the Germans appropriated most of the country's agricultural production and prevented its fishing fleets from operating.", "As a result, and because a British blockade initially hindered foreign relief efforts, the Great Greek Famine resulted.", "Hundreds of thousands of Greeks perished, especially in the winter of 1941–1942.In the mountains of the Greek mainland, in the meantime, several Greek resistance movements sprang up, and by mid-1943, the Axis forces controlled only the main towns and the connecting roads, while a \"Free Greece\" was set up in the mountains.", "In September 1943, the Italian occupation zones of Greece were invaded by German forces following Mussolini's deposition and Italy's decision to join Greece as an Allied nation in the war.The largest resistance group, the National Liberation Front (EAM), was controlled by the Communist Party of Greece, as was the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), led by Aris Velouchiotis, and a civil war soon broke out between it and non-Communist groups such as the National Republican Greek League (EDES) in those areas liberated from the Germans.", "The exiled government in Cairo was only intermittently in touch with the resistance movement and exercised virtually no influence in the occupied country.", "Part of this was due to the unpopularity of King George II in Greece itself, but despite efforts by Greek politicians, British support ensured his retention at the head of the Cairo government.As the German defeat drew nearer, the various Greek political factions convened in Lebanon in May 1944 under British auspices and formed a government of national unity under George Papandreou, in which EAM was represented by six ministers." ], [ "Civil War", "German forces withdrew on 12 October 1944, and the government in exile returned to Athens.", "After the German withdrawal, the EAM-ELAS guerrilla army effectively controlled most of Greece, but its leaders were reluctant to take control of the country, as they knew that Soviet premier Joseph Stalin had agreed that Greece would be in the British sphere of influence after the war.", "Tensions between the British-backed Papandreou and the EAM, especially over the issue of disarmament of the various armed groups, led to the resignation of the latter's ministers from the government.A few days later, on 3 December 1944, a large-scale pro-EAM demonstration in Athens ended in violence and ushered an intense, house-to-house struggle with British and monarchist forces (the ''Dekemvriana'').", "After three weeks, the Communists were defeated: the Varkiza agreement ended the conflict and disarmed ELAS, and an unstable coalition government was formed.", "The anti-EAM backlash grew into a full-scale \"White Terror\", which exacerbated tensions.Democratic Army\", as well as entry routes to Greece.The Communists boycotted the March 1946 elections, and on the same day, fighting broke out again.", "By the end of 1946, the Communist Democratic Army of Greece had been formed, pitted against the governmental National Army, which was backed first by Britain and after 1947 by the United States.Communist successes in 1947–1948 enabled them to move freely over much of mainland Greece, but with extensive reorganization, the deportation of rural populations and American material support, the National Army was slowly able to regain control over most of the countryside.", "In 1949, the insurgents suffered a major blow, as Yugoslavia closed its borders following the split between Marshal Josip Broz Tito with the Soviet Union.", "Finally, in August 1949, the National Army under Marshal Alexander Papagos launched an offensive that forced the remaining insurgents to surrender or flee across the northern border into the territory of Greece's northern Communist neighbors.The civil war resulted in 100,000 killed and caused catastrophic economic disruption.", "In addition, at least 25,000 Greeks and an unspecified number of Macedonian Slavs were either voluntarily or forcibly evacuated to Eastern bloc countries, while 700,000 became displaced persons inside the country.", "Many more emigrated to Australia and other countries.The postwar settlement ended Greece's territorial expansion, which had begun in 1832.The 1947 Treaty of Paris required Italy to hand over the Dodecanese islands to Greece.", "These were the last majority-Greek-speaking areas to be united with the Greek state, apart from Cyprus which was a British possession until it became independent in 1960.Greece's ethnic homogeneity was increased by the postwar expulsion of 25,000 Albanians from Epirus (see Cham Albanians).", "The only significant remaining minorities are the Muslims in Western Thrace (about 100,000) and a small Slavic-speaking minority in the north.", "Greek nationalists continued to claim southern Albania (which they called Northern Epirus), home of a significant Greek population (about 3%-12% in the whole of Albania), and the Turkish-held islands of Imvros and Tenedos, where there were smaller Greek minorities." ], [ "Postwar Greece (1950–1973)", "After the civil war, Greece sought to join the Western democracies and became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952.Since the Civil war (1946–49) but even more after that, the parties in the parliament were divided in three political concentrations.", "The political formation Right-Centre-Left, given the exacerbation of political animosity that had preceded dividing the country in the 40s, tended to turn the concurrence of parties into ideological positions.Workmen grade the street in front of new housing constructed with the help of Marshall Plan funds in Greece.In the beginning of the 1950s, the forces of the centre (EPEK) succeeded in gaining the power and under the leadership of the aged general N. Plastiras they governed for about half a four-year term.", "These were a series of governments having limited maneuverability and inadequate influence in the political arena.", "This government, as well as those that followed, was constantly under the American auspices.", "The defeat of EPEK in the elections of 1952, apart from increasing the repressive measures that concerned the defeated of the Civil war, also marked the end of the general political position that it represented, namely political consensus and social reconciliation.The Left, which had been ostracized from the political life of the country, found a way of expression through the constitution of EDA (United Democratic Left) in 1951, which turned out to be a significant pole, yet steadily excluded from the decision making centres.", "After the disbandment of the centre as an autonomous political institution, EDA practically expanded its electoral influence to a significant part of the EAM-based Centre-Left.The 1960s are part of the period 1953–72, during which Greek economy developed rapidly and was structured within the scope of European and worldwide economic developments.", "One of the main characteristics of that period was the major political event of the country's accession in the European Economic Community, in an attempt to create a common market.", "The relevant treaty was contracted in 1962.The developmental strategy adopted by the country was embodied in centrally organized five-year plans; yet their orientation was indistinct.", "The average annual emigration, which absorbed the excess workforce and contributed to extremely high growth rates, exceeded the annual natural increase in population.", "The influx of large amounts of foreign private capital was being facilitated and consumption was expanded.", "These, associated with the rise of tourism, the expansion of shipping activity and with the migrant remittances, had a positive effect on the country's balance of payments.The peak of development was registered principally in manufacturing, mainly in the textile, chemical and metallurgical industries, the growth rate of which reached 11% during 1965–70.The other large area where obvious economic and social consequences occurred was that of construction.", "The policy of αντιπαροχή (''antiparochi'', \"property-swap\"), a Greek invention which entailed the concession of construction land to developers in return for a share in the resulting multi-storey apartment buildings, favoured the creation of a class of small-medium contractors on the one hand and settled the housing system and property status on the other.", "However, it was also responsible for the demolition of much of the country's traditional and 19th-century neoclassical architecture, and the transformation of Greek cities, and especially Athens, into a \"form-less, border-less and placeless urban landscape\".During that decade, youth culture came to the fore in society as a distinct social power with autonomous presence (creation of a new culture in music, fashion etc.)", "and young people displayed dynamism in the assertion of their social rights.", "The independence granted to Cyprus, which was mined from the very beginning, constituted the main focus of young activist mobilizations, along with struggles aiming at reforms in education, which were provisionally realized to a certain extent through the educational reform of 1964.The country reckoned on and was influenced by Europe—usually behind time—and by the current trends like never before.===Greek military junta of 1967–1974===The country descended into a prolonged political crisis, and elections were scheduled for late April 1967.On 21 April 1967 a group of right-wing colonels led by Colonel George Papadopoulos seized power in a coup d'état establishing the Regime of the Colonels.", "Civil liberties were suppressed, special military courts were established, and political parties were dissolved.Several thousand suspected communists and political opponents were imprisoned or exiled to remote Greek islands.", "Alleged US support for the junta is claimed to be the cause of rising anti-americanism in Greece during and following the junta's harsh rule.", "The junta's early years also saw a marked upturn in the economy, with increased foreign investment and large-scale infrastructure works.", "The junta was widely condemned abroad, but inside the country, discontent began to increase only after 1970, when the economy slowed down.Even the armed forces, the regime's foundation, were not immune: In May 1973, a planned coup by the Hellenic Navy was narrowly suppressed, but led to the mutiny of the , whose officers sought political asylum in Italy.", "In response, junta leader Papadopoulos attempted to steer the regime towards a controlled democratization, abolishing the monarchy and declaring himself President of the Republic." ], [ "Transition and democracy (1973–2009)", "On 25 November 1973, following the bloody suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising on 17 November, the hardliner Brigadier Dimitrios Ioannides overthrew Papadopoulos and tried to continue the dictatorship despite the popular unrest the uprising had triggered.", "Ioannides' attempt in July 1974 to overthrow Archbishop Makarios, the President of Cyprus, brought Greece to the brink of war with Turkey, which invaded Cyprus and occupied part of the island.Senior Greek military officers then withdrew their support from the junta, which collapsed.", "Constantine Karamanlis returned from exile in France to establish a government of national unity until elections could be held.", "Karamanlis worked to defuse the risk of war with Turkey and also legalised the Communist Party, which had been illegal since 1947.His newly organized party, New Democracy (ND), won the elections held in November 1974 by a wide margin, and he became prime minister.Following the 1974 referendum which resulted in the abolition of the monarchy, a new constitution was approved by parliament on 19 June 1975.Parliament elected Constantine Tsatsos as President of the Republic.", "In the parliamentary elections of 1977, New Democracy again won a majority of seats.", "In May 1980, Prime Minister Karamanlis was elected to succeed Tsatsos as president.", "George Rallis succeeded Karamanlis as prime minister.On 1 January 1981, Greece became the tenth member of the European Community (now the European Union).", "In parliamentary elections held on 18 October 1981, Greece elected its first socialist government when the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), led by Andreas Papandreou, won 172 of 300 seats.", "On 29 March 1985, after Prime Minister Papandreou declined to support President Karamanlis for a second term, Supreme Court Justice Christos Sartzetakis was elected president by the Greek parliament.Greece had two rounds of parliamentary elections in 1989; both produced weak coalition governments with limited mandates.", "Party leaders withdrew their support in February 1990, and elections were held on 8 April.", "New Democracy, led by Constantine Mitsotakis, won 150 seats in that election and subsequently gained two others.", "However, a split between Mitsotakis and his first foreign minister, Antonis Samaras, in 1992, led to Samaras' dismissal and the eventual collapse of the ND government.", "In new elections in September 1993, Papandreou returned to power.On 17 January 1996, following a protracted illness, Papandreou resigned and was replaced as prime minister by former Minister of Trade and Industry Costas Simitis.", "Within days, the new prime minister had to handle a major Greek-Turkish crisis over the Imia/Kardak islands.", "Simitis subsequently won re-election in the 1996 and 2000 elections.", "In 2004, Simitis retired and George Papandreou succeeded him as PASOK leader.In the March 2004 elections, PASOK was defeated by New Democracy, led by Kostas Karamanlis, the nephew of the former president.", "The government called early elections in September 2007 (normally, elections would have been held in March 2008), and New Democracy again was the majority party in the Parliament.", "As a result of that defeat, PASOK undertook a party election for a new leader.", "In that contest, George Papandreou was reelected as the head of the socialist party in Greece.", "In the 2009 elections however, PASOK became the majority party in the Parliament and George Papandreou became Prime Minister of Greece.", "After PASOK lost its majority in the Parliament, ND and PASOK joined the smaller Popular Orthodox Rally in a grand coalition, pledging their parliamentary support for a government of national unity headed by former European Central Bank vice-president Lucas Papademos." ], [ "Greek Government and Economic Crisis (2009–)", "===Government-Debt Crisis (2009–2018)===From late 2009, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed among investors concerning Greece's ability to meet its debt obligations due to strong increase in government debt levels.", "This led to a crisis of confidence, indicated by a widening of bond yield spreads and risk insurance on credit default swaps compared to other countries, most importantly Germany.", "Downgrading of Greek government debt to junk bonds created alarm in financial markets.On 2 May 2010, the Eurozone countries and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a loan for Greece, conditional on the implementation of harsh austerity measures.", "In October 2011, Eurozone leaders also agreed on a proposal to write off 50% of Greek debt owed to private creditors, increasing the EFSF to about €1 trillion and requiring European banks to achieve 9% capitalisation to reduce the risk of contagion to other countries.", "These austerity measures proved to be extremely unpopular with the public in Greece, precipitating demonstrations and civil unrest.There are widespread fears that a Greek default on its debt would have global repercussions, endangering the economies of many other countries in the European Union, threatening the stability of the European currency, the euro, and possibly plunging the world into another recession.", "It has been speculated that the crisis may force Greece to abandon the euro and return to the drachma.", "In April 2014, Greece returned to the global bond market as it successfully sold €3 billion worth of five-year government bonds at a yield of 4.95%.", "According to the IMF, Greece will have real GDP growth of 0.6% in 2014 after five years of decline.===Coalition government===Following the May 2012 legislative election where the New Democracy party became the largest party in the Hellenic Parliament, Samaras, leader of ND, was asked by Greek President Karolos Papoulias to try to form a government.", "However, after a day of hard negotiations with the other parties in Parliament, Samaras officially announced he was giving up the mandate to form a government.", "The task passed to Alexis Tsipras, leader of the SYRIZA (the second-largest party) who was also unable to form a government.", "After PASOK also failed to negotiate a successful agreement to form a government, emergency talks with the President ended with a new election being called while Panagiotis Pikrammenos was appointed as prime minister in a caretaker government.Voters once again took to the polls in the widely watched June 2012 election.", "New Democracy came out on top in a stronger position with 129 seats, compared to 108 in the May election.", "On 20 June 2012, Samaras successfully formed a coalition with PASOK (now led by former finance minister Evangelos Venizelos) and DIMAR.", "The new government would have a majority of 58, with SYRIZA, Independent Greeks (ANEL), Golden Dawn (XA) and the Communist Party (KKE) comprising the opposition.", "PASOK and DIMAR chose to take a limited role in Samaras' Cabinet, being represented by party officials and independent technocrats instead of MPs.===SYRIZA victory===Alexis TsiprasIn wake of the austerity measures adopted by the Samaras government, Greeks voted the anti-austerity, left-wing SYRIZA into office in the January 2015 legislative election.", "Samaras accepted defeat and said that his party had done much to restore the country's finances.SYRIZA government lost its majority in August 2015, when some of its MPs withdrew their support in favor of the governing coalition.", "SYRIZA won the September elections, but failed to get an outright majority.", "Later they formed a coalition with Independent Greeks, a right-wing party.The party suffered heavy defeats at the 2019 European Parliament election, and prime minister and SYRIZA leader, Alexis Tsipras resigned to organize a snap election.", "It resulted in a majority for New Democracy, and the appointment of Kyriakos Mitsotakis as prime minister.=== New Democracy back in power (2019–) ===On 7 July 2019, Kyriakos Mitsotakis was sworn in as the new Prime Minister of Greece.", "He formed a centre-right government after the landslide election victory of his New Democracy party.In March 2020, Greece's parliament elected a non-partisan candidate, Katerina Sakellaropoulou, as the first female President of Greece.In June 2023, conservative New Democracy party won the legislative election, meaning another four-year term as prime minister for Kyriakos Mitsotakis." ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of Greek history* Timeline of modern Greek history" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Beaton, Roderick.", "''Greece: Biography of a Modern Nation'' (Allen Lane, 2019) * Beaton, Roderick, and D. Ricks, eds., ''The Making of Modern Greece'' (2009) * Brewer, David.", "''The Flame of Freedom: The Greek War of Independence, 1821–1833'' (2001)* Brewer, David.", "''Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence'' (2010).", "* Close, D. H. ''Greece since 1945'' (2002).", "* Colovas, Anthone C. ''A Quick History of Modern Greece'' (2007) excerpt and text search* Gallant, Thomas W. ''Modern Greece'' (Brief Histories) (2001)* Gallant, Thomas W. ''The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1768 to 1913'' (2015) excerpt* Hall, Richard C. ed.", "''War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia'' (2014)* Herzfeld, Michael.", "''Ours Once More: Folklore, Ideology and the Making of Modern Greece'' (1986) excerpt and text search* Kalyvas, Stathis.", "''Modern Greece: What Everyone Needs to Know'' (Oxford University Press, 2015)* Keridis, Dimitris.", "''Historical Dictionary of Modern Greece'' (2009) excerpt and text search* Koliopoulos, John S., and Thanos M. Veremis.", "''Modern Greece: A History since 1821'' (2009) excerpt and text search* Miller, James E. ''The United States and the Making of Modern Greece: History and Power, 1950-1974'' (2008) excerpt and text search* Pirounakis, N. G. ''The Greek Economy: Past, Present and Future'' (1997) * Woodhouse, C. M. ''Modern Greece: A Short History'' (2000) excerpt and text search=== Historiography ===* Boletsi, M. \"The futurity of things past: Thinking Greece beyond crisis.\"", "''Inaugural Speech as Marilena Laskaridis Chair of Modern Greek Studies, Amsterdam, Netherlands'' 21 (2018) online.", "* Tziovas, Dimitris.", "\"The study of modern Greece in a changing world: fading allure or potential for reinvention?.\"", "''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 40.1 (2016): 114–125.online" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heracles" ], [ "Introduction", "Heracles carrying his son Hyllus looks at the centaur Nessus, who is about to carry Deianira across the river on his back.", "Antique fresco from Pompeii.", "'''Heracles''' ( ; ), born '''Alcaeus''' (, ''Alkaios'') or '''Alcides''' (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.", "He was a descendant and half-brother (as they are both sired by the god Zeus) of Perseus.", "He was the greatest of the Greek heroes, the ancestor of royal clans who claimed to be Heracleidae (), and a champion of the Olympian order against chthonic monsters.", "In Rome and the modern West, he is known as Hercules, with whom the later Roman emperors, in particular Commodus and Maximian, often identified themselves.", "Details of his cult were adapted to Rome as well." ], [ "Origin", "Many popular stories were told of his life, the most famous being The Twelve Labours of Heracles; Alexandrian poets of the Hellenistic age drew his mythology into a high poetic and tragic atmosphere.", "His figure, which initially drew on Near Eastern motifs such as the lion-fight, was widely known.Heracles was the greatest of Hellenic chthonic heroes, but unlike other Greek heroes, no tomb was identified as his.", "Heracles was both hero and god, as Pindar says ''heros theos''; at the same festival sacrifice was made to him, first as a hero, with a chthonic libation, and then as a god, upon an altar: thus he embodies the closest Greek approach to a \"demi-god\".The core of the story of Heracles has been identified by Walter Burkert as originating in Neolithic hunter culture and traditions of shamanistic crossings into the netherworld.", "It is possible that the myths surrounding Heracles were based on the life of a real person or several people whose accomplishments became exaggerated with time.===Hero or god===Heracles' role as a culture hero, whose death could be a subject of mythic telling (see below), was accepted into the Olympian Pantheon during Classical times.", "This created an awkwardness in the encounter with Odysseus in the episode of ''Odyssey'' XI, called the Nekuia, where Odysseus encounters Heracles in Hades:Ancient critics were aware of the problem of the aside that interrupts the vivid and complete description, in which Heracles recognizes Odysseus and hails him, and some modern critics deny that the verse's beginning, in Fagles' translation ''His ghost I mean ...'', was part of the original composition: \"once people knew of Heracles' admission to Olympus, they would not tolerate his presence in the underworld\", remarks Friedrich Solmsen, noting that the interpolated verses represent a compromise between conflicting representations of Heracles." ], [ "Cult", "The ancient Greeks celebrated the festival of the ''Heracleia'', which commemorated the death of Heracles, on the second day of the month of Metageitnion (which would fall in late July or early August).", "What is believed to be an Egyptian Temple of Heracles in the Bahariya Oasis dates to 21 BCE.", "A reassessment of Ptolemy's descriptions of the island of Malta attempted to link the site at Ras ir-Raħeb with a temple to Heracles, but the arguments are not conclusive.", "Several ancient cities were named Heraclea in his honor.", "A very small island close to the island of Lemnos was called Neai (Νέαι), from νέω, which means \"I dive/swim\", because Heracles swam there.", "According to the Greek legends, the Herculaneum in Italy was founded by him.Several ''poleis'' provided two separate sanctuaries for Heracles, one recognizing him as a god, the other only as a hero.", "Sacrifice was made to him as a hero and as a god within the same festival.", "This ambiguity helped create the Heracles cult especially when historians (e.g.", "Herodotus) and artists encouraged worship such as the painters during the time of the Peisistratos, who often presented Heracles entering Olympus in their works.Some sources explained that the cult of Heracles persisted because of the hero's ascent to heaven and his suffering, which became the basis for festivals, ritual, rites, and the organization of mysteries.", "There is the observation, for example, that sufferings (''pathea'') gave rise to the rituals of grief and mourning, which came before the joy in the mysteries in the sequence of cult rituals.", "Also, like the case of Apollo, the cult of Heracles had been sustained through the years by absorbing local cult figures such as those who share the same nature.", "He was also constantly invoked as a patron for men, especially the young ones.", "For example, he was considered the ideal in warfare so he presided over gymnasiums and the ''ephebes'' or those men undergoing military training.There were ancient towns and cities that also adopted Heracles as a patron deity, contributing to the spread of his cult.", "There was the case of the royal house of Macedonia, which claimed lineal descent from the hero, primarily for purposes of divine protection and legitimator of actions.The earliest evidence that shows the worship of Heracles in popular cult was in 6th century BCE (121–122 and 160–165) via an ancient inscription from Phaleron.", "After the 4th century BCE, Heracles became identified with the Phoenician God MelqartOitaeans worshiped Heracles and called him Cornopion (Κορνοπίων) because he helped them get rid of locusts (which they called ''cornopes''), while the citizens of Erythrae at Mima called him Ipoctonus (ἰποκτόνος) because he destroyed the vine-eating ''ips'' (ἀμπελοφάγων ἰπῶν), a kind of cynips wasp, there." ], [ "Character", "Etruscans.", "This vase at Caere shows King Eurytus of Oechalia and Heracles in a symposium.", "Krater of corinthian columns called 'Krater of Eurytion', Extraordinary strength, courage, ingenuity, and sexual prowess with both males and females were among the characteristics commonly attributed to him.", "Heracles used his wits on several occasions when his strength did not suffice, such as when laboring for the king Augeas of Elis, wrestling the giant Antaeus, or tricking Atlas into taking the sky back onto his shoulders.", "Together with Hermes he was the patron and protector of gymnasia and palaestrae.", "His iconographic attributes are the lion skin and the club.", "These qualities did not prevent him from being regarded as a playful figure who used games to relax from his labors and played a great deal with children.", "By conquering dangerous archaic forces he is said to have \"made the world safe for mankind\" and to be its benefactor.", "Heracles was an extremely passionate and emotional individual, capable of doing both great deeds for his friends (such as wrestling with Thanatos on behalf of Prince Admetus, who had regaled Heracles with his hospitality, or restoring his friend Tyndareus to the throne of Sparta after he was overthrown) and being a terrible enemy who would wreak horrible vengeance on those who crossed him, as Augeas, Neleus, and Laomedon all found out to their cost.", "There was also a coldness to his character, which was demonstrated by Sophocles' depiction of the hero in ''The Trachiniae''.", "Heracles threatened his marriage with his desire to bring two women under the same roof; one of them was his wife Deianeira.In the works of Euripides involving Heracles, his actions were partly driven by forces outside rational human control.", "By highlighting the divine causation of his madness, Euripides problematized Heracles' character and status within the civilized context.", "This aspect is also highlighted in ''Hercules Furens'' where Seneca linked the hero's madness to an illusion and a consequence of Heracles' refusal to live a simple life, as offered by Amphitryon.", "It was indicated that he preferred the extravagant violence of the heroic life and that its ghosts eventually manifested in his madness and that the hallucinatory visions defined Heracles' character." ], [ "Mythology", "===Birth and childhood===Heracles strangling snakes (detail from an Attic red-figured stamnos, c. 480–470 BCE)A major factor in the well-known tragedies surrounding Heracles is the hatred that the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, had for him.", "Heracles was the son of the affair Zeus had with the mortal woman Alcmene.", "When Zeus desired Alcmene, he decided to make one night last three by ordering Helios, the god of the sun, not to rise for three days, so he would have more time with Alcmene.", "Zeus made love to her after disguising himself as her husband, Amphitryon, home early from war (Amphitryon did return later the same night, and Alcmene became pregnant with his son at the same time, a case of heteropaternal superfecundation, where a woman carries twins sired by different fathers).", "Thus, Heracles' very existence proved at least one of Zeus' many illicit affairs, and Hera often conspired against Zeus' mortal offspring as revenge for her husband's infidelities.", "His twin mortal brother, son of Amphitryon, was Iphicles, father of Heracles' charioteer Iolaus.", "''The Origin of the Milky Way'' by Jacopo TintorettoOn the night Heracles and Iphicles were to be born, Hera, knowing of her husband Zeus' adultery, persuaded Zeus to swear an oath that the child born that night to a member of the House of Perseus would become High King.", "Hera did this knowing that while Heracles was to be born a descendant of Perseus, so too was Eurystheus.", "Once the oath was sworn, Hera hurried to Alcmene's dwelling and slowed the birth of Heracles and Iphicles by forcing Ilithyia, goddess of childbirth, to sit cross-legged with her clothing tied in knots, thereby causing the twins to be trapped in the womb.", "Meanwhile, Hera caused Eurystheus to be born prematurely, making him High King in place of Heracles.", "She would have permanently delayed Heracles' birth had she not been fooled by Galanthis, Alcmene's servant, who lied to Ilithyia, saying that Alcmene had already delivered the baby.", "Upon hearing this, she jumped in surprise, loosing the knots and inadvertently allowing Alcmene to give birth to Heracles and Iphicles.Heracles as a boy strangling a snake (marble, Roman artwork, 2nd century CE).", "Capitoline Museums in Rome, ItalyFear of Hera's revenge led Alcmene to expose the infant Heracles, but he was taken up and brought to Hera by his half-sister Athena, who played an important role as protectress of heroes.", "Hera did not recognize Heracles and nursed him out of pity.", "Heracles suckled so strongly that he caused Hera pain, and she pushed him away.", "Her milk sprayed across the heavens and there formed the Milky Way.", "But with divine milk, Heracles had acquired supernatural powers.", "Athena brought the infant back to his mother, and he was subsequently raised by his parents.The child was originally given the name Alcides by his parents; it was only later that he became known as Heracles.", "He was renamed Heracles in an unsuccessful attempt to mollify Hera, with Heracles meaning Hera's \"pride\" or \"glory\".", "He and his twin were just eight months old when Hera sent two giant snakes into the children's chamber.", "Iphicles cried from fear, but his brother grabbed a snake in each hand and strangled them.", "He was found by his nurse playing with them on his cot as if they were toys.", "Astonished, Amphitryon sent for the seer Tiresias, who prophesied an unusual future for the boy, saying he would vanquish numerous monsters.===Youth===Side of terracotta kantharos in the form of the head of Heracles, attributed to the Syriskos Painter, c. 470 BCThe choice of Hercules by Annibale CarracciAfter killing his music tutor Linus with a lyre, he was sent to tend cattle on a mountain by his foster father Amphitryon.", "Here, according to an allegorical parable, \"The Choice of Heracles\", invented by the sophist Prodicus (c. 400 BCE) and reported in Xenophon's ''Memorabilia'' 2.1.21–34, he was visited by two allegorical figures—Vice and Virtue—who offered him a choice between a pleasant and easy life or a severe but glorious life: he chose the latter.", "This was part of a pattern of \"ethicizing\" Heracles over the 5th century BCE.Later, in Thebes, Heracles married King Creon's daughter, Megara.", "===Labours of Heracles===All 12 labours of Heracles, Mosaic of Llíria (Valencia, Spain)In a fit of madness, induced by Hera, Heracles killed his children and Megara.", "After his madness had been cured with hellebore by Antikyreus, the founder of Antikyra, he realized what he had done and fled to the Oracle of Delphi.", "Unbeknownst to him, the Oracle was guided by Hera.", "He was directed to serve King Eurystheus for ten years and perform any task Eurystheus required of him.", "Eurystheus decided to give Heracles ten labours, but after completing them, Heracles was cheated by Eurystheus when he added two more, resulting in the Twelve Labors of Heracles.", "If he succeeded, he would be purified of his sin and, as myth says, he would become a god, and be granted immortality.Other traditions place Heracles' madness at a later time and relate the circumstances differently.", "In some traditions, there was only a divine reason for Heracles' twelve labours: Zeus, in his desire not to leave Heracles the victim of Hera's jealousy, made her promise that, if Heracles executed twelve great works in the service of Eurystheus, he should become immortal.", "In the play ''Herakles'' by Euripides, Heracles is driven to madness by Hera and kills his children after his twelve labours.Despite the difficulty, Heracles accomplished these tasks, but Eurystheus in the end did not accept the success the hero had with two of the labours: the cleansing of the Augean stables, because Heracles was going to accept pay for the labour; and the killing of the Lernaean Hydra, as Heracles' nephew, Iolaus, had helped him burn the stumps of the multiplying heads.Eurystheus set two more tasks, fetching the Golden Apples of Hesperides and capturing Cerberus.", "In the end, with ease, the hero successfully performed each added task, bringing the total number of labours up to twelve.Not all versions and writers give the labours in the same order.", "The ''Bibliotheca'' (2.5.1–2.5.12) gives the following order:;1.Slay the Nemean Lion: Heracles defeated a lion that was attacking the city of Nemea with his bare hands.", "After he succeeded he wore the skin as a cloak to demonstrate his power over the opponent he had defeated.", ";2.Slay the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra: Heracles slaying the Lernaean HydraA fire-breathing monster with multiple serpent heads.", "When one head was cut off, two would grow in its place.", "It lived in a swamp near Lerna.", "Hera had sent it in hopes it would destroy Heracles' home city because she thought it was invincible.", "With help from his nephew Iolaus, he defeated the monster and dipped his arrows in its poisoned blood, thus envenomizing them.", ";3.Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis: Heracles and Ceryneian Hind by LysipposNot to kill, but to catch, this hind that was sacred to Artemis.", "A different, but still difficult, task.", "It cost time, but, having chased it for a year, Heracles wore out the Hind.", "Artemis intervened, but as soon as Heracles explained the situation to her, she allowed him to take it, and he presented it alive to Eurystheus.", ";4.Capture the Erymanthian Boar: A fearsome marauding boar on the loose.", "Eurystheus set Heracles the Labour of catching it, and bringing it to Mycenae.", "Again, a time-consuming task, but the tireless hero found the beast, captured it, and brought it to its final spot.", "Patience is the heroic quality in the third and fourth Labours.", ";5.Clean the Augean stables in a single day: The Augean stables were the home of 3,000 cattle with poisoned faeces which Augeas had been given by his father Helios.", "Heracles was given the near impossible task of cleaning the stables of the diseased faeces.", "He accomplished it by digging ditches on both sides of the stables, moving them into the ditches, and then diverting the rivers Alpheios and Pineios to wash the ditches clean.", ";6.Slay the Stymphalian Birds: These aggressive man-eating birds were terrorizing a forest near Lake Stymphalia in northern Arcadia.", "Heracles scared them with a rattle given to him by Athena, to frighten them into flight away from the forest, allowing him to shoot many of them with his bow and arrow and bring back this proof of his success to Eurystheus.", ";7.Capture the Cretan Bull: The harmful bull, father of the Minotaur, was laying waste to the lands round Knossos on Crete.", "It embodied the rage of Poseidon at having his gift (the Bull) to Minos diverted from the intention to sacrifice it to himself.", "Heracles captured it, and carried it on his shoulders to Eurystheus in Tiryns.", "Eurystheus released it, when it wandered to Marathon which it then terrorized, until killed by Theseus.", ";8.Steal the Mares of Diomedes: Stealing the horses from Diomedes' stables that had been trained by their owner to feed on human flesh was his next challenge.", "Heracles' task was to capture them and hand them over to Eurystheus.", "He accomplished this task by feeding King Diomedes to the animals before binding their mouths shut.", ";9.Obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons: Hippolyta was an Amazon queen and she had a girdle given to her by her father Ares.", "Heracles had to retrieve the girdle and return it to Eurystheus.", "He and his band of companions received a rough welcome because, ordered by Hera, the Amazons were supposed to attack them; however, against all odds, Heracles completed the task and secured the girdle for Eurystheus.", ";10.Obtain the cattle of the monster Geryon: The next challenge was to capture the herd guarded by a two-headed dog called Orthrus, which belonged to Geryon; a giant with three heads and six arms who lived in Erytheia.", "While travelling to Erytheia, he passed through the Libyan desert and was so annoyed by the heat he shot an arrow at Helios, the sun.", "Helios, impressed, lent him his giant cup which Heracles used to find Orthrus, the herdsman Erytion and the owner, Geryon.", "He killed the first two with his club and the third with a poisoned arrow.", "Heracles then herded the cattle and, with difficulty, took them to Eurystheus.", ";11.Steal the golden apples of the Hesperides: Hercules stealing the golden apples from the Garden of the HesperidesThese sacred fruits were protected by Hera who had set Ladon, a fearsome hundred-headed dragon as the guardian.", "Heracles had to first find where the garden was; he asked Nereus for help.", "He came across Prometheus on his journey.", "Heracles shot the eagle eating at his liver, and in return he helped Heracles with knowledge that his brother would know where the garden was.", "His brother Atlas offered him help with the apples if he would hold up the heavens while he was gone.", "Atlas tricked him and did not return.", "Heracles returned the trickery and managed to get Atlas taking the burden of the heavens once again, and returned the apples to Mycenae.", ";12.Capture and bring back Cerberus: His last labour and undoubtedly the riskiest.", "Eurystheus was so frustrated that Heracles was completing all the tasks that he had given him that he imposed one he believed to be impossible: Heracles had to go down into the underworld of Hades and capture the ferocious three-headed dog Cerberus who guarded the gates.", "He used the souls to help convince Hades to hand over the dog.", "He agreed to give him the dog if he used no weapons to obtain him.", "Heracles succeeded and took the creature back to Mycenae, causing Eurystheus to be fearful of the power and strength of this hero.===Further adventures===After completing these tasks, Heracles fell in love with Princess Iole of Oechalia.", "King Eurytus of Oechalia promised his daughter, Iole, to whoever could beat his sons in an archery contest.", "Heracles won but Eurytus abandoned his promise.", "Heracles' advances were spurned by the king and his sons, except for one: Iole's brother Iphitus.", "Heracles killed the king and his sons—excluding Iphitus—and abducted Iole.", "Iphitus became Heracles' best friend.", "However, once again, Hera drove Heracles mad and he threw Iphitus over the city wall to his death.", "Once again, Heracles purified himself through three years of servitude—this time to Queen Omphale of Lydia.===Omphale===Heracles and Omphale, Roman fresco, Pompeian Fourth Style (45–79 CE), Naples National Archaeological Museum, ItalyOmphale was a queen or princess of Lydia.", "As penalty for a murder, imposed by Xenoclea, the Delphic Oracle, Heracles was to serve as her slave for a year.", "He was forced to do women's work and to wear women's clothes, while she wore the skin of the Nemean Lion and carried his olive-wood club.", "After some time, Omphale freed Heracles and married him.", "Some sources mention a son born to them who is variously named.", "It was at that time that the cercopes, mischievous wood spirits, stole Heracles' weapons.", "He punished them by tying them to a stick with their faces pointing downward.===Hylas===While walking through the wilderness, Heracles was set upon by the Dryopes.", "In Apollonius of Rhodes' ''Argonautica'' it is recalled that Heracles had mercilessly slain their king, Theiodamas, over one of the latter's bulls, and made war upon the Dryopes \"because they gave no heed to justice in their lives\".", "After the death of their king, the Dryopes gave in and offered him Prince Hylas.", "He took the youth on as his weapons bearer.", "Years later, Heracles and Hylas joined the crew of the ''Argo''.", "As Argonauts, they only participated in part of the journey.", "In Mysia, Hylas was kidnapped by the nymphs of a local spring.", "Heracles, searched for a long time but Hylas had fallen in love with the nymphs and never showed up again.", "In other versions, he simply drowned.", "Either way, the ''Argo'' set sail without them.===Rescue of Prometheus===Hesiod's ''Theogony'' and Aeschylus' ''Prometheus Unbound'' both tell that Heracles shot and killed the eagle that tortured Prometheus (which was his punishment by Zeus for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to mortals).", "Heracles freed the Titan from his chains and his torments.", "Prometheus then made predictions regarding further deeds of Heracles.===Heracles' constellation===On his way back to Mycenae from Iberia, having obtained the Cattle of Geryon as his tenth labour, Heracles came to Liguria in North-Western Italy where he engaged in battle with two giants, Albion and Bergion or Dercynus, sons of Poseidon.", "The opponents were strong; Heracles was in a difficult position so he prayed to his father Zeus for help.", "Under the aegis of Zeus, Heracles won the battle.", "It was this kneeling position of Heracles when he prayed to his father Zeus that gave the name Engonasin (''\"Εγγόνασιν\"'', derived from \"εν γόνασιν\"), meaning \"on his knees\" or \"the Kneeler\",to the constellation known as Heracles' constellation.", "The story, among others, is described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.===Heracles' sack of Troy===A fresco from Herculaneum depicting Heracles and Achelous from Greco-Roman mythology, 1st century CEBefore Homer's Trojan War, Heracles had made an expedition to Troy and sacked it.", "Previously, Poseidon had sent a sea monster (Greek: kētŏs, Latin: cetus) to attack Troy.", "The story is related in several digressions in the ''Iliad'' (7.451–53; 20.145–48; 21.442–57) and is found in pseudo-Apollodorus' Bibliotheke (2.5.9).", "This expedition became the theme of the Eastern pediment of the Temple of Aphaea.", "Laomedon planned on sacrificing his daughter Hesione to Poseidon in the hope of appeasing him.", "Heracles happened to arrive (along with Telamon and Oicles) and agreed to kill the monster if Laomedon would give him the horses received from Zeus as compensation for Zeus' kidnapping Ganymede.", "Laomedon agreed.", "Heracles killed the monster, but Laomedon went back on his word.", "Accordingly, in a later expedition, Heracles and his followers attacked Troy and sacked it.", "Then they slew all Laomedon's sons present there save Podarces, who was renamed Priam, who saved his own life by giving Heracles a golden veil Hesione had made.", "Telamon took Hesione as a war prize and they had a son, Teucer.===Colony at Sardinia===After Heracles had performed his Labours, gods told him that before he passed into the company of the gods, he should create a colony at Sardinia and make his sons, whom he had with the daughters of Thespius, the leaders of the settlement.", "When his sons became adults, he sent them together with Iolaus to the island.===Other adventures===Busiris, Attic ''Pelike'', c. 470 BCE* Heracles defeated the Bebryces (ruled by King Mygdon) and gave their land to Prince Lycus of Mysia, son of Dascylus.", "* He killed the robber Termerus.", "* Heracles visited Evander with Antor, who then stayed in Italy.", "* Heracles killed King Amyntor of Ormenium for not allowing him into his kingdom.", "He also killed King Emathion of Arabia.", "* Heracles kills the Egyptian King Busiris and his followers after they attempt to sacrifice him to the gods.", "* Heracles killed Lityerses after beating him in a contest of harvesting.", "* Heracles killed Periclymenus at Pylos.", "* Heracles killed Syleus for forcing strangers to hoe a vineyard.", "* Heracles rivaled with Lepreus and eventually killed him.", "* Heracles founded the city Tarentum (modern Taranto in Italy).", "* Heracles learned music from Linus (and Eumolpus), but killed him after Linus corrected his mistakes.", "He learned how to wrestle from Autolycus.", "He killed the famous boxer Eryx of Sicily in a match.", "* Heracles was an Argonaut.", "He killed Alastor and his brothers.Heracles killing the giant, Antaeus* When Hippocoon overthrew his brother, Tyndareus, as King of Sparta, Heracles reinstated the rightful ruler and killed Hippocoon and his sons.", "* Heracles killed Cycnus, the son of Ares.", "The expedition against Cycnus, in which Iolaus accompanied Heracles, is the ostensible theme of a short epic attributed to Hesiod, ''Shield of Heracles''.", "* Heracles killed the Giants Alcyoneus and Porphyrion.", "* Heracles killed Antaeus the giant who was immortal while touching the earth, by picking him up and holding him in the air while strangling him.", "* Pygmies tried to kill Heracles because they were brothers of Antaeus and wanted to avenge Antaeus's death.", "* Heracles went to war with Augeias after he denied him a promised reward for clearing his stables.", "Augeias remained undefeated due to the skill of his two generals, the Molionides, and after Heracles fell ill, his army was badly beaten.", "Later, however, he was able to ambush and kill the Molionides, and thus march into Elis, sack it, and kill Augeias and his sons.", "* Heracles visited the house of Admetus on the day Admetus' wife, Alcestis, had agreed to die in his place.", "Admetus, not wanting to turn Heracles away, nor wanting to burden him with his sadness, welcomes him and instructs the servants not to inform Heracles of what has occurred.", "Heracles, thus unaware of Alcestis's fate, enjoys the hospitality of Admetus's house, drinking and revelling, which angers the servants, who wish to mourn as is their right.", "One scolds the guest and Heracles is ashamed of his actions.", "By hiding beside the grave of Alcestis, Heracles was able to surprise Death when he came to collect her, and by squeezing him tight until he relented, was able to persuade Death to return Alcestis to her husband.", "* Heracles challenged wine god Dionysus to a drinking contest and lost, resulting in his joining the Thiasus for a period.", "* Heracles also appears in Aristophanes' ''The Frogs'', in which Dionysus seeks out the hero to find a way to the underworld.", "Heracles is greatly amused by Dionysus' appearance and jokingly offers several ways to commit suicide before finally offering his knowledge of how to get to there.", "* Heracles appears as the ancestral hero of Scythia in Herodotus' text.", "While Heracles is sleeping out in the wilderness, a half-woman, half-snake creature steals his horses.", "Heracles eventually finds the creature, but she refuses to return the horses until he has sex with her.", "After doing so, he takes back his horses, but before leaving, he hands over his belt and bow, and gives instructions as to which of their children should found a new nation in Scythia.", "* In the fifth book of the ''New History'', ascribed by Photius to Ptolemy Hephaestion, mention that Heracles did not wear the skin of the Nemean lion, but that of a certain Lion giant killed by Heracles whom he had challenged to single combat.", "* Heracles fought and killed Cacus.", "* Heracles fought with the Sicani people, killing many including the famous Leucaspis.===Death===''Death of Hercules'' (painting by Francisco de Zurbarán, 1634, Museo del Prado)This is described in Sophocles's ''Trachiniae'' and in Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'' Book IX.", "Having wrestled and defeated Achelous, god of the Acheloos river, Heracles takes Deianira as his wife.", "Travelling to Tiryns, a centaur, Nessus, offers to help Deianira across a fast flowing river while Heracles swims it.", "However, Nessus is true to the archetype of the mischievous centaur and tries to steal Deianira away while Heracles is still in the water.", "Angry, Heracles shoots him with his arrows dipped in the poisonous blood of the Lernaean Hydra.", "Thinking of revenge, Nessus gives Deianira his blood-soaked tunic before he dies, telling her it will \"excite the love of her husband\".Several years later, rumor tells Deianira that she has a rival for the love of Heracles.", "Deianira, remembering Nessus' words, gives Heracles the bloodstained shirt.", "Lichas, the herald, delivers the shirt to Heracles.", "However, it is still covered in the Hydra's blood from Heracles' arrows, and this poisons him, tearing his skin and exposing his bones.", "Before he dies, Heracles throws Lichas into the sea, thinking he was the one who poisoned him (according to several versions, Lichas turns to stone, becoming a rock standing in the sea, named for him).", "Heracles then uproots several trees and builds a funeral pyre on Mount Oeta, which Poeas, father of Philoctetes, lights.", "As his body burns, only his immortal side is left.", "Through Zeus' apotheosis, Heracles rises to Olympus as he dies.No one but Heracles' friend Philoctetes (Poeas in some versions) would light his funeral pyre (in an alternative version, it is Iolaus who lights the pyre).", "For this action, Philoctetes or Poeas received Heracles' bow and arrows, which were later needed by the Greeks to defeat Troy in the Trojan War.Philoctetes confronted Paris and shot a poisoned arrow at him.", "The Hydra poison subsequently led to the death of Paris.", "The Trojan War, however, continued until the Trojan Horse was used to defeat Troy.According to Herodotus, Heracles lived 900 years before Herodotus' own time (c. 1300 BCE).=== Godhood ===After his death in the pyre, Heracles ascended to Olympus as a god, and having finally reconciled with Hera, he got her daughter Hebe as his fourth and final wife.", "They had two sons together, Alexiares and Anicetus.When Typhon attacked Olympus, all gods transformed into animals and ran terrified to Egypt; Heracles became a fawn.In the ''Dialogues of the Gods'', a satirical work by Lucian of Samosata, Heracles and another recently deified mortal, Asclepius, fight over which gets the most prestigious seat on the table of the gods, each arguing that they are the one who deserve it.", "Zeus intervenes, and rules in favour of Asclepius, reasoning that the best seat should go to the one who became a god first.Heracles also appears to Philoctetes, stranded and abandoned by the other Greeks on Lemnos island, and through his ''deus ex machina'' intervention, Philoctetes is convinced to join the other Greeks at Troy, where he kills Paris with Heracles's arrows.=== Christian chronology ===In Christian circles, a Euhemerist reading of the widespread Heracles cult was attributed to a historical figure who had been offered cult status after his death.", "Thus Eusebius, ''Preparation of the Gospel'' (10.12), reported that Clement could offer historical dates for Heracles as a king in Argos: \"from the reign of Heracles in Argos to the deification of Heracles himself and of Asclepius there are comprised thirty-eight years, according to Apollodorus the chronicler: and from that point to the deification of Castor and Pollux fifty-three years: and somewhere about this time was the capture of Troy.", "\"Temple to Heracles in Agrigento, Sicily, ItalyReaders with a literalist bent, following Clement's reasoning, have asserted from this remark that, since Heracles ruled over Tiryns in Argos at the same time that Eurystheus ruled over Mycenae, and since at about this time Linus was Heracles' teacher, one can conclude, based on Jerome's date—in his universal history, his ''Chronicon''—given to Linus' notoriety in teaching Heracles in 1264 BCE, that Heracles' death and deification occurred 38 years later, in approximately 1226 BCE." ], [ "Lovers", "===Women=======Marriages====During the course of his life, Heracles married four times.", "* Heracles waged a victorious war against the kingdom of Orchomenus in Boeotia and married his first wife Megara, daughter of Creon, king of Thebes.", "But he killed their children in a fit of madness sent by Hera and, consequently, was obliged to become the servant of Eurystheus.", "According to Pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheca, 2.4.12) Megara was unharmed.", "According to Hyginus (Fabulae, 32), Heracles also killed Megara.An insane Heracles is depicted killing his son while Megara stands horrified on the right side of the scene (National Archaeological Museum, Madrid, c. 350-320 B.C.E.", ")* His second wife was Omphale, the Lydian queen to whom he was delivered as a slave (Hyginus, Fabulae, 32).", "* His third marriage was to Deianira, for whom he had to fight the river god Achelous (upon Achelous' death, Heracles removed one of his horns and gave it to some nymphs who turned it into the cornucopia).", "Soon after they wed, Heracles and Deianira had to cross a river, and a centaur named Nessus offered to help Deianira across but then attempted to rape her.", "Enraged, Heracles shot the centaur from the opposite shore with a poisoned arrow (tipped with the Lernaean Hydra's blood) and killed him.", "As he lay dying, Nessus plotted revenge, told Deianira to gather up his blood and spilled semen and, if she ever wanted to prevent Heracles from having affairs with other women, she should apply them to his vestments.", "Nessus knew that his blood had become tainted by the poisonous blood of the Hydra, and would burn through the skin of anyone it touched.", "Later, when Deianira suspected that Heracles was fond of Iole, she soaked a shirt of his in the mixture, creating the poisoned shirt of Nessus.", "Heracles' servant, Lichas, brought him the shirt and he put it on.", "Instantly he was in agony, the cloth burning into him.", "As he tried to remove it, the flesh ripped from his bones.", "Heracles chose a voluntary death, asking that a pyre be built for him to end his suffering.", "After death, the gods transformed him into an immortal, or alternatively, the fire burned away the mortal part of the demigod, so that only the god remained.", "After his mortal parts had been incinerated, he could become a full god and join his father and the other Olympians on Mount Olympus.", "* His fourth marriage was to Hebe, his last wife.====Affairs====An episode of his female affairs that stands out was his stay at the palace of Thespius, king of Thespiae, who wished him to kill the Lion of Cithaeron.", "As a reward, the king offered him the chance to perform sexual intercourse with all fifty of his daughters in one night.", "Heracles complied and they all became pregnant and all bore sons.", "This is sometimes referred to as his Thirteenth Labour.", "Many of the kings of ancient Greece traced their lines to one or another of these, notably the kings of Sparta and Macedon.Yet another episode of his female affairs that stands out was when he carried away the oxen of Geryon, he also visited the country of the Scythians.", "Once there, while asleep, his horses suddenly disappeared.", "When he woke and wandered about in search of them, he came into the country of Hylaea.", "He then found the dracaena of Scythia (sometimes identified as Echidna) in a cave.", "When he asked whether she knew anything about his horses, she answered, that they were in her own possession, but that she would not give them up, unless he would consent to stay with her for a time.", "Heracles accepted the request, and became by her the father of Agathyrsus, Gelonus, and Scythes.", "The last of them became king of the Scythians, according to his father's arrangement, because he was the only one among the three brothers that was able to manage the bow which Heracles had left behind and to use his father's girdle.Dionysius of Halicarnassus writes that Heracles and Lavinia, daughter of Evander, had a son named Pallas.===Men===Heracles and Iolaus (Fountain mosaic from the Anzio Nymphaeum)As a symbol of masculinity and warriorship, Heracles also had a number of male lovers.", "Plutarch, in his ''Eroticos,'' maintains that Heracles' male lovers were beyond counting.", "Of these, the one most closely linked to Heracles is the Theban Iolaus.", "According to a myth thought to be of ancient origins, Iolaus was Heracles' charioteer and squire.", "Heracles in the end helped Iolaus find a wife.", "Plutarch reports that down to his own time, male couples would go to Iolaus's tomb in Thebes to swear an oath of loyalty to the hero and to each other.", "He also mentions Admetus, known in myth for assisting the Calydonian boar hunt, as one of Heracles's male lovers.One of Heracles' male lovers, and one represented in ancient as well as modern art, is Hylas, who sailed with Heracles on the Argo.Another reputed male lover of Heracles is Elacatas, who was honored in Sparta with a sanctuary and yearly games, Elacatea.", "The myth of their love is an ancient one.Abdera's eponymous hero, Abderus, was another of Heracles' lovers.", "He was said to have been entrusted with—and slain by—the carnivorous mares of Thracian Diomedes.", "Heracles founded the city of Abdera in Thrace in his memory, where he was honored with athletic games.Another myth is that of Iphitus.Another story is the one of his love for Nireus, who was \"the most beautiful man who came beneath Ilion\" (''Iliad'', 673).", "But Ptolemy adds that certain authors made Nireus out to be a son of Heracles.Pausanias makes mention of Sostratus, a youth of Dyme, Achaea, as a lover of Heracles.", "Sostratus was said to have died young and to have been buried by Heracles outside the city.", "The tomb was still there in historical times, and the inhabitants of Dyme honored Sostratus as a hero.", "The youth seems to have also been referred to as Polystratus.A series of lovers are only known in later literature.", "Among these are Eurystheus, Adonis, Corythus, Argus, and Nestor who was said to have been loved for his wisdom.", "In the account of Ptolemaeus Chennus, Nestor's role as lover explains why he was the only son of Neleus to be spared by the hero.A scholiast commenting on Apollonius' ''Argonautica'' lists the following male lovers of Heracles: \"Hylas, Philoctetes, Diomus, Perithoas, and Phrix, after whom a city in Libya was named\".", "Diomus is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium as the eponym of the deme Diomeia of the Attic phyle Aegeis: Heracles is said to have fallen in love with Diomus when he was received as guest by Diomus' father Collytus.", "Perithoas and Phrix are otherwise unknown, and so is the version that suggests a sexual relationship between Heracles and Philoctetes." ], [ "Children", "Heracles and his son Telephus.", "(Marble, Roman copy of the 1st or 2nd century CE)All of Heracles' marriages and almost all of his heterosexual affairs resulted in births of a number of sons and at least four daughters.One of the most prominent is Hyllus, the son of Heracles and Deianeira or Melite.", "The term ''Heracleidae'', although it could refer to all of Heracles' children and further descendants, is most commonly used to indicate the descendants of Hyllus, in the context of their lasting struggle for return to Peloponnesus, out of where Hyllus and his brothers—the children of Heracles by Deianeira—were thought to have been expelled by Eurystheus.The children of Heracles by Megara are collectively well known because of their ill fate, but there is some disagreement among sources as to their number and individual names.", "Apollodorus lists three, Therimachus, Creontiades and Deicoon; to these Hyginus adds Ophitus and, probably by mistake, Archelaus, who is otherwise known to have belonged to the Heracleidae, but to have lived several generations later.", "A scholiast on Pindar' s odes provides a list of seven completely different names: Anicetus, Chersibius, Mecistophonus, Menebrontes, Patrocles, Polydorus, Toxocleitus.Other well-known children of Heracles include Telephus, king of Mysia (by Auge), and Tlepolemus, one of the Greek commanders in the Trojan War (by Astyoche).According to Herodotus, a line of 22 Kings of Lydia descended from Heracles and Omphale.", "The line was called Tylonids after his Lydian name.The divine sons of Heracles and Hebe are Alexiares and Anicetus.===Consorts and children===# Megara## Therimachus## Creontiades## Ophitus## Deicoon# Omphale## Agelaus## Tyrsenus# Deianira## Hyllus## Ctesippus## Glenus## Oneites## Macaria## Onites# Hebe## Alexiares## Anicetus# Astydameia, daughter of Ormenus or Amyntor## Ctesippus# Astyoche, daughter of Phylas## Tlepolemus# Auge## Telephus# Autonoë, daughter of Piraeus / Iphinoe, daughter of Antaeus## Palaemon# Baletia, daughter of Baletus## Brettus# Barge## Bargasus# Bolbe## Olynthus# Celtine## Celtus# Chalciope## Thessalus# Chania, nymph## Gelon# The Scythian dracaena or Echidna## Agathyrsus## Gelonus## Scythes# Epicaste## Thestalus# Lavinia, daughter of Evander## Pallas# Malis, a slave of Omphale## Acelus# Meda##Antiochus# Melite (heroine)# Melite (naiad)## Hyllus (possibly)# Myrto## Eucleia# Palantho of Hyperborea## Latinus# Parthenope, daughter of Stymphalus (son of Elatus)## Everes (mythology)# Phialo## Aechmagoras# Psophis## Echephron## Promachus# Pyrene## none known# Rhea, Italian priestess## Aventinus# Thebe (daughter of Adramys)# Tinge, wife of Antaeus##Sophax# 50 daughters of Thespius## 50 sons, see Thespius#Daughters and grandchildren# Unnamed Celtic woman## Galates# Unnamed female slave of Iardanus## Alcaeus / Cleodaeus# Unnamed daughter of Syleus (Xenodoce?", ")# Unnamed daughter of Aphra## Diodorus# Unknown consorts## Agylleus## Amathous## Azon## Chromis## Cyrnus##Dexamenus## Leucites## Manto## Pandaie## Phaestus ''or'' Rhopalus" ], [ "Heracles around the world", "===Rome===A Roman gilded silver bowl depicting the boy Hercules strangling two serpents, from the Hildesheim Treasure, 1st century CE, Altes MuseumIn Rome, Heracles was honored as ''Hercules'', and had a number of distinctively Roman myths and practices associated with him under that name.===Egypt===Herodotus connected Heracles to the Egyptian god Shu.", "Also he was associated with Khonsu, another Egyptian god who was in some ways similar to Shu.", "As Khonsu, Heracles was worshipped at the now sunken city of Heracleion, where a large temple was constructed.Most often the Egyptians identified Heracles with Heryshaf, transcribed in Greek as ''Arsaphes'' or ''Harsaphes'' (Ἁρσαφής).", "He was an ancient ram-god whose cult was centered in Herakleopolis Magna.===Other cultures===Bistoon Kermanshah.jpg\|Hellenistic-era depiction of the Zoroastrian divinity Bahram as Hercules carved in 153 BCE at Kermanshah, Iran.Museum für Indische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 015.jpg\|The protector Vajrapani of the Buddha is another incarnation of Heracles (Gandhara, 1st century CE).Buddha-Vajrapani-Herakles.JPG\|Heracles as protector of Buddha, Vajrapani, 2nd-century Gandhara.Mathura Herakles.jpg\|The Mathura Herakles, strangling the Nemean lion (Kolkata Indian Museum).File:Gandhara Herakles, Asia, G33 South Asia.jpg\|Herakles under his lion skin and holding thunder (vajra), with Buddhist monks, art of Gandhara, British MuseumVia the Greco-Buddhist culture, Heraclean symbolism was transmitted to the Far East.", "An example remains to this day in the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples.Herodotus also connected Heracles to Phoenician god Melqart.Sallust mentions in his work on the Jugurthine War that the Africans believe Heracles to have died in Spain where, his multicultural army being left without a leader, the Medes, Persians, and Armenians who were once under his command split off and populated the Mediterranean coast of Africa.Temples dedicated to Heracles abounded all along the Mediterranean coastal countries.", "For example, the temple of ''Heracles Monoikos'' (i.e.", "the lone dweller), built far from any nearby town upon a promontory in what is now the Côte d'Azur, gave its name to the area's more recent name, Monaco.The gateway to the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean, where the southernmost tip of Spain and the northernmost of Morocco face each other is, classically speaking, referred to as the Pillars of Hercules/Heracles, owing to the story that he set up two massive spires of stone to stabilise the area and ensure the safety of ships sailing between the two landmasses." ], [ "Uses of Heracles as a name", "In various languages, variants of Heracles' name are used as a male given name, such as Iraklis () in Modern Greek and Irakli () in Georgian.There are many teams around the world that have this name or have Heracles as their symbol.", "The most popular in Greece is G.S.", "Iraklis Thessaloniki.", "''Heracleum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the carrot family Apiaceae.", "Some of the species in this genus are quite large.", "In particular, the giant hogweed (''Heracleum mantegazzianum'') is exceptionally large, growing up to 5 m tall." ], [ "Genealogy", "; Source" ], [ "See also", ";Other figures in Greek mythology punished by the gods include* Atlas* Ixion* Medusa* Prometheus* Sisyphus* Tantalus* The Danaides;Figures resembling Heracles in other mythological traditions* Agilaz* Beowulf* Cú Chulainn* Gilgamesh* Lugalbanda* Melqart* Samson* Thor" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Heracles at Theoi.com Classical literature and art* Timeless Myths – Heracles The life and adventure of Heracles, including his twelve labours.", "* Heracles, Greek Mythology Link* Heracles (in French)* Vollmer: Herkules (1836, in German)* Burkert, Walter, (1977) 1985.", "''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press).", "" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brockliss, William.", "2017.", "\"The Hesiodic ''Shield of Heracles'': The Text as Nightmarish Vision.\"", "''Illinois Classical Studies'' 42.1: 1–19..", ".", "* Burkert, Walter.", "1982.", "\"Heracles and the Master of Animals.\"", "In ''Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual'', 78–98.Sather Classical Lectures 47.Berkeley: Univ.", "of California Press.", "* * Haubold, Johannes.", "2005.", "\"Heracles in the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women.\"", "In ''The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women: Constructions and Reconstructions.''", "Edited by Richard Hunter, 85–98.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "Karanika, Andromache.", "2011.", "\"The End of the Nekyia: Odysseus, Heracles, and the Gorgon in the Underworld.\"", "''Arethusa'' 44.1: 1–27.", " Padilla, Mark W.", "1998.", "\"Herakles and Animals in the Origins of Comedy and Satyr Drama\".", "In ''Le Bestiaire d'Héraclès: IIIe Rencontre héracléenne'', edited by Corinne Bonnet, Colette Jourdain-Annequin, and Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge, 217–30.Kernos Suppl.", "7.Liège: Centre International d'Etude de la Religion Grecque Antique.", "* Padilla, Mark W.", "1998.", "\"The Myths of Herakles in Ancient Greece: Survey and Profile\".", "Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America.", "* Papadimitropoulos, Loukas.", "2008.", "\"Heracles as Tragic Hero.\"", "Classical World 101.2: 131–38.", "* Papadopoulou, Thalia.", "2005.", "''Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy.''", "Cambridge Classical Studies.", "New York: Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "* Segal, Charles Paul.", "1961.", "\"The Character and Cults of Dionysus and the Unity of the ''Frogs''.\"", "''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'' 65:207–42..", ".", "* Stafford, Emma.", "2012.''Herakles.", "Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World.''", "New York: Routledge.", "* Strid, Ove.", "2013.", "\"The Homeric Prefiguration of Sophocles' Heracles.\"", "''Hermes'' 141.4: 381–400..* Woodford, Susan.", "1971.", "\"Cults of Herakles in Attica.\"", "In ''Studies Presented to George M. A.", "Hanfmann.''", "Edited by David Gordon Mitten, John Griffiths Pedley, and Jane Ayer Scott, 211–25.Monographs in Art and Archaeology 2.Mainz, Germany: Verlag Philipp von Zabern.", "* Euripides.", "The Children of Herakles.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.", "* Euripides.", "Heracles.", "England: Shirley A. Barlow, 1996.Greek Version: Oxford University Press, 1981.===Primary sources===Homer, ''Odyssey'', 12.072 (7th century BCE)Sophocles, ''Women of Trachis'' ()Euripides, ''Herakles'' (416 BCE)Theocritus, ''Idylls'', 13 (350–310 BCE)Callimachus, ''Aetia (Causes)'', 24.Thiodamas the Dryopian, Fragments, 160.Hymn to Artemis (310–250?", "BCE)Apollonios Rhodios, ''Argonautika'', I.", "1175–1280 ()Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca'' 1.9.19, 2.7.7 (140 BCE)Sextus Propertius, ''Elegies'', i.20.17ff (50–15 BCE)Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' (8 CE)Ovid, ''Ibis'', 488 (8–18 CE)Gaius Valerius Flaccus, ''Argonautica'', I.110, III.535, 560, IV.1–57 (1st century)Hyginus, ''Fables'', 14.Argonauts Assembled (1st century)* Lucian.", "Dialogues of the Dead.", "Dialogues of the Sea-Gods.", "Dialogues of the Gods.", "Dialogues of the Courtesans.", "Translated by M. D. MacLeod.", "Loeb Classical Library 431.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961.", "Philostratus the Elder, ''Images'', ii.24 Thiodamas (170–245)First Vatican Mythographer, 49.Hercules et Hylas" ], [ "External links", "* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 2950 images of Heracles)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Rollins" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Lawrence Garfield''' (born February 13, 1961), known professionally as '''Henry Rollins''', is an American singer, writer, spoken word artist, actor, comedian, and presenter.", "After performing in the short-lived hardcore punk band State of Alert in 1980, Rollins fronted the California hardcore band Black Flag from 1981 to 1986.Following the band's breakup, he established the record label and publishing company 2.13.61 to release his spoken word albums, and formed the Rollins Band, which toured with a number of lineups from 1987 to 2003 and in 2006.Rollins has hosted numerous radio shows, such as ''Harmony in My Head'' on Indie 103, and television shows such as ''The Henry Rollins Show'' and ''120 Minutes''.", "He had recurring dramatic roles in the second season of ''Sons of Anarchy'' as A.J.", "Weston, in the final 2 seasons of the animated series ''The Legend of Korra'' as Zaheer, and has also had roles in several films.", "He has campaigned for various political causes in the United States, including the promotion of gay rights, World Hunger Relief, the West Memphis Three, and an end to all war.", "He currently hosts a weekly radio show on KCRW, is a regular columnist for ''Rolling Stone Australia'', and was a regular columnist for ''LA Weekly''." ], [ "Early life", "Rollins was born Henry Lawrence Garfield in Washington, D.C., on February 13, 1961, the only child of Iris and Paul Garfield.", "His mother is of Irish descent, and his father was from a Jewish family.", "Rollins' paternal great-grandfather, Henach Luban, fled to the U.S. from Rēzekne, Latvia (then part of the Russian Empire) and changed his first name to Henry.", "When Rollins was three years old, his parents divorced and he was raised by his mother in the Washington neighborhood of Glover Park.", "As a child and teenager, Rollins was sexually assaulted, and he suffered from depression and low self-esteem.", "In fourth grade, he was diagnosed with hyperactivity and took Ritalin for several years to focus during school.Rollins attended The Bullis School, then an all-male preparatory school in Potomac, Maryland.", "According to Rollins, the school helped him to develop a sense of discipline and a strong work ethic.", "It was at Bullis that he began writing.", "After high school, he attended American University in Washington for one semester, but dropped out in December 1979.He began working minimum-wage jobs, including a job as a courier for kidney samples at the National Institutes of Health.", "In 1987, he said that he had not seen his father since the age of 18, and, in 2019, wrote, \"What my father thinks of me, or if he is still alive, I have no idea.\"" ], [ "Music career", "===State of Alert===Initially into hard rock acts like Van Halen and Ted Nugent, Rollins soon developed an interest in punk with his friend Ian MacKaye.From 1979 to 1980, Rollins was working as a roadie for D.C. bands, including Teen Idles.", "When the band's singer, Nathan Strejcek, failed to appear for practice sessions, Rollins convinced the Teen Idles to let him sing.", "Word of Rollins' ability spread around the punk rock scene in Washington D.C.; Bad Brains singer H.R.", "would sometimes have Rollins on stage to sing with him.", "In 1980, the Washington punk band the Extorts lost their frontman Lyle Preslar to Minor Threat.", "Rollins joined the other members of the band and formed State of Alert (S.O.A.)", "and became its frontman and vocalist.", "He put words to the band's five songs and wrote several more.", "S.O.A.", "recorded their sole EP, ''No Policy'', and released it in 1981 on MacKaye's Dischord Records.Around April 1981, drummer Simon Jacobsen was replaced by Ivor Hanson.", "At the time, Hanson's father was a top admiral in the U.S. Navy and his family shared living quarters with the U.S. vice president at the Naval Observatory.", "The band held their practices there and would have to be let in by Secret Service agents.S.O.A.", "disbanded after a total of a dozen concerts and one EP.", "Rollins had enjoyed being the band's frontman, and had earned a reputation for fighting in shows.", "He later said, \"I was like nineteen and a young man all full of steam and ''loved'' to get in the dust-ups.\"", "By this time, Rollins had become the assistant manager of the Georgetown Häagen-Dazs ice cream store; his steady employment had helped to finance the S.O.A.", "EP.===Black Flag===Rollins in the 1980sIn 1980, a friend gave Rollins and MacKaye a copy of Black Flag's ''Nervous Breakdown'' EP.", "Rollins soon became a fan of the band, exchanging letters with bassist Chuck Dukowski and later inviting the band to stay in his parents' home when Black Flag toured the East Coast in December 1980.When Black Flag returned to the East Coast in 1981, Rollins attended as many of their concerts as he could.", "At an impromptu show in a New York bar, Black Flag's vocalist Dez Cadena allowed Rollins to sing \"Clocked In\", a song Rollins had asked the band to play in light of the fact that he had to drive back to Washington, D.C. to begin work.Unbeknownst to Rollins, Cadena wanted to switch to guitar, and the band was looking for a new vocalist.", "The band was impressed with Rollins' singing and stage demeanor, and the next day, after a semi-formal audition at Tu Casa Studio in New York City, they asked him to become their permanent vocalist.", "Despite some doubts, he accepted, in part because of MacKaye's encouragement.", "His high level of energy and intense personality suited the band's style, but Rollins' diverse tastes in music were a key factor in his being selected as singer; Black Flag's founder Greg Ginn was growing restless creatively and wanted a singer who was willing to move beyond simple, three-chord punk.After joining Black Flag in 1981, Rollins quit his job at Häagen-Dazs, sold his car, and moved to Los Angeles.", "Upon arriving in Los Angeles, Rollins got the Black Flag logo tattooed on his left bicep and also on the back of his neck, chose the stage name of Rollins, a surname he and MacKaye had used as teenagers.", "Rollins played his first show with Black Flag on July 25, 1981, at Cuckoo's Nest in Costa Mesa, California.", "Rollins was in a different environment in Los Angeles; the police soon realized he was a member of Black Flag, and he was hassled as a result.", "Rollins later said: \"That really scared me.", "It freaked me out that an adult would do that.", "... My little eyes were opened big time.", "\"Before concerts, as the others of the band tuned up, Rollins would stride about the stage dressed only in a pair of black shorts, grinding his teeth; to focus before the show, he would squeeze a pool ball.", "His stage persona impressed several critics; after a 1982 show in Anacortes, Washington, ''Sub Pop'' critic Calvin Johnson wrote: \"Henry was incredible.", "Pacing back and forth, lunging, lurching, growling; it was all real, the most intense emotional experiences I have ever seen.", "\"By 1983, Rollins' stage persona was increasingly alienating him from the rest of Black Flag.", "During a show in England, Rollins assaulted a member of the audience who attacked Ginn; Ginn later scolded Rollins, calling him a \"macho asshole\".", "A legal dispute with Unicorn Records held up further Black Flag releases until 1984, and Ginn was slowing the band's tempo down so that they would remain innovative.", "In August 1983, guitarist Dez Cadena had left the band; a stalemate lingered between Dukowski and Ginn, who wanted Dukowski to leave, before Ginn fired Dukowski outright.", "1984's heavy metal music-influenced ''My War'' featured Rollins screaming and wailing throughout many of the songs; the band's members also grew their hair to confuse the band's hardcore punk audience.Black Flag's change in musical style and appearance alienated many of their original fans, who focused their displeasure on Rollins by punching him in the mouth, stabbing him with pens, or scratching him with their nails, among other things.", "He often fought back, frequently dragging audience members on stage and assaulting them.", "During a Black Flag concert, Rollins repeatedly punched a fan in the face who had continuously reached for his microphone.", "Rollins became increasingly alienated from the audience; in his tour diary, Rollins wrote \"When they spit at me, when they grab at me, they aren't hurting me.", "When I push out and mangle the flesh of another, it's falling so short of what I really want to do to them.\"", "During the Unicorn legal dispute, Rollins had started a weight-lifting program, and by their 1984 tours, he had become visibly well-built; journalist Michael Azerrad later commented that \"his powerful physique was a metaphor for the impregnable emotional shield he was developing around himself.\"", "Rollins has since replied that \"no, the training was just basically a way to push myself.", "\"===Rollins Band and solo releases===Rollins performing with the Rollins Band in 1993Before Black Flag disbanded in August 1986, Rollins had already toured as a solo spoken-word artist.", "He released two solo records in 1987, ''Hot Animal Machine'', a collaboration with guitarist Chris Haskett, and ''Drive by Shooting'', recorded as \"Henrietta Collins and the Wifebeating Childhaters\"; Rollins also released his second spoken word album, ''Big Ugly Mouth'' in the same year.", "Along with Haskett, Rollins soon added Andrew Weiss and Sim Cain, both former members of Ginn's side-project Gone, and called the new group Rollins Band.", "The band toured relentlessly, and their 1987 debut album, ''Life Time'', was quickly followed by the outtakes and live collection ''Do It''.", "The band continued to tour throughout 1988; in 1989 another Rollins Band album, ''Hard Volume'' was released.", "Another live album, ''Turned On'', and another spoken word release, ''Live at McCabe's'', followed in 1990.In 1991, the Rollins Band signed a distribution deal with Imago Records and appeared at the Lollapalooza festival; both improved the band's presence.", "However, in December 1991, Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole were accosted by two armed robbers outside Rollins' home.", "Cole was murdered by a gunshot to the head, Rollins escaped without injury but police suspected him in the murder and detained him for ten hours.", "Although traumatized by Cole's death, as chronicled in his book ''Now Watch Him Die'', Rollins continued to release new material; the spoken-word album ''Human Butt'' appeared in 1992 on his own record label, 2.13.61.The Rollins Band released ''The End of Silence'', Rollins' first charting album.The following year, Rollins released a spoken-word double album, ''The Boxed Life''.", "The Rollins Band embarked upon the ''End of Silence'' tour; bassist Weiss was fired toward its end, and replaced by funk and jazz bassist Melvin Gibbs.", "According to critic Steve Huey, 1994 was Rollins' \"breakout year\".", "The Rollins Band appeared at Woodstock 94 and released ''Weight'', which ranked on the Billboard Top 40.Rollins released ''Get in the Van: On the Road with Black Flag'', a double-disc set of him reading from his Black Flag tour diary of the same name; he won the Grammy for Best Spoken Word Recording as a result.", "Rollins was named 1994's \"Man of the Year\" by the American men's magazine ''Details'' and became a contributing columnist to the magazine.", "With the increased exposure, Rollins made several appearances on American music channels MTV and VH1 around this time, and made his Hollywood film debut in 1994 in ''The Chase'' playing a police officer.In 1995, the Rollins Band's record label, Imago Records, declared itself bankrupt.", "Rollins began focusing on his spoken word career.", "He released ''Everything'', a recording of a chapter of his book ''Eye Scream'' with free jazz backing, in 1996.He continued to appear in various films, including ''Heat'', ''Johnny Mnemonic'' and ''Lost Highway''.", "The Rollins Band signed to Dreamworks Records in 1997 and soon released ''Come In and Burn'', but it did not receive as much critical acclaim as their previous material.", "Rollins continued to release spoken-word book readings, releasing ''Black Coffee Blues'' in the same year.", "In 1998, Rollins released ''Think Tank'', his first set of non-book-related spoken material in five years.By 1998, Rollins felt that the relationship with his backing band had run its course, and the line-up disbanded.", "He had produced a Los Angeles hard rock band called Mother Superior, and invited them to form a new incarnation of the Rollins Band.", "Their first album, ''Get Some Go Again'', was released two years later.", "The Rollins Band released several more albums, including 2001's ''Nice'' and 2003's ''Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three''.", "After 2003, the band became inactive as Rollins focused on radio and television work.", "During a 2006 appearance on ''Tom Green Live!", "'', Rollins stated that he \"may never do music again\", a feeling which he reiterated in 2011 when talking to ''Trebuchet'' magazine.", "In an interview with ''Culture Brats'', Rollins admitted he had sworn off music for good – \"... and I must say that I miss it every day.", "I just don't know honestly what I could do with it that's different.", "\"Rollins in 2013, performing spoken wordOn the same topic, Rollins more recently said in 2016 \"For me, music was a time and a place.", "I never really enjoyed being in a band.", "It was in me and it needed to come out, like a 25-year exorcism.", "One day, I woke up, and I didn't have any more lyrics.", "I just had nothing to contribute to the form, and I was done with band practice and traveling in groups.", "\"Rollins is a guest star on Damian Cowell's 2017 album ''Get Yer Dag On!", "''===Musical style===As a vocalist, Rollins has adopted a number of styles through the years.", "He was noted in the Washington, D.C. hardcore scene for what journalist Michael Azerrad described as a \"compelling, raspy howl\".", "With State of Alert, Rollins \"spat out the lyrics like a bellicose auctioneer.\"", "He adopted a similar style after joining Black Flag in 1981.By their album ''Damaged'', however, Black Flag began to incorporate a swing beat into their style.", "Rollins then abandoned his State of Alert \"bark\" and adopted the band's swing.", "Rollins later explained: \"What I was doing kind of matched the vibe of the music.", "The music was intense and, well, I was as intense as you needed.", "\"In both incarnations of the Rollins Band, Rollins combined spoken word with his traditional vocal style in songs such as \"Liar\" (the song begins with a one-minute spoken diatribe by Rollins), barked his way through songs (such as \"Tearing\" and \"Starve\"), and employed the loud-quiet dynamic.", "''Rolling Stone''s Anthony DeCurtis names Rollins a \"screeching hate machine\" and his \"hallmark\" as \"the sheets-of-sound assault\".With the Rollins Band, his lyrics focused \"almost exclusively on issues relating to personal integrity\", according to critic Geoffrey Welchman.===As producer===In the 1980s, Rollins produced an album of acoustic songs for convict Charles Manson titled ''Completion''.", "The record was supposed to be released by SST Records, but the project was canceled because the label received death threats for working with Manson.", "Only five test presses of ''Completion'' were pressed, two of which remain in Rollins' possession.In 1995, Rollins produced Australian hard rock band the Mark of Cain's third full-length album ''Ill at Ease''." ], [ "Media work", "===Television===As Rollins rose to prominence with the Rollins Band, he began to present and appear on television.", "These included ''Alternative Nation'' and ''MTV Sports'' in 1993 and 1994 respectively.", "Rollins also co-starred in ''The Chase'' with Charlie Sheen.", "In 1995 Rollins appeared on an episode of ''Unsolved Mysteries'' that explored the murder of his best friend Joe Cole and presented ''State of the Union Undressed'' on Comedy Central.", "Rollins began to present and narrate ''VH1 Legends'' in 1996.Rollins, busy with the Rollins Band, did not present more programs until 2001, but made appearances on a number of other television shows, including ''Welcome to Paradox'' in 1998 in the episode \"All Our Sins Forgotten\", as a therapist who develops a device that can erase the bad memories of his patients.", "Rollins also voiced Mad Stan in ''Batman Beyond'' in 1999 and 2000.Rollins was a host of film review programme ''Henry's Film Corner'' on the Independent Film Channel, before presenting the weekly ''The Henry Rollins Show'' on the channel.", "''The Henry Rollins Show'' is now being shown weekly on Film24 along with ''Henry Rollins Uncut''.", "The show also lead to a promotional tour in Europe that led to Rollins being dubbed a \"bad boy goodwill ambassador\" by a NY reviewer.", "He also hosted Fox's short-lived 2001 horror anthology ''Night Visions''.In 2002, Rollins guest-starred on an episode of the sitcom ''The Drew Carey Show'' as a man Oswald found on eBay and paid to come to his house and \"kick his ass\".", "He co-hosted the British television show ''Full Metal Challenge'', in which teams built vehicles to compete in various driving and racing contests, from 2002 to 2003 on Channel 4 and TLC.", "He has made a number of cameo appearances in television series such as MTVs ''Jackass'' and an episode of ''Californication'', where he played himself hosting a radio show.", "In 2006, Rollins appeared in a documentary series by VH1 and The Sundance Channel called ''The Drug Years''.Rollins appears in FX's ''Sons of Anarchy''s second season, which premiered in the fall of 2009 in the United States.", "Rollins plays A.J.", "Weston, a white supremacist gang leader and new antagonist in the show's fictional town of Charming, California, who poses a deadly threat to the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club.", "In 2009, Rollins voiced \"Trucker\" in ''American Dad!", "''s fourth season (episode eight).", "Rollins voiced Benjamin Knox/Bonk in the 2000 animated film ''Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker''.In 2010, Rollins appeared as a guest judge on season 2 episode 6 of ''RuPaul's Drag Race''.", "In 2011, he was interviewed in the ''National Geographic Explorer'' episode \"Born to Rage\", regarding his possible link to the MAOA gene (warrior gene) and violent behavior.", "In 2012, he hosted the ''National Geographic Wild'' series \"Animal Underworld\", investigating where the real boundaries lie in human-animal relationships.", "Rollins also appeared in the ''Hawaii Five-0'' episode \"Hoʻopio\" that aired on May 6, 2013.In November 2013, Rollins started hosting the show ''10 Things You Don't Know About'' on the History Channel's H2.In 2014, he voiced the antagonist Zaheer in the third season of the animated series ''The Legend of Korra''.Rollins played the part of Lt. Mueller in episodes 1-3 of the fourth season of the TV series ''Z Nation'', which originally aired on Syfy in 2017.In 2019, Rollins began appearing as a disillusioned poisons instructor in the TV series ''Deadly Class''.===Radio and podcast=======Weekly Radio Show (2004–2009)====On May 19, 2004, Rollins began hosting a weekly radio show, ''Harmony in My Head'', on Indie 103.1 radio in Los Angeles.", "The show aired every Monday evening, with Rollins playing music ranging from early rock and jump blues to hard rock, blues rock, folk rock, punk rock, heavy metal and rockabilly, and touching on hip hop, jazz, world music, reggae, classical music and more.", "''Harmony in my Head'' often emphasizes B-sides, live bootlegs and other rarities, and nearly every episode has featured a song either by the Beastie Boys or British group The Fall.Rollins put the show on a short hiatus from early to late 2005, to undertake a spoken-word tour.", "Upon resuming the show, Rollins kicked off his return by playing the show's namesake Buzzcocks song.", "In 2008, the show was continuing each week, despite Rollins' constant touring, with new pre-recorded shows between live broadcasts.", "The show ended when the station went off the air in 2009.====Weekly Radio Show (2009–present)====On February 18, 2009, KCRW announced that Rollins would be hosting a live show on Saturday nights starting March 7, 2009, which has since been moved to Sunday nights at 8:00p.m.", "As of Aug 2023, Rollins has hosted 748 episodes.====Podcasts====In 2011 Rollins was interviewed on Episode 121 of American Public Media's podcast, ''The Dinner Party Download'', posted on November 3, 2011.In February 2015, Rollins began recording a semi-regular podcast with his longtime manager Heidi May, titled ''Henry & Heidi''.", "In describing the show, Rollins stated, \"One day Heidi mentioned that I've told her a lot of stories that never made it to the stage and we should do a podcast so I could tell them ...", "I thought it was a good idea and people seem to like how the two of us get along.", "We've been working together for over 20 years and are very good friends.\"", "The podcast has received positive reviews from ''Rolling Stone'' and ''The A.V.", "Club''.===Filmography===Rollins began his film career appearing in several independent films featuring the band Black Flag.", "His film debut was in 1982's ''The Slog Movie'', about the West Coast punk scene.", "An appearance in 1985's ''Black Flag Live'' followed.", "Rollins' first film appearance without Black Flag was the short film ''The Right Side of My Brain'' with Lydia Lunch in 1985.Following the band's breakup, Rollins did not appear in any films until 1994's ''The Chase''.", "Rollins appeared in the 2007 direct-to-DVD sequel to ''Wrong Turn'' (2003), ''Wrong Turn 2: Dead End'' as a retired Marine Corps officer who hosts his own show which tests the contestants' will to survive.", "Rollins has also appeared in ''Punk: Attitude'', a documentary on the punk scene, and in ''American Hardcore'' (2006).", "In 2012, Rollins appeared in a short documentary entitled \"Who Shot Rock and Roll\" discussing the early punk scene in Los Angeles as well as photographs of himself in Black Flag taken by photographer Edward Colver.", "Rollins also inspired the characterization of Negan in ''The Walking Dead'' comic and auditioned to play the character in the television series, but eventually lost the role to Jeffrey Dean Morgan.====Film==== Year Title Role Notes1990''Kiss Napoleon Goodbye''Jackson1994''Jugular Wine: A Vampire Odyssey''Self1994''The Chase''Officer Dobbs1995''Johnny Mnemonic''Spider1995''Heat''Hugh Benny1997''Lost Highway''Guard Henry1998''Jack Frost''Sid Gronic2000''Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker''BonkVoice2001''Morgan's Ferry''Monroe2001''Dogtown and Z-Boys''SelfDocumentary2001''Scenes of the Crime''Greg2002''The New Guy''Warden2002''Jackass: The Movie''Self2003''Bad Boys II''TNT Leader2003''A House on a Hill''Arthur2004''Deathdealer: A Documentary''Vincent2005''Feast''Coach2006''The Alibi''Putty2007''Wrong Turn 2: Dead End''Dale2009''The Devil's Tomb''Father FultonDirect-to-Video2009''H for Hunger''SelfDocumentary2009''William Shatner's Gonzo Ballet''SelfDocumentary2009''Suck''Rockin' Roger2011''Green Lantern: Emerald Knights''KilowogVoice2012''West of Memphis''SelfDocumentary2013''Downloaded''SelfDocumentary2014''Salad Days''SelfDocumentary2015''He Never Died''Jack2015''Gutterdämmerung''Priest Svengali2016''The Last Heist''Bernard2019''Dreamland''Hercules2021''Music''Ebo's Neighbor====Television====+ List of performances on television Year Title Role Notes1997''Saturday Night Live''Musical Guest (Rollins Band)1 Episode1999–2001''Batman Beyond''Stanley Labowski / Mad StanVoice, 3 episodes2004''Teen Titans''Johnny RancidVoice, 2 episodes2006''Shorty McShorts' Shorts''SkylarVoice, 3 episodes2009''American Dad!", "''TruckerVoice, episode: \"Chimdale\"2009''Sons of Anarchy''A.J.", "Weston10 Episodes 2010–2016 ''Adventure Time''Bob Rainicorn, Cookie ManVoice, 3 episodes2010''Batman: The Brave and the Bold''Cliff Steele / Robotman Voice, episode: \"The Last Patrol!\"", "2013 ''Hawaii Five-0'' Ray Beckett episode: \"Ho’opio!", "\"2014''The Legend of Korra''ZaheerVoice, 13 episodes ''Uncle Grandpa'' Skeletony Voice, episode: \"Hide and Seek\" 2015 ''Stitchers'' Robert Barbiero Episode: \"Full Stop\" 2016 ''Sheriff Callie's Wild West'' Speedy Silverado Voice, episode: \"Blazing Skaters\" 2017 ''Stretch Armstrong and the Flex Fighters'' Mickey Simmons, Prison GuardVoice, episode: \"The Gangs of Old Town\" 2017 ''Z Nation'' Lt. Mueller 3 episodes 2018 ''Mr.", "Pickles'' Govt.", "Agent Commander Voice, episode: \"S.H.O.E.S.\"", "2021 ''Masters of the Universe: Revelation'' Tri-Klops Voice 2023 ''The Patrick Star Show'' FitzPatrick Voice, episode: \"FitzPatrick\"===Books and audiobooks===Rollins discussing his 2014 book ''Occupants'' with Thurston MooreRollins has written a variety of books, including ''Black Coffee Blues'', ''Do I Come Here Often?", "'', ''The First Five'' (a compilation of ''High Adventure in the Great Outdoors'', ''Pissing in the Gene Pool'', ''Bang!", "'', ''Art to Choke Hearts'', and ''One From None''), ''See a Grown Man Cry'', ''Now Watch Him Die'', ''Smile, You're Traveling'', ''Get in the Van'', ''Eye Scream'', ''Broken Summers'', ''Roomanitarian'', and ''Solipsist''.For the audiobook version of the 2006 novel ''World War Z'', Rollins voiced the character of T. Sean Collins, a mercenary hired to protect celebrities during a mass panic caused by an onslaught of the undead.", "Rollins' other audiobook recordings include ''3:10 to Yuma'' and his own autobiographical book, ''Get in the Van'', for which he won a Grammy Award.In early 2005, with his weekly show on hiatus, Rollins posted playlists and commentary on-line; these lists were expanded with more information and published in book form as ''Fanatic!''", "in November 2005.In 2007 and 2008, Rollins published ''Fanatic!", "Vol.", "2'' and ''Fanatic!", "Vol.", "3'', respectively.Rollins continued to take notes of the music featured on his show, and wanted to preserve them in book form along with scans of set lists, flyers and other music-related materials he had been collecting since the 70s.", "These volumes ''Stay Fanatic Vol.", "1'', ''Stay Fanatic Vol.", "2'' and ''Stay Fanatic Vol.", "3'' were published in 2018, 2021 and 2022, respectively.===Online journalism===In September 2008, Rollins began contributing to the \"Politics & Power\" blog at the online version of ''Vanity Fair'' magazine.", "Since March 2009, his posts have appeared under their own sub-title, ''Straight Talk Espresso''.", "His posts consistently criticize conservative politicians and pundits, although he does occasionally target those on the left.", "In August 2010, he began writing a music column for ''LA Weekly'' in Los Angeles.", "In 2012, Rollins began publishing articles with ''HuffPost'' and alternative news website ''WordswithMeaning!''", "In the months leading up to the 2012 United States Presidential election, Rollins broadcast a YouTube series called \"Capitalism 2012\", in which he toured the capital cities of the US states, interviewing people about current issues.===Spoken word===Since the 1980s, Rollins has toured around the world doing spoken word performances and his shows frequently last for over three hours.", "His spoken word style encompasses stand-up comedy, accounts of experiences he has had in the world of music and during his extensive travels around the globe, self-deprecating stories about his own shortcomings, introspective recollections from his own life (such as the death of his friend, Joe Cole), commentaries on society and playful anecdotes.", "\"The talking shows are more demanding, because it's only me on stage\", Rollins explained in regards to his spoken word shows.", "\"It's like comparing surgery with construction – one requires super concentration and the other is just physical.", "\"===Video games===Rollins was a playable character in both ''Def Jam: Fight for NY'' and ''Def Jam Fight for NY: The Takeover''.", "Rollins is also the voice of Mace Griffin in ''Mace Griffin: Bounty Hunter''." ], [ "Campaigning and activism", "Rollins has become an outspoken human rights activist, most vocally for gay rights.", "In high school, a gay classmate of Rollins' was bullied by classmates to the point of attempting suicide.", "Rollins has cited this as the main catalyst of his \"anti-homophobia\".", "Rollins frequently speaks out on justice on his spoken word tours and promotes equality, regardless of sexuality.", "He was the host of the WedRock benefit concert, which raised money for a pro-gay-marriage organization.During the Iraq War, he started touring with the United Service Organizations to entertain troops overseas while remaining against the war, leading him to once cause a stir at a base in Kyrgyzstan when he told the crowd: \"Your commander would never lie to you.", "That's the vice president's job.\"", "Rollins believes it is important that he performs for the troops so that they have multiple points of contact with other parts of the world, stating that \"they can get really cut loose from planet earth.\"", "He has made eight tours, including visits to bases in Djibouti, Kuwait, Iraq, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan (twice), Egypt, Turkey, Qatar, Honduras, Japan, Korea and the United Arab Emirates.He has also been active in the campaign to free the \"West Memphis Three\", three young men who are believed by their supporters to have been wrongfully convicted of murder, and who have since been released from prison, but not exonerated.", "Rollins appears with Public Enemy frontman Chuck D on the Black Flag song \"Rise Above\" on the 2002 benefit album ''Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three'', the first time Rollins had performed Black Flag's material since 1986.Continuing his activism on behalf of US troops and veterans, Rollins joined Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America (IAVA) in 2008 to launch a public service advertisement campaign, CommunityofVeterans.org, which helps veterans coming home from war reintegrate into their communities.", "In April 2009, Rollins helped IAVA launch the second phase of the campaign which engages the friends and family of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans at SupportYourVet.org.Rollins signing a guitar while on a United Service Organizations (USO) tour in Iraq in 2003On December 3, 2009, Rollins wrote of his support for the victims of the Bhopal disaster in India, in an article for ''Vanity Fair'' 25 years–to the day–after the methyl isocyanate gas leak from the Union Carbide Corporation's pesticide factory exposed more than half a million local people to poisonous gas and resulted in the deaths of 17,000 people.", "He spent time in Bhopal with the people, to listen to their stories.", "In a later radio interview in February 2010 Rollins summed up his approach to activism, \"This is where my anger takes me, to places like this, not into abuse but into proactive, clean movement.", "\"Rollins is an advocate for the legalization of cannabis.", "Rollins has stated he does not personally consume cannabis but views the issue as an important matter of civil rights, arguing that its illegality is based in \"bigotry and racism and financing the prison–industrial complex\".", "Rollins has shared his views on the subject as keynote speaker at the Oregon Marijuana Business Conference and the International Cannabis Business Conference.In August 2015, Rollins discussed his support for Bernie Sanders as a candidate in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries." ], [ "Personal life", "===Views and relationships===Rollins has said that he does not have religious or spiritual beliefs, though he also does not consider himself an atheist.", "He has mostly avoided recreational drugs throughout his life, but experimented a few times with alcohol, cannabis, and LSD during his teens and early 20s.Rollins is childless by choice, and says that he has not been in a romantic relationship since his 20s.", "Rollins said, \"I am not that interested in having someone to account to and be romantic with on a regular basis.", "Every once in a while I think I want it, but it's like holding on to sand.", "It always slips away.", "Falling in love does not interest me.\"", "A lifelong bachelor, Rollins considers himself a solitary person, and maintains few deep relationships outside of his professional ones.", "One of his closest personal friends is musician Ian MacKaye, with whom he has been close since they met as children.", "He also enjoys a friendship with actor William Shatner, which developed after he performed on Shatner's album ''Has Been''.After nearly 40 years of living in Los Angeles Rollins mentioned during his \"Good to see you\" tour that he had relocated to Nashville.In an interview with Jason Tanamor of Zoiks!", "Online, when asked about a longtime rumor of Rollins being homosexual, the singer said, \"Perhaps wishful thinking.", "If I were gay, believe me, you would know.", "\"===Murder of Joe Cole===In December 1991, Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole were the victims of an armed robbery and shooting when they were assaulted by robbers outside their shared home in Venice Beach, California.", "Cole died after being shot in the face, but Rollins escaped.", "The murder remains unsolved.", "In an April 1992 ''Los Angeles Times'' interview, Rollins revealed he kept a plastic container full of soil soaked with Cole's blood: \"I dug up all the earth where his head fell—he was shot in the face—and I've got all the dirt here, and so Cole's in the house.", "I say good morning to him every day.", "I got his phone, too, so I got a direct line to him.", "So that feels good.", "\"In a 2001 interview with Howard Stern, Rollins was asked about rumors that he kept Cole's brain in his house.", "He stated that he has only the soil from the spot where Cole was killed.", "During the interview, he also speculated that the reason they were targeted may have been because, days prior to the incident, record producer Rick Rubin had requested to hear the newly recorded album ''The End of Silence'' and parked his Rolls-Royce outside their house while carrying a cell phone.", "Because of the notoriety of the neighborhood, Rollins suspected that this would bring trouble because of the implication that there was money in the home.", "He even wrote in his journal the night of Rubin's visit that his home \"is going to get popped\".Rollins has included Cole's story in his spoken word performances." ], [ "Works", "===Musical releases=======With State of Alert====* ''No Policy'' (1981)* ''Flex Your Head'' (1982)====With Black Flag====* ''Damaged'' (1981)* ''My War'' (1984)* ''Family Man'' (1984)* ''Slip It In'' (1984)* ''Live '84'' (1984)* ''Loose Nut'' (1985)* ''In My Head'' (1985)* ''Who's Got the 10½?''", "(1986)====Solo====''Hot Animal Machine'' (1987)''Drive by Shooting'' (1987)* ''Live'' (1987) – split album with Gore====With Rollins Band====''Life Time'' (1987, re-release 1999)''Hard Volume'' (1989, re-release 1999)''Turned On'' (1990)''The End of Silence'' (1992, double-CD re-release 2002) #160 US''Weight'' (1994) #33 US, #22 UK''Come In and Burn'' (1997) #89 US''Insert Band Here'' (1999)''A Clockwork Orange Stage'' (2000)''Get Some Go Again'' (2000) #180 US''Nice'' (2001) #178 US''A Nicer Shade of Red'' (2002)''End of Silence Demos'' (2002)''The Only Way to Know for Sure: Live in Chicago'' (2002)''Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three'' (2002)''Weighting'' (2004)====With Wartime==== ''Fast Food For Thought'' (1990)===Spoken word===* ''Short Walk on a Long Pier'' (1985)* ''Big Ugly Mouth'' (1987)* ''Sweatbox'' (1989)* ''Live at McCabe's'' (1990)* ''Human Butt'' (1992)* ''The Boxed Life'' (1993)* ''Think Tank'' (1998)* ''Eric the Pilot'' (1999)* ''A Rollins in the Wry'' (2001)* ''Live at the Westbeth Theater'' (2001)* ''Talk Is Cheap: Volume 1'' (2003)* ''Talk Is Cheap: Volume 2'' (2003)* ''Talk Is Cheap: Volume 3'' (2004)* ''Talk Is Cheap: Volume 4'' (2004)* ''Provoked'' (2008)* ''Spoken Word Guy'' (2010)* ''Spoken Word Guy 2'' (2010)===Spoken word videos===* ''Talking from the Box'' (1993)* ''Henry Rollins Goes to London'' (1995)* ''You Saw Me Up There'' (1998)* ''Up for It'' (2001)* ''Live at Luna Park'' (2004)* ''Shock & Awe: The Tour'' (2005)* ''Uncut from NYC'' (2006)* ''Uncut from Israel'' (2006)* ''San Francisco 1990'' (2007)* ''Live in the Conversation Pit'' (2008)* ''Provoked: Live From Melbourne'' (2008)* ''50'' (2012)* ''Keep Talking, Pal'' (2018)===Audio books===* ''Get in the Van: On the Road with Black Flag'' (1994)* ''Everything'' (1996)* ''Black Coffee Blues'' (1997)* ''Nights Behind the Tree Line'' (2004)* ''World War Z'' (2007)===Guest appearances and collaborations===+Henry Rollins discography Song Artist Album Year Minor Threat's First Demo – provided additional Vocals (credited as Henry Garfield) Minor Threat ''First Demo Tape EP'' 1981 \"We Are 138\" Misfits ''Evilive'' 1982\"Kick Out the Jams\"Bad Brains''Pump Up the Volume Soundtrack''1990\"Let There Be Rock\"Hard-OnsReleased as a single1991\"Bottom\" (Spoken word monologue by Henry, 3:14 minutes into the song) Tool''Undertow''1993\"Wild America\"Iggy Pop''American Caesar''1993\"Sexual Military Dynamics\"Mike Watt''Ball-Hog or Tugboat?", "''1995\"Delicate Tendrils\"Les Claypool and the Holy Mackerel''Highball with the Devil''1996\"T-4 Strain\"Goldie''Spawn: The Album''1997\"War\"Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, Tom Morello & Flea ''Small Soldiers''1998 \"Laughing Man (In the Devil Mask)\" Tony Iommi ''Iommi'' 2000 \"I Can't Get Behind That\" William Shatner ''Has Been'' 2004 All tracks The Flaming Lips ''The Flaming Lips and Stardeath and White Dwarfs with Henry Rollins and Peaches Doing the Dark Side of the Moon'' 2009 \"Grey 11\" The Mark of Cain ''Songs of the Third and Fifth'' 2012 \"Come On Waleed\" Damian Cowell's Disco Machine ''Get Yer Dag On'' 2017 \"Jingle Bells\" William Shatner ''Shatner Claus'' 2018 \"Jingle Bells (Punk Rock Version)\" William Shatner ''Shatner Claus'' 2018 \"All tracks\" Charles Manson ''Completion'' Additional production- Henry Rollins===Essays===* ''I Am an Audiophile'', an editorial essay in ''Stereophile''.", "* ''Iron and the Soul'', an editorial essay in ''Details''." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Azerrad, Michael.", "''Our Band Could Be Your Life: Scenes from the American Indie Underground, 1981–1991''.", "Little Brown and Company, 2001." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * IFC Site for ''The Henry Rollins Show''* Interview with Henry Rollins on PMAKid.com* , Dan O'Mahony, \"Point Nine Nine\", November 7, 2011* Henry Rollins, episode #14 of By The Way, In Conversation With Jeff Garlin on Earwolf, July 11, 2013* \"RuPaul Drives Henry Rollins\" review of web series Rocker Magazine 2013" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hadron" ], [ "Introduction", "A hadron is a composite subatomic particle.", "Every hadron must fall into one of the two fundamental classes of particle, bosons and fermionsIn particle physics, a '''hadron''' (; ; \"stout, thick\") is a composite subatomic particle made of two or more quarks held together by the strong interaction.", "They are analogous to molecules that are held together by the electric force.", "Most of the mass of ordinary matter comes from two hadrons: the proton and the neutron, while most of the mass of the protons and neutrons is in turn due to the binding energy of their constituent quarks, due to the strong force.Hadrons are categorized into two broad families: baryons, made of an odd number of quarks (usually three quarks) and mesons, made of an even number of quarks (usually two quarks: one quark and one antiquark).", "Protons and neutrons (which make the majority of the mass of an atom) are examples of baryons; pions are an example of a meson.", "\"Exotic\" hadrons, containing more than three valence quarks, have been discovered in recent years.", "A tetraquark state (an exotic meson), named the Z(4430), was discovered in 2007 by the Belle Collaboration and confirmed as a resonance in 2014 by the LHCb collaboration.", "Two pentaquark states (exotic baryons), named and , were discovered in 2015 by the LHCb collaboration.", "There are several more exotic hadron candidates and other colour-singlet quark combinations that may also exist.Almost all \"free\" hadrons and antihadrons (meaning, in isolation and not bound within an atomic nucleus) are believed to be unstable and eventually decay into other particles.", "The only known possible exception is free protons, which appear to be stable, or at least, take immense amounts of time to decay (order of 1034+ years).", "By way of comparison, free neutrons are the longest-lived unstable particle, and decay with a half-life of about 879 seconds.Hadron physics is studied by colliding hadrons, e.g.", "protons, with each other or the nuclei of dense, heavy elements, such as lead (Pb) or gold (Au), and detecting the debris in the produced particle showers.", "A similar process occurs in the natural environment, in the extreme upper-atmosphere, where muons and mesons such as pions are produced by the collisions of cosmic rays with rarefied gas particles in the outer atmosphere." ], [ "Terminology and etymology", "The term \"hadron\" is a new Greek word introduced by L.B.", "Okun and in a plenary talk at the 1962 International Conference on High Energy Physics at CERN.", "He opened his talk with the definition of a new category term:" ], [ "Properties", "alt=A green and a magenta (\"antigreen\") arrow canceling out each other out white, representing a meson; a red, a green, and a blue arrow canceling out to white, representing a baryon; a yellow (\"antiblue\"), a magenta, and a cyan (\"antired\") arrow canceling out to white, representing an antibaryon.According to the quark model, the properties of hadrons are primarily determined by their so-called ''valence quarks''.", "For example, a proton is composed of two up quarks (each with electric charge , for a total of + together) and one down quark (with electric charge ).", "Adding these together yields the proton charge of +1.Although quarks also carry color charge, hadrons must have zero total color charge because of a phenomenon called color confinement.", "That is, hadrons must be \"colorless\" or \"white\".", "The simplest ways for this to occur are with a quark of one color and an antiquark of the corresponding anticolor, or three quarks of different colors.", "Hadrons with the first arrangement are a type of meson, and those with the second arrangement are a type of baryon.Massless virtual gluons compose the overwhelming majority of particles inside hadrons, as well as the major constituents of its mass (with the exception of the heavy charm and bottom quarks; the top quark vanishes before it has time to bind into a hadron).", "The strength of the strong force gluons which bind the quarks together has sufficient energy () to have resonances composed of massive () quarks ( ≥ 2).", "One outcome is that short-lived pairs of virtual quarks and antiquarks are continually forming and vanishing again inside a hadron.", "Because the virtual quarks are not stable wave packets (quanta), but an irregular and transient phenomenon, it is not meaningful to ask which quark is real and which virtual; only the small excess is apparent from the outside in the form of a hadron.", "Therefore, when a hadron or anti-hadron is stated to consist of (typically) 2 or 3 quarks, this technically refers to the constant excess of quarks vs. antiquarks.Like all subatomic particles, hadrons are assigned quantum numbers corresponding to the representations of the Poincaré group: (), where is the spin quantum number, the intrinsic parity (or P-parity), the charge conjugation (or C-parity), and is the particle's mass.", "Note that the mass of a hadron has very little to do with the mass of its valence quarks; rather, due to mass–energy equivalence, most of the mass comes from the large amount of energy associated with the strong interaction.", "Hadrons may also carry flavor quantum numbers such as isospin (G parity), and strangeness.", "All quarks carry an additive, conserved quantum number called a baryon number (), which is for quarks and for antiquarks.", "This means that baryons (composite particles made of three, five or a larger odd number of quarks) have = 1 whereas mesons have = 0.Hadrons have excited states known as resonances.", "Each ground state hadron may have several excited states; several hundreds of resonances have been observed in experiments.", "Resonances decay extremely quickly (within about 10 seconds) via the strong nuclear force.In other phases of matter the hadrons may disappear.", "For example, at very high temperature and high pressure, unless there are sufficiently many flavors of quarks, the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) predicts that quarks and gluons will no longer be confined within hadrons, \"because the strength of the strong interaction diminishes with energy\".", "This property, which is known as asymptotic freedom, has been experimentally confirmed in the energy range between 1 GeV (gigaelectronvolt) and 1 TeV (teraelectronvolt).", "All free hadrons except (''possibly'') the proton and antiproton are unstable." ], [ "Baryons", "Baryons are hadrons containing an odd number of valence quarks (at least 3).", "Most well known baryons such as the proton and neutron have three valence quarks, but pentaquarks with five quarks – three quarks of different colors, and also one extra quark-antiquark pair – have also been proven to exist.", "Because baryons have an odd number of quarks, they are also all fermions, ''i.e.", "'', they have half-integer spin.", "As quarks possess baryon number ''B'' = , baryons have baryon number ''B'' = 1.Pentaquarks ''also'' have ''B'' = 1, since the extra quark's and antiquark's baryon numbers cancel.Each type of baryon has a corresponding antiparticle (antibaryon) in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks.", "For example, just as a proton is made of two up-quarks and one down-quark, its corresponding antiparticle, the antiproton, is made of two up-antiquarks and one down-antiquark.As of August 2015, there are two known pentaquarks, and , both discovered in 2015 by the LHCb collaboration." ], [ "Mesons", "Mesons are hadrons containing an even number of valence quarks (at least 2).", "Most well known mesons are composed of a quark-antiquark pair, but possible tetraquarks (4 quarks) and hexaquarks (6 quarks, comprising either a dibaryon or three quark-antiquark pairs) may have been discovered and are being investigated to confirm their nature.", "Several other hypothetical types of exotic meson may exist which do not fall within the quark model of classification.", "These include glueballs and hybrid mesons (mesons bound by excited gluons).Because mesons have an even number of quarks, they are also all bosons, with integer spin, ''i.e.", "'', 0, +1, or −1.They have baryon number Examples of mesons commonly produced in particle physics experiments include pions and kaons.", "Pions also play a role in holding atomic nuclei together via the residual strong force." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heisuke Hironaka" ], [ "Introduction", " is a Japanese mathematician who was awarded the Fields Medal in 1970 for his contributions to algebraic geometry." ], [ "Early life and education", "Hironaka was born on April 9, 1931 in Yamaguchi, Japan.", "He was inspired to study mathematics after a visiting Hiroshima University mathematics professor gave a lecture at his junior high school.", "Hironaka applied to the undergraduate program at Hiroshima University, but was unsuccessful.", "However, the following year, he was accepted into Kyoto University to study physics, entering in 1949 and receiving his Bachelor of Science and Master of Science from the University in 1954 and 1956.Hironaka initially studied physics, chemistry, and biology, but his third year as an undergraduate, he chose to move to taking courses in mathematics.", "The same year, Hironaka was invited to a seminar group led by Yasuo Akizuki, who would have a major influence on Hironaka's mathematical development.", "The group, informally known as the Akizuki School, discussed cutting-edge research developments including the resolution of singularities problem for which Hironaka later received the Fields Medal.", "Hironaka has described his interest in this problem as having the logic and mystery of \"a boy falling in love with a girl.\"", "In 1956, Akizuki invited then Harvard professor Oscar Zariski to Kyoto University.", "Hironaka took the opportunity to present his own research to Zariski, who suggested that Hironaka move to Harvard University to continue his studies.In 1957, Hironaka moved to the United States to attend Harvard University as a doctoral student under the direction of Zariski.", "Hironaka's algebra background, developed under Akizuki, allowed him to bring fresh insights into mathematics discussions in Harvard, which placed a greater emphasis on geometric perspectives.", "In 1958–1959, Alexander Grothendieck visited Harvard University and was another important influence on Hironaka, inviting him to the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifique (IHES) in Paris.", "Returning to Harvard in 1960, Hironaka received his PhD for his thesis ''On the Theory of Birational Blowing-up.''" ], [ "Career", "Hironaka was an Associate Professor of Mathematics at Brandeis University from 1960–1963.He taught at Columbia University from 1964–1968 and became a professor of mathematics at Harvard University from 1968 until becoming ''emeritus'' in 1992.Hironaka returned to Japan for a joint professorship at the Research Institute for Mathematical Sciences and Kyoto University from 1975–1983 and was the Institute Director from 1983–1985.Hironaka was the president of Yamaguchi University from 1996–2002." ], [ "Research", "In 1960, Hironaka introduced Hironaka's example, showing that a deformation of Kähler manifolds need not be Kähler.", "The example is a 1-parameter family of smooth compact complex 3-manifolds such that most fibers are Kähler (and even projective), but one fiber is not Kähler.", "This can be used to show that several other plausible statements holding for smooth varieties of dimension at most 2 fail for smooth varieties of dimension at least 3.In 1964, Hironaka proved that singularities of algebraic varieties admit resolutions in characteristic zero.", "Hironaka was able to give a general solution to this problem, proving that any algebraic variety can be replaced by (more precisely is birationally equivalent to) a similar variety that has no singularities.Hironaka recalled that he felt very close to approaching the solution while studying in Harvard.", "Then, soon after getting his first teaching position at Brandeis, he realized that if he combined his commutative algebra experience from Kyoto, geometry of polynomials from Harvard, and globalization technique from IHES, he had everything he needed to solve the problem.In 2017 he posted to his personal webpage a manuscript that claims to prove the existence of a resolution of singularities in positive characteristic." ], [ "Awards", "Hironaka received a Fields Medal, the highest honor in mathematics, at the International Congress of Mathematicians at Nice in 1970 at 39, just under the 40 year age limit.", "List of Awards: * Asahi Prize (1967)* Fields Medal in 1970.", "* Japan Academy Prize (1970)* Guggenheim Fellowship (1971)* Order of Culture (1975)* Person of Cultural Merit (1975)* Honorary doctor of the Complutense University of Madrid (1981)* Legion of Honour (2004)* Harvard Centennial Medal (2011)" ], [ "Influence on Asian Mathematics", "Hironaka has been active in promoting mathematical education, particularly in Japan and South Korea.", "Hironaka wrote or co-authored 26 books on mathematics and other topics.In 1980, he started a summer seminar for Japanese high school students, and later created a program for Japanese and Amerian college students.", "In 1984 he established the Japanese Association for Mathematical Sciences (JAMS) to fund these seminars, serving as executive director.", "Additional funding was received from corporations and the Japanese government.", "Harvard emeritus math professor Shing-Tung Yau noted that \"In the 1980s there were few domestic grant opportunities for foreign travel or exchange ... today, one can see the fruits of Hironaka’s efforts in the number of former JAMS fellows who have become professors of mathematics across the United States and Japan.\"", "As visiting professor at Seoul National University in 2008–2009, Hironaka mentored undergraduate student June Huh, a former high school drop-out and aspiring poet, encouraging his interest in pursuing math for graduate school.", "Huh won a fields medal in 2022 for the linkages he found between algebraic geometry and combinatorics." ], [ "Personal life", "Hironaka married Wakako Kimoto in 1960, a Brandeis Wien International Scholar who entered Japanese politics through her election to the House of Councillors in 1986.They have a son Jo, and daughter Eriko, who is also a mathematician.", "On his love for mathematics, Hironaka said \"I accumulate anything to do with numbers.", "For instance, I have more than 10,000 photos of flowers and leaves.", "I like to just count the numbers and compare them.", "I am so pleased to be a mathematician, because I can see the mathematical interest in things.\"" ], [ "Selected Publications", "* Hironaka, H. (1957).", "\"On the arithmetic genera and the effective genera of algebraic curves,\" ''Mem.", "College Sci.", "Univ.", "Kyoto Ser.", "A Math.", "'', '''30'''(2): 177-195.DOI: 10.1215/kjm/1250777055 * Hironaka, H. (1960).", "\"On the theory of birational blowing-up,\" * Hironaka, H. (1964), \"The Resolution of Singularities of an Algebraic Variety over a Field of Characteristic Zero.\"", "''Annals of Mathematics''., '''79'''(1):109-203.https://doi.org/10.2307/1970486* Hironaka, H.; Matsumura, Hideyuki.", "(1967), “Formal functions and formal embeddings” ''J.", "Math.", "Soc.", "Japan,'' '''20'''(1-2): 52-82.DOI: 10.2969/jmsj/02010052* Hironaka, H. (1967), “ On the characters ν \\nu* and τ \\tau* of singularities\" ''J.", "Math.", "Kyoto Univ.,'' '''7'''(1): 325–327.DOI: 10.1215/kjm/1250524306 * Hironaka, H. (1974), “The theory of infinitely near singular points” ''J.", "Korean Math.", "Soc.''", "'''40'''(5): 901–920.https://doi.org/10.4134/JKMS.2003.40.5.901* Aroca, J. M.; Hironaka, Heisuke; Vicente, J. L. (1977).", "“ Desingularization theorems\" Memorias de Matematica del Instituto.", "* Hironaka, H. (1991), \"Fame, sweet and bitter.\"", "In P. Hilton, F. Hirzebruch, and R. Remmert (Eds.", "), Miscellanea mathematica(pp.", "155-176)* Hironaka, H.; Janeczko, S.", "(Eds.).", "(2004).", "“ Geometric singularity theory\" * Aroca, J. M.; Hironaka, H; Vicente, J. L. (2018), \"Complex Analytic Desingularization\" ISBN 978-4-431-70218-4" ], [ "See also", "Hironaka decompositionHironaka's criterionRené Thom" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * * Jackson, Allyn; Interview with Heisuke Hironaka; ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society''; vol.", "52, no.", "9 (October 2005)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "House of Habsburg" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''House of Habsburg''' (, , ), also known as the '''House of Austria''', is one of the most prominent and important dynasties in European history.The house takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a fortress built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland by Radbot of Klettgau, who named his fortress Habsburg.", "His grandson Otto II was the first to take the fortress name as his own, adding \"Count of Habsburg\" to his title.", "In 1273, Count Radbot's seventh-generation descendant, Rudolph of Habsburg, was elected King of the Romans.", "Taking advantage of the extinction of the Babenbergs and of his victory over Ottokar II of Bohemia at the Battle on the Marchfeld in 1278, he appointed his sons as Dukes of Austria and moved the family's power base to Vienna, where the Habsburg dynasty gained the name of \"House of Austria\" and ruled until 1918.The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs from 1440 until their extinction in the male line in 1740, and, as the Habsburg-Lorraines, from 1765 until its dissolution in 1806.The house also produced kings of Bohemia, Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Spain, Portugal, Lombardy-Venetia and Galicia-Lodomeria, with their respective colonies; rulers of several principalities in the Low Countries and Italy; numerous Prince-Bishoprics in the Holy Roman Empire, and in the 19th century, emperors of Austria and of Austria-Hungary, as well as one emperor of Mexico.", "The family split several times into parallel branches, most consequentially in the mid-16th century between its Spanish and Austrian branches following the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1556.Although they ruled distinct territories, the different branches nevertheless maintained close relations and frequently intermarried.Members of the Habsburg family oversee the Austrian branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece and the Imperial and Royal Order of Saint George.", "The current head of the family is Karl von Habsburg." ], [ "Name", "The origins of Habsburg Castle's name are uncertain.", "There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German ''Habichtsburg'' (hawk castle), or from the Middle High German word ''hab/hap'' meaning ''ford'', as there is a river with a ford nearby.", "The first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108.The Habsburg name was not continuously used by the family members, since they often emphasized their more prestigious princely titles.", "The dynasty was thus long known as the \"House of Austria\".", "Complementarily, in some circumstances the family members were identified by their place of birth.", "Charles V was known in his youth after his birthplace as Charles of Ghent.", "When he became king of Spain he was known as Charles of Spain, and after he was elected emperor, as Charles V (in French, ''Charles Quint'').In Spain, the dynasty was known as the ''Casa de Austria'', including illegitimate sons such as John of Austria and John Joseph of Austria.", "The arms displayed in their simplest form were those of Austria, which the Habsburgs had made their own, at times impaled with the arms of the Duchy of Burgundy (ancient).After Maria Theresa married Duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine, the idea of \"Habsburg\" as associated with ancestral Austrian rulership was used to show that the old dynasty continued as did all its inherited rights.", "Some younger sons who had no prospects of the throne were given the personal title of \"count of Habsburg\".The surname of more recent members of the family such as Otto von Habsburg and Karl von Habsburg is taken to be \"von Habsburg\" or more completely \"von Habsburg-Lothringen\".", "Princes and members of the house use the tripartite arms adopted in the 18th century by Francis Stephen.The name of the dynasty is sometimes spelled in English publications as '''Hapsburg'''." ], [ "History", "===Counts of Habsburg===The Habsburg dominions around 1200 in the area of modern-day Switzerland are shown as , among the houses of , and The progenitor of the House of Habsburg may have been Guntram the Rich, a count in the Breisgau who lived in the 10th century, and forthwith farther back as the medieval Adalrich, Duke of Alsace, from the Etichonids from which Habsburg derives.", "His grandson Radbot of Klettgau founded the Habsburg Castle.", "That castle was the family seat during most of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries.", "Giovanni Thomas Marnavich in his book \"''Regiae Sanctitatis Illyricanae Faecunditas''\" dedicated to Ferdinand III, wrote that the House of Habsburg is descended from the Roman emperor Constantine the Great, an invention common in ruling dynasties at the time.In the 12th century, the Habsburgs became increasingly associated with the Staufer emperors, participating in the imperial court and the emperor's military expeditions; Werner II, Count of Habsburg died fighting for Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in Italy.", "This association helped them to inherit many domains as the Staufers caused the extinction of many dynasties, some of which the Habsburgs were heirs to.", "In 1198, Rudolf II, Count of Habsburg fully dedicated the dynasty to the Staufer cause by joining the Ghibellines and funded the Staufer emperor Frederick II's war for the throne in 1211.The emperor was made godfather to his newly born grandson, the future King Rudolf.The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, especially countship rights in Zürichgau, Aargau and Thurgau.", "In the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia.", "They were also able to gain high positions in the church hierarchy for their members.", "Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other noble families such as the House of Kyburg.===Pivot to Eastern Alpine Duchies===By the second half of the 13th century, Count Rudolph I (1218–1291) had become an influential territorial lord in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance.", "On 1 October 1273, he was elected as a compromise candidate as King of the Romans and received the name Rudolph I of Germany.", "He then led a coalition against King Ottokar II of Bohemia who had taken advantage of the Great Interregnum in order to expand southwards, taking over the respective inheritances of the Babenberg (Austria, Styria, Savinja) and of the Spanheim (Carinthia and Carniola).", "In 1278, Rudolph and his allies defeated and killed Ottokar at the Battle of Marchfeld, and the lands he had acquired reverted to the German crown.", "With the Georgenberg Pact of 1286, Rudolph secured for his family the duchies of Austria and Styria.", "The southern portions of Ottokar's former realm, Carinthia, Carniola, and Savinja, went to Rudolph's allies from the House of Gorizia.Following Rudolph's death in 1291, Albert I's assassination in 1308, and Frederick the Fair's failure to secure the German/Imperial crown for himself, the Habsburgs temporarily lost their supremacy in the Empire.", "In the early 14th century, they also focused on the Kingdom of Bohemia.", "After Václav III's death on 4 August 1306, there were no male heirs remaining in the Přemyslid dynasty.", "Habsburg scion Rudolph I was then elected but only lasted a year.", "The Bohemian kingship was an elected position, and the Habsburgs were only able to secure it on a hereditary basis much later in 1626, following their reconquest of the Czech lands during the Thirty Years' War.", "After 1307, subsequent Habsburg attempts to gain the Bohemian crown were frustrated first by Henry of Bohemia (a member of the House of Gorizia) and then by the House of Luxembourg.Instead, they were able to expand southwards: in 1311, they took over Savinja; after the death of Henry in 1335, they assumed power in Carniola and Carinthia; and in 1369, they succeeded his daughter Margaret in Tyrol.", "After the death of Albert III of Gorizia in 1374, they gained a foothold at Pazin in central Istria, followed by Trieste in 1382.Meanwhile, the original home territories of the Habsburgs in what is now Switzerland, including the Aargau with Habsburg Castle, were lost in the 14th century to the expanding Swiss Confederacy after the battles of Morgarten (1315) and Sempach (1386).", "Habsburg Castle itself was finally lost to the Swiss in 1415.===Albertinian / Leopoldian split and Imperial elections===Map showing the constituent lands of the Archduchy of Austria: the Duchy of Austria, comprising Upper Austria centered on Linz, and Lower Austria centered on Vienna; Inner Austria, centered on Graz, comprising the duchies of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, and the lands of the Austrian Littoral; and Further Austria, comprising mostly the Sundgau territory with the town of Belfort in southern Alsace, the adjacent Breisgau region east of the Rhine, and usually the County of Tyrol.", "The area between Further Austria and the Duchy of Austria was the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg.Rudolf IV's brothers Albert III and Leopold III ignored his efforts to preserve the integrity of the family domains and enacted the separation of the so-called Albertinian and Leopoldian family lines on 25 September 1379 by the Treaty of Neuberg.", "The former would maintain Austria proper (then called ''Niederösterreich'' but comprising modern Lower Austria and most of Upper Austria), while the latter would rule over lands then labeled ''Oberösterreich'', namely Inner Austria (''Innerösterreich'') comprising Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, and Further Austria (''Vorderösterreich'') consisting of Tyrol and the western Habsburg lands in Alsace and Swabia.By marrying Elisabeth of Luxembourg, the daughter of Emperor Sigismund, in 1437 Duke Albert V of the Albertine line (1397–1439) became the ruler of Bohemia and Hungary, again expanding the family's political horizons.", "The next year Albert was crowned King of the Romans, known as such as Albert II.", "Following his early death in a battle against the Ottomans in 1439 and that of his son Ladislaus Postumus in 1457, the Habsburgs lost Bohemia once more as well as Hungary for several decades.", "However, with the extinction of the House of Celje in 1456 and the House of Wallsee-Enns in 1466/1483, they managed to absorb significant secular enclaves into their territories and create a contiguous domain stretching from the border with Bohemia to the Adriatic Sea.After the death of Leopold's eldest son, William, in 1406 the Leopoldian line was further split among his brothers into the Inner Austrian territory under Ernest the Iron and a Tyrolean/Further Austrian line under Frederick of the Empty Pockets.", "In 1440 Ernest's son Frederick III was chosen by the electoral college to succeed Albert II as the king.", "Several Habsburg kings had attempted to gain the imperial dignity over the years, but success finally arrived on 19 March 1452, when Pope Nicholas V crowned Frederick III as the Holy Roman Emperor in a grand ceremony held in Rome.", "In Frederick III the Pope found an important political ally with whose help he was able to counter the conciliar movement.While in Rome Frederick III married Eleanor of Portugal, enabling him to build a network of connections with dynasties in the west and southeast of Europe.", "Frederick was rather distant to his family; Eleanor, by contrast, had a great influence on the raising and education of Frederick's children and therefore played an important role in the family's rise to prominence.", "After Frederick III's coronation the Habsburgs were able to hold the imperial throne almost continuously until 1806.===Archdukes===Through the forged document called ''privilegium maius'' (1358/59), Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria (1339–1365) introduced the title of Archduke to place the Habsburgs on a par with the Prince-electors of the Empire, since Emperor Charles IV had omitted to give them the electoral dignity in his Golden Bull of 1356.Charles, however, refused to recognize the title, as did his immediate successors.Duke Ernest the Iron and his descendants unilaterally assumed the title \"archduke\".", "That title was only officially recognized in 1453 by Emperor Frederick III, the ruler of Austria himself.", "Frederick himself used just \"Duke of Austria\", never ''Archduke'', until his death in 1493.The title was first granted to Frederick's younger brother, Albert VI of Austria (died 1463), who used it at least from 1458.In 1477, Frederick granted the title ''archduke'' to his first cousin Sigismund of Austria, ruler of Further Austria.", "Frederick's son and heir, the future Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, apparently only started to use the title after the death of his wife Mary of Burgundy in 1482, as ''Archduke'' never appears in documents issued jointly by Maximilian and Mary as rulers in the Low Countries (where Maximilian is still titled \"Duke of Austria\").", "The title appears first in documents issued under the joint rule of Maximilian and Philip (his under-age son) in the Low Countries.", "''Archduke'' was initially borne by those dynasts who ruled a Habsburg territory, i.e., only by males and their consorts, appanages being commonly distributed to Cadets.", "These \"junior\" ''archdukes'' did not thereby become independent hereditary rulers, since all territories remained vested in the Austrian crown.", "Occasionally a territory might be combined with a separate gubernatorial mandate ruled by an archducal cadet.", "From the 16th century onward, ''archduke'' and its female form, ''archduchess'', came to be used by all the members of the House of Habsburg (e.g., Queen Marie Antoinette of France was born ''Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria'').===Reunification and expansion===Habsburg lands (in green), following the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547; excludes Holy Roman Empire, and the Spanish colonial empireIn 1457 Duke Frederick V of Inner Austria also gained the Austrian archduchy after his Albertine cousin Ladislaus the Posthumous had died without issue.", "1490 saw the reunification of all Habsburg lines when Archduke Sigismund of Further Austria and Tyrol resigned in favor of Frederick's son Maximilian I.As emperor, Frederick III took a leading role in the family and positioned himself as the judge over the family's internal conflicts, often making use of the ''privilegium maius''.", "He was able to restore the unity of the house's Austrian lands, since the Albertinian line was now extinct.", "Territorial integrity was also strengthened by the extinction of the Tyrolean branch of the Leopoldian line.", "Frederick's aim was to make Austria a united country stretching from the Rhine to the Mur and Leitha.Externally, one of Frederick's main achievements was the Siege of Neuss (1474–75), in which he coerced Charles the Bold of Burgundy to give his daughter Mary of Burgundy as wife to Frederick's son Maximilian.", "The wedding took place on the evening of 16 August 1477 and ultimately resulted in the Habsburgs acquiring control of the Burgundian Netherlands.", "After Mary's early death in 1482 Maximilian attempted to secure the Burgundian inheritance for one of his and Mary's children Philip the Handsome.", "Charles VIII of France contested this, using both military and dynastic means, but the Burgundian succession was finally ruled in favor of Philip in the Treaty of Senlis in 1493.After the death of his father in 1493 Maximilian was proclaimed the new King of Germany, as Maximilian I. Maximilian was initially unable to travel to Rome to receive the Imperial title from the Pope owing to opposition from Venice and from the French who were occupying Milan as well a refusal from the Pope owing to enemy forces being present on his territory.", "In 1508 Maximilian proclaimed himself to be the ‘chosen Emperor’, and this was also recognized by the Pope owing to changes in political alliances.", "This had a historical consequence in that in the future the Roman king would also automatically become emperor without needing the Pope's consent.", "Emperor Charles V would be the last to be crowned by the Pope himself, at Bologna in 1530.Maximilian's rule (1493–1519) was a time of dramatic expansion for the Habsburgs.", "In 1497 Maximilian's son Philip, known as the Handsome or the Fair, married Joanna of Castile, also known as Joanna the Mad, heiress of Castile and Aragon.", "Phillip and Joan had six children, the eldest of whom became Emperor Charles V in 1516 and ruled the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon (including their colonies in the New World), Southern Italy, Austria and the Habsburg Netherlands with his mother and nominal coruler, Joanna, who was kept under confinement.The foundations for the later empire of Austria-Hungary were laid in 1515 by a double wedding between Louis, only son of Vladislaus II, King of Bohemia and Hungary, and Maximilian's granddaughter Mary and between her brother Archduke Ferdinand and Louis's sister Anna.", "The wedding was celebrated in grand style on 22 July 1515.All these children were still minors, so the wedding was formally completed in 1521.Vladislaus died on 13 March 1516 and Maximilian on 12 January 1519, but the latter's designs were ultimately successful: on Louis's death in battle in 1526 Ferdinand became king of Bohemia and Hungary.The Habsburg dynasty achieved its highest position when Charles V was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519.Much of Charles's reign was dedicated to the fight against Protestantism, which led to its eradication throughout vast areas under Habsburg control.===Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs===The Iberian Union in 1598, under Philip II, King of Spain and PortugalThe Spanish and Austrian Habsburg European lands, ca 1700Charles formally became the sole monarch of Spain upon the death of his imprisoned mother Queen Joan in 1555.After the abdication of Charles V in 1556, the Habsburg dynasty split into the branch of the Austrian (or German) Habsburgs, led by Ferdinand, and the branch of the Spanish Habsburgs, initially led by Charles's son Philip.", "Ferdinand I, King of Bohemia, Hungary, and archduke of Austria in the name of his brother Charles V became suo jure monarch as well as the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor (designated as successor already in 1531).", "Philip became King of Spain and its colonial empire as Philip II, and ruler of the Habsburg domains in Italy and the Low Countries.", "The Spanish Habsburgs also ruled Portugal for a time, known there as the Philippine dynasty (1580–1640).The Seventeen Provinces and the Duchy of Milan were in personal union under the King of Spain but remained part of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Furthermore, the Spanish king had claims on Hungary and Bohemia.", "In the secret Oñate treaty of 29 July 1617, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs settled their mutual claims.===Habsburg inbreeding and extinction of the male lines===Leopold I highlighting his \"Habsburg jaw\", Deutsches Historisches MuseumThe Habsburgs sought to consolidate their power by frequent consanguineous marriages, resulting in a cumulatively deleterious effect on their gene pool.", "Health impairments due to inbreeding included epilepsy, insanity and early death.", "A study of 3,000 family members over 16 generations by the University of Santiago de Compostela suggests inbreeding may have played a role in their extinction.", "Numerous members of the family showed specific facial deformities: an enlarged lower jaw with an extended chin known as mandibular prognathism or ‘Habsburg jaw’, a large nose with hump and hanging tip (‘Habsburg nose’) and an everted lower lip (‘Habsburg lip’).", "The last two are signs of maxillary deficiency.", "A 2019 study found that the degree of mandibular prognathism in the Habsburg family shows a statistically significant correlation with the degree of inbreeding.", "A correlation between maxillary deficiency and degree of inbreeding was also present but was not statistically significant.", "Other scientific studies, however, dispute the ideas of any linkage between fertility and consanguinity.The gene pool eventually became so small that the last of the Spanish line, Charles II, who was severely disabled from birth (perhaps by genetic disorders), possessed a genome comparable to that of a child born to a brother and sister, as did his father, probably because of ‘remote inbreeding’.The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 led to the War of the Spanish Succession and that of Emperor Charles VI in 1740 to the War of the Austrian Succession.", "The former was won by House of Bourbon, putting an end to Habsburg rule in Spain.", "The latter, however, was won by Maria Theresa and led to the succession of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (German: ''Haus Habsburg-Lothringen'') becoming the new main branch of the dynasty in the person of Maria Theresa's son, Joseph II.", "This new House was created by the marriage between Maria Theresa and Francis Stephan, Duke of Lorraine.", "(Both of them were great-grandchildren of Habsburg emperor Ferdinand III, but from different empresses.)", "This new House was a cadet branch of the female line of the House of Habsburg and the male line of the House of Lorraine.===House of Habsburg-Lorraine===+ '''Austria-Hungary in 1915''' 300pxKingdoms and countries of Austria-Hungary:'''Cisleithania (Empire of Austria)''': 1.Bohemia, 2.Bukovina, 3.Carinthia, 4.Carniola, 5.Dalmatia, 6.Galicia, 7.Küstenland, 8.Lower Austria, 9.Moravia, 10.Salzburg, 11.Silesia, 12.Styria, 13.Tyrol, 14.Upper Austria, 15.Vorarlberg; '''Transleithania (Kingdom of Hungary)''': 16.Hungary proper 17.Croatia-Slavonia; 18.Bosnia and Herzegovina (Austro-Hungarian condominium)On 6 August 1806, Emperor Francis I dissolved the Holy Roman Empire under pressure from Napoleon's reorganization of Germany.", "In anticipation of the loss of his title of Holy Roman Emperor, Francis had declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria (as Francis I) on 11 August 1804, three months after Napoleon had declared himself Emperor of the French on 18 May 1804.Emperor Francis I of Austria used the official full list of titles: \"We, Francis the First, by the grace of God, Emperor of Austria; King of Jerusalem, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria; Archduke of Austria; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Würzburg, Franconia, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola; Grand Duke of Cracow; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Sandomir, Masovia, Lublin, Upper and Lower Silesia, Auschwitz and Zator, Teschen, and Friule; Prince of Berchtesgaden and Mergentheim; Princely Count of Habsburg, Gorizia and Gradisca and of the Tyrol; and Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and Istria\".The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 created a real union, whereby the Kingdom of Hungary was granted co-equality with the Empire of Austria, that henceforth didn't include the Kingdom of Hungary as a crownland anymore.", "The Austrian and the Hungarian lands became independent entities enjoying equal status.", "Under this arrangement, the Hungarians referred to their ruler as king and never emperor (see k. u. k.).", "This prevailed until the Habsburgs' deposition from both Austria and Hungary in 1918 following defeat in World War I.An ethno-linguistic map of Austria–Hungary, 1910On 11 November 1918, with his empire collapsing around him, the last Habsburg ruler, Charles I of Austria (who also reigned as Charles IV of Hungary) issued a proclamation recognizing Austria's right to determine the future of the state and renouncing any role in state affairs.", "Two days later, he issued a separate proclamation for Hungary.", "Even though he did not officially abdicate, this is considered the end of the Habsburg dynasty.In 1919, the new republican Austrian government subsequently passed a law banishing the Habsburgs from Austrian territory until they renounced all intentions of regaining the throne and accepted the status of private citizens.", "Charles made several attempts to regain the throne of Hungary, and in 1921 the Hungarian government passed a law that revoked Charles' rights and dethroned the Habsburgs, although Hungary remained a kingdom, albeit without a king, until 1946.The Habsburgs did not formally abandon all hope of returning to power until Otto von Habsburg, the eldest son of Charles I, on 31 May 1961 renounced all claims to the throne.In the interwar period, the House of Habsburg was a vehement opponent of Nazism and Communism.", "In Germany, Adolf Hitler diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of largely allowing local communities under their rule to maintain traditional ethnic, religious and language practices, and he bristled with hatred against the Habsburg family.", "During the Second World War there was a strong Habsburg resistance movement in Central Europe, which was radically persecuted by the Nazis and the Gestapo.", "The unofficial leader of these groups was Otto von Habsburg, who campaigned against the Nazis and for a free Central Europe in France and the United States.", "Most of the resistance fighters, such as Heinrich Maier, who successfully passed on production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the Allies, were executed.", "The Habsburg family played a leading role in the fall of the Iron Curtain and the collapse of the Communist Eastern Bloc." ], [ "Multilingualism", "motto of Charles V in French, on a ceiling of the Palace of Charles V in GranadaAs they accumulated crowns and titles, the Habsburgs developed a family tradition of multilingualism that evolved over the centuries.", "The Holy Roman Empire had been multilingual from the start, even though most of its emperors were native German speakers.", "The language issue within the Empire became gradually more salient as the non-religious use of Latin declined and that of national languages gained prominence during the High Middle Ages.Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg was known to be fluent in Czech, French, German, Italian and Latin.", "The last section of his Golden Bull of 1356 specifies that the Empire's secular prince-electors \"should be instructed in the varieties of the different dialects and languages\" and that \"since they are expected in all likelihood to have naturally acquired the German language, and to have been taught it from their infancy, they shall be instructed in the grammar of the Italian and Slavic tongues, beginning with the seventh year of their age so that, before the fourteenth year of their age, they may be learned in the same\".", "In the early 15th century, Strasbourg-based chronicler Jakob Twinger von Königshofen asserted that Charlemagne had mastered six languages, even though he had a preference for German.In the early years of the family's ascendancy, neither Rudolf I nor Albert I appears to have spoken French.", "By contrast, Charles V of Habsburg is well known as having been fluent in several languages.", "He was a native speaker of French and also knew Dutch from his youth in Flanders.", "He later added some Castilian Spanish, which he was required to learn by the Castilian ''Cortes Generales''.", "He could also speak some Basque, acquired by the influence of the Basque secretaries serving in the royal court.", "He gained a decent command of German following the Imperial election of 1519.A witticism sometimes attributed to Charles was: \"I speak Spanish/Latin depending on the source to God, Italian to women, French to men and German to my horse.", "\"Latin was the administrative language of the Empire until the aggressive promotion of German by Joseph II in the late 18th century, which was partly reversed by his successors.", "From the 16th century most if not all Habsburgs spoke French as well as German and many also spoke Italian.", "Ferdinand I, Maximilian II and Rudolf II addressed the Bohemian Diet in Czech, even though it is not clear that they were fluent.", "By contrast there is little evidence that later Habsburgs in the 17th and 18th centuries spoke Czech, with the probable exception of Ferdinand III, who had several stays in Bohemia and appears to have spoken Czech while there.", "In the 19th century Francis I had some Czech and Ferdinand I spoke it decently.Franz Joseph received a bilingual early education in French and German, then added Czech and Hungarian and later Italian and Polish.", "He also studied Latin and Greek.", "After the end of the Habsburg Monarchy Otto von Habsburg was fluent in English, French, German, Hungarian, Croatian, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese." ], [ "Burials", "* The '''Imperial Crypt''' (German: ''Kaisergruft''), also called the '''Capuchin Crypt''' (''Kapuzinergruft''), is located beneath the unassuming church and monastery of the Order of the Capuchin Friars, provides an immersive exploration of 400 years of Austrian and European history.", "It covers pivotal events such as the Thirty Years' War and the rise of revolutionary ideals, offering insight into the concept of an united Europe.Designed by prominent artists of their time, the crypt's chambers display symbols of authority, reflecting the ambitions of the Habsburg dynasty.", "Amidst this historical backdrop, artifacts within the crypt subtly acknowledge mortality and faith, underscoring a personal trust in the divine and a humble reverence for the Creator.However, it is the human narratives behind the titles, victories, and defeats that lend the crypt its profound significance.", "Today, the crypt serves as the final resting place for 150 Habsburg figures, serving as a poignant reminder of the ephemeral nature of power and the enduring complexities of human existence.", "* The '''Ducal Crypt''' (German: Herzogsgruft), founded by Duke Rudolf IV before 1363 in St. Stephen's Cathedral, served as the principal burial site for the Habsburg family until 1576.Notable members interred here include Rudolf IV, Albert III, Albert IV, Leopold IV.", "Frederick III was initially laid to rest here before being moved to the High Tomb in the cathedral's southern choir.", "From 1564 to 1878, the crypt housed the intestines of deceased Habsburgs in urns.", "Maria Theresa expanded and renovated the crypt in 1754/1755, relocating the ancestors' remains into new coffins.", "Today, the Ducal Crypt stands as a poignant symbol of Habsburg heritage within Vienna.", "* The '''Palatinal Crypt''', alternatively referred to as the Nádori kripta in Hungarian, situated within Buda Castle in Budapest, serves as the burial site for the Hungarian branch of the Habsburg dynasty.", "Established by Archduke Joseph, who held the title of Palatine of Hungary, the crypt accommodates the remains of 26 individuals.", "Significantly, it stands as one of the few interior sections of Buda Castle that withstood the destruction of World War II and remained preserved during subsequent reconstruction endeavors." ], [ "List of Habsburg rulers", "The Habsburgs' monarchical positions included:* Holy Roman Emperors (intermittently from 1273 until 1806) and Roman-German kings* Rulers of Austria (as dukes from 1278 until 1453; as archdukes from 1453 and as emperors from 1804 until 1918)* Kings of Bohemia (1306–1307, 1437–1439, 1453–1457, 1526–1918)* Kings of Spain (1516–1700)* Kings of Hungary and Croatia (1526–1918)* King of England and Ireland (1554–1558)* Kings of Portugal (1581–1640)* Grand princes of Transylvania (1690–1867)* Kings of Galicia and Lodomeria (1772–1918)* Emperor of Mexico (1864–1867)===Ancestors===* Guntram the Rich (ca.", "930–985 / 990) Father of: The chronology of the Muri Abbey, burial place of the early Habsburgs, written in the 11th century, states that ''Guntramnus Dives'' (Guntram the Rich), was the ancestor of the House of Habsburg.", "Many historians believe this indeed makes Guntram the progenitor of the House of Habsburg.", "However, this account was 200 years after the fact, and much about him and the origins of the Habsburgs is uncertain.", "If true, as Guntram was a member of the '''Etichonider''' family, it would link the Habsburg lineage to this family.", "* Lanzelin of Altenburg (died 991).", "Besides Radbot, below, he had sons named Rudolph I, Wernher, and Landolf.===Before the Albertine/Leopoldine division=======Counts====Arms of the Counts of Habsburgs.", "The Habsburgs all but abandoned this for the arms of Austria.", "It only reappeared in their triarch family arms in 1805.Before Rudolph rose to German king, the Habsburgs were Counts of Baden in what is today southwestern Germany and Switzerland.", "* Radbot of Klettgau, built the Habsburg Castle (c. 985 – 1035).", "Besides Werner I, he had two other sons: Otto I, who would become Count of Sundgau in the Alsace, and Albrecht I.", "Founded the Muri Abbey, which became the first burial place of members of the House of Habsburg.", "It is possible that Radbot founded the castle Habichtsburg, the residence of the House of Habsburg, but another possible founder is Werner I.", "* Werner I, Count of Habsburg (1025/1030–1096).", "Besides Otto II, there was another son, Albert II, who was reeve of Muri from 1111 to 1141 after the death of Otto II.", "* Otto II of Habsburg; first to name himself as \"of Habsburg\" (died 1111) Father of:* Werner II of Habsburg (around 1135; died 1167) Father of:* Albrecht III of Habsburg (''the Rich''), died 1199.Under him, the Habsburg territories expanded to cover most of what is today the German-speaking part of Switzerland.", "Father of:* Rudolph II of Habsburg (b. c. 1160, died 1232) Father of:* Albrecht IV of Habsburg, (died 1239 / 1240); father of Rudolph IV of Habsburg, who would later become king Rudolph I of Germany.", "Between Albrecht IV and his brother Rudolph III, the Habsburg properties were split, with Albrecht keeping the Aargau and the western parts, the eastern parts going to Rudolph III.", "Albrecht IV was also a mutual ancestor of Sophia Chotek and of her husband Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria====Kings of the Romans ====Rudolph I, emperor 1273–1291 (never crowned) 50pxAlbert I, emperor 1298–1308 (never crowned) 50px==== King of Bohemia ====* Rudolph I, king of Bohemia 1306–1307====Dukes/Archdukes of Austria====* ''Rudolph II'', son of Rudolph I, duke of Austria and Styria together with his brother 1282–1283, was dispossessed by his brother, who eventually would be murdered by one of Rudolph's sons.", "* Albert I (''Albrecht I''), son of Rudolph I and brother of the above, duke from 1282 to 1308; was Holy Roman Emperor from 1298 to 1308.See also below.", "* ''Rudolph III'', the oldest son of Albert I, designated duke of Austria and Styria 1298–1307* Frederick ''the Handsome'' (''Friedrich der Schöne''), brother of Rudolph III.", "Duke of Austria and Styria (with his brother Leopold I) from 1308 to 1330; officially co-regent of the emperor Louis IV since 1325, but never ruled.", "* Leopold I, brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria from 1308 to 1326.", "* Albert II (''Albrecht II''), brother of the above, duke of Further Austria from 1326 to 1358, duke of Austria and Styria 1330–1358, duke of Carinthia after 1335.", "* Otto ''the Jolly'' (''der Fröhliche''), brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria 1330–1339 (together with his brother), duke of Carinthia after 1335.", "* Rudolph IV ''the Founder'' (''der Stifter''), oldest son of Albert II.", "Duke of Austria and Styria 1358–1365, Duke of Tirol after 1363.===Division of Albertinian and Leopoldian lines===After the death of Rudolph IV, his brothers Albert III and Leopold III ruled the Habsburg possessions together from 1365 until 1379, when they split the territories in the Treaty of Neuberg, Albert keeping the Duchy of Austria and Leopold ruling over Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Windic March, Tirol, and Further Austria.====Kings of the Romans and Holy Roman Emperors (Albertinian line)====Albert II, emperor 1438–1439 (never crowned) 50pxFrederick III, emperor 1440–1493 50px====Kings of Hungary and Bohemia (Albertinian line) ====* Albert, king of Hungary and Bohemia (1437–1439) 50px* Ladislaus V Posthumus, king of Hungary (1444–1457) and Bohemia (1453–1457) 50px====Dukes of Austria (Albertinian line)====* Albert III (''Albrecht III''), duke of Austria until 1395, from 1386 (after the death of Leopold) until 1395 also ruled over the latter's possessions.", "* Albert IV (''Albrecht IV''), duke of Austria 1395–1404, in conflict with Leopold IV.", "* Albert V (''Albrecht V''), duke of Austria 1404–1439, Holy Roman Emperor from 1438 to 1439 as Albert II.", "See also below.", "* Ladislaus Posthumus, son of the above, duke of Austria 1440–1457.====Dukes of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol / Inner Austria (Leopoldian line)====* Leopold III, duke of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Further Austria until 1386, when he was killed in the Battle of Sempach.", "* William (''Wilhelm''), son of the above, 1386–1406 duke in Inner Austria (Carinthia, Styria)* Leopold IV, son of Leopold III, 1391 regent of Further Austria, 1395–1402 duke of Tyrol, after 1404 also duke of Austria, 1406–1411 duke of Inner Austria=====Leopoldian-Inner Austrian sub-line=====:* Ernest ''the Iron'' (''der Eiserne''), 1406–1424 duke of Inner Austria, until 1411 together and competing with his brother Leopold IV.", ":* Frederick V (''Friedrich''), son of Ernst, became emperor Frederick III in 1440.He was duke of Inner Austria from 1424 on.", "Guardian of Sigismund 1439–1446 and of Ladislaus Posthumus 1440–1452.See also below.", ":* Albert VI (''Albrecht VI''), brother of the above, 1446–1463 regent of Further Austria, duke of Austria 1458–1463:* ''Ernestine line'' of Saxon princes, ancestor of George I of Great Britain-descended from sister of Frederick III; also Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse King of Finland 1918=====Leopoldian-Tyrol sub-line=====:* Frederick IV (''Friedrich''), brother of Ernst, 1402–1439 duke of Tyrol and Further Austria:* Sigismund, also spelled ''Siegmund'' or ''Sigmund'', 1439–1446 under the tutelage of the Frederick V above, then duke of Tyrol, and after the death of Albrecht VI in 1463 also duke of Further Austria.===Reunited Habsburgs until extinction of agnatic lines===Sigismund had no children and adopted Maximilian I, son of Emperor Frederick III.", "Under Maximilian, the possessions of the Habsburgs would be united again under one ruler, after he had re-conquered the Duchy of Austria after the death of Matthias Corvinus, who resided in Vienna and styled himself duke of Austria from 1485 to 1490.====Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria====Maximilian I, emperor 1508–1519 50 px 50 px 50px 50pxCharles V, emperor 1519–1556, his arms are explained in an article about them 50px 50pxThe abdications of Charles V in 1556 ended his formal authority over Ferdinand and made him ''suo jure'' ruler in Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, as well as Holy Roman Emperor.", "Ferdinand I, emperor 1556–1564 50px (→Family Tree)Maximilian II, emperor 1564–1576 50pxRudolf II, emperor 1576–1612 50pxMatthias, emperor 1612–1619 50pxFerdinand's inheritance had been split in 1564 among his children, with Maximilian taking the Imperial crown and his younger brother Archduke Charles II ruling over Inner Austria (i.e.", "the Duchy of Styria, the Duchy of Carniola with March of Istria, the Duchy of Carinthia, the Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca, and the Imperial City of Trieste, ruled from Graz).", "Charles's son and successor Ferdinand II in 1619 became Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor as well as King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1620.The Further Austrian/Tyrolean line of Ferdinand's brother Archduke Leopold V survived until the death of his son Sigismund Francis in 1665, whereafter their territories ultimately returned to common control with the other Austrian Habsburg lands.", "Ferdinand II, emperor 1619–1637 50pxFerdinand III, emperor 1637–1657 50px(→Family Tree)Leopold I, emperor 1658–1705 50pxJoseph I, emperor 1705–1711 50pxCharles VI, emperor 1711–1740 50pxMaria Theresa, Habsburg heiress and wife of Emperor Francis I Stephen, reigned as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia 1740–1780.==== Kings of Spain, Kings of Portugal (Spanish Habsburgs) ====Habsburg Spain was a personal union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon; Aragon was itself divided into the Kingdoms of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Majorca, Naples, Sicily, Malta and Sardinia.", "From 1581, they were kings of Portugal until they renounced this title in the 1668 Treaty of Lisbon.", "They were also Dukes of Milan, Lord of the Americas, and holder of multiple titles from territories within the Habsburg Netherlands.", "A full listing can be seen here.", "Philip I of Castile the Handsome, first son of Maximilian I, founded the Spanish Habsburgs in 1496 by marrying Joanna the Mad, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella.", "Philip died in 1506, leaving the thrones of Castile and Aragon to be inherited by his son: 50pxCharles I 1516–1556, ''aka Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor; divided the House into Austrian and Spanish lines'' The meanings of his arms are analyzed here.", "50px 50pxPhilip II the Prudent 1556–1598, also Philip I of Portugal 1581–1598 and Philip I of England with his wife Mary I of England 1554–1558.The meanings of his arms are analyzed here.", "50px.", "50pxPhilip III the Pious also Philip II of Portugal 1598–1621 50pxPhilip IV the Great 1621–1665, also Philip III of Portugal 1621–1640 50pxCharles II the Bewitched (\"El Hechizado\") 1665–1700 50pxThe War of the Spanish Succession took place after the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg line, to determine the inheritance of Charles II.====Kings of Hungary (Austrian Habsburgs)====* Ferdinand I, king of Hungary 1526–1564* Maximilian I, king of Hungary 1563–1576* Rudolf I, king of Hungary 1572–1608* Matthias II, king of Hungary 1608–1619* Ferdinand II, king of Hungary 1618–1637* Ferdinand III, king of Hungary 1625–1657* Ferdinand IV, king of Hungary 1647–1654* Leopold I, king of Hungary 1655–1705* Joseph I, king of Hungary 1687–1711* Charles III, king of Hungary 1711–1740* Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary 1741–1780====Kings of Bohemia (Austrian Habsburgs)====* Ferdinand I, king of Bohemia 1526–1564* Maximilian I, king of Bohemia 1563–1576* Rudolph II, king of Bohemia 1572–1611* Matthias, king of Bohemia 1611–1618* Ferdinand II, king of Bohemia 1620–1637* Ferdinand III, king of Bohemia 1625/37–1657* Ferdinand IV, king of Bohemia 1647–1654 (joint rule)* Leopold I, king of Bohemia 1655–1705* Joseph I, king of Bohemia 1687–1711* Charles II, king of Bohemia 1711–1740* Maria Theresa, queen of Bohemia 1743–1780==== Titular Dukes of Burgundy, Lords of the Netherlands ====Charles the Bold controlled the widespread lands of the Burgundian State.", "Frederick III managed to secure the marriage of Charles's only daughter, Mary of Burgundy, to his son Maximilian.", "The wedding took place on the evening of 16 August 1477, after the death of Charles.", "Mary and the Habsburgs lost the Duchy of Burgundy to France, but managed to defend and hold onto the rest what became the 17 provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands.", "After Mary's death in 1482, Maximilian acted as regent for his son Philip the Handsome.", "Philip the Handsome (1482–1506) 50px 50pxCharles V (1506–1555) 50px 50pxMargaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy, regent (1507–1515) and (1519–1530) 50px 50px 50pxMary of Hungary, dowager queen of Hungary, sister of Charles V, governor of the Netherlands, 1531–1555 50px 50pxMargaret of Parma, illegitimate daughter of Charles V, Duchess of Parma, and mother of Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, governor 1559–1567 50pxDon John of Austria, illegitimate son of Charles V, victor of Lepanto, governor of the Netherlands, 1576–1578 100pxAlexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, son of Margaret of Parma, governor of the Netherlands, 1578–1592 50pxThe Netherlands was frequently governed directly by a regent or governor-general, who was a collateral member of the Habsburgs.", "By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 Charles V combined the Netherlands into one administrative unit, to be inherited by his son Philip II.", "Charles effectively united the Netherlands as one entity.", "The Habsburgs controlled the 17 Provinces of the Netherlands until the Dutch Revolt in the second half of the 16th century, when they lost the seven northern Protestant provinces.", "They held onto the southern Catholic part (roughly modern Belgium and Luxembourg) as the Spanish and Austrian Netherlands until they were conquered by the French Revolutionary Army in 1795.The one exception to this was the period of (1601–1621), when shortly before Philip II died on 13 September 1598, he renounced his rights to the Netherlands in favor of his daughter Isabella and her fiancé, Archduke Albert of Austria, a younger son of Emperor Maximilian II.", "The territories reverted to Spain on the death of Albert in 1621, as the couple had no surviving offspring, and Isabella acted as regent-governor until her death in 1633:the Archdukes Albert and Isabella, 1601–1621 75px 50px===Habsburg-Lorraine===The War of the Austrian Succession took place after the extinction of the male line of the Austrian Habsburg line upon the death of Charles VI.", "The direct Habsburg line itself became totally extinct with the death of Maria Theresa of Austria, when it was followed by the House of Habsburg-Lorraine.==== Holy Roman Emperors, Kings of Hungary and Bohemia, Archdukes of Austria (House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line)====Francis I Stephen, emperor 1745–1765 50px (→Family Tree)Joseph II, emperor 1765–1790 50pxLeopold II, emperor 1790–1792 50px (→Family Tree)Francis II, emperor 1792–1806 50px (→Family Tree)Queen Maria Christina of Austria of Spain, great-granddaughter of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor above.", "Wife of Alfonso XII of Spain and mother of Alfonso XIII of the House of Bourbon.", "Alfonso XIII's wife Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg was descended from King George I of Great Britain from the Habsburg Leopold Line {above}.The House of Habsburg-Lorraine retained Austria and attached possessions after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire; see below.A son of Leopold II was Archduke Rainer Joseph of Austria whose wife was from the House of Savoy; a daughter Adelaide, Queen of Sardinia was the wife of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia and King of Italy.", "Their Children married into the Royal Houses of Bonaparte; Saxe-Coburg and Gotha {Bragança} {Portugal}; Savoy {Spain}; and the Dukedoms of Montferrat and Chablis.==== Emperors of Austria (House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line) ====Francis I, Emperor of Austria 1804–1835: formerly ''Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor'' 50px 50px(→Family Tree)Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria 1835–1848 50pxFrancis Joseph, Emperor of Austria 1848–1916.50pxCharles I, Emperor of Austria 1916–1918.He died in exile in 1922.His wife was of the House of Bourbon-Parma.", "50px====Kings of Hungary (Habsburg-Lorraine)====* Joseph II, king of Hungary 1780–1790* Leopold II, king of Hungary 1790–1792* Francis I, king of Hungary 1792–1835* Ferdinand V, king of Hungary and Bohemia 1835–1848* Francis Joseph I, king of Hungary 1867–1916* Charles IV, king of Hungary 1916–1918====Kings of Bohemia (Habsburg-Lorraine)====* Joseph II, king of Bohemia 1780–1790* Leopold II, king of Bohemia 1790–1792* Francis I, king of Bohemia 1792–1835* Ferdinand V, king of Bohemia 1835–1848* Francis Joseph, king of Bohemia 1848–1916* Charles III, king of Bohemia 1916–1918===Italian branches======= Grand dukes of Tuscany (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)====75pxFrancis Stephen 1737–1765 ''(later Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor)''Francis Stephen assigned the Grand Duchy of Tuscany to his second son Peter Leopold, who in turn assigned it to his second son upon his accession as Holy Roman Emperor.", "Tuscany remained the domain of this cadet branch of the family until Italian unification.", "Peter Leopold I 1765–1790 ''(later Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor)''Ferdinand III 1790–1800, 1814–1824 (→Family Tree)Leopold II 1824–1849, 1849–1859 50pxFerdinand IV 1859–1860==== Dukes of Modena (Austria-Este branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine) ====The Duchy of Modena was assigned to a minor branch of the family by the Congress of Vienna.", "It was lost to Italian unification.", "The dukes named their line the House of Austria-Este, as they were descended from the daughter of the last D'Este duke of Modena.", "Francis IV 1814–1831, 1831–1846 (→Family Tree)Francis V 1846–1848, 1849–1859====Duchess of Parma (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)====The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza was under Habsburg rule between 1735-1748 before passing to the House of Bourbon-Parma.", "The duchy was then assigned to a Habsburg but did not stay in the House long before succumbing to Italian unification.", "It was granted to the second wife of Napoleon I of France, Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma, a daughter of the Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was the mother of Napoleon II of France.", "Napoleon had divorced his wife Joséphine de Beauharnais) in her favor and the duchy was granted to her at the Congress of Vienna in 1814.Following her death in 1847 the duchy reverted to the House of Bourbon-Parma.", "In 1746 with the extinction of the Gonzagas of the Duchy of Guastalla this duchy passed to Parma, until with the death of Marie Louise it passed to the Duchy of Modena, therefore continuing under Habsburg rule.", "Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma 1814–1847 (→Family Tree)===Other monarchies=======King of England====Philip II of Spain (''Jure uxoris'' King, with Mary I of England 1554–1558)==== Empress consort of Brazil and Queen consort of Portugal (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)====Dona Maria Leopoldina of Austria (22 January 1797 – 11 December 1826) was an archduchess of Austria, Empress consort of Brazil and Queen consort of Portugal.==== Empress consort of France (House of Habsburg-Lorraine) ====Marie Louise of Austria 1810–1814==== Emperor of Mexico (House of Habsburg-Lorraine) ====Coat of arms of the Mexican Empire adopted by Maximilian I in 1864Maximilian, the adventurous second son of Archduke Franz Karl, was invited as part of Napoleon III's manipulations to take the throne of Mexico, becoming Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico.", "The conservative Mexican nobility, as well as the clergy, supported this Second Mexican Empire.", "His consort, Charlotte of Belgium, a daughter of King Leopold I of Belgium and a princess of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, encouraged her husband's acceptance of the Mexican crown and accompanied him as Empress Carlota of Mexico.", "The adventure did not end well.", "Maximilian was shot in Cerro de las Campanas, Querétaro, in 1867 by the republican forces of Benito Juárez.", "Maximilian I (1864–1867) (→Family Tree)" ], [ "List of post-monarchical Habsburgs", "===Main Habsburg-Lorraine line===Charles I was expelled from his domains after World War I and the empire was abolished.Current personal arms of the head of the house of Habsburg, claiming only the personal title of ArchdukeCharles I (1918–1922) (→Family Tree)Otto von Habsburg (1922–2007)Zita of Bourbon-Parma, guardian (1922–1930)Karl von Habsburg (2007–present)===House of Habsburg-Tuscany === Ferdinand IV 1860–1908* Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, Prince of Tuscany (1908–1942)* Archduke Peter Ferdinand, Prince of Tuscany (1942–1948)* Archduke Gottfried, Prince of Tuscany (1948–1984)* Archduke Leopold Franz, Prince of Tuscany (1984–1994)* Archduke Sigismund Otto, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1994–present)=== House of Habsburg-Este ===* Francis V (1859–1875) 50px* Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Este & Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary (1875–1914)50px* Karl, Archduke of Austria-Este (1914–1917)* Robert, Archduke of Austria-Este (1917–1996) 50px* Lorenz, Archduke of Austria-Este (1996–present)" ], [ "Male-line family tree" ], [ "See also", "* A.E.I.O.U.", "* Habsburg monarchy* Habsburg Spain* Royal intermarriage* Habsburg family tree* Heraldry of the House of Habsburg* French–Habsburg rivalry* Habsburg Myth" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Agamov, A. M. ''Dynasties of Europe 400–2016: Complete Genealogy of Sovereign Houses'' (in Russian).", "Moscow, 2017.pp. 27–33.", "* * Brewer-Ward, Daniel A.", "''The House of Habsburg: A Genealogy of the Descendants of Empress Maria Theresia''.", "Clearfield, 1996.", "* * * Crankshaw, Edward.", "''The Fall of the House of Habsburg''.", "Sphere Books Limited, London, 1970.", "(First published by Longmans in 1963.", ")* * Evans, Robert J. W. ''The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550–1700: An Interpretation''.", "Clarendon Press, 1979.", "* * * McGuigan, Dorothy Gies.", "''The Habsburgs''.", "Doubleday, 1966.", "* * Palmer, Alan.", "''Napoleón and Marie Louise: The Emperor's Second Wife''.", "St. Martin's Press, 2001.", "* Rady, Martyn.", "''The Habsburgs: To Rule the World''.", "Basic Books, 2020.", "* Wandruszka, Adam.", "''The House of Habsburg: Six Hundred Years of a European Dynasty''.", "Doubleday, 1964 (Greenwood Press, 1975)." ], [ "External links", "* * The World of the Habsburgs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hub" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hub''' is the central part of a wheel that connects the axle to the wheel itself.", "'''Hub''', '''HUB''', '''The Hub''', or '''hubs''' may refer to:" ], [ "Geography", "===Pakistan===* Hub Tehsil, Balochistan, an administrative division of southern pakistan** Hub, Balochistan, capital city of the tehsil* Hub Dam, in Balochistan* Hub River, in Balochistan===United States===* Hub, Mississippi, an unincorporated community===Elsewhere===* Hub Nunatak, Graham Land, Antarctica" ], [ "Buildings in the United States", "* HUB Tower, Des Moines, Iowa* Hub (Minneapolis, Minnesota), a residential apartment building in Minneapolis* Hub Building, Burwell, Nebraska, on the National Register of Historic Places" ], [ "Organizations", "* Harvard University Band* Hogeschool-Universiteit Brussel, Belgium* Hub International, a North American insurer* Hub Power Company, first and largest Pakistani Independent Power Producer" ], [ "Transport", "* Airline hub* Transport hub" ], [ "Codes", "* HUB, Guobiao abbreviation of Hubei, a province of China* HUB, station code for Hunmanby railway station, Hunmanby, North Yorkshire, England* hub, ISO 639-3 code for Huambisa language of Peru" ], [ "People", "* Hub (given name), a list of people with the given name or nickname* Hub (artist), artist and illustrator of ''Okko'' magazine* Hub (bassist), American musician Leonard Nelson Hubbard (c. 1959–2021)* Hub (wrestler), main ring name of Japanese professional wrestler Yuto Kigawa (born 1978)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hub (network science)* Ethernet hub* Discovery Family, formerly \"Hub Network\", a US cable TV channel* ''Kearney Hub'', a daily newspaper published in Kearney, Nebraska* Verizon Hub, a media phone* Habu, a snake" ], [ "See also", "* The Hub (disambiguation)* Hub City (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "House of Commons of the United Kingdom" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''House of Commons''' is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.", "Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England.", "The House of Commons is an elected body consisting of 650 members known as members of Parliament (MPs).", "MPs are elected to represent constituencies by the first-past-the-post system and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved.The House of Commons of England began to evolve in the 13th and 14th centuries.", "In 1707 it became the House of Commons of Great Britain after the political union with Scotland, and from 1801 it also became the House of Commons for Ireland after the political union of Great Britain and Ireland.", "In 1922, the body became the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland after the independence of the Irish Free State.", "Under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, the Lords' power to reject legislation was reduced to a delaying power.", "The government is solely responsible to the House of Commons and the prime minister stays in office only as long as they retain the confidence of a majority of the Commons." ], [ "Role", "===Relationship with the Government===Although the House of Commons does not formally elect the prime minister, by convention and in practice, the prime minister is answerable to the House, and therefore must maintain its support.", "In this way, the position of the parties in the House is an overriding importance.", "Thus, whenever the office of prime minister falls vacant, the monarch appoints the person who has the support of the house, or who is most likely to command the support of the housenormally the leader of the largest party in the housewhile the leader of the second-largest party becomes the leader of the Opposition.", "Since 1963, by convention, the prime minister has always been a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords.The Commons may indicate its lack of support for the government by rejecting a motion of confidence or by passing a motion of no confidence.", "Confidence and no confidence motions are phrased explicitly: for instance, \"That this House has no confidence in His Majesty's Government.\"", "Many other motions were until recent decades considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such: in particular, important bills that were part of the government's agenda.", "The annual Budget is still considered a matter of confidence.", "When a government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the prime minister is obliged either to resign, making way for another MP who can command confidence, or request the monarch to dissolve Parliament, thereby precipitating a general election.Since the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 Parliament sits for anything up to five years.", "This is a maximum: the prime minister can, and often has, choose an earlier time to dissolve parliament, with the permission of the monarch.", "This was a return to the historic system that had been replaced by the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which fixed the term at five years.", "As of 25 October 2022, four of the eleven last prime ministers have attained office as the immediate result of a general election; the others have gained office upon the resignation of a prime minister of their own party.A prime minister will resign after party defeat at an election if unable to form a coalition, or obtain a confidence and supply arrangement, and may resign after a motion of no confidence in the prime minister or for personal reasons.", "In such cases, the premiership goes to whoever can command a majority in the House, unless there is a hung parliament and a coalition is formed; the new prime minister will by convention be the new leader of the resigner's party.", "It has become the practice to write the constitutions of major UK political parties to provide a set way to appoint a new party leader.===Peers as ministers===By convention, ministers are members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords.", "A handful have been appointed from outside Parliament, but in most cases they then entered Parliament in a by-election or by receiving a peerage (being made a peer).", "Since 1902, all but one prime ministers have been members of the Commons at time of appointment; the sole exception was during the long summer recess in 1963: Alec Douglas-Home, then the 14th Earl of Home, disclaimed his peerage (under a new mechanism which remains in force) three days after becoming prime minister.", "The new session of Parliament was delayed to await the outcome of his by-election, which happened to be already under way due to a recent death.", "As anticipated, he won that election, which was for the highest-majority seat in Scotland among his party; otherwise he would have been constitutionally obliged to resign.Since 1990, almost all cabinet ministers, save for three whose offices are an intrinsic part of the House of Lords, have belonged to the Commons.Few major cabinet positions (except Lord Privy Seal, Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) have been filled by a peer in recent times.", "Notable exceptions are Sir Alec Douglas-Home; who served as Foreign Secretary from 1960 to 1963; Peter Carington, 6th Lord Carrington, who also served as Foreign Secretary from 1979 to 1982; David Cameron, former Prime Minister who has served as Foreign Secretary since 2023; David Young, Lord Young of Graffham, who was appointed Employment Secretary in 1985; Lord Mandelson, who served as Business Secretary; Lord Adonis, who served as Transport Secretary; Baroness Amos, who served as International Development Secretary; Baroness Morgan of Cotes, who served as Culture Secretary; and Lord Goldsmith of Richmond Park, who served as Minister of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and Minister of State for International Development.", "The elected status of members of the Commons (as opposed to the unelected Lords) and their direct accountability to that House, together with empowerment and transparency, ensures ministerial accountability.", "Responsible government is an international constitutional paradigm.", "The prime minister chooses the ministers, and may decide to remove them at any time, although the appointments and dismissals are formally made by the Sovereign.===Scrutiny of the government===The House of Commons formally scrutinises the Government through its Committees and Prime Minister's Questions, when members ask questions of the prime minister; the house gives other opportunities to question other cabinet ministers.", "Prime Minister's Questions occur weekly, normally for half an hour each Wednesday.", "Questions must relate to the responding minister's official government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament.", "Customarily, members of the Government party/coalition and members of the Opposition alternate when asking questions.", "Members may also make inquiries in writing.In practice, this scrutiny can be fairly weak.", "Since the first-past-the-post electoral system is employed, the governing party often enjoys a large majority in the Commons, and ministers and departments practise defensive government, outsourcing key work to third parties.", "If the government has a large majority, it has no need or incentive to compromise with other parties.Major modern British political parties tend to be so tightly orchestrated that their MPs often have little scope for free action.", "A large minority of ruling party MPs are paid members of the Government.", "Since 1900 the Government has lost confidence motions thrice—twice in 1924, and once in 1979.However, the threat of rebellions by their own party's backbench MPs often forces governments to make concessions (under the Cameron–Clegg coalition, over foundation hospitals and under Labour over top-up fees and compensation for failed company pension schemes).", "Occasionally Government bills are defeated by backbench rebellions (Terrorism Act 2006).", "However, the scrutiny provided by the Select committees is more serious.The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown (or any other subject, even if not a public officer) for their crimes.", "Impeachments are tried by the House of Lords, where a simple majority is necessary to convict.", "This power has fallen into disuse, however; the House of Commons exercises its checks on the government through other means, such as no confidence motions; the last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville in 1806.===Legislative functions===Bills may be introduced in either house, though bills of importance generally originate in the House of Commons.", "The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, under which certain types of bills may be presented to the sovereign for royal assent without the consent of the House of Lords.", "The Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month.", "Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year.", "These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons.", "Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords.By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or supply.", "Furthermore, supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords.", "In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or supply-related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications.", "Under a separate convention, known as the Salisbury Convention, the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the government's election manifesto.", "Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful chamber of Parliament." ], [ "History", "The British parliament of today largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, although the 1706 Treaty of Union, and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty, created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, with the addition of 45 MPs and sixteen Peers to represent Scotland.", "Later still the Acts of Union 1800 brought about the abolition of the Parliament of Ireland and enlarged the Commons at Westminster with 100 Irish members, creating the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.The Middle English word ''common'' or ''commune'', which is derived from the Anglo-Norman ''commune'', meant \"of general, public, or non-private nature\" as an adjective and, as a substantive, \"the common body of the people of any place; the community or commonalty\" in the singular; \"the common people, the commonalty; the lower order, as distinguished from those of noble or knight or gentle rank\", or \"the burgers of a town; the body of free citizens, bearing common burdens, and exercising common rights; (hence) the third estate in the English constitution; the body of people, not ennobled, and represented by the Lower House of Parliament\" in the plural.", "The word has survived to this day in the original Anglo-Norman phrase ''soit baillé aux communes'', with which a bill is transmitted from the House of Lords to the House of Commons.The historian Albert Pollard held a somewhat different view on the word's origins in 1920.He agreed that ''commons'' could be derived from Anglo-Norman ''communes'', but that it referred to \"civil associations\" or \"the counties\".", "However, the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the historical dictionary of the English language, can only attest to the word meaning advocated by Pollard from the 19th and 20th centuries onwards, whereas sources for the meaning given in the previous section date from the late Middle Ages, i.e.", "the time of the establishment of the House of Commons.===Layout and design===The current Commons' layout is influenced by the use of the original St. Stephen's Chapel in the Palace of Westminster.The rectangular shape is derived from the shape of the chapel.", "Benches were arranged using the configuration of the chapel's choir stalls whereby they were facing across from one another.", "This arrangement facilitated an adversarial atmosphere representative of the British parliamentary approach.The distance across the floor of the house between the government and opposition benches is , said to be equivalent to two swords' length, though this is likely to be purely symbolic given weapons have been banned in the chamber for hundreds of years.===19th century===William Pitt the Younger addressing the Commons in ''The House of Commons, 1793–94'' by Anton Hickel.Augustus Pugin and Thomas Rowlandson.The House of Commons underwent an important period of reform during the 19th century.", "Over the years, several anomalies had developed in borough representation.", "The constituency boundaries had not been changed since 1660, so many towns whose importance had declined by the 19th century still retained their ancient right of electing two members, in addition to other boroughs that had never been important, such as Gatton.Among the most notorious of these \"rotten boroughs\" were Old Sarum, which had only six voters for two MPs, and Dunwich, which had largely collapsed into the sea from coastal erosion.", "At the same time, large cities such as Manchester received no separate representation (although their eligible residents were entitled to vote in the corresponding county seat).", "Also notable were the pocket boroughs, small constituencies controlled by wealthy landowners and aristocrats, whose \"nominees\" were invariably elected.The Commons attempted to address these anomalies by passing a Reform Bill in 1831.At first, the House of Lords proved unwilling to pass the bill, but it was forced to relent when the prime minister, Charles, 2nd Earl Grey, advised King William IV to flood the House of Lords by creating pro-Reform peers.", "To avoid this, the Lords relented and passed the bill in 1832.The Reform Act 1832, also known as the \"Great Reform Act\", abolished the rotten boroughs, established uniform voting requirements for the boroughs, and granted representation to populous cities, but still retained some anomalies.In the ensuing years, the Commons grew more assertive, the influence of the House of Lords having been reduced by the Reform Bill crisis, and the power of the patrons reduced.", "The Lords became more reluctant to reject bills that the Commons had passed with large majorities, and it became an accepted political principle that the confidence of the House of Commons alone was necessary for a government to remain in office.Many more reforms were introduced in the latter half of the 19th century.", "The Reform Act 1867 lowered property requirements for voting in the boroughs, reduced the representation of the less populous boroughs, and granted parliamentary seats to several growing industrial towns.", "The electorate was further expanded by the Representation of the People Act 1884, under which property qualifications in the counties were lowered.", "The Redistribution of Seats Act of the following year replaced almost all multi-member constituencies with single-member constituencies.===20th century===The old Chamber of the House of Commons built by Sir Charles Barry was destroyed by German bombs during the Second World War.", "The essential features of Barry's design were preserved when the chamber was rebuilt.In 1908, the Liberal Government under H. H. Asquith introduced a number of social welfare programmes, which, together with an expensive arms race, forced the Government to seek higher taxes.", "In 1909, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced the \"People's Budget\", which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners.", "This measure failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords, and the government resigned.The resulting general election returned a hung parliament, but Asquith remained prime minister with the support of the smaller parties.", "Asquith then proposed that the powers of the Lords be severely curtailed.", "Following a further election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords after threatening to flood the house with 500 new Liberal peers to ensure the passage of the bill.Thus the Parliament Act 1911 came into effect, destroying the legislative equality of the two Houses of Parliament.", "The House of Lords was permitted only to delay most legislation, for a maximum of three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years (reduced to two sessions or one year by the Parliament Act 1949).", "Since the passage of these Acts, the House of Commons has become the dominant branch of Parliament.Since the 17th century, government ministers were paid, while other MPs were not.", "Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes, while a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron.", "Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union, but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgement of 1909.Consequently, a resolution was passed in the House of Commons in 1911 introducing salaries for MPs.In 1918, women over 30 who owned property were given the right to vote, as were men over 21 who did not own property, quickly followed by the passage of a law enabling women to be eligible for election as members of parliament at the younger age of 21.The only woman to be elected that year was an Irish Sinn Féin candidate, Constance Markievicz, who therefore became the first woman to be an MP.", "However, owing to Sinn Féin's policy of abstention from Westminster, she never took her seat.The modern chamber, which opened following post-war reconstruction in 1950.Women were given equal voting status as men in 1928, and with effect from the General Election in 1950, various forms of plural voting (i.e.", "some individuals had the right to vote in more than one constituency in the same election), including University constituencies, were abolished.===21st century===In May and June 2009 revelations of MPs' expenses claims caused a major scandal and loss of confidence by the public in the integrity of MPs, as well as causing the first forced resignation of the Speaker in 300 years.In 2011, a referendum was held, asking whether to replace the present \"first-past-the-post\" system with the \"alternative vote\" (AV) method.", "The proposal to introduce AV was rejected by 67.9% of voters on a national turnout of 42%.The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 was passed by the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition, transferring the power to call an early election from the Prime Minister to Parliament, and setting out the procedure for this.", "Under the act, calling an early election required a two-thirds supermajority of the house.", "These provisions were first used by Theresa May to trigger the 2017 snap election.The Recall of MPs Act 2015 created a mechanism for recalling Members of Parliament.", "Under the act, proceedings are initiated only if an MP is found guilty of wrongdoing fulfilling certain criteria.", "A petition is successful if at least one in ten voters in the constituency sign.", "Successful petitions result in the MP vacating the seat, triggering a by-election.In 2019, MPs used \"standing order 24\" (a parliamentary procedure that triggers emergency debates) as a means of gaining control of the parliamentary order paper for the following day, and passing legislation without the incumbent government's consent.", "This unusual process was achieved through tabling amendments to the \"motion in neutral terms\", a non-binding statement released by parliament after the debate.", "This new technique was used to pass the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019 in March, as well as the No.", "2 Act in September, both relating to Brexit.", "2019 was the year Labour and Co-operative MPs became the fourth-largest political group in the House of Commons.In 2020, new procedures for hybrid proceedings were introduced from 22 April.", "These mitigated the coronavirus pandemic with measures including a limit of 50 MPs in the chamber, physical distancing and remote participation using video conferencing.", "Hybrid proceedings were abolished in August 2021.Later in December 2020, the Conservative government published a draft Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 (Repeal) Bill, later retitled the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Bill when it was introduced to the Commons in May 2021, which would repeal the Fixed-term Parliaments Act in its entirety, restore the monarch's prerogative powers to dissolve Parliament at the prime minister's request, and ensure that a parliamentary term automatically ends five years after Parliament's first meeting and polling day being 25 working days later.", "The bill was given royal assent on 24 March 2022, becoming the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act." ], [ "Members and elections", "Since 1950, every constituency has been represented by a single Member of Parliament.", "There remains a technical distinction between county and borough constituencies; its only effects are on the amount of money candidates are allowed to spend during campaigns and the rank of the local authority co-opted Returning Officer who presides over the count.", "Geographic boundaries are determined by four permanent and independent Boundary Commissions, one each for England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.", "The commissions conduct general reviews of electoral boundaries once every 8 to 12 years, and interim reviews.", "In drawing boundaries, they are required to prefer local government boundaries, but may deviate from these to prevent great disparities in electorate; such disparities are given the formal term malapportionment.", "The proposals of the Boundary Commissions are subject to parliamentary approval, but may not be amended.", "After their next Periodic Reviews, the Boundary Commissions will be absorbed into the Electoral Commission, which was established in 2000.As of 2019, the UK is divided into 650 constituencies, with 533 in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland.General elections occur whenever Parliament is dissolved.", "The timing of the dissolution was normally chosen by the Prime Minister (see relationship with the Government above); however, because of the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, parliamentary terms were fixed at five years, except when the House of Commons sustains a vote of no confidence or passes an \"early election\" motion, the latter having to be passed by a two-thirds vote; or, as in 2019, by an Enabling act which overrides the Fixed-term Parliaments Act.", "The first use of this procedure was in April 2017, when MPs voted in favour of Theresa May's call for a snap election to be held that June.Even when the Fixed-term Parliaments Act was repealed in March 2022, the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act retained Parliament's dissolution on the fifth year after its first day.All general elections in the UK since 1935 have been held on a Thursday.", "The origins of this convention are unknown but there are a number of theories, including the suggestion that it was to coincide with market day; this would ease voting for those who had to travel into the towns to cast their ballot.A candidate for a seat must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from that area, and pay £500, which is refunded if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote.", "Such a deposit seeks to discourage frivolity and very long ballot papers which would cause vote splitting (and arguably voter confusion).", "Each constituency is also called a seat (as it was in 1885), as it returns one member, using the first-past-the-post electoral system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins, that is greatest number of votes.", "Minors (that is, anyone under the age of 18), members of the House of Lords, and prisoners are not qualified to become members of the House of Commons.", "To vote, one must be a UK resident and a citizen of either Britain, a British overseas territory, Ireland, or a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for 15 years after leaving.", "It is a criminal offence for a person to vote in the ballot of more than one seat which is vacant at any election.", "This has not always been the case: before 1948 plural voting was permitted as voters qualified by home ownership or residence and could vote under both entitlements simultaneously, as well as for a university constituency if a university graduate.Once elected, Members of Parliament normally continue to serve until the next dissolution of Parliament.", "But if a member dies or ceases to be qualified (see qualifications below), his or her seat falls vacant.", "It is also possible for the House of Commons to expel a member, a power exercised only in cases of serious misconduct or criminal activity.", "In each case, the vacancy is filled by a by-election in the constituency, with the same electoral system as in general elections.The term \"Member of Parliament\" by modern convention means a member of the House of Commons.", "These members may, and almost invariably do, use the post-nominal letters \"MP\".", "The annual salary of each member is £86,584 effective from 1 April 2023.Members may also receive additional salaries for other offices they hold (for instance, the Speakership).", "Most members also claim for various office expenses (staff costs, postage, travelling, etc.)", "and, in the case of members for seats outside London, for the costs of maintaining a home in the capital.===Qualifications===The old House of Commons chamber, showing dark veneer on the wood, which was purposely made much brighter in the new chamber.There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament.", "One must be aged at least 18 (the minimum age was 21 until s.17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 came into force), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "These restrictions were introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981, but were previously far more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, only natural-born subjects were qualified.", "Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote in parliamentary elections; however, they are permitted to sit in the chamber during debates (unlike the King, who cannot enter the chamber).A person may not sit in the Commons if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if she or he is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland).", "Previously, MPs detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 for six months or more would have their seat vacated if two specialists reported to the Speaker that the member was suffering from a mental disorder.", "However, this disqualification was removed by the Mental Health (Discrimination) Act 2013.There also exists a common law precedent from the 18th century that the deaf-mute are ineligible to sit in the Lower House; this precedent, however, has not been tested in recent years.Anyone found guilty of high treason may not sit in Parliament until she or he has either completed the term of imprisonment or received a full pardon from the Crown.", "Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible, per Representation of the People Act 1981.Finally, members of the Senedd (Welsh Parliament) and Northern Ireland Assembly are disqualified since 2014.Article 159, Section 2 of the Representation of the People Act 1983 formerly disqualified for ten years those found guilty of certain election-related offences, until this section was repealed in 2001.Several other disqualifications are codified in the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975: holders of high judicial offices, civil servants, members of the regular armed forces, members of foreign legislatures (excluding the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices.", "Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified.The rule that precludes certain Crown officers from serving in the House of Commons is used to circumvent a resolution adopted by the House of Commons in 1623, under which members are not permitted to resign their seats.", "In practice, however, they always can.", "Should a member wish to resign from the Commons, she or he may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead.", "These offices are sinecures (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely to permit the \"resignation\" of members of the House of Commons.", "The Chancellor of the Exchequer is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a member who desires to leave the House of Commons.===Officers===The Speaker presides over debates in the House of Commons, as depicted in the above print commemorating the destruction of the Commons Chamber by fire in 1834.At the beginning of each new parliamentary term, the House of Commons elects one of its members as a presiding officer, known as the Speaker.", "If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, then the house may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held.", "A Speaker-elect cannot take office until she or he has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a formality.", "The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of whom holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means.", "The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means.", "These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the chairman once used to preside; even though the committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained.", "The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always members of the House of Commons.Whilst presiding, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker traditionally wears ceremonial dress.", "The presiding officer may also wear a wig, but this tradition was abandoned by Speaker Betty Boothroyd.", "Her successor, Michael Martin, also did not wear a wig while in the chamber.", "His successor, John Bercow, chose to wear a gown over a lounge suit, a decision that sparked much debate and opposition; he also did not wear a wig.The Speaker or deputy presides from a chair at the front of the house.", "This chair was designed by Augustus Pugin, who initially built a prototype of the chair at King Edward's School, Birmingham: that chair is called Sapientia (Latin for \"wisdom\") and is where the chief master sits.", "The Speaker is also chairman of the House of Commons Commission, which oversees the running of the house, and controls debates by calling on members to speak.", "A member who believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached may raise a \"point of order\", on which the Speaker makes a ruling not subject to any appeal.", "The Speaker may discipline members who fail to observe the rules of the house.", "The Speaker also decides which proposed amendments to a motion are to be debated.", "Thus, the Speaker is far more powerful than his or her Lords counterpart, the Lord Speaker, who has no disciplinary powers.", "Customarily, the Speaker and the deputies are non-partisan; they do not vote (with the notable exception of tied votes, where the Speaker votes in accordance with Denison's rule), or participate in the affairs of any political party.", "By convention, a Speaker seeking re-election to parliament is not opposed in his or her constituency by any of the major parties.", "The lack of partisanship continues even after the Speaker leaves the House of Commons.The Clerk of the House of Commons is both the house's chief adviser on matters of procedure and chief executive of the House of Commons.", "She or he is a permanent official, not a member of the house itself.", "The Clerk advises the Speaker on the rules and procedure of the house, signs orders and official communications, and signs and endorses bills.", "The Clerk also chairs the Board of Management, which consists of the heads of the six departments of the house.", "The Clerk's deputy is known as the Clerk Assistant.", "Another officer of the house is the Serjeant-at-arms, whose duties include the maintenance of law, order, and security on the house's premises.", "The Serjeant-at-Arms carries the ceremonial mace, a symbol of the authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the house each day before the Speaker, and the mace is laid upon the table of the house during sittings.", "The Librarian is head of the House of Commons Library, the house's research and information arm." ], [ "Procedure", "Like the Lords, the Commons meets in the Palace of Westminster in London.", "The Commons chamber is small and modestly decorated in green, unlike the large, lavishly furnished red Lords chamber.", "Benches sit on both sides of the chamber and are divided by a centre aisle.", "This arrangement reflects the design of St Stephen's Chapel, which served as the home of the House of Commons until destroyed by fire in 1834.The Speaker's chair is at one end of the chamber; in front of it, is the table of the house, on which the mace rests.", "The clerks sit at one end of the table, close to the Speaker so that they may advise him or her on procedure when necessary.Members of the Government occupy the benches on the Speaker's right, whilst members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker's left.", "In front of each set of benches a red line is drawn, which members are traditionally not allowed to cross during debates.", "The Prime Minister and the government ministers, as well as the leader of the Opposition and the Shadow cabinet sit on the front rows, and are known as ''frontbenchers''.", "Other members of parliament, in contrast, are known as ''backbenchers''.", "Not all Members of Parliament can fit into the chamber at the same time, as it only has space to seat approximately two thirds of the Members.", "According to Robert Rogers, former Clerk of the House of Commons and Chief Executive, a figure of 427 seats is an average or a finger-in-the-wind estimate.", "Members who arrive late must stand near the entrance of the house if they wish to listen to debates.", "Sittings in the chamber are held each day from Monday to Thursday, and also on some Fridays.", "During times of national emergency, the house may also sit at weekends.Sittings of the house are open to the public, but the house may at any time vote to sit in private, which has occurred only twice since 1950.Traditionally, a Member who desired that the house sit privately could shout \"I spy strangers!\"", "and a vote would automatically follow.", "In the past, when relations between the Commons and the Crown were less than cordial, this procedure was used whenever the house wanted to keep its debate private.", "More often, however, this device was used to delay and disrupt proceedings; as a result, it was abolished in 1998.Now, members seeking that the house sit in private must make a formal motion to that effect.Public debates are recorded and archived in Hansard.", "The post war redesign of the house in 1950 included microphones, and debates were allowed to be broadcast by radio in 1975.Since 1989, they have also been broadcast on television, which is now handled by BBC Parliament.Sessions of the House of Commons have sometimes been disrupted by angry protesters throwing objects into the chamber from the galleries—items thrown include leaflets, manure, flour, and a canister of chlorobenzylidene malonitrile (tear gas).", "Even members have been known to disturb proceedings of the house.", "For instance, in 1976, Conservative MP Michael Heseltine seized and brandished the mace of the house during a heated debate.", "However, perhaps the most famous disruption of the House of Commons was caused by Charles I, who entered the Commons Chamber in 1642 with an armed force to arrest five members for high treason.", "This action was deemed a breach of the privilege of the house, and has given rise to the tradition that the monarch does not set foot in the House of Commons.Each year, the parliamentary session begins with the State Opening of Parliament, a ceremony in the Lords Chamber during which the Sovereign, in the presence of Members of both Houses, delivers an address outlining the Government's legislative agenda.", "The Gentleman or Lady Usher of the Black Rod (a Lords official) is responsible for summoning the Commons to the Lords Chamber.", "When he arrives to deliver his summons, the doors of the Commons Chamber are traditionally slammed shut in his face, symbolising the right of the Lower House to debate without interference.", "He then knocks on the door three times with his Black Rod, and only then is granted admittance, where he informs the MPs that the Monarch awaits them, after which they proceed to the House of Lords for the King's Speech.During debates, Members may speak only if called upon by the Speaker (or a Deputy Speaker, if the Speaker is not presiding).", "Traditionally, the presiding officer alternates between calling Members from the Government and Opposition.", "The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and other leaders from both sides are normally given priority.", "All Privy Counsellors used to be granted priority; however, the modernisation of Commons procedure in 1998 led to the abolition of this tradition.Speeches are addressed to the presiding officer, using the words \"Mr Speaker\", \"Madam Speaker\", \"Mr Deputy Speaker\", or \"Madam Deputy Speaker\".", "Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in debate; other members must be referred to in the third person.", "Traditionally, members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency, using forms such as \"the Honourable Member for constituency\", or, in the case of Privy Counsellors, \"the Right Honourable Member for constituency\".", "Members of the same party (or allied parties or groups) refer to each other as \"my (Right) Honourable friend\".", "A currently serving, or ex-member of the Armed Forces is referred to as \"the Honourable and Gallant Member\" (a barrister used to be called \"the Honourable and Learned Member\", and a woman \"the Honourable Lady the Member\".)", "This may not always be the case during the actual oral delivery, when it might be difficult for a member to remember another member's exact constituency, but it is invariably followed in the transcript entered in the Hansard.", "The Speaker enforces the rules of the house and may warn and punish members who deviate from them.", "Disregarding the Speaker's instructions is considered a breach of the rules of the House and may result in the suspension of the offender from the house.", "In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the house without taking a vote.The Standing Orders of the House of Commons do not establish any formal time limits for debates.", "The Speaker may, however, order a member who persists in making a tediously repetitive or irrelevant speech to stop speaking.", "The time set aside for debate on a particular motion is, however, often limited by informal agreements between the parties.", "Debate may also be restricted by the passage of \"allocation of time motions\", which are more commonly known as \"guillotine motions\".", "Alternatively, the house may put an immediate end to debate by passing a motion to invoke closure.", "The Speaker is allowed to deny the motion if she or he believes that it infringes upon the rights of the minority.", "Today, bills are scheduled according to a timetable motion, which the whole house agrees in advance, negating the use of a guillotine.When the debate concludes, or when the closure is invoked, the motion is put to a vote.", "The house first votes by voice vote; the Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and Members respond either \"Aye!\"", "(in favour of the motion) or \"No!\"", "(against the motion).", "The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his or her assessment is challenged by any member or the voice vote is unclear, a recorded vote known as a division follows.", "The presiding officer, if she or he believes that the result of the voice vote is clear, may reject the challenge.", "When a division occurs, members enter one of two lobbies (the \"Aye\" lobby or the \"No\" lobby) on either side of the chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks.", "A member who wishes to pointedly abstain from a vote may do so by entering both lobbies, casting one vote for and one against.", "At each lobby are two tellers (themselves members of the house) who count the votes of the members.Once the division concludes, the tellers provide the results to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the house.", "If the votes are tied, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker has a casting vote.", "Traditionally, this casting vote is exercised to allow further debate, if this is possible, or otherwise to avoid a decision without a majority (e.g.", "voting 'No' to a motion or the third reading of a bill).", "Ties rarely occur: more than 25 years passed between the last two ones in July 1993 and April 2019.The quorum of the House of Commons is 40 members for any vote, including the Speaker and four tellers.", "If fewer than 40 members have participated, the division is invalid.Formerly, if a member sought to raise a point of order during a division, suggesting that some of the rules governing parliamentary procedure are violated, he was required to wear a hat, thereby signalling that he was not engaging in debate.", "Collapsible top hats were kept in the chamber just for this purpose.", "This custom was discontinued in 1998.The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote.", "A party normally entrusts some members of parliament, known as whips, with the task of ensuring that all party members vote as desired.", "Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions, since those who do so jeopardise promotion, or may be deselected as party candidates for future elections.", "Ministers, junior ministers and parliamentary private secretaries who vote against the whips' instructions usually resign.", "Thus, the independence of Members of Parliament tends to be low, although \"backbench rebellions\" by members discontent with their party's policies do occur.", "A member is also traditionally allowed some leeway if the particular interests of his constituency are adversely affected.", "In some circumstances, however, parties announce \"free votes\", allowing members to vote as they please.", "Votes relating to issues of conscience such as abortion and capital punishment are typically free votes.Pairing is an arrangement where a member from one party agrees with a member of another party not to vote in a particular division, allowing both MPs the opportunity not to attend.A bisque is permission from the Whips given to a member to miss a vote or debate in the house to attend to constituency business or other matters.==Committees==The British Parliament uses committees for a variety of purposes, e.g., for the review of bills.", "Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments.", "Bills of great constitutional importance, as well as some important financial measures, are usually sent to the \"Committee of the Whole House\", a body that includes all members of the Commons.", "Instead of the Speaker, the chairman or a Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means presides.", "The committee meets in the House of Commons Chamber.Most bills were until 2006 considered by standing committees, which consisted of between 16 and 50 members.", "The membership of each standing committee roughly reflected the strength of the parties in the House.", "The membership of standing committees changed constantly; new Members were assigned each time the committee considered a new bill.", "The number of standing committees was not limited, but usually only ten existed.", "Rarely, a bill was committed to a Special Standing Committee, which investigated and held hearings on the issues raised.", "In November 2006, standing committees were replaced by public bill committees.The House of Commons also has several departmental select committees.", "The membership of these bodies, like that of the standing committees, reflects the strength of the parties.", "The chairman of each committee is voted on in a secret ballot of the whole house during the first session of a parliamentary term, or when a vacancy occurs.", "The number of select committee chairmanships allocated to each party reflects the strength of the parties, and the parties allocate the positions through agreement.", "The primary function of a departmental select committee is to scrutinise and investigate the activities of a particular government department.", "To fulfil these aims, it is permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence.", "Bills may be referred to Departmental Select Committees, but such a procedure is seldom used.A separate type of select committee is the Domestic Committee.", "Domestic Committees oversee the administration of the House and the services provided to Members.", "Other committees of the House of Commons include Joint Committees (which also include members of the House of Lords), the Committee on Standards and Privileges (which considers questions of parliamentary privilege, as well as matters relating to the conduct of the members), and the Committee of Selection (which determines the membership of other committees)." ], [ "Commons symbol", "The symbol used by the Commons consists of a portcullis topped by St Edward's Crown.", "The portcullis has been one of the Royal badges of England since the accession of the Tudors in the 15th century, and was a favourite symbol of King Henry VII.", "It was originally the badge of Beaufort, his mother's family; and a pun on the name Tudor, as in tu-''door''.", "The original badge was of gold, but nowadays is shown in various colours, predominantly green or black." ], [ "In film and television", "In 1986, the British television production company Granada Television created a near-full size replica of the post-1950 House of Commons debating chamber at its studios in Manchester for use in its adaptation of the Jeffrey Archer novel ''First Among Equals''.", "The set was highly convincing, and was retained after the production—since then, it has been used in nearly every British film and television production that has featured scenes set in the chamber.", "From 1988 until 1999 it was also one of the prominent attractions on the Granada Studios Tour, where visitors could watch actors performing mock political debates on the set.", "The major difference between the studio set and the real House of Commons Chamber is that the studio set has just four rows of seats on either side whereas the real Chamber has five.In 2002, the set was purchased by the scriptwriter Paul Abbott so that it could be used in his BBC drama serial ''State of Play''.", "Abbott, a former Granada Television staff writer, bought it because the set would otherwise have been destroyed and he feared it would take too long to get the necessary money from the BBC.", "Abbott kept the set in storage in Oxford.The pre-1941 Chamber was recreated in Shepperton Studios for the Ridley Scott/Richard Loncraine 2002 biographical film on Churchill, ''The Gathering Storm''." ], [ "See also", "* Adjournment debate* Australian House of Representatives* Early day motion* House of Commons of Canada* Introduction (British House of Commons)* List of stewards of the Chiltern Hundreds* Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom* New Zealand House of Representatives* Parliament in the Making* UK Parliament Week* Parliamentary Archives* Parliamentary Brief* Records of members of parliament of the United Kingdom* Parliament of the United Kingdom relocation* Salaries of members of the United Kingdom Parliament* Vote Bundle" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* May, Erskine.", "(1896).", "''Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third'', 11th ed.", "London: Longmans, Green and Co.* Mackenzie, K. R., \"The English Parliament\", (1950) Pelican Books.", "* \"Parliament\" (1911).", "''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed.", "London: Cambridge University Press.", "* Pollard, Albert F. (1926).", "''The Evolution of Parliament'', 2nd ed.", "London: Longmans, Green and Co.* Porritt, Edward, and Annie G. Porritt.", "(1903).", "''The Unreformed House of Commons: Parliamentary Representation before 1832.''", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* Raphael, D. D., Donald Limon, and W. R. McKay.", "(2004).", "''Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice'', 23rd ed.", "London: Butterworths Tolley." ], [ "External links", "* The Parliamentary Archives Find Your MP Parliament Live TV (Silverlight is required to watch) Podcast tour of the Commons chamber with photos* Guide to the Commons* * British House of Commons coverage on C-SPAN* =39298 British House of Commons people on C-SPAN" ] ]	wikipedia

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