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[ [ "Hernán Cortés" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca''' ( ; ; December 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish ''conquistador'' who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the king of Castile in the early 16th century.", "Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish explorers and conquistadors who began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.Born in Medellín, Spain, to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés chose to pursue adventure and riches in the New World.", "He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an ''encomienda'' (the right to the labor of certain subjects).", "For a short time, he served as ''alcalde'' (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on the island.", "In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, which he partly funded.", "His enmity with the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Cortés ignored.Arriving on the continent, Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous people against others.", "He also used a native woman, Doña Marina, as an interpreter.", "She later bore his first son.", "When the governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés, he fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforcements.", "Cortés wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of being punished for mutiny.", "After he overthrew the Aztec Empire, Cortés was awarded the title of ''marqués del Valle de Oaxaca'', while the more prestigious title of viceroy was given to a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza.", "In 1541 Cortés returned to Spain, where he died six years later of natural causes." ], [ "Name", "Cortés himself used the form \"Hernando\" or \"Fernando\" for his first name, as seen in the contemporary archive documents, his signature and the title of an early portrait.", "William Hickling Prescott's ''Conquest of Mexico'' (1843) also refers to him as Hernando Cortés.", "At some point writers began using the shortened form of \"Hernán\" more generally." ], [ "Physical appearance", "In addition to the illustration by the German artist Christoph Weiditz in his ''Trachtenbuch'', there are three known portraits of Hernán Cortés which were likely made during his lifetime, though only copies of them have survived.", "All of these portraits show Cortés in the later years of his life.", "The account of the conquest of the Aztec Empire written by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, gives a detailed description of Hernán Cortés's physical appearance:" ], [ "Early life", "Cortés was born in 1485 in the town of Medellín, then a village in the Kingdom of Castile, now a municipality of the modern-day province of Badajoz in Extremadura, Spain.", "His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, born in 1449 to Rodrigo or Ruy Fernández de Monroy and his wife María Cortés, was an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender means.", "Hernán's mother was Catalína Pizarro Altamirano.Through his mother, Hernán was second cousin once removed of Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the Inca Empire of modern-day Peru, and not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro, who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs.", "(His maternal grandmother, Leonor Sánchez Pizarro Altamirano, was first cousin of Pizarro's father Gonzalo Pizarro y Rodriguez.)", "Through his father, Hernán was related to Nicolás de Ovando, the third governor of Hispaniola.", "His paternal great-grandfather was Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of Monroy.According to his biographer and chaplain, Francisco López de Gómara, Cortés was pale and sickly as a child.", "At the age of 14, he was sent to study Latin under an uncle in Salamanca.", "Later historians have misconstrued this personal tutoring as time enrolled at the University of Salamanca.After two years, Cortés returned home to Medellín, much to the irritation of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped for a profitable legal career.", "However, those two years in Salamanca, plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in Valladolid and later in Hispaniola, gave him knowledge of the legal codes of Castile that he applied to help justify his unauthorized conquest of Mexico.At this point in his life, Cortés was described by Gómara as ruthless, haughty, and mischievous.", "The 16-year-old youth had returned home to feel constrained life in his small provincial town.", "By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Christopher Columbus in the New World was streaming back to Spain." ], [ "Early career in the New World", "Plans were made for Cortés to sail to the Americas with a family acquaintance and distant relative, Nicolás de Ovando, the newly appointed Governor of Hispaniola.", "(This island is now divided between Haiti and the Dominican Republic).", "Cortés suffered an injury and was prevented from traveling.", "He spent the next year wandering the country, probably spending most of his time in Spain's southern ports of Cadiz, Palos, Sanlucar, and Seville.", "He finally left for Hispaniola in 1504 and became a colonist.===Arrival===Cortés reached Hispaniola in a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages.", "Quintero's mutinous conduct may have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career.Upon his arrival in 1504 in Santo Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola, the 18-year-old Cortés registered as a citizen; this entitled him to a building plot and land to farm.", "Soon afterward, Governor Nicolás de Ovando granted him an ''encomienda'' and appointed him as a notary of the town of Azua de Compostela.", "His next five years seemed to help establish him in the colony; in 1506, Cortés took part in the conquests of Hispaniola and Cuba.", "The expedition leader awarded him a large estate of land and Taíno slaves for his efforts.===Cuba (1511–1519)===In 1511, Cortés accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the Governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba.", "Velázquez was appointed Governor of New Spain.", "At the age of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsibility of ensuring that the Crown received the ''quinto'', or customary one fifth of the profits from the expedition.Velázquez was so impressed with Cortés that he secured a high political position for him in the colony.", "He became secretary for Governor Velázquez.", "Cortés was twice appointed municipal magistrate (''alcalde'') of Santiago.", "In Cuba, Cortés became a man of substance with an ''encomienda'' to provide Indian labor for his mines and cattle.", "This new position of power also made him the new source of leadership, which opposing forces in the colony could then turn to.", "In 1514, Cortés led a group which demanded that more Indians be assigned to the settlers.As time went on, relations between Cortés and Governor Velázquez became strained.", "Cortés found time to become romantically involved with Catalina Xuárez (or Juárez), the sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez.", "Part of Velázquez's displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés was trifling with Catalina's affections.", "Cortés was temporarily distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina, reluctantly, under pressure from Governor Velázquez.", "However, by doing so, he hoped to secure the good will of both her family and that of Velázquez.It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies that Cortés began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of affairs in the thriving colony.", "He missed the first two expeditions, under the orders of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and then Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velázquez to Mexico in 1518.News reached Velázquez that Juan de Grijalva had established a colony on the mainland where there was a bonanza of silver and gold, and Velázquez decided to send him help.", "Cortés was appointed Captain-General of this new expedition in October 1518, but was advised to move fast before Velázquez changed his mind.With Cortés's experience as an administrator, knowledge gained from many failed expeditions, and his impeccable rhetoric he was able to gather six ships and 300 men, within a month.", "Velázquez's jealousy exploded and he decided to put the expedition in other hands.", "However, Cortés quickly gathered more men and ships in other Cuban ports." ], [ "Conquest of Mexico (1519–1521)", "A map depicting Cortés's invasion route from the coast to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.In 1518, Velázquez put Cortés in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization.", "At the last minute, due to the old argument between the two, Velázquez changed his mind and revoked Cortés's charter.", "Cortés ignored the orders and, in an act of open mutiny, went anyway in February 1519.He stopped in Trinidad, Cuba, to hire more soldiers and obtain more horses.", "Accompanied by about 11 ships, 500 men (including seasoned slaves), 13 horses, and a small number of cannons, Cortés landed on the Yucatán Peninsula in Maya territory.", "There he encountered Geronimo de Aguilar, a Spanish Franciscan priest who had survived a shipwreck followed by a period in captivity with the Maya, before escaping.", "Aguilar had learned the Chontal Maya language and was able to translate for Cortés.Cortés's military experience was almost nonexistent, but he proved to be an effective leader of his small army and won early victories over the coastal Indians.", "In March 1519, Cortés formally claimed the land for the Spanish crown.", "Then he proceeded to Tabasco, where he met with resistance and won a battle against the natives.", "He received twenty young indigenous women from the vanquished natives, and he converted them all to Christianity.Among these women was La Malinche, his future mistress and mother of his son Martín.", "Malinche knew both the Nahuatl language and Chontal Maya, thus enabling Cortés to communicate with the Aztecs through Aguilar.", "At San Juan de Ulúa on Easter Sunday 1519, Cortés met with Moctezuma II's Aztec Empire governors Tendile and Pitalpitoque.Cortés scuttling his own fleet off the coast of Veracruz in order to eliminate the possibility of retreat.In July 1519, his men took over Veracruz.", "By this act, Cortés dismissed the authority of the governor of Cuba to place himself directly under the orders of King Charles.", "To eliminate any ideas of retreat, Cortés scuttled his ships.===March on Tenochtitlán===In Veracruz, he met some of the tributaries of the Aztecs and asked them to arrange a meeting with Moctezuma II, the ''tlatoani'' (ruler) of the Aztec Empire.", "Moctezuma repeatedly turned down the meeting, but Cortés was determined.", "Leaving a hundred men in Veracruz, Cortés marched on Tenochtitlán in mid-August 1519, along with 600 soldiers, 15 horsemen, 15 cannons, and hundreds of indigenous carriers and warriors.On the way to Tenochtitlán, Cortés made alliances with indigenous peoples such as the Totonacs of Cempoala and the Nahuas of Tlaxcala.", "The Otomis initially, and then the Tlaxcalans clashed with the Spanish in a series of three battles from 2 to 5 September 1519, and at one point, Diaz remarked, \"they surrounded us on every side\".", "After Cortés continued to release prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Moctezuma, Xicotencatl the Elder and Maxixcatzin persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, Xicotencatl the Younger, that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them.In October 1519, Cortés and his men, accompanied by about 1,000 Tlaxcalteca, marched to Cholula, the second-largest city in central Mexico.", "Cortés, either in a pre-meditated effort to instill fear upon the Aztecs waiting for him at Tenochtitlan or (as he later claimed, when he was being investigated) wishing to make an example when he feared native treachery, massacred thousands of unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central plaza, then partially burned the city.Cortés and La Malinche meet Moctezuma in Tenochtitlán, November 8, 1519.By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlán, the Spaniards had a large army.", "On November 8, 1519, they were peacefully received by Moctezuma II.", "Moctezuma deliberately let Cortés enter the Aztec capital, the island city of Tenochtitlán, hoping to get to know their weaknesses better and to crush them later.Moctezuma gave lavish gifts of gold to the Spaniards which, rather than placating them, excited their ambitions for plunder.", "In his letters to King Charles, Cortés claimed to have learned at this point that he was considered by the Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcoatl himself – a belief which has been contested by a few modern historians.", "But quickly Cortés learned that several Spaniards on the coast had been killed by Aztecs while supporting the Totonacs, and decided to take Moctezuma as a hostage in his palace, indirectly ruling Tenochtitlán through him.Cristóbal de Olid leads Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in the conquests of Jalisco, 1522.Meanwhile, Velázquez sent another expedition, led by Pánfilo de Narváez, to oppose Cortés, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men.", "Cortés left 200 men in Tenochtitlán and took the rest to confront Narváez.", "He overcame Narváez, despite his numerical inferiority, and convinced the rest of Narváez's men to join him.", "In Mexico, one of Cortés's lieutenants Pedro de Alvarado, committed the ''massacre in the Great Temple'', triggering a local rebellion.Cortés speedily returned to Tenochtitlán.", "On July 1, 1520, Moctezuma was killed (he was stoned to death by his own people, as reported in Spanish accounts; although some claim he was murdered by the Spaniards once they realized his inability to placate the locals).", "Faced with a hostile population, Cortés decided to flee for Tlaxcala.", "During the ''Noche Triste'' (June 30 – July 1, 1520), the Spaniards managed a narrow escape from Tenochtitlán across the Tlacopan causeway, while their rearguard was being massacred.", "Much of the treasure looted by Cortés was lost (as well as his artillery) during this panicked escape from Tenochtitlán.===Destruction of Tenochtitlán===After a battle in Otumba, they managed to reach Tlaxcala, having lost 870 men.", "With the assistance of their allies, Cortés's men finally prevailed with reinforcements arriving from Cuba.", "Cortés began a policy of attrition towards Tenochtitlán, cutting off supplies and subduing the Aztecs' allied cities.", "During the siege he would construct brigantines in the lake and slowly destroy blocks of the city to avoid fighting in an urban setting.", "The Mexicas would fall back to Tlatelolco and even succeed in ambushing the pursuing Spanish forces, inflicting heavy losses, but would ultimately be the last portion of the island that resisted the conquistadores.", "The siege of Tenochtitlán ended with Spanish victory and the destruction of the city.In January 1521, Cortés countered a conspiracy against him, headed by Antonio de Villafana, who was hanged for the offense.", "Finally, with the capture of Cuauhtémoc, the ''tlatoani'' (ruler) of Tenochtitlán, on August 13, 1521, the Aztec Empire was captured, and Cortés was able to claim it for Spain, thus renaming the city Mexico City.", "From 1521 to 1524, Cortés personally governed Mexico." ], [ "Appointment to governorship of Mexico and internal dissensions", "A painting from Diego Muñoz Camargo's ''History of Tlaxcala'' (Lienzo Tlaxcala), c. 1585, showing La Malinche and Hernán Cortés.Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that Cortés was unjustly treated by the Spanish Crown, and that he received nothing but ingratitude for his role in establishing New Spain.", "This picture is the one Cortés presents in his letters and in the later biography written by Francisco López de Gómara.", "However, there may be more to the picture than this.", "Cortés's own sense of accomplishment, entitlement, and vanity may have played a part in his deteriorating position with the king:King Charles appointed Cortés as governor, captain general and chief justice of the newly conquered territory, dubbed \"New Spain of the Ocean Sea\".", "But also, much to the dismay of Cortés, four royal officials were appointed at the same time to assist him in his governing – in effect, submitting him to close observation and administration.", "Cortés initiated the construction of Mexico City, destroying Aztec temples and buildings and then rebuilding on the Aztec ruins what soon became the most important European city in the Americas.Cortés managed the founding of new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of New Spain, imposing the ''encomienda'' system in 1524.He reserved many encomiendas for himself and for his retinue, which they considered just rewards for their accomplishment in conquering central Mexico.", "However, later arrivals and members of factions antipathetic to Cortés complained of the favoritism that excluded them.In 1523, the Crown (possibly influenced by Cortés's enemy, Bishop Fonseca), sent a military force under the command of Francisco de Garay to conquer and settle the northern part of Mexico, the region of Pánuco.", "This was another setback for Cortés who mentioned this in his fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, Diego Columbus and Bishop Fonseca as well as Francisco Garay.", "The influence of Garay was effectively stopped by this appeal to the King who sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a fight." ], [ "Royal grant of arms (1525)", "The coat of arms awarded to Cortés, by King Carlos I of Spain.Although Cortés had flouted the authority of Diego Velázquez in sailing to the mainland and then leading an expedition of conquest, Cortés's spectacular success was rewarded by the crown with a coat of arms, a mark of high honor, following the conqueror's request.", "The document granting the coat of arms summarizes Cortés's accomplishments in the conquest of Mexico.", "The proclamation of the king says in part:We, respecting the many labors, dangers, and adventures which you underwent as stated above, and so that there might remain a perpetual memorial of you and your services and that you and your descendants might be more fully honored ... it is our will that besides your coat of arms of your lineage, which you have, you may have and bear as your coat of arms, known and recognized, a shield ...The grant specifies the iconography of the coat of arms, the central portion divided into quadrants.", "In the upper portion, there is a \"black eagle with two heads on a white field, which are the arms of the empire\".", "Below that is a \"golden lion on a red field, in memory of the fact that you, the said Hernando Cortés, by your industry and effort brought matters to the state described above\" (i.e., the conquest).", "The specificity of the other two quadrants is linked directly to Mexico, with one quadrant showing three crowns representing the three Aztec emperors of the conquest era, Moctezuma, Cuitlahuac, and Cuauhtemoc and the other showing the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.", "Encircling the central shield are symbols of the seven city-states around the lake and their lords that Cortés defeated, with the lords \"to be shown as prisoners bound with a chain which shall be closed with a lock beneath the shield\"." ], [ "Death of his first wife and remarriage", "Sculpture of Juana de Zúñiga, second wife of Cortés, for her tomb.Cortés's wife Catalina Súarez arrived in New Spain around summer 1522, along with her sister and brother.", "His marriage to Catalina was at this point extremely awkward, since she was a kinswoman of the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, whose authority Cortés had thrown off and who was therefore now his enemy.", "Catalina lacked the noble title of ''doña,'' so at this point his marriage with her no longer raised his status.", "Their marriage had been childless.", "Since Cortés had sired children with a variety of indigenous women, including a son around 1522 by his cultural translator, Doña Marina, Cortés knew he was capable of fathering children.", "Cortés's only male heir at this point was illegitimate, but nonetheless named after Cortés's father, Martín Cortés.", "This son Martín Cortés was also popularly called \"El Mestizo\".Catalina Suárez died under mysterious circumstances the night of November 1–2, 1522.There were accusations at the time that Cortés had murdered his wife.", "There was an investigation into her death, interviewing a variety of household residents and others.", "The documentation of the investigation was published in the nineteenth century in Mexico and these archival documents were uncovered in the twentieth century.", "The death of Catalina Suárez produced a scandal and investigation, but Cortés was now free to marry someone of high status more appropriate to his wealth and power.", "In 1526, he built an imposing residence for himself, the Palace of Cortés in Cuernavaca, in a region close to the capital where he had extensive encomienda holdings.", "In 1529 he had been accorded the noble designation of ''don'', but more importantly was given the noble title of Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca and married the Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana de Zúñiga.", "The marriage produced three children, including another son, who was also named Martín.", "As the first-born legitimate son, Don Martín Cortés y Zúñiga was now Cortés's heir and succeeded him as holder of the title and estate of the Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca.", "Cortés's legitimate daughters were Doña Maria, Doña Catalina, and Doña Juana." ], [ "Cortés and the \"Spiritual Conquest\" of Mexico", "Since the conversion to Christianity of indigenous peoples was an essential and integral part of the extension of Spanish power, making formal provisions for that conversion once the military conquest was completed was an important task for Cortés.", "During the Age of Discovery, the Catholic Church had seen early attempts at conversion in the Caribbean islands by Spanish friars, particularly the mendicant orders.", "Cortés made a request to the Spanish monarch to send Franciscan and Dominican friars to Mexico to convert the vast indigenous populations to Christianity.", "In his fourth letter to the king, Cortés pleaded for friars rather than diocesan or secular priests because those clerics were in his view a serious danger to the Indians' conversion.If these people Indians were now to see the affairs of the Church and the service of God in the hands of canons or other dignitaries, and saw them indulge in the vices and profanities now common in Spain, knowing that such men were the ministers of God, it would bring our Faith into much harm that I believe any further preaching would be of no avail.He wished the mendicants to be the main evangelists.", "Mendicant friars did not usually have full priestly powers to perform all the sacraments needed for conversion of the Indians and growth of the neophytes in the Christian faith, so Cortés laid out a solution to this to the king.Your Majesty should likewise beseech His Holiness the pope to grant these powers to the two principal persons in the religious orders that are to come here, and that they should be his delegates, one from the Order of St. Francis and the other from the Order of St. Dominic.", "They should bring the most extensive powers Your Majesty is able to obtain, for, because these lands are so far from the Church of Rome, and we, the Christians who now reside here and shall do so in the future, are so far from the proper remedies of our consciences and, as we are human, so subject to sin, it is essential that His Holiness should be generous with us and grant to these persons most extensive powers, to be handed down to persons actually in residence here whether it be given to the general of each order or to his provincials.The Franciscans arrived in May 1524, a symbolically powerful group of twelve known as the Twelve Apostles of Mexico, led by Fray Martín de Valencia.", "Franciscan Geronimo de Mendieta claimed that Cortés's most important deed was the way he met this first group of Franciscans.", "The conqueror himself was said to have met the friars as they approached the capital, kneeling at the feet of the friars who had walked from the coast.", "This story was told by Franciscans to demonstrate Cortés piety and humility and was a powerful message to all, including the Indians, that Cortés's earthly power was subordinate to the spiritual power of the friars.", "However, one of the first twelve Franciscans, Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinia does not mention it in his history.", "Cortés and the Franciscans had a particularly strong alliance in Mexico, with Franciscans seeing him as \"the new Moses\" for conquering Mexico and opening it to Christian evangelization.", "In Motolinia's 1555 response to Dominican Bartolomé de Las Casas, he praises Cortés.And as to those who murmur against the Marqués del Valle Cortés, God rest him, and who try to blacken and obscure his deeds, I believe that before God their deeds are not as acceptable as those of the Marqués.", "Although as a human he was a sinner, he had faith and works of a good Christian, and a great desire to employ his life and property in widening and augmenting the fair of Jesus Christ, and dying for the conversion of these gentiles ... Who has loved and defended the Indians of this new world like Cortés?", "...", "Through this captain, God opened the door for us to preach his holy gospel and it was he who caused the Indians to revere the holy sacraments and respect the ministers of the church.In Fray Bernardino de Sahagún's 1585 revision of the conquest narrative first codified as Book XII of the Florentine Codex, there are laudatory references to Cortés that do not appear in the earlier text from the indigenous perspective.", "Whereas Book XII of the Florentine Codex concludes with an account of Spaniards' search for gold, in Sahagún's 1585 revised account, he ends with praise of Cortés for requesting the Franciscans be sent to Mexico to convert the Indians." ], [ "Expedition to Honduras and aftermath (1524–1541)", "===Expedition to Honduras (1524–1526)===From 1524 to 1526, Cortés headed an expedition to Honduras where he defeated Cristóbal de Olid, who had claimed Honduras as his own under the influence of the Governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez.", "Fearing that Cuauhtémoc might head an insurrection in Mexico, he brought him with him to Honduras.", "In a controversial move, Cuauhtémoc was executed during the journey.", "Raging over Olid's treason, Cortés issued a decree to arrest Velázquez, whom he was sure was behind Olid's treason.", "This, however, only served to further estrange the Crown of Castile and the Council of Indies, both of which were already beginning to feel anxious about Cortés's rising power.Cortés's fifth letter to King Charles attempts to justify his conduct, concludes with a bitter attack on \"various and powerful rivals and enemies\" who have \"obscured the eyes of your Majesty\".", "Charles, who was also Holy Roman Emperor, had little time for distant colonies (much of Charles's reign was taken up with wars with France, the German Protestants and the expanding Ottoman Empire), except insofar as they contributed to finance his wars.", "In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles was attending to matters in his German domains and Bishop Adrian of Utrecht functioned as regent in Spain.Velázquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint a commissioner (a ''Juez de residencia'', Luis Ponce de León) with powers to investigate Cortés's conduct and even arrest him.", "Cortés was once quoted as saying that it was \"more difficult to contend against his own countrymen than against the Aztecs.\"", "Governor Diego Velázquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to undermine him in the Council of the Indies.A few days after Cortés's return from his expedition, Ponce de León suspended Cortés from his office of governor of New Spain.", "The Licentiate then fell ill and died shortly after his arrival, appointing Marcos de Aguilar as ''alcalde mayor''.", "The aged Aguilar also became sick and appointed Alonso de Estrada governor, who was confirmed in his functions by a royal decree in August 1527.Cortés, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the government.Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south.", "De Figueroa raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his end when the ship carrying these treasures sank.", "Albornoz persuaded Alonso de Estrada to release Gonzalo de Salazar and Chirinos.", "When Cortés complained angrily after one of his adherents' hands was cut off, Estrada ordered him exiled.", "Cortés sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to King Charles.===First return to Spain (1528) and Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca===''Emperor Charles V with Hound'' (1532), a painting by the 16th-century artist Jakob Seisenegger.In 1528, Cortés returned to Spain to appeal to the justice of his master, Charles V. Juan Altamirano and Alonso Valiente stayed in Mexico and acted as Cortés's representatives during his absence.", "Cortés presented himself with great splendor before Charles V's court.", "By this time Charles had returned and Cortés forthrightly responded to his enemy's charges.", "Denying he had held back on gold due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more than the quinto (one-fifth) required.", "Indeed, he had spent lavishly to build the new capital of Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán, leveled during the siege that brought down the Aztec empire.He was received by Charles with every distinction, and decorated with the order of Santiago.", "In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded in 1529 by being accorded the noble title of ''don'' but more importantly named the ''\"Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca\"'' (Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca) and married the Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana Zúñiga, after the 1522 death of his much less distinguished first wife, Catalina Suárez.", "The noble title and senorial estate of the Marquesado was passed down to his descendants until 1811.The Oaxaca Valley was one of the wealthiest regions of New Spain, and Cortés had 23,000 vassals in 23 named encomiendas in perpetuity.Although confirmed in his land holdings and vassals, he was not reinstated as governor and was never again given any important office in the administration of New Spain.", "During his travel to Spain, his property was mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators.", "He sided with local natives in a lawsuit.", "The natives documented the abuses in the Huexotzinco Codex.The entailed estate and title passed to his legitimate son Don Martín Cortés upon Cortés's death in 1547, who became the Second Marquess.", "Don Martín's association with the so-called Encomenderos' Conspiracy endangered the entailed holdings, but they were restored and remained the continuing reward for Hernán Cortés's family through the generations.===Return to Mexico (1530) and appointment of a viceroy (1535)===Cortés returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honors.", "Although Cortés still retained military authority and permission to continue his conquests, Don Antonio de Mendoza was appointed in 1535 as a viceroy to administer New Spain's civil affairs.", "This division of power led to continual dissension, and caused the failure of several enterprises in which Cortés was engaged.", "On returning to Mexico, Cortés found the country in a state of anarchy.", "There was a strong suspicion in court circles of an intended rebellion by Cortés.After reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, Cortés retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City.", "There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration.", "Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and 1541, Cortés quarreled with Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán and disputed the right to explore the territory that is today California with Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy.Cortés acquired several silver mines in Zumpango del Rio in 1534.By the early 1540s, he owned 20 silver mines in Sultepec, 12 in Taxco, and 3 in Zacualpan.", "Earlier, Cortés had claimed the silver in the Tamazula area.In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico and discovered the Baja California peninsula.", "Cortés also spent time exploring the Pacific coast of Mexico.", "The Gulf of California was originally named the ''Sea of Cortés'' by its discoverer Francisco de Ulloa in 1539.This was the last major expedition by Cortés." ], [ "Later life and death", "===Second return to Spain===After his exploration of Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his angry civilians, who had brought many lawsuits against him (for debts, abuse of power, etc.).", "On his return he went through a crowd to speak to the emperor, who demanded of him who he was.", "\"I am a man,\" replied Cortés, \"who has given you more provinces than your ancestors left you cities.", "\"===Expedition against Algiers===An engraving of a middle aged Cortés by 19th-century artist William Holl.The emperor finally permitted Cortés to join him and his fleet commanded by Andrea Doria at the great expedition against Algiers in the Barbary Coast in 1541, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire.", "During this campaign, Cortés was almost drowned in a storm that hit his fleet while he was pursuing the Pasha of Algiers.===Last years, death, and remains===Having spent a great deal of his own money to finance expeditions, he was now heavily in debt.", "In February 1544 he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was ignored for the next three years.", "Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547.When he reached Seville, he was stricken with dysentery.", "He died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547, from a case of pleurisy at the age of 62.He left his many mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers.", "He requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried in Mexico.", "Before he died he had the Pope remove the \"natural\" status of four of his children (legitimizing them in the eyes of the church), including Martin, the son he had with Doña Marina (also known as La Malinche), said to be his favourite.", "His daughter, Doña Catalina, however, died shortly after her father's death.Bust Hernán Cortés in the General Archive of the Indies in SevilleAfter his death, his body was moved more than eight times for several reasons.", "On December 4, 1547, he was buried in the mausoleum of the Duke of Medina in the church of San Isidoro del Campo, Sevilla.", "Three years later (1550) due to the space being required by the duke, his body was moved to the altar of Santa Catarina in the same church.", "In his testament, Cortés asked for his body to be buried in the monastery he had ordered to be built in Coyoacan in México, ten years after his death, but the monastery was never built.", "So in 1566, his body was sent to New Spain and buried in the church of San Francisco de Texcoco, where his mother and one of his sisters were buried.Tomb of Cortés in the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno, which he founded in Mexico City.In 1629, Cortes's last male descendant Don Pedro Cortés, fourth Marquez del Valle, died.", "The viceroy decided to move the bones of Cortés along with those of his descendant to the Franciscan church in México.", "This was delayed for nine years, while his body stayed in the main room of the palace of the viceroy.", "Eventually it was moved to the Sagrario of Franciscan church, where it stayed for 87 years.", "In 1716, it was moved to another place in the same church.", "In 1794, his bones were moved to the \"Hospital de Jesus\" (founded by Cortés), where a statue by Tolsá and a mausoleum were made.", "There was a public ceremony and all the churches in the city rang their bells.In 1823, after the independence of México, it seemed imminent that his body would be desecrated, so the mausoleum was removed, the statue and the coat of arms were sent to Palermo, Sicily, to be protected by the Duke of Terranova.", "The bones were hidden, and everyone thought that they had been sent out of México.", "In 1836, his bones were moved to another place in the same building.It was not until November 24, 1946, that they were rediscovered, thanks to the discovery of a secret document by Lucas Alamán.", "His bones were put in the charge of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH).", "The remains were authenticated by INAH.", "They were then restored to the same place, this time with a bronze inscription and his coat of arms.", "When the bones were first rediscovered, the supporters of the Hispanic tradition in Mexico were excited, but one supporter of an indigenist vision of Mexico \"proposed that the remains be publicly burned in front of the statue of Cuauhtemoc, and the ashes flung into the air\".", "Following the discovery and authentication of Cortés's remains, there was a discovery of what were described as the bones of Cuauhtémoc, resulting in a \"battle of the bones\".On December 16, 1560, the lawsuits related to vassals of the Cortes estate were resolved by a royal order issued by Philip II." ], [ "Taxa named after Cortés", "Cortés is commemorated in the scientific name of a subspecies of Mexican lizard, ''Phrynosoma orbiculare cortezii''." ], [ "Disputed interpretation of his life", "There are relatively few sources to the early life of Cortés; his fame arose from his participation in the conquest of Mexico and it was only after this that people became interested in reading and writing about him.Probably the best source is his letters to the king which he wrote during the campaign in Mexico, but they are written with the specific purpose of putting his efforts in a favourable light and so must be read critically.", "Another main source is the biography written by Cortés's private chaplain Lopez de Gómara, which was written in Spain several years after the conquest.", "Gómara never set foot in the Americas and knew only what Cortés had told him, and he had an affinity for knightly romantic stories which he incorporated richly in the biography.", "The third major source is written as a reaction to what its author calls \"the lies of Gomara\", the eyewitness account written by the Conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo which does not paint Cortés as a romantic hero, but rather tries to emphasize that Cortés's men should also be remembered as important participants in the undertakings in Mexico.1000 Spanish peseta note issued in 1992In the years following the conquest more critical accounts of the Spanish arrival in Mexico were written.", "The Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas wrote his ''A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies'' which raises strong accusations of brutality and heinous violence towards the Indians; accusations against both the conquistadors in general and Cortés in particular.", "The accounts of the conquest given in the Florentine Codex by the Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and his native informants are also less than flattering towards Cortés.", "The scarcity of these sources has led to a sharp division in the description of Cortés's personality and a tendency to describe him as either a vicious and ruthless person or a noble and honorable cavalier.===Representations in Mexico===Monument in Mexico City commemorating the encounter of Cortés and Moctezuma at the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno.In México there are few representations of Cortés.", "However, many landmarks still bear his name, from the castle Palacio de Cortés in the city of Cuernavaca to some street names throughout the republic.The pass between the volcanoes Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl where Cortés took his soldiers on their march to Mexico City.", "It is known as the Paso de Cortés.The muralist Diego Rivera painted several representation of him but the most famous, depicts him as a powerful and ominous figure along with Malinche in a mural in the National Palace in Mexico City.Monument in Mexico City known as \"Monumento al Mestizaje\".In 1981, President Lopez Portillo tried to bring Cortés to public recognition.", "First, he made public a copy of the bust of Cortés made by Manuel Tolsá in the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno with an official ceremony, but soon a nationalist group tried to destroy it, so it had to be taken out of the public.", "Today the copy of the bust is in the \"Hospital de Jesús Nazareno\" while the original is in Naples, Italy, in the Villa Pignatelli.Later, another monument, known as \"Monumento al Mestizaje\" by Julián Martínez y M. Maldonado (1982) was commissioned by Mexican president José López Portillo to be put in the \"Zócalo\" (Main square) of Coyoacan, near the place of his country house, but it had to be removed to a little known park, the Jardín Xicoténcatl, Barrio de San Diego Churubusco, to quell protests.", "The statue depicts Cortés, Malinche and their son Martín.There is another statue by Sebastián Aparicio, in Cuernavaca, was in a hotel \"El casino de la selva\".", "Cortés is barely recognizable, so it sparked little interest.", "The hotel was closed to make a commercial center, and the statue was put out of public display by Costco the builder of the commercial center.===Cultural depictions===La Conquista'', 2005Hernán Cortés is a character in the opera ''La Conquista'' (2005) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, which depicts the major episodes of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521.===Writings: the ''Cartas de Relación''===Cortés's personal account of the conquest of Mexico is narrated in his five letters addressed to Charles V. These five letters, the ''cartas de relación'', are Cortés's only surviving writings.", "See \"Letters and Dispatches of Cortés\", translated by George Folsom (New York, 1843); Prescott's \"Conquest of Mexico\" (Boston, 1843); and Sir Arthur Helps's \"Life of Hernando Cortes\" (London, 1871).His first letter was considered lost, and the one from the municipality of Veracruz has to take its place.", "It was published for the first time in volume IV of \"Documentos para la Historia de España\", and subsequently reprinted.The ''Segunda Carta de Relacion'', bearing the date of October 30, 1520, appeared in print at Seville in 1522.The third letter, dated May 15, 1522, appeared at Seville in 1523.The fourth, October 20, 1524, was printed at Toledo in 1525.The fifth, on the Honduras expedition, is contained in volume IV of the ''Documentos para la Historia de España''." ], [ "Children", "Natural children of Don Hernán Cortés* ''doña'' Catalina Pizarro, born between 1514 and 1515 in Santiago de Cuba or maybe later in Nueva España, daughter of an indigenous woman in Cuba, Leonor Pizarro.", "Doña Catalina married Juan de Salcedo, a conqueror and encomendero, with whom she had a son, Pedro.", "* ''don'' Martín Cortés, born in Coyoacán in 1522, son of ''doña'' Marina (La Malinche), called the ''First Mestizo''; about him was written ''The New World of Martín Cortés''; married ''doña'' Bernaldina de Porras and had two children:** ''doña'' Ana Cortés** ''don'' Fernando Cortés, Principal Judge of Veracruz.", "Descendants of this line are alive today in Mexico.", "* ''don'' Luis Cortés, born in 1525, son of ''doña'' Antonia or Elvira Hermosillo, a native of Trujillo (Cáceres)* ''doña'' Leonor Cortés Moctezuma, born in 1527 or 1528 in Ciudad de Mexico, daughter of Aztec princess Tecuichpotzin (baptized Isabel), born in Tenochtitlan on July 11, 1510, and died on July 9, 1550, the eldest legitimate daughter of Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin and wife ''doña'' María Miahuaxuchitl; married to Juan de Tolosa, a Basque merchant and miner.", "* ''doña'' María Cortés de Moctezuma, daughter of an Aztec princess; nothing more is known about her except that she probably was born with some deformity.He married twice: firstly in Cuba to Catalina Suárez Marcaida, who died at Coyoacán in 1522 without issue, and secondly in 1529 to ''doña'' Juana Ramírez de Arellano de Zúñiga, daughter of ''don'' Carlos Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Count of Aguilar and wife the Countess ''doña'' Juana de Zúñiga, and had:* ''don'' Luis Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, born in Texcoco in 1530 and died shortly after his birth.", "* ''doña'' Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca in 1531 and died shortly after her birth.", "* ''don'' Martín Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca, born in Cuernavaca in 1532, married at Nalda on February 24, 1548, his twice cousin once removed ''doña'' Ana Ramírez de Arellano y Ramírez de Arellano and had issue, currently extinct in male line* ''doña'' María Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, married to ''don'' Luis de Quiñones y Pimentel, 5th Count of Luna* ''doña'' Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, died unmarried in Sevilla after the funeral of her father* ''doña'' Juana Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, married Don Fernando Enríquez de Ribera y Portocarrero, 2nd Duke of Alcalá de los Gazules, 3rd Marquess of Tarifa and 6th Count of Los Molares, and had issue" ], [ "In popular culture", "* Hernán Cortés (called by the Italian form of his name – \"Fernando\") is the hero of Antonio Vivaldi's 1733 opera ''Motezuma''.", "* Cortés features in the 1980 novel Aztec by Gary Jennings as an antagonist.", "* Cortés was portrayed (as \"Hernando Cortez\") by actor Cesar Romero in the 1947 historical adventure film ''Captain from Castile''.", "* Cortés is the villain of \"Idol of Death\", an episode of ''The Time Tunnel'' that aired in 1967.", "* \"Cortez the Killer\", a 1975 song by Neil Young* In 1986, Polish illustrator Jerzy Wróblewski created a 48-page comic book titled ''Hernán Cortés i podbój Meksyku'' (''Hernán Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico'').", "The comic book, based on historical chronicles, narrated Cortés's life, concentrating on the titular 1519–1521 period; it was noted for its realistic depictions of violence, unusual in Polish comic books of the era.", "* Cortés is an ambiguous character in the 2000 animated movie ''The Road to El Dorado'', voiced by Jim Cummings * Cortes played by Óscar Jaenada, is a morally ambiguous protagonist in the 2019 8 episode TV-series Hernán." ], [ "See also", "* History of Mexico* History of Mexico City* New Spain* Palace of Cortés, Cuernavaca* Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire* Spanish Empire" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Primary sources===* Cortés, Hernán.", "''Letters'' – available as ''Letters from Mexico'' translated by Anthony Pagden.", "Yale University Press, 1986..", "Available online in Spanish from an 1866 edition.", "* Cortés, Hernán.", "''Escritos sueltos de Hernán Cortés''.", "Biblioteca Histórica de la Iberia.", "vol 12.Mexico 1871.", "* Díaz del Castillo, Bernal.", "''The Conquest of New Spain'' – available as ''The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517–1521'' * Díaz del Castillo, Bernal, Carrasco, David, Rolena.", "Adorno, Sandra Messinger Cypess, and Karen Vieira Powers.", "''The History of the Conquest of New Spain.''", "Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008 * (textbook anthology of indigenous primary sources)* López de Gómara, Francisco, ''Cortés: The Life of the Conqueror by His Secretary,'' Ed.", "and trans.", "Lesley Byrd Simpson.", "Berkeley: University of California Press 1964.", "* López de Gómara, Francisco.", "''Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things that have happened since they were acquired until the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New Spain'' University of California Press, 1966* Prescott, William H. ''History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes''* ''Last Will and Testament of Hernán Cortés''* Letter From Hernán Cortés to Charles the V* ''Hernán Cortés Power of Attorney,'' 1526 From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress* Praeclara Ferdinandi Cortesii de noua maris oceani Hyspania narratio sacratissimo... 1524.From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress===Secondary sources===* Boruchoff, David A.", "\"Hernán Cortés.\"", "''International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences'', 2nd.", "ed.", "(2008), vol.", "2, pp. 146–149.", "* Brooks, Francis J.", "\"Motecuzoma Xocoyotl, Hernán Cortés, and Bernal Díaz del Castillo: The Construction of an Arrest.\"", "''Hispanic American Historical Review'' (1995): 149–183.", "* Chamberlain, Robert S. \"Two unpublished documents of Hernán Cortés and New Spain, 1519 and 1524.\"", "''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 19 (1939) 120–137.", "* Chamberlain, Robert S. \"La controversia entre Cortés y Velázquez sobre la gobernación de Nueva España, 1519–1522\" in ''Anales de la Sociedad de Geografía e Historia de Guatemala'', vol XIX 1943.", "* * Cline, Howard F. \"Hernando Cortés and the Aztec indians in Spain.\"", "''The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress''.", "Vol.", "26.No.", "2.Library of Congress, 1969.", "* Denhardt.", "Robert Moorman.", "\"The equine strategy of Cortés.\"", "''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 18 (1938) 550–555.", "* Elliott, J.H., \"The mental world of Hernán Cortés.\"", "In ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society''.", "Fifth Series (1967) 41–58.", "* Frankl, Victor.", "\"Hernán Cortés y la tradición de las Siete Partidas.\"", "''Revista de Historia de América'' 53–54 (1962) 9–74.", "* Himmerich y Valencia, Robert.", "''The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521–1555,'' Austin: University of Texas Press 1991* Jacobs, W.J.", "''Hernando Cortés''.", "New York: Franklin Watts, Inc.", "1974.", "* Keen, Benjamin, ''The Aztecs Image in Western Thought'', New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press 1971.", "* Konetzke, Richard.", "\"Hernán Cortés como poblador de la Nueva España.\"", "''Estudios Cortesianos'', pp.", "341–381.Madrid 1948.", "* Levy, Buddy.", "''Conquistador: Hernán Cortés, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs''.", "2008 * Lorenzana, Francisco Antonio.", "''Viaje de Hernán Cortés a la Peninsula de Californias''.", "Mexico 1963* MacNutt, F.A.", "''Fernando Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico, 1485–1547''.", "New York and London 1909.", "* Madariaga, Salvador de.", "''Hernán Cortés, Conqueror of Mexico''.", "Mexico 1942.", "* Marks, Richard Lee.", "''Cortés: The Great Adventurer and the Fate of Aztec Mexico''.", "Alfred A. Knopf, 1993.", "* Mathes, W. Michael, ed.", "''The Conquistador in California: 1535.The Voyage of Fernando Cortés to Baja California in Chronicles and Documents''.", "Vol.", "31.Dawson's Book Shop, 1973.", "* Maura, Juan Francisco.", "\"Cobardía, falsedad y opportunismo español: algunas consideraciones sobre la \"verdadera\" historia de la conquista de la Nueva España\" Lemir (Revista de literatura medieval y del Renacimiento) 7 (2003): 1–29.", "* Medina, José Toribio.", "''Ensayo Bio–bibliográfico sobre Hernán Cortés''.", "Introducción de Guillermo Feliú Cruz.", "Santiago de Chile 1952.", "* Miller, Robert Ryal.", "\"Cortés and the first attempt to colonize California.\"", "''Calif Hist QJ Calif Hist Soc'' 53.1 (1974): 4–16.", "* Petrov, Lisa.", "''For an Audience of Men: Masculinity, Violence and Memory in Hernán Cortés's Las Cartas de Relación and Carlos Fuentes's Fictional Cortés''.", "University of Wisconsin–Madison, 2004.", "* Phelan, John Leddy ''The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World,'' chapter 3, \"Hernán Cortés, the Moses of the New World\", Berkeley: University of California Press, 2nd ed., revised, 1971, pp. 33–34.", "* * Restall, Matthew.", "''Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest'' Oxford University Press (2003) * Silva, José Valerio.", "''El legalismo de Hernán Cortés como instrumento de su conquista''.", "Mexico 1965.", "* Stein, R.C.", "''The World's Greatest Explorers: Hernando Cortés''.", "Illinois: Chicago Press Inc.", "1991.", "* Thomas, Hugh (1993).", "''Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico'' * Todorov, Tzvetan''The Conquest of America'' (1996) * Toro, Alfonso.", "''Un crimen de Hernán Cortés.", "La muerte de Doña Catalina Xuárez Marcaida, estudio histórico y medico legal''.", "Mexico 1922* Wagner, H.R.", "\"The lost first letter of Cortés.\"", "''Hispanic American Historical Review''.", "21 (1941) 669–672.", "* White, Jon Manchip.", "(1971) ''Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire''" ], [ "External links", "* The letters by Cortés, in which Cortés describes the events related to the conquest of Mexico* ''Genealogy of Hernán Cortés''* ''Origin of the Surname Cortés''* The change of Hernán Cortés's self-image by means of the conquest* Hernando Cortes on the Web – web directory with thumbnail galleries* Conquistadors, with Michael Wood – website for 2001 PBS documentary* Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.", "* Hernan Cortes – The Conquistador of the Aztecs; Informational Link Blog about the History of Cortes, the Aztecs along with a variety of sources, pictures and educational resources* Latin American studies center, material on Cortés* ''Fernand Cortez'' opera by Gaspare Spontini, Jean-Paul Penin* \"Cortes, Hernando\" Belinda H. Nanney* \"Hernán Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca\", Encyclopædia Britannica" ] ]
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[ [ "Herstory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herstory''' is a term for history written from a feminist perspective and emphasizing the role of women, or told from a woman's point of view.", "It originated as an alteration of the word \"history\", as part of a feminist critique of conventional historiography, which in their opinion is traditionally written as \"his story\", i.e., from the male point of view.", "The term is a neologism and a deliberate play on words; the word \"history\"—via Latin ''historia'' from the Ancient Greek word ἱστορία, a noun meaning 'knowledge obtained by inquiry'— is etymologically unrelated to the possessive pronoun ''his''." ], [ "Usage", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' credits Robin Morgan with first using the term \"herstory\" in print in her 1970 anthology ''Sisterhood is Powerful''.", "Concerning the feminist organization W.I.T.C.H., Morgan wrote::The fluidity and wit of the witches is evident in the ever-changing acronym: the basic, original title was Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell ... and the latest heard at this writing is Women Inspired to Commit Herstory.During the 1970s and 1980s, second-wave feminists saw the study of history as a male-dominated intellectual enterprise and presented \"herstory\" as a means of compensation.", "The term, intended to be both serious and comic, became a rallying cry used on T-shirts and buttons as well as in academia.In 2017, Hridith Sudev, an inventor, environmentalist and social activist associated with various youth movements, launched 'The Herstory Movement,' an online platform to \"celebrate lesser known great persons; female, queer or otherwise marginalized, who helped shape the modern World History.\"", "It is intended as an academic platform to feature stories of female historic persons and thus help facilitate more widespread knowledge about 'Great Women' History.Non-profit organizations Global G.L.O.W and LitWorld created a joint initiative called the \"HerStory Campaign\".", "This campaign works with 25 other countries to share girl's lives and stories.", "They encourage others to join the campaign and to \"raise our voices on behalf of all world's girls\".The herstory movement has spawned women-centered presses, such as Virago Press in 1973, which publishes fiction and non-fiction by noted women authors like Janet Frame and Sarah Dunant.This movement has led to an increase in activity in other female-centric disciplines such as ''femistry'' and ''galgebra''." ], [ "Criticism", "Christina Hoff Sommers has been a vocal critic of the concept of herstory, and presented her argument against the movement in her 1994 book ''Who Stole Feminism?''", "Sommers defined herstory as an attempt to infuse education with ideology at the expense of knowledge.", "The \"gender feminists\", as she called them, were the group of feminists responsible for the movement, which she felt amounted to negationism.", "She regarded most attempts to make historical studies more female-inclusive as being artificial in nature and an impediment to progress.Professor and author Devoney Looser has criticized the concept of herstory for overlooking the contributions that some women made as historians before the twentieth century.Author Richard Dawkins also described his criticism in ''The God Delusion'', arguing that \"the word history has not been influenced by the male pronoun\"." ], [ "See also", "*Women's history*Feminist history*History of feminism*Radical feminism*Womyn*Gender-neutral language" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*''Herstory: Women Who Changed the World''.", ".", "*''Daughters of Eve: A Herstory Book''.", ".", "*''HerStory''.", ".", "*''Herstory: A Woman's View of American History''.", "." ] ]
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[ [ "House of Cards (British TV series)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''House of Cards''''' is a 1990 British political thriller television serial in four episodes, set after the end of Margaret Thatcher's tenure as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.", "It was televised by the BBC from 18 November to 9 December 1990.Released to critical and popular acclaim for its writing, direction, and performances, it is considered one of the greatest British television shows ever made.The story is centred on the sudden and manipulative rise to power of the machiavellian Chief Whip of the Conservative Party, Francis Urquhart.", "Urquhart, on the party's right wing, is frustrated over his lack of promotion in the wake of Margaret Thatcher's resignation and the moderate government which succeeds it.", "He conceives a calculated and meticulous plan to bring down the new Prime Minister and replace him, on the same lines as Shakespeare's ''Richard III'' (which he often quotes).", "During this drawn-out and ruthless coup, his life is complicated by his relationship with young female reporter Mattie Storin, whom he uses to leak sensitive information in confidence.", "The question of whether the serial's ending is a tragedy (in the same vein as plays such as ''Macbeth'') is left to the viewer.Andrew Davies adapted the story from the 1989 novel of the same name by Michael Dobbs, a former chief of staff at Conservative Party headquarters.", "Neville Teller also dramatised Dobbs's novel for the BBC World Service in 1996, and it had two television sequels (''To Play the King'' and ''The Final Cut'').", "The opening and closing theme music for this TV series is entitled \"Francis Urquhart's March\", by Jim Parker.", "''House of Cards'' was ranked 84th in the British Film Institute list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes in 2000.In 2013, the serial and the Dobbs novel were the basis for a US adaptation set in Washington, D.C., commissioned and released by Netflix as the first ever major streaming service television show.", "This version was also entitled ''House of Cards'', and starred Kevin Spacey and Robin Wright." ], [ "Overview", "The antihero of ''House of Cards'' is Francis Urquhart, a fictional Chief Whip of the Conservative Party, played by Ian Richardson.", "The plot follows his amoral and manipulative scheme to become leader of the governing party and, thus, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.Michael Dobbs did not envisage writing the second and third books, as Urquhart dies at the end of the first novel.", "The screenplay of the BBC's dramatisation of ''House of Cards'' differs from the book, and hence allows future series.", "Dobbs wrote two following books, ''To Play the King'' and ''The Final Cut'', which were televised in 1993 and 1995, respectively.", "''House of Cards'' was said to draw from Shakespeare's plays ''Macbeth'' and ''Richard III'', both of which feature main characters who are corrupted by power and ambition.", "Richardson has a Shakespearean background and said he based his characterisation of Urquhart on Shakespeare's portrayal of Richard III.Urquhart frequently talks through the camera to the audience, breaking the fourth wall." ], [ "Plot", "The ruling Conservative Party is about to elect a new leader.", "Francis Urquhart, the Government Chief Whip in the House of Commons, introduces viewers to the contestants, before Henry Collingridge, the Secretary of State for the Environment, emerges victorious.", "Urquhart is contemptuous of Collingridge, who embodies the Thatcher-era rise of the lower-middle classes.", "Urquhart feigns respect, and expects promotion to a senior position in the Cabinet.", "After the general election, the party narrowly retains power.", "Urquhart makes suggestions for a hard-right reshuffle, including his own desired promotion to Home Secretary.", "However, Collingridge effects no changes at all, relying entirely on the advice of his party chairman, Lord \"Teddy\" Billsborough.", "Urquhart resolves to oust Collingridge.Urquhart begins an affair with Mattie Storin, a junior political reporter at a Conservative-leaning tabloid, ''The Chronicle''.", "This allows Urquhart to manipulate Mattie and skew her coverage of events in his favour.", "Another pawn is Roger O'Neill, the party's cocaine-addicted public relations consultant, whom Urquhart blackmails into leaking planned budget cuts, thereby humiliating Collingridge during Prime Minister's Questions.", "Later, Urquhart blames Billsborough for leaking a poll showing reduced Tory numbers, leading Collingridge to sack Billsborough.As Collingridge's image suffers, Urquhart encourages Patrick Woolton, the boorish and lecherous Foreign Secretary, and the equally unpleasant ''Chronicle'' owner Benjamin Landless to support his removal.", "He also impersonates Collingridge's alcoholic brother to trade shares and benefit from advance information confidential to the government.", "Collingridge becomes falsely accused of insider trading and is forced to resign.In the ensuing leadership race, Urquhart feigns unwillingness to stand before announcing his candidacy.", "Urquhart makes sure his competitors drop out of the race: Health Secretary Peter MacKenzie accidentally runs his car over a protester at a demonstration staged by Urquhart and withdraws, while Education Secretary Harold Earle is blackmailed into withdrawing when Urquhart anonymously sends pictures of him in the company of a rent boy whom Earle had paid for sex.The first ballot leaves Urquhart to face Woolton and Michael Samuels, the moderate Environment Secretary.", "Urquhart eliminates Woolton by a prolonged scheme: at the party conference, he pressures O'Neill into persuading his lover, Penny Guy, to sleep with Woolton in his suite, which Urquhart records via a bugged ministerial red box.", "The recording reveals Woolton ignoring Guy's pleas to stop, with Woolton ostensibly raping her.", "When the tape is sent to Woolton, he is led to assume that Samuels is behind the scheme and backs Urquhart in the contest.", "Urquhart also receives support from Collingridge, who is unaware of Urquhart's role in his own downfall.", "Samuels is forced out of the running when the tabloids reveal that he backed leftist causes as a student.Seeing contradictions in the allegations against Collingridge and his brother, Mattie begins to dig deeper, while falling in love with Urquhart and blinding herself to his possible role.", "On Urquhart's orders, O'Neill vandalises her car and throws a brick with a threatening letter through her window.", "O'Neill becomes increasingly uneasy with what he is being asked to do, and his addiction adds to his instability.", "When he threatens to go to the police, Urquhart invites him to his home in Hampshire, promising O'Neill a knighthood.", "There, O'Neill becomes completely inebriated before passing out.", "Urquhart mixes O'Neill's cocaine with rat poison, causing him to die after he takes the cocaine in a toilet at a nearby motorway service station.Mattie's colleague, John Krajewski, insists that Urquhart was the only one with the means, motive and opportunity.", "Knowing that Urquhart as Chief Whip was adroit at gaining information sensitive enough to blackmail almost anyone, Mattie realises that he is responsible for O'Neill's death and the downfall of his rivals.", "She confronts Urquhart on the roof garden of the Houses of Parliament, demanding to know if he killed Roger O’Neill.", "He admits to everything, then throws her off the roof to her death.", "She lands on the roof of a van parked below.", "An unseen person picks up Mattie's tape recorder, which she had been using to record her conversations with Urquhart.", "The series ends with Urquhart defeating Samuels in the second leadership ballot and being driven to Buckingham Palace to be invited to form a government." ], [ "Deviations from the novel in the series", "In the first novel, but not in the television series:* Urquhart never speaks directly to the reader; the character is written solely in a third-person perspective.", "* When alone, Urquhart is much less self-assured and decisive.", "* Mattie Storin works for ''The Daily Telegraph''.", "(In the television series she is a journalist with the fictional ''Chronicle'' newspaper.", ")* Mattie Storin does not have a relationship with Urquhart; she does not even talk to him frequently.", "She does, however, have a sexual relationship with John Krajewski.", "* Urquhart's wife is called Miranda and is a minor character, not sharing in his schemes.", "(In the later novels, ''To Play the King'' and ''The Final Cut'', however, she is called \"Elizabeth\" and plays a larger role, as in the television series.", ")* The Conservative party conference is held in Bournemouth.", "(In the television series it is held in Brighton.", ")* The minor character Tim Stamper is introduced for the on-screen adaptation.", "* Earle's rent boy appears in person at an important speech of Earle's, distracting him; subsequently, Earle is harassed by reporters who have been told of his indiscretion.", "* In the final confrontation scene Urquhart throws himself from the roof terrace and Mattie survives.Before the series was reissued in 2013 to coincide with the release of the US version of ''House of Cards'', Dobbs rewrote portions of the novel to bring the series in line with the television series and restore continuity among the three novels.", "In the 2013 version:* Urquhart murders Mattie Storin, throwing her off the roof after she confronts Urquhart about his actions.", "* Mattie Storin does not scream \"Daddy\" as she falls.", "* Urquhart covers up his murder of Mattie Storin by claiming she was an obsessed stalker who was mentally ill and vows to make mental health amongst the young a priority.", "* Mattie Storin works for newspaper ''The Chronicle'', per the TV series.", "* Urquhart's wife Miranda is changed to Mortima.", "* Tim Stamper, though present in the serial, does not appear in the revised version of the novel.", "* Urquhart makes asides to the audience in the form of epigraphs at the beginning of each chapter (the original novel has no chapters)." ], [ "Reception", "The first instalment of the TV series coincidentally aired two days before the Conservative Party leadership election.", "During a time of \"disillusionment with politics\", the series \"caught the nation's mood\".Ian Richardson won the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor in 1991 for his role as Urquhart, and Andrew Davies won an Emmy for outstanding writing in a miniseries.The series ranked 84th in the British Film Institute list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes." ], [ "American adaptation", "The Urquhart trilogy has been adapted in the United States as ''House of Cards''.", "The show stars Kevin Spacey as Francis \"Frank\" Underwood, the Majority Whip of the Democratic caucus in the U.S. House of Representatives, who schemes and murders his way to becoming President of the United States.", "It is produced by David Fincher and Spacey's Trigger Street Productions, with the initial episodes directed by Fincher.The series, produced and financed by independent studio Media Rights Capital, was one of Netflix's first forays into original programming.", "Series one was made available online on 1 February 2013.The series was filmed in Baltimore, Maryland.", "The first series was critically acclaimed and earned four Golden Globe Nominations, including Best Drama, actor, actress and supporting actor, with Robin Wright winning best actress.", "It also earned nine Primetime Emmy Award nominations, winning three, and was the first show to earn nominations that was broadcast solely via an internet streaming service." ], [ "In popular culture", "The drama introduced and popularised the phrase: \"You might very well think that; I couldn't possibly comment\".", "It was a non-confirmation confirmative statement, used by Urquhart whenever he could not be seen to agree with a leading statement, with the emphasis on either the \"I\" or the \"possibly\", depending on the situation.", "The phrase was even used in the House of Commons, House of Lords and Parliamentary Committees following the series.", "Prince Charles (as he was known at the time) himself said the phrase in response to a provocative question from a journalist in 2014.A variation on the phrase was written into the TV adaptation of Terry Pratchett's ''Hogfather'' for the character Death, as an in-joke on the fact that he was voiced by Richardson.During the first Gulf War, a British reporter speaking from Baghdad, conscious of the possibility of censorship, used the code phrase \"You might very well think that; I couldn't possibly comment\" to answer a BBC presenter's question.A further variation was used by Nicola Murray, a fictional government minister, in the third series finale of ''The Thick of It''.In the US adaptation, the phrase is used by Frank Underwood in the first episode during his initial meeting with Zoe Barnes, the US counterpart of Mattie Storin." ], [ "See also", "* List of ''House of Cards'' trilogy characters* Politics in fiction* ''A Very British Coup'', a similar drama of fictional contemporary British politics from a left-wing perspective* ''Yes Minister'' (and its sequel ''Yes, Prime Minister''), a satirical sitcom about a generic British government* List of fictional prime ministers of the United Kingdom" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * ''House of Cards'' at British Film Institute Screen Online" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Helen Gandy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Helen Wilburforce Gandy''' (April 8, 1897 – July 7, 1988) was the longtime secretary to Federal Bureau of Investigation director J. Edgar Hoover, who called her \"indispensable\".", "Serving in that role for 54 years she exercised great behind-the-scenes influence on Hoover and the operations of the Bureau.", "Following Hoover's death in 1972, she spent weeks destroying his \"Personal File,\" thought to contain the most incriminating material Hoover used to manipulate or blackmail the most powerful figures in Washington." ], [ "Early life", "Helen Gandy was born in Rockville, New Jersey, one of three children (two daughters and a son) born to Franklin Dallas and Annie (née Williams) Gandy.", "She grew up in New Jersey in Fairton or the Port Norris section of Commercial Township (sources differ) and graduated from Bridgeton High School in Bridgeton, New Jersey.", "In 1918, aged 21, she moved to Washington, D.C., where she later took classes at Strayer Business College and George Washington University Law School." ], [ "Career", "Gandy briefly worked in a department store in Washington before finding a job as a file clerk at the Justice Department in 1918.Within weeks, she went to work as a typist for Hoover, effective March 25, 1918, having told Hoover in her interview she had \"no immediate plans to marry\".", "She, like Hoover, would never marry; both were completely devoted to the Bureau.J.", "Edgar Hoover, director of the F.B.I, in 1961.Gandy worked for him from 1918 to his death in 1972.When Hoover went to the Bureau of Investigation (its original title; it became the FBI in 1935) as its assistant director on August 22, 1921, he specifically requested Gandy return from vacation to help him in the new post.", "Hoover became director of the Bureau in 1924, and Gandy continued in his service.", "She was promoted to \"office assistant\" on August 23, 1937, and \"executive assistant\" on October 1, 1939.Though she would receive promotions in her civil service grade subsequently, she retained her title as executive assistant until her retirement on May 2, 1972, the day Hoover died.", "Hoover said of her: \"if there is anyone in this Bureau whose services are indispensable, I consider Miss Gandy to be that person.\"", "Despite this, Curt Gentry wrote:Theirs was a rigidly formal relationship.", "He always called her \"Miss Gandy\" (when angry, barking it out as one word).", "In all those fifty-four years he never once called her by her first name.Hoover biographers Theoharis and Cox would say \"her stern face recalled Cerberus at the gate\", a view echoed by Anthony Summers in his life of Hoover, who also pictured Gandy as Hoover's first line of defense against the outside world.", "When Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Hoover's superior, had a direct telephone line installed between their offices, Hoover refused to answer the phone.", "\"Put that damn thing on Miss Gandy's desk where it belongs\", Hoover would declare.Gentry described Gandy's influence:Her genteel manner and pleasant voice contrasted sharply with this domineering presence.", "Yet behind the politeness was a resolute firmness not unlike his, and no small amount of influence.", "Many a career in the Bureau had been quietly manipulated by her.", "Even those who disliked him praised her, most often commenting on her remarkable ability to get along with all kinds of people.", "That she held her position for fifty-four years was the best evidence of this, for it was a Bureau tradition that the closer you were to him, the more demanding he was.William C. Sullivan, an agent with the Bureau for three decades, reported in his memoir that when he worked in the public relations section answering mail from the public, he gave a correspondent the wrong measurements for Hoover's personal popover recipe, relying on memory rather than the files.", "Gandy, ever protective of her boss, caught the error and brought it to Hoover's attention.", "The director then placed an official letter of reprimand in Sullivan's file for the lapse.", "Mark Felt, deputy associate director of the FBI, wrote in his memoir that Gandy \"was bright and alert and quick-tongued—and completely dedicated to her boss, whose interests she constantly protected\".===Files===Hoover died during the night of May 1–2, 1972.According to Curt Gentry, who wrote the 1991 book ''J Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets'', Hoover's body was not discovered by his live-in cook and general housekeeper, Annie Fields; rather, it was discovered by James Crawford, who had been Hoover's chauffeur for 37 years.", "Crawford then yelled out to Fields and Tom Moton (Hoover's new chauffeur after Crawford had retired in January 1972).", "Fields first called Hoover's personal physician, Dr. Robert Choisser, then used another phone to call Clyde Tolson's private number.", "Tolson then called Gandy's private number with the news of Hoover's death along with orders to begin destroying the files.", "Within an hour, the \"D List\" (\"d\" standing for destruction) was being distributed, and the destruction of files began.", "However, ''The New York Times'' quoted an anonymous FBI source in spring 1975, who said: \"Gandy had begun the destruction of files almost a year before Mr. Hoover's death and was instructed to purge the files that were presently in his office.\"L.", "Patrick Gray, was appointed acting FBI director by President Nixon after Hoover's deathAnthony Summers reported that G. Gordon Liddy had said of his sources in the FBI: \"by the time Gray went in to get the files, Miss Gandy had already got rid of them.\"", "The day after Hoover died, L. Patrick Gray, who had been named acting director by President Richard Nixon upon Tolson's resignation from that position, went to Hoover's office.", "Gandy paused from her work to give Gray a tour.", "He found file cabinets open and packing boxes being filled with papers.", "She informed him the boxes contained personal papers of Hoover's.", "Gandy stated Gray flipped through a few files and approved her work, but Gray was to deny he looked at any papers.", "Gandy also told Gray it would be a week before she could clear Hoover's effects out so Gray could move into the suite.Gray reported to Nixon that he had secured Hoover's office and its contents.", "However, he had sealed only Hoover's personal inner office, where no files were stored, not the entire suite of offices.", "Since 1957, Hoover's \"Official/Confidential\" files, containing material too sensitive to include in the FBI's central files, had been kept in the outer office, where Gandy sat.", "Gentry reported that Gray would not have known where to look in Gandy's office for the files, as her office was lined floor to ceiling with filing cabinets; moreover, without her index to the files, he would not have been able to locate incriminating material, for files were deliberately mislabeled, e.g., President Nixon's file was labeled \"Obscene Matters\".On May 4, Gandy transferred 12 boxes labelled \"Official/Confidential\", containing 167 files and 17,750 pages, to Mark Felt.", "Many of them contained inflammatory and derogatory information.", "Gray told the press that afternoon that \"there are no dossiers or secret files.", "There are just general files, and I took steps to preserve their integrity.\"", "Yet, Gandy retained the \"Personal File.", "\"Gandy went through Hoover's \"Personal File\" in the office until May 12.She then transferred at least 32 file drawers of material to the basement recreation room of Hoover's Washington home at 4936 Thirtieth Place, NW, where she continued her work from May 13 to July 17.Gandy later testified in court that nothing official had been removed from the FBI's offices, \"not even Mr. Hoover's badge.\"", "At Hoover's residence, the destruction was overseen by John P. Mohr, the third highest-ranking official in the FBI after Hoover and Tolson.", "They were aided by James Jesus Angleton, the Central Intelligence Agency's counterintelligence chief, whom Hoover's neighbors saw removing boxes from Hoover's home.", "Mohr would claim the boxes Angleton removed were cases of spoiled wine.In 1975, when the House Committee on Government Oversight investigated the FBI's illegal COINTELPRO program of spying on and harassment of Martin Luther King Jr. and others, Gandy was summoned to testify regarding the \"Personal Files.\"", "\"I tore them up, put them in boxes, and they were taken away to be shredded,\" she told the congressmen about the papers.", "The FBI Washington field office had FBI drivers transport the material to Hoover's home, then once Gandy had gone through the material, the drivers transported it back to the field office in the Old Post Office Building on Pennsylvania Avenue, where it was shredded and burned.Gandy stated that Hoover had left standing instructions to destroy his personal papers upon his death, and this instruction was confirmed by Tolson and Gray.", "She also stated that she destroyed no official papers; that everything was personal papers of Hoover's.", "The staff of the subcommittee did not believe her, but she told the committee: \"I have no reason to lie.\"", "Representative Andrew Maguire (D-New Jersey), a freshman member of the 94th Congress, said \"I find your testimony very difficult to believe.\"", "Gandy held her ground: \"That is your privilege.", "\"\"I can give you my word.", "I know what there was—letters to and from friends, personal friends, a lot of letters,\" she testified.", "Gandy also said the files she took to Hoover's home included his financial papers, such as tax returns and investment statements, the deed to his home, and papers relating to his dogs' pedigrees.Curt Gentry wrote:Helen Gandy must have felt quite safe in testifying as she did, for who could contradict her?", "Only one other person knew exactly what the files contained, and he was dead.In ''J.", "Edgar Hoover: The Man and His Secrets'', Gentry describes the nature of the files: \"their contents included blackmail material on the patriarch of an American political dynasty, his sons, their wives, and other women; allegations of two homosexual arrests which Hoover leaked to help defeat a witty, urbane Democratic presidential candidate; the surveillance reports on one of America's best-known first ladies and her alleged lovers, both male and female, white and black; the child molestation documentation the director used to control and manipulate one of the Red-baiting proteges; a list of the Bureau's spies in the White House during the eight administrations when Hoover was FBI director; the forbidden fruit of hundreds of illegal wiretaps and bugs, containing, for example, evidence that an attorney general, Tom C. Clark, who later became Supreme Court justice, had received payoffs from the Chicago syndicate; as well as celebrity files, with all the unsavory gossip Hoover could amass on some of the biggest names in show business.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Gandy lived for decades with partner, Margaret E. Morrow.", "Morrow died April 16, 1986." ], [ "Later years", "Hoover left Gandy $5,000 in his will.In 1961, she and her sister, Lucy G. Rodman, donated a portrait of their mother by Thomas Eakins to the Smithsonian American Art Museum.", "Gandy lived in Washington until 1986, when she moved to DeLand, Florida, in Volusia County, where a niece lived.", "Gandy was an avid trout fisher." ], [ "Death", "Gandy died of a heart attack on July 7, 1988, either in DeLand (as indicated by her ''New York Times'' obituary) or in nearby Orange City, Florida, (as stated in her ''Washington Post'' obituary)." ], [ "In popular culture", "Gandy has been portrayed by actresses Lee Kessler in ''J.", "Edgar Hoover'' (1987), Naomi Watts in ''J.", "Edgar'' (2011), and Rebecca Toolan in ''Bad Times at the El Royale'' (2018)." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* John Crewdson.", "\"U.S.", "Investigating Missing F.B.I.", "Data\". ''", "The New York Times''.", "June 7, 1972.14.", "* W. Mark Felt.", "''The FBI Pyramid: From the Inside''.", "New York: G.P.", "Putnam's Sons, 1979.().", "* Curt Gentry. ''", "J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets''.", "New York: W.W. Norton, 1991.", "()* Richard Hack.", "''Puppetmaster: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover''.", "Beverly Hills, California: New Millennium Press, 2004.", "()* \"Hoover's Political Spying for Presidents\" ''Time''.", "December 15, 1975.", "* \"Obituaries\".", "''Orlando Sentinel''.", "July 9, 1988.D10.", "* Gandy's Social Security Death Index.", "577-60-1115 Her SSN* \"United States Social Security Death Index\", database, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:JTZB-L23 : May 20, 2014), Helen W Gandy, July 15, 1988; citing U.S. Social Security Administration, Death Master File, database (Alexandria, Virginia: National Technical Information Service, ongoing).", "* William C. Sullivan with Bill Brown.", "''The Bureau: My Thirty Years in Hoover's F.B.I''.", "New York: W.W. Norton, 1979.", "()* Athan G. Theoharis, Tony G. Poveda, Susan Rosefeld, and Richard Gid Powers.", "''The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide''.", "New York: Checkmark Books, 2000.", "()* Robert McG.", "Thomas.", "\"John Mohr, 86, Hoover Confident and Ally at F.B.I.\".", "''The New York Times''.", "February 1, 1997.26.", "* \"The Truth About Hoover\" (cover story) ''Time''.", "December 22, 1975.", "* United Press International.", "\"Secretary Says She Destroyed Hoover's Letters on His Orders\".", "''The New York Times''.", "December 2, 1975.14.", "* United States.", "Congress.", "House of Representatives.", "Committee on Government Operations.", "Subcommittee on Government Information and Individual Rights.", "''Inquiry Into the Destruction of Former FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's Files and FBI Recordkeeping: Hearing Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, 94th Congress, December 1, 1975''.", "Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1975." ], [ "External links", "* Attorney General Griffin Bell's statement on the investigation into the destruction of the files" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horsepower" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Horsepower''' ('''hp''') is a unit of measurement of power, or the rate at which work is done, usually in reference to the output of engines or motors.", "There are many different standards and types of horsepower.", "Two common definitions used today are the '''mechanical horsepower''' (or '''imperial horsepower'''), which is about 745.7 watts, and the '''metric horsepower''', which is approximately 735.5 watts.The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of steam engines with the power of draft horses.", "It was later expanded to include the output power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors and other machinery.", "The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions.", "Most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power.", "With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on 1 January 2010, the use of horsepower in the EU is permitted only as a supplementary unit." ], [ "History", "A team of six horses mowing hay in Lancaster County, PennsylvaniaThe development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them.", "In 1702, Thomas Savery wrote in ''The Miner's Friend''::So that an engine which will raise as much water as two horses, working together at one time in such a work, can do, and for which there must be constantly kept ten or twelve horses for doing the same.", "Then I say, such an engine may be made large enough to do the work required in employing eight, ten, fifteen, or twenty horses to be constantly maintained and kept for doing such a work...The idea was later used by James Watt to help market his improved steam engine.", "He had previously agreed to take royalties of one-third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines.", "This royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead.Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour (or 2.4 times a minute).", "The wheel was in radius; therefore, the horse travelled feet in one minute.", "Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of .", "So::Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft⋅lbf/min, which was rounded to an even 33,000 ft⋅lbf/min.", "''Engineering in History'' recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce per minute.", "John Desaguliers had previously suggested per minute, and Tredgold suggested per minute.", "\"Watt found by experiment in 1782 that a 'brewery horse' could produce per minute.\"", "James Watt and Matthew Boulton standardized that figure at per minute the next year.A common legend states that the unit was created when one of Watt's first customers, a brewer, specifically demanded an engine that would match a horse, and chose the strongest horse he had and driving it to the limit.", "In that legend, Watt accepted the challenge and built a machine that was actually even stronger than the figure achieved by the brewer, and the output of that machine became the horsepower.In 1993, R. D. Stevenson and R. J. Wassersug published correspondence in ''Nature'' summarizing measurements and calculations of peak and sustained work rates of a horse.", "Citing measurements made at the 1926 Iowa State Fair, they reported that the peak power over a few seconds has been measured to be as high as and also observed that for sustained activity, a work rate of about per horse is consistent with agricultural advice from both the 19th and 20th centuries and also consistent with a work rate of about four times the basal rate expended by other vertebrates for sustained activity.When considering human-powered equipment, a healthy human can produce about briefly (see orders of magnitude) and sustain about indefinitely; trained athletes can manage up to about brieflyand for a period of several hours.", "The Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt produced a maximum of 0.89 seconds into his 9.58 second dash world record in 2009.In 2023 a group of engineers modified a dynometer to be able to measure how much horsepower a horse can produce.", "This horse was measured to ." ], [ "Calculating power", "When torque is in pound-foot units, rotational speed is in rpm, the resulting power in horsepower is: The constant 5252 is the rounded value of (33,000 ft⋅lbf/min)/(2π rad/rev).When torque is in inch-pounds,: The constant 63,025 is the approximation of:" ], [ "Definitions", "===Mechanical horsepower===Assuming the third CGPM (1901, CR 70) definition of standard gravity, , is used to define the pound-force as well as the kilogram force, and the international avoirdupois pound (1959), one mechanical horsepower is::1 hp≡ 33,000 ft·lbf/minby definition= 550 ft⋅lbf/ssince1 min = 60 s= 550 × 0.3048 × 0.45359237 m⋅kgf/ssince1 ft ≡ 0.3048 m and 1 lb ≡ 0.45359237 kg= 76.0402249 kgf⋅m/s= 76.0402249 × 9.80665 kg⋅m2/s3since''g'' = 9.80665 m/s2≈ 745.700 Wsince1 W ≡ 1 J/s = 1 N⋅m/s = 1 (kg⋅m/s2)⋅(m/s)Or given that 1 hp = 550 ft⋅lbf/s, 1 ft = 0.3048 m, 1 lbf ≈ 4.448 N, 1 J = 1 N⋅m, 1 W = 1 J/s: 1 hp ≈ 746 W=== Metric horsepower (PS, cv, hk, pk, k, ks, ch)===One ''metric horsepower'' is needed to lift 75 kilograms by 1 metre in 1 second.The various units used to indicate this definition (''PS'', '' KM'', ''cv'', ''hk'', ''pk'', ''k'', ''ks'' and ''ch'') all translate to ''horse power'' in English.", "British manufacturers often intermix metric horsepower and mechanical horsepower depending on the origin of the engine in question.DIN 66036 defines one metric horsepower as the power to raise a mass of 75 kilograms against the Earth's gravitational force over a distance of one metre in one second: = 75 ⋅m/s = 1 PS.", "This is equivalent to 735.49875 W, or 98.6% of an imperial mechanical horsepower.", "In 1972, the PS was replaced by the kilowatt as the official power-measuring unit in EEC directives.Other names for the metric horsepower are the Italian , Dutch , the French , the Spanish and Portuguese , the Russian , the Swedish , the Finnish , the Estonian , the Norwegian and Danish , the Hungarian , the Czech and Slovak or ), the Serbo-Croatian , the Bulgarian , the Macedonian , the Polish , Slovenian , the Ukrainian , the Romanian , and the German .In the 19th century, the French had their own unit, which they used instead of the CV or horsepower.", "Based on a 100 kgf⋅m/s standard, it was called the poncelet and was abbreviated ''p''.===Tax horsepower===Tax or fiscal horsepower is a non-linear rating of a motor vehicle for tax purposes.", "Tax horsepower ratings were originally more or less directly related to the size of the engine; but as of 2000, many countries changed over to systems based on emissions, so are not directly comparable to older ratings.", "The Citroën 2CV is named for its French fiscal horsepower rating, \"deux chevaux\" (2CV).===Electrical horsepower===Nameplates on electrical motors show their power output, not the power input (the power delivered at the shaft, not the power consumed to drive the motor).", "This power output is ordinarily stated in watts or kilowatts.", "In the United States, the power output is stated in horsepower, which for this purpose is defined as exactly 746 W.===Hydraulic horsepower===Hydraulic horsepower can represent the power available within hydraulic machinery, power through the down-hole nozzle of a drilling rig, or can be used to estimate the mechanical power needed to generate a known hydraulic flow rate.It may be calculated as: where pressure is in psi, and flow rate is in US gallons per minute.Drilling rigs are powered mechanically by rotating the drill pipe from above.", "Hydraulic power is still needed though, as 1 500 to 5 000 W are required to push mud through the drill bit to clear waste rock.", "Additional hydraulic power may also be used to drive a down-hole mud motor to power directional drilling.When using SI units, the equation becomes coherent and there is no dividing constant.", ": where pressure is in pascals (Pa), and flow rate is in cubic metres per second (m3).===Boiler horsepower===Boiler horsepower is a boiler's capacity to deliver steam to a steam engine and is not the same unit of power as the 550 ft lb/s definition.", "One boiler horsepower is equal to the thermal energy rate required to evaporate of fresh water at in one hour.", "In the early days of steam use, the boiler horsepower was roughly comparable to the horsepower of engines fed by the boiler.The term \"boiler horsepower\" was originally developed at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876, where the best steam engines of that period were tested.", "The average steam consumption of those engines (per output horsepower) was determined to be the evaporation of of water per hour, based on feed water at , and saturated steam generated at .", "This original definition is equivalent to a boiler heat output of .", "A few years later in 1884, the ASME re-defined the boiler horsepower as the thermal output equal to the evaporation of 34.5 pounds per hour of water \"from and at\" .", "This considerably simplified boiler testing, and provided more accurate comparisons of the boilers at that time.", "This revised definition is equivalent to a boiler heat output of .", "Present industrial practice is to define \"boiler horsepower\" as a boiler thermal output equal to , which is very close to the original and revised definitions.Boiler horsepower is still used to measure boiler output in industrial boiler engineering in the US.", "Boiler horsepower is abbreviated BHP, not to be confused with brake horsepower, below, which is also abbreviated bhp, in lower case.===Drawbar power===Drawbar power (dbp) is the power a railway locomotive has available to haul a train or an agricultural tractor to pull an implement.", "This is a measured figure rather than a calculated one.", "A special railway car called a dynamometer car coupled behind the locomotive keeps a continuous record of the drawbar pull exerted, and the speed.", "From these, the power generated can be calculated.", "To determine the maximum power available, a controllable load is required; it is normally a second locomotive with its brakes applied, in addition to a static load.If the drawbar force () is measured in pounds-force (lbf) and speed () is measured in miles per hour (mph), then the drawbar power () in horsepower (hp) is: Example: How much power is needed to pull a drawbar load of 2,025 pounds-force at 5 miles per hour?", ": The constant 375 is because 1 hp = 375 lbf⋅mph.", "If other units are used, the constant is different.", "When using coherent SI units (watts, newtons, and metres per second), no constant is needed, and the formula becomes .This formula may also be used to calculate the power of a jet engine, using the speed of the jet and the thrust required to maintain that speed.Example: how much power is generated with a thrust of 4 000 pounds at 400 miles per hour?", ": ===RAC horsepower (taxable horsepower)===This measure was instituted by the Royal Automobile Club and was used to denote the power of early 20th-century British cars.", "Many cars took their names from this figure (hence the Austin Seven and Riley Nine), while others had names such as \"40/50 hp\", which indicated the RAC figure followed by the true measured power.Taxable horsepower does not reflect developed horsepower; rather, it is a calculated figure based on the engine's bore size, number of cylinders, and a (now archaic) presumption of engine efficiency.", "As new engines were designed with ever-increasing efficiency, it was no longer a useful measure, but was kept in use by UK regulations, which used the rating for tax purposes.", "The United Kingdom was not the only country that used the RAC rating; many states in Australia used RAC hp to determine taxation.", "The RAC formula was sometimes applied in British colonies as well, such as Kenya (British East Africa).", ": where: ''D'' is the diameter (or bore) of the cylinder in inches,: ''n'' is the number of cylinders.Since taxable horsepower was computed based on bore and number of cylinders, not based on actual displacement, it gave rise to engines with \"undersquare\" dimensions (bore smaller than stroke), which tended to impose an artificially low limit on rotational speed, hampering the potential power output and efficiency of the engine.The situation persisted for several generations of four- and six-cylinder British engines: For example, Jaguar's 3.4-litre XK engine of the 1950s had six cylinders with a bore of and a stroke of , where most American automakers had long since moved to oversquare (large bore, short stroke) V8 engines.", "See, for example, the early Chrysler Hemi engine." ], [ "Measurement", "The power of an engine may be measured or estimated at several points in the transmission of the power from its generation to its application.", "A number of names are used for the power developed at various stages in this process, but none is a clear indicator of either the measurement system or definition used.In general::nominal horsepower is derived from the size of the engine and the piston speed and is only accurate at a steam pressure of ;:indicated or gross horsepower is the theoretical capability of the engine PLAN/ 33000;:brake/net/crankshaft horsepower (power delivered directly to and measured at the engine's crankshaft) equals::indicated horsepower minus frictional losses within the engine (bearing drag, rod and crankshaft windage losses, oil film drag, etc.", ");:shaft horsepower (power delivered to and measured at the output shaft of the transmission, when present in the system) equals::crankshaft horsepower minus frictional losses in the transmission (bearings, gears, oil drag, windage, etc.", ");:effective, true (thp) or commonly referred to as wheel horsepower (whp) equals::shaft horsepower minus frictional losses in the universal joint/s, differential, wheel bearings, tire and chain, (if present).All the above assumes that no power inflation factors have been applied to any of the readings.Engine designers use expressions other than horsepower to denote objective targets or performance, such as brake mean effective pressure (BMEP).", "This is a coefficient of theoretical brake horsepower and cylinder pressures during combustion.=== Nominal horsepower===Nominal horsepower (nhp) is an early 19th-century rule of thumb used to estimate the power of steam engines.", "It assumed a steam pressure of .Nominal horsepower = 7 × area of piston in square inches × equivalent piston speed in feet per minute/33,000.For paddle ships, the Admiralty rule was that the piston speed in feet per minute was taken as 129.7 × (stroke)1/3.38.For screw steamers, the intended piston speed was used.The stroke (or length of stroke) was the distance moved by the piston measured in feet.For the nominal horsepower to equal the actual power it would be necessary for the mean steam pressure in the cylinder during the stroke to be and for the piston speed to be that generated by the assumed relationship for paddle ships.The French Navy used the same definition of nominal horse power as the Royal Navy.Comparison of nominal and indicated horse power Ship Indicated horse power (ihp) Nominal horse power (nhp) Ratio of ihp to nhp Source ''Dee'' 272 200 1.36 ''Locust'' 157 100 1.57 ''Rhadamanthus'' 400 220 1.82 ''Albacore'' 109 60 1.82 ''Porcupine'' 285 132 2.16 ''Harpy'' 520 200 2.60 ''Spitfire'' 380 140 2.70 ''Spiteful'' 796 280 2.85 ''Jackal'' 455 150 3.03 ''Supply'' 265 80 3.31 ''Simoom'' 1,576 400 3.94 ''Hector'' 3,256 800 4.07 ''Agincourt'' 6,867 1,350 5.08 ''Bellerophon'' 6,521 1,000 6.52 ''Monarch'' 7,842 1,100 7.13 ''Penelope'' 4,703 600 7.84=== Indicated horsepower===Indicated horsepower (ihp) is the theoretical power of a reciprocating engine if it is completely frictionless in converting the expanding gas energy (piston pressure × displacement) in the cylinders.", "It is calculated from the pressures developed in the cylinders, measured by a device called an ''engine indicator'' – hence indicated horsepower.", "As the piston advances throughout its stroke, the pressure against the piston generally decreases, and the indicator device usually generates a graph of pressure vs stroke within the working cylinder.", "From this graph the amount of work performed during the piston stroke may be calculated.Indicated horsepower was a better measure of engine power than nominal horsepower (nhp) because it took account of steam pressure.", "But unlike later measures such as shaft horsepower (shp) and brake horsepower (bhp), it did not take into account power losses due to the machinery internal frictional losses, such as a piston sliding within the cylinder, plus bearing friction, transmission and gear box friction, etc.=== Brake horsepower==='''Brake horsepower''' ('''bhp''') is the power measured using a brake type (load) dynamometer at a specified location, such as the crankshaft, output shaft of the transmission, rear axle or rear wheels.In Europe, the DIN 70020 standard tests the engine fitted with all ancillaries and the exhaust system as used in the car.", "The older American standard (SAE gross horsepower, referred to as ''bhp'') used an engine without alternator, water pump, and other auxiliary components such as power steering pump, muffled exhaust system, etc., so the figures were higher than the European figures for the same engine.", "The newer American standard (referred to as SAE net horsepower) tests an engine with all the auxiliary components (see \"Engine power test standards\" below).", "''Brake'' refers to the device which is used to provide an equal braking force, load to balance, or equal an engine's output force and hold it at a desired rotational speed.", "During testing, the output torque and rotational speed are measured to determine the brake horsepower.", "Horsepower was originally measured and calculated by use of the \"indicator diagram\" (a James Watt invention of the late 18th century), and later by means of a Prony brake connected to the engine's output shaft.", "Modern dynamometers use any of several braking methods to measure the engine's brake horsepower, the actual output of the engine itself, before losses to the drivetrain.===Shaft horsepower===Shaft horsepower (shp) is the power delivered to a propeller shaft, a turbine shaft, or to an output shaft of an automotive transmission.", "Shaft horsepower is a common rating for turboshaft and turboprop engines, industrial turbines, and some marine applications.Equivalent shaft horsepower (eshp) is sometimes used to rate turboprop engines.", "It includes the equivalent power derived from residual jet thrust from the turbine exhaust.", "of residual jet thrust is estimated to be produced from one unit of horsepower." ], [ "{{anchor|netgross|standards}} Engine power test standards", "There exist a number of different standards determining how the power and torque of an automobile engine is measured and corrected.", "Correction factors are used to adjust power and torque measurements to standard atmospheric conditions, to provide a more accurate comparison between engines as they are affected by the pressure, humidity, and temperature of ambient air.", "Some standards are described below.=== Society of Automotive Engineers/SAE International=======Early \"SAE horsepower\" (see RAC horsepower for the formula)====In the early twentieth century, a so-called \"SAE horsepower\" was sometimes quoted for U.S. automobiles.", "This long predates the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) horsepower measurement standards and was another name for the industry standard ALAM or NACC horsepower figure and the same as the British RAC horsepower also used for tax purposes.", "Alliance for Automotive Innovation is the current successor of ALAM and NACC.==== SAE gross power====Prior to the 1972 model year, American automakers rated and advertised their engines in brake horsepower, ''bhp'', which was a version of brake horsepower called SAE gross horsepower because it was measured according to Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standards (J245 and J1995) that call for a stock test engine without accessories (such as dynamo/alternator, radiator fan, water pump), and sometimes fitted with long tube test headers in lieu of the OEM exhaust manifolds.", "This contrasts with both SAE net power and DIN 70020 standards, which account for engine accessories (but not transmission losses).", "The atmospheric correction standards for barometric pressure, humidity and temperature for SAE gross power testing were relatively idealistic.==== SAE net power====In the United States, the term ''bhp'' fell into disuse in 1971–1972, as automakers began to quote power in terms of SAE net horsepower in accord with SAE standard J1349.Like SAE gross and other brake horsepower protocols, SAE net hp is measured at the engine's crankshaft, and so does not account for transmission losses.", "However, similar to the DIN 70020 standard, SAE net power testing protocol calls for standard production-type belt-driven accessories, air cleaner, emission controls, exhaust system, and other power-consuming accessories.", "This produces ratings in closer alignment with the power produced by the engine as it is actually configured and sold.====SAE certified power====In 2005, the SAE introduced \"SAE Certified Power\" with SAE J2723.To attain certification the test must follow the SAE standard in question, take place in an ISO 9000/9002 certified facility and be witnessed by an SAE approved third party.A few manufacturers such as Honda and Toyota switched to the new ratings immediately.", "The rating for Toyota's Camry 3.0 L ''1MZ-FE'' V6 fell from .", "The company's Lexus ES 330 and Camry SE V6 (3.3 L V6) were previously rated at but the ES 330 dropped to while the Camry declined to .", "The first engine certified under the new program was the 7.0 L LS7 used in the 2006 Chevrolet Corvette Z06.Certified power rose slightly from .While Toyota and Honda are retesting their entire vehicle lineups, other automakers generally are retesting only those with updated powertrains.", "For example, the 2006 Ford Five Hundred is rated at , the same as that of 2005 model.", "However, the 2006 rating does not reflect the new SAE testing procedure, as Ford is not going to incur the extra expense of retesting its existing engines.", "Over time, most automakers are expected to comply with the new guidelines.SAE tightened its horsepower rules to eliminate the opportunity for engine manufacturers to manipulate factors affecting performance such as how much oil was in the crankcase, engine control system calibration, and whether an engine was tested with high octane fuel.", "In some cases, such can add up to a change in horsepower ratings.===''Deutsches Institut für Normung'' 70020 (DIN 70020)===DIN 70020 is a German DIN standard for measuring road vehicle horsepower.", "DIN hp is measured at the engine's output shaft as a form of metric horsepower rather than mechanical horsepower.", "Similar to SAE net power rating, and unlike SAE gross power, DIN testing measures the engine as installed in the vehicle, with cooling system, charging system and stock exhaust system all connected.", "DIN hp is often abbreviated as \"PS\", derived from the German word '''''Pferdestärke''''' (literally, \"horsepower\").===CUNA===A test standard by Italian CUNA (''Commissione Tecnica per l'Unificazione nell'Automobile'', Technical Commission for Automobile Unification), a federated entity of standards organisation UNI, was formerly used in Italy.CUNA prescribed that the engine be tested with all accessories necessary to its running fitted (such as the water pump), while all others – such as alternator/dynamo, radiator fan, and exhaust manifold – could be omitted.", "All calibration and accessories had to be as on production engines.===Economic Commission for Europe R24===ECE R24 is a UN standard for the approval of compression ignition engine emissions, installation and measurement of engine power.", "It is similar to DIN 70020 standard, but with different requirements for connecting an engine's fan during testing causing it to absorb less power from the engine.===Economic Commission for Europe R85===ECE R85 is a UN standard for the approval of internal combustion engines with regard to the measurement of the net power.===80/1269/EEC===80/1269/EEC of 16 December 1980 is a European Union standard for road vehicle engine power.===International Organization for Standardization===The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) publishes several standards for measuring engine horsepower.", "* ISO 14396 specifies the additional and method requirement for determining the power of reciprocating internal combustion engines when presented for an ISO 8178 exhaust emission test.", "It applies to reciprocating internal combustion engines for land, rail and marine use excluding engines of motor vehicles primarily designed for road use.", "* ISO 1585 is an engine net power test code intended for road vehicles.", "* ISO 2534 is an engine gross power test code intended for road vehicles.", "* ISO 4164 is an engine net power test code intended for mopeds.", "* ISO 4106 is an engine net power test code intended for motorcycles.", "* ISO 9249 is an engine net power test code intended for earth moving machines.===Japanese Industrial Standard D 1001===JIS D 1001 is a Japanese net, and gross, engine power test code for automobiles or trucks having a spark ignition, diesel engine, or fuel injection engine." ], [ "See also", "* Brake-specific fuel consumption – how much fuel an engine consumes per unit energy output* Dynamometer engine testing* European units of measurement directives* Horsepower-hour* Mean effective pressure* Torque" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* How Much Horsepower Does a Horse Have?", "* How Stuff Works: Horsepower" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of London" ], [ "Introduction", "The history of London, the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, extends over 2000 years.", "In that time, it has become one of the world's most significant financial and cultural capital cities.", "It has withstood plague, devastating fire, civil war, aerial bombardment, terrorist attacks, and riots.The City of London is the historic core of the Greater London metropolis, and is today its primary financial district, it represents only a small part of the wider metropolis." ], [ "Foundations and prehistory", "Some recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area.", "In 1993, the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the Thames's south foreshore, upstream of Vauxhall Bridge.", "This bridge either crossed the Thames or went to a now lost island in the river.", "Dendrology dated the timbers to between 1750 BC and 1285 BC.", "In 2001, a further dig found that the timbers were driven vertically into the ground on the south bank of the Thames west of Vauxhall Bridge.In 2010, the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to between 4800 BC and 4500 BC were found, again on the foreshore south of Vauxhall Bridge.", "The function of the mesolithic structure is not known.", "All these structures are on the south bank at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the Thames.Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes, \"Because no LPRIA Late pre-Roman Iron Age settlements or significant domestic refuse have been found in London, despite extensive archaeological excavation, arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial.\"" ], [ "Early history", "===Roman London (47–410 AD)===A Carausius coin from Londinium mintA medal of Constantius I capturing London (inscribed as ) in 296 after defeating Allectus.", "From Beaurains treasure.", "''Londinium'' was established as a civilian town by the Romans about four years after the invasion of 43 AD.", "London, like Rome, was founded on the point of the river where it was narrow enough to bridge and the strategic location of the city provided easy access to much of Europe.", "Early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, roughly equivalent to the size of Hyde Park.", "In around 60 AD, it was destroyed by the Iceni led by their queen Boudica.", "The city was quickly rebuilt as a planned Roman town and recovered after perhaps 10 years; the city grew rapidly over the following decades.Although some sources claim that during the 2nd century ''Londinium'' replaced Colchester as the capital of Roman Britain (Britannia) there is no surviving evidence to prove it was ever the capital of Roman Britain.", "Its population was around 60,000 inhabitants.", "It boasted major public buildings, including the largest basilica north of the Alps, temples, bath houses, an amphitheatre and a large fort for the city garrison.", "Political instability and recession from the 3rd century onwards led to a slow decline.At some time between 180 AD and 225 AD, the Romans built the defensive London Wall around the landward side of the city.", "The wall was about long, high, and thick.", "The wall would survive for another 1,600 years and define the City of London's perimeters for centuries to come.", "The perimeters of the present City are roughly defined by the line of the ancient wall.Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.In the late 3rd century, Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates.", "This led, from around 255 onwards, to the construction of an additional riverside wall.", "Six of the traditional seven city gates of London are of Roman origin, namely: Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate (Moorgate is the exception, being of medieval origin).By the 5th century, the Roman Empire was in rapid decline and in 410 AD, the Roman occupation of Britannia came to an end.", "Following this, the Roman city also went into rapid decline and by the end of the 5th century was practically abandoned.===Anglo-Saxon London (5th century – 1066)===Until recently it was believed that Anglo-Saxon settlement initially avoided the area immediately around Londinium.", "However, the discovery in 2008 of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Covent Garden indicates that the incomers had begun to settle there at least as early as the 6th century and possibly in the 5th.", "The main focus of this settlement was outside the Roman walls, clustering a short distance to the west along what is now the Strand, between the Aldwych and Trafalgar Square.", "It was known as ''Lundenwic'', the ''-wic'' suffix here denoting a trading settlement.", "Recent excavations have also highlighted the population density and relatively sophisticated urban organisation of this earlier Anglo-Saxon London, which was laid out on a grid pattern and grew to house a likely population of 10–12,000.Early Anglo-Saxon London belonged to a people known as the Middle Saxons, from whom the name of the county of Middlesex is derived, but who probably also occupied the approximate area of modern Hertfordshire and Surrey.", "However, by the early 7th century the London area had been incorporated into the kingdom of the East Saxons.", "In 604 King Saeberht of Essex converted to Christianity and London received Mellitus, its first post-Roman bishop.At this time Essex was under the overlordship of King Æthelberht of Kent, and it was under Æthelberht's patronage that Mellitus founded the first St. Paul's Cathedral, traditionally said to be on the site of an old Roman Temple of Diana (although Christopher Wren found no evidence of this).", "It would have only been a modest church at first and may well have been destroyed after he was expelled from the city by Saeberht's pagan successors.The permanent establishment of Christianity in the East Saxon kingdom took place in the reign of King Sigeberht II in the 650s.", "During the 8th century, the kingdom of Mercia extended its dominance over south-eastern England, initially through overlordship which at times developed into outright annexation.", "London seems to have come under direct Mercian control in the 730s.Alfred, with the legend ''ÆLFRED REX''The statue of Alfred the Great at Winchester, erected 1899Viking attacks dominated most of the 9th century, becoming increasingly common from around 830 onwards.", "London was sacked in 842 and again in 851.The Danish \"Great Heathen Army\", which had rampaged across England since 865, wintered in London in 871.The city remained in Danish hands until 886, when it was captured by the forces of King Alfred the Great of Wessex and reincorporated into Mercia, then governed under Alfred's sovereignty by his son-in-law Ealdorman Æthelred.A plaque in the City of London noting the re-establishment of the Roman walled cityAround this time the focus of settlement moved within the old Roman walls for the sake of defence, and the city became known as ''Lundenburh''.", "The Roman walls were repaired and the defensive ditch re-cut, while the bridge was probably rebuilt at this time.", "A second fortified Borough was established on the south bank at Southwark, the ''Suthringa Geworc'' (defensive work of the men of Surrey).", "The old settlement of ''Lundenwic'' became known as the ''ealdwic'' or \"old settlement\", a name which survives today as Aldwich.From this point, the City of London began to develop its own unique local government.", "Following Æthelred's death in 911 it was transferred to Wessex, preceding the absorption of the rest of Mercia in 918.Although it faced competition for political pre-eminence in the united Kingdom of England from the traditional West Saxon centre of Winchester, London's size and commercial wealth brought it a steadily increasing importance as a focus of governmental activity.", "King Athelstan held many meetings of the ''witan'' in London and issued laws from there, while King Æthelred the Unready issued the Laws of London there in 978.Following the resumption of Viking attacks in the reign of Æthelred, London was unsuccessfully attacked in 994 by an army under King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark.", "As English resistance to the sustained and escalating Danish onslaught finally collapsed in 1013, London repulsed an attack by the Danes and was the last place to hold out while the rest of the country submitted to Sweyn, but by the end of the year it too capitulated and Æthelred fled abroad.", "Sweyn died just five weeks after having been proclaimed king and Æthelred was restored to the throne, but Sweyn's son Cnut returned to the attack in 1015.After Æthelred's death at London in 1016 his son Edmund Ironside was proclaimed king there by the ''witangemot'' and left to gather forces in Wessex.", "London was then subjected to a systematic siege by Cnut but was relieved by King Edmund's army; when Edmund again left to recruit reinforcements in Wessex the Danes resumed the siege but were again unsuccessful.", "However, following his defeat at the Battle of Assandun Edmund ceded to Cnut all of England north of the Thames, including London, and his death a few weeks later left Cnut in control of the whole country.A Norse saga tells of a battle when King Æthelred returned to attack Danish-occupied London.", "According to the saga, the Danes lined London Bridge and showered the attackers with spears.", "Undaunted, the attackers pulled the roofs off nearby houses and held them over their heads in the boats.", "Thus protected, they were able to get close enough to the bridge to attach ropes to the piers and pull the bridge down, thus ending the Viking occupation of London.", "This story presumably relates to Æthelred's return to power after Sweyn's death in 1014, but there is no strong evidence of any such struggle for control of London on that occasion.Following the extinction of Cnut's dynasty in 1042 English rule was restored under Edward the Confessor.", "He was responsible for the foundation of Westminster Abbey and spent much of his time at Westminster, which from this time steadily supplanted the City itself as the centre of government.", "Edward's death at Westminster in 1066 without a clear heir led to a succession dispute and the Norman conquest of England.", "Earl Harold Godwinson was elected king by the ''witangemot'' and crowned in Westminster Abbey but was defeated and killed by William the Bastard, Duke of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings.", "The surviving members of the ''witan'' met in London and elected King Edward's young nephew Edgar the Ætheling as king.The Normans advanced to the south bank of the Thames opposite London, where they defeated an English attack and burned Southwark but were unable to storm the bridge.", "They moved upstream and crossed the river at Wallingford before advancing on London from the north-west.", "The resolve of the English leadership to resist collapsed and the chief citizens of London went out together with the leading members of the Church and aristocracy to submit to William at Berkhamstead, although according to some accounts there was a subsequent violent clash when the Normans reached the city.", "Having occupied London, William was crowned king in Westminster Abbey.===Norman and Medieval London (1066 – late 15th century)===A depiction of the imprisonment of Charles, Duke of Orléans in the Tower of London, from a 15th-century manuscript.", "Old London Bridge is in the backgroundThe new Norman regime established new fortresses within the city to dominate the native population.", "By far the most important of these was the Tower of London at the eastern end of the city, where the initial timber fortification was rapidly replaced by the construction of the first stone castle in England.", "The smaller forts of Baynard's Castle and Montfichet's Castle were also established along the waterfront.", "King William also granted a charter in 1067 confirming the city's existing rights, privileges and laws.", "London was a centre of England's nascent Jewish population, the first of whom arrived in about 1070.Its growing self-government was consolidated by the election rights granted by King John in 1199 and 1215.On 17 October 1091 a tornado rated T8 on the TORRO scale (equivalent to an F4 on the Fujita scale) hit London; it directly struck the church of St. Mary-le-Bow; four rafters 7.9 meters long (26 feet) were said to have been buried so deep into the ground that only 1.2 meters (4 feet) was visible.", "Other churches in the area were destroyed as well; it was reported to have also destroyed over 600 houses (although most of them were primarily wood) and hit the London Bridge, after the tornado the bridge was rebuilt in stone.", "The tornado caused 2 deaths and an unknown number of injuries; this tornado is mentioned in chronicles by Florence of Worcester and William of Malmesbury, the latter of the two describing it as \"a great spectacle for those watching from afar, but a terrifying experience for those standing near\".In 1097, William Rufus, the son of William the Conqueror, began the construction of 'Westminster Hall', which became the focus of the Palace of Westminster.In 1176, construction began of the most famous incarnation of London Bridge (completed in 1209), which was built on the site of several earlier timber bridges.", "This bridge would last for 600 years, and remained the only bridge across the River Thames until 1739.Violence against Jews took place in 1190, after it was rumoured that the new King had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.In 1216, during the First Barons' War London was occupied by Prince Louis of France, who had been called in by the baronial rebels against King John and was acclaimed as King of England in St Paul's Cathedral.", "However, following John's death in 1217 Louis's supporters reverted to their Plantagenet allegiance, rallying round John's son Henry III, and Louis was forced to withdraw from England.In 1224, after an accusation of ritual murder, the Jewish community was subjected to a steep punitive levy.", "Then in 1232, Henry III confiscated the principal synagogue of the London Jewish community because he claimed their chanting was audible in a neighboring church.", "In 1264, during the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels occupied London and killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.London's Jewish community was forced to leave England by the expulsion by Edward I in 1290.They left for France, Holland and further afield; their property was seized, and many suffered robbery and murder as they departed.Over the following centuries, London would shake off the heavy French cultural and linguistic influence which had been there since the times of the Norman conquest.", "The city would figure heavily in the development of Early Modern English.London During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, London was invaded by rebels led by Wat Tyler.", "A group of peasants stormed the Tower of London and executed the Lord Chancellor, Archbishop Simon Sudbury, and the Lord Treasurer.", "The peasants looted the city and set fire to numerous buildings.", "Tyler was stabbed to death by the Lord Mayor William Walworth in a confrontation at Smithfield and the revolt collapsed.Trade increased steadily during the Middle Ages, and London grew heavily as a result.", "In 1100, London's population was somewhat more than 15,000.By 1300, it had grown to roughly 80,000.London lost at least half of its population during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, but its economic and political importance stimulated a quick recovery despite further epidemics.", "Trade in London was organised into various guilds, which effectively controlled the city, and elected the Lord Mayor of the City of London.Medieval London was made up of narrow and twisting streets, and most of the buildings were made from combustible materials such as timber and straw, which made fire a constant threat, while sanitation in cities was of low-quality." ], [ "Modern history", "===Tudor London (1485–1604)===Wyngaerde's \"Panorama of London in 1543\"Section 1Section 2Section 3John Norden's map of London in 1593.There is only one bridge across the Thames, but parts of Southwark on the south bank of the river have been developed.In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up its main English trading base (''kontor'') in London, called ''Stalhof'' or ''Steelyard''.", "It existed until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway.", "Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries, where it was considered indispensable.During the Reformation, London was the principal early centre of Protestantism in England.", "Its close commercial connections with the Protestant heartlands in northern continental Europe, large foreign mercantile communities, disproportionately large number of literate inhabitants and role as the centre of the English print trade all contributed to the spread of the new ideas of religious reform.", "Before the Reformation, more than half of the area of London was the property of monasteries, nunneries and other religious houses.Henry VIII's \"Dissolution of the Monasteries\" had a profound effect on the city as nearly all of this property changed hands.", "The process started in the mid-1530s, and by 1538 most of the larger monastic houses had been abolished.", "Holy Trinity Aldgate went to Lord Audley, and the Marquess of Winchester built himself a house in part of its precincts.", "The Charterhouse went to Lord North, Blackfriars to Lord Cobham, the leper hospital of St Giles to Lord Dudley, while the king took for himself the leper hospital of St James, which was rebuilt as St James's Palace.The period saw London rapidly rising in importance among Europe's commercial centres.", "Trade expanded beyond Western Europe to Russia, the Levant, and the Americas.", "This was the period of mercantilism and monopoly trading companies such as the Muscovy Company (1555) and the British East India Company (1600) were established in London by royal charter.", "The latter, which ultimately came to rule India, was one of the key institutions in London, and in Britain as a whole, for two and a half centuries.", "Immigrants arrived in London not just from all over England and Wales, but from abroad as well, for example Huguenots from France; the population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.The growth of the population and wealth of London was fuelled by a vast expansion in the use of coastal shipping.The late 16th and early 17th century saw the great flourishing of drama in London whose preeminent figure was William Shakespeare.", "During the mostly calm later years of Elizabeth's reign, some of her courtiers and some of the wealthier citizens of London built themselves country residences in Middlesex, Essex and Surrey.", "This was an early stirring of the villa movement, the taste for residences which were neither of the city nor on an agricultural estate, but at the time of Elizabeth's death in 1603, London was still relatively compact.", "\"Woodcut\" map of London, formally titled ''Civitas Londinum'' ()Xenophobia was rampant in London, and increased after the 1580s.", "Many immigrants became disillusioned by routine threats of violence and molestation, attempts at expulsion of foreigners, and the great difficulty in acquiring English citizenship.", "Dutch cities proved more hospitable, and many left London permanently.", "Foreigners are estimated to have made up 4,000 of the 100,000 residents of London by 1600, many being Dutch and German workers and traders.===Stuart London (1603–1714)===London's expansion beyond the boundaries of the City was decisively established in the 17th century.", "In the opening years of that century the immediate environs of the City, with the principal exception of the aristocratic residences in the direction of Westminster, were still considered not conducive to health.", "Immediately to the north was Moorfields, which had recently been drained and laid out in walks, but it was frequented by beggars and travellers, who crossed it in order to get into London.", "Adjoining Moorfields were Finsbury Fields, a favourite practising ground for the archers, Mile End, then a common on the Great Eastern Road and famous as a rendezvous for the troops.The preparations for King James I becoming king were interrupted by a severe plague epidemic, which may have killed over thirty thousand people.", "The Lord Mayor's Show, which had been discontinued for some years, was revived by order of the king in 1609.The dissolved monastery of the Charterhouse, which had been bought and sold by the courtiers several times, was purchased by Thomas Sutton for £13,000.The new hospital, chapel, and schoolhouse were begun in 1611.Charterhouse School was to be one of the principal public schools in London until it moved to Surrey in the Victorian era, and the site is still used as a medical school.The general meeting-place of Londoners in the day-time was the nave of Old St. Paul's Cathedral.", "Merchants conducted business in the aisles, and used the font as a counter upon which to make their payments; lawyers received clients at their particular pillars; and the unemployed looked for work.", "St Paul's Churchyard was the centre of the book trade and Fleet Street was a centre of public entertainment.", "Under James I the theatre, which established itself so firmly in the latter years of Elizabeth, grew further in popularity.", "The performances at the public theatres were complemented by elaborate masques at the royal court and at the inns of court.Charles I acceded to the throne in 1625.During his reign, aristocrats began to inhabit the West End in large numbers.", "In addition to those who had specific business at court, increasing numbers of country landowners and their families lived in London for part of the year simply for the social life.", "This was the beginning of the \"London season\".", "Lincoln's Inn Fields was built about 1629.The piazza of Covent Garden, designed by England's first classically trained architect Inigo Jones followed in about 1632.The neighbouring streets were built shortly afterwards, and the names of Henrietta, Charles, James, King and York Streets were given after members of the royal family.Samuel Pepys, chronicler of Stuart LondonIn January 1642 five members of parliament whom the King wished to arrest were granted refuge in the City.", "In August of the same year the King raised his banner at Nottingham, and during the English Civil War London took the side of the parliament.", "Initially the king had the upper hand in military terms and in November he won the Battle of Brentford a few miles to the west of London.", "The City organised a new makeshift army and Charles hesitated and retreated.Subsequently, an extensive system of fortifications was built to protect London from a renewed attack by the Royalists.", "This comprised a strong earthen rampart, enhanced with bastions and redoubts.", "It was well beyond the City walls and encompassed the whole urban area, including Westminster and Southwark.", "London was not seriously threatened by the royalists again, and the financial resources of the City made an important contribution to the parliamentarians' victory in the war.The unsanitary and overcrowded City of London has suffered from the numerous outbreaks of the plague many times over the centuries, but in Britain it is the last major outbreak which is remembered as the \"Great Plague\" It occurred in 1665 and 1666 and killed around 60,000 people, which was one fifth of the population.", "Samuel Pepys chronicled the epidemic in his diary.", "On 4 September 1665 he wrote \"I have stayed in the city till above 7400 died in one week, and of them about 6000 of the plague, and little noise heard day or night but tolling of bells.", "\"====Great Fire of London (1666)====The Great Plague was immediately followed by another catastrophe, albeit one which helped to put an end to the plague.", "On the Sunday, 2 September 1666 the Great Fire of London broke out at one o'clock in the morning at a bakery in Pudding Lane in the southern part of the City.", "Fanned by an eastern wind the fire spread, and efforts to arrest it by pulling down houses to make firebreaks were disorganised to begin with.", "On Tuesday night the wind fell somewhat, and on Wednesday the fire slackened.", "On Thursday it was extinguished, but on the evening of that day the flames again burst forth at the Temple.", "Some houses were at once blown up by gunpowder, and thus the fire was finally mastered.", "The Monument was built to commemorate the fire: for over a century and a half it bore an inscription attributing the conflagration to a ''\"popish frenzy\"''.John Evelyn's plan for the rebuilding of London after the Great FireThe fire destroyed about 60% of the City, including Old St Paul's Cathedral, 87 parish churches, 44 livery company halls and the Royal Exchange.", "However, the number of lives lost was surprisingly small; it is believed to have been 16 at most.", "Within a few days of the fire, three plans were presented to the king for the rebuilding of the city, by Christopher Wren, John Evelyn and Robert Hooke.Wren proposed to build main thoroughfares north and south, and east and west, to insulate all the churches in conspicuous positions, to form the most public places into large piazzas, to unite the halls of the 12 chief livery companies into one regular square annexed to the Guildhall, and to make a fine quay on the bank of the river from Blackfriars to the Tower of London.", "Wren wished to build the new streets straight and in three standard widths of thirty, sixty and ninety feet.", "Evelyn's plan differed from Wren's chiefly in proposing a street from the church of St Dunstan's in the East to the St Paul's, and in having no quay or terrace along the river.", "These plans were not implemented, and the rebuilt city generally followed the streetplan of the old one, and most of it has survived into the 21st century.Richard Blome's map of London (1673).", "The development of the West End had recently begun to accelerate.Nonetheless, the new City was different from the old one.", "Many aristocratic residents never returned, preferring to take new houses in the West End, where fashionable new districts such as St. James's were built close to the main royal residence, which was Whitehall Palace until it was destroyed by fire in the 1690s, and thereafter St. James's Palace.", "The rural lane of Piccadilly sprouted courtiers mansions such as Burlington House.", "Thus the separation between the middle class mercantile City of London, and the aristocratic world of the court in Westminster became complete.In the City itself there was a move from wooden buildings to stone and brick construction to reduce the risk of fire.", "Parliament's Rebuilding of London Act 1666 stated ''\"building with brick is not only more comely and durable, but also more safe against future perils of fire\"''.", "From then on only doorcases, window-frames and shop fronts were allowed to be made of wood.Christopher Wren's plan for a new model London came to nothing, but he was appointed to rebuild the ruined parish churches and to replace St Paul's Cathedral.", "His domed baroque cathedral was the primary symbol of London for at least a century and a half.", "As city surveyor, Robert Hooke oversaw the reconstruction of the City's houses.", "The East End, that is the area immediately to the east of the city walls, also became heavily populated in the decades after the Great Fire.", "London's docks began to extend downstream, attracting many working people who worked on the docks themselves and in the processing and distributive trades.", "These people lived in Whitechapel, Wapping, Stepney and Limehouse, generally in slum conditions.In the winter of 1683–1684, a frost fair was held on the Thames.", "The frost, which began about seven weeks before Christmas and continued for six weeks after, was the greatest on record.", "The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 led to a large migration of Huguenots to London.", "They established a silk industry at Spitalfields.At this time the Bank of England was founded, and the British East India Company was expanding its influence.", "Lloyd's of London also began to operate in the late 17th century.", "In 1700, London handled 80% of England's imports, 69% of its exports and 86% of its re-exports.", "Many of the goods were luxuries from the Americas and Asia such as silk, sugar, tea and tobacco.", "The last figure emphasises London's role as an entrepot: while it had many craftsmen in the 17th century, and would later acquire some large factories, its economic prominence was never based primarily on industry.", "Instead it was a great trading and redistribution centre.", "Goods were brought to London by England's increasingly dominant merchant navy, not only to satisfy domestic demand, but also for re-export throughout Europe and beyond.William III, a Dutchman, cared little for London, the smoke of which gave him asthma, and after the first fire at Whitehall Palace (1691) he purchased Nottingham House and transformed it into Kensington Palace.", "Kensington was then an insignificant village, but the arrival of the court soon caused it to grow in importance.", "The palace was rarely favoured by future monarchs, but its construction was another step in the expansion of the bounds of London.", "During the same reign Greenwich Hospital, then well outside the boundary of London, but now comfortably inside it, was begun; it was the naval complement to the Chelsea Hospital for former soldiers, which had been founded in 1681.During the reign of Queen Anne an act was passed authorising the building of 50 new churches to serve the greatly increased population living outside the boundaries of the City of London.Ogilby & Morgan's map of the City of London (1673).", "\"A Large and Accurate Map of the City of London.", "Ichnographically describing all the Streets, Lanes, Alleys, Courts, Yards, Churches, Halls, & Houses &c. Actually Surveyed and Delineated by John Ogilby, His Majesties Cosmographer.", "\"===18th century===A view of London from the east in 1751The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire.In 1707, an Act of Union was passed merging the Scottish and the English Parliaments, thus establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain.", "A year later, in 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral was completed on his birthday.", "However, the first service had been held on 2nd of December 1697; more than 10 years earlier.", "This Cathedral replaced the original St. Paul's which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London.", "This building is considered one of the finest in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture.The Clock Tower of Wren's St Paul's CathedralMany tradesmen from different countries came to London to trade goods and merchandise.", "Also, more immigrants moved to London making the population greater.", "More people also moved to London for work and for business making London an altogether bigger and busier city.", "Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War increased the country's international standing and opened large new markets to British trade, further boosting London's prosperity.During the Georgian period London spread beyond its traditional limits at an accelerating pace.", "This is shown in a series of detailed maps, particularly John Rocque's 1741–45 map ''(see below)'' and his 1746 Map of London.", "New districts such as Mayfair were built for the rich in the West End, new bridges over the Thames encouraged an acceleration of development in South London and in the East End, the Port of London expanded downstream from the City.", "During this period was also the uprising of the American colonies.In 1780, the Tower of London held its only American prisoner, former President of the Continental Congress, Henry Laurens.", "In 1779, he was the Congress's representative of Holland, and got the country's support for the Revolution.", "On his return voyage back to America, the Royal Navy captured him and charged him with treason after finding evidence of a reason of war between Great Britain and the Netherlands.", "He was released from the Tower on 21 December 1781 in exchange for General Lord Cornwallis.In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham Palace (then called Buckingham House) from the Duke of Buckingham.", "It was enlarged over the next 75 years by architects such as John Nash.Buckingham Palace as it appeared in the 17th centuryJohn NashA phenomenon of the era was the coffeehouse, which became a popular place to debate ideas.", "Growing literacy and the development of the printing press meant that news became widely available.", "Fleet Street became the centre of the embryonic national press during the century.18th-century London was dogged by crime.", "The Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force.", "Penalties for crime were harsh, with the death penalty being applied for fairly minor crimes.", "Public hangings were common in London, and were popular public events.In 1780, London was rocked by the Gordon Riots, an uprising by Protestants against Roman Catholic emancipation led by Lord George Gordon.", "Severe damage was caused to Catholic churches and homes, and 285 rioters were killed.Up until 1750, London Bridge was the only crossing over the Thames, but in that year Westminster Bridge was opened and, for the first time in history, London Bridge, in a sense, had a rival.", "In 1798, Frankfurt banker Nathan Mayer Rothschild arrived in London and set up a banking house in the city, with a large sum of money given to him by his father, Amschel Mayer Rothschild.", "The Rothschilds also had banks in Paris and Vienna.", "The bank financed numerous large-scale projects, especially regarding railways around the world and the Suez Canal.The 18th century saw the breakaway of the American colonies and many other unfortunate events in London, but also great change and Enlightenment.", "This all led into the beginning of modern times, the 19th century.A detailed copy of John Rocque's Map of London, 1741–5===19th century===London as engraved by J.", "& C. Walker in 1845 from a map by R Creighton.", "Many districts in the West End were fully developed, and the East End also extended well beyond the eastern fringe of the City of London.", "There were now several bridges over the Thames, allowing the rapid development of South London.During the 19th century, London was transformed into the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire.", "Its population expanded from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later.", "During this period, London became a global political, financial, and trading capital.", "In this position, it was largely unrivalled until the latter part of the century, when Paris and New York began to threaten its dominance.While the city grew wealthy as Britain's holdings expanded, 19th-century London was also a city of poverty, where millions lived in overcrowded and unsanitary slums.", "Life for the poor was immortalised by Charles Dickens in such novels as Oliver Twist.In 1829, the then Home Secretary (and future prime minister) Robert Peel established the Metropolitan Police as a police force covering the entire urban area.", "The force gained the nickname of \"bobbies\" or \"peelers\" named after Robert Peel.19th-century London was transformed by the coming of the railways.", "A new network of metropolitan railways allowed for the development of suburbs in neighbouring counties from which middle-class and wealthy people could commute to the centre.", "While this spurred the massive outward growth of the city, the growth of greater London also exacerbated the class divide, as the wealthier classes emigrated to the suburbs, leaving the poor to inhabit the inner city areas.The first railway to be built in London was a line from London Bridge to Greenwich, which opened in 1836.This was soon followed by the opening of great rail termini which eventually linked London to every corner of Great Britain, including Euston station (1837), Paddington station (1838), Fenchurch Street station (1841), Waterloo station (1848), King's Cross station (1850), and St Pancras station (1863).", "From 1863, the first lines of the London Underground were constructed.The urbanised area continued to grow rapidly, spreading into Islington, Paddington, Belgravia, Holborn, Finsbury, Shoreditch, Southwark and Lambeth.", "Towards the middle of the century, London's antiquated local government system, consisting of ancient parishes and vestries, struggled to cope with the rapid growth in population.", "In 1855, the Metropolitan Board of Works (MBW) was created to provide London with adequate infrastructure to cope with its growth.", "One of its first tasks was addressing London's sanitation problems.", "At the time, raw sewage was pumped straight into the River Thames.", "This culminated in The Great Stink of 1858.Parliament finally gave consent for the MBW to construct a large system of sewers.", "The engineer put in charge of building the new system was Joseph Bazalgette.", "In what was one of the largest civil engineering projects of the 19th century, he oversaw construction of over 2100 km of tunnels and pipes under London to take away sewage and provide clean drinking water.", "When the London sewerage system was completed, the death toll in London dropped dramatically, and epidemics of cholera and other diseases were curtailed.", "Bazalgette's system is still in use today.One of the most famous events of 19th-century London was the Great Exhibition of 1851.Held at The Crystal Palace, the fair attracted 6 million visitors from across the world and displayed Britain at the height of its Imperial dominance.The Houses of Parliament from Westminster Bridge in the early 1890sAs the capital of a massive empire, London became a magnet for immigrants from the colonies and poorer parts of Europe.", "A large Irish population settled in the city during the Victorian period, with many of the newcomers refugees from the Great Famine (1845–1849).", "At one point, Catholic Irish made up about 20% of London's population; they typically lived in overcrowded slums.", "London also became home to a sizable Jewish community, which was notable for its entrepreneurship in the clothing trade and merchandising.In 1888, the new County of London was established, administered by the London County Council.", "This was the first elected London-wide administrative body, replacing the earlier Metropolitan Board of Works, which had been made up of appointees.", "The County of London covered broadly what was then the full extent of the London conurbation, although the conurbation later outgrew the boundaries of the county.", "In 1900, the county was sub-divided into 28 metropolitan boroughs, which formed a more local tier of administration than the county council.Many famous buildings and landmarks of London were constructed during the 19th century including:* Trafalgar Square* Big Ben and the Houses of Parliament* The Royal Albert Hall* The Victoria and Albert Museum* Tower Bridge===20th century=======1900 to 1939====Cheapside pictured in 1909, with the church of St Mary-le-Bow in the backgroundLondon entered the 20th century at the height of its influence as the capital of one of the largest empires in history, but the new century was to bring many challenges.London's population continued to grow rapidly in the early decades of the century, and public transport was greatly expanded.", "A large tram network was constructed by the London County Council, through the LCC Tramways; the first motorbus service began in the 1900s.", "Improvements to London's overground and underground rail network, including large scale electrification were progressively carried out.During World War I, London experienced its first bombing raids carried out by German zeppelin airships; these killed around 700 people and caused great terror, but were merely a foretaste of what was to come.", "The city of London would experience many more terrors as a result of both World Wars.", "The largest explosion in London occurred during World War I: the Silvertown explosion, when a munitions factory containing 50 tons of TNT exploded, killing 73 and injuring 400.The period between the two World Wars saw London's geographical extent growing more quickly than ever before or since.", "A preference for lower density suburban housing, typically semi-detached, by Londoners seeking a more \"rural\" lifestyle, superseded Londoners' old predilection for terraced houses.", "This was facilitated not only by a continuing expansion of the rail network, including trams and the Underground, but also by slowly widening car ownership.", "London's suburbs expanded outside the boundaries of the County of London, into the neighbouring counties of Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, Middlesex and Surrey.Like the rest of the country, London suffered severe unemployment during the Great Depression of the 1930s.", "In the East End during the 1930s, politically extreme parties of both right and left flourished.", "The Communist Party of Great Britain and the British Union of Fascists both gained serious support.", "Clashes between right and left culminated in the Battle of Cable Street in 1936.The population of London reached an all-time peak of 8.6 million in 1939.Large numbers of Jewish immigrants fleeing from Nazi Germany settled in London during the 1930s, mostly in the East End.Labour Party politician Herbert Morrison was a dominant figure in local government in the 1920s and 1930s.", "He became mayor of Hackney and a member of the London County Council in 1922, and for a while was Minister of Transport in Ramsay MacDonald's cabinet.", "When Labour gained power in London in 1934, Morrison unified the bus, tram and trolleybus services with the Underground, by the creation of the London Passenger Transport Board (known as London Transport) in 1933., He led the effort to finance and build the new Waterloo Bridge.", "He designed the Metropolitan Green Belt around the suburbs and worked to clear slums, build schools, and reform public assistance.====In World War II====Firefighters putting out flames after an air raid during The Blitz, 1941During World War II, London, as many other British cities, suffered severe damage, being bombed extensively by the ''Luftwaffe'' as a part of The Blitz.", "Prior to the bombing, hundreds of thousands of children in London were evacuated to the countryside to avoid the bombing.", "Civilians took shelter from the air raids in underground stations.The heaviest bombing took place during The Blitz between 7 September 1940 and 10 May 1941.During this period, London was subjected to 71 separate raids receiving over 18,000 tonnes of high explosive.", "One raid in December 1940, which became known as the Second Great Fire of London, saw a firestorm engulf much of the City of London and destroy many historic buildings.", "St Paul's Cathedral, however, remained unscathed; a photograph showing the cathedral shrouded in smoke became a famous image of the war.Having failed to defeat Britain, Hitler turned his attention to the Eastern front and regular bombing raids ceased.", "They began again, but on a smaller scale with the \"Little Blitz\" in early 1944.Towards the end of the war, during 1944/45 London again came under heavy attack by pilotless V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets, which were fired from Nazi occupied Europe.", "These attacks only came to an end when their launch sites were captured by advancing Allied forces.London suffered severe damage and heavy casualties, the worst hit part being the Docklands area.", "By the war's end, just under 30,000 Londoners had been killed by the bombing, and over 50,000 seriously injured, tens of thousands of buildings were destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless.====1945–2000====Shaftesbury Avenue, Three years after the war, the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, at a time when the city had barely recovered from the war.", "London's rebuilding was slow to begin.", "However, in 1951 the Festival of Britain was held, which marked an increasing mood of optimism and forward looking.In the immediate postwar years housing was a major issue in London, due to the large amount of housing which had been destroyed in the war.", "The authorities decided upon high-rise blocks of flats as the answer to housing shortages.", "During the 1950s and 1960s the skyline of London altered dramatically as tower blocks were erected, although these later proved unpopular.", "In a bid to reduce the number of people living in overcrowded housing, a policy was introduced of encouraging people to move into newly built new towns surrounding London.", "Living standards also rose, with real earnings rising by approximately 70.% in the 20 years after the end of the war.Through the 19th and in the early half of the 20th century, Londoners used coal for heating their homes, which produced large amounts of smoke.", "In combination with climatic conditions this often caused a characteristic smog, and London became known for its typical \"London Fog\", also known as \"Pea Soupers\".", "London was sometimes referred to as \"The Smoke\" because of this.", "In 1952, this culminated in the disastrous Great Smog of 1952 which lasted for five days and killed over 4,000 people.", "In response to this, the Clean Air Act 1956 was passed, mandating the creating of \"smokeless zones\" where the use of \"smokeless\" fuels was required (this was at a time when most households still used open fires); the Act was effective.Young people in Carnaby Street in 1966Starting in the mid-1960s, and partly as a result of the success of such UK musicians as the Beatles and The Rolling Stones, London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London subculture which made Carnaby Street a household name of youth fashion around the world.", "London's role as a trendsetter for youth fashion continued strongly in the 1980s during the new wave and punk eras and into the mid-1990s with the emergence of the Britpop era.From the 1950s onwards London experienced an increase in immigration, largely from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.", "However, the integration of the new immigrants was not always easy.", "Racial tensions emerged in events such as the Brixton Riots in the early 1980s.From the beginning of \"The Troubles\" in Northern Ireland in the early 1970s until the mid-1990s, London was subjected to repeated terrorist attacks by the Provisional IRA.The outward expansion of London was slowed by the war, and the introduction of the Metropolitan Green Belt.", "Due to this outward expansion, in 1965 the old County of London (which by now only covered part of the London conurbation) and the London County Council were abolished, and the much larger area of Greater London was established with a new Greater London Council (GLC) to administer it, along with 32 new London boroughs.Greater London's population declined steadily in the decades after World War II, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.", "However, it then began to increase again in the late 1980s, encouraged by strong economic performance and an increasingly positive image.London's traditional status as a major port declined dramatically in the post-war decades as the old Docklands could not accommodate large modern container ships.", "The principal ports for London moved downstream to the ports of Felixstowe and Tilbury.", "The docklands area had become largely derelict by the 1980s, but was redeveloped into flats and offices from the mid-1980s onwards.", "The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.In the early 1980s political disputes between the GLC run by Ken Livingstone and the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher led to the GLC's abolition in 1986, with most of its powers relegated to the London boroughs.", "This left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration.In 2000, London-wide government was restored, with the creation of the Greater London Authority (GLA) by Tony Blair's government, covering the same area of Greater London.", "The new authority had similar powers to the old GLC, but was made up of a directly elected Mayor and a London Assembly.", "The first election took place on 4 May, with Ken Livingstone comfortably regaining his previous post, becoming first elected mayor of London.", "London was recognised as one of the nine regions of England.", "In global perspective, it was emerging as a World city widely compared to New York and Tokyo.===21st century===The Shard (left), an icon of 21st-century LondonAround the start of the 21st century, London hosted the much derided Millennium Dome at Greenwich, to mark the new century.", "Other Millennium projects were more successful.", "One was the largest observation wheel in the world, the \"Millennium Wheel\", or the London Eye, which was erected as a temporary structure, but soon became a fixture, and draws four million visitors a year.", "The National Lottery also released a flood of funds for major enhancements to existing attractions, for example the roofing of the Great Court at the British Museum.The London Plan, published by the Mayor of London in 2004, estimated that the population would reach 8.1 million by 2016, and continue to rise thereafter.", "This was reflected in a move towards denser, more urban styles of building, including a greatly increased number of tall buildings, and proposals for major enhancements to the public transport network.", "However, funding for projects such as Crossrail remained a struggle.On 6 July 2005 London won the right to host the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics making it the first city to host the modern games three times.", "However, celebrations were cut short the following day when the city was rocked by a series of terrorist attacks.", "More than 50 were killed and 750 injured in three bombings on London Underground trains and a fourth on a double decker bus near King's Cross.London was the starting point for countrywide riots which occurred in August 2011, when thousands of people rioted in several city boroughs and in towns across England.", "They were the biggest riots in modern English history.", "In 2011, the population grew over 8 million people for the first time in decades.", "White British formed less than half of the population for the first time.In the public there was ambivalence leading-up to the 2012 Summer Olympics in the city, though public sentiment changed strongly in their favour following a successful opening ceremony and when the anticipated organisational and transport problems never occurred.Boris Johnson, later Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party, served as mayor of London from 1 May 2008 until 5 May 2016, being elected in 2008 and reelected in 2012.In the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, London was the only region in England, where Remain won the highest share of the vote.", "The voter turnout was the highest in London since the 1950 general election.", "However, Britain’s exit from the European Union (EU) in early 2021 (Brexit) only marginally weakened London’s position as an international financial center (IFC).In May 2021, Sadiq Khan, the first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital city, won a second term as London's mayor.In 2022, the Elizabeth line railway opened, connecting Heathrow and Reading to Shenfield and Abbey Wood through a tunnel in the city between Paddington and Liverpool Street, revolutionising east-west travel in London.On 6 May 2023, the coronation of Charles III and his wife, Camilla, as king and queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, took place at Westminster Abbey, London.As of 9 May 2023, London had received around 18,000 refugees from Ukraine, because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.===Population===People gathered in Whitehall to hear Winston Churchill's victory speech, 8 May 1945.Year Population 1 1–A few farmers 50 50– 140 45– 300 10– 800 10– 1000 20– 1100 10– 1200 20– 1300 80– 1350 25– 1500 50– 1550 1600 1650 350,000– 1700 550,000– 1750 1801 1831 1851 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1939 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2006 2011 2015" ], [ "Historical sites of note", "* Alexandra Palace* Battersea Power Station* Buckingham Palace* Croydon Airport* Hyde Park* Monument to the Great Fire of London* Palace of Westminster* Parliament Hill* Royal Observatory, Greenwich* St Paul's Cathedral* Tower Bridge* Tower of London* Tyburn* Vauxhall station* Waterloo International station* Westminster Abbey" ], [ "See also", "* Ale silver* Economy of London* Culture of London* Fortifications of London* Geography of London* Geology of London* History of local government in London* Timeline of London history" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ackroyd, Peter.", "''London: A Biography'' (2009) ( First chapter.", ")* Ball, Michael, and David T. Sunderland.", "''Economic history of London, 1800–1914'' (Routledge, 2002)* Billings, Malcolm (1994), ''London: A Companion to Its History and Archaeology'', * Bucholz, Robert O., and Joseph P. Ward.", "''London: A Social and Cultural History, 1550–1750'' (Cambridge University Press; 2012) 526 pages* Clark, Greg.", "''The Making of a World City: London 1991 to 2021'' (John Wiley & Sons, 2014)* Emerson, Charles.", "''1913: In Search of the World Before the Great War'' (2013) compares London to 20 major world cities on the eve of World War I; pp 15 to 36, 431–49.", "* Inwood, Stephen.", "''A History of London'' (1998) * Jones, Robert Wynn.", "''The Flower of All Cities: The History of London from Earliest Times to the Great Fire'' (Amberley Publishing, 2019).", "* * Mort, Frank, and Miles Ogborn.", "\"Transforming Metropolitan London, 1750–1960\".", "''Journal of British Studies'' (2004) 43#1 pp: 1–14.", "* Naismith, Rory, ''Citadel of the Saxons: The Rise of Early London'' (I.B.Tauris; 2018), * Porter, Roy.", "''History of London'' (1995), by a leading scholar* Weightman, Gavin, and Stephen Humphries.", "''The Making of Modern London, 1914–1939'' (Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984)* White, Jerry.", "''London in the Twentieth Century: A City and Its People'' (2001) 544 pages; Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power.", "Excerpts* White, Jerry.", "''London in the Nineteenth Century: 'A Human Awful Wonder of God''' (2008); Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power.", "Excerpt and text search* White, Jerry.", "''London in the Eighteenth Century: A Great and Monstrous Thing'' (2013) 624 pages; Excerpt and text search 480pp; Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power.", "* Williams, Guy R. ''London in the Country: The Growth of Suburbia'' (Hamish Hamilton, 1975)* ===Environment===* Allen, Michelle Elizabeth.", "''Cleansing the city: sanitary geographies in Victorian London'' (2008).", "* Brimblecombe, Peter.", "''The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times'' (Methuen, 1987)* Ciecieznski, N. J.", "\"The Stench of Disease: Public Health and the Environment in Late-Medieval English towns and cities\".", "''Health, Culture and Society'' (2013) 4#1 pp: 91–104.", "* Field, Jacob F. ''London, Londoners and the Great Fire of 1666: Disaster and Recovery'' (2018)* Fowler, James.", "''London Transport: A Hybrid in History 1905-48'' (Emerald Group Publishing, 2019).", "* Hanlon, W. Walker.", "''Pollution and Mortality in the 19th Century'' (UCLA and NBER, 2015) online* Jackson, Lee.", "''Dirty Old London: The Victorian Fight Against Filth'' (2014)* Jørgensen, Dolly.", "\"'All Good Rule of the Citee': Sanitation and Civic Government in England, 1400–1600\".", "''Journal of Urban History'' (2010).", "online* Landers, John.", "''Death and the metropolis: studies in the demographic history of London, 1670–1830'' (1993).", "* Luckin, Bill, and Peter Thorsheim, eds.", "''A Mighty Capital under Threat: The Environmental History of London, 1800-2000'' (U of Pittsburgh Press, 2020) online review.", "* Mosley, Stephen.", "\"'A Network of Trust': Measuring and Monitoring Air Pollution in British Cities, 1912–1960\".", "''Environment and History'' (2009) 15#3 pp: 273–302.", "* Thorsheim, Peter.", "''Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800'' (2009)===Historiography===* Feldman, David, and Gareth Stedman Jones, eds.", "''Metropolis, London: Histories and Representations since 1800'' (Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1989)* ===Older histories===* George Walter Thornbury.", "''Old and new London : a narrative of its history, its people, and its places'' (Cassell, Pelter, & Galpin, 1873) -: Vol.", "1, Vol.", "2, Vol.", "3, Vol.", "4, Vol.", "5, Vol.", "6.", "* * Walter Besant. ''", "London'' (Harper & Bros., 1892)* (thematic bibliography about London)* + v.2, v.3, Index* * * London – Article in the 1908 Catholic Encyclopædia=== Archival and academic digital projects ===* ''A Chronicle of London from 1089 to 1483'' written in the fifteenth century* Roman London - \"In their own words\" (PDF) A literary companion to the prehistory and archæology of London* London Lives 1690-1800 - A digital archive with personal records from lond during the 18th century* Exploring 20th-century London – Explore London's history, culture and religions during the 20th century* The Victorian London* Collage - The London Picture Archive" ], [ "External links", "* Museum of London* London History – From Britannia.com* The Growth of London 1666–1799* Maritime London" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of astronomy" ], [ "Introduction", "The Northern Hemisphere page from Johann Bayer's 1661 edition of ''Uranometria'' - the first atlas to have star charts covering the entire celestial sphereSouthern HemisphereAstronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy.", "It was not completely separated in Europe (see astrology and astronomy) during the Copernican Revolution starting in 1543.In some cultures, astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication." ], [ "Early history", "Sunset at the equinox from the prehistoric site of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, SicilyEarly cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits.", "They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides.", "It is generally believed that the first astronomers were priests, and that they understood celestial objects and events to be manifestations of the divine, hence early astronomy's connection to what is now called astrology.", "A 32,500-year-old carved ivory mammoth tusk could contain the oldest known star chart (resembling the constellation Orion).", "It has also been suggested that drawings on the wall of the Lascaux caves in France dating from 33,000 to 10,000 years ago could be a graphical representation of the Pleiades, the Summer Triangle, and the Northern Crown.", "Ancient structures with possibly astronomical alignments (such as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled astronomical, religious, and social functions.Calendars of the world have often been set by observations of the Sun and Moon (marking the day, month and year), and were important to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year, and for which the nearly full moon was the only lighting for night-time travel into city markets.The common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar.", "Although originally a lunar calendar, it broke the traditional link of the month to the phases of the Moon and divided the year into twelve almost-equal months, that mostly alternated between thirty and thirty-one days.", "Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform in 46 BCE and introduced what is now called the Julian calendar, based upon the 365  day year length originally proposed by the 4th century BCE Greek astronomer Callippus.===Prehistoric Europe===Since 1990 our understanding of prehistoric Europeans has been radically changed by discoveries of ancient astronomical artifacts throughout Europe.", "The artifacts demonstrate that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had a sophisticated knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.Among the discoveries are:* Paleolithic archaeologist Alexander Marshack put forward a theory in 1972 that bone sticks from locations like Africa and Europe from possibly as long ago as 35,000 BCE could be marked in ways that tracked the Moon's phases, an interpretation that has met with criticism.", "* The Warren Field calendar in the Dee River valley of Scotland's Aberdeenshire.", "First excavated in 2004 but only in 2013 revealed as a find of huge significance, it is to date the oldest known calendar, created around 8000 BC and predating all other calendars by some 5,000 years.", "The calendar takes the form of an early Mesolithic monument containing a series of 12 pits which appear to help the observer track lunar months by mimicking the phases of the Moon.", "It also aligns to sunrise at the winter solstice, thus coordinating the solar year with the lunar cycles.", "The monument had been maintained and periodically reshaped, perhaps up to hundreds of times, in response to shifting solar/lunar cycles, over the course of 6,000 years, until the calendar fell out of use around 4,000 years ago.", "* Goseck circle is located in Germany and belongs to the linear pottery culture.", "First discovered in 1991, its significance was only clear after results from archaeological digs became available in 2004.The site is one of hundreds of similar circular enclosures built in a region encompassing Austria, Germany, and the Czech Republic during a 200-year period starting shortly after 5000 BC.The Nebra sky disk, Germany, 1800 - 1600 BC* The Nebra sky disc is a Bronze Age bronze disc that was buried in Germany, not far from the Goseck circle, around 1600 BC.", "It measures about 30 cm diameter with a mass of 2.2 kg and displays a blue-green patina (from oxidization) inlaid with gold symbols.", "Found by archeological thieves in 1999 and recovered in Switzerland in 2002, it was soon recognized as a spectacular discovery, among the most important of the 20th century.", "Investigations revealed that the object had been in use around 400 years before burial (2000 BC), but that its use had been forgotten by the time of burial.", "The inlaid gold depicted the full moon, a crescent moon about 4 or 5 days old, and the Pleiades star cluster in a specific arrangement forming the earliest known depiction of celestial phenomena.", "Twelve lunar months pass in 354 days, requiring a calendar to insert a leap month every two or three years in order to keep synchronized with the solar year's seasons (making it lunisolar).", "The earliest known descriptions of this coordination were recorded by the Babylonians in 6th or 7th centuries BC, over one thousand years later.", "Those descriptions verified ancient knowledge of the Nebra sky disc's celestial depiction as the precise arrangement needed to judge when to insert the intercalary month into a lunisolar calendar, making it an astronomical clock for regulating such a calendar a thousand or more years before any other known method.", "* The Kokino site, discovered in 2001, sits atop an extinct volcanic cone at an elevation of , occupying about 0.5 hectares overlooking the surrounding countryside in North Macedonia.", "A Bronze Age astronomical observatory was constructed there around 1900 BC and continuously served the nearby community that lived there until about 700 BC.", "The central space was used to observe the rising of the Sun and full moon.", "Three markings locate sunrise at the summer and winter solstices and at the two equinoxes.", "Four more give the minimum and maximum declinations of the full moon: in summer, and in winter.", "Two measure the lengths of lunar months.", "Together, they reconcile solar and lunar cycles in marking the 235 lunations that occur during 19 solar years, regulating a lunar calendar.", "On a platform separate from the central space, at lower elevation, four stone seats (thrones) were made in north–south alignment, together with a trench marker cut in the eastern wall.", "This marker allows the rising Sun's light to fall on only the second throne, at midsummer (about July 31).", "It was used for ritual ceremony linking the ruler to the local sun god, and also marked the end of the growing season and time for harvest.Calendrical functions of the Berlin Gold Hat c. 1000 BC* Golden hats of Germany, France and Switzerland dating from 1400 to 800 BC are associated with the Bronze Age Urnfield culture.", "The Golden hats are decorated with a spiral motif of the Sun and the Moon.", "They were probably a kind of calendar used to calibrate between the lunar and solar calendars.", "Modern scholarship has demonstrated that the ornamentation of the gold leaf cones of the Schifferstadt type, to which the Berlin Gold Hat example belongs, represent systematic sequences in terms of number and types of ornaments per band.", "A detailed study of the Berlin example, which is the only fully preserved one, showed that the symbols probably represent a lunisolar calendar.", "The object would have permitted the determination of dates or periods in both lunar and solar calendars." ], [ "Ancient times", "===Mesopotamia===Babylonian tablet in the British Museum recording Halley's comet in 164 BCThe origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, the \"land between the rivers\" Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were located.", "A form of writing known as cuneiform emerged among the Sumerians around 3500–3000 BC.", "Our knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC.", "The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age.", "Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians.", "They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers.", "The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, or an hour into 60 minutes, began with the Sumerians.", "For more information, see the articles on Babylonian numerals and mathematics.Classical sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination.The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian.", "Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year.", "Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the ''Enūma Anu Enlil''.", "The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the ''Enūma Anu Enlil'', the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic.", "The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations.", "The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747–733 BC).", "The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example.", "The Greek astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time.The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323–60 BC).", "In the 3rd century BC, astronomers began to use \"goal-year texts\" to predict the motions of the planets.", "These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet.", "About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting records.", "A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was Seleucus of Seleucia, who was a supporter of the heliocentric model.Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.===India===Jantar Mantar observatory in Jaipur, IndiaAstronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period of Indus Valley Civilisation during 3rd millennium BCE, when it was used to create calendars.", "As the Indus Valley civilization did not leave behind written documents, the oldest extant Indian astronomical text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dating from the Vedic period.", "The Vedanga Jyotisha is attributed to Lagadha and has an internal date of approximately 1350 BC, and describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual.", "It is available in two recensions, one belonging to the Rig Veda, and the other to the Yajur Veda.", "According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, in a ''yuga'' or \"era\", there are 5 solar years, 67 lunar sidereal cycles, 1,830 days, 1,835 sidereal days and 62 synodic months.", "During the 6th century, astronomy was influenced by the Greek and Byzantine astronomical traditions.Aryabhata (476–550), in his magnum opus ''Aryabhatiya'' (499), propounded a computational system based on a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun.", "He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon.", "Early followers of Aryabhata's model included Varāhamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara II.Astronomy was advanced during the Shunga Empire and many star catalogues were produced during this time.", "The Shunga period is known as the \"Golden age of astronomy in India\".It saw the development of calculations for the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses.Indian astronomers by the 6th century believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically.", "This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.Bhāskara II (1114–1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta.", "He wrote the ''Siddhantasiromani'' which consists of two parts: ''Goladhyaya'' (sphere) and ''Grahaganita'' (mathematics of the planets).", "He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the Sun to 9 decimal places.", "The Buddhist University of Nalanda at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies.Other important astronomers from India include Madhava of Sangamagrama, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeshtadeva, who were members of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics from the 14th century to the 16th century.", "Nilakantha Somayaji, in his ''Aryabhatiyabhasya'', a commentary on Aryabhata's ''Aryabhatiya'', developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century.", "Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus.", "Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model.===Greece and Hellenistic world===The Antikythera Mechanism was an analog computer from 150 to 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects.The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level.", "The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus.", "Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth.", "Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle.", "They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos.", "In his ''Timaeus'', Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul.", "Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric spheres, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the Earth.", "This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the 16th century.In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive.", "Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy (see also: history of geodesy).Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an eccentric circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an epicycle which in turn carried around a planet.", "The first such model is attributed to Apollonius of Perga and further developments in it were carried out in the 2nd century BC by Hipparchus of Nicea.", "Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of apparent magnitudes.The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek astronomical observational device for calculating the movements of the Sun and the Moon, possibly the planets, dates from about 150–100 BC, and was the first ancestor of an astronomical computer.", "It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete.", "The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century.", "The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.===Ptolemaic system===Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of Classical physical astronomy is seen with Ptolemy, a Greco-Roman astronomer from Alexandria of Egypt, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the ''Megale Syntaxis'' (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title ''Almagest'', which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the Renaissance.", "In his ''Planetary Hypotheses'', Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of Aristarchus of Samos four centuries earlier.===Egypt===Segment of the astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb (circa 1479–1458 BCE), depicting constellations, protective deities, and twenty-four segmented wheels for the hours of the day and the months of the yearThe precise orientation of the Egyptian pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the 3rd millennium BC.", "It has been shown the Pyramids were aligned towards the pole star, which, because of the precession of the equinoxes, was at that time Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco.", "Evaluation of the site of the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic, has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter Sun.", "The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year.", "The Egyptians also found the position of Sirius (the dog star) who they believed was Anubis, their Jackal headed god, moving through the heavens.", "Its position was critical to their civilisation as when it rose heliacal in the east before sunrise it foretold the flooding of the Nile.", "It is also the origin of the phrase 'dog days of summer'.Astronomy played a considerable part in religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the night.", "The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the Sun, Moon and stars.", "The rising of Sirius (Egyptian: Sopdet, Greek: Sothis) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar.Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites:And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a ''horologium'' (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a ''palm'' (φοίνιξ), the symbols of astrology.", "He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number.", "Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the Sun and Moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the Sun and Moon; and one concerns their risings.The Astrologer's instruments (''horologium'' and ''palm'') are a plumb line and sighting instrument.", "They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the Berlin Museum; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end.", "The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arm's length.", "The \"Hermetic\" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with Hellenistic Hermetism.From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the pole star passed over the middle of his head.", "On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc.", "According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations.", "In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy.===China===Printed star map of Su Song (1020–1101) showing the south polar projectionThe astronomy of East Asia began in China.", "Solar term was completed in Warring States period.", "The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia.Astronomy in China has a long history.", "Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BC, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century.", "Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict eclipses.Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping.", "The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose.Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy.", "Astronomers took careful note of \"guest stars\" (Chinese: 客星; pinyin: ''kèxīng''; lit.", ": 'guest star') which suddenly appeared among the fixed stars.", "They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 AD.", "Also, the supernova that created the Crab Nebula in 1054 is an example of a \"guest star\" observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries.", "Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies.The world's first star catalogue was made by Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, in the 4th century BC.===Mesoamerica===\"El Caracol\" observatory temple at Chichen Itza, MexicoMaya astronomical codices include detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon, the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of Venus as morning and evening star.", "The Maya based their calendrics in the carefully calculated cycles of the Pleiades, the Sun, the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the Dresden Codex, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the Milky Way was crucial in their Cosmology.", "A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus.", "To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet.", "Mars is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early mythology.Although the Maya calendar was not tied to the Sun, John Teeple has proposed that the Maya calculated the solar year to somewhat greater accuracy than the Gregorian calendar.", "Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of Maya religion.The Maya believed that the Earth was the center of all things, and that the stars, moons, and planets were gods.", "They believed that their movements were the gods traveling between the Earth and other celestial destinations.", "Many key events in Maya culture were timed around celestial events, in the belief that certain gods would be present." ], [ "Middle Ages", "===Middle East===Arabic astrolabe from 1079 to 1080 ADThe Arabic and the Persian world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from Greek astronomy and Indian astronomy and Persian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area.", "An important contribution by Islamic astronomers was their emphasis on observational astronomy.", "This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century.", "Zij star catalogues were produced at these observatories.In the 9th century, Persian astrologer Albumasar was thought to be one of the greatest astrologer at that time.", "His practical manuals for training astrologers profoundly influenced Muslim intellectual history and, through translations, that of western Europe and Byzantium In the 10th century, Albumasar's \"Introduction\" was one of the most important sources for the recovery of Aristotle for medieval European scholars.", "Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for each constellation in his ''Book of Fixed Stars''.", "He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of \"A Little Cloud\" now known as the Andromeda Galaxy.", "He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation.", "This \"cloud\" was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers, very probably before 905 AD.", "The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given by al-Sufi.", "In 1006, Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN 1006, the brightest supernova in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star.In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near Tehran, Iran, by the astronomer Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun.", "He noted that measurements by earlier (Indian, then Greek) astronomers had found higher values for this angle, possible evidence that the axial tilt is not constant but was in fact decreasing.", "In 11th-century Persia, Omar Khayyám compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the calendar that was more accurate than the Julian and came close to the Gregorian.Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Arzachel, the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's belief that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth, and the introduction of empirical testing by Ibn al-Shatir, who produced the first model of lunar motion which matched physical observations.Natural philosophy (particularly Aristotelian physics) was separated from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, by Ibn al-Shatir in the 14th century, and Qushji in the 15th century.===Western Europe===seven planets on 18 March 816, from the Leiden ArateaAfter the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the 12th century.", "This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages.", "Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the 4th to the 16th centuries.Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production.", "The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study.", "The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius.", "In the 6th century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars.In the 7th century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text, ''On the Reckoning of Time'', providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of Easter using a procedure called the ''computus''.", "This text remained an important element of the education of clergy from the 7th century until well after the rise of the Universities in the 12th century.The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the revival of learning sponsored by the emperor Charlemagne.", "By the 9th century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance.Building on this astronomical background, in the 10th century European scholars such as Gerbert of Aurillac began to travel to Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world.", "There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the astrolabe.", "Soon scholars such as Hermann of Reichenau were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as Walcher of Malvern, were using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables.By the 12th century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they translated into Latin from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe.", "The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home.", "Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, John of Sacrobosco wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the Sphere, a Computus, a text on the Quadrant, and another on Calculation.In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme, later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the Earth moves, and ''not'' the heavens.", "However, he concluded \"everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved.\"", "In the 15th century, Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun." ], [ "Renaissance and Early Modern Europe", "===Copernican Revolution===During the renaissance period, astronomy began to undergo a revolution in thought known as the Copernican Revolution, which gets the name from the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth.", "His ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' was published in 1543.While in the long term this was a very controversial claim, in the very beginning it only brought minor controversy.", "The theory became the dominant view because many figures, most notably Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton championed and improved upon the work.", "Other figures also aided this new model despite not believing the overall theory, like Tycho Brahe, with his well-known observations.Brahe, a Danish noble, was an essential astronomer in this period.", "He came on the astronomical scene with the publication of ''De nova stella'', in which he disproved conventional wisdom on the supernova SN 1572 (As bright as Venus at its peak, SN 1572 later became invisible to the naked eye, disproving the Aristotelian doctrine of the immutability of the heavens.)", "He also created the Tychonic system, where the Sun and Moon and the stars revolve around the Earth, but the other five planets revolve around the Sun.", "This system blended the mathematical benefits of the Copernican system with the \"physical benefits\" of the Ptolemaic system.", "This was one of the systems people believed in when they did not accept heliocentrism, but could no longer accept the Ptolemaic system.", "He is most known for his highly accurate observations of the stars and the Solar System.", "Later he moved to Prague and continued his work.", "In Prague he was at work on the Rudolphine Tables, that were not finished until after his death.", "The Rudolphine Tables was a star map designed to be more accurate than either the Alfonsine tables, made in the 1300s, and the Prutenic Tables, which were inaccurate.", "He was assisted at this time by his assistant Johannes Kepler, who would later use his observations to finish Brahe's works and for his theories as well.After the death of Brahe, Kepler was deemed his successor and was given the job of completing Brahe's uncompleted works, like the Rudolphine Tables.", "He completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1624, although it was not published for several years.", "Like many other figures of this era, he was subject to religious and political troubles, like the Thirty Years' War, which led to chaos that almost destroyed some of his works.", "Kepler was, however, the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes.", "He discovered the three Kepler's laws of planetary motion that now carry his name, those laws being as follows:# The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.# A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.# The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.With these laws, he managed to improve upon the existing heliocentric model.", "The first two were published in 1609.Kepler's contributions improved upon the overall system, giving it more credibility because it adequately explained events and could cause more reliable predictions.", "Before this, the Copernican model was just as unreliable as the Ptolemaic model.", "This improvement came because Kepler realized the orbits were not perfect circles, but ellipses.Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that the Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like the Moon.", "Portrait by Justus Sustermans.", "Galileo Galilei was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope.", "He discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610, which are now collectively known as the Galilean moons, in his honor.", "This discovery was the first known observation of satellites orbiting another planet.", "He also found that the Moon had craters and observed, and correctly explained sunspots, and that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases.", "Galileo argued that these facts demonstrated incompatibility with the Ptolemaic model, which could not explain the phenomenon and would even contradict it.", "With the moons it demonstrated that the Earth does not have to have everything orbiting it and that other parts of the Solar System could orbit another object, such as the Earth orbiting the Sun.", "In the Ptolemaic system the celestial bodies were supposed to be perfect so such objects should not have craters or sunspots.", "The phases of Venus could only happen in the event that Venus' orbit is inside Earth's orbit, which could not happen if the Earth was the center.", "He, as the most famous example, had to face challenges from church officials, more specifically the Roman Inquisition.", "They accused him of heresy because these beliefs went against the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and were challenging the Catholic church's authority when it was at its weakest.", "While he was able to avoid punishment for a little while he was eventually tried and pled guilty to heresy in 1633.Although this came at some expense, his book was banned, and he was put under house arrest until he died in 1642.Cyclopædia'' Sir Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his law of universal gravitation.", "Realizing that the same force that attracts objects to the surface of the Earth held the Moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain – in one theoretical framework – all known gravitational phenomena.", "In his ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', he derived Kepler's laws from first principles.", "Those first principles are as follows:# In an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.# In an inertial reference frame, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma.", "(It is assumed here that the mass m is constant)# When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.Thus while Kepler explained how the planets moved, Newton accurately managed to explain why the planets moved the way they do.", "Newton's theoretical developments laid many of the foundations of modern physics.===Completing the Solar System===Outside of England, Newton's theory took some time to become established.", "Descartes' theory of vortices held sway in France, and Huygens, Leibniz and Cassini accepted only parts of Newton's system, preferring their own philosophies.", "Voltaire published a popular account in 1738.In 1748, the French Academy of Sciences offered a reward for solving the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn which was eventually solved by Euler and Lagrange.", "Laplace completed the theory of the planets, publishing from 1798 to 1825.The early origins of the solar nebular model of planetary formation had begun.Edmond Halley succeeded Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal in England and succeeded in predicting the return of the comet that bears his name in 1758.Sir William Herschel found the first new planet, Uranus, to be observed in modern times in 1781.The gap between the planets Mars and Jupiter disclosed by the Titius–Bode law was filled by the discovery of the asteroids Ceres and Pallas in 1801 and 1802 with many more following.At first, astronomical thought in America was based on Aristotelian philosophy, but interest in the new astronomy began to appear in Almanacs as early as 1659.===Stellar astronomy===Cosmic pluralism is the name given to the idea that the stars are distant suns, perhaps with their own planetary systems.Ideas in this direction were expressed in antiquity, by Anaxagoras and by Aristarchus of Samos, but did not find mainstream acceptance.", "The first astronomer of the European Renaissance to suggest that the stars were distant suns was Giordano Bruno in his ''De l'infinito universo et mondi'' (1584).", "This idea, together with a belief in intelligent extraterrestrial life, was among the charges brought against him by the Inquisition.The idea became mainstream in the later 17th century, especially following the publication of ''Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds'' by Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle (1686), and by the early 18th century it was the default working assumptions in stellar astronomy.The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667.Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby \"fixed\" stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus.", "William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky.", "During the 1780s, he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars observed along each line of sight.", "From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky, in the direction of the Milky Way core.", "His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction.", "In addition to his other accomplishments, William Herschel is noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight, but are physical companions that form binary star systems." ], [ "Modern astronomy", "===19th century===Mars surface map of Giovanni SchiaparelliPre-photography, data recording of astronomical data was limited by the human eye.", "In 1840, John W. Draper, a chemist, created the earliest known astronomical photograph of the Moon.", "And by the late 19th century thousands of photographic plates of images of planets, stars, and galaxies were created.", "Most photography had lower quantum efficiency (i.e.", "captured less of the incident photons) than human eyes but had the advantage of long integration times (100 ms for the human eye compared to hours for photos).", "This vastly increased the data available to astronomers, which lead to the rise of human computers, famously the Harvard Computers, to track and analyze the data.Scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation.", "This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy.", "With the advent of spectroscopy it was proven that other stars were similar to the Sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes.The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi.", "By comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun, they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption lines—the dark lines in stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere's absorption of specific frequencies.", "In 1865, Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types.", "The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow spectral line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun.", "The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India.The first direct measurement of the distance to a star (61 Cygni at 11.4 light-years) was made in 1838 by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique.", "Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens.", "Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century.", "In 1834, Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion.", "Edward Pickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star Mizar in a 104-day period.", "Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve and S. W. Burnham, allowing the masses of stars to be determined from the computation of orbital elements.", "The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827.In 1847, Maria Mitchell discovered a comet using a telescope.===20th century===The Hubble Space TelescopeWith the accumulation of large sets of astronomical data, teams like the Harvard Computers rose in prominence which lead to many female astronomers, previously relegated as assistants to male astronomers, gaining recognition in the field.", "The United States Naval Observatory (USNO) and other astronomy research institutions hired human \"computers\", who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge.", "A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women \"computers\" and reported to their supervisors.", "Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered the cepheid variable star period-luminosity relation which she further developed into a method of measuring distance outside of the Solar System.A veteran of the Harvard Computers, Annie J. Cannon developed the modern version of the stellar classification scheme in during the early 1900s (O B A F G K M, based on color and temperature), manually classifying more stars in a lifetime than anyone else (around 350,000).The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars.Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and, hence, its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude.", "The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals.", "In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory.Comparison of CMB (Cosmic microwave background) results from satellites COBE, WMAP and ''Planck'' documenting a progress in 1989–2013Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century.", "In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed, propelling the astrophysical study of stars.In Potsdam in 1906, the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars.", "These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence.At Princeton University, Henry Norris Russell plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude, and found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship.", "This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy.Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution.", "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 doctoral thesis.", "The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in quantum physics.", "This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined.As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s, Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to denote a luminosity-spectral class diagram.A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan.Map of the Milky Way Galaxy, with the constellations that cross the galactic plane in each direction and the known prominent components annotated including main arms, spurs, bar, nucleus/bulge, notable nebulae and globular clustersThe existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of \"external\" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us.", "The \"Great Debate\" between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, in the 1920s, concerned the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe.With the advent of quantum physics, spectroscopy was further refined.The Sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 1010 stars (10 billion stars).", "The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of ''the great debate'', was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy.Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot Big Bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law and cosmological abundances of elements." ], [ "See also", "* Age of the universe* Anthropic principle* Astrotheology* Expansion of the universe* Hebrew astronomy* History of astrology* History of Mars observation* History of supernova observation* History of the telescope* ''Letters on Sunspots''* List of astronomers** List of French astronomers** List of Hungarian astronomers** List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists** List of Slovenian astronomers** List of women astronomers* List of astronomical instrument makers* List of astronomical observatories* Patronage in astronomy* Society for the History of Astronomy* Timeline of astronomy* Timeline of Solar System astronomy* Worship of heavenly bodies" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited===* * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Astronomy & Empire, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Simon Schaffer, Kristen Lippincott & Allan Chapman (''In Our Time'', May 4, 2006)* Bibliothèque numérique de l'Observatoire de Paris (Digital library of the Paris Observatory)* Caelum Antiquum: Ancient Astronomy and Astrology Resources on LacusCurtius* Mesoamerican Archaeoastronomy: A Review of Contemporary Understandings of Prehispanic Astronomical Knowledge* UNESCO-IAU Portal to the Heritage of Astronomy" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Haber process" ], [ "Introduction", "Fritz Haber, 1918The '''Haber process''', also called the '''Haber–Bosch process''', is the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia.", "The German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed it in the first decade of the 20th century.", "The process converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by a reaction with hydrogen (H2) using an iron metal catalyst under high temperatures and pressures.", "This reaction is slightly exothermic (i.e.", "it releases energy), meaning that the reaction is favoured at lower temperatures and higher pressures.", "It decreases entropy, complicating the process.", "Hydrogen is produced via steam reforming, followed by an iterative closed cycle to react hydrogen with nitrogen to produce ammonia.The primary reaction is:: Before the development of the Haber process, it had been difficult to produce ammonia on an industrial scale, because earlier methods, such as the Birkeland–Eyde process and the Frank–Caro process, were too inefficient." ], [ "History", "Carl Bosch, 1927During the 19th century, the demand for nitrates and ammonia for use as fertilizers and industrial feedstocks rapidly increased.", "The main source was mining niter deposits and guano from tropical islands.", "At the beginning of the 20th century these reserves were thought insufficient to satisfy future demands, and research into new potential sources of ammonia increased.", "Although atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is abundant, comprising ~78% of the air, it is exceptionally stable and does not readily react with other chemicals.Haber, with his assistant Robert Le Rossignol, developed the high-pressure devices and catalysts needed to demonstrate the Haber process at a laboratory scale.", "They demonstrated their process in the summer of 1909 by producing ammonia from the air, drop by drop, at the rate of about per hour.", "The process was purchased by the German chemical company BASF, which assigned Carl Bosch the task of scaling up Haber's tabletop machine to industrial scale.", "He succeeded in 1910.Haber and Bosch were later awarded Nobel Prizes, in 1918 and 1931 respectively, for their work in overcoming the chemical and engineering problems of large-scale, continuous-flow, high-pressure technology.Ammonia was first manufactured using the Haber process on an industrial scale in 1913 in BASF's Oppau plant in Germany, reaching 20 tonnes/day in 1914.During World War I, the production of munitions required large amounts of nitrate.", "The Allies had access to large deposits of sodium nitrate in Chile (Chile saltpetre) controlled by British companies.", "India had large supplies too, but it was also controlled by the British.", "Germany had no such resources, so the Haber process proved essential to the German war effort.", "Synthetic ammonia from the Haber process was used for the production of nitric acid, a precursor to the nitrates used in explosives.The original Haber–Bosch reaction chambers used osmium as the catalyst, but it was available in extremely small quantities.", "Haber noted uranium was almost as effective and easier to obtain than osmium.", "In 1909, BASF researcher Alwin Mittasch discovered a much less expensive iron-based catalyst that is still used.", "A major contributor to the elucidation of this catalysis was Gerhard Ertl.", "The most popular catalysts are based on iron promoted with K2O, CaO, SiO2, and Al2O3.During the interwar years, alternative processes were developed, most notably the Casale process, Claude process, and the Mont-Cenis process developed by Friedrich Uhde Ingenieurbüro.", "Luigi Casale and Georges Claude proposed to increase the pressure of the synthesis loop to , thereby increasing the single-pass ammonia conversion and making nearly complete liquefaction at ambient temperature feasible.", "Claude proposed to have three or four converters with liquefaction steps in series, thereby avoiding recycling.", "Most plants continue to use the original Haber process ( and ), albeit with improved single-pass conversion and lower energy consumption due to process and catalyst optimization." ], [ "Process", "A historical (1921) high-pressure steel reactor for the production of ammonia via the Haber process is displayed at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, GermanyCombined with the energy needed to produce hydrogen and purified atmospheric nitrogen, ammonia production is energy-intensive, accounting for 1% to 2% of global energy consumption, 3% of global carbon emissions, and 3% to 5% of natural gas consumption.", "Hydrogen required for ammonia synthesis is most often produced through gasification of carbon-containing material, mostly natural gas, but other potential carbon sources include coal, petroleum, peat, biomass, or waste.", "As of 2012, the global production of ammonia produced from natural gas using the steam reforming process was 72%.", "Hydrogen can also be produced from water and electricity using electrolysis: at one time, most of Europe's ammonia was produced from the Hydro plant at Vemork.", "Other possibilities include biological hydrogen production or photolysis, but at present, steam reforming of natural gas is the most economical means of mass-producing hydrogen.The choice of catalyst is important for synthesizing ammonia.", "In 2012, Hideo Hosono's group found that Ru-loaded calcium-aluminum oxide C12A7: electride works well as a catalyst and pursued more efficient formation.", "This method is implemented in a small plant for ammonia synthesis in Japan.", "In 2019, Hosono's group found another catalyst, a novel perovskite oxynitride-hydride , that works at lower temperature and without costly ruthenium.=== Hydrogen production ===The major source of hydrogen is methane.", "Steam reforming extracts hydrogen from methane in a high-temperature and pressure tube inside a reformer with a nickel catalyst.", "Other fossil fuel sources include coal, heavy fuel oil and naphtha.Green hydrogen is produced without fossil fuels or carbon dioxide emissions from biomass, water electrolysis and thermochemical (solar or another heat source) water splitting.", "However, these hydrogen sources are not economically competitive with steam reforming.Starting with a natural gas () feedstock, the steps are:* Remove sulfur compounds from the feedstock, because sulfur deactivates the catalysts used in subsequent steps.", "Sulfur removal requires catalytic hydrogenation to convert sulfur compounds in the feedstocks to gaseous hydrogen sulfide (hydrodesulfurization, hydrotreating):::H2 + RSH -> RH + H2S* Hydrogen sulfide is adsorbed and removed by passing it through beds of zinc oxide where it is converted to solid zinc sulfide:Illustrating inputs and outputs of steam reforming of natural gas, a process to produce hydrogen::H2S + ZnO -> ZnS + H2O* Catalytic steam reforming of the sulfur-free feedstock forms hydrogen plus carbon monoxide:::CH4 + H2O -> CO + 3 H2* Catalytic shift conversion converts the carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and more hydrogen:::CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2* Carbon dioxide is removed either by absorption in aqueous ethanolamine solutions or by adsorption in pressure swing adsorbers (PSA) using proprietary solid adsorption media.", "* The final step in producing hydrogen is to use catalytic methanation to remove residual carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide::: CO + 3 H2 -> CH4 + H2O:: CO2 + 4 H2 -> CH4 + 2 H2O=== Ammonia production ===The hydrogen is catalytically reacted with nitrogen (derived from process air) to form anhydrous liquid ammonia.", "It is difficult and expensive, as lower temperatures result in slower reaction kinetics (hence a slower reaction rate) and high pressure requires high-strength pressure vessels that resist hydrogen embrittlement.", "Diatomic nitrogen is bound together by a triple bond, which makes it relatively inert.", "Yield and efficiency are low, meaning that the ammonia must be extracted and the gases reprocessed for the reaction to proceed at an acceptable pace.This step is known as the ammonia synthesis loop::3 H2 + N2 -> 2 NH3The gases (nitrogen and hydrogen) are passed over four beds of catalyst, with cooling between each pass to maintain a reasonable equilibrium constant.", "On each pass, only about 15% conversion occurs, but unreacted gases are recycled, and eventually conversion of 97% is achieved.Due to the nature of the (typically multi-promoted magnetite) catalyst used in the ammonia synthesis reaction, only low levels of oxygen-containing (especially CO, CO2 and H2O) compounds can be tolerated in the hydrogen/nitrogen mixture.", "Relatively pure nitrogen can be obtained by air separation, but additional oxygen removal may be required.Because of relatively low single pass conversion rates (typically less than 20%), a large recycle stream is required.", "This can lead to the accumulation of inerts in the gas.Nitrogen gas (N2) is unreactive because the atoms are held together by triple bonds.", "The Haber process relies on catalysts that accelerate the scission of these bonds.Two opposing considerations are relevant: the equilibrium position and the reaction rate.", "At room temperature, the equilibrium is in favor of ammonia, but the reaction doesn't proceed at a detectable rate due to its high activation energy.", "Because the reaction is exothermic, the equilibrium constant decreases with increasing temperature following Le Châtelier's principle.", "It becomes unity at around .+ ''K''(''T'') for + 3 ⇌ 2 Temperature (°C) ''K''p 300 4.34 × 10−3 400 1.64 × 10−4 450 4.51 × 10−5 500 1.45 × 10−5 550 5.38 × 10−6 600 2.25 × 10−6Above this temperature, the equilibrium quickly becomes unfavorable at atmospheric pressure, according to the Van 't Hoff equation.", "Lowering the temperature is unhelpful because the catalyst requires a temperature of at least 400 °C to be efficient.Increased pressure favors the forward reaction because 4 moles of reactant produce 2 moles of product, and the pressure used () alters the equilibrium concentrations to give a substantial ammonia yield.", "The reason for this is evident in the equilibrium relationship:where is the fugacity coefficient of species , is the mole fraction of the same species, is the reactor pressure, and is standard pressure, typically .Economically, reactor pressurization is expensive: pipes, valves, and reaction vessels need to be strong enough, and safety considerations affect operating at 20 MPa.", "Compressors take considerable energy, as work must be done on the (compressible) gas.", "Thus, the compromise used gives a single-pass yield of around 15%.While removing the ammonia from the system increases the reaction yield, this step is not used in practice, since the temperature is too high; instead it is removed from the gases leaving the reaction vessel.", "The hot gases are cooled under high pressure, allowing the ammonia to condense and be removed as a liquid.", "Unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases are returned to the reaction vessel for another round.", "While most ammonia is removed (typically down to 2–5 mol.%), some ammonia remains in the recycle stream.", "In academic literature, a more complete separation of ammonia has been proposed by absorption in metal halides or zeolites.", "Such a process is called an ''absorbent-enhanced Haber process'' or ''adsorbent-enhanced Haber–Bosch process''.=== Pressure/temperature ===The steam reforming, shift conversion, carbon dioxide removal, and methanation steps each operate at absolute pressures of about 25 to 35 bar, while the ammonia synthesis loop operates at temperatures of and pressures ranging from 60 to 180 bar depending upon the method used.", "The resulting ammonia must then be separated from the residual hydrogen and nitrogen at temperatures of ." ], [ "Catalysts", "First reactor at the Oppau plant in 1913Profiles of the active components of heterogeneous catalysts; the top right figure shows the profile of a shell catalyst.The Haber–Bosch process relies on catalysts to accelerate N2 hydrogenation.", "The catalysts are heterogeneous, solids that interact with gaseous reagents.The catalyst typically consists of finely divided iron bound to an iron oxide carrier containing promoters possibly including aluminium oxide, potassium oxide, calcium oxide, potassium hydroxide, molybdenum, and magnesium oxide.=== Iron-based catalysts ===The iron catalyst is obtained from finely ground iron powder, which is usually obtained by reduction of high-purity magnetite (Fe3O4).", "The pulverized iron is oxidized to give magnetite or wüstite (FeO, ferrous oxide) particles of a specific size.", "The magnetite (or wüstite) particles are then partially reduced, removing some of the oxygen.", "The resulting catalyst particles consist of a core of magnetite, encased in a shell of wüstite, which in turn is surrounded by an outer shell of metallic iron.", "The catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, resulting in a highly porous high-surface-area material, which enhances its catalytic effectiveness.", "Minor components include calcium and aluminium oxides, which support the iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area.", "These oxides of Ca, Al, K, and Si are unreactive to reduction by hydrogen.The production of the catalyst requires a particular melting process in which used raw materials must be free of catalyst poisons and the promoter aggregates must be evenly distributed in the magnetite melt.", "Rapid cooling of the magnetite, which has an initial temperature of about 3500 °C, produces the desired precursor.", "Unfortunately, the rapid cooling ultimately forms a catalyst of reduced abrasion resistance.", "Despite this disadvantage, the method of rapid cooling is often employed.The reduction of the precursor magnetite to α-iron is carried out directly in the production plant with synthesis gas.", "The reduction of the magnetite proceeds via the formation of wüstite (FeO) so that particles with a core of magnetite become surrounded by a shell of wüstite.", "The further reduction of magnetite and wüstite leads to the formation of α-iron, which forms together with the promoters the outer shell.", "The involved processes are complex and depend on the reduction temperature: At lower temperatures, wüstite disproportionates into an iron phase and a magnetite phase; at higher temperatures, the reduction of the wüstite and magnetite to iron dominates.The α-iron forms primary crystallites with a diameter of about 30 nanometers.", "These crystallites form a bimodal pore system with pore diameters of about 10 nanometers (produced by the reduction of the magnetite phase) and of 25 to 50 nanometers (produced by the reduction of the wüstite phase).", "With the exception of cobalt oxide, the promoters are not reduced.During the reduction of the iron oxide with synthesis gas, water vapor is formed.", "This water vapor must be considered for high catalyst quality as contact with the finely divided iron would lead to premature aging of the catalyst through recrystallization, especially in conjunction with high temperatures.", "The vapor pressure of the water in the gas mixture produced during catalyst formation is thus kept as low as possible, target values are below 3 gm−3.For this reason, the reduction is carried out at high gas exchange, low pressure, and low temperatures.", "The exothermic nature of the ammonia formation ensures a gradual increase in temperature.The reduction of fresh, fully oxidized catalyst or precursor to full production capacity takes four to ten days.", "The wüstite phase is reduced faster and at lower temperatures than the magnetite phase (Fe3O4).", "After detailed kinetic, microscopic, and X-ray spectroscopic investigations it was shown that wüstite reacts first to metallic iron.", "This leads to a gradient of iron(II) ions, whereby these diffuse from the magnetite through the wüstite to the particle surface and precipitate there as iron nuclei.Pre-reduced, stabilized catalysts occupy a significant market share.", "They are delivered showing the fully developed pore structure, but have been oxidized again on the surface after manufacture and are therefore no longer pyrophoric.", "The reactivation of such pre-reduced catalysts requires only 30 to 40 hours instead of several days.", "In addition to the short start-up time, they have other advantages such as higher water resistance and lower weight.Typical catalyst composition Iron (%) Potassium (%) Aluminium (%) Calcium (%) Oxygen (%) Volume composition 40.5 0.35 2.0 1.7 53.2 Surface composition before reduction 8.6 36.1 10.7 4.7 40.0 Surface composition after reduction 11.0 27.0 17.0 4.0 41.0=== Catalysts other than iron ===Many efforts have been made to improve the Haber–Bosch process.", "Many metals were tested as catalysts.", "The requirement for suitability is the dissociative adsorption of nitrogen (i. e. the nitrogen molecule must be split into nitrogen atoms upon adsorption).", "If the binding of the nitrogen is too strong, the catalyst is blocked and the catalytic ability is reduced (self-poisoning).", "The elements in the periodic table to the left of the iron group show such strong bonds.", "Further, the formation of surface nitrides makes, for example, chromium catalysts ineffective.", "Metals to the right of the iron group, in contrast, adsorb nitrogen too weakly for ammonia synthesis.", "Haber initially used catalysts based on osmium and uranium.", "Uranium reacts to its nitride during catalysis, while osmium oxide is rare.According to theoretical and practical studies, improvements over pure iron are limited.", "The activity of iron catalysts is increased by the inclusion of cobalt.==== Ruthenium ====Ruthenium forms highly active catalysts.", "Allowing milder operating pressures and temperatures, Ru-based materials are referred to as second-generation catalysts.", "Such catalysts are prepared by the decomposition of triruthenium dodecacarbonyl on graphite.", "A drawback of activated-carbon-supported ruthenium-based catalysts is the methanation of the support in the presence of hydrogen.", "Their activity is strongly dependent on the catalyst carrier and the promoters.", "A wide range of substances can be used as carriers, including carbon, magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, zeolites, spinels, and boron nitride.Ruthenium-activated carbon-based catalysts have been used industrially in the KBR Advanced Ammonia Process (KAAP) since 1992.The carbon carrier is partially degraded to methane; however, this can be mitigated by a special treatment of the carbon at 1500 °C, thus prolonging the catalyst lifetime.", "In addition, the finely dispersed carbon poses a risk of explosion.", "For these reasons and due to its low acidity, magnesium oxide has proven to be a good choice of carrier.", "Carriers with acidic properties extract electrons from ruthenium, make it less reactive, and have the undesirable effect of binding ammonia to the surface.=== Catalyst poisons ===Catalyst poisons lower catalyst activity.", "They are usually impurities in the synthesis gas.", "Permanent poisons cause irreversible loss of catalytic activity and, while temporary poisons lower the activity while present.", "Sulfur compounds, phosphorus compounds, arsenic compounds, and chlorine compounds are permanent poisons.", "Oxygenic compounds like water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are temporary poisons.Although chemically inert components of the synthesis gas mixture such as noble gases or methane are not strictly poisons, they accumulate through the recycling of the process gases and thus lower the partial pressure of the reactants, which in turn slows conversion." ], [ "Industrial production", "=== Synthesis parameters ===+Change of the equilibrium constant Keq as a function of temperature temperature (°C) Keq 300 4.34 × 10−3 400 1.64 × 10−4 450 4.51 × 10−5 509 1.45 × 10−5 550 5.38 × 10−6 600 2.25 × 10−6The reaction is::The reaction is an exothermic equilibrium reaction in which the gas volume is reduced.", "The equilibrium constant Keq of the reaction (see table) and obtained from:: Since the reaction is exothermic, the equilibrium of the reaction shifts at lower temperatures to the ammonia side.", "Furthermore, four volumetric units of the raw materials produce two volumetric units of ammonia.", "According to Le Chatelier's principle, higher pressure favours ammonia.", "High pressure is necessary to ensure sufficient surface coverage of the catalyst with nitrogen.", "For this reason, a ratio of nitrogen to hydrogen of 1 to 3, a pressure of 250 to 350 bar, a temperature of 450 to 550 °C and α iron are optimal.The catalyst ferrite (α-Fe) is produced in the reactor by the reduction of magnetite with hydrogen.", "The catalyst has its highest efficiency at temperatures of about 400 to 500 °C.", "Even though the catalyst greatly lowers the activation energy for the cleavage of the triple bond of the nitrogen molecule, high temperatures are still required for an appropriate reaction rate.", "At the industrially used reaction temperature of 450 to 550 °C an optimum between the decomposition of ammonia into the starting materials and the effectiveness of the catalyst is achieved.", "The formed ammonia is continuously removed from the system.", "The volume fraction of ammonia in the gas mixture is about 20%.The inert components, especially the noble gases such as argon, should not exceed a certain content in order not to reduce the partial pressure of the reactants too much.", "To remove the inert gas components, part of the gas is removed and the argon is separated in a gas separation plant.", "The extraction of pure argon from the circulating gas is carried out using the Linde process.=== Large-scale implementation ===Modern ammonia plants produce more than 3000 tons per day in one production line.", "The following diagram shows the set-up of a Haber–Bosch plant: Depending on its origin, the synthesis gas must first be freed from impurities such as hydrogen sulfide or organic sulphur compounds, which act as a catalyst poison.", "High concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, which occur in synthesis gas from carbonization coke, are removed in a wet cleaning stage such as the sulfosolvan process, while low concentrations are removed by adsorption on activated carbon.", "Organosulfur compounds are separated by pressure swing adsorption together with carbon dioxide after CO conversion.To produce hydrogen by steam reforming, methane reacts with water vapor using a nickel oxide-alumina catalyst in the primary reformer to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen.", "The energy required for this, the enthalpy ΔH, is 206 kJ/mol.", ":The methane gas reacts in the primary reformer only partially.", "To increase the hydrogen yield and keep the content of inert components (i. e. methane) as low as possible, the remaining methane gas is converted in a second step with oxygen to hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the secondary reformer.", "The secondary reformer is supplied with air as the oxygen source.", "Also, the required nitrogen for the subsequent ammonia synthesis is added to the gas mixture.", ":In the third step, the carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide, which is called CO conversion or water-gas shift reaction.", ":Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide would form carbamates with ammonia, which would clog (as solids) pipelines and apparatus within a short time.", "In the following process step, the carbon dioxide must therefore be removed from the gas mixture.", "In contrast to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide can easily be removed from the gas mixture by gas scrubbing with triethanolamine.", "The gas mixture then still contains methane and noble gases such as argon, which, however, behave inertly.The gas mixture is then compressed to operating pressure by turbo compressors.", "The resulting compression heat is dissipated by heat exchangers; it is used to preheat raw gases.The actual production of ammonia takes place in the ammonia reactor.", "The first reactors were bursting under high pressure because the atomic hydrogen in the carbonaceous steel partially recombined into methane and produced cracks in the steel.", "Bosch, therefore, developed tube reactors consisting of a pressure-bearing steel tube in which a low-carbon iron lining tube was inserted and filled with the catalyst.", "Hydrogen that diffused through the inner steel pipe escaped to the outside via thin holes in the outer steel jacket, the so-called Bosch holes.", "A disadvantage of the tubular reactors was the relatively high-pressure loss, which had to be applied again by compression.", "The development of hydrogen-resistant chromium-molybdenum steels made it possible to construct single-walled pipes.Modern ammonia reactor with heat exchanger modules: The cold gas mixture is preheated to reaction temperature in heat exchangers by the reaction heat and cools in turn the produced ammonia.Modern ammonia reactors are designed as multi-storey reactors with a low-pressure drop, in which the catalysts are distributed as fills over about ten storeys one above the other.", "The gas mixture flows through them one after the other from top to bottom.", "Cold gas is injected from the side for cooling.", "A disadvantage of this reactor type is the incomplete conversion of the cold gas mixture in the last catalyst bed.Alternatively, the reaction mixture between the catalyst layers is cooled using heat exchangers, whereby the hydrogen-nitrogen mixture is preheated to the reaction temperature.", "Reactors of this type have three catalyst beds.", "In addition to good temperature control, this reactor type has the advantage of better conversion of the raw material gases compared to reactors with cold gas injection.Uhde has developed and is using an ammonia converter with three radial flow catalyst beds and two internal heat exchangers instead of axial flow catalyst beds.", "This further reduces the pressure drop in the converter.The reaction product is continuously removed for maximum yield.", "The gas mixture is cooled to 450 °C in a heat exchanger using water, freshly supplied gases, and other process streams.", "The ammonia also condenses and is separated in a pressure separator.", "Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are then compressed back to the process by a circulating gas compressor, supplemented with fresh gas, and fed to the reactor.", "In a subsequent distillation, the product ammonia is purified." ], [ "Mechanism", "=== Elementary steps ===The mechanism of ammonia synthesis contains the following seven elementary steps:# transport of the reactants from the gas phase through the boundary layer to the surface of the catalyst.# pore diffusion to the reaction center# adsorption of reactants# reaction# desorption of product# transport of the product through the pore system back to the surface# transport of the product into the gas phaseTransport and diffusion (the first and last two steps) are fast compared to adsorption, reaction, and desorption because of the shell structure of the catalyst.", "It is known from various investigations that the rate-determining step of the ammonia synthesis is the dissociation of nitrogen.", "In contrast, exchange reactions between hydrogen and deuterium on the Haber–Bosch catalysts still take place at temperatures of at a measurable rate; the exchange between deuterium and hydrogen on the ammonia molecule also takes place at room temperature.", "Since the adsorption of both molecules is rapid, it cannot determine the speed of ammonia synthesis.In addition to the reaction conditions, the adsorption of nitrogen on the catalyst surface depends on the microscopic structure of the catalyst surface.", "Iron has different crystal surfaces, whose reactivity is very different.", "The Fe(111) and Fe(211) surfaces have by far the highest activity.", "The explanation for this is that only these surfaces have so-called C7 sites – these are iron atoms with seven closest neighbours.The dissociative adsorption of nitrogen on the surface follows the following scheme, where S* symbolizes an iron atom on the surface of the catalyst:: N2 → S*–N2 (γ-species) → S*–N2–S* (α-species) → 2 S*–N (β-species, ''surface nitride'')The adsorption of nitrogen is similar to the chemisorption of carbon monoxide.", "On a Fe(111) surface, the adsorption of nitrogen first leads to an adsorbed γ-species with an adsorption energy of 24 kJmol−1 and an N-N stretch vibration of 2100 cm−1.Since the nitrogen is isoelectronic to carbon monoxide, it adsorbs in an on-end configuration in which the molecule is bound perpendicular to the metal surface at one nitrogen atom.", "This has been confirmed by photoelectron spectroscopy.Ab-initio-MO calculations have shown that, in addition to the σ binding of the free electron pair of nitrogen to the metal, there is a π binding from the d orbitals of the metal to the π* orbitals of nitrogen, which strengthens the iron-nitrogen bond.", "The nitrogen in the α state is more strongly bound with 31 kJmol−1.The resulting N–N bond weakening could be experimentally confirmed by a reduction of the wave numbers of the N–N stretching oscillation to 1490 cm−1.Further heating of the Fe(111) area covered by α-N2 leads to both desorption and the emergence of a new band at 450 cm−1.This represents a metal-nitrogen oscillation, the β state.", "A comparison with vibration spectra of complex compounds allows the conclusion that the N2 molecule is bound \"side-on\", with an N atom in contact with a C7 site.", "This structure is called \"surface nitride\".", "The surface nitride is very strongly bound to the surface.", "Hydrogen atoms (Hads), which are very mobile on the catalyst surface, quickly combine with it.Infrared spectroscopically detected surface imides (NHad), surface amides (NH2,ad) and surface ammoniacates (NH3,ad) are formed, the latter decay under NH3 release (desorption).", "The individual molecules were identified or assigned by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS) and Ir Spectroscopy.", ":Drawn reaction schemeOn the basis of these experimental findings, the reaction mechanism is believed to involve the following steps (see also figure):# N2 (g) → N2 (adsorbed)# N2 (adsorbed) → 2 N (adsorbed)# H2 (g) → H2 (adsorbed)# H2 (adsorbed) → 2 H (adsorbed)# N (adsorbed) + 3 H (adsorbed) → NH3 (adsorbed)# NH3 (adsorbed) → NH3 (g)Reaction 5 occurs in three steps, forming NH, NH2, and then NH3.Experimental evidence points to reaction 2 as being slow, rate-determining step.", "This is not unexpected, since the bond is broken, the nitrogen triple bond is the strongest of the bonds that must be broken.As with all Haber–Bosch catalysts, nitrogen dissociation is the rate-determining step for ruthenium-activated carbon catalysts.", "The active center for ruthenium is a so-called B5 site, a 5-fold coordinated position on the Ru(0001) surface where two ruthenium atoms form a step edge with three ruthenium atoms on the Ru(0001) surface.", "The number of B5 sites depends on the size and shape of the ruthenium particles, the ruthenium precursor and the amount of ruthenium used.", "The reinforcing effect of the basic carrier used in the ruthenium catalyst is similar to the promoter effect of alkali metals used in the iron catalyst.=== Energy diagram ===Energy diagram An energy diagram can be created based on the Enthalpy of Reaction of the individual steps.", "The energy diagram can be used to compare homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions: Due to the high activation energy of the dissociation of nitrogen, the homogeneous gas phase reaction is not realizable.", "The catalyst avoids this problem as the energy gain resulting from the binding of nitrogen atoms to the catalyst surface overcompensates for the necessary dissociation energy so that the reaction is finally exothermic.", "Nevertheless, the dissociative adsorption of nitrogen remains the rate-determining step: not because of the activation energy, but mainly because of the unfavorable pre-exponential factor of the rate constant.", "Although hydrogenation is endothermic, this energy can easily be applied by the reaction temperature (about 700 K)." ], [ "Economic and environmental aspects", "Severnside fertilizer plant northwest of Bristol, UKWhen first invented, the Haber process competed against another industrial process, the cyanamide process.", "However, the cyanamide process consumed large amounts of electrical power and was more labor-intensive than the Haber process.As of 2018, the Haber process produces 230 million tonnes of anhydrous ammonia per year.", "The ammonia is used mainly as a nitrogen fertilizer as ammonia itself, in the form of ammonium nitrate, and as urea.", "The Haber process consumes 3–5% of the world's natural gas production (around 1–2% of the world's energy supply).", "In combination with advances in breeding, herbicides, and pesticides, these fertilizers have helped to increase the productivity of agricultural land:The energy-intensity of the process contributes to climate change and other environmental problems such as the leaching of nitrates into groundwater, rivers, ponds, and lakes; expanding dead zones in coastal ocean waters, resulting from recurrent eutrophication; atmospheric deposition of nitrates and ammonia affecting natural ecosystems; higher emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), now the third most important greenhouse gas following CO2 and CH4.The Haber–Bosch process is one of the largest contributors to a buildup of reactive nitrogen in the biosphere, causing an anthropogenic disruption to the nitrogen cycle.Since nitrogen use efficiency is typically less than 50%, farm runoff from heavy use of fixed industrial nitrogen disrupts biological habitats.Nearly 50% of the nitrogen found in human tissues originated from the Haber–Bosch process.", "Thus, the Haber process serves as the \"detonator of the population explosion\", enabling the global population to increase from 1.6 billion in 1900 to 7.7 billion by November 2018.Reverse fuel cell technology converts electric energy, water and air into ammonia without a separate hydrogen electrolysis process." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* , 29 July 1999.", "* * * BASF – Fertilizer out of thin air* Britannica guide to Nobel Prizes: Fritz Haber* Haber Process for Ammonia Synthesis* Haber–Bosch process, most important invention of the 20th century, according to V. Smil, Nature, 29 July 1999, p. 415 (by Jürgen Schmidhuber)* Nobel e-Museum – Biography of Fritz Haber* Uses and Production of Ammonia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hot or Not" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hot or Not''' is a rating site that allowed users to rate the attractiveness of photos submitted voluntarily by others.", "The site offered a matchmaking engine called 'Meet Me' and an extended profile feature called \"Hotlists\".", "The domain hotornot.com is currently owned by Hot Or Not Limited, and was previously owned by Avid Life Media.", "'Hot or Not' was a significant influence on the people who went on to create the social media sites Facebook and YouTube." ], [ "Description", "Users would submit photographs of themselves to the site for the purpose of other users to rate said person's attractiveness on a scale of 1 - 10, with the cumulative average acting as the overall score for a given photograph." ], [ "History", "The site was founded in October 2000 by James Hong and Jim Young, two friends and Silicon Valley-based engineers.", "Both graduated from the University of California, Berkeley in electrical engineering, with Young pursuing a Ph.D. at the time.", "It was inspired by some other developers' ideas.The site was a technical solution to a disagreement the founders had one day over a passing woman's attractiveness.", "The site was originally called \"Am I Hot or Not\".", "Within a week of launching, it had reached almost two million page views per day.", "Within a few months, the site was immediately behind CNET and NBCi on NetNielsen Rating's Top 25 advertising domains.", "To keep up with rising costs Hong and Young added a matchmaking component to their website called \"Meet Me at Hot or Not\", i.e.", "a system of range voting.", "The matchmaking service has been especially successful and the site continues to generate most of its revenue through subscriptions.", "In the December 2006 issue of ''Time'' magazine, the founders of YouTube stated that they originally set out to make a version of Hot or Not with Video before developing their more inclusive site.", "Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook similarly got his start by creating a Hot or Not type site called FaceMash, where he posted photos from Harvard's Facebook for the university's community to rate.Hot or Not was sold for a rumored $20 million on February 8, 2008, to Avid Life Media, owners of Ashley Madison.", "Annual revenue reached $7.5 million, with net profits of $5.5 million.", "They initially started off $60,000 in debt due to tuition fees James paid for his MBA.", "On July 31, 2008, Hot or Not launched Hot or Not Gossip and a Baresi rate box (a \"hot meter\") – a subdivision to expand their market, run by former radio DJ turned celebrity blogger Zack Taylor.In 2012, Hot or Not was purchased by Badoo, which is owned by Bumble Inc.", "The app is currently rebranded as Chat & Date which uses a similar user interface to Badoo and shares user accounts between both sites." ], [ "Predecessors and spin-offs", "Hot or Not was preceded by other rating sites, like RateMyFace, which was registered a year earlier in the summer of 1999, and AmIHot.com, which was registered in January 2000 by MIT freshman Daniel Roy.", "Regardless, despite any head starts of its predecessors, Hot or Not quickly became the most popular.", "Since AmIHotOrNot.com's launch, the concept has spawned many imitators.", "The concept always remained the same, but the subject matter varied greatly.", "The concept has also been integrated with a wide variety of dating and matchmaking systems.", "In 2007 BecauseImHot.com launched and deleted anyone with a rating below 7 after a voting audit or the first 50 votes (whichever is first).As a sophomore at Harvard, Mark Zuckerberg created Facemash, a website where users compared the attractiveness of fellow students." ], [ "Research", "In 2005, as an example of using image morphing methods to study the effects of averageness, imaging researcher Pierre Tourigny created a composite of about 30 faces to find out the current standard of good looks on the Internet.", "On the Hot or Not web site, people rate others' attractiveness on a scale of 1 to 10.An average score based on hundreds or even thousands of individual ratings takes only a few days to emerge.", "To make this hot-or-not palette of morphed images, photos from the site were sorted by rank and used SquirlzMorph to create multi-morph composites from them.", "Unlike projects like Face of Tomorrow, where the subjects are posed for the purpose, the portraits are blurry because the source images are of low resolution with differences in variables such as posture, hair styles and glasses, so that in this instance images could use only 36 control points for the morphs.", "A similar study was done with Miss Universe contestants, as shown in the averageness article, as well as one for age, as shown in youthfulness article.A 2006 \"hot\" or \"not\" style study, involving 264 women and 18 men, at the Washington University School of Medicine, as published online in the journal ''Brain Research'', indicates that a person's brain determines whether an image is erotically appealing long before the viewer is even aware they are seeing the picture.", "Moreover, according to these researchers, one of the basic functions of the brain is to classify images into a hot-or-not type categorization.", "The study's researchers also discovered that sexy shots induce a uniquely powerful reaction in the brain, equal in effect for both men and women, and that erotic images produced a strong reaction in the hypothalamus." ], [ "See also", "*Tinder*Badoo* Photofeeler" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "H.263" ], [ "Introduction", "'''H.263''' is a video compression standard originally designed as a low-bit-rate compressed format for videotelephony.", "It was standardized by the ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) in a project ending in 1995/1996.It is a member of the H.26x family of video coding standards in the domain of the ITU-T.Like the previous H.26x standards, H.263 is a block-based hybrid video coding scheme using 16×16 macroblocks of YCbCr color sample arrays, motion-compensated prediction, an 8×8 discrete cosine transform for prediction differences, zig-zag scanning of transform coefficients, scalar quantization, run-length transform coefficient symbols, and variable-length coding (basically like Huffman coding but with structured coding tables).", "The first (1995) version of H.263 included some optional features including overlapped block motion compensation and variable block-size motion compensation, and the spec was later extended to add various additional enhanced features in 1998 and 2000.Smaller additions were also made in 1997 and 2001, and a unified edition was produced in 2005." ], [ "History and background", "The H.263 standard was first designed to be utilized in H.324 based systems (PSTN and other circuit-switched network videoconferencing and videotelephony), but it also found use in H.323 (RTP/IP-based videoconferencing), H.320 (ISDN-based videoconferencing, where it became the most widely used video compression standard), RTSP (streaming media) and SIP (IP-based videoconferencing) solutions.H.263 is a required video coding format in ETSI 3GPP technical specifications for IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) and Transparent end-to-end Packet-switched Streaming Service (PSS).", "In 3GPP specifications, H.263 video is usually used in 3GP container format.H.263 also found many applications on the internet: much Flash Video content (as used on sites such as YouTube, Google Video, and MySpace) used to be encoded in Sorenson Spark format (an incomplete implementation of H.263).", "The original version of the RealVideo codec was based on H.263 until the release of RealVideo 8.H.263 was developed as an evolutionary improvement based on experience from H.261 and H.262 (aka MPEG-2 Video), the previous ITU-T standards for video compression, and the MPEG-1 standard developed in ISO/IEC.", "The first version of H.263 was completed in 1995 and provided a suitable replacement for H.261 at all bit rates.", "It was further enhanced in projects known as H.263v2 (also known as H.263+ or H.263 1998) and H.263v3 (also known as H.263++ or H.263 2000).", "It was also used as the basis for the development of MPEG-4 Part 2.MPEG-4 Part 2 is H.263 compatible in the sense that basic \"baseline\" H.263 bitstreams are correctly decoded by an MPEG-4 Video decoder.The next enhanced format developed by ITU-T VCEG (in partnership with MPEG) after H.263 was the H.264 standard, also known as AVC and MPEG-4 part 10.As H.264 provides a significant improvement in capability beyond H.263, the H.263 standard is now considered a legacy design that is only used for compatibility with older products.", "Newer videoconferencing products now include H.264 as well as, or instead of, H.263 and H.261 capabilities.", "Even newer standard formats, HEVC and VVC, have also been developed by VCEG and MPEG, and have begun to replace H.264 in some applications." ], [ "Versions", "Since the original ratification of H.263 in March 1996 (approving a document that was produced in November 1995), there have been two subsequent additions which improved on the original standard by additional optional extensions (for example, the H.263v2 project added a deblocking filter in its Annex J).=== Version 1 and Annex I ===The original version of H.263 specified the following annexes:* Annex A – Inverse transform accuracy specification* Annex B – Hypothetical Reference Decoder* Annex C – Considerations for Multipoint* Annex D – Unrestricted Motion Vector mode* Annex E – Syntax-based Arithmetic Coding mode* Annex F – Advanced Prediction mode* Annex G – PB-frames mode* Annex H – Forward Error Correction for coded video signalThe first version of H.263 supported a limited set of picture sizes:* 128×96 (a.k.a.", "Sub-QCIF)* 176×144 (a.k.a.", "QCIF)* 352×288 (a.k.a.", "CIF)* 704×576 (a.k.a.", "4CIF)* 1408×1152 (a.k.a.", "16CIF)In March 1997, an informative Appendix I describing Error Tracking – an encoding technique for providing improved robustness to data losses and errors, was approved to provide information for the aid of implementers having an interest in such techniques.=== H.263v2 (H.263+) ===H.263v2 (also known as ''H.263+'', or as ''the 1998 version of H.263'') is the informal name of the second edition of the ITU-T H.263 international video coding standard.", "It retained the entire technical content of the original version of the standard, but enhanced H.263 capabilities by adding several annexes which can substantially improve encoding efficiency and provide other capabilities (such as enhanced robustness against data loss in the transmission channel).", "The H.263+ project was ratified by the ITU in February 1998.It added the following Annexes:* Annex I – Advanced INTRA Coding mode* Annex J – Deblocking Filter mode* Annex K – Slice Structured mode* Annex L – Supplemental Enhancement Information Specification* Annex M – Improved PB-frames mode* Annex N – Reference Picture Selection mode* Annex O – Temporal, SNR, and Spatial Scalability mode* Annex P – Reference picture resampling* Annex Q – Reduced-Resolution Update mode (see implementors' guide correction as noted below)* Annex R – Independent Segment Decoding mode* Annex S – Alternative INTER VLC mode* Annex T – Modified Quantization modeH.263v2 also added support for flexible customized picture formats and custom picture clock frequencies.", "As noted above, the only picture formats previously supported in H.263 had been Sub-QCIF, QCIF, CIF, 4CIF, and 16CIF, and the only picture clock frequency had been 30000/1001 (approximately 29.97) clock ticks per second.H.263v2 specified a set of recommended modes in an informative appendix (Appendix II, since deprecated):Level 1Level 2Level 3 Advanced INTRA Coding Deblocking Filter Supplemental Enhancement Information (Full-Frame Freeze Only) Modified Quantization Unrestricted Motion Vectors Slice Structured Mode Reference Picture Resampling (Implicit Factor-of-4 Mode Only) Advanced Prediction Improved PB-frames Independent Segment Decoding Alternate INTER VLC Level 1Level 2Level 3=== H.263v3 (H.263++) and Annex X ===The definition of H.263v3 (also known as H.263++ or as the 2000 version of H.263) added three annexes.", "These annexes and an additional annex that specified profiles (approved the following year) were originally published as separate documents from the main body of the standard itself.", "The additional annexes specified are:* Annex U – Enhanced reference picture selection mode* Annex V – Data-partitioned slice mode* Annex W – Additional supplemental enhancement information specification* Annex X (originally specified in 2001) – Profiles and levels definitionThe prior informative Appendix II (recommended optional enhancement) was obsoleted by the creation of the normative Annex X.In June 2001, another informative appendix (Appendix III, Examples for H.263 encoder/decoder implementations) was approved.", "It describes techniques for encoding and for error/loss concealment by decoders.In January 2005, a unified H.263 specification document was produced (with the exception of Appendix III, which remains as a separately-published document).In August 2005, an implementors' guide was approved to correct a small error in the seldom-used Annex Q reduced-resolution update mode." ], [ "Patent rights and open-source implementation", "H.263 was developed under the \"reasonable and non-discriminatory\" patent licensing policy of ITU-T, although in practice, the licensing for patent rights on the standard did not become the subject of substantial litigation.", "Due to the age of the standard, most or all relevant patents would currently be expired at least for patents that would apply to the early versions of the standard.Open-source implementations include the LGPL-licensed libavcodec library (part of the FFmpeg project) which is used by programs such as ffdshow, VLC media player and MPlayer." ], [ "See also", "* H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2* MPEG-4 Part 2 (MPEG-4 Visual)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The ITU-T specification for H.263* IETF AVT Working Group - Group that reviews codec packetizations for RTP** - RTP Payload Format for ITU-T Rec.", "H.263 Video** - RTP Payload Format for the 1998 Version of ITU-T Rec.", "H.263 Video (H.263+) (Obsolete, upgraded spec in RFC 4629)** - RTP Payload Format for H.263 Video Streams (Historic)* H.263 - MultimediaWiki* Intel Integrated Performance Primitives* H.263 implementation in vic (source code available)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "House of Orange (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''House of Orange''' is a branch of the House of Nassau active in European politics.", "'''House of Orange''' may also refer to:* \"The House of Orange\" (song), a song by Stan Rogers from the 1984 album: ''From Fresh Water''* First House of Orange, a medieval royal house originally controlling the County of Orange* House of Baux, sometimes called the Second House of Orange* House of Orange-Chalon, a medieval Frankish dynasty of Burgundy, sometimes called the Third House of Orange* House of Orange-Nassau, a branch of the European House of Nassau, sometimes called the Fourth House of Orange" ], [ "See also", "* Order of the House of Orange* Principality of Orange* Prince of Orange, a title originally associated with the Principality of Orange" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Histone" ], [ "Introduction", "Schematic representation of the assembly of the core histones into the nucleosome.In biology, '''histones''' are highly basic proteins abundant in lysine and arginine residues that are found in eukaryotic cell nuclei and in most Archaeal phyla.", "They act as spools around which DNA winds to create structural units called nucleosomes.", "Nucleosomes in turn are wrapped into 30-nanometer fibers that form tightly packed chromatin.", "Histones prevent DNA from becoming tangled and protect it from DNA damage.", "In addition, histones play important roles in gene regulation and DNA replication.", "Without histones, unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long.", "For example, each human cell has about 1.8 meters of DNA if completely stretched out; however, when wound about histones, this length is reduced to about 90 micrometers (0.09 mm) of 30 nm diameter chromatin fibers.There are five families of histones which are designated H1/H5 (linker histones), H2, H3, and H4 (core histones).", "The nucleosome core is formed of two H2A-H2B dimers and a H3-H4 tetramer.", "The tight wrapping of DNA around histones is to a large degree a result of electrostatic attraction between the positively charged histones and negatively charged phosphate backbone of DNA.Histones may be chemically modified through the action of enzymes to regulate gene transcription.", "The most common modification are the methylation of arginine or lysine residues or the acetylation of lysine.", "Methylation can affect how other protein such as transcription factors interact with the nucleosomes.", "Lysine acetylation eliminates a positive charge on lysine thereby weakening the electrostatic attraction between histone and DNA resulting in partial unwinding of the DNA making it more accessible for gene expression." ], [ "Classes and variants", "Histone heterooctamer (H3,H4,H2A,H2B) + DNA fragment, FrogFive major families of histone proteins exist: H1/H5, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.Histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 are known as the core or nucleosomal histones, while histones H1/H5 are known as the linker histones.The core histones all exist as dimers, which are similar in that they all possess the histone fold domain: three alpha helices linked by two loops.", "It is this helical structure that allows for interaction between distinct dimers, particularly in a head-tail fashion (also called the handshake motif).", "The resulting four distinct dimers then come together to form one octameric nucleosome core, approximately 63 Angstroms in diameter (a solenoid (DNA)-like particle).", "Around 146 base pairs (bp) of DNA wrap around this core particle 1.65 times in a left-handed super-helical turn to give a particle of around 100 Angstroms across.", "The linker histone H1 binds the nucleosome at the entry and exit sites of the DNA, thus locking the DNA into place and allowing the formation of higher order structure.", "The most basic such formation is the 10 nm fiber or beads on a string conformation.", "This involves the wrapping of DNA around nucleosomes with approximately 50 base pairs of DNA separating each pair of nucleosomes (also referred to as linker DNA).", "Higher-order structures include the 30 nm fiber (forming an irregular zigzag) and 100 nm fiber, these being the structures found in normal cells.", "During mitosis and meiosis, the condensed chromosomes are assembled through interactions between nucleosomes and other regulatory proteins.Histones are subdivided into canonical replication-dependent histones, whose genes are expressed during the S-phase of the cell cycle and replication-independent histone variants, expressed during the whole cell cycle.", "In mammals, genes encoding canonical histones are typically clustered along chromosomes in 4 different highly-conserved loci, lack introns and use a stem loop structure at the 3' end instead of a polyA tail.", "Genes encoding histone variants are usually not clustered, have introns and their mRNAs are regulated with polyA tails.", "Complex multicellular organisms typically have a higher number of histone variants providing a variety of different functions.", "Recent data are accumulating about the roles of diverse histone variants highlighting the functional links between variants and the delicate regulation of organism development.", "Histone variants proteins from different organisms, their classification and variant specific features can be found in \"HistoneDB 2.0 - Variants\" database.", "Several pseudogenes have also been discovered and identified in very close sequences of their respective functional ortholog genes.The following is a list of human histone proteins, genes and pseudogenes:Super familyFamilyReplication-dependent genesReplication-independent genesPseudogenesLinkerH1H1-1, H1-2, H1-3, H1-4, H1-5, H1-6H1-0, H1-7, H1-8, H1-10H1-9P, H1-12PCoreH2AH2AC1, H2AC4, H2AC6, H2AC7, H2AC8, H2AC11, H2AC12, H2AC13, H2AC14, H2AC15, H2AC16, H2AC17, H2AC18, H2AC19, H2AC20, H2AC21, H2AC25H2AZ1, H2AZ2, MACROH2A1, MACROH2A2, H2AX, H2AJ, H2AB1, H2AB2, H2AB3, H2AP, H2AL1Q, H2AL3H2AC2P, H2AC3P, H2AC5P, H2AC9P, H2AC10P, H2AQ1P, H2AL1MPH2BH2BC1, H2BC3, H2BC4, H2BC5, H2BC6, H2BC7, H2BC8, H2BC9, H2BC10, H2BC11, H2BC12, H2BC13, H2BC14, H2BC15, H2BC17, H2BC18, H2BC21, H2BC26, H2BC12LH2BK1, H2BW1, H2BW2, H2BW3P, H2BN1H2BC2P, H2BC16P, H2BC19P, H2BC20P, H2BC27P, H2BL1P, H2BW3P, H2BW4PH3H3C1, H3C2, H3C3, H3C4, H3C6, H3C7, H3C8, H3C10, H3C11, H3C12, H3C13, H3C14, H3C15, H3-4H3-3A, H3-3B, H3-5, H3-7, H3Y1, H3Y2'','' CENPAH3C5P, H3C9P, H3P16, H3P44H4H4C1, H4C2, H4C3, H4C4, H4C5, H4C6, H4C7, H4C8, H4C9, H4C11, H4C12, H4C13, H4C14, H4C15H4C16H4C10P" ], [ "Structure", "Steps in nucleosome assemblyThe nucleosome core is formed of two H2A-H2B dimers and a H3-H4 tetramer, forming two nearly symmetrical halves by tertiary structure (C2 symmetry; one macromolecule is the mirror image of the other).", "The H2A-H2B dimers and H3-H4 tetramer also show pseudodyad symmetry.", "The 4 'core' histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) are relatively similar in structure and are highly conserved through evolution, all featuring a 'helix turn helix turn helix' motif (DNA-binding protein motif that recognize specific DNA sequence).", "They also share the feature of long 'tails' on one end of the amino acid structure - this being the location of post-translational modification (see below).Archaeal histone only contains a H3-H4 like dimeric structure made out of a single type of unit.", "Such dimeric structures can stack into a tall superhelix (\"hypernucleosome\") onto which DNA coils in a manner similar to nucleosome spools.", "Only some archaeal histones have tails.The distance between the spools around which eukaryotic cells wind their DNA has been determined to range from 59 to 70 Å.In all, histones make five types of interactions with DNA:* Salt bridges and hydrogen bonds between side chains of basic amino acids (especially lysine and arginine) and phosphate oxygens on DNA* Helix-dipoles form alpha-helixes in H2B, H3, and H4 cause a net positive charge to accumulate at the point of interaction with negatively charged phosphate groups on DNA* Hydrogen bonds between the DNA backbone and the amide group on the main chain of histone proteins* Nonpolar interactions between the histone and deoxyribose sugars on DNA* Non-specific minor groove insertions of the H3 and H2B N-terminal tails into two minor grooves each on the DNA moleculeThe highly basic nature of histones, aside from facilitating DNA-histone interactions, contributes to their water solubility.Histones are subject to post translational modification by enzymes primarily on their N-terminal tails, but also in their globular domains.", "Such modifications include methylation, citrullination, acetylation, phosphorylation, SUMOylation, ubiquitination, and ADP-ribosylation.", "This affects their function of gene regulation.In general, genes that are active have less bound histone, while inactive genes are highly associated with histones during interphase.", "It also appears that the structure of histones has been evolutionarily conserved, as any deleterious mutations would be severely maladaptive.", "All histones have a highly positively charged N-terminus with many lysine and arginine residues." ], [ "Evolution and species distribution", "Core histones are found in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells and in most Archaeal phyla, but not in bacteria.", "The unicellular algae known as dinoflagellates were previously thought to be the only eukaryotes that completely lack histones, but later studies showed that their DNA still encodes histone genes.", "Unlike the core histones, homologs of the lysine-rich linker histone (H1) proteins are found in bacteria, otherwise known as nucleoprotein HC1/HC2.It has been proposed that core histone proteins are evolutionarily related to the helical part of the extended AAA+ ATPase domain, the C-domain, and to the N-terminal substrate recognition domain of Clp/Hsp100 proteins.", "Despite the differences in their topology, these three folds share a homologous helix-strand-helix (HSH) motif.", "It’s also proposed that they may have evolved from ribosomal proteins (RPS6/RPS15), both being short and basic proteins.Archaeal histones may well resemble the evolutionary precursors to eukaryotic histones.", "Histone proteins are among the most highly conserved proteins in eukaryotes, emphasizing their important role in the biology of the nucleus.", "In contrast mature sperm cells largely use protamines to package their genomic DNA, most likely because this allows them to achieve an even higher packaging ratio.There are some ''variant'' forms in some of the major classes.", "They share amino acid sequence homology and core structural similarity to a specific class of major histones but also have their own feature that is distinct from the major histones.", "These ''minor histones'' usually carry out specific functions of the chromatin metabolism.", "For example, histone H3-like CENPA is associated with only the centromere region of the chromosome.", "Histone H2A variant H2A.Z is associated with the promoters of actively transcribed genes and also involved in the prevention of the spread of silent heterochromatin.", "Furthermore, H2A.Z has roles in chromatin for genome stability.", "Another H2A variant H2A.X is phosphorylated at S139 in regions around double-strand breaks and marks the region undergoing DNA repair.", "Histone H3.3 is associated with the body of actively transcribed genes." ], [ "Function{{anchor|Histone modifications}}", "Basic units of chromatin structure=== Compacting DNA strands ===Histones act as spools around which DNA winds.", "This enables the compaction necessary to fit the large genomes of eukaryotes inside cell nuclei: the compacted molecule is 40,000 times shorter than an unpacked molecule.=== Chromatin regulation ===Histone tails and their function in chromatin formationHistones undergo posttranslational modifications that alter their interaction with DNA and nuclear proteins.", "The H3 and H4 histones have long tails protruding from the nucleosome, which can be covalently modified at several places.", "Modifications of the tail include methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, citrullination, and ADP-ribosylation.", "The core of the histones H2A and H2B can also be modified.", "Combinations of modifications, known as ''histone marks'', are thought to constitute a code, the so-called \"histone code\".", "Histone modifications act in diverse biological processes such as gene regulation, DNA repair, chromosome condensation (mitosis) and spermatogenesis (meiosis).The common nomenclature of histone modifications is:* The name of the histone (e.g., H3)* The single-letter amino acid abbreviation (e.g., K for Lysine) and the amino acid position in the protein* The type of modification (Me: methyl, P: phosphate, Ac: acetyl, Ub: ubiquitin)* The number of modifications (only Me is known to occur in more than one copy per residue.", "1, 2 or 3 is mono-, di- or tri-methylation)So H3K4me1 denotes the monomethylation of the 4th residue (a lysine) from the start (i.e., the N-terminal) of the H3 protein.+ Examples of histone modifications in transcriptional regulation Type ofmodification Histone H3K4 H3K9 H3K14 H3K27 H3K79 H3K36 H4K20 H2BK5 H2BK20 mono-methylation activation activation activation activationactivation activation di-methylation repression repressionactivation tri-methylation activationrepression repression activation,repressionactivation repression acetylation activationactivation activation activation activation" ], [ "Modification{{anchor|Histone_modification}}", "Schematic representation of histone modifications.", "Based on Rodriguez-Paredes and Esteller, Nature, 2011A huge catalogue of histone modifications have been described, but a functional understanding of most is still lacking.", "Collectively, it is thought that histone modifications may underlie a histone code, whereby combinations of histone modifications have specific meanings.", "However, most functional data concerns individual prominent histone modifications that are biochemically amenable to detailed study.=== Chemistry ======= Lysine methylation ====300pxThe addition of one, two, or many methyl groups to lysine has little effect on the chemistry of the histone; methylation leaves the charge of the lysine intact and adds a minimal number of atoms so steric interactions are mostly unaffected.", "However, proteins containing Tudor, chromo or PHD domains, amongst others, can recognise lysine methylation with exquisite sensitivity and differentiate mono, di and tri-methyl lysine, to the extent that, for some lysines (e.g.", ": H4K20) mono, di and tri-methylation appear to have different meanings.", "Because of this, lysine methylation tends to be a very informative mark and dominates the known histone modification functions.==== Glutamine serotonylation ====Recently it has been shown, that the addition of a serotonin group to the position 5 glutamine of H3, happens in serotonergic cells such as neurons.", "This is part of the differentiation of the serotonergic cells.", "This post-translational modification happens in conjunction with the H3K4me3 modification.", "The serotonylation potentiates the binding of the general transcription factor TFIID to the TATA box.==== Arginine methylation ====350pxWhat was said above of the chemistry of lysine methylation also applies to arginine methylation, and some protein domains—e.g., Tudor domains—can be specific for methyl arginine instead of methyl lysine.", "Arginine is known to be mono- or di-methylated, and methylation can be symmetric or asymmetric, potentially with different meanings.==== Arginine citrullination ====Enzymes called peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) hydrolyze the imine group of arginines and attach a keto group, so that there is one less positive charge on the amino acid residue.", "This process has been involved in the activation of gene expression by making the modified histones less tightly bound to DNA and thus making the chromatin more accessible.", "PADs can also produce the opposite effect by removing or inhibiting mono-methylation of arginine residues on histones and thus antagonizing the positive effect arginine methylation has on transcriptional activity.==== Lysine acetylation ====150pxAddition of an acetyl group has a major chemical effect on lysine as it neutralises the positive charge.", "This reduces electrostatic attraction between the histone and the negatively charged DNA backbone, loosening the chromatin structure; highly acetylated histones form more accessible chromatin and tend to be associated with active transcription.", "Lysine acetylation appears to be less precise in meaning than methylation, in that histone acetyltransferases tend to act on more than one lysine; presumably this reflects the need to alter multiple lysines to have a significant effect on chromatin structure.", "The modification includes H3K27ac.==== Serine/threonine/tyrosine phosphorylation ====400pxAddition of a negatively charged phosphate group can lead to major changes in protein structure, leading to the well-characterised role of phosphorylation in controlling protein function.", "It is not clear what structural implications histone phosphorylation has, but histone phosphorylation has clear functions as a post-translational modification, and binding domains such as BRCT have been characterised.=== Effects on transcription ===Most well-studied histone modifications are involved in control of transcription.==== Actively transcribed genes ====Two histone modifications are particularly associated with active transcription:;''Trimethylation of H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3)'': This trimethylation occurs at the promoter of active genes and is performed by the COMPASS complex.", "Despite the conservation of this complex and histone modification from yeast to mammals, it is not entirely clear what role this modification plays.", "However, it is an excellent mark of active promoters and the level of this histone modification at a gene's promoter is broadly correlated with transcriptional activity of the gene.", "The formation of this mark is tied to transcription in a rather convoluted manner: early in transcription of a gene, RNA polymerase II undergoes a switch from initiating' to 'elongating', marked by a change in the phosphorylation states of the RNA polymerase II C terminal domain (CTD).", "The same enzyme that phosphorylates the CTD also phosphorylates the Rad6 complex, which in turn adds a ubiquitin mark to H2B K123 (K120 in mammals).", "H2BK123Ub occurs throughout transcribed regions, but this mark is required for COMPASS to trimethylate H3K4 at promoters.", ";''Trimethylation of H3 lysine 36 (H3K36me3)'': This trimethylation occurs in the body of active genes and is deposited by the methyltransferase Set2.This protein associates with elongating RNA polymerase II, and H3K36Me3 is indicative of actively transcribed genes.", "H3K36Me3 is recognised by the Rpd3 histone deacetylase complex, which removes acetyl modifications from surrounding histones, increasing chromatin compaction and repressing spurious transcription.", "Increased chromatin compaction prevents transcription factors from accessing DNA, and reduces the likelihood of new transcription events being initiated within the body of the gene.", "This process therefore helps ensure that transcription is not interrupted.==== Repressed genes ====Three histone modifications are particularly associated with repressed genes:;''Trimethylation of H3 lysine 27 (H3K27me3)'': This histone modification is deposited by the polycomb complex PRC2.It is a clear marker of gene repression, and is likely bound by other proteins to exert a repressive function.", "Another polycomb complex, PRC1, can bind H3K27me3 and adds the histone modification H2AK119Ub which aids chromatin compaction.", "Based on this data it appears that PRC1 is recruited through the action of PRC2, however, recent studies show that PRC1 is recruited to the same sites in the absence of PRC2.", ";''Di and tri-methylation of H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me2/3)'': H3K9me2/3 is a well-characterised marker for heterochromatin, and is therefore strongly associated with gene repression.", "The formation of heterochromatin has been best studied in the yeast ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'', where it is initiated by recruitment of the RNA-induced transcriptional silencing (RITS) complex to double stranded RNAs produced from centromeric repeats.", "RITS recruits the Clr4 histone methyltransferase which deposits H3K9me2/3.This process is called histone methylation.", "H3K9Me2/3 serves as a binding site for the recruitment of Swi6 (heterochromatin protein 1 or HP1, another classic heterochromatin marker) which in turn recruits further repressive activities including histone modifiers such as histone deacetylases and histone methyltransferases.", ";''Trimethylation of H4 lysine 20 (H4K20me3)'': This modification is tightly associated with heterochromatin, although its functional importance remains unclear.", "This mark is placed by the Suv4-20h methyltransferase, which is at least in part recruited by heterochromatin protein 1.==== Bivalent promoters ====Analysis of histone modifications in embryonic stem cells (and other stem cells) revealed many gene promoters carrying both H3K4Me3 and H3K27Me3, in other words these promoters display both activating and repressing marks simultaneously.", "This peculiar combination of modifications marks genes that are poised for transcription; they are not required in stem cells, but are rapidly required after differentiation into some lineages.", "Once the cell starts to differentiate, these bivalent promoters are resolved to either active or repressive states depending on the chosen lineage.=== Other functions ======= DNA damage repair ====Marking sites of DNA damage is an important function for histone modifications.", "Without a repair marker, DNA would get destroyed by damage accumulated from sources such as the ultraviolet radiation of the sun.", "; ''Phosphorylation of H2AX at serine 139 (γH2AX)'': Phosphorylated H2AX (also known as gamma H2AX) is a marker for DNA double strand breaks, and forms part of the response to DNA damage.", "H2AX is phosphorylated early after detection of DNA double strand break, and forms a domain extending many kilobases either side of the damage.", "Gamma H2AX acts as a binding site for the protein MDC1, which in turn recruits key DNA repair proteins (this complex topic is well reviewed in) and as such, gamma H2AX forms a vital part of the machinery that ensures genome stability.", ";''Acetylation of H3 lysine 56 (H3K56Ac)'': H3K56Acx is required for genome stability.", "H3K56 is acetylated by the p300/Rtt109 complex, but is rapidly deacetylated around sites of DNA damage.", "H3K56 acetylation is also required to stabilise stalled replication forks, preventing dangerous replication fork collapses.", "Although in general mammals make far greater use of histone modifications than microorganisms, a major role of H3K56Ac in DNA replication exists only in fungi, and this has become a target for antibiotic development.", "; ''Trimethylation of H3 lysine 36 (H3K36me3)'':H3K36me3 has the ability to recruit the MSH2-MSH6 (hMutSα) complex of the DNA mismatch repair pathway.", "Consistently, regions of the human genome with high levels of H3K36me3 accumulate less somatic mutations due to mismatch repair activity.==== Chromosome condensation ====; ''Phosphorylation of H3 at serine 10 (phospho-H3S10)'': The mitotic kinase aurora B phosphorylates histone H3 at serine 10, triggering a cascade of changes that mediate mitotic chromosome condensation.", "Condensed chromosomes therefore stain very strongly for this mark, but H3S10 phosphorylation is also present at certain chromosome sites outside mitosis, for example in pericentric heterochromatin of cells during G2.H3S10 phosphorylation has also been linked to DNA damage caused by R-loop formation at highly transcribed sites.", ";''Phosphorylation H2B at serine 10/14 (phospho-H2BS10/14)'': Phosphorylation of H2B at serine 10 (yeast) or serine 14 (mammals) is also linked to chromatin condensation, but for the very different purpose of mediating chromosome condensation during apoptosis.", "This mark is not simply a late acting bystander in apoptosis as yeast carrying mutations of this residue are resistant to hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptotic cell death.===Addiction===Epigenetic modifications of histone tails in specific regions of the brain are of central importance in addictions.", "Once particular epigenetic alterations occur, they appear to be long lasting \"molecular scars\" that may account for the persistence of addictions.Cigarette smokers (about 15% of the US population) are usually addicted to nicotine.", "After 7 days of nicotine treatment of mice, acetylation of both histone H3 and histone H4 was increased at the FosB promoter in the nucleus accumbens of the brain, causing 61% increase in FosB expression.", "This would also increase expression of the splice variant Delta FosB.", "In the nucleus accumbens of the brain, Delta FosB functions as a \"sustained molecular switch\" and \"master control protein\" in the development of an addiction.About 7% of the US population is addicted to alcohol.", "In rats exposed to alcohol for up to 5 days, there was an increase in histone 3 lysine 9 acetylation in the pronociceptin promoter in the brain amygdala complex.", "This acetylation is an activating mark for pronociceptin.", "The nociceptin/nociceptin opioid receptor system is involved in the reinforcing or conditioning effects of alcohol.Methamphetamine addiction occurs in about 0.2% of the US population.", "Chronic methamphetamine use causes methylation of the lysine in position 4 of histone 3 located at the promoters of the ''c-fos'' and the ''C-C chemokine receptor 2 (ccr2)'' genes, activating those genes in the nucleus accumbens (NAc).", "c-fos is well known to be important in addiction.", "The ''ccr2'' gene is also important in addiction, since mutational inactivation of this gene impairs addiction." ], [ "Synthesis", "The first step of chromatin structure duplication is the synthesis of histone proteins: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, H4.These proteins are synthesized during S phase of the cell cycle.", "There are different mechanisms which contribute to the increase of histone synthesis.=== Yeast ===Yeast carry one or two copies of each histone gene, which are not clustered but rather scattered throughout chromosomes.", "Histone gene transcription is controlled by multiple gene regulatory proteins such as transcription factors which bind to histone promoter regions.", "In budding yeast, the candidate gene for activation of histone gene expression is SBF.", "SBF is a transcription factor that is activated in late G1 phase, when it dissociates from its repressor Whi5.This occurs when Whi5 is phosphorylated by Cdc8 which is a G1/S Cdk.", "Suppression of histone gene expression outside of S phases is dependent on Hir proteins which form inactive chromatin structure at the locus of histone genes, causing transcriptional activators to be blocked.=== Metazoan ===In metazoans the increase in the rate of histone synthesis is due to the increase in processing of pre-mRNA to its mature form as well as decrease in mRNA degradation; this results in an increase of active mRNA for translation of histone proteins.", "The mechanism for mRNA activation has been found to be the removal of a segment of the 3' end of the mRNA strand, and is dependent on association with stem-loop binding protein (SLBP).", "SLBP also stabilizes histone mRNAs during S phase by blocking degradation by the 3'hExo nuclease.", "SLBP levels are controlled by cell-cycle proteins, causing SLBP to accumulate as cells enter S phase and degrade as cells leave S phase.", "SLBP are marked for degradation by phosphorylation at two threonine residues by cyclin dependent kinases, possibly cyclin A/ cdk2, at the end of S phase.", "Metazoans also have multiple copies of histone genes clustered on chromosomes which are localized in structures called Cajal bodies as determined by genome-wide chromosome conformation capture analysis (4C-Seq).=== Link between cell-cycle control and synthesis ===Nuclear protein Ataxia-Telangiectasia (NPAT), also known as nuclear protein coactivator of histone transcription, is a transcription factor which activates histone gene transcription on chromosomes 1 and 6 of human cells.", "NPAT is also a substrate of cyclin E-Cdk2, which is required for the transition between G1 phase and S phase.", "NPAT activates histone gene expression only after it has been phosphorylated by the G1/S-Cdk cyclin E-Cdk2 in early S phase.", "This shows an important regulatory link between cell-cycle control and histone synthesis." ], [ "History", "Histones were discovered in 1884 by Albrecht Kossel.", "The word \"histone\" dates from the late 19th century and is derived from the German word ''\"Histon\"'', a word itself of uncertain origin, perhaps from Ancient Greek ''ἵστημι'' (hístēmi, “make stand”) or ''ἱστός'' (histós, “loom”).In the early 1960s, before the types of histones were known and before histones were known to be highly conserved across taxonomically diverse organisms, James F. Bonner and his collaborators began a study of these proteins that were known to be tightly associated with the DNA in the nucleus of higher organisms.", "Bonner and his postdoctoral fellow Ru Chih C. Huang showed that isolated chromatin would not support RNA transcription in the test tube, but if the histones were extracted from the chromatin, RNA could be transcribed from the remaining DNA.", "Their paper became a citation classic.", "Paul T'so and James Bonner had called together a World Congress on Histone Chemistry and Biology in 1964, in which it became clear that there was no consensus on the number of kinds of histone and that no one knew how they would compare when isolated from different organisms.", "Bonner and his collaborators then developed methods to separate each type of histone, purified individual histones, compared amino acid compositions in the same histone from different organisms, and compared amino acid sequences  of the same histone from different organisms in collaboration with Emil Smith from UCLA.", "For example, they found Histone IV sequence to be highly conserved between peas and calf thymus.", "However, their work on the biochemical characteristics of individual histones did not reveal how the histones interacted with each other or with DNA to which they were tightly bound.Also in the 1960s, Vincent Allfrey and Alfred Mirsky had suggested, based on their analyses of histones, that acetylation and methylation of histones could provide a transcriptional control mechanism, but did not have available the kind of detailed analysis that later investigators were able to conduct to show how such regulation could be gene-specific.", "Until the early 1990s, histones were dismissed by most as inert packing material for eukaryotic nuclear DNA, a view based in part on the models of Mark Ptashne and others, who believed that transcription was activated by protein-DNA and protein-protein interactions on largely naked DNA templates, as is the case in bacteria.During the 1980s, Yahli Lorch and Roger Kornberg showed that a nucleosome on a core promoter prevents the initiation of transcription in vitro, and Michael Grunstein demonstrated that histones repress transcription in vivo, leading to the idea of the nucleosome as a general gene repressor.", "Relief from repression is believed to involve both histone modification and the action of chromatin-remodeling complexes.", "Vincent Allfrey and Alfred Mirsky had earlier proposed a role of histone modification in transcriptional activation, regarded as a molecular manifestation of epigenetics.", "Michael Grunstein and David Allis found support for this proposal, in the importance of histone acetylation for transcription in yeast and the activity of the transcriptional activator Gcn5 as a histone acetyltransferase.The discovery of the H5 histone appears to date back to the 1970s, and it is now considered an isoform of Histone H1." ], [ "See also", "* Histone variants* Chromatin* Gene silencing* Genetics* Histone acetyltransferase* Histone deacetylases* Histone methyltransferase* Histone-modifying enzymes* Nucleosome* PRMT4 pathway* Protamine* Histone H1" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* HistoneDB 2.0 - Database of histones and variants at NCBI* Chromatin, Histones & Cathepsin; PMAP The Proteolysis Map-animation" ] ]
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[ [ "Hierarchical organization" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hierarchical organization''' or '''hierarchical organisation''' (see spelling differences) is an organizational structure where every entity in the organization, except one, is subordinate to a single other entity.", "This arrangement is a form of a hierarchy.", "In an organization, the hierarchy usually consists of a singular/group of power at the top with subsequent levels of power beneath them.", "This is the dominant mode of organization among large organizations; most corporations, governments, criminal enterprises, and organized religions are hierarchical organizations with different levels of management, power or authority.", "For example, the broad, top-level overview of the general organization of the Catholic Church consists of the Pope, then the Cardinals, then the Archbishops, and so on.", "Members of hierarchical organizational structures chiefly communicate with their immediate superior and with their immediate subordinates.", "Structuring organizations in this way is useful partly because it can reduce the communication overhead by limiting information flow." ], [ "Visualization", "A hierarchy is typically visualized as a pyramid, where the height of the ranking or person depicts their power status and the width of that level represents how many people or business divisions are at that level relative to the whole—the highest-ranking people are at the apex, and there are very few of them, and in many cases only one; the base may include thousands of people who have no subordinates.", "These hierarchies are typically depicted with a tree or triangle diagram, creating an organizational chart or organogram.", "Those nearest the top have more power than those nearest the bottom, and there being fewer people at the top than at the bottom.", "As a result, superiors in a hierarchy generally have higher status and command greater rewards than their subordinates." ], [ "Common social manifestations", "All governments and most companies feature similar hierarchical structures.", "Traditionally, the monarch stood at the pinnacle of the state.", "In many countries, feudalism and manorialism provided a formal social structure that established hierarchical links pervading every level of society, with the monarch at the top.", "In modern post-feudal states the nominal top of the hierarchy still remains a head of state – sometimes a president or a constitutional monarch, although in many modern states the powers of the head of state are delegated among different bodies.", "Below or alongside this head there is commonly a senate, parliament or congress; such bodies in turn often delegate the day-to-day running of the country to a prime minister, who may head a cabinet.", "In many democracies, constitutions theoretically regard \"the people\" as the notional top of the hierarchy, above the head of state; in reality, the people's influence is often restricted to voting in elections or in referendums.In business, the business owner traditionally occupies the pinnacle of the organization.", "Most modern large companies lack a single dominant shareholder and for most purposes delegate the collective power of the business owners to a board of directors, which in turn delegates the day-to-day running of the company to a managing director or CEO.", "Again, although the shareholders of the company nominally rank at the top of the hierarchy, in reality many companies are run at least in part as personal fiefdoms by their management; corporate governance rules attempt to mitigate this tendency." ], [ "Origins and development of social hierarchical organizations", "Smaller and more informal social units – families, bands, tribes, special interest groups – which may form spontaneously, have little need for complex hierarchies – or indeed for any hierarchies.", "They may rely on self-organizing tendencies.A conventional view ascribes the growth of hierarchical social habits and structures to increased complexity;the religious syncretismand issues of tax-gatheringin expanding empires played a role here.The demands of administration in increasingly larger systems may have assisted the flowering of bureaucracy and in the advent of the professional manager (19th century) and of the technocrat (20th century)." ], [ "Studies", "The organizational development theorist Elliott Jaques identified a special role for hierarchy in his concept of requisite organization.", "The iron law of oligarchy, introduced by Robert Michels, describes the inevitable tendency of hierarchical organizations to become oligarchic in their decision making.The Peter Principle is a term coined by Laurence J. Peter in which the selection of a candidate for a position in an hierarchical organization is based on the candidate's performance in their current role, rather than on abilities relevant to the intended role.", "Thus, employees only stop being promoted once they can no longer perform effectively, and managers in an hierarchical organization \"rise to the level of their incompetence.\"", "Hierarchiology is another term coined by Laurence J. Peter, described in his humorous book of the same name, to refer to the study of hierarchical organizations and the behavior of their members.David Andrews' book ''The IRG Solution: Hierarchical Incompetence and how to Overcome it'' argued that hierarchies were inherently incompetent, and were only able to function due to large amounts of informal lateral communication fostered by private informal networks." ], [ "Criticism and alternatives", "The work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White (1928-2018) makes important critiques of hierarchical epistemology.", "James famously asserts in his work on radical empiricism that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared.", "But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.", "A hesitation to declare success upon the discovery of ambiguities leaves heterarchy at an artificial and subjective disadvantage in the scope of human knowledge.", "This bias is an artifact of an aesthetic or pedagogical preference for hierarchy, and not necessarily an expression of objective observation.Hierarchies and hierarchical thinking have been criticized by many people, including Susan McClary (born 1946), and by one political philosophy which vehemently opposes hierarchical organization: anarchism.", "Heterarchy, the most commonly proposed alternative to hierarchy, has been combined with responsible autonomy by Gerard Fairtlough in his work on triarchy theory.", "The most beneficial aspect of a hierarchical organization is the clear command-structure that it establishes.", "However, hierarchy may become dismantled by abuse of power.", "Matrix organizations became a trend (or management fad) in the second half of the 20th century.Amidst constant innovation in information and communication technologies, hierarchical authority structures are giving way to greater decision-making latitude for individuals and more flexible definitions of job activities; and this new style of work presents a challenge to existing organizational forms, with some research studies contrasting traditional organizational forms with groups that operate as online communities that are characterized by personal motivation and the satisfaction of making one's own decisions.When all levels of a hierarchical organization have access to information and communication via digital means, power structures may align more as a wirearchy, enabling the flow of power and authority to be based not on hierarchical levels, but on information, trust, credibility, and a focus on results." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Harry Secombe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Harry Donald Secombe''' (8 September 1921 – 11 April 2001) was a Welsh actor, comedian, singer and television presenter.", "Secombe was a member of the British radio comedy programme ''The Goon Show'' (1951–1960), playing many characters, most notably Neddie Seagoon.", "An accomplished tenor, he also appeared in musicals and films – notably as Mr Bumble in ''Oliver!''", "(1968) – and, in his later years, was a presenter of television shows incorporating hymns and other devotional songs." ], [ "Early life", "Secombe was born in St Thomas, Swansea, the third of four children of Nellie Jane Gladys (née Davies), a shop manageress, and Frederick Ernest Secombe, a commercial traveller and office worker for a Swansea wholesale grocery business.", "From the age of 11 he attended Dynevor School, a state grammar school in central Swansea.His family were regular churchgoers, belonging to the congregation of St Thomas Church.", "A member of the choir, from the age of 12 Secombe would perform a sketch entitled ''The Welsh Courtship'' at church socials, acting as \"feed\" to his sister Carol.", "His elder brother, Fred Secombe, became the author of several books about his experiences as an Anglican priest and rector." ], [ "Army service", "After leaving school in 1937, Secombe became a pay clerk at Baldwin's store.", "With war looming, he decided in 1938 that he would join the Territorial Army.", "Very short sighted, he got a friend to tell him the sight test, and then learnt it by heart.", "He served as a Lance Bombardier in No.132 Field Regiment of the Royal Artillery.", "He referred to the unit in which he served during the Second World War in the North African Campaign, Sicily, and Italy, as \"The Five-Mile Snipers\".", "While in North Africa Secombe met Spike Milligan for the first time.", "In Sicily he joined a concert party and developed his own comedy routines to entertain the troops.When Secombe visited the Falkland Islands to entertain the troops after the 1982 Falklands War, his old regiment promoted him to the rank of sergeant – 37 years after he had been demobbed." ], [ "As an entertainer", "He made his first radio broadcast in May 1944 on a variety show aimed at the military services.", "Following the end of fighting in the war but prior to demobilisation, Secombe joined a pool of entertainers in Naples and formed a comedy duo with Spike Milligan.Secombe joined the cast of the Windmill Theatre in 1946, using a routine he had developed in Italy about how people shaved.", "An early review said that Secombe was \"an original humorist of the infectious type and is very funny in a series showing how different men shave and in an impression of a vocalist.\"", "Secombe always claimed that his ability to sing could always be counted on to save him when he bombed.After a regional touring career, his first break came in radio in 1951 when he was chosen as resident comedian for the Welsh series ''Welsh Rarebit,'' followed by appearances on ''Variety Bandbox'' and a regular role in ''Educating Archie''.Secombe met Michael Bentine at the Windmill Theatre, and he was introduced to Peter Sellers by his agent Jimmy Grafton.", "Together with Spike Milligan, the four wrote a comedy radio script, and ''Those Crazy People'' was commissioned and first broadcast on 28 May 1951.Produced by Dennis Main Wilson, this soon became ''The Goon Show'' and the show remained on the air until 1960.Secombe mainly played Neddie Seagoon, around whom the show's absurd plots developed.", "In 1955, whilst appearing on ''The Goon Show'', Secombe was approached by the BBC to step in at short notice to take the lead in the radio comedy ''Hancock's Half Hour''.", "The star of the show, Tony Hancock, had decided to take an unannounced break abroad, on the day before the live airing of the second season.", "Secombe appeared in the lead for the first three episodes and had a guest role in the fourth after Hancock's return.", "All four episodes are lost, but following the discovery of the original scripts, the episodes were rerecorded in 2017, with his son, Andrew Secombe performing the role held by his late father.With the success of ''The Goon Show'', Secombe developed a dual career as both a comedy actor and a singer.", "At the beginning of his career as an entertainer, his act would end with a joke version of the duet ''Sweethearts,'' in which he sang both the baritone and falsetto parts.", "Trained under Italian maestro Manlio di Veroli, he emerged as a ''bel canto'' tenor (characteristically, he insisted that in his case this meant \"can belto\") and had a long list of best-selling record albums to his credit.In 1958 he appeared in the film ''Jet Storm,'' which starred Dame Sybil Thorndike and Richard Attenborough and in the same year Secombe starred in the title role in ''Davy'', one of Ealing Studios' last films.The power of his voice allowed Secombe to appear in many stage musicals.", "This included 1963's ''Pickwick,'' based on Charles Dickens's ''The Pickwick Papers'', which gave him the no.", "18 hit single \"If I Ruled the World\" – his later signature tune.", "In 1965 the show was produced on tour in the United States, where, on Broadway, he garnered a nomination for a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.", "Secombe scored his biggest hit single in 1967 with his version of \"This Is My Song\", which peaked at no.", "2 on the charts in March 1967 while a recording by Petula Clark, which had hit no.", "1 in February, was still in the top ten.", "He also appeared in the musical ''The Four Musketeers'' (1967) at Drury Lane, as Mr. Bumble in Carol Reed's film of ''Oliver!''", "(1968), and in the Envy segment of ''The Magnificent Seven Deadly Sins'' (1971).He went on to star in his own television show, ''The Harry Secombe Show'', which debuted on Christmas Day 1968 on BBC1 and ran for 31 episodes until 1973.A sketch comedy show featuring Julian Orchard as Secombe's regular sidekick, the series also featured guest appearances by fellow Goon Spike Milligan as well as leading performers such as Ronnie Barker and Arthur Lowe.", "Secombe later starred in similar vehicles such as ''Sing a Song of Secombe'' and ITV's ''Secombe with Music'' during the 1970s." ], [ "Later career", "Later in life, Secombe (whose brother Fred Secombe was a priest in the Church in Wales, part of the Anglican Communion) attracted new audiences as a presenter of religious programmes, such as the BBC's ''Songs of Praise'' and ITV's ''Stars on Sunday'' and ''Highway''.", "He was also a special programming consultant to Harlech Television and hosted a Thames Television programme in 1979 entitled ''Cross on the Donkey's Back''.", "In the latter half of the 1980s, Secombe personally sponsored a football team for boys aged 9–11 in the local West Sutton Little League, 'Secombes Knights'.In 1990, he was one of a few to be honoured by a second appearance on ''This Is Your Life'', when he was surprised by Michael Aspel at a book signing in a London branch of WH Smith.", "Secombe had been a subject of the show previously in March 1958 when Eamonn Andrews surprised him at the BBC Television Theatre." ], [ "Honours", "A blue plaque commemorating Secombe.In 1963 he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE).He was knighted in 1981, and jokingly referred to himself as Sir Cumference (in recognition of his rotund figure).", "The motto he chose for his coat of arms was \"GO ON\", a reference to goon." ], [ "Later life and death", "Secombe had peritonitis in 1980.Within two years, taking advice from doctors, he had lost five stone in weight.", "He had a stroke in 1997 and his colon burst, from which he made a slow recovery.", "He was then diagnosed with prostate cancer in September 1998.Following a second stroke in 1999, he was forced to abandon his television career, but made a documentary about his condition in the hope of giving encouragement to others with the condition.", "Secombe had diabetes in the latter part of his life.Secombe died on 11 April 2001 at the age of 79, from prostate cancer, in hospital in Guildford, Surrey.", "His ashes are interred at the parish church of Shamley Green, and a later memorial service to celebrate his life was held at Westminster Abbey on 26 October 2001.As well as family members and friends, the service was also attended by Charles, Prince of Wales and representatives of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Anne, Princess Royal, Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon and Prince Edward, Duke of Kent.", "On his tombstone is the inscription: \"To know him was to love him.", "\"At Peter Sellers's funeral in 1980, Secombe sang a hymn and Spike Milligan joked: \"I hope you die before me because I don't want you singing at my funeral.\"", "After Milligan's death in 2002, a recording of Secombe singing ''Guide me, O Thou great Redeemer'' was played at Milligan's memorial service.The Secombe Theatre in Sutton, Greater London, was named after him.", "He is also fondly remembered at the London Welsh Centre, where he opened the bar on St Patrick's Day (17 March) 1971." ], [ "Family", "Secombe met Myra Joan Atherton at the Mumbles Dance Hall in 1946.The couple were married from 1948 until his death, and had four children:* Jennifer Secombe (died 2019), widow of actor Alex Giannini.", "She was her father's agent in his later years.", "* Andy Secombe, a voice actor, film actor and author* David Secombe, a writer and photographer* Katy Secombe, an actressMyra, Lady Secombe died on 7 February 2017, aged 93." ], [ "Selected works", "===Singles===* \"On with the Motley\" (Vesti la giubba) (1955) UK #6* \"Bless This House\"* \"If I Ruled the World\" (1963) UK #18* \"This Is My Song\" (1967) UK #2===Albums===* ''Sacred Songs'' (1962) UK #16* ''Pickwick'' (Original Cast Album) (1965)* ''Secombe's Personal Choice'' (1967) UK #6* ''If I Ruled the World'' (1971) UK #17* ''The Magnificent Voice of Harry Secombe'' (1972) AUS #14* ''With a Song In My Heart'' (1977) AUS #24* ''Captain Beaky and His Band'' (1977)* ''Bless This House: 20 Songs of Joy'' (1978) UK #8, AUS #28* ''This Is My Song'' (1983) AUS #9* ''All Things Bring and Beautiful'' (1983) AUS #31* ''Songs for Everyone'' (1986) AUS #43* ''Highway of Life'' (1986) UK #45* ''Count Your Blessings'' (1988) AUS #93* ''Your Sincerely'' (1991) UK #46===Books=======Fiction====* ''Twice Brightly'' (1974) Robson Books * ''Welsh Fargo'' (1981) Robson Books ====Children's====* '' Katy and the Nurgla'' (1980) ====Autobiographical====* ''Goon for Lunch'' (1975) M. J. Hobbs * ''Goon Abroad'' (1982) Robson Books * ''Arias and Raspberries'' (1989) Robson Books * ''Strawberries and Cheam'' (1998) Robson Books * Alternative ISBNs for 2004 publication: ; (paperback).===Partial filmography===YearTitleRoleDirectorCo-starsNotes 1949 ''Helter Skelter'' Alf Ralph Thomas Uncredited 1951 ''Penny Points to Paradise'' Harry Flakers Tony Young 1952 ''Down Among the Z Men'' Harry Jones Maclean Rogers 1953''Forces' Sweetheart'' Harry Llewellyn Maclean Rogers 1954''Svengali''BarizelNoel LangleyHildegard Knef, Donald Wolfit, Terence Morgan 1957''Davy''Davy MorganMichael RelphRon Randell, Susan Shaw, Alexander Knox 1959''Jet Storm''Binky MeadowsCy EndfieldRichard Attenborough, Stanley Baker 1968''Oliver!''", "Mr. Bumble Carol Reed 1969''The Bed Sitting Room'' Shelter Man Richard Lester1969''Pickwick'' Mr. Pickwick Terry Hughes Roy Castle, Hattie Jacques1970''Doctor in Trouble'' Llewellyn Wendover Ralph Thomas 1970''Song of Norway'' Andrew L. Stone1971 StanleyGraham Stark(segment \"Envy\") 1972''Sunstruck'' Stanley Evans James Gilbert" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Harry Secombe biography from BBC Wales" ] ]
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[ [ "Heroin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heroin''', also known as '''diacetylmorphine''' and '''diamorphine''' among other names, is a morphinan opioid substance synthesized from the dried latex of the ''Papaver somniferum'' plant; it is mainly used as a recreational drug for its euphoric effects.", "Medical-grade diamorphine is used as a pure hydrochloride salt.", "Various white and brown powders sold illegally around the world as heroin are routinely diluted with cutting agents.", "Black tar heroin is a variable admixture of morphine derivatives—predominantly 6-MAM (6-monoacetylmorphine), which is the result of crude acetylation during clandestine production of street heroin.", "Heroin is used medically in several countries to relieve pain, such as during childbirth or a heart attack, as well as in opioid replacement therapy.It is typically injected, usually into a vein, but it can also be snorted, smoked, or inhaled.", "In a clinical context, the route of administration is most commonly intravenous injection; it may also be given by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, as well as orally in the form of tablets.", "The onset of effects is usually rapid and lasts for a few hours.Common side effects include respiratory depression (decreased breathing), dry mouth, drowsiness, impaired mental function, constipation, and addiction.", "Use by injection can also result in abscesses, infected heart valves, blood-borne infections, and pneumonia.", "After a history of long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of the last use.", "When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect of a similar dose of morphine.", "It typically appears in the form of a white or brown powder.Treatment of heroin addiction often includes behavioral therapy and medications.", "Medications can include buprenorphine, methadone, or naltrexone.", "A heroin overdose may be treated with naloxone.", "An estimated 17 million people use opiates, of which heroin is the most common, and opioid use resulted in 122,000 deaths.", "The total number of heroin users worldwide as of 2015 is believed to have increased in Africa, the Americas, and Asia since 2000.In the United States, approximately 1.6 percent of people have used heroin at some point.", "When people die from overdosing on a drug, the drug is usually an opioid and often heroin.Heroin was first made by C. R. Alder Wright in 1874 from morphine, a natural product of the opium poppy.", "Internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and it is generally illegal to make, possess, or sell without a license.", "About 448 tons of heroin were made in 2016.In 2015, Afghanistan produced about 66% of the world's opium.", "Illegal heroin is often mixed with other substances such as sugar, starch, caffeine, quinine, or other opioids like fentanyl." ], [ "Uses", "===Recreational===Bayer's original trade name of heroin is typically used in non-medical settings.", "It is used as a recreational drug for the euphoria it induces.", "Anthropologist Michael Agar once described heroin as \"the perfect whatever drug.\"", "Tolerance develops quickly, and increased doses are needed in order to achieve the same effects.", "Its popularity with recreational drug users, compared to morphine, reportedly stems from its perceived different effects.Short-term addiction studies by the same researchers demonstrated that tolerance developed at a similar rate to both heroin and morphine.", "When compared to the opioids hydromorphone, fentanyl, oxycodone, and pethidine (meperidine), former addicts showed a strong preference for heroin and morphine, suggesting that heroin and morphine are particularly susceptible to misuse and causing dependence.", "Morphine and heroin were also much more likely to produce euphoria and other positive subjective effects when compared to these other opioids.===Medical uses===In the United States, heroin is not accepted as medically useful.federal prohibition of heroin in 1924Under the generic name diamorphine, heroin is prescribed as a strong pain medication in the United Kingdom, where it is administered via oral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intrathecal, intranasal or intravenous routes.", "It may be prescribed for the treatment of acute pain, such as in severe physical trauma, myocardial infarction, post-surgical pain and chronic pain, including end-stage terminal illnesses.", "In other countries it is more common to use morphine or other strong opioids in these situations.", "In 2004, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence produced guidance on the management of caesarean section, which recommended the use of intrathecal or epidural diamorphine for post-operative pain relief.", "For women who have had intrathecal opioids, there should be a minimum hourly observation of respiratory rate, sedation and pain scores for at least 12 hours for diamorphine and 24 hours for morphine.", "Women should be offered diamorphine (0.3–0.4 mg intrathecally) for intra- and postoperative analgesia because it reduces the need for supplemental analgesia after a caesarean section.", "Epidural diamorphine (2.5–5 mg) is a suitable alternative.Diamorphine continues to be widely used in palliative care in the UK, where it is commonly given by the subcutaneous route, often via a syringe driver if patients cannot easily swallow morphine solution.", "The advantage of diamorphine over morphine is that diamorphine is more fat soluble and therefore more potent by injection, so smaller doses of it are needed for the same effect on pain.", "Both of these factors are advantageous if giving high doses of opioids via the subcutaneous route, which is often necessary for palliative care.It is also used in the palliative management of bone fractures and other trauma, especially in children.", "In the trauma context, it is primarily given by nose in hospital; although a prepared nasal spray is available.", "It has traditionally been made by the attending physician, generally from the same \"dry\" ampoules as used for injection.", "In children, Ayendi nasal spray is available at 720 micrograms and 1600 micrograms per 50 microlitres actuation of the spray, which may be preferable as a non-invasive alternative in pediatric care, avoiding the fear of injection in children.====Maintenance therapy====A number of European countries prescribe heroin for treatment of heroin addiction.", "The initial Swiss HAT (heroin-assisted treatment) trial (\"PROVE\" study) was conducted as a prospective cohort study with some 1,000 participants in 18 treatment centers between 1994 and 1996, at the end of 2004, 1,200 patients were enrolled in HAT in 23 treatment centers across Switzerland.", "Diamorphine may be used as a maintenance drug to assist the treatment of opiate addiction, normally in long-term chronic intravenous (IV) heroin users.", "It is only prescribed following exhaustive efforts at treatment via other means.", "It is sometimes thought that heroin users can walk into a clinic and walk out with a prescription, but the process takes many weeks before a prescription for diamorphine is issued.", "Though this is somewhat controversial among proponents of a zero-tolerance drug policy, it has proven superior to methadone in improving the social and health situations of addicts.The UK Department of Health's Rolleston Committee Report in 1926 established the British approach to diamorphine prescription to users, which was maintained for the next 40 years: dealers were prosecuted, but doctors could prescribe diamorphine to users when withdrawing.", "In 1964, the Brain Committee recommended that only selected approved doctors working at approved specialized centres be allowed to prescribe diamorphine and cocaine to users.", "The law was made more restrictive in 1968.Beginning in the 1970s, the emphasis shifted to abstinence and the use of methadone; currently, only a small number of users in the UK are prescribed diamorphine.In 1994, Switzerland began a trial diamorphine maintenance program for users that had failed multiple withdrawal programs.", "The aim of this program was to maintain the health of the user by avoiding medical problems stemming from the illicit use of diamorphine.", "The first trial in 1994 involved 340 users, although enrollment was later expanded to 1000, based on the apparent success of the program.", "The trials proved diamorphine maintenance to be superior to other forms of treatment in improving the social and health situation for this group of patients.", "It has also been shown to save money, despite high treatment expenses, as it significantly reduces costs incurred by trials, incarceration, health interventions and delinquency.", "Patients appear twice daily at a treatment center, where they inject their dose of diamorphine under the supervision of medical staff.", "They are required to contribute about 450 Swiss francs per month to the treatment costs.", "A national referendum in November 2008 showed 68% of voters supported the plan, introducing diamorphine prescription into federal law.", "The previous trials were based on time-limited executive ordinances.", "The success of the Swiss trials led German, Dutch, and Canadian cities to try out their own diamorphine prescription programs.", "Some Australian cities (such as Sydney) have instituted legal diamorphine supervised injecting centers, in line with other wider harm minimization programs.Since January 2009, Denmark has prescribed diamorphine to a few addicts who have tried methadone and buprenorphine without success.", "Beginning in February 2010, addicts in Copenhagen and Odense became eligible to receive free diamorphine.", "Later in 2010, other cities including Århus and Esbjerg joined the scheme.", "It was estimated that around 230 addicts would be able to receive free diamorphine.However, Danish addicts would only be able to inject heroin according to the policy set by Danish National Board of Health.", "Of the estimated 1500 drug users who did not benefit from the then-current oral substitution treatment, approximately 900 would not be in the target group for treatment with injectable diamorphine, either because of \"massive multiple drug abuse of non-opioids\" or \"not wanting treatment with injectable diamorphine\".In July 2009, the German Bundestag passed a law allowing diamorphine prescription as a standard treatment for addicts; a large-scale trial of diamorphine prescription had been authorized in the country in 2002.On 26 August 2016, Health Canada issued regulations amending prior regulations it had issued under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act; the \"New Classes of Practitioners Regulations\", the \"Narcotic Control Regulations\", and the \"Food and Drug Regulations\", to allow doctors to prescribe diamorphine to people who have a severe opioid addiction who have not responded to other treatments.", "The prescription heroin can be accessed by doctors through Health Canada's Special Access Programme (SAP) for \"emergency access to drugs for patients with serious or life-threatening conditions when conventional treatments have failed, are unsuitable, or are unavailable.\"" ], [ "Routes of administration", "'''Recreational uses:'''* Euphoria'''Medicinal uses:'''* Pain medication* Cough suppressant* Anti-diarrheal'''Contraindications:'''* Ethanol (alcoholic beverages), isopropanol, 2M2B* Barbiturates and benzodiazepines* Stimulants* Other opioids'''''Central nervous system:'''''* Drowsiness* Disorientation* Delirium'''''Neurological:'''''* Analgesia* Tolerance* Addiction* Dependence'''''Psychological:'''''* Anxiolysis* Confusion* Euphoria* Somnolence'''''Cardiovascular & Respiratory:'''''* Bradycardia* Hypotension* Hypoventilation* Shallow breathing* Respiratory depression'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''* Nausea* Protracted vomiting* Constipation* Dyspepsia (heartburn)'''''Musculoskeletal:'''''* Analgesia* Ataxia* Muscle spasticity'''''Skin:'''''* Itching* Flushing/Rash'''''Miscellaneous:'''''* Dry mouth (xerostomia)* Miosis (pupil constriction)* Urinary retentionThe onset of heroin's effects depends upon the route of administration.", "Smoking is the fastest route of drug administration, although intravenous injection results in a quicker rise in blood concentration.", "These are followed by suppository (anal or vaginal insertion), insufflation (snorting), and ingestion (swallowing).A 2002 study suggests that a fast onset of action increases the reinforcing effects of addictive drugs.", "Ingestion does not produce a rush as a forerunner to the high experienced with the use of heroin, which is most pronounced with intravenous use.", "While the onset of the rush induced by injection can occur in as little as a few seconds, the oral route of administration requires approximately half an hour before the high sets in.", "Thus, with both higher the dosage of heroin used and faster the route of administration used, the higher the potential risk for psychological dependence/addiction.Large doses of heroin can cause fatal respiratory depression, and the drug has been used for suicide or as a murder weapon.", "The serial killer Harold Shipman used diamorphine on his victims, and the subsequent Shipman Inquiry led to a tightening of the regulations surrounding the storage, prescribing and destruction of controlled drugs in the UK.Because significant tolerance to respiratory depression develops quickly with continued use and is lost just as quickly during withdrawal, it is often difficult to determine whether a heroin lethal overdose was accidental, suicide or homicide.", "Examples include the overdose deaths of Sid Vicious, Janis Joplin, Tim Buckley, Hillel Slovak, Layne Staley, Bradley Nowell, Ted Binion, and River Phoenix.===By mouth===Use of heroin by mouth is less common than other methods of administration, mainly because there is little to no \"rush\", and the effects are less potent.", "Heroin is entirely converted to morphine by means of first-pass metabolism, resulting in deacetylation when ingested.", "Heroin's oral bioavailability is both dose-dependent (as is morphine's) and significantly higher than oral use of morphine itself, reaching up to 64.2% for high doses and 45.6% for low doses; opiate-naive users showed far less absorption of the drug at low doses, having bioavailabilities of only up to 22.9%.", "The maximum plasma concentration of morphine following oral administration of heroin was around twice as much as that of oral morphine.===Injection===Injection, also known as \"slamming\", \"banging\", \"shooting up\", \"digging\" or \"mainlining\", is a popular method which carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration.", "Heroin base (commonly found in Europe), when prepared for injection, will only dissolve in water when mixed with an acid (most commonly citric acid powder or lemon juice) and heated.", "Heroin in the east-coast United States is most commonly found in the hydrochloride salt form, requiring just water (and no heat) to dissolve.", "Users tend to initially inject in the easily accessible arm veins, but as these veins collapse over time, users resort to more dangerous areas of the body, such as the femoral vein in the groin.", "Some medical professionals have expressed concern over this route of administration, as they suspect that it can lead to deep vein thrombosis.Intravenous users can use a variable single dose range using a hypodermic needle.", "The dose of heroin used for recreational purposes is dependent on the frequency and level of use.As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users share a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV/AIDS or hepatitis, can be transmitted.The use of a common dispenser for water for the use in the preparation of the injection, as well as the sharing of spoons and filters can also cause the spread of blood-borne diseases.", "Many countries now supply small sterile spoons and filters for single use in order to prevent the spread of disease.===Smoking===Smoking heroin refers to vaporizing it to inhale the resulting fumes, rather than burning and inhaling the smoke.", "It is commonly smoked in glass pipes made from glassblown Pyrex tubes and light bulbs.", "Heroin may be smoked from aluminium foil that is heated by a flame underneath it, with the resulting smoke inhaled through a tube of rolled up foil, a method also known as \"chasing the dragon\".===Insufflation===Another popular route to intake heroin is insufflation (snorting), where a user crushes the heroin into a fine powder and then gently inhales it (sometimes with a straw or a rolled-up banknote, as with cocaine) into the nose, where heroin is absorbed through the soft tissue in the mucous membrane of the sinus cavity and straight into the bloodstream.", "This method of administration redirects first-pass metabolism, with a quicker onset and higher bioavailability than oral administration, though the duration of action is shortened.", "This method is sometimes preferred by users who do not want to prepare and administer heroin for injection or smoking but still want to experience a fast onset.", "Snorting heroin becomes an often unwanted route, once a user begins to inject the drug.", "The user may still get high on the drug from snorting, and experience a nod, but will not get a rush.", "A \"rush\" is caused by a large amount of heroin entering the body at once.", "When the drug is taken in through the nose, the user does not get the rush because the drug is absorbed slowly rather than instantly.Heroin for pain has been mixed with sterile water on site by the attending physician, and administered using a syringe with a nebulizer tip.", "Heroin may be used for fractures, burns, finger-tip injuries, suturing, and wound re-dressing, but is inappropriate in head injuries.===Suppository===Little research has been focused on the suppository (anal insertion) or pessary (vaginal insertion) methods of administration, also known as \"plugging\".", "These methods of administration are commonly carried out using an oral syringe.", "Heroin can be dissolved and withdrawn into an oral syringe which may then be lubricated and inserted into the anus or vagina before the plunger is pushed.", "The rectum or the vaginal canal is where the majority of the drug would likely be taken up, through the membranes lining their walls." ], [ "Adverse effects", "A 2010 study ranking various illegal and legal drugs based on statements by drug-harm experts.", "Heroin was found to be the second overall most dangerous drug.Heroin is classified as a hard drug in terms of drug harmfulness.", "Like most opioids, unadulterated heroin may lead to adverse effects.", "The purity of street heroin varies greatly, leading to overdoses when the purity is higher than expected.===Short-term effects===Short-term effects of usageUsers report an intense rush, an acute transcendent state of euphoria, which occurs while diamorphine is being metabolized into 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) and morphine in the brain.", "Some believe that heroin produces more euphoria than other opioids; one possible explanation is the presence of 6-monoacetylmorphine, a metabolite unique to heroin – although a more likely explanation is the rapidity of onset.", "While other opioids of recreational use produce only morphine, heroin also leaves 6-MAM, also a psycho-active metabolite.However, this perception is not supported by the results of clinical studies comparing the physiological and subjective effects of injected heroin and morphine in individuals formerly addicted to opioids; these subjects showed no preference for one drug over the other.", "Equipotent injected doses had comparable action courses, with no difference in subjects' self-rated feelings of euphoria, ambition, nervousness, relaxation, drowsiness, or sleepiness.The rush is usually accompanied by a warm flushing of the skin, dry mouth, and a heavy feeling in the extremities.", "Nausea, vomiting, and severe itching may also occur.", "After the initial effects, users usually will be drowsy for several hours; mental function is clouded; heart function slows, and breathing is also severely slowed, sometimes enough to be life-threatening.", "Slowed breathing can also lead to coma and permanent brain damage.", "Heroin use has also been associated with myocardial infarction.===Long-term effects===Long-term effects of intravenous usage, including – and indeed primarily because of – the effects of the contaminants common in illegal heroin and contaminated needlesRepeated heroin use changes the physical structure and physiology of the brain, creating long-term imbalances in neuronal and hormonal systems that are not easily reversed.", "Studies have shown some deterioration of the brain's white matter due to heroin use, which may affect decision-making abilities, the ability to regulate behavior, and responses to stressful situations.", "Heroin also produces profound degrees of tolerance and physical dependence.", "Tolerance occurs when more and more of the drug is required to achieve the same effects.", "With physical dependence, the body adapts to the presence of the drug, and withdrawal symptoms occur if use is reduced abruptly.===Injection ===Intravenous use of heroin (and any other substance) with needles and syringes or other related equipment may lead to:* Contracting blood-borne pathogens such as HIV and hepatitis via the sharing of needles* Contracting bacterial or fungal endocarditis and possibly venous sclerosis* Abscesses* Poisoning from contaminants added to \"cut\" or dilute heroin* Decreased kidney function (nephropathy), although it is not currently known if this is because of adulterants or infectious diseases===Withdrawal===The withdrawal syndrome from heroin may begin within as little as two hours of discontinuation of the drug; however, this time frame can fluctuate with the degree of tolerance as well as the amount of the last consumed dose, and more typically begins within 6–24 hours after cessation.", "Symptoms may include sweating, malaise, anxiety, depression, akathisia, priapism, extra sensitivity of the genitals in females, general feeling of heaviness, excessive yawning or sneezing, rhinorrhea, insomnia, cold sweats, chills, severe muscle and bone aches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, watery eyes, fever, cramp-like pains, and involuntary spasms in the limbs (thought to be an origin of the term \"kicking the habit\")." ], [ "Overdose", "Heroin overdose is usually treated with the opioid antagonist naloxone.", "This reverses the effects of heroin and causes an immediate return of consciousness but may result in withdrawal symptoms.", "The half-life of naloxone is shorter than some opioids, such that it may need to be given multiple times until the opioid has been metabolized by the body.Between 2012 and 2015, heroin was the leading cause of drug-related deaths in the United States.", "Since then, fentanyl has been a more common cause of drug-related deaths.Depending on drug interactions and numerous other factors, death from overdose can take anywhere from several minutes to several hours.", "Death usually occurs due to lack of oxygen resulting from the lack of breathing caused by the opioid.", "Heroin overdoses can occur because of an unexpected increase in the dose or purity or because of diminished opioid tolerance.", "However, many fatalities reported as overdoses are probably caused by interactions with other depressant drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepines.", "Since heroin can cause nausea and vomiting, a significant number of deaths attributed to heroin overdose are caused by aspiration of vomit by an unconscious person.", "Some sources quote the median lethal dose (for an average 75 kg opiate-naive individual) as being between 75 and 600 mg.", "Illicit heroin is of widely varying and unpredictable purity.", "This means that the user may prepare what they consider to be a moderate dose while actually taking far more than intended.", "Also, tolerance typically decreases after a period of abstinence.", "If this occurs and the user takes a dose comparable to their previous use, the user may experience drug effects that are much greater than expected, potentially resulting in an overdose.", "It has been speculated that an unknown portion of heroin-related deaths are the result of an overdose or allergic reaction to quinine, which may sometimes be used as a cutting agent." ], [ "Pharmacology", "Black tar heroin When taken orally, heroin undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism via deacetylation, making it a prodrug for the systemic delivery of morphine.", "When the drug is injected, however, it avoids this first-pass effect, very rapidly crossing the blood–brain barrier because of the presence of the acetyl groups, which render it much more fat soluble than morphine itself.", "Once in the brain, it then is deacetylated variously into the inactive 3-monoacetylmorphine and the active 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM), and then to morphine, which bind to μ-opioid receptors, resulting in the drug's euphoric, analgesic (pain relief), and anxiolytic (anti-anxiety) effects; heroin itself exhibits relatively low affinity for the μ receptor.", "Analgesia follows from the activation of the μ receptor G-protein coupled receptor, which indirectly hyperpolarizes the neuron, reducing the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters, and hence, causes analgesia and increased pain tolerance.Unlike hydromorphone and oxymorphone, however, administered intravenously, heroin creates a larger histamine release, similar to morphine, resulting in the feeling of a greater subjective \"body high\" to some, but also instances of pruritus (itching) when they first start using.Normally, GABA, which is released from inhibitory neurones, inhibits the release of dopamine.", "Opiates, like heroin and morphine, decrease the inhibitory activity of such neurones.", "This causes increased release of dopamine in the brain which is the reason for euphoric and rewarding effects of heroin.Both morphine and 6-MAM are μ-opioid agonists that bind to receptors present throughout the brain, spinal cord, and gut of all mammals.", "The μ-opioid receptor also binds endogenous opioid peptides such as β-endorphin, leu-enkephalin, and met-enkephalin.", "Repeated use of heroin results in a number of physiological changes, including an increase in the production of μ-opioid receptors (upregulation).", "These physiological alterations lead to tolerance and dependence, so that stopping heroin use results in uncomfortable symptoms including pain, anxiety, muscle spasms, and insomnia called the opioid withdrawal syndrome.", "Depending on usage it has an onset 4–24 hours after the last dose of heroin.", "Morphine also binds to δ- and κ-opioid receptors.There is also evidence that 6-MAM binds to a subtype of μ-opioid receptors that are also activated by the morphine metabolite morphine-6β-glucuronide but not morphine itself.", "The third subtype of third opioid type is the mu-3 receptor, which may be a commonality to other six-position monoesters of morphine.", "The contribution of these receptors to the overall pharmacology of heroin remains unknown.A subclass of morphine derivatives, namely the 3,6 esters of morphine, with similar effects and uses, includes the clinically used strong analgesics nicomorphine (Vilan), and dipropanoylmorphine; there is also the latter's dihydromorphine analogue, diacetyldihydromorphine (Paralaudin).", "Two other 3,6 diesters of morphine invented in 1874–75 along with diamorphine, dibenzoylmorphine and acetylpropionylmorphine, were made as substitutes after it was outlawed in 1925 and, therefore, sold as the first \"designer drugs\" until they were outlawed by the League of Nations in 1930." ], [ "Chemistry", "Diamorphine is produced from acetylation of morphine derived from natural opium sources, generally using acetic anhydride.The major metabolites of diamorphine, 6-MAM, morphine, morphine-3-glucuronide, and morphine-6-glucuronide, may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine to monitor for use, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in a medicolegal death investigation.", "Most commercial opiate screening tests cross-react appreciably with these metabolites, as well as with other biotransformation products likely to be present following usage of street-grade diamorphine such as 6-Monoacetylcodeine and codeine.", "However, chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish and measure each of these substances.", "When interpreting the results of a test, it is important to consider the diamorphine usage history of the individual, since a chronic user can develop tolerance to doses that would incapacitate an opiate-naive individual, and the chronic user often has high baseline values of these metabolites in his system.", "Furthermore, some testing procedures employ a hydrolysis step before quantitation that converts many of the metabolic products to morphine, yielding a result that may be 2 times larger than with a method that examines each product individually." ], [ "History", "Advertisement for Bayer HeroinThe opium poppy was cultivated in lower Mesopotamia as long ago as 3400 BC.", "The chemical analysis of opium in the 19th century revealed that most of its activity could be ascribed to the alkaloids codeine and morphine.Diamorphine was first synthesized in 1874 by C. R. Alder Wright, an English chemist working at St. Mary's Hospital Medical School in London who had been experimenting combining morphine with various acids.", "He boiled anhydrous morphine alkaloid with acetic anhydride for several hours and produced a more potent, acetylated form of morphine which is now called ''diacetylmorphine'' or ''morphine diacetate''.", "He sent the compound to F. M. Pierce of Owens College in Manchester for analysis.", "Pierce told Wright:Bayer Heroin bottleWright's invention did not lead to any further developments, and diamorphine became popular only after it was independently re-synthesized 23 years later by chemist Felix Hoffmann.", "Hoffmann was working at Bayer pharmaceutical company in Elberfeld, Germany, and his supervisor Heinrich Dreser instructed him to acetylate morphine with the objective of producing codeine, a constituent of the opium poppy that is pharmacologically similar to morphine but less potent and less addictive.", "Instead, the experiment produced an acetylated form of morphine one and a half to two times more potent than morphine itself.", "Hoffmann synthesized heroin on August 21, 1897, just eleven days after he had synthesized aspirin.The head of Bayer's research department reputedly coined the drug's new name of \"heroin\", based on the German ''heroisch'' which means \"heroic, strong\" (from the ancient Greek word \"heros, ήρως\").", "Bayer scientists were not the first to make heroin, but their scientists discovered ways to make it, and Bayer led the commercialization of heroin.Bayer marketed diacetylmorphine as an over-the-counter drug under the trademark name Heroin.", "It was developed chiefly as a morphine substitute for cough suppressants that did not have morphine's addictive side-effects.", "Morphine at the time was a popular recreational drug, and Bayer wished to find a similar but non-addictive substitute to market.", "However, contrary to Bayer's advertising as a \"non-addictive morphine substitute\", heroin would soon have one of the highest rates of addiction among its users.From 1898 through to 1910, diamorphine was marketed under the trademark name Heroin as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough suppressant.", "In the 11th edition of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (1910), the article on morphine states: \"In the cough of phthisis minute doses of morphine are of service, but in this particular disease morphine is frequently better replaced by codeine or by heroin, which checks irritable coughs without the narcotism following upon the administration of morphine.", "\"In the US, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act was passed in 1914 to control the sale and distribution of diacetylmorphine and other opioids, which allowed the drug to be prescribed and sold for medical purposes.", "In 1924, the United States Congress banned its sale, importation, or manufacture.", "It is now a Schedule I substance, which makes it illegal for non-medical use in signatory nations of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs treaty, including the United States.The Health Committee of the League of Nations banned diacetylmorphine in 1925, although it took more than three years for this to be implemented.", "In the meantime, the first designer drugs, viz.", "3,6 diesters and 6 monoesters of morphine and acetylated analogues of closely related drugs like hydromorphone and dihydromorphine, were produced in massive quantities to fill the worldwide demand for diacetylmorphine—this continued until 1930 when the Committee banned diacetylmorphine analogues with no therapeutic advantage over drugs already in use, the first major legislation of this type.Bayer lost some of its trademark rights to heroin (as well as aspirin) under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles following the German defeat in World War I.Use of heroin by jazz musicians in particular was prevalent in the mid-twentieth century, including Billie Holiday, saxophonists Charlie Parker and Art Pepper, trumpeter and vocalist Chet Baker, guitarist Joe Pass and piano player/singer Ray Charles; a \"staggering number of jazz musicians were addicts\".", "It was also a problem with many rock musicians, particularly from the late 1960s through the 1990s.", "Pete Doherty is also a self-confessed user of heroin.", "Nirvana lead singer Kurt Cobain's heroin addiction was well documented.", "Pantera frontman Phil Anselmo turned to heroin while touring during the 1990s to cope with his back pain.", "James Taylor, Jimmy Page, John Lennon, Eric Clapton, Johnny Winter, Keith Richards, Shane MacGowan and Janis Joplin also used heroin.", "Many musicians have made songs referencing their heroin usage." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Names===\"Diamorphine\" is the Recommended International Nonproprietary Name and British Approved Name.", "Other synonyms for heroin include: diacetylmorphine, and morphine diacetate.", "Heroin is also known by many street names including dope, H, smack, junk, horse, scag, and brown, among others.===Legal status=======Asia====In Hong Kong, diamorphine is regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 ''Dangerous Drugs Ordinance''.", "It is available by prescription.", "Anyone supplying diamorphine without a valid prescription can be fined $5,000,000 (HKD) and imprisoned for life.", "The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing diamorphine is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment.", "Possession of diamorphine without a license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 (HKD) fine and 7 years of jail time.====Europe====In the Netherlands, diamorphine is a List I drug of the Opium Law.", "It is available for prescription under tight regulation exclusively to long-term addicts for whom methadone maintenance treatment has failed.", "It cannot be used to treat severe pain or other illnesses.In the United Kingdom, diamorphine is available by prescription, though it is a restricted Class A drug.", "According to the 50th edition of the British National Formulary (BNF), diamorphine hydrochloride may be used in the treatment of acute pain, myocardial infarction, acute pulmonary oedema, and chronic pain.", "The treatment of chronic non-malignant pain must be supervised by a specialist.", "The BNF notes that all opioid analgesics cause dependence and tolerance but that this is \"no deterrent in the control of pain in terminal illness\".", "When used in the palliative care of cancer patients, diamorphine is often injected using a syringe driver.In Switzerland, heroin is produced in injectable or tablet form under the name Diaphin by a private company under contract to the Swiss government.", "Swiss-produced heroin has been imported into Canada with government approval.====Australia====In Australia, diamorphine is listed as a schedule 9 prohibited substance under the Poisons Standard (October 2015).", "The state of Western Australia, in its ''Poisons Act 1964'' (Reprint 6: amendments as at 10 Sep 2004), described a schedule 9 drug as: \"Poisons that are drugs of abuse, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except for amounts which may be necessary for educational, experimental or research purposes conducted with the approval of the Governor.", "\"====North America====In Canada, diamorphine is a controlled substance under Schedule I of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA).", "Any person seeking or obtaining diamorphine without disclosing authorization 30 days before obtaining another prescription from a practitioner is guilty of an indictable offense and subject to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years.", "Possession of diamorphine for the purpose of trafficking is an indictable offense and subject to imprisonment for life.In the United States, diamorphine is a Schedule I drug according to the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, making it illegal to possess without a DEA license.", "Possession of more than 100 grams of diamorphine or a mixture containing diamorphine is punishable with a minimum mandatory sentence of 5 years of imprisonment in a federal prison.In 2021, the US state of Oregon became the first state to decriminalize the use of heroin after voters passed Ballot Measure 110 in 2020.This measure will allow people with small amounts to avoid arrest.====Turkey====Turkey maintains strict laws against the use, possession or trafficking of illegal drugs.", "If convicted under these offences, one could receive a heavy fine or a prison sentence of 4 to 24 years.====Misuse of prescription medication====Misused prescription medicine, such as opioids, can lead to heroin use and dependence.", "The number of death from illegal opioid overdose follows the increasing number of death caused by prescription opioid overdoses.", "Prescription opioids are relatively easy to obtain.", "This may ultimately lead to heroin injection because heroin is cheaper than prescribed pills.===Economics=======Production====Diamorphine is produced from acetylation of morphine derived from natural opium sources.", "One such method of heroin production involves isolation of the water-soluble components of raw opium, including morphine, in a strongly basic aqueous solution, followed by recrystallization of the morphine base by addition of ammonium chloride.", "The solid morphine base is then filtered out.", "The morphine base is then reacted with acetic anhydride, which forms heroin.", "This highly impure brown heroin base may then undergo further purification steps, which produces a white-colored product; the final products have a different appearance depending on purity and have different names.", "Heroin purity has been classified into four grades.", "No.4 is the purest form – white powder (salt) to be easily dissolved and injected.", "No.3 is \"brown sugar\" for smoking (base).", "No.1 and No.2 are unprocessed raw heroin (salt or base).====Trafficking====International drug routesTraffic is heavy worldwide, with the biggest producer being Afghanistan.", "According to a U.N. sponsored survey, in 2004, Afghanistan accounted for production of 87 percent of the world's diamorphine.", "Afghan opium kills around 100,000 people annually.In 2003 ''The Independent'' reported:Opium production in that country has increased rapidly since, reaching an all-time high in 2006.War in Afghanistan once again appeared as a facilitator of the trade.", "Some 3.3 million Afghans are involved in producing opium.Afghanistan opium poppy cultivation, 1994–2016 (hectares)At present, opium poppies are mostly grown in Afghanistan (), and in Southeast Asia, especially in the region known as the Golden Triangle straddling Burma (), Thailand, Vietnam, Laos () and Yunnan province in China.", "There is also cultivation of opium poppies in Pakistan (), Mexico () and in Colombia ().", "According to the DEA, the majority of the heroin consumed in the United States comes from Mexico (50%) and Colombia (43–45%) via Mexican criminal cartels such as Sinaloa Cartel.", "However, these statistics may be significantly unreliable, the DEA's 50/50 split between Colombia and Mexico is contradicted by the amount of hectares cultivated in each country and in 2014, the DEA claimed most of the heroin in the US came from Colombia., the Sinaloa Cartel is the most active drug cartel involved in smuggling illicit drugs such as heroin into the United States and trafficking them throughout the United States.", "According to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 90% of the heroin seized in Canada (where the origin was known) came from Afghanistan.", "Pakistan is the destination and transit point for 40 percent of the opiates produced in Afghanistan, other destinations of Afghan opiates are Russia, Europe and Iran.A conviction for trafficking heroin carries the death penalty in most Southeast Asian, some East Asian and Middle Eastern countries (see Use of death penalty worldwide for details), among which Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand are the strictest.", "The penalty applies even to citizens of countries where the penalty is not in place, sometimes causing controversy when foreign visitors are arrested for trafficking, for example, the arrest of nine Australians in Bali, the death sentence given to Nola Blake in Thailand in 1987, or the hanging of an Australian citizen Van Tuong Nguyen in Singapore.====Trafficking history====Primary worldwide producers of heroinThe origins of the present international illegal heroin trade can be traced back to laws passed in many countries in the early 1900s that closely regulated the production and sale of opium and its derivatives including heroin.", "At first, heroin flowed from countries where it was still legal into countries where it was no longer legal.", "By the mid-1920s, heroin production had been made illegal in many parts of the world.", "An illegal trade developed at that time between heroin labs in China (mostly in Shanghai and Tianjin) and other nations.", "The weakness of the government in China and conditions of civil war enabled heroin production to take root there.", "Chinese triad gangs eventually came to play a major role in the illicit heroin trade.", "The French Connection route started in the 1930s.Heroin trafficking was virtually eliminated in the US during World War II because of temporary trade disruptions caused by the war.", "Japan's war with China had cut the normal distribution routes for heroin and the war had generally disrupted the movement of opium.", "After World War II, the Mafia took advantage of the weakness of the postwar Italian government and set up heroin labs in Sicily which was located along the historic route opium took westward into Europe and the United States.", "Large-scale international heroin production effectively ended in China with the victory of the communists in the civil war in the late 1940s.", "The elimination of Chinese production happened at the same time that Sicily's role in the trade developed.Although it remained legal in some countries until after World War II, health risks, addiction, and widespread recreational use led most western countries to declare heroin a controlled substance by the latter half of the 20th century.", "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the CIA supported anti-Communist Chinese Nationalists settled near the Sino-Burmese border and Hmong tribesmen in Laos.", "This helped the development of the Golden Triangle opium production region, which supplied about one-third of heroin consumed in the US after the 1973 American withdrawal from Vietnam.", "In 1999, Burma, the heartland of the Golden Triangle, was the second-largest producer of heroin, after Afghanistan.The Soviet-Afghan war led to increased production in the Pakistani-Afghan border regions, as US-backed mujaheddin militants raised money for arms from selling opium, contributing heavily to the modern Golden Crescent creation.", "By 1980, 60 percent of the heroin sold in the US originated in Afghanistan.", "It increased international production of heroin at lower prices in the 1980s.", "The trade shifted away from Sicily in the late 1970s as various criminal organizations violently fought with each other over the trade.", "The fighting also led to a stepped-up government law enforcement presence in Sicily.Following the discovery at a Jordanian airport of a toner cartridge that had been modified into an improvised explosive device, the resultant increased level of airfreight scrutiny led to a major shortage (drought) of heroin from October 2010 until April 2011.This was reported in most of mainland Europe and the UK which led to a price increase of approximately 30 percent in the cost of street heroin and increased demand for diverted methadone.", "The number of addicts seeking treatment also increased significantly during this period.", "Other heroin droughts (shortages) have been attributed to cartels restricting supply in order to force a price increase and also to a fungus that attacked the opium crop of 2009.Many people thought that the American government had introduced pathogens into the Afghanistan atmosphere in order to destroy the opium crop and thus starve insurgents of income.On 13 March 2012, Haji Bagcho, with ties to the Taliban, was convicted by a US District Court of conspiracy, distribution of heroin for importation into the United States and narco-terrorism.", "Based on heroin production statistics compiled by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, in 2006, Bagcho's activities accounted for approximately 20 percent of the world's total production for that year.====Street price====The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that the retail price of brown heroin varies from €14.5 per gram in Turkey to €110 per gram in Sweden, with most European countries reporting typical prices of €35–40 per gram.", "The price of white heroin is reported only by a few European countries and ranged between €27 and €110 per gram.The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical US retail prices are US$172 per gram." ], [ "Research", "Researchers are attempting to reproduce the biosynthetic pathway that produces morphine in genetically engineered yeast.", "In June 2015 the ''S''-reticuline could be produced from sugar and ''R''-reticuline could be converted to morphine, but the intermediate reaction could not be performed." ], [ "See also", "* * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** NIDA InfoFacts on Heroin* ONDCP Drug Facts* U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Heroin* BBC Article entitled 'When Heroin Was Legal'.", "References to the United Kingdom and the United States* Drug-poisoning Deaths Involving Heroin: United States, 2000–2013 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics.", "* Heroin Trafficking in the United States (2016) by Kristin Finklea, Congressional Research Service." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hellas Verona FC" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hellas Verona Football Club''', commonly referred to as '''Hellas Verona''' or simply '''Verona''', is an Italian professional football club based in Verona, Veneto, that currently plays in Serie A.", "The team won the Serie A Championship in the 1984–85 season." ], [ "History", "=== Origins and early history ===Founded in 1903 by a group of high school students, the club was named ''Hellas'', at the request of a professor of classics.", "At a time in which football was played seriously only in the larger cities of northwestern Italy, most of Verona was indifferent to the growing sport.", "However, when in 1906 two city teams chose the city's Roman amphitheatre as a venue to showcase the game, crowd enthusiasm and media interest began to rise.During these first few years, Hellas was one of three or four area teams playing at a municipal level while fighting against city rivals Bentegodi to become the city's premier football outfit.", "By the 1907–08 season, Hellas was playing against regional teams, and an intense rivalry with Vicenza that has lasted to this day was born.January 26, 1958.A.C.", "Verona — Juventus FC 2-3, Matchday 18 of the 1957–58 Serie A. Juventus striker John Charles (center) in action versus Verona's defence.From 1898 to 1926, Italian football was organised into regional groups.", "In this period, Hellas was one of the founding teams of the early league and often among its top final contenders.", "In 1911, the city helped Hellas replace the early, gritty football fields with a proper venue.", "This allowed the team to take part in its first regional tournament, which until 1926, was the qualifying stage for the national title.In 1919, following a return to activity after a four-year suspension of all football competition in Italy during World War I, the team merged with city rival Verona and changed its name to Hellas Verona.", "Between 1926 and 1929, the elite \"''Campionato Nazionale''\" assimilated the top sides from the various regional groups.", "Hellas Verona joined the privileged teams, yet struggled to remain competitive.Serie A, as it is structured today, began in 1929, when the ''Campionato Nazionale'' turned into a professional league.", "Still an amateur team, Hellas merged with two city rivals, Bentegodi and Scaligera, to form AC Verona.", "Hoping to build a first class contender for future years, the new team debuted in Serie B in 1929.It would take the ''gialloblu'' 28 years to finally achieve their goal.", "After first being promoted to Serie A for one season in 1957–58, in 1959, the team merged with another city rival (called Hellas) and commemorated its beginnings by changing its name to Hellas Verona AC.=== Success in the 1970s and 1980s ===Paolo Sirena scoring the first goal for Verona during a 5-3 victory over AC Milan on the last day of the 1972-73 Serie A seasonCoached by Nils Liedholm, the team returned to Serie A in 1968 and remained in the elite league almost without interruption until 1990.Along the way, it scored a famous 5–3 win in the 1972–73 season that cost Milan the ''scudetto'' (the Serie A title).", "The fact that the result came late during the last matchday of the season makes the sudden and unexpected end to the ''rossoneri'''s title ambitions all the more memorable.In 1973–74, Hellas finished the season in fourth-last, just narrowly avoiding relegation, but were nonetheless sent down to Serie B during the summer months as a result of a scandal involving team president Saverio Garonzi.", "After a year in Serie B, Hellas returned to Serie A.In the 1975–76 season, the team had a successful run in the Coppa Italia, eliminating highly rated teams such as Torino, Cagliari and Internazionale from the tournament.", "However, in their first ever final in the competition, Hellas were trounced 4–0 by Napoli.A line-up of A.C. Hellas Verona in the 1975–76 season.Under the leadership of coach Osvaldo Bagnoli, in 1982–83 the team secured a fourth-place in Serie A (its highest finish at the time) and even led the Serie A standings for a few weeks.", "The same season Hellas again reached the Coppa Italia final.", "After a 2–0 home victory, Hellas then travelled to Turin to play Juventus but were defeated 3–0 after extra time.Further disappointment followed in the 1983–84 season when the team again reached the Coppa Italia final, only to lose the Cup in the final minutes of the return match against defending Serie A champions RomaThe team made its first European appearance in the 1983–84 UEFA Cup and were knocked out in the second round of the tournament by Sturm Graz.", "Hellas were eliminated from the 1985–86 European Cup in the second round by defending champions and fellow Serie A side Juventus after a contested game, the result of a scandalous arbitrage by the French Wurtz, having beaten PAOK of Greece in the first round.In 1988, the team had their best international result when they reached the UEFA Cup quarterfinals with four victories and three draws.", "The decisive defeat came from German side Werder Bremen.=== 1984–1985 ''Scudetto'' ===Osvaldo Bagnoli, ''Scudetto'' winning coach of Hellas Verona in 1985Although the 1984–85 season squad was made up of a mix of emerging players and mature stars, at the beginning of the season no one would have regarded the team as having the necessary ingredients to make it to the end.", "Certainly, the additions of Hans-Peter Briegel in midfield and of Danish striker Preben Elkjær to an attack that already featured the wing play of Pietro Fanna, the creative abilities of Antonio Di Gennaro and the scoring touch of Giuseppe Galderisi were to prove crucial.To mention a few of the memorable milestones on the road to the ''scudetto'': a decisive win against Juventus (2–0), with a goal scored by Elkjær after having lost a boot in a tackle just outside the box, set the stage early in the championship; an away win over Udinese (5–3) ended any speculation that the team was losing energy at the midway point; three straight wins (including a hard-fought 1–0 victory against a strong Roma side) served notice that the team had kept its polish and focus intact during their rival's final surge; and a 1–1 draw in Bergamo against Atalanta secured the title with a game in hand.Hellas finished the year with a 15–13–2 record and 43 points, four points ahead of Torino with Internazionale and Sampdoria rounding out the top four spots.", "This unusual final table of the Serie A (with the most successful Italian teams of the time, Juventus and Roma, ending up much lower than expected) has led to many speculations.", "The 1984–85 season was the only season when referees were assigned to matches by way of a random draw.", "Before then each referee had always been assigned to a specific match by a special commission of referees (''designatori arbitrali'').", "After the betting scandal of the early 1980 (the Calcio Scommesse scandal), it was decided to clean up the image of Italian football by assigning referees randomly instead of picking them, to clear up all the suspicions and accusations always accompanying Italy's football life.", "This resulted in a quieter championship and in a completely unexpected final table.In the following season, won again by Juventus, the choice of the referees went back in the hands of the ''designatori arbitrali''.", "In 2006, a major scandal in Italian football revealed that certain clubs had been illegally influencing the referee selection process in an attempt to ensure that certain referees were assigned to their matches.=== Between Serie A and Serie B ===These were more than mere modest achievements for a mid-size city with a limited appeal to fans across the nation.", "But soon enough financial difficulties caught up with team managers.", "In 1991 the team folded and was reborn as Verona, regularly moving to and fro between Serie A and Serie B for several seasons.", "In 1995 the name was officially returned to Hellas Verona.After a three-year stay, their last stint in Serie A ended in grief in 2002.That season emerging international talents such as Adrian Mutu, Mauro Camoranesi, Alberto Gilardino, Martin Laursen, Massimo Oddo, Marco Cassetti and coach Alberto Malesani failed to capitalise on an excellent start and eventually dropped into fourth-to-last place for the first time all season on the final match day, enforcing relegation into Serie B.=== Decline and Serie A comeback (2002–present) ===Luisito Campisi playing for Hellas Verona in 2009Following the 2002 relegation to Serie B, team fortunes continued to slip throughout the decade.", "In the 2003–04 season Hellas Verona struggled in Serie B and spent most of the season fighting off an unthinkable relegation to Serie C1.Undeterred, the fans supported their team and a string of late season wins eventually warded off the danger.", "Over 5,000 of them followed Hellas to Como on the final day of the season to celebrate.In 2004–05, things looked much brighter for the team.", "After a rocky start, Hellas put together a string of results and climbed to third spot.", "The ''gialloblù'' held on to the position until January 2005, when transfers weakened the team, yet they managed to take the battle for Serie A to the last day of the season.The 2006–07 Serie B seemed to start well, due to the club takeover by Pietro Arvedi D'Emilei, which ended nine years of controversial leadership under chairman Gianbattista Pastorello, heavily contested by the supporters in his later years at Verona.", "However, Verona was immediately involved in the relegation battle, and Massimo Ficcadenti was replaced in December 2006 by Giampiero Ventura.", "Despite a recovery in the results, Verona ended in an 18th place, thus being forced to play a two-legged playoff against 19th-placed Spezia to avert relegation.", "A 2–1 away loss in the first leg at La Spezia was followed by a 0–0 home tie, and Verona were relegated to Serie C1 after 64 years of play in the two highest divisions.Verona appointed experienced coach Franco Colomba for the new season with the aim to return to Serie B as soon as possible.", "However, despite being widely considered the division favourite, the ''gialloblù'' spent almost the entire season in last place.", "After seven matches, club management sacked Colomba in early October and replaced him with youth team coach (and former Verona player) Davide Pellegrini.", "A new owner acquired the club in late 2007, appointing Giovanni Galli in December as new director of football and Maurizio Sarri as new head coach.", "Halfway through the 2007–08 season, the team remained at the bottom of Serie C1, on the brink of relegation to the fourth level (Serie C2).", "In response, club management sacked Sarri and brought back Pellegrini.", "Thanks to a late-season surge the ''scaligeri'' avoided direct relegation by qualifying for the relegation play-off, and narrowly averted dropping to Lega Pro Seconda Divisione in the final game, beating Pro Patria 2–1 on aggregate.", "However, despite the decline in results, attendance and season ticket sales remained at 15,000 on average.For the 2008–09 season, Verona appointed former Sassuolo and Piacenza manager Gian Marco Remondina with the aim to win promotion to Serie B.", "However, the season did not start impressively, with Verona being out of the playoff zone by mid-season, and club chairman Pietro Arvedi D'Emilei entering into a coma after being involved in a car crash on his way back from a league match in December 2008.Arvedi died in March 2009, two months after the club was bought by new chairman Giovanni Martinelli.The following season looked promising, as new transfer players were brought aboard, and fans enthusiastically embraced the new campaign.", "Season ticket figures climbed to over 10,000, placing Verona ahead of several Serie A teams and all but Torino in Serie B attendance.", "The team led the standings for much of the season, accumulating a seven-point lead by early in the spring.", "However, the advantage was gradually squandered, and the team dropped to second place on the second-last day of the season, with a chance to regain first place in the final regular season match against Portogruaro on home soil.", "Verona, however, disappointed a crowd of over 25,000 fans and, with the loss, dropped to third place and headed towards the play-offs.", "A managerial change for the post-season saw the firing of Remondina and the arrival of Giovanni Vavassori.", "After eliminating Rimini in the semi-finals (1–0; 0–0) Verona lost the final to Pescara (2–2 on home soil and 0–1 in the return match) and were condemned to a fourth-straight year of third division football.Former 1990 World Cup star Giuseppe Giannini (a famous captain of Roma for many years) signed as manager for the 2010–11 campaign.", "Once again, the team was almost entirely revamped during the transfer season.", "The squad struggled in the early months and Giannini was eventually sacked and replaced by former Internazionale defender Andrea Mandorlini, who succeeded in reorganising the team's play and bringing discipline both on and off the pitch.", "In the second half of the season, Verona climbed back from the bottom of the division to clinch a play-off berth (fifth place) on the last day of the regular season.", "The team advanced to the play-off final after eliminating Sorrento in the semi-finals 3–1 on aggregate.", "Following the play-off final, after four years of Lega Pro football, Verona were promoted back to Serie B after a 2–1 aggregate win over Salernitana on 19 June 2011.On 18 May 2013, Verona finished second in Serie B and were promoted to Serie A after an eleven-year absence.", "Their return to the top flight began against title contenders Milan and Roma, beating the former 2–1 and losing to the latter 3–0.The team continued at a steady pace, finishing the first half of the season with 32 points and sitting in sixth place, eleven points behind the closest UEFA Champions League spot—and tied with Internazionale for the final UEFA Europa League spot.", "Verona, however, ultimately finished the year in tenth.During the 2015–16 season, Verona had not won a single match since the beginning of the campaign until the club edged Atalanta 2–1 on 3 February 2016 in a win at home; coming twenty-three games into the season.", "Consequently, Verona were relegated from Serie A.In the 2016–17 Serie B season, Hellas Verona finished second on the table and were automatically promoted back to Serie A. Hellas lasted one season back in the top division after finishing second last during the 2017–18 Serie A season and were relegated back to Serie B.", "At the end of the 2018–19 season, Hellas finished in fifth position and achieved promotion back to Serie A after defeating Cittadella 3–0 in the second leg of their promotion play-off to win 3–2 on aggregate.The club's return to the top flight in the 2019–20 Serie A season, in which it was considered a strong relegation candidate at the beginning of the campaign, was a successful one, with a ninth-placed finish.", "Heavily reliant on the defensive solidity of 20-year-old centre-back Marash Kumbulla, Amir Rrahmani and goalkeeper Marco Silvestri, along with the consistent performances of midfielder Sofyan Amrabat, Verona was a surprise contender for Europa League qualification but fell out of the race after a downturn in form after the coronavirus break, which temporarily halted the season.", "A 2–1 win at home against eventual title winners Juventus in February was a highlight of a season in which the club achieved 10 clean sheets and punched towards the higher end of the table despite its modest budget.The performance of Hellas Verona in the Italian football league structure since the first season of a unified Serie A (1929/30).Ahead of Verona's second consecutive year in Serie A, key players Amrabat, Rrahmani and Kumbulla were poached by Fiorentina, Napoli and Roma respectively, and loanee Matteo Pessina returned to Atalanta.", "This left the club with a heavily weakened squad and it was once again expected to struggle in the league prior to the season-opening match.", "Despite these losses in the transfer window, Verona again finished in the top half of the league table, ending the season in 10th place with 45 points.", "Successful breakout seasons for attacking midfielder Mattia Zaccagni, who was eventually called up to the Italy national team as a reward for his performances, as well as wing-backs Federico Dimarco and Davide Faraoni, were partly the reason for this achievement.", "At the end of the season, coach Ivan Jurić was appointed by Torino following his two impressive Serie A seasons with Verona, with the ''Gialloblu'' replacing him with Eusebio Di Francesco.Following another summer transfer window in which several of the club's star players were sold to Serie A rivals, namely Zaccagni transferring to Lazio, Marco Silvestri to Udinese and Dimarco returning to Inter, the beginning of the 2021-22 season proved to be much more difficult for Verona, as Di Francesco was fired and replaced with Igor Tudor after just three matches, all of which were defeats.", "This poor early-season form had left the club at the bottom of the table.", "Under the guidance of Tudor, the team regains competitiveness obtaining in the next eight matches three wins – including victories with Lazio and Juventus – four draws and only one defeat." ], [ "Colours and badge", "The team's colours are yellow and blue.", "As a result, the clubs most widely used nickname is ''gialloblu'' literally \"yellow-blue\" in Italian.", "The colours represent the city itself and Verona's emblem (a yellow cross on a blue shield) appears on most team apparel.", "Home kits are traditionally blue, sometimes of a navy shade, combined with yellow details and trim, although the club has used a blue and yellow striped design on occasion.", "Two more team nicknames are ''Mastini'' (the mastiffs) and ''Scaligeri'', both references to Mastino I della Scala of the Della Scala princes that ruled the city during the 13th and 14th centuries.The Scala family coat of arms is depicted on the team's jersey and on its trademark logo as a stylised image of two large, powerful mastiffs facing opposite directions, introduced in 1995.In essence, the term \"''scaligeri''\" is synonymous with Veronese, and therefore can describe anything or anyone from Verona (e.g., Chievo Verona, a different team that also links itself to the Scala family – specifically to Cangrande I della Scala)." ], [ "Stadium", "Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi in 2022Since 1963, the club have played at the Stadio Marc'Antonio Bentegodi, which has a capacity of 39,211.It is the eighth-largest stadium in Italy by capacity.", "The stadium is named after the historic benefactor of Veronese sport, .The ground was shared with Hellas's rivals, Chievo Verona until that club dissolved in 2021.It was used as a venue for some matches of the 1990 FIFA World Cup and renovations prior to the tournament included an extra tier and a roof to cover all sections, improved visibility, public transport connections, an urban motorway connecting the city centre with the stadium and the Verona Nord motorway exit and services." ], [ "Derby with Chievo Verona", "The intercity fixtures against Chievo Verona are known as the \"Derby della Scala\".", "The name refers to the Scaligeri or della Scala aristocratic family, who were rulers of Verona during the Middle Ages and early Renaissance.Hellas, founded in 1903, were traditionally the main club in Verona.", "Chievo, founded in 1929, historically represented the small Verona suburb of the same name, using a small parish field as their home ground, and did not become a professional side until 1986.At that time, Chievo became tenants of Hellas at the Bentegodi, and began rising up the league ladder.", "By the mid-1990s, Chievo had joined Hellas in Serie B, creating the derby.", "During the teams' early Serie B meetings, Hellas supporters taunted Chievo with the chant ''Quando i mussi volara, il Ceo in Serie A'' – \"Donkeys will fly before Chievo are in Serie A.\"", "Once Chievo earned promotion to Serie A at the end of the 2000–01 season, their fans started calling the team ''i Mussi Volanti'' (The Flying Donkeys).", "A 2014 story in the British football magazine ''Late Tackle'' remarked that \"Hellas fans didn’t so much have their words rammed down their throat as forced through every orifice with a barge pole.", "\"In the season 2001–02, both Hellas Verona and the city rivals of Chievo Verona were playing in the Serie A.", "The first ever derby of Verona in Serie A took place on 18 November 2001, while both teams were ranked among the top four.", "The match was won by Hellas, 3–2.Chievo got revenge in the return match in spring 2002, winning 2–1.Verona thus became the fifth city in Italy, after Milan, Rome, Turin and Genoa to host a cross-town derby in Serie A." ], [ "Honours", "*'''Serie A'''** '''Winners (1):''' 1984–85*'''Serie B'''** '''Winners (3):''' 1956–57, 1981–82, 1998–99" ], [ "Records and statistics", "=== Club statistics ======European cups all-time statistics=== Competition European Cup1421154+1UEFA Cup2126511811+7 Total 3 16 8 6 2 23 15 +8=== European Cup === Season Round Opposition Home Away Aggregate1985–86 First round PAOK 3–1 2–1 '''5–2''' Second round Juventus 0–0 0–2 '''0–2'''=== UEFA Cup === Season Round Opposition Home Away Aggregate1983–84 First round Red Star Belgrade 1–0 3–2 '''4–2''' Second round Sturm Graz 2–2 0–0 '''2–2 (a)'''1987–88 First round Pogoń Szczecin 3–1 1–1 '''4–2''' Second round Utrecht 2–1 1–1 '''3–2''' Third round Sportul Studenţesc 3–1 1–0 '''4–1''' Quarter-finals Werder Bremen 0–1 1–1 '''1–2'''=== Player records ======= Most appearances ====:''Competitive, professional matches only.", "''#NameYearsMatches1 Luigi Bernardi1927–19393372 Emiliano Mascetti1967–1973, 1975–1980 3283 Roberto Tricella1979–19843244 Rafael2007–20163145 Pio Gorretta1929–1933, 1934–1940 262==== Top goalscorers ====:''Competitive, professional matches only.", "''#NameYearsGoals1 Arnaldo Porta1914–1930742 Sergio Sega1946–1952, 1954–1955733 Guido Tavellin1939–1946, 1949–1950 584 Adaílton1999–2006525 Egidio Chiecchi1921–192751 Luca Toni2013–2016" ], [ "Divisional movements", "SeriesYearsLastPromotionsRelegations'''A''''''31'''2022–23 – 10 (1929, 1958, 1974, 1979, 1990, 1992, 1997, 2002, 2016, 2018)'''B''''''53'''2018–19 10 (1957, 1968, 1975, 1982, 1991, 1996, 1999, 2013, 2017, 2019) 2 (1941, 2007)'''C''''''6'''2010–11 2 (1943, 2011)never90 years of professional football in Italy since 1929" ], [ "Sponsors", "Verona shirt from the 1992-93 season=== Kit sponsors ===* 1980–87: Adidas* 1987–89: Hummel* 1989–91: Adidas* 1991–95: Uhlsport* 1995–00: Errea* 2000–03: Lotto* 2003–06: Legea* 2006–13: Asics* 2013–18: Nike* 2018–23: Macron* 2023–: Joma=== Official sponsors ===* 1982–86: Canon* 1989–96: Rana* 1996–97: Ferroli* 1997–98: ZG Camini Inox* 1998–99: Atreyu Immobiliare* 1999–00: Salumi Marsilli* 2000–01: Net Business* 2001–02: Amica Chips* 2002–06: Clerman* 2006–07: Unika* 2007–08: ''No sponsor''* 2008–10: Giallo* 2010–11: Banca Di Verona/Sicurint Group, Protec/Consorzio Asimov* 2011–12: AGSM/Sicurint Group, Protec/Leaderform* 2012–13: AGSM, Leaderform* 2013–14: Franklin & Marshall/Manila Grace, AGSM/Leaderform* 2014–15: Franklin & Marshall, AGSM/Leaderform* 2015–2018: Metano Nord, Leaderform* 2018–present: AirDolomiti, Gruppo Sinergy* 2020–present: Kiratech S.P.A." ], [ "Current squad", "=== First-team squad ======Primavera===.", "===Out on loan===." ], [ "Club officials", "===Board of directors===RoleName Owner Maurizio Setti President Maurizio Setti Honorary President Osvaldo Bagnoli General Director Simona Gioè Technical Director Francesco Marroccu Sporting Director Sean Sogliano Scouting Director Paolo Cristallini Marketing Director Carlotta Robotti Youth Center Manager Massimo Margiotta Secretary Mirco Zardini Communications Department Dino Guerrini Digital Department Federico Montresor Team Manager Alessandro Mazzola Stadium Administrator Stefano Cacciatori* Last updated: 23 March 2023* Source:===Current technical staff===RoleName Head coach Marco Baroni Assistant coach Fabrizio Del Rosso Technical Coach Nicola Lami Goalkeeping coach Matthias Castiglioni Match Analysts Silvio Valanzano Giuseppe Martino Fitness coaches Andrea Petruolo Federico Di Dio Rehab coach Giorgio Panzarasa Head of Medical Pietro Gatto Osteopath/Physiotherapist Marco Pittoli Kinetotherapists Gianni Bonaduce Physiotherapists Philipp Gerold Sandro Martini Damiano Stefanini Nutritionist Filippo Gori Storemen Tomas Bodini Zeno Sabaini Antonio Salomoni* Last updated: 31 October 2023* Source:" ], [ "Managers", "* Ferenc Molnár (1 July 1924 – 30 June 1925)* Imre Schöffer (1 July 1925 – 30 June 1926)* Aldo Fagiuoli (1 July 1926 – 26 December 1927)* Imre János Bekey (27 December 1927 – 30 June 1928)* Alessandro Bascheni (1 July 1928 – 30 June 1929)* András Kuttik (1 July 1929 – 30 June 1932)* Rudolf Stanzel (1 July 1932 – 30 June 1933)* Imre János Bekey (1 July 1933 – 30 June 1934)* Sándor Peics (1939)* Karl Stürmer (1941–1942)* Bruno Biagini (1 July 1948 – 6 November 1949)* László Székely (8 November 1949 – 16 January 1950)* Angelo Piccioli (17 January 1950 – 23 March 1953)* Gyula Lelovics (23 March 1953 – 30 June 1953)* Luigi Rossetto (1 July 1953 – 31 January 1954) * Luigi Ferrero (4 February 1954 – 11 October 1954)* Angelo Piccioli (11 October 1954 – 1 February 1955)* Federico Allasio (6 February 1955 – 11 December 1955)* Angelo Piccioli (25 December 1955 – 5 May 1958)* Luigi Bonizzoni (6 May 1958 – 30 June 1958)* Vinicio Viani (1 July 1958 – 18 January 1959)* Guido Tavellin (25 January 1959 – 5 November 1959)* Aldo Olivieri (5 November 1959 – 26 September 1960)* Romolo Bizzotto (2 October 1960 – 30 June 1961)* Bruno Biagini (1 July 1961 – 30 June 1962)* Guido Tavellin (1 July 1962 – 25 November 1962)* Carlo Facchini (2 December 1962 – 17 May 1964)* Bruno Biagini (24 May 1964 – 30 June 1964)* Giancarlo Cadé (1 July 1964 – 30 June 1965)* Omero Tognon (1 July 1965 – 20 November 1966)* Ugo Pozzan (20 November 1966 – 15 January 1967)* Nils Liedholm (23 January 1967– 30 June 1968)* Ugo Pozzan (1 July 1967 – 30 June 1968)* Giancarlo Cadé (1 July 1968 – 30 June 1969)* Renato Lucchi (1 July 1969 – 30 November 1970)* Ugo Pozzan (1 July 1971 – 30 June 1972)* Giancarlo Cadé (1 July 1972 – 10 March 1975)* Luigi Mascalaito (10 March 1975 – 30 June 1975)* Ferruccio Valcareggi (1 July 1975 – 30 June 1978)* Luigi Mascalaito (1 July 1978 – 13 November 1978)* Giuseppe Chiappella (13 November 1978 – 30 June 1979)* Fernando Veneranda (1 July 1979 – 30 June 1980)* Giancarlo Cadé (1 July 1980 – 30 June 1981)* Osvaldo Bagnoli (1 July 1981 – 30 June 1990)* Eugenio Fascetti (1 July 1990 – 28 March 1992)* Nils Liedholm (29 March 1992 – 30 June 1992)* Edoardo Reja (1 July 1992 – 30 June 1993)* Franco Fontana (1 July 1993 – 30 June 1994)* Bortolo Mutti (1 July 1994 – 30 June 1995)* Attilio Perotti (1 July 1995 – 30 June 1996)* Luigi Cagni (1 July 1996 – 4 April 1998)* Sergio Maddè (4 April 1998 – 30 June 1998)* Cesare Prandelli (1 July 1998 – 30 June 2000)* Attilio Perotti (1 July 2000 – 30 June 2001)* Alberto Malesani (4 July 2001 – 10 June 2003)* Sandro Salvioni (1 July 2003 – 23 December 2003)* Sergio Maddè (24 December 2003 – 30 June 2004)* Massimo Ficcadenti (20 July 2004 – 24 December 2006)* Giampiero Ventura (24 December 2006 – 30 June 2007)* Franco Colomba (1 July 2007 – 8 October 2007)* Davide Pellegrini (9 October 2007 – 30 December 2007)* Maurizio Sarri (31 December 2007 – 27 February 2008)* Davide Pellegrini (28 February 2008 – 11 June 2008)* Gian Marco Remondina (12 June 2008 – 10 May 2010)* Giovanni Vavassori (10 May 2010 – 21 June 2010)* Giuseppe Giannini (22 June 2010 – 8 November 2010)* Andrea Mandorlini (9 November 2010 – 30 November 2015)* Luigi Delneri (1 December 2015 – 23 May 2016)* Fabio Pecchia (1 June 2016 – 21 June 2018)* Fabio Grosso (21 June 2018 – 1 May 2019)* Alfredo Aglietti (2 May 2019 – 14 June 2019)* Ivan Jurić (14 June 2019 – 28 May 2021)* Eusebio Di Francesco (7 June 2021 – 14 September 2021)* Igor Tudor (14 September 2021 – 28 May 2022)* Gabriele Cioffi (1 June 2022 – 11 October 2022)* Salvatore Bocchetti (13 October 2022 – 2 December 2022)* Marco Zaffaroni (3 December 2022 – 30 June 2023)* Marco Baroni (1 July 2023 – ''present'')" ], [ "World Cup players", "The following players have been selected by their country for the FIFA World Cup finals while playing for Hellas Verona.", "* Roberto Tricella (1986)* Antonio Di Gennaro (1986)* Giuseppe Galderisi (1986)* Preben Elkjær (1986)* Hans-Peter Briegel (1986)* Nelson Gutiérrez (1990)* Ruslan Nigmatullin (2002)* Anthony Šerić (2002)* Rafael Márquez (2014)* Lee Seung-woo (2018)* Ajdin Hrustic (2022)* Ivan Ilić (2022)* Darko Lazović (2022)* Martin Hongla (2022)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hinayana" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Hīnayāna'''\" is a Sanskrit term that was at one time applied collectively to the ''Śrāvakayāna'' and ''Pratyekabuddhayāna'' paths of Buddhism.This term appeared around the first or second century.", "Hīnayāna was often contrasted with ''Mahāyāna'', which means the \"great vehicle\".", "Early Western scholars fell into using the term Hīnayāna to describing the early doctrine of Buddhism (with ''Mahāyāna'' following later).", "Modern Buddhist scholarship has deprecated the pejorative term, and instead uses the term ''Nikaya Buddhism'' to refer to early Buddhist schools.", "''Hinayana'' has also been inappropriately used as a synonym for Theravada, which is the main tradition of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.In Sanskrit, \"Hīnayāna\" (, ) is a term literally meaning the \"small/deficient vehicle\" or \"small path.\"", "Adherents of non-Mahayana traditions were said to be obliged to adhere to only the Five precepts." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''hīnayāna'' is formed of ''hīna'': \"little\", \"poor\", \"inferior\", \"abandoned\", \"deficient\", \"defective\"; and ''yāna'' (यान): \"vehicle\", where \"vehicle\" or \"path\" what means \"a way of going to enlightenment\".", "The Pali Text Society's ''Pali-English Dictionary'' (1921–25) defines ''hīna'' in even stronger terms, with a semantic field that includes \"poor, miserable; vile, base, abject, contemptible\", and \"despicable\".The term was translated by Kumārajīva and others into Classical Chinese as \"small vehicle\" (小 meaning \"small\", 乘 meaning \"vehicle\"), although earlier and more accurate translations of the term also exist.", "In Mongolian (''Baga Holgon'') the term for hinayana also means \"small\" or \"lesser\" vehicle or better called path, while in Tibetan there are at least two words to designate the term, ''theg chung'' meaning \"small vehicle\" and ''theg dman'' meaning \"inferior vehicle\" or \"inferior spiritual approach\".Thrangu Rinpoche has emphasized that ''hinayana'' is in no way implying \"inferior\".", "In his translation and commentary of Asanga's ''Distinguishing Dharma from Dharmata'', he writes, \"all three traditions of hinayana, mahayana, and vajrayana were practiced in Tibet and that the hinayana which literally means \"lesser vehicle\" is in no way inferior to the mahayana.", "\"According to the World Fellowship of Buddhists, the term Hīnayāna should not be used to refer to any extant form of Buddhism." ], [ "Origins", "According to Jan Nattier, it is most likely that the term Hīnayāna postdates the term Mahāyāna and was only added at a later date due to antagonism and conflict between the bodhisattva and śrāvaka ideals.", "The sequence of terms then began with the term ''Bodhisattvayāna'' \"bodhisattva-vehicle\", which was given the epithet Mahāyāna \"Great Vehicle\".", "It was only later, after attitudes toward the bodhisattva teachings had become more critical, that the term Hīnayāna was created as a back-formation, contrasting with the already established term Mahāyāna.", "The earliest Mahāyāna texts often use the term Mahāyāna as an epithet and synonym for Bodhisattvayāna, but the term Hīnayāna is comparatively rare in early texts, and is usually not found at all in the earliest translations.", "Therefore, the often-perceived symmetry between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna can be deceptive, as the terms were not actually coined in relation to one another in the same era.According to Paul Williams, \"the deep-rooted misconception concerning an unfailing, ubiquitous fierce criticism of the Lesser Vehicle by the Mahāyāna is not supported by our texts.\"", "Williams states that while evidence of conflict is present in some cases, there is also substantial evidence demonstrating peaceful coexistence between the two traditions." ], [ "Mahāyāna members of the early Buddhist schools", "Although the 18–20 early Buddhist schools are sometimes loosely classified as Hīnayāna in modern times, this is not necessarily accurate.", "There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school of Buddhism but rather as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines.", "Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate vinaya or ordination lineage from the early Buddhist schools, and therefore bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs adhering to the Mahāyāna formally adheres to the vinaya of an early school.", "This continues today with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage in East Asia and the Mūlasarvāstivāda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism.", "Mahāyāna was never a separate sect of the early schools.", "From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side.The seventh-century Chinese Buddhist monk and pilgrim Yijing wrote about the relationship between the various \"vehicles\" and the early Buddhist schools in India.", "He wrote, \"There exist in the West numerous subdivisions of the schools which have different origins, but there are only four principal schools of continuous tradition.\"", "These schools are the Mahāsāṃghika Nikāya, Sthavira nikāya, Mūlasarvāstivāda Nikāya, and Saṃmitīya Nikāya.", "Explaining their doctrinal affiliations, he then writes, \"Which of the four schools should be grouped with the Mahāyāna or with the Hīnayāna is not determined.\"", "That is to say, there was no simple correspondence between a Buddhist school and whether its members learn \"Hīnayāna\" or \"Mahāyāna\" teachings.To identify entire schools as \"Hīnayāna\" that contained not only śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas but also Mahāyāna bodhisattvas would be attacking the schools of their fellow Mahāyānists as well as their own.", "Instead, what is demonstrated in the definition of ''Hīnayāna'' given by Yijing is that the term referred to individuals based on doctrinal differences." ], [ "Hīnayāna as Śrāvakayāna", "Scholar Isabelle Onians asserts that although \"the Mahāyāna ... very occasionally referred to earlier Buddhism as the Hinayāna, the Inferior Way, ... the preponderance of this name in the secondary literature is far out of proportion to occurrences in the Indian texts.\"", "She notes that the term Śrāvakayāna was \"the more politically correct and much more usual\" term used by Mahāyānists.", "Jonathan Silk has argued that the term \"Hinayana\" was used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any given occasion, and did not refer to any definite grouping of Buddhists." ], [ "Hīnayāna and Theravāda", "===Views of Chinese pilgrims===The Chinese monk Yijing, who visited India in the 7th century, distinguished Mahāyāna from Hīnayāna as follows:In the 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang describes the concurrent existence of the Mahāvihara and the Abhayagiri vihāra in Sri Lanka.", "He refers to the monks of the Mahāvihara as the \"Hīnayāna Sthaviras\" and the monks of Abhayagiri vihāra as the \"Mahāyāna Sthaviras\".", "Xuanzang further writes, \"The Mahāvihāravāsins reject the Mahāyāna and practice the Hīnayāna, while the Abhayagirivihāravāsins study both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna teachings and propagate the ''Tripiṭaka''.", "\"===Philosophical differences===Mahayanists were primarily in philosophical dialectic with the Vaibhāṣika school of Sarvāstivāda, which had by far the most \"comprehensive edifice of doctrinal systematics\" of the nikāya schools.", "With this in mind it is sometimes argued that the Theravada would not have been considered a \"Hinayana\" school by Mahayanists because, unlike the now-extinct Sarvastivada school, the primary object of Mahayana criticism, the Theravada school does not claim the existence of independent dharmas; in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism.", "Additionally, the concept of the bodhisattva as one who puts off enlightenment rather than reaching awakening as soon as possible, has no roots in Theravada textual or cultural contexts, current or historical.", "Aside from the Theravada schools being geographically distant from the Mahayana, the Hinayana distinction is used in reference to certain views and practices that had become found within the Mahayana tradition itself.", "Theravada, as well as Mahayana schools stress the urgency of one's own awakening in order to end suffering.", "Some contemporary Theravadin figures have thus indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahayana philosophy found in the ''Heart Sutra'' and the ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''.The Mahayanists were bothered by the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikins, and in emphasizing the doctrine of śūnyatā, David Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching.", "The Theravadins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikins (and followers of other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon.", "The Theravada arguments are preserved in the ''Kathavatthu''.===Opinions of scholars===Some western scholars still regard the Theravada school to be one of the Hinayana schools referred to in Mahayana literature, or regard Hinayana as a synonym for Theravada.", "These scholars understand the term to refer to schools of Buddhism that did not accept the teachings of the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic teachings of the Buddha.", "At the same time, scholars have objected to the pejorative connotation of the term Hinayana and some scholars do not use it for any school.Robert Thurman writes, \"'Nikaya Buddhism' is a coinage of Professor Masatoshi Nagatomi of Harvard University, who suggested it to me as a usage for the eighteen schools of Indian Buddhism to avoid the term 'Hinayana Buddhism,' which is found offensive by some members of the Theravada tradition.", "\"Within Mahayana Buddhism, there were a variety of interpretations as to whom or to what the term ''Hinayana'' referred.", "Kalu Rinpoche stated the \"lesser\" or \"greater\" designation \"did not refer to economic or social status, but concerned the spiritual capacities of the practitioner\".", "Rinpoche states:" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* \"Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism\" Dr. W. Rahula's article* Mahayana - Hinayana - Theravada introduced by Binh Hanson, webmaster of \"BuddhaSasana\" (www.budsas.org)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Humphrey Bogart" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Humphrey DeForest Bogart''' ( ; December 25, 1899 – January 14, 1957), colloquially nicknamed '''Bogie''', was an American actor.", "His performances in classic Hollywood cinema films made him an American cultural icon.", "In 1999, the American Film Institute selected Bogart as the greatest male star of classic American cinema.Bogart began acting in Broadway shows.", "Debuting in film in ''The Dancing Town'' (1928), he appeared in supporting roles for more than a decade, regularly portraying gangsters.", "He was praised for his work as Duke Mantee in ''The Petrified Forest'' (1936).", "Bogart also received positive reviews for his performance as gangster Hugh \"Baby Face\" Martin, in ''Dead End'' (1937), directed by William Wyler.His breakthrough came in ''High Sierra'' (1941), and he catapulted to stardom as the lead in ''The Maltese Falcon'' (1941), considered one of the first great ''noir'' films.", "Bogart's private detectives, Sam Spade (in ''The Maltese Falcon'') and Philip Marlowe (in 1946's ''The Big Sleep''), became the models for detectives in other ''noir'' films.", "In 1947, he played a War hero in another \"noir\" film, ''Dead Reckoning'', tangled in a dangerous web of brutality and violence as he investigates his friend's murder, co-starring Lizabeth Scott.", "His first romantic lead role was a memorable one, pairing him with Ingrid Bergman in ''Casablanca'' (1942), which earned him his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor.", "Raymond Chandler, in a 1946 letter, wrote that \"Like Edward G. Robinson when he was younger, all he has to do to dominate a scene is to enter it.", "\"Forty-four-year-old Bogart and nineteen-year-old Lauren Bacall fell in love during filming of ''To Have and Have Not'' (1944).", "In 1945, a few months after principal photography for ''The Big Sleep'', their second film together, he divorced his third wife and married Bacall.", "After their marriage, they played each other's love interest in the mystery thrillers ''Dark Passage'' (1947) and ''Key Largo'' (1948).", "Regarding her husband's enduring popularity, Bacall later said, \"There was something that made him able to be a man of his own and it showed through his work.", "There was also a purity, which is amazing considering the parts he played.", "Something solid too.", "I think as time goes by we all believe less and less.", "Here was someone who believed in something.", "\"Bogart's performances in ''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'' (1948) and ''In a Lonely Place'' (1950) are now considered among his best, although they were not recognized as such when the films were released.", "He reprised those unsettled, unstable characters as a World War II naval-vessel commander in ''The Caine Mutiny'' (1954), which was a critical and commercial hit and earned him another Best Actor nomination.", "He won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of a cantankerous river steam launch skipper opposite Katharine Hepburn's missionary in the World War I African adventure ''The African Queen'' (1951).", "Other significant roles in his later years included ''The Barefoot Contessa'' (1954) with Ava Gardner and his on-screen competition with William Holden for Audrey Hepburn in ''Sabrina'' (1954).", "A heavy smoker and drinker, Bogart died from esophageal cancer in January 1957." ], [ "Early life and education", "Plaque commemorating Bogart's birthplace, 245 W. 103rd St., New York CityHumphrey DeForest Bogart was born on Christmas Day 1899 in New York City, the eldest child of Belmont DeForest Bogart and Maud Humphrey.", "Belmont was the only child of the unhappy marriage of Adam Welty Bogart (a Canandaigua, New York, innkeeper) and Julia Augusta Stiles, a wealthy heiress.", "The name \"Bogart\" derives from the Dutch surname, \"Bogaert\".", "Belmont and Maud married in June 1898.He was a Presbyterian, of English and Dutch descent, and a descendant of Sarah Rapelje (the first female European Christian child born in New Netherland).", "Maud was an Episcopalian of English heritage, and a descendant of ''Mayflower'' passenger John Howland.", "Humphrey was raised Episcopalian, but was non-practicing for most of his adult life.The date of Bogart's birth has been disputed.", "Clifford McCarty wrote that Warner Bros. publicity department had altered it to January 23, 1900, \"to foster the view that a man born on Christmas Day couldn't really be as villainous as he appeared to be on screen\".", "The \"corrected\" January birthdate subsequently appeared—and in some cases, remains—in many otherwise-authoritative sources.", "According to biographers Ann M. Sperber and Eric Lax, Bogart always celebrated his birthday on December 25 and listed it on official records (including his marriage license).Lauren Bacall wrote in her autobiography that Bogart's birthday was always celebrated on Christmas Day, saying that he joked about being cheated out of a present every year.", "Sperber and Lax noted that a birth announcement in the ''Ontario County Times'' of January 10, 1900, rules out the possibility of a January 23 birthdate; state and federal census records from 1900 also report a Christmas 1899 birthdate.", "Bogart's birth record confirms he was actually born on December 25, 1899.Maud Humphrey in the 1897 book ''American Women''Belmont, Bogart's father, was a cardiopulmonary surgeon.", "Maud was a commercial illustrator who received her art training in New York and France, including study with James Abbott McNeill Whistler.", "She later became art director of the fashion magazine ''The Delineator'' and a militant suffragette.", "Maud used a drawing of baby Humphrey in an advertising campaign for Mellins Baby Food.", "She earned over $50,000 a year at the peak of her career – a very large sum of money at the time, and considerably more than her husband's $20,000.The Bogarts lived in an Upper West Side apartment, and had a cottage on a 55-acre estate on Canandaigua Lake in upstate New York.", "When he was young, Bogart's group of friends at the lake would put on plays.He had two younger sisters: Frances (\"Pat\") and Catherine Elizabeth (\"Kay\").", "Bogart's parents were busy in their careers, and frequently fought.", "Very formal, they showed little emotion towards their children.", "Maud told her offspring to call her \"Maud\" instead of \"Mother\", and showed little, if any, physical affection for them.", "When she was pleased, she \"clapped you on the shoulder, almost the way a man does\", Bogart recalled.", "\"I was brought up very unsentimentally but very straightforwardly.", "A kiss, in our family, was an event.", "Our mother and father didn't glug over my two sisters and me.", "\"Bogart was teased as a boy for his curls, tidiness, the \"cute\" pictures his mother had him pose for, the Little Lord Fauntleroy clothes in which she dressed him, and for his first name.", "He inherited from his father a tendency to needle, a fondness for fishing, a lifelong love of boating, and an attraction to strong-willed women.Bogart attended the private Delancey School until the fifth grade and then attended the prestigious Trinity School.", "He was an indifferent, sullen student who showed no interest in after-school activities.", "Bogart later attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, a boarding school to which he was admitted based on family connections.", "Although his parents hoped that he would go on to Yale University, Bogart left Phillips in 1918 after one semester (although the Phillips Academy website claims he was in the graduating class of 1920).", "He failed four out of six classes.", "Several reasons have been given; according to one, he was expelled for throwing the headmaster (or a groundskeeper) into Rabbit Pond on campus.", "Another cited smoking, drinking, poor academic performance, and (possibly) inappropriate comments made to the staff.", "In a third scenario, Bogart was withdrawn by his father for failing to improve his grades.", "His parents were deeply disappointed in their failed plans for his future.=== Navy ===Enlisting at 18 in the U.S. Navy in 1918, Bogart was recorded as a model sailor.With no viable career options, Bogart enlisted in the United States Navy in the spring of 1918 (during World War I), and served as a helmsman.", "He recalled later, \"At eighteen, war was great stuff.", "Paris!", "Sexy French girls!", "Hot damn!\"", "Bogart was recorded as a model sailor, who spent most of his sea time after the armistice ferrying troops back from Europe.", "Bogart left the service on June 18, 1919, at the rank of Seaman 2nd Class.", "During World War II, Bogart attempted to re-enlist in the Navy but was rejected due to his age.", "He then volunteered for the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve in 1944, patrolling the California coastline in his yacht, the ''Santana''.He may have received his trademark scar and developed his characteristic lisp during his naval stint.", "There are several conflicting stories.", "In one, his lip was cut by shrapnel when his ship (the ) was shelled.", "The ship was never shelled, however, and Bogart may not have been at sea before the armistice.", "Another story, held by longtime friend Nathaniel Benchley, was that Bogart was injured while taking a prisoner to Portsmouth Naval Prison in Kittery, Maine.", "While changing trains in Boston, the handcuffed prisoner reportedly asked Bogart for a cigarette.", "When Bogart looked for a match, the prisoner smashed him across the mouth with the cuffs (cutting Bogart's lip) and fled before being recaptured and imprisoned.", "In an alternative version, Bogart was struck in the mouth by a handcuff loosened while freeing his charge; the other handcuff was still around the prisoner's wrist.", "By the time Bogart was treated by a doctor, a scar had formed.", "David Niven said that when he first asked Bogart about his scar, however, he said that it was caused by a childhood accident.", "\"Goddamn doctor\", Bogart later told Niven.", "\"Instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up.\"", "According to Niven, the stories that Bogart got the scar during wartime were made up by the studios.", "His post-service physical did not mention the lip scar, although it noted many smaller scars.", "When actress Louise Brooks met Bogart in 1924, he had scar tissue on his upper lip which Brooks said Bogart may have had partially repaired before entering the film industry in 1930.Brooks said that his \"lip wound gave him no speech impediment, either before or after it was mended.\"" ], [ "<span id=\"Turn to acting\"></span>Acting", "=== First performances ===Bogart returned home to find his father in poor health, his medical practice faltering, and much of the family's wealth lost in bad timber investments.", "His character and values developed separately from his family during his navy days, and he began to rebel.", "Bogart became a liberal who disliked pretension, phonies and snobs, sometimes defying conventional behavior and authority; he was also well-mannered, articulate, punctual, self-effacing and standoffish.", "After his naval service, he worked as a shipper and a bond salesman, joining the Coast Guard Reserve.Bogart was praised in an October 15, 1922, newspaper review of the play ''Swifty'': \"Humphrey Bogart as the erring young man, Tom Proctor, did an excellent bit of work in the main\".Frank Kelly Rich writes that Bogart \"dove headfirst into the Jazz Age lifestyle, always up for late night revels...", "When his meager wages were exhausted, he'd play chess against all comers in arcades for a dollar a match (he was a brilliant player) to fund his outings.\"", "Mike Doyle of Chess.com writes that \"Before he made any money from acting, he would hustle players for dimes and quarters, playing in New York parks and at Coney Island.\"", "Bogart resumed his friendship with Bill Brady Jr. (whose father had show-business connections), and obtained an office job with William A. Brady's new World Films company.", "Although he wanted to try his hand at screenwriting, directing, and production, he excelled at none.", "Bogart was stage manager for Brady's daughter Alice's play ''A Ruined Lady''.", "He made his stage debut a few months later as a Japanese butler in Alice's 1921 play ''Drifting'' (nervously delivering one line of dialogue), and appeared in several of her subsequent plays.Although Bogart had been raised to believe that acting was a lowly profession, he liked the late hours actors kept and the attention they received: \"I was born to be indolent and this was the softest of rackets.\"", "He spent much of his free time in speakeasies, drinking heavily.", "A bar-room brawl at this time was also a purported cause of Bogart's lip damage, dovetailing with Louise Brooks' account.Preferring to learn by doing, he never took acting lessons.", "Bogart was persistent and worked steadily at his craft, appearing in at least 18 Broadway productions between 1922 and 1935, 11 of which were comedies.", "He played juveniles or romantic supporting roles in drawing-room comedies and is reportedly the first actor to say, \"Tennis, anyone?\"", "on stage.", "According to Alexander Woollcott, Bogart \"is what is usually and mercifully described as inadequate.\"", "Other critics were kinder.", "Heywood Broun, reviewing ''Nerves'', wrote: \"Humphrey Bogart gives the most effective performance ... both dry and fresh, if that be possible\".", "He played a juvenile lead (reporter Gregory Brown) in Lynn Starling's comedy ''Meet the Wife'', which had a successful 232-performance run at the Klaw Theatre from November 1923 through July 1924.Bogart disliked his trivial, effeminate early-career parts, calling them \"White Pants Willie\" roles.While playing a double role in ''Drifting'' at the Playhouse Theatre in 1922, he met actress Helen Menken; they were married on May 20, 1926, at the Gramercy Park Hotel in New York City.", "Divorced on November 18, 1927, they remained friends.", "Menken said in her divorce filing that Bogart valued his career more than marriage, citing neglect and abuse.", "He married actress Mary Philips on April 3, 1928, at her mother's apartment in Hartford, Connecticut; Bogart and Philips had worked together in the play ''Nerves'' during its brief run at the Comedy Theatre in 1924.Theatrical production dropped off sharply after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and many of the more-photogenic actors headed for Hollywood.", "Bogart debuted on film with Helen Hayes in the 1928 two-reeler ''The Dancing Town'', which survives intact.", "He also appeared with Joan Blondell and Ruth Etting in a Vitaphone short, ''Broadway's Like That'' (1930), which was rediscovered in 1963.Claire Luce and Bogart in ''Up the River'' (1930)=== Broadway to Hollywood ===Bogart signed a contract with the Fox Film Corporation for $750 a week.", "There he met Spencer Tracy, a Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and the two men became close friends and drinking companions.", "In 1930, Tracy first called him \"Bogie\".", "Tracy made his feature film debut in his only movie with Bogart, John Ford's early sound film ''Up the River'' (1930), in which their leading roles were as inmates.", "Tracy received top billing, but Bogart's picture appeared on the film's posters.", "He was billed fourth behind Tracy, Claire Luce and Warren Hymer but his role was almost as large as Tracy's and much larger than Luce's or Hymer's.", "A quarter of a century later, the two men planned to make ''The Desperate Hours'' together.", "Both insisted upon top billing, however; Tracy dropped out, and was replaced by Fredric March.Bogart then had a supporting role in ''Bad Sister'' (1931) with Bette Davis.", "Bogart shuttled back and forth between Hollywood and the New York stage from 1930 to 1935, out of work for long periods.", "His parents had separated; his father died in 1934 in debt, which Bogart eventually paid off.", "He inherited his father's gold ring, which he wore in many of his films.", "At his father's deathbed, Bogart finally told him how much he loved him.", "Bogart's second marriage was rocky; dissatisfied with his acting career, depressed and irritable, he drank heavily.=== In Hollywood permanently: ''The Petrified Forest'' ===Bogart, Leslie Howard, and Bette Davis in ''The Petrified Forest'', 1936In 1934, Bogart starred in the Broadway play ''Invitation to a Murder'' at the Theatre Masque (renamed the John Golden Theatre in 1937).", "Its producer, Arthur Hopkins, heard the play from offstage; he sent for Bogart and offered him the role of escaped murderer Duke Mantee in Robert E. Sherwood's forthcoming play, ''The Petrified Forest''.", "Hopkins later recalled:The play had 197 performances at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York in 1935.Although Leslie Howard was the star, ''The New York Times'' critic Brooks Atkinson said that the play was \"a peach ... a roaring Western melodrama ... Humphrey Bogart does the best work of his career as an actor.\"", "Bogart said that the play \"marked my deliverance from the ranks of the sleek, sybaritic, stiff-shirted, swallow-tailed 'smoothies' to which I seemed condemned to life.\"", "However, he still felt insecure.", "Warner Bros. bought the screen rights to ''The Petrified Forest'' in 1935.The play seemed ideal for the studio, which was known for its socially-realistic pictures for a public entranced by real-life criminals such as John Dillinger and Dutch Schultz.", "Bette Davis and Leslie Howard were cast.", "Howard, who held the production rights, made it clear that he wanted Bogart to star with him.", "''The Petrified Forest'' trailer (1936)The studio tested several Hollywood veterans for the Duke Mantee role and chose Edward G. Robinson, who had star appeal and was due to make a film to fulfill his contract.", "Bogart cabled news of this development to Howard in Scotland, who replied: \"Att: Jack Warner Insist Bogart Play Mantee No Bogart No Deal L.H.\".", "When Warner Bros. saw that Howard would not budge, they gave in and cast Bogart.", "Jack Warner wanted Bogart to use a stage name but Bogart declined, having built a reputation with his name in Broadway theater.", "The film version of ''The Petrified Forest'' was released in 1936.According to ''Variety'', \"Bogart's menace leaves nothing wanting\".", "Frank S. Nugent wrote for ''The New York Times'' that the actor \"can be a psychopathic gangster more like Dillinger than the outlaw himself.\"", "The film was successful at the box office, earning $500,000 in rentals, and made Bogart a star.", "He never forgot Howard's favor and named his only daughter, Leslie Howard Bogart, after him in 1952.=== Supporting gangster and villain roles ===Despite his success in ''The Petrified Forest'' (an \"A movie\"), Bogart signed a tepid 26-week contract at $550 per week and was typecast as a gangster in a series of B movie crime dramas.", "Although he was proud of his success, the fact that it derived from gangster roles weighed on him: \"I can't get in a mild discussion without turning it into an argument.", "There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face—something that antagonizes everybody.", "Nobody likes me on sight.", "I suppose that's why I'm cast as the heavy.", "\"In spite of his success, Warner Bros. had no interest in raising Bogart's profile.", "His roles were repetitive and physically demanding; studios were not yet air-conditioned, and his tightly scheduled job at Warners was anything but the indolent and \"peachy\" actor's life he hoped for.", "Although Bogart disliked the roles chosen for him, he worked steadily.", "\"In the first 34 pictures\" for Warner's, he told journalist George Frazier, \"I was shot in 12, electrocuted or hanged in 8, and was a jailbird in 9\".", "He averaged a film every two months between 1936 and 1940, sometimes working on two films at the same time.", "Bogart used these years to begin developing his film persona: a wounded, stoical, cynical, charming, vulnerable, self-mocking loner with a code of honor.Amenities at Warners were few, compared to the prestigious Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.", "Bogart thought that the Warners wardrobe department was cheap, and often wore his own suits in his films.", "He chose his own dog named Zero, to play Pard (his character's dog) in ''High Sierra''.", "His disputes with Warner Bros. over roles and money were similar to those waged by the studio with more established and less malleable stars such as Bette Davis and James Cagney.Taking a back seat to James Cagney in ''The Roaring Twenties'' (1939), the last film they made togetherLeading men at Warner Bros. included George Raft, James Cagney and Edward G. Robinson.", "Most of the studio's better scripts went to them or others, leaving Bogart with what was left: films like ''San Quentin'' (1937), ''Racket Busters'' (1938), and ''You Can't Get Away with Murder'' (1939).", "His only leading role during this period was in ''Dead End'' (1937, on loan to Samuel Goldwyn), as a gangster modeled after Baby Face Nelson.Bogart played violent roles so often that in Nevil Shute's 1939 novel, ''What Happened to the Corbetts'', the protagonist replies \"I've seen Humphrey Bogart with one often enough\" when asked if he knows how to operate an automatic weapon.", "Although he played a variety of supporting roles in films such as ''Angels with Dirty Faces'' (1938), Bogart's roles were either rivals of characters played by Cagney and Robinson or a secondary member of their gang.", "In ''Black Legion'' (1937), a movie Graham Greene described as \"intelligent and exciting, if rather earnest\", he played a good man who was caught up with (and destroyed by) a racist organization.The studio cast Bogart as a wrestling promoter in ''Swing Your Lady'' (1938), a \"hillbilly musical\" which he reportedly considered his worst film performance.", "He played a rejuvenated, formerly-dead scientist in ''The Return of Doctor X'' (1939), his only horror film: \"If it'd been Jack Warner's blood ...", "I wouldn't have minded so much.", "The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie.\"", "His wife, Mary, had a stage hit in ''A Touch of Brimstone'' and refused to abandon her Broadway career for Hollywood.", "After the play closed, Mary relented; she insisted on continuing her career, however, and they divorced in 1937.Mayo Methot and Bogart with their dogs (1944)On August 21, 1938, Bogart entered a turbulent third marriage to actress Mayo Methot, a lively, friendly woman when sober but paranoid and aggressive when drunk.", "She became convinced that Bogart was unfaithful to her (which he eventually was, with Lauren Bacall, while filming ''To Have and Have Not'' in 1944).", "They drifted apart; Methot's drinking increased, and she threw plants, crockery and other objects at Bogart.", "She set their house afire, stabbed him with a knife, and slashed her wrists several times.", "Bogart needled her; apparently enjoying confrontation, he was sometimes violent as well.", "The press called them \"the Battling Bogarts\".According to their friend, Julius Epstein, \"The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the Civil War\".", "Bogart bought a motor launch which he named ''Sluggy,'' his nickname for Methot: \"I like a jealous wife .. We get on so well together (because) we don't have illusions about each other ...", "I wouldn't give you two cents for a dame without a temper.\"", "Louise Brooks said that \"except for Leslie Howard, no one contributed as much to Humphrey's success as his third wife, Mayo Methot.\"", "Methot's influence was increasingly destructive, however, and Bogart also continued to drink.He had a lifelong disdain for pretension and phoniness, and was again irritated by his inferior films.", "Bogart rarely watched his own films and avoided premieres, issuing fake press releases about his private life to satisfy journalistic and public curiosity.", "When he thought an actor, director or studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up publicly about it.", "Bogart advised Robert Mitchum that the only way to stay alive in Hollywood was to be an \"againster\".", "He was not the most popular of actors, and some in the Hollywood community shunned him privately to avoid trouble with the studios.", "Bogart once said,The Hollywood press, unaccustomed to such candor, was delighted." ], [ "Early stardom", "=== ''High Sierra'' ===''High Sierra'' (1941, directed by Raoul Walsh) featured a screenplay written by John Huston, Bogart's friend and drinking partner, adapted from a novel by W. R. Burnett, author of the novel on which ''Little Caesar'' was based.", "Paul Muni, George Raft, Cagney and Robinson turned down the lead role, giving Bogart the opportunity to play a character with some depth.", "Walsh initially opposed Bogart's casting, preferring Raft for the part.", "It was Bogart's last major film as a gangster; a supporting role followed in ''The Big Shot'', released in 1942.He worked well with Ida Lupino, sparking jealousy from Mayo Methot.The film cemented a strong personal and professional connection between Bogart and Huston.", "Bogart admired (and somewhat envied) Huston for his skill as a writer; a poor student, Bogart was a lifelong reader.", "He could quote Plato, Alexander Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson and over a thousand lines of Shakespeare, and subscribed to the ''Harvard Law Review''.", "Bogart admired writers; some of his best friends were screenwriters, including Louis Bromfield, Nathaniel Benchley, and Nunnally Johnson.", "He enjoyed intense, provocative conversation (accompanied by stiff drinks), as did Huston.", "Both were rebellious and enjoyed playing childish pranks.", "Huston was reportedly easily bored during production and admired Bogart (also bored easily off-camera) for his acting talent and his intense concentration on-set.Bogart in a publicity picture with the prop Maltese Falcon=== ''The Maltese Falcon'' ===Now regarded as a classic film noir, ''The Maltese Falcon'' (1941) was John Huston's directorial debut.", "Based on the Dashiell Hammett novel, it was first serialized in the pulp magazine ''Black Mask'' in 1929 and was the basis of two earlier film versions; the second was ''Satan Met a Lady'' (1936), starring Bette Davis.", "Producer Hal B. Wallis initially offered to cast George Raft as the leading man, but Raft (then better known than Bogart) had a contract stipulating he was not required to appear in remakes.", "Fearing that it would be nothing more than a sanitized version of the pre-Production Code ''The Maltese Falcon'' (1931), Raft turned down the role to make ''Manpower'' with director Raoul Walsh, with whom he had worked on ''The Bowery'' in 1933.Huston then eagerly accepted Bogart as his Sam Spade.Complementing Bogart were co-stars Sydney Greenstreet, Peter Lorre, Elisha Cook Jr., and Mary Astor as the treacherous female foil.", "Bogart's sharp timing and facial expressions were praised by the cast and director as vital to the film's quick action and rapid-fire dialogue.", "It was a commercial hit, and a major triumph for Huston.", "Bogart was unusually happy with the film: \"It is practically a masterpiece.", "I don't have many things I'm proud of ... but that's one\".=== ''Casablanca'' ===With Ingrid Bergman in ''Casablanca'' (1942), which earned Bogart the first of three Oscar nominationsBogart played his first romantic lead in ''Casablanca'' (1942): Rick Blaine, an expatriate nightclub owner hiding from a suspicious past and negotiating a fine line among Nazis, the French underground, the Vichy prefect and unresolved feelings for his ex-girlfriend.", "Bosley Crowther wrote in his November 1942 ''New York Times'' review that Bogart's character was used \"to inject a cold point of tough resistance to evil forces afoot in Europe today\".", "The film, directed by Michael Curtiz and produced by Hal Wallis, featured Ingrid Bergman, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, Conrad Veidt, Peter Lorre and Dooley Wilson.Bogart and Bergman's on-screen relationship was based on professionalism rather than actual rapport, although Mayo Methot assumed otherwise.", "Off the set, the co-stars hardly spoke.", "Bergman (who had a reputation for affairs with her leading men) later said about Bogart, \"I kissed him but I never knew him.\"", "Because she was taller, Bogart had blocks attached to his shoes in some scenes.Bogart is reported to have been responsible for the notion that Rick Blaine should be portrayed as a chess player, a metaphor for the relationships he maintained with friends, enemies, and allies.", "He played tournament-level chess (one division below master) in real life, often enjoying games with crew members and cast but finding his better in Paul Henreid.", "''Casablanca'' won the Academy Award for Best Picture at the 16th Academy Awards for 1943.Bogart was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role, but lost to Paul Lukas for his performance in ''Watch on the Rhine''.", "The film vaulted Bogart from fourth place to first in the studio's roster, however, finally overtaking James Cagney.", "He more than doubled his annual salary to over $460,000 by 1946, making him the world's highest-paid actor.Bogart went on United Service Organizations and War Bond tours with Methot in 1943 and 1944, making arduous trips to Italy and North Africa (including Casablanca).", "He was still required to perform in films with weak scripts, leading to conflicts with the front office.", "He starred in ''Conflict'' (1945, again with Greenstreet), but turned down ''God Is My Co-Pilot'' that year." ], [ "Bogart and Bacall", "=== ''To Have and Have Not'' ===With Lauren Bacall and Marcel Dalio in ''To Have and Have Not'' (1944)Bogart and Bacall in ''The Big Sleep'' (1946)Howard Hawks introduced Bogart and Lauren Bacall while Bogart was filming ''Passage to Marseille'' (1944).", "The three subsequently collaborated on ''To Have and Have Not'' (1944), a loose adaptation of the Ernest Hemingway novel, and Bacall's film debut.", "It has several similarities to ''Casablanca'': the same kind of hero and enemies, and a piano player (portrayed this time by Hoagy Carmichael) as a supporting character.", "When they met, Bacall was 19 and Bogart 44; he nicknamed her \"Baby.\"", "A model since age 16, she had appeared in two failed plays.", "Bogart was attracted by Bacall's high cheekbones, green eyes, tawny blond hair, lean body, maturity, poise and earthy, outspoken honesty; he reportedly said, \"I just saw your test.", "We'll have a lot of fun together\".Their emotional bond was strong from the start, their difference in age and acting-experience encouraged a mentor-student dynamic.", "In contrast to the Hollywood norm, their affair was Bogart's first with a leading lady.", "His early meetings with Bacall were discreet and brief, their separations bridged by love letters.", "The relationship made it easier for Bacall to make her first film, and Bogart did his best to put her at ease with jokes and quiet coaching.", "He encouraged her to steal scenes; Howard Hawks also did his best to highlight her role, and found Bogart easy to direct.However, Hawks began to disapprove of the relationship.", "He considered himself Bacall's protector and mentor, and Bogart was usurping that role.", "Not usually drawn to his starlets, the married director also fell for Bacall; he told her that she meant nothing to Bogart and threatened to send her to the poverty-row studio Monogram Pictures.", "Bogart calmed her down, and then went after Hawks; Jack Warner settled the dispute, and filming resumed.", "Hawks said about Bacall, \"Bogie fell in love with the character she played, so she had to keep playing it the rest of her life.", "\"=== ''The Big Sleep'' ===Months after wrapping ''To Have and Have Not'', Bogart and Bacall were reunited for an encore: the film noir ''The Big Sleep'' (1946), based on the novel by Raymond Chandler with script help from William Faulkner.", "Chandler admired the actor's performance: \"Bogart can be tough without a gun.", "Also, he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt.\"", "Although the film was completed and scheduled for release in 1945, it was withdrawn and re-edited to add scenes exploiting Bogart and Bacall's box-office chemistry in ''To Have and Have Not'' and the publicity surrounding their offscreen relationship.", "At the insistence of director Howard Hawks, production partner Charles K. Feldman agreed to a rewrite of Bacall's scenes to heighten the \"insolent\" quality which had intrigued critics such as James Agee and audiences of the earlier film, and a memo was sent to studio head Jack Warner.The dialogue, especially in the added scenes supplied by Hawks, was full of sexual innuendo.", "The film was successful, although some critics found its plot confusing and overly complicated.", "According to Chandler, Hawks and Bogart argued about who killed the chauffeur; when Chandler received an inquiry by telegram, he could not provide an answer.Bogart and Bacall's wedding in 1945=== Marriage to Bacall ===Bogart filed for divorce from Methot in February 1945.He and Bacall married in a small ceremony at the country home of Bogart's close friend, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Louis Bromfield, at Malabar Farm (near Lucas, Ohio) on May 21, 1945.They moved into a $160,000 ($ in ) white brick mansion in an exclusive neighborhood of Los Angeles' Holmby Hills.", "At the time of the 1950 United States census, the couple was living at 2707 Benedict Canyon Drive in Beverly Hills with their son and nursemaid.", "Bacall is listed as Betty Bogart.", "The marriage was a mostly happy one but not without its troubles.", "Bogart's drinking was sometimes problematic and he initially wasn't happy about having his first child.", "He was a homebody, and Bacall liked the nightlife; he loved the sea, which made her seasick.", "Bogart and Bacall both had affairs but they never stopped loving each other, a fact Bacall mentions throughout her memoir ''By Myself''.", "In a 1997 ''Parade'' magazine cover story, she told reporter Dotson Rader that Bogart said \"'If you want a career more than anything, I will do everything I can to help you, and I will send you on your way, but I will not marry you.", "I've been through it, and I know it doesn't work.'", "He was right.", "He loved me and wanted me with him.", "I made the deal, and I stuck to it, and I'm damn glad that I did.", "\"Bogart bought the ''Santana'', a sailing yacht, from actor Dick Powell in 1945.He found the sea a sanctuary and spent about thirty weekends a year on the water, with a particular fondness for sailing around Catalina Island: \"An actor needs something to stabilize his personality, something to nail down what he really is, not what he is currently pretending to be.\"", "Bogart joined the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve (a forerunner of the modern Coast Guard Auxiliary), offering the Coast Guard use of the ''Santana''.", "He reportedly attempted to enlist, but was turned down due to his age.=== ''Dark Passage'' and ''Key Largo'' ===In ''Dark Passage'' (1947)The suspenseful ''Dark Passage'' (1947) was Bogart and Bacall's next collaboration.", "Vincent Parry (Bogart) is intent on finding the real murderer for a crime of which he was convicted and sentenced to prison.", "According to Bogart's biographer, Stefan Kanfer, it was \"a production line film noir with no particular distinction\".Bogart and Bacall's last pairing in a film was in ''Key Largo'' (1948).", "Directed by John Huston, Edward G. Robinson was billed second (behind Bogart) as gangster Johnny Rocco: a seething, older synthesis of many of his early bad-guy roles.", "The billing question was hard-fought and at the end of at least one of the trailers, Robinson is listed above Bogart in a list of the actors' names in the last frame; and in the film itself, Robinson's name, appearing between Bogart's and Bacall's, is pictured slightly higher onscreen than the other two.", "Robinson had top billing over Bogart in their four previous films together: ''Bullets or Ballots'' (1936), ''Kid Galahad'' (1937), ''The Amazing Dr. Clitterhouse'' (1938) and ''Brother Orchid'' (1940).", "In some posters for ''Key Largo'', Robinson's picture is substantially larger than Bogart's, and in the foreground manhandling Bacall while Bogart is in the background.", "The characters are trapped during a hurricane in a hotel owned by Bacall's father-in-law, portrayed by Lionel Barrymore.", "Claire Trevor won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance as Rocco's physically abused, alcoholic girlfriend." ], [ "Later career", "=== ''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'' ===''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'' (1948)Riding high in 1947 with a new contract which provided limited script refusal and the right to form his own production company, Bogart rejoined with John Huston for ''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'': a stark tale of greed among three gold prospectors in Mexico.", "Lacking a love interest or a happy ending, it was considered a risky project.", "Bogart later said about co-star (and John Huston's father) Walter Huston, \"He's probably the only performer in Hollywood to whom I'd gladly lose a scene.", "\"The film was shot in the heat of summer for greater realism and atmosphere and was grueling to make.", "James Agee wrote, \"Bogart does a wonderful job with this character ... miles ahead of the very good work he has done before.\"", "Although John Huston won the Academy Award for Best Director and screenplay and his father won the Best Supporting Actor award, the film had mediocre box-office results.", "Bogart complained, \"An intelligent script, beautifully directed—something different—and the public turned a cold shoulder on it.", "\"=== House Un-American Activities Committee ===Bogart, a liberal Democrat, organized the Committee for the First Amendment (a delegation to Washington, D.C.) opposing what he saw as the House Un-American Activities Committee's harassment of Hollywood screenwriters and actors.", "He later wrote an article, \"I'm No Communist\", for the March 1948 issue of ''Photoplay'' magazine distancing himself from the Hollywood Ten to counter negative publicity resulting from his appearance.", "Bogart wrote, \"The ten men cited for contempt by the House Un-American Activities Committee were not defended by us.", "\"=== Santana Productions ===Bogart created his film company, Santana Productions (named after his yacht and the cabin cruiser in ''Key Largo''), in 1948.The right to create his own company had left Jack Warner furious, fearful that other stars would do the same and further erode the major studios' power.", "In addition to pressure from freelancing actors such as Bogart, James Stewart, and Henry Fonda, they were beginning to buckle from the impact of television and the enforcement of antitrust laws which broke up theater chains.", "Bogart appeared in his final films for Warners, ''Chain Lightning'' (1950) and ''The Enforcer'' (1951).With Gloria Grahame in ''In A Lonely Place'' (1950)Except for ''Beat the Devil'' (1953), originally distributed in the United States by United Artists, the company released its films through Columbia Pictures; Columbia re-released ''Beat the Devil'' a decade later.", "In quick succession, Bogart starred in ''Knock on Any Door'' (1949), ''Tokyo Joe'' (1949), ''In a Lonely Place'' (1950), and ''Sirocco'' (1951).", "Santana also made two films without him: ''And Baby Makes Three'' (1949) and ''The Family Secret'' (1951).Although most lost money at the box office (ultimately forcing Santana's sale), at least two retain a reputation; ''In a Lonely Place'' is considered a film-noir high point.", "Bogart plays Dixon Steele, an embittered writer with a violent reputation who is the primary suspect in the murder of a young woman and falls in love with failed actress Laurel Gray (Gloria Grahame).", "Several Bogart biographers, and actress-writer Louise Brooks, have felt that this role is closest to the real Bogart.", "According to Brooks, the film \"gave him a role that he could play with complexity, because the film character's pride in his art, his selfishness, drunkenness, lack of energy stabbed with lightning strokes of violence were shared by the real Bogart\".", "The character mimics some of Bogart's personal habits, twice ordering the actor's favorite meal (ham and eggs).A parody of sorts of ''The Maltese Falcon'', ''Beat the Devil'' was the final film for Bogart and John Huston.", "Co-written by Truman Capote, the eccentrically filmed story follows an amoral group of rogues, one of whom was portrayed by Peter Lorre, chasing an unattainable treasure.", "Bogart sold his interest in Santana to Columbia for over $1 million in 1955.=== ''The African Queen'' ===Hepburn and Bogart in ''The African Queen'' (1951)Outside Santana Productions, Bogart starred with Katharine Hepburn in the John Huston-directed ''The African Queen'' in 1951.The C. S. Forester novel on which it was based was overlooked and left undeveloped for 15 years until producer Sam Spiegel and Huston bought the rights.", "Spiegel sent Katharine Hepburn the book; she suggested Bogart for the male lead, believing that \"he was the only man who could have played that part\".", "Huston's love of adventure, his deep, longstanding friendship (and success) with Bogart, and the chance to work with Hepburn convinced the actor to leave Hollywood for a difficult shoot on location in the Belgian Congo.", "Bogart was to get 30 percent of the profits and Hepburn 10 percent, plus a relatively small salary for both.", "The stars met in London and announced that they would work together.Bacall came for the over-four-month duration, leaving their young son in Los Angeles.", "The Bogarts began the trip with a junket through Europe, including a visit with Pope Pius XII.", "Bacall later made herself useful as a cook, nurse and clothes washer; her husband said: \"I don't know what we'd have done without her.", "She Luxed my undies in darkest Africa.\"", "Nearly everyone in the cast developed dysentery except Bogart and Huston, who subsisted on canned food and alcohol; Bogart said, \"All I ate was baked beans, canned asparagus and Scotch whisky.", "Whenever a fly bit Huston or me, it dropped dead.\"", "Hepburn (a teetotaler) fared worse in the difficult conditions, losing weight and at one point becoming very ill. Bogart resisted Huston's insistence on using real leeches in a key scene where Charlie has to drag his steam launch through an infested marsh, and reasonable fakes were employed.", "The crew overcame illness, army-ant infestations, leaky boats, poor food, attacking hippos, poor water filters, extreme heat, isolation, and a boat fire to complete the film.", "Despite the discomfort of jumping from the boat into swamps, rivers and marshes, ''The African Queen'' apparently rekindled Bogart's early love of boats; when he returned to California, he bought a classic mahogany Hacker-Craft runabout which he kept until his death.His performance as cantankerous skipper Charlie Allnut earned Bogart an Academy Award for Best Actor in 1951 (his only award of three nominations), and he considered it the best of his film career.", "Promising friends that if he won his speech would break the convention of thanking everyone in sight, Bogart advised Claire Trevor when she was nominated for ''Key Largo'' to \"just say you did it all yourself and don't thank anyone\".", "When Bogart won, however, he said: \"It's a long way from the Belgian Congo to the stage of this theatre.", "It's nicer to be here.", "Thank you very much ... No one does it alone.", "As in tennis, you need a good opponent or partner to bring out the best in you.", "John and Katie helped me to be where I am now.\"", "Despite the award and its accompanying recognition, Bogart later said: \"The way to survive an Oscar is never to try to win another one ... too many stars ... win it and then figure they have to top themselves ... they become afraid to take chances.", "The result: A lot of dull performances in dull pictures.\"", "''The African Queen'' was Bogart's first starring Technicolor role.=== ''The Caine Mutiny'' ===In ''The Caine Mutiny'' trailer with Fred MacMurray, Robert Francis and Van JohnsonBogart dropped his asking price to obtain the role of Captain Queeg in Edward Dmytryk's drama, ''The Caine Mutiny'' (1954).", "Though he retained some of his old bitterness about having to do so, he delivered a strong performance in the lead; he received his final Oscar nomination and was the subject of a June 7, 1954, ''Time'' magazine cover story.Despite his success, Bogart was still melancholy; he grumbled to (and feuded with) the studio, while his health began to deteriorate.", "Like his portrayal of Fred C. Dobbs in ''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'', Bogart's Queeg is a paranoid, self-pitying character whose small-mindedness eventually destroys him.", "Henry Fonda played a different role in the Broadway version of ''The Caine Mutiny'', generating publicity for the film.=== Final roles ===With Audrey Hepburn in ''Sabrina'' trailerFor ''Sabrina'' (1954), Billy Wilder wanted Cary Grant for the older male lead and chose Bogart to play the conservative brother who competes with his younger, playboy sibling (William Holden) for the affection of the Cinderella-like Sabrina (Audrey Hepburn).", "Although Bogart was lukewarm about the part, he agreed to it on a handshake with Wilder without a finished script but with the director's assurance that he would take good care of Bogart during filming.", "The actor, however, got along poorly with his director and co-stars; he complained about the script's last-minute drafting and delivery, and accused Wilder of favoring Hepburn and Holden on and off the set.", "Wilder was the opposite of Bogart's ideal director (John Huston) in style and personality; Bogart complained to the press that Wilder was \"overbearing\" and \"is a kind of Prussian German with a riding crop.", "He is the type of director I don't like to work with ... the picture is a crock of crap.", "I got sick and tired of who gets Sabrina.\"", "Wilder later said, \"We parted as enemies but finally made up.\"", "Despite the acrimony, the film was successful; according to a review in ''The New York Times'', Bogart was \"incredibly adroit ... the skill with which this old rock-ribbed actor blends the gags and such duplicities with a manly manner of melting is one of the incalculable joys of the show\".Joseph L. Mankiewicz's ''The Barefoot Contessa'' (1954) was filmed in Rome.", "In this Hollywood backstory, Bogart is a broken-down man, a cynical director-narrator who saves his career by making a star of a flamenco dancer modeled on Rita Hayworth.", "He was uneasy with Ava Gardner in the female lead; she had just broken up with his Rat Pack buddy Frank Sinatra, and Bogart was annoyed by her inexperienced performance.", "The actor was generally praised as the film's strongest part.", "During filming and while Bacall was home, Bogart resumed his discreet affair with Verita Bouvaire-Thompson (his long-time studio assistant, whom he drank with and took sailing).", "When Bacall found them together, she extracted an expensive shopping spree from her husband; the three traveled together after the shooting.Bogart could be generous with actors, particularly those who were blacklisted, down on their luck or having personal problems.", "During the filming of the Edward Dmytryk-directed ''The Left Hand of God'' (1955), he noticed his co-star Gene Tierney having a hard time remembering her lines and behaving oddly; he coached her, feeding Tierney her lines.", "Familiar with mental illness because of his sister's bouts of depression, Bogart encouraged Tierney to seek treatment.", "He also stood behind Joan Bennett and insisted on her as his co-star in Michael Curtiz's ''We're No Angels'' (1955) when a scandal made her ''persona non grata'' with studio head Jack Warner.Bogart had already been diagnosed with terminal cancer when shooting ''The Harder They Fall'', a boxing drama with Rod Steiger in a supporting role.", "Steiger later mentioned Bogart's courage and geniality during his final performance:\"Bogey and I got on very well.", "Unlike some other stars, when they had closeups, you might have been relegated to a two-shot, or cut out altogether.", "Bogey didn't play those games.", "He was a professional and had tremendous authority.", "He'd come in exactly at 9am and leave at precisely 6pm.", "I remember once walking to lunch in between takes and seeing Bogey on the lot.", "I shouldn't have because his work was finished for the day.", "I asked him why he was still on the lot, and he said, 'They want to shoot some retakes of my closeups because my eyes are too watery'.", "A little while later, after the film, somebody came up to me with word of Bogey's death.", "Then it struck me.", "His eyes were watery because he was in pain with the cancer.", "I thought: 'How dumb can you be, Rodney'!", "\"=== Television and radio ===With Bacall and Henry Fonda in the televised version of ''The Petrified Forest'', 1955Bogart rarely performed on television, but he and Bacall appeared on Edward R. Murrow's ''Person to Person'' and disagreed on the answer to every question.", "He also appeared on ''The Jack Benny Program'', where a surviving kinescope of the live telecast captures him in his only TV sketch-comedy performance (October 25, 1953).Bogart and Bacall worked on an early color telecast in 1955, an NBC adaptation of \"The Petrified Forest\" for ''Producers' Showcase''.", "Bogart received top billing, Henry Fonda played Leslie Howard's role and Bacall played Bette Davis's part.", "Jack Klugman, Richard Jaeckel, and Jack Warden played supporting roles.", "In the late 1990s, Bacall donated the only known kinescope of the 1955 performance (in black and white) to the Museum of Television & Radio (now the Paley Center for Media), where it remains archived for viewing in New York City and Los Angeles.", "It is now in the public domain.Bogart also performed radio adaptations of some of his best-known films, such as ''Casablanca'' and ''The Maltese Falcon'', and recorded a radio series entitled ''Bold Venture'' with Bacall." ], [ "Personal life", "=== Children ===Bogart became a father at age 49, when Bacall gave birth to their son Stephen Humphrey Bogart on January 6, 1949, during the filming of ''Tokyo Joe''.", "The name was taken from Steve, Bogart's character's nickname in ''To Have and Have Not''.", "Stephen became an author and biographer and hosted a television special about his father on Turner Classic Movies.", "The couple's second child and daughter, Leslie Howard Bogart, was born on August 23, 1952.Her first and middle names honor Leslie Howard, Bogart's friend and co-star in ''The Petrified Forest''.=== Rat Pack ===Bogart was a founding member and the original leader of the Hollywood Rat Pack.", "In the spring of 1955, after a long party in Las Vegas attended by Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland and her husband Sidney Luft, Michael Romanoff and his wife Gloria, David Niven, Angie Dickinson and others, Bacall surveyed the wreckage and said: \"You look like a goddamn rat pack.", "\"The name stuck and was made official at Romanoff's in Beverly Hills.", "Sinatra was dubbed pack president; Bacall den mother; Bogart director of public relations, and Sid Luft acting cage manager.", "Asked by columnist Earl Wilson what the group's purpose was, Bacall replied: \"To drink a lot of bourbon and stay up late.", "\"=== Illness and death ===Bogart's niche in the Columbarium of Eternal Light, Garden of Memory of Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, CaliforniaAfter signing a long-term deal with Warner Bros., Bogart predicted with glee that his teeth and hair would fall out before the contract ended.", "By 1955, however, his health was failing.", "In the wake of Santana, Bogart had formed a new company and had plans for a film (''Melville Goodwin, U.S.A.'') in which he would play a general and Bacall a press magnate.", "His persistent cough and difficulty eating became too serious to ignore, though, and he dropped the project.A heavy smoker and drinker, Bogart had developed esophageal cancer.", "He did not talk about his health and visited a doctor in late January 1956 after considerable persuasion from Bacall.", "The disease worsened and several weeks later, on March 1, Bogart had surgery to remove his esophagus, two lymph nodes and a rib.", "The surgery was unsuccessful, and chemotherapy followed.", "He had additional surgery in November 1956, when the cancer had metastasized.", "Although he became too weak to walk up and down stairs, he joked despite the pain: \"Put me in the dumbwaiter and I'll ride down to the first floor in style.\"", "It was then altered to accommodate his wheelchair.", "Frank Sinatra, Katharine Hepburn, and Spencer Tracy visited him on January 13, 1957.In an interview, Hepburn said:Bogart lapsed into a coma and died the following day; at the time of his death, he weighed only .", "A simple funeral was held at All Saints Episcopal Church, with music by Bogart's favorite composers: Johann Sebastian Bach and Claude Debussy.", "In attendance were many of Hollywood's biggest stars and most powerful people: Don Ameche, Jean Arthur, Mary Astor, Jack Benny, Ingrid Bergman, Joan Blondell, Walter Brennan, James Cagney, Cyd Charisse, Lee J. Cobb, Harry Cohn, Ronald Colman, Gary Cooper, Joan Crawford, Bing Crosby, Michael Curtiz, Bette Davis, Olivia de Havilland, Marlene Dietrich, José Ferrer, Errol Flynn, Henry Fonda, Joan Fontaine, Judy Garland, Greer Garson, Audrey Hepburn, Katharine Hepburn, Bob Hope, Miriam Hopkins, Lena Horne, John Huston, Jennifer Jones, Danny Kaye, Gene Kelly, Veronica Lake, Charles Laughton, Myrna Loy, Ida Lupino, Fredric March, James Mason, Raymond Massey, Joel McCrea, Adolphe Menjou, Marilyn Monroe, David Niven, Laurence Olivier, Louella Parsons, Gregory Peck, Mary Pickford, George Raft, Claude Rains, Ronald Reagan, Edward G. Robinson, Rosalind Russell, Randolph Scott, David O. Selznick, Norma Shearer, Barbara Stanwyck, James Stewart, Robert Taylor, Gene Tierney, Spencer Tracy, Lana Turner, Jack L. Warner, John Wayne, Billy Wilder, William Wyler, Jane Wyman, and others.", "Bacall asked Tracy to give the eulogy; he was too upset, however, and John Huston spoke instead:Bogart was cremated, and his ashes were interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park's Columbarium of Eternal Light in its Garden of Memory in Glendale, California.", "He was buried with a small, gold whistle that had been part of a charm bracelet he had given to Bacall before they married.", "On it was inscribed, \"If you want anything, just whistle.\"", "This alluded to a scene in ''To Have and Have Not'' when Bacall's character says to Bogart shortly after their first meeting, \"You know how to whistle, don't you, Steve?", "You just put your lips together and blow.", "\"Bogart's estate had a gross value of $910,146 and a net value of $737,668 ($ million and $ million, respectively, in )." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Bogart's star on the Walk of Fame, at 6322 Hollywood BoulevardOn August 21, 1946, he recorded his hand- and footprints in cement in a ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre.", "On February 8, 1960, Bogart was posthumously inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame with a motion-picture star at 6322 Hollywood Boulevard.+ Academy AwardsYearAwardFilmResult 1943Best Actor''Casablanca'' 1951''The African Queen'' 1954''The Caine Mutiny''" ], [ "Legacy and tributes", "2015 street art of Bogart and Bacall in SpainAfter his death, a \"Bogie cult\" formed at the Brattle Theatre in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in Greenwich Village, and in France; this contributed to his increased popularity during the late 1950s and 1960s.", "In 1997, ''Entertainment Weekly'' magazine ranked Bogart the number-one movie legend of all time; two years later, the American Film Institute rated him the greatest male screen legend.Jean-Luc Godard's ''Breathless'' (1960) was the first film to pay tribute to Bogart.", "Over a decade later, in Woody Allen's comic paean ''Play It Again, Sam'' (1972), Bogart's ghost aids Allen's character: a film critic having difficulties with women who says that his \"sex life has turned into the 'Petrified Forest.The United States Postal Service honored Bogart with a stamp in its \"Legends of Hollywood\" series in 1997, the third figure recognized.", "At a ceremony attended by Lauren Bacall and the Bogart children, Stephen and Leslie, USPS governing-board chair Tirso del Junco delivered a tribute:\"Today, we mark another chapter in the Bogart legacy.", "With an image that is small and yet as powerful as the ones he left in celluloid, we will begin today to bring his artistry, his power, his unique star quality, to the messages that travel the world.", "\"On June 24, 2006, 103rd Street between Broadway and West End Avenue in New York City was renamed Humphrey Bogart Place.", "Lauren Bacall and her son, Stephen Bogart, attended the ceremony.", "\"Bogie would never have believed it\", she said to the assembled city officials and onlookers.=== In popular culture ===Bogart has inspired multiple artists.", "* Two Bugs Bunny cartoons featured the actor: ''Slick Hare'' (1947) and ''8 Ball Bunny'' (1950, based on ''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'').", "* ''The Man with Bogart's Face'' (1981, starring Bogart lookalike Robert Sacchi) was an homage to the actor.", "* The lyrics of Bertie Higgins' 1981 song \"Key Largo\" refer to two of Bogart's films, ''Key Largo'' and ''Casablanca''.", "* Al Stewart's 1976 song \"Year of the Cat\" was influenced by ''Casablanca'' and begins with the line \"In a morning from a Bogart movie, in a country where they turn back time...\"* In 2023, notable artist William Kentridge included a drawing of Bogart in his solo museum exhibition at The Broad in Los Angeles." ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "<span id=\"Radio appearances (notable)\"></span>Notable radio appearances", "Magazine ad in 1954Trailer for ''Dark Victory'', 1939Jennifer Jones, Gina Lollobrigida and Bogart in ''Beat the Devil'' (1953) Date Program Episode April 17, 1939 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''Bullets or Ballots'' 1940 ''The Gulf Screen Guild Theater'' ''The Petrified Forest'' 1941 ''The Gulf Screen Guild Theater'' ''If Only She Could Cook'' 1941 ''The Gulf Screen Guild Theater'' ''The Amazing Dr. Clitterhouse'' 1941 ''The Gulf Screen Guild Theater'' ''If You Could Only Cook''January 4, 1942''The Screen Guild Theater''''High Sierra''1943''The Screen Guild Theater''''Casablanca''September 20, 1943''The Screen Guild Theater''''The Maltese Falcon'' 1944 ''Screen Guild Players'' ''High Sierra'' April 30, 1945 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''Moontide''July 3, 1946''Academy Award Theater''''The Maltese Falcon'' 1946 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''To Have and Have Not'' April 18, 1949 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''Treasure of the Sierra Madre'' 1951–52 ''Bold Venture'' 78-episode series 1952 ''Stars in the Air'' ''The House on 92nd Street'' 1952 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''The African Queen''" ], [ "See also", "* Bogart–Bacall syndrome* List of actors with Academy Award nominations* List of amateur chess players* List of members of the American Legion" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''* Bacall, Lauren.", "''By Myself''.", "New York: Alfred Knopf, 1979..* Bogart, Stephen Humphrey.", "''Bogart: In Search of My Father''.", "New York: Dutton, 1995..* Citro, Joseph A., Mark Sceurman and Mark Moran.", "''Weird New England''.", "New York: Sterling, 2005..* * Halliwell, Leslie.", "''Halliwell's Film, Video and DVD Guide''.", "New York: HarperCollins Entertainment, 2004..* Hepburn, Katharine.", "''The Making of the African Queen''.", "New York: Alfred Knopf, 1987..* Hill, Jonathan and Jonah Ruddy.", "''Bogart: The Man and the Legend''.", "London: Mayflower-Dell, 1966.", "* ''History of the U.S.S.", "Leviathan, Cruiser and Transport Forces, United States Atlantic Fleet'', pp. 207–208.", "* ''Humphrey Bogart.''", "''Time'', June 7, 1954.", "* Hyams, Joe.", "''Bogart and Bacall: A Love Story''.", "New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1975..* Hyams, Joe.", "''Bogie: The Biography of Humphrey Bogart''.", "New York: New American Library, 1966 (later editions renamed as: ''Bogie: The Definitive Biography of Humphrey Bogart'').", ".", "* Kanfer, Stefan.", "''Tough Without A Gun: The Life and Extraordinary Afterlife of Humphrey Bogart.''", "New York: Knopf, 2011..* * Michael, Paul.", "''Humphrey Bogart: The Man and his Films''.", "New York: Bonanza Books, 1965.No ISBN.", "* Porter, Darwin.", "''The Secret Life of Humphrey Bogart: The Early Years (1899–1931)''.", "New York: Georgia Literary Association, 2003..* Pym, John, ed.", "''\"Time Out\" Film Guide''.", "London: Time Out Group Ltd., 2004..* Santas, Constantine, ''The Essential Humphrey Bogart.''", "Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016..* Shickel, Richard.", "''Bogie: A Celebration of the Life and Films of Humphrey Bogart.''", "New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St.", "Martin's Press, 2006..* Sperber, A. M. and Eric Lax.", "''Bogart''.", "New York: William Morrow & Co., 1997..* Tierney, Gene with Mickey Herskowitz.", "''Self-Portrait''.", "New York: Peter Wyden, 1979..* Wallechinsky, David and Amy Wallace.", "''The New Book of Lists''.", "Edinburgh, Scotland: Canongate, 2005..* Wise, James.", "''Stars in Blue: Movie Actors in America's Sea Services''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1997.. * Youngkin, Stephen D. ''The Lost One: A Life of Peter Lorre''.", "Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2005, ." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Humphrey Bogart at Turner Classic Movies" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History painting" ], [ "Introduction", "Diana and Actaeon'', Titian, 1556–1559, a classic history painting, showing a dramatic moment in a mythological story, with elements of figure painting, landscape painting and still-life.", "''Judas Returning the Thirty Silver Pieces'' by Rembrandt, 1629.", "'''History painting''' is a genre in painting defined by its subject matter rather than any artistic style or specific period.", "History paintings depict a moment in a narrative story, most often (but not exclusively) Greek and Roman mythology and Bible stories, opposed to a specific and static subject, as in portrait, still life, and landscape painting.", "The term is derived from the wider senses of the word ''historia'' in Latin and ''histoire'' in French, meaning \"story\" or \"narrative\", and essentially means \"story painting\".", "Most history paintings are not of scenes from history, especially paintings from before about 1850.In modern English, \"historical painting\" is sometimes used to describe the painting of scenes from history in its narrower sense, especially for 19th-century art, excluding religious, mythological, and allegorical subjects, which are included in the broader term \"history painting\", and before the 19th century were the most common subjects for history paintings.History paintings almost always contain a number of figures, often a large number, and normally show some typical states on that is a moment in a narrative.", "The genre includes depictions of moments in religious narratives, above all the ''Life of Christ'', Middle eastern culture as well as narrative scenes from mythology, and also allegorical scenes.", "These groups were for long the most frequently painted; works such as Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling are therefore history paintings, as are most very large paintings before the 19th century.", "The term covers large paintings in oil on canvas or fresco produced between the Renaissance and the late 19th century, after which the term is generally not used even for the many works that still meet the basic definition.History painting may be used interchangeably with '''historical painting''', and was especially so used before the 20th century.", "Where a distinction is made, \"historical painting\" is the painting of scenes from secular history, whether specific episodes or generalized scenes.", "In the 19th century, historical painting in this sense became a distinct genre.", "In phrases such as \"historical painting materials\", \"historical\" means in use before about 1900, or some earlier date." ], [ "Prestige", "Jacques-Louis David's ''Oath of the Horatii'', 1786, with a scene from ancient history.History paintings were traditionally regarded as the highest form of Western painting, occupying the most prestigious place in the hierarchy of genres, and considered the equivalent to the epic in literature.", "In his ''De Pictura'' of 1436, Leon Battista Alberti had argued that multi-figure history painting was the noblest form of art, as being the most difficult, which required mastery of all the others, because it was a visual form of history, and because it had the greatest potential to move the viewer.", "He placed emphasis on the ability to depict the interactions between the figures by gesture and expression.This view remained general until the 19th century, when artistic movements began to struggle against the establishment institutions of academic art, which continued to adhere to it.", "At the same time, there was from the latter part of the 18th century an increased interest in depicting in the form of history painting moments of drama from recent or contemporary history, which had long largely been confined to battle-scenes and scenes of formal surrenders and the like.", "Scenes from ancient history had been popular in the early Renaissance, and once again became common in the Baroque and Rococo periods, and still more so with the rise of Neoclassicism.", "In some 19th or 20th century contexts, the term may refer specifically to paintings of scenes from secular history, rather than those from religious narratives, literature or mythology." ], [ "Development", "''The Meeting of Leo the Great and Attila'' by Raphael and his workshop, 1513–14The term is generally not used in art history in speaking of medieval painting, although the Western tradition was developing in large altarpieces, fresco cycles, and other works, as well as miniatures in illuminated manuscripts.", "It comes to the fore in Italian Renaissance painting, where a series of increasingly ambitious works were produced, many still religious, but several, especially in Florence, which did actually feature near-contemporary historical scenes such as the set of three huge canvases on ''The Battle of San Romano'' by Paolo Uccello, the abortive ''Battle of Cascina'' by Michelangelo and the ''Battle of Anghiari'' by Leonardo da Vinci, neither of which were completed.", "Scenes from ancient history and mythology were also popular.", "Writers such as Alberti and the following century Giorgio Vasari in his ''Lives of the Artists'', followed public and artistic opinion in judging the best painters above all on their production of large works of history painting (though in fact the only modern (post-classical) work described in ''De Pictura'' is Giotto's huge ''Navicella'' in mosaic).", "Artists continued for centuries to strive to make their reputation by producing such works, often neglecting genres to which their talents were better suited.", "''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time'', Agnolo Bronzino, .", "According to André Félibien allegory was the highest form of all history painting.There was some objection to the term, as many writers preferred terms such as \"poetic painting\" (''poesia''), or wanted to make a distinction between the \"true\" ''istoria'', covering history including biblical and religious scenes, and the ''fabula'', covering pagan myth, allegory, and scenes from fiction, which could not be regarded as true.", "The large works of Raphael were long considered, with those of Michelangelo, as the finest models for the genre.In the Raphael Rooms in the Vatican Palace, allegories and historical scenes are mixed together, and the Raphael Cartoons show scenes from the Gospels, all in the Grand Manner that from the High Renaissance became associated with, and often expected in, history painting.", "In the Late Renaissance and Baroque the painting of actual history tended to degenerate into panoramic battle-scenes with the victorious monarch or general perched on a horse accompanied with his retinue, or formal scenes of ceremonies, although some artists managed to make a masterpiece from such unpromising material, as Velázquez did with his ''The Surrender of Breda''.An influential formulation of the hierarchy of genres, confirming the history painting at the top, was made in 1667 by André Félibien, a historiographer, architect and theoretician of French classicism became the classic statement of the theory for the 18th century:Celui qui fait parfaitement des païsages est au-dessus d'un autre qui ne fait que des fruits, des fleurs ou des coquilles.", "Celui qui peint des animaux vivants est plus estimable que ceux qui ne représentent que des choses mortes & sans mouvement; & comme la figure de l'homme est le plus parfait ouvrage de Dieu sur la Terre, il est certain aussi que celui qui se rend l'imitateur de Dieu en peignant des figures humaines, est beaucoup plus excellent que tous les autres ... un Peintre qui ne fait que des portraits, n'a pas encore cette haute perfection de l'Art, & ne peut prétendre à l'honneur que reçoivent les plus sçavans.", "Il faut pour cela passer d'une seule figure à la représentation de plusieurs ensemble; il faut traiter l'histoire & la fable; il faut représenter de grandes actions comme les historiens, ou des sujets agréables comme les Poëtes; & montant encore plus haut, il faut par des compositions allégoriques, sçavoir couvrir sous le voile de la fable les vertus des grands hommes, & les mystères les plus relevez.He who produces perfect landscapes is above another who only produces fruit, flowers or seashells.", "He who paints living animals is more than those who only represent dead things without movement, and as man is the most perfect work of God on the earth, it is also certain that he who becomes an imitator of God in representing human figures, is much more excellent than all the others ... a painter who only does portraits still does not have the highest perfection of his art, and cannot expect the honour due to the most skilled.", "For that he must pass from representing a single figure to several together; history and myth must be depicted; great events must be represented as by historians, or like the poets, subjects that will please, and climbing still higher, he must have the skill to cover under the veil of myth the virtues of great men in allegories, and the mysteries they reveal\".By the late 18th century, with both religious and mytholological painting in decline, there was an increased demand for paintings of scenes from history, including contemporary history.", "This was in part driven by the changing audience for ambitious paintings, which now increasingly made their reputation in public exhibitions rather than by impressing the owners of and visitors to palaces and public buildings.", "Classical history remained popular, but scenes from national histories were often the best-received.", "From 1760 onwards, the Society of Artists of Great Britain, the first body to organize regular exhibitions in London, awarded two generous prizes each year to paintings of subjects from British history.", "Benjamin West, ''The Death of General Wolfe'' (1770), an early example of the vogue for painting scenes from recent history.The unheroic nature of modern dress was regarded as a serious difficulty.", "When, in 1770, Benjamin West proposed to paint ''The Death of General Wolfe'' in contemporary dress, he was firmly instructed to use classical costume by many people.", "He ignored these comments and showed the scene in modern dress.", "Although George III refused to purchase the work, West succeeded both in overcoming his critics' objections and inaugurating a more historically accurate style in such paintings.", "Other artists depicted scenes, regardless of when they occurred, in classical dress and for a long time, especially during the French Revolution, history painting often focused on depictions of the heroic male nude.The large production, using the finest French artists, of propaganda paintings glorifying the exploits of Napoleon, were matched by works, showing both victories and losses, from the anti-Napoleonic alliance by artists such as Goya and J. M. W. Turner.", "Théodore Géricault's ''The Raft of the Medusa'' (1818–1819) was a sensation, appearing to update the history painting for the 19th century, and showing anonymous figures famous only for being victims of what was then a famous and controversial disaster at sea.", "Conveniently their clothes had been worn away to classical-seeming rags by the point the painting depicts.", "At the same time the demand for traditional large religious history paintings very largely fell away.Sir David Wilkie, ''The Chelsea Pensioners reading the Waterloo Dispatch'', 1822.Genre or history painting?", "The types have merged, in a way typical of the 19th century.In the mid-nineteenth century there arose a style known as historicism, which marked a formal imitation of historical styles and/or artists.", "Another development in the nineteenth century was the treatment of historical subjects, often on a large scale, with the values of genre painting, the depiction of scenes of everyday life, and anecdote.", "Grand depictions of events of great public importance were supplemented with scenes depicting more personal incidents in the lives of the great, or of scenes centred on unnamed figures involved in historical events, as in the Troubadour style.", "At the same time scenes of ordinary life with moral, political or satirical content became often the main vehicle for expressive interplay between figures in painting, whether given a modern or historical setting.By the later 19th century, history painting was often explicitly rejected by avant-garde movements such as the Impressionists (except for Édouard Manet) and the Symbolists, and according to one recent writer \"Modernism was to a considerable extent built upon the rejection of History Painting... All other genres are deemed capable of entering, in one form or another, the 'pantheon' of modernity considered, but History Painting is excluded\"." ], [ "History painting and historical painting", "\"No.", "1, Misfortune\" from Augustus Egg's ''Past and Present'', 1858.The husband has discovered his wife's infidelity.", "''Prayer'' and ''Despair'' complete the set.===The terms===Initially, \"history painting\" and \"historical painting\" were used interchangeably in English, as when Sir Joshua Reynolds in his fourth ''Discourse'' uses both indiscriminately to cover \"history painting\", while saying \"...it ought to be called poetical, as in reality it is\", reflecting the French term ''peinture historique'', one equivalent of \"history painting\".", "The terms began to separate in the 19th century, with \"historical painting\" becoming a sub-group of \"history painting\" restricted to subjects taken from history in its normal sense.", "In 1853 John Ruskin asked his audience: \"What do you at present ''mean'' by historical painting?", "Now-a-days it means the endeavour, by the power of imagination, to portray some historical event of past days.\"", "So for example Harold Wethey's three-volume catalogue of the paintings of Titian (Phaidon, 1969–75) is divided between \"Religious Paintings\", \"Portraits\", and \"Mythological and Historical Paintings\", though both volumes I and III cover what is included in the term \"History Paintings\".", "This distinction is useful but is by no means generally observed, and the terms are still often used in a confusing manner.", "Because of the potential for confusion modern academic writing tends to avoid the phrase \"historical painting\", talking instead of \"historical subject matter\" in history painting, but where the phrase is still used in contemporary scholarship it will normally mean the painting of subjects from history, very often in the 19th century.", "\"Historical painting\" may also be used, especially in discussion of painting techniques in conservation studies, to mean \"old\", as opposed to modern or recent painting.In 19th-century British writing on art the terms \"'''subject painting'''\" or \"anecdotic\" painting were often used for works in a line of development going back to William Hogarth of monoscenic depictions of crucial moments in an implied narrative with unidentified characters, such as William Holman Hunt's 1853 painting ''The Awakening Conscience'' or Augustus Egg's ''Past and Present'', a set of three paintings, updating sets by Hogarth such as ''Marriage à-la-mode''.===19th century===Richard Parkes Bonington, ''Henri III of France'', 1827–28, a small \"Intimate Romantic\" anecdotal scene from historyHistory painting was the dominant form of academic painting in the various national academies in the 18th century, and for most of the 19th, and increasingly historical subjects dominated.", "During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods the heroic treatment of contemporary history in a frankly propagandistic fashion by Antoine-Jean, Baron Gros, Jacques-Louis David, Carle Vernet and others was supported by the French state, but after the fall of Napoleon in 1815 the French governments were not regarded as suitable for heroic treatment and many artists retreated further into the past to find subjects, though in Britain depicting the victories of the Napoleonic Wars mostly occurred after they were over.", "Another path was to choose contemporary subjects that were oppositional to government either at home and abroad, and many of what were arguably the last great generation of history paintings were protests at contemporary episodes of repression or outrages at home or abroad: Goya's ''The Third of May 1808'' (1814), Théodore Géricault's ''The Raft of the Medusa'' (1818–19), Eugène Delacroix's ''The Massacre at Chios'' (1824) and ''Liberty Leading the People'' (1830).", "These were heroic, but showed heroic suffering by ordinary civilians.Paul Delaroche, ''The Execution of Lady Jane Grey'', 1833, National Gallery, LondonJosé Moreno Carbonero, ''Conversion of the Duke of Gandía'', 1881, Museo del Prado, MadridRomantic artists such as Géricault and Delacroix, and those from other movements such as the English Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood continued to regard history painting as the ideal for their most ambitious works.", "Others such as Jan Matejko in Poland, Vasily Surikov in Russia, José Moreno Carbonero in Spain and Paul Delaroche in France became specialized painters of large historical subjects.", "The ''style troubadour'' (\"troubadour style\") was a somewhat derisive French term for earlier paintings of medieval and Renaissance scenes, which were often small and depicting moments of anecdote rather than drama; Ingres, Richard Parkes Bonington and Henri Fradelle painted such works.", "Sir Roy Strong calls this type of work the \"Intimate Romantic\", and in French it was known as the \"peinture de genre historique\" or \"peinture anecdotique\" (\"historical genre painting\" or \"anecdotal painting\").Church commissions for large group scenes from the Bible had greatly reduced, and historical painting became very significant.", "Especially in the early 19th century, much historical painting depicted specific moments from historical literature, with the novels of Sir Walter Scott a particular favourite, in France and other European countries as much as Great Britain.", "By the middle of the century medieval scenes were expected to be very carefully researched, using the work of historians of costume, architecture and all elements of decor that were becoming available.", "And example of this is the extensive research of Byzantine architecture, clothing and decoration made in Parisian museums and libraries by Moreno Carbonero for his masterwork ''The Entry of Roger de Flor in Constantinople''.", "The provision of examples and expertise for artists, as well as revivalist industrial designers, was one of the motivations for the establishment of museums like the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.New techniques of printmaking such as the chromolithograph made good quality reproductions both relatively cheap and very widely accessible, and also hugely profitable for artist and publisher, as the sales were so large.", "Historical painting often had a close relationship with Nationalism, and painters like Matejko in Poland could play an important role in fixing the prevailing historical narrative of national history in the popular mind.", "In France, ''L'art Pompier'' (\"Fireman art\") was a derisory term for official academic historical painting, and in a final phase, \"History painting of a debased sort, scenes of brutality and terror, purporting to illustrate episodes from Roman and Moorish history, were Salon sensations.", "On the overcrowded walls of the exhibition galleries, the paintings that shouted loudest got the attention\".", "Orientalist painting was an alternative genre that offered similar exotic costumes and decor, and at least as much opportunity to depict sex and violence." ], [ "Gallery", "File:San Romano Battle (Paolo Uccello, London) 01.jpg|Paolo Uccello, 1438–1440, ''The Battle of San Romano'', Uffizi, FlorenceFile:CARRACCI, Annibale - An allegory of Truth and Time (1584-5).JPG|Annibale Carracci, ''An Allegory of Truth and Time'' (1584–85), an allegorical history paintingFile:'Allegory of Magnificence' by Eustache LeSueur, Dayton Art Institute.JPG|''Allegory of Magnificence'', Eustache Le Sueur, File:Charles Le Brun - Entry of Alexander into Babylon.JPG|Charles Le Brun, 1664, ''Entry of Alexander into Babylon'', Louvre, ParisFile:Sebastiano Ricci 057b.jpg|Sebastiano Ricci, ''Allegory of France as Minerva Trampling Ignorance and Crowning Virtue'', 1717–18File:David - The Death of Socrates.jpg|Jacques-Louis David, 1787, ''The Death of Socrates'', École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts, ParisFile:Vincenzo Camuccini - La morte di Cesare.jpg|Vincenzo Camuccini, ''Assassination of Julius Caesar'', 1805File:Jacques-Louis David 006.jpg|Jacques-Louis David, ''The Coronation of Napoleon'', File:Peinture Palais de Justice de Toulouse.jpg|''Justice and Divine Vengeance Pursuing Crime'', Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, File:El dos de mayo de 1808 en Madrid.jpg|Francisco de Goya, 1814, ''The Second of May 1808'', Museo del Prado, MadridFile:Delacroix sardanapalus 1828 950px.jpg|Eugène Delacroix, 1827, ''Death of Sardanapalus'', Louvre, ParisFile:Karl Brullov - The Last Day of Pompeii - Google Art Project.jpg|Karl Bryullov, ''The Last Day of Pompeii'', 1827–1833File:Eugène Delacroix - Le 28 Juillet.", "La Liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|Eugène Delacroix, ''Liberty Leading the People'', 1830, Louvre, ParisFile:Patrick Henry Rothermel.jpg|''Patrick Henry Before the Virginia House of Burgesses'', 1851, Red Hill Patrick Henry National Memorial, BrooknealFile:Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze, MMA-NYC, 1851.jpg|Emanuel Leutze, ''Washington Crossing the Delaware'', 1851, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:John Everett Millais - Christ in the House of His Parents (`The Carpenter's Shop') - Google Art Project.jpg|John Everett Millais, ''Christ in the House of His Parents'', 1854–1860, Tate Britain, LondonFile:William Holman Hunt - The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple.jpg|William Holman Hunt, ''The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple'', 1854–1860, Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery, BirminghamFile:Adolph Menzel - Flötenkonzert Friedrichs des Großen in Sanssouci - Google Art Project.jpg|Adolph Menzel, ''Flute concerto of Fredrick the Great'', File:Jan Matejko, Stańczyk.jpg|Jan Matejko, ''Stanczyk'', 1862, Warsaw National Museum, WarsawFile:Stephen Báthory at Pskov by Jan Matejko (1872).png|Jan Matejko, ''Stefan Batory at Pskov'', oil painting, (1872)File:Jan Matejko, Bitwa pod Grunwaldem.jpg|Battle of Grunwald by Jan Matejko, 1878, National Museum in WarsawFile:Wernerprokla.jpg|Anton von Werner, ''Proclamation of the German Empire'', 1885File:Ilja Jefimowitsch Repin 009.jpg|Ilya Repin, ''Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks'', 1880–1891, State Russian Museum, St. PetersburgFile:Surikov streltsi.jpg|Vasily Surikov, ''Morning of Streltsy's Execution'', 1881, Tretyakov Gallery, MoscowFile:Jan Matejko - The Maid of Orleans - MNK II-a-383 - National Museum Kraków.jpg|Jan Matejko, ''The Maid of Orléans'', 1886, National Museum, PoznańFile:Entrada de Roger de Flor en Constantinopla (Palacio del Senado de España).jpg|José Moreno Carbonero, 1888, ''The Entry of Roger de Flor in Constantinople'', Senate Palace, MadridFile:The Welcome by the Mayor of Rotterdam of William IV, Prince of Orange and his Consort Anna of Great Britain, 1734.jpg|Jacob Spoel, 1867, ''The Welcome by the Mayors of Rotterdam of William IV, Prince of Orange and his Consort Anne of Great Britain.''" ], [ "See also", "* Classicism* Genre painting* History of painting* List of Orientalist artists" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Barlow, Paul, \"The Death of History Painting in Nineteenth-Century Art?\"", "PDF, ''Visual Culture in Britain'', Volume 6, Number 1, Summer 2005, pp.", "1–13(13)*Blunt, Anthony, ''Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1660'', 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, * Bull, Malcolm, ''The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods'', Oxford UP, 2005, *Green, David and Seddon, Peter, ''History Painting Reassessed: The Representation of History in Contemporary Art'', 2000, Manchester University Press, , google books*Harding, James.", "''Artistes pompiers: French academic art in the 19th century'', 1979, New York: Rizzoli*Harrison, Charles, ''An Introduction to Art'', 2009, Yale University Press, , google books*Rothenstein, John, ''An Introduction to English Painting'', 2002 (reissue), I.B.Tauris, *Strong, Roy.", "''And when did you last see your father?", "The Victorian Painter and British History'', 1978, Thames and Hudson, *White, Harrison C., ''Canvases and Careers: Institutional Change in the French Painting World'', 1993 (2nd edn), University of Chicago Press, , google books*Wright, Beth Segal, ''Scott's Historical Novels and French Historical Painting 1815-1855'', ''The Art Bulletin'', Vol.", "63, No.", "2 (Jun., 1981), pp.", "268–287, JSTOR" ], [ "Further reading", "*Ayers, William (ed.", "), ''Picturing History: American Painting 1770–1903'', ." ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hyperbola" ], [ "Introduction", "plane with both halves of a double cone.", "The plane does not have to be parallel to the axis of the cone; the hyperbola will be symmetrical in any case.|alt=The image shows a double cone in which a geometrical plane has sliced off parts of the top and bottom half; the boundary curve of the slice on the cone is the hyperbola.", "A double cone consists of two cones stacked point-to-point and sharing the same axis of rotation; it may be generated by rotating a line about an axis that passes through a point of the line.Hyperbola (red): featuresIn mathematics, a '''hyperbola''' (; pl.", "'''hyperbolas''' or '''hyperbolae''' ; adj.", "'''hyperbolic''' ) is a type of smooth curve lying in a plane, defined by its geometric properties or by equations for which it is the solution set.", "A hyperbola has two pieces, called connected components or branches, that are mirror images of each other and resemble two infinite bows.", "The hyperbola is one of the three kinds of conic section, formed by the intersection of a plane and a double cone.", "(The other conic sections are the parabola and the ellipse.", "A circle is a special case of an ellipse.)", "If the plane intersects both halves of the double cone but does not pass through the apex of the cones, then the conic is a hyperbola.Besides being a conic section, a hyperbola can arise as the locus of points whose difference of distances to two fixed foci is constant, as a curve for each point of which the rays to two fixed foci are reflections across the tangent line at that point, or as the solution of certain bivariate quadratic equations such as the reciprocal relationship In practical applications, a hyperbola can arise as the path followed by the shadow of the tip of a sundial's gnomon, the shape of an open orbit such as that of a celestial object exceeding the escape velocity of the nearest gravitational body, or the scattering trajectory of a subatomic particle, among others.Each branch of the hyperbola has two arms which become straighter (lower curvature) further out from the center of the hyperbola.", "Diagonally opposite arms, one from each branch, tend in the limit to a common line, called the asymptote of those two arms.", "So there are two asymptotes, whose intersection is at the center of symmetry of the hyperbola, which can be thought of as the mirror point about which each branch reflects to form the other branch.", "In the case of the curve the asymptotes are the two coordinate axes.Hyperbolas share many of the ellipses' analytical properties such as eccentricity, focus, and directrix.", "Typically the correspondence can be made with nothing more than a change of sign in some term.", "Many other mathematical objects have their origin in the hyperbola, such as hyperbolic paraboloids (saddle surfaces), hyperboloids (\"wastebaskets\"), hyperbolic geometry (Lobachevsky's celebrated non-Euclidean geometry), hyperbolic functions (sinh, cosh, tanh, etc.", "), and gyrovector spaces (a geometry proposed for use in both relativity and quantum mechanics which is not Euclidean)." ], [ "Etymology and history", "The word \"hyperbola\" derives from the Greek , meaning \"over-thrown\" or \"excessive\", from which the English term hyperbole also derives.", "Hyperbolae were discovered by Menaechmus in his investigations of the problem of doubling the cube, but were then called sections of obtuse cones.", "The term hyperbola is believed to have been coined by Apollonius of Perga (c. 262–c.", "190 BC) in his definitive work on the conic sections, the ''Conics''.The names of the other two general conic sections, the ellipse and the parabola, derive from the corresponding Greek words for \"deficient\" and \"applied\"; all three names are borrowed from earlier Pythagorean terminology which referred to a comparison of the side of rectangles of fixed area with a given line segment.", "The rectangle could be \"applied\" to the segment (meaning, have an equal length), be shorter than the segment or exceed the segment." ], [ "Definitions", "=== As locus of points ===Hyperbola: definition by the distances of points to two fixed points (foci)Hyperbola: definition with circular directrixA hyperbola can be defined geometrically as a set of points (locus of points) in the Euclidean plane:The midpoint of the line segment joining the foci is called the ''center'' of the hyperbola.", "The line through the foci is called the ''major axis''.", "It contains the ''vertices'' , which have distance to the center.", "The distance of the foci to the center is called the ''focal distance'' or ''linear eccentricity''.", "The quotient is the ''eccentricity'' .The equation can be viewed in a different way (see diagram):If is the circle with midpoint and radius , then the distance of a point of the right branch to the circle equals the distance to the focus : is called the ''circular directrix'' (related to focus ) of the hyperbola.", "In order to get the left branch of the hyperbola, one has to use the circular directrix related to .", "This property should not be confused with the definition of a hyperbola with help of a directrix (line) below.=== Hyperbola with equation ===Rotating the coordinate system in order to describe a rectangular hyperbola as graph of a functionThree rectangular hyperbolas with the coordinate axes as asymptotesred: ''A'' = 1; magenta: ''A'' = 4; blue: ''A'' = 9If the ''xy''-coordinate system is rotated about the origin by the angle and new coordinates are assigned, then .The rectangular hyperbola (whose semi-axes are equal) has the new equation .Solving for yields Thus, in an ''xy''-coordinate system the graph of a function with equation is a ''rectangular hyperbola'' entirely in the first and third quadrants with*the coordinate axes as ''asymptotes'',*the line as ''major axis'' ,*the ''center'' and the ''semi-axis'' *the ''vertices'' *the ''semi-latus rectum'' and ''radius of curvature '' at the vertices *the ''linear eccentricity'' and the eccentricity *the ''tangent'' at point A rotation of the original hyperbola by results in a rectangular hyperbola entirely in the second and fourth quadrants, with the same asymptotes, center, semi-latus rectum, radius of curvature at the vertices, linear eccentricity, and eccentricity as for the case of rotation, with equation*the ''semi-axes'' *the line as major axis,*the ''vertices'' Shifting the hyperbola with equation so that the new center is yields the new equationand the new asymptotes are and .", "The shape parameters remain unchanged.=== By the directrix property ===Hyperbola: directrix propertyHyperbola: definition with directrix propertyThe two lines at distance from the center and parallel to the minor axis are called '''directrices''' of the hyperbola (see diagram).For an arbitrary point of the hyperbola the quotient of the distance to one focus and to the corresponding directrix (see diagram) is equal to the eccentricity:The proof for the pair follows from the fact that and satisfy the equationThe second case is proven analogously.Pencil of conics with a common vertex and common semi latus rectumThe ''inverse statement'' is also true and can be used to define a hyperbola (in a manner similar to the definition of a parabola):For any point (focus), any line (directrix) not through and any real number with the set of points (locus of points), for which the quotient of the distances to the point and to the line is is a hyperbola.", "(The choice yields a parabola and if an ellipse.", ")==== Proof ====Let and assume is a point on the curve.The directrix has equation .", "With , the relation produces the equations: and The substitution yieldsThis is the equation of an ''ellipse'' () or a ''parabola'' () or a ''hyperbola'' ().", "All of these non-degenerate conics have, in common, the origin as a vertex (see diagram).If , introduce new parameters so that , and then the equation above becomeswhich is the equation of a hyperbola with center , the ''x''-axis as major axis and the major/minor semi axis .Hyperbola: construction of a directrix==== Construction of a directrix ====Because of point of directrix (see diagram) and focus are inverse with respect to the circle inversion at circle (in diagram green).", "Hence point can be constructed using the theorem of Thales (not shown in the diagram).", "The directrix is the perpendicular to line through point .", "''Alternative construction of '': Calculation shows, that point is the intersection of the asymptote with its perpendicular through (see diagram).=== As plane section of a cone ===Hyperbola (red): two views of a cone and two Dandelin spheres ''d''1, ''d''2The intersection of an upright double cone by a plane not through the vertex with slope greater than the slope of the lines on the cone is a hyperbola (see diagram: red curve).", "In order to prove the defining property of a hyperbola (see above) one uses two Dandelin spheres , which are spheres that touch the cone along circles and the intersecting (hyperbola) plane at points and It turns out: are the ''foci'' of the hyperbola.# Let be an arbitrary point of the intersection curve .# The generatrix of the cone containing intersects circle at point and circle at a point .# The line segments and are tangential to the sphere and, hence, are of equal length.# The line segments and are tangential to the sphere and, hence, are of equal length.# The result is: is independent of the hyperbola point because no matter where point is, have to be on circles and line segment has to cross the apex.", "Therefore, as point moves along the red curve (hyperbola), line segment simply rotates about apex without changing its length.=== Pin and string construction ===Hyperbola: Pin and string constructionThe definition of a hyperbola by its foci and its circular directrices (see above) can be used for drawing an arc of it with help of pins, a string and a ruler:# Choose the ''foci'' , the vertices and one of the ''circular directrices'' , for example (circle with radius )# A ''ruler'' is fixed at point free to rotate around .", "Point is marked at distance .# A ''string'' with length is prepared.# One end of the string is pinned at point on the ruler, the other end is pinned to point .# Take a ''pen'' and hold the string tight to the edge of the ruler.# ''Rotating'' the ruler around prompts the pen to draw an arc of the right branch of the hyperbola, because of (see the definition of a hyperbola by ''circular directrices'').=== Steiner generation of a hyperbola ===Hyperbola: Steiner generationHyperbola ''y'' = 1/''x'': Steiner generationThe following method to construct single points of a hyperbola relies on the Steiner generation of a non degenerate conic section:For the generation of points of the hyperbola one uses the pencils at the vertices .", "Let be a point of the hyperbola and .", "The line segment is divided into n equally-spaced segments and this division is projected parallel with the diagonal as direction onto the line segment (see diagram).", "The parallel projection is part of the projective mapping between the pencils at and needed.", "The intersection points of any two related lines and are points of the uniquely defined hyperbola.", "''Remarks:''* The subdivision could be extended beyond the points and in order to get more points, but the determination of the intersection points would become more inaccurate.", "A better idea is extending the points already constructed by symmetry (see animation).", "* The Steiner generation exists for ellipses and parabolas, too.", "* The Steiner generation is sometimes called a ''parallelogram method'' because one can use other points rather than the vertices, which starts with a parallelogram instead of a rectangle.=== Inscribed angles for hyperbolas and the 3-point-form ===Hyperbola: inscribed angle theoremA hyperbola with equation is uniquely determined by three points with different ''x''- and ''y''-coordinates.", "A simple way to determine the shape parameters uses the ''inscribed angle theorem'' for hyperbolas:Analogous to the inscribed angle theorem for circles one gets theA consequence of the inscribed angle theorem for hyperbolas is the=== As an affine image of the unit hyperbola ===Hyperbola as an affine image of the unit hyperbolaAnother definition of a hyperbola uses affine transformations:==== Parametric representation ====An affine transformation of the Euclidean plane has the form , where is a regular matrix (its determinant is not 0) and is an arbitrary vector.", "If are the column vectors of the matrix , the unit hyperbola is mapped onto the hyperbola is the center, a point of the hyperbola and a tangent vector at this point.==== Vertices ====In general the vectors are not perpendicular.", "That means, in general are ''not'' the vertices of the hyperbola.", "But point into the directions of the asymptotes.", "The tangent vector at point isBecause at a vertex the tangent is perpendicular to the major axis of the hyperbola one gets the parameter of a vertex from the equationand hence fromwhich yieldsThe formulae and were used.The two ''vertices'' of the hyperbola are ==== Implicit representation ====Solving the parametric representation for by Cramer's rule and using , one gets the implicit representation==== Hyperbola in space ====The definition of a hyperbola in this section gives a parametric representation of an arbitrary hyperbola, even in space, if one allows to be vectors in space.=== As an affine image of the hyperbola ===Hyperbola as affine image of ''y'' = 1/''x''Because the unit hyperbola is affinely equivalent to the hyperbola , an arbitrary hyperbola can be considered as the affine image (see previous section) of the hyperbola is the center of the hyperbola, the vectors have the directions of the asymptotes and is a point of the hyperbola.", "The tangent vector isAt a vertex the tangent is perpendicular to the major axis.", "Henceand the parameter of a vertex is is equivalent to and are the vertices of the hyperbola.The following properties of a hyperbola are easily proven using the representation of a hyperbola introduced in this section.==== Tangent construction ====Tangent construction: asymptotes and ''P'' given → tangentThe tangent vector can be rewritten by factorization:This means thatThis property provides a way to construct the tangent at a point on the hyperbola.This property of a hyperbola is an affine version of the 3-point-degeneration of Pascal's theorem.", ";Area of the grey parallelogram:The area of the grey parallelogram in the above diagram isand hence independent of point .", "The last equation follows from a calculation for the case, where is a vertex and the hyperbola in its canonical form ==== Point construction ====Point construction: asymptotes and ''P''1 are given → ''P''2For a hyperbola with parametric representation (for simplicity the center is the origin) the following is true:The simple proof is a consequence of the equation .This property provides a possibility to construct points of a hyperbola if the asymptotes and one point are given.This property of a hyperbola is an affine version of the 4-point-degeneration of Pascal's theorem.==== Tangent–asymptotes triangle ====Hyperbola: tangent-asymptotes-triangleFor simplicity the center of the hyperbola may be the origin and the vectors have equal length.", "If the last assumption is not fulfilled one can first apply a parameter transformation (see above) in order to make the assumption true.", "Hence are the vertices, span the minor axis and one gets and .For the intersection points of the tangent at point with the asymptotes one gets the pointsThe ''area'' of the triangle can be calculated by a 2 × 2 determinant:(see rules for determinants).", "is the area of the rhombus generated by .", "The area of a rhombus is equal to one half of the product of its diagonals.", "The diagonals are the semi-axes of the hyperbola.", "Hence:===Reciprocation of a circle===The reciprocation of a circle ''B'' in a circle ''C'' always yields a conic section such as a hyperbola.", "The process of \"reciprocation in a circle ''C''\" consists of replacing every line and point in a geometrical figure with their corresponding pole and polar, respectively.", "The ''pole'' of a line is the inversion of its closest point to the circle ''C'', whereas the polar of a point is the converse, namely, a line whose closest point to ''C'' is the inversion of the point.The eccentricity of the conic section obtained by reciprocation is the ratio of the distances between the two circles' centers to the radius ''r'' of reciprocation circle ''C''.", "If '''B''' and '''C''' represent the points at the centers of the corresponding circles, thenSince the eccentricity of a hyperbola is always greater than one, the center '''B''' must lie outside of the reciprocating circle ''C''.This definition implies that the hyperbola is both the locus of the poles of the tangent lines to the circle ''B'', as well as the envelope of the polar lines of the points on ''B''.", "Conversely, the circle ''B'' is the envelope of polars of points on the hyperbola, and the locus of poles of tangent lines to the hyperbola.", "Two tangent lines to ''B'' have no (finite) poles because they pass through the center '''C''' of the reciprocation circle ''C''; the polars of the corresponding tangent points on ''B'' are the asymptotes of the hyperbola.", "The two branches of the hyperbola correspond to the two parts of the circle ''B'' that are separated by these tangent points.===Quadratic equation===A hyperbola can also be defined as a second-degree equation in the Cartesian coordinates in the plane,provided that the constants and satisfy the determinant conditionThis determinant is conventionally called the discriminant of the conic section.A special case of a hyperbola—the ''degenerate hyperbola'' consisting of two intersecting lines—occurs when another determinant is zero:This determinant is sometimes called the discriminant of the conic section.The general equation's coefficients can be obtained from known semi-major axis semi-minor axis center coordinates , and rotation angle (the angle from the positive horizontal axis to the hyperbola's major axis) using the formulae:These expressions can be derived from the canonical equationby a translation and rotation of the coordinates Given the above general parametrization of the hyperbola in Cartesian coordinates, the eccentricity can be found using the formula in Conic section#Eccentricity in terms of coefficients.The center of the hyperbola may be determined from the formulaeIn terms of new coordinates, and the defining equation of the hyperbola can be writtenThe principal axes of the hyperbola make an angle with the positive -axis that is given byRotating the coordinate axes so that the -axis is aligned with the transverse axis brings the equation into its '''canonical form'''The major and minor semiaxes and are defined by the equationswhere and are the roots of the quadratic equationFor comparison, the corresponding equation for a degenerate hyperbola (consisting of two intersecting lines) isThe tangent line to a given point on the hyperbola is defined by the equationwhere and are defined byThe normal line to the hyperbola at the same point is given by the equationThe normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, and both pass through the same point From the equationthe left focus is and the right focus is where is the eccentricity.", "Denote the distances from a point to the left and right foci as and For a point on the right branch,and for a point on the left branch,This can be proved as follows:If is a point on the hyperbola the distance to the left focal point isTo the right focal point the distance isIf is a point on the right branch of the hyperbola then andSubtracting these equations one getsIf is a point on the left branch of the hyperbola then andSubtracting these equations one gets" ], [ "In Cartesian coordinates", "=== Equation ===If Cartesian coordinates are introduced such that the origin is the center of the hyperbola and the ''x''-axis is the major axis, then the hyperbola is called ''east-west-opening'' and:the ''foci'' are the points ,:the ''vertices'' are .For an arbitrary point the distance to the focus is and to the second focus .", "Hence the point is on the hyperbola if the following condition is fulfilledRemove the square roots by suitable squarings and use the relation to obtain the equation of the hyperbola:This equation is called the canonical form of a hyperbola, because any hyperbola, regardless of its orientation relative to the Cartesian axes and regardless of the location of its center, can be transformed to this form by a change of variables, giving a hyperbola that is congruent to the original (see below).The axes of symmetry or ''principal axes'' are the ''transverse axis'' (containing the segment of length 2''a'' with endpoints at the vertices) and the ''conjugate axis'' (containing the segment of length 2''b'' perpendicular to the transverse axis and with midpoint at the hyperbola's center).", "As opposed to an ellipse, a hyperbola has only two vertices: .", "The two points on the conjugate axes are ''not'' on the hyperbola.It follows from the equation that the hyperbola is ''symmetric'' with respect to both of the coordinate axes and hence symmetric with respect to the origin.====Eccentricity====For a hyperbola in the above canonical form, the eccentricity is given byTwo hyperbolas are geometrically similar to each other – meaning that they have the same shape, so that one can be transformed into the other by rigid left and right movements, rotation, taking a mirror image, and scaling (magnification) – if and only if they have the same eccentricity.=== Asymptotes ===Hyperbola: semi-axes ''a'',''b'', linear eccentricity ''c'', semi latus rectum ''p''Hyperbola: 3 propertiesSolving the equation (above) of the hyperbola for yieldsIt follows from this that the hyperbola approaches the two linesfor large values of .", "These two lines intersect at the center (origin) and are called ''asymptotes'' of the hyperbola With the help of the second figure one can see that: The ''perpendicular distance from a focus to either asymptote'' is (the semi-minor axis).From the Hesse normal form of the asymptotes and the equation of the hyperbola one gets:: The ''product of the distances from a point on the hyperbola to both the asymptotes'' is the constant which can also be written in terms of the eccentricity ''e'' as From the equation of the hyperbola (above) one can derive:: The ''product of the slopes of lines from a point P to the two vertices'' is the constant In addition, from (2) above it can be shown that: ''The product of the distances from a point on the hyperbola to the asymptotes along lines parallel to the asymptotes'' is the constant === Semi-latus rectum ===The length of the chord through one of the foci, perpendicular to the major axis of the hyperbola, is called the ''latus rectum''.", "One half of it is the ''semi-latus rectum'' .", "A calculation showsThe semi-latus rectum may also be viewed as the ''radius of curvature '' at the vertices.=== Tangent ===The simplest way to determine the equation of the tangent at a point is to implicitly differentiate the equation of the hyperbola.", "Denoting ''dy/dx'' as ''y′'', this producesWith respect to , the equation of the tangent at point isA particular tangent line distinguishes the hyperbola from the other conic sections.", "Let ''f'' be the distance from the vertex ''V'' (on both the hyperbola and its axis through the two foci) to the nearer focus.", "Then the distance, along a line perpendicular to that axis, from that focus to a point P on the hyperbola is greater than 2''f''.", "The tangent to the hyperbola at P intersects that axis at point Q at an angle ∠PQV of greater than 45°.===Rectangular hyperbola===In the case the hyperbola is called ''rectangular'' (or ''equilateral''), because its asymptotes intersect at right angles.", "For this case, the linear eccentricity is , the eccentricity and the semi-latus rectum .", "The graph of the equation is a rectangular hyperbola.=== Parametric representation with hyperbolic sine/cosine ===Using the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions , a parametric representation of the hyperbola can be obtained, which is similar to the parametric representation of an ellipse:which satisfies the Cartesian equation because Further parametric representations are given in the section Parametric equations below.Here giving the unit hyperbola in blue and its conjugate hyperbola in green, sharing the same red asymptotes.=== Conjugate hyperbola ===Exchange and to obtain the equation of the '''conjugate hyperbola''' (see diagram): also written asA hyperbola and its conjugate may have diameters which are conjugate.", "In the theory of special relativity, such diameters may represent axes of time and space, where one hyperbola represents events at a given spatial distance from the center, and the other represents events at a corresponding temporal distance from the center." ], [ "In polar coordinates", "Hyperbola: Polar coordinates with pole = focusHyperbola: Polar coordinates with pole = centerAnimated plot of Hyperbola by using === Origin at the focus ===The polar coordinates used most commonly for the hyperbola are defined relative to the Cartesian coordinate system that has its ''origin in a focus'' and its x-axis pointing towards the origin of the \"canonical coordinate system\" as illustrated in the first diagram.In this case the angle is called '''true anomaly'''.Relative to this coordinate system one has thatand=== Origin at the center ===With polar coordinates relative to the \"canonical coordinate system\" (see second diagram)one has thatFor the right branch of the hyperbola the range of is" ], [ "Parametric equations", "A hyperbola with equation can be described by several parametric equations:# Through hyperbolic trigonometric functions # As a ''rational'' representation # Through circular trigonometric functions # With the tangent slope as parameter: A parametric representation, which uses the slope of the tangent at a point of the hyperbola can be obtained analogously to the ellipse case: Replace in the ellipse case by and use formulae for the hyperbolic functions.", "One gets Here, is the upper, and the lower half of the hyperbola.", "The points with vertical tangents (vertices ) are not covered by the representation.", "The equation of the tangent at point is This description of the tangents of a hyperbola is an essential tool for the determination of the orthoptic of a hyperbola." ], [ "Hyperbolic functions", "A ray through the unit hyperbola at the point , where is twice the area between the ray, the hyperbola, and the -axis.", "For points on the hyperbola below the -axis, the area is considered negative.Just as the trigonometric functions are defined in terms of the unit circle, so also the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the unit hyperbola, as shown in this diagram.", "In a unit circle, the angle (in radians) is equal to twice the area of the circular sector which that angle subtends.", "The analogous hyperbolic angle is likewise defined as twice the area of a hyperbolic sector.Let be twice the area between the axis and a ray through the origin intersecting the unit hyperbola, and define as the coordinates of the intersection point.Then the area of the hyperbolic sector is the area of the triangle minus the curved region past the vertex at :which simplifies to the area hyperbolic cosineSolving for yields the exponential form of the hyperbolic cosine:From one getsand its inverse the area hyperbolic sine:Other hyperbolic functions are defined according to the hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine, so for example" ], [ "Properties", "=== Reflection property ===Hyperbola: the tangent bisects the lines through the fociThe tangent at a point bisects the angle between the lines This is called the ''optical property'' or ''reflection property'' of a hyperbola.", ";Proof:Let be the point on the line with the distance to the focus (see diagram, is the semi major axis of the hyperbola).", "Line is the bisector of the angle between the lines .", "In order to prove that is the tangent line at point , one checks that any point on line which is different from cannot be on the hyperbola.", "Hence has only point in common with the hyperbola and is, therefore, the tangent at point .", "From the diagram and the triangle inequality one recognizes that holds, which means: .", "But if is a point of the hyperbola, the difference should be .=== Midpoints of parallel chords ===Hyperbola: the midpoints of parallel chords lie on a line.Hyperbola: the midpoint of a chord is the midpoint of the corresponding chord of the asymptotes.The midpoints of parallel chords of a hyperbola lie on a line through the center (see diagram).The points of any chord may lie on different branches of the hyperbola.The proof of the property on midpoints is best done for the hyperbola .", "Because any hyperbola is an affine image of the hyperbola (see section below) and an affine transformation preserves parallelism and midpoints of line segments, the property is true for all hyperbolas:For two points of the hyperbola :the midpoint of the chord is :the slope of the chord is For parallel chords the slope is constant and the midpoints of the parallel chords lie on the line Consequence: for any pair of points of a chord there exists a ''skew reflection'' with an axis (set of fixed points) passing through the center of the hyperbola, which exchanges the points and leaves the hyperbola (as a whole) fixed.", "A skew reflection is a generalization of an ordinary reflection across a line , where all point-image pairs are on a line perpendicular to .Because a skew reflection leaves the hyperbola fixed, the pair of asymptotes is fixed, too.", "Hence the midpoint of a chord divides the related line segment between the asymptotes into halves, too.", "This means that .", "This property can be used for the construction of further points of the hyperbola if a point and the asymptotes are given.If the chord degenerates into a ''tangent'', then the touching point divides the line segment between the asymptotes in two halves.=== Orthogonal tangents – orthoptic===Hyperbola with its orthoptic (magenta)For a hyperbola the intersection points of ''orthogonal'' tangents lie on the circle .", "This circle is called the ''orthoptic'' of the given hyperbola.The tangents may belong to points on different branches of the hyperbola.In case of there are no pairs of orthogonal tangents.=== Pole-polar relation for a hyperbola ===Hyperbola: pole-polar relationAny hyperbola can be described in a suitable coordinate system by an equation .", "The equation of the tangent at a point of the hyperbola is If one allows point to be an arbitrary point different from the origin, then:point is mapped onto the line , not through the center of the hyperbola.This relation between points and lines is a bijection.The inverse function maps:line onto the point and:line onto the point Such a relation between points and lines generated by a conic is called '''pole-polar relation''' or just ''polarity''.", "The pole is the point, the polar the line.", "See Pole and polar.By calculation one checks the following properties of the pole-polar relation of the hyperbola:* For a point (pole) ''on'' the hyperbola the polar is the tangent at this point (see diagram: ).", "* For a pole ''outside'' the hyperbola the intersection points of its polar with the hyperbola are the tangency points of the two tangents passing (see diagram: ).", "* For a point ''within'' the hyperbola the polar has no point with the hyperbola in common.", "(see diagram: ).", "''Remarks:''# The intersection point of two polars (for example: ) is the pole of the line through their poles (here: ).# The foci and respectively and the directrices and respectively belong to pairs of pole and polar.Pole-polar relations exist for ellipses and parabolas, too.===Other properties===*The following are concurrent: (1) a circle passing through the hyperbola's foci and centered at the hyperbola's center; (2) either of the lines that are tangent to the hyperbola at the vertices; and (3) either of the asymptotes of the hyperbola.", "*The following are also concurrent: (1) the circle that is centered at the hyperbola's center and that passes through the hyperbola's vertices; (2) either directrix; and (3) either of the asymptotes." ], [ "Arc length", "The arc length of a hyperbola does not have an elementary expression.", "The upper half of a hyperbola can be parameterized asThen the integral giving the arc length from to can be computed as:After using the substitution , this can also be represented using the incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind with parameter :Using only real numbers, this becomeswhere is the incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind with parameter and is the Gudermannian function." ], [ "Derived curves", "Several other curves can be derived from the hyperbola by inversion, the so-called inverse curves of the hyperbola.", "If the center of inversion is chosen as the hyperbola's own center, the inverse curve is the lemniscate of Bernoulli; the lemniscate is also the envelope of circles centered on a rectangular hyperbola and passing through the origin.", "If the center of inversion is chosen at a focus or a vertex of the hyperbola, the resulting inverse curves are a limaçon or a strophoid, respectively." ], [ "Elliptic coordinates", "A family of confocal hyperbolas is the basis of the system of elliptic coordinates in two dimensions.", "These hyperbolas are described by the equationwhere the foci are located at a distance ''c'' from the origin on the ''x''-axis, and where θ is the angle of the asymptotes with the ''x''-axis.", "Every hyperbola in this family is orthogonal to every ellipse that shares the same foci.", "This orthogonality may be shown by a conformal map of the Cartesian coordinate system ''w'' = ''z'' + 1/''z'', where ''z''= ''x'' + ''iy'' are the original Cartesian coordinates, and ''w''=''u'' + ''iv'' are those after the transformation.Other orthogonal two-dimensional coordinate systems involving hyperbolas may be obtained by other conformal mappings.", "For example, the mapping ''w'' = ''z''2 transforms the Cartesian coordinate system into two families of orthogonal hyperbolas." ], [ "Conic section analysis of the hyperbolic appearance of circles", "Central projection of circles on a sphere: The center ''O'' of projection is inside the sphere, the image plane is red.", "As images of the circles one gets a circle (magenta), ellipses, hyperbolas and lines.", "The special case of a parabola does not appear in this example.", "(If center ''O'' were ''on'' the sphere, all images of the circles would be circles or lines; see stereographic projection).Besides providing a uniform description of circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas, conic sections can also be understood as a natural model of the geometry of perspective in the case where the scene being viewed consists of circles, or more generally an ellipse.", "The viewer is typically a camera or the human eye and the image of the scene a central projection onto an image plane, that is, all projection rays pass a fixed point ''O'', the center.", "The '''lens plane''' is a plane parallel to the image plane at the lens ''O''.The image of a circle c is(Special positions where the circle plane contains point ''O'' are omitted.", ")These results can be understood if one recognizes that the projection process can be seen in two steps: 1) circle c and point ''O'' generate a cone which is 2) cut by the image plane, in order to generate the image.One sees a hyperbola whenever catching sight of a portion of a circle cut by one's lens plane.", "The inability to see very much of the arms of the visible branch, combined with the complete absence of the second branch, makes it virtually impossible for the human visual system to recognize the connection with hyperbolas." ], [ "Applications", "Hyperbolas as declination lines on a sundialThe contact zone of a level supersonic aircraft's shockwave on flat ground (yellow) is a part of a hyperbola as the ground intersects the cone parallel to its axis.===Sundials===Hyperbolas may be seen in many sundials.", "On any given day, the sun revolves in a circle on the celestial sphere, and its rays striking the point on a sundial traces out a cone of light.", "The intersection of this cone with the horizontal plane of the ground forms a conic section.", "At most populated latitudes and at most times of the year, this conic section is a hyperbola.", "In practical terms, the shadow of the tip of a pole traces out a hyperbola on the ground over the course of a day (this path is called the ''declination line'').", "The shape of this hyperbola varies with the geographical latitude and with the time of the year, since those factors affect the cone of the sun's rays relative to the horizon.", "The collection of such hyperbolas for a whole year at a given location was called a ''pelekinon'' by the Greeks, since it resembles a double-bladed axe.===Multilateration===A hyperbola is the basis for solving multilateration problems, the task of locating a point from the differences in its distances to given points — or, equivalently, the difference in arrival times of synchronized signals between the point and the given points.", "Such problems are important in navigation, particularly on water; a ship can locate its position from the difference in arrival times of signals from a LORAN or GPS transmitters.", "Conversely, a homing beacon or any transmitter can be located by comparing the arrival times of its signals at two separate receiving stations; such techniques may be used to track objects and people.", "In particular, the set of possible positions of a point that has a distance difference of 2''a'' from two given points is a hyperbola of vertex separation 2''a'' whose foci are the two given points.===Path followed by a particle===The path followed by any particle in the classical Kepler problem is a conic section.", "In particular, if the total energy ''E'' of the particle is greater than zero (that is, if the particle is unbound), the path of such a particle is a hyperbola.", "This property is useful in studying atomic and sub-atomic forces by scattering high-energy particles; for example, the Rutherford experiment demonstrated the existence of an atomic nucleus by examining the scattering of alpha particles from gold atoms.", "If the short-range nuclear interactions are ignored, the atomic nucleus and the alpha particle interact only by a repulsive Coulomb force, which satisfies the inverse square law requirement for a Kepler problem.===Korteweg–de Vries equation===The hyperbolic trig function appears as one solution to the Korteweg–de Vries equation which describes the motion of a soliton wave in a canal.===Angle trisection===Trisecting an angle (AOB) using a hyperbola of eccentricity 2 (yellow curve)As shown first by Apollonius of Perga, a hyperbola can be used to trisect any angle, a well studied problem of geometry.", "Given an angle, first draw a circle centered at its vertex '''O''', which intersects the sides of the angle at points '''A''' and '''B'''.", "Next draw the line segment with endpoints '''A''' and '''B''' and its perpendicular bisector .", "Construct a hyperbola of eccentricity ''e''=2 with as directrix and '''B''' as a focus.", "Let '''P''' be the intersection (upper) of the hyperbola with the circle.", "Angle '''POB''' trisects angle '''AOB'''.To prove this, reflect the line segment '''OP''' about the line obtaining the point '''P'''' as the image of '''P'''.", "Segment '''AP'''' has the same length as segment '''BP''' due to the reflection, while segment '''PP'''' has the same length as segment '''BP''' due to the eccentricity of the hyperbola.", "As '''OA''', '''OP'''', '''OP''' and '''OB''' are all radii of the same circle (and so, have the same length), the triangles '''OAP'''', '''OPP'''' and '''OPB''' are all congruent.", "Therefore, the angle has been trisected, since 3×'''POB''' = '''AOB'''.===Efficient portfolio frontier===In portfolio theory, the locus of mean-variance efficient portfolios (called the efficient frontier) is the upper half of the east-opening branch of a hyperbola drawn with the portfolio return's standard deviation plotted horizontally and its expected value plotted vertically; according to this theory, all rational investors would choose a portfolio characterized by some point on this locus.===Biochemistry===In biochemistry and pharmacology, the Hill equation and Hill-Langmuir equation respectively describe biological responses and the formation of protein–ligand complexes as functions of ligand concentration.", "They are both rectangular hyperbolae." ], [ "Hyperbolas as plane sections of quadrics", "Hyperbolas appear as plane sections of the following quadrics:* Elliptic cone* Hyperbolic cylinder* Hyperbolic paraboloid* Hyperboloid of one sheet* Hyperboloid of two sheetsFile:Quadric Cone.jpg|Elliptic coneFile:Hyperbolic Cylinder Quadric.png|Hyperbolic cylinderFile:Hyperbol Paraboloid.pov.png|Hyperbolic paraboloidFile:Hyperboloid1.png|Hyperboloid of one sheetFile:Hyperboloid2.png|Hyperboloid of two sheets" ], [ "See also", "===Other conic sections===*Circle*Ellipse*Parabola*Degenerate conic===Other related topics===*Elliptic coordinates, an orthogonal coordinate system based on families of ellipses and hyperbolas.", "*Hyperbolic growth*Hyperbolic partial differential equation*Hyperbolic sector*Hyperboloid structure*Hyperbolic trajectory*Hyperboloid*Multilateration*Rotation of axes*Translation of axes*Unit hyperbola" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Apollonius' Derivation of the Hyperbola at Convergence* Frans van Schooten: ''Mathematische Oeffeningen'', 1659*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Humayun" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Nasir al-Din Muhammad''' (; 6 March 1508 – 27 January 1556), commonly known by his regnal name '''Humayun''' (), was the second Mughal emperor, who ruled over territory in what is now Eastern Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Northern India, and Pakistan from 1530 to 1540 and again from 1555 to his death 1556.At the time of his passing, the Mughal Empire spanned almost one million square kilometres.In December 1530, Humayun succeeded his father Babur to the throne of Delhi as ruler of the Mughal territories in the Indian subcontinent.", "Humayun was an inexperienced ruler when he came to power at the age of 22.His half-brother Kamran Mirza inherited Kabul and Kandahar, the northernmost parts of their father's empire; the two half-brothers would become bitter rivals.Early in his reign, Humayun lost his entire state to Sher Shah Suri but regained it 15 years later with Safavid aid.", "His return from Persia was accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen, signalling an important change in Mughal court culture.", "The Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language, and literature.", "To this day, stone carvings and thousands of Persian manuscripts in India dating from the time of Humayun remain in the subcontinent.", "Following his return to power, Humayun quickly expanded the Empire, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, Akbar." ], [ "Background", "Humayun was born as Nasir al-Din Muhammad to Babur's favorite wife Māham Begum on Tuesday 6 March 1508.According to Abul Fazl, Māham was related to the noble family of Sultan Husayn Bayqara, the Timurid ruler of Herat.", "She was also related to Sheikh Ahmad-e Jami.The decision of Babur to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India, although it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Genghis Khan.", "Unlike most monarchies, which practiced primogeniture, the Timurids followed the example of Genghis and did not leave an entire kingdom to the eldest son.", "Although under that system only a Chingissid could claim sovereignty and Khanal authority, any male Chinggisid within a given sub-branch had an equal right to the throne (though the Timurids were not Chinggisid in their paternal ancestry).", "While Genghis Khan's Empire had been peacefully divided between his sons upon his death, almost every Chinggisid succession since had resulted in fratricide.After Timur's death, his territories were divided among Pir Muhammad, Miran Shah, Khalil Sultan and Shah Rukh, which resulted in inter-family warfare.", "Upon Babur's death, Humayun's territories were the least secure.", "He had ruled only four years, and not all ''umarah'' (nobles) viewed Humayun as the rightful ruler.", "Indeed, earlier, when Babur had become ill, some of the nobles had tried to install his Brother-in-law, Mahdi Khwaja, as ruler.", "Although this attempt failed, it was a sign of problems to come." ], [ "Early reign", "Babur celebrates the birth of Humayun in the Charbagh of Kabul.When Humayun came to the throne of the Mughal Empire, several of his brothers revolted against him after he split the empire among them.", "Another brother Khalil Mirza (1509–1530) supported Humayun but was assassinated.", "The Emperor commenced construction of a tomb for his brother in 1538, but this was not yet finished when he was forced to flee to Persia.", "Sher Shah destroyed the structure and no further work was done on it after Humayun's restoration.Humayun had two major rivals for his lands: Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat to the southwest and Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan) settled along the river Ganges in Bihar to the east.", "Humayun's first campaign was to confront Sher Shah Suri.", "Halfway through this offensive Humayun had to abandon it and concentrate on Gujarat, where a threat from Ahmed Shah had to be met.", "Humayun was victorious annexing Gujarat, Malwa, Champaner and the great fort of Mandu.During the first five years of Humayun's reign, Bahadur and Sher Khan extended their rule, although Sultan Bahadur faced pressure in the east from sporadic conflicts with the Portuguese.", "While the Mughals had obtained firearms via the Ottoman Empire, Bahadur's Gujarat had acquired them through a series of contracts drawn up with the Portuguese, allowing the Portuguese to establish a strategic foothold in northwestern India.In 1535 Humayun was made aware that the Sultan of Gujarat was planning an assault on the Mughal territories in Bayana with Portuguese aid.", "Humayun gathered an army and marched on Bahadur.", "Within a month he had captured the forts of Mandu and Champaner.", "However, instead of pressing his attack, Humayun ceased the campaign and consolidated his newly conquered territory.", "Sultan Bahadur, meanwhile escaped and took up refuge with the Portuguese.", "Like his father, Humayun was a frequent user of opium.", "In a popular revolt Bahadur Shah recaptured all of Gujarat in 1536 and began an attack on Malwa." ], [ "Sher Shah Suri", "The Mughal Emperor Humayun, fights Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, in the year 1535.Shortly after Humayun had marched on Gujarat, Sher Shah Suri saw an opportunity to wrest control of Agra from the Mughals.", "He began to gather his army together hoping for a rapid and decisive siege of the Mughal capital.", "Upon hearing this alarming news, Humayun quickly marched his troops back to Agra allowing Bahadur to easily regain control of the territories Humayun had recently taken.", "In February 1537, however, Bahadur was killed when a botched plan to kidnap the Portuguese viceroy ended in a fire-fight that the Sultan lost.", "Bahadur's passing caused a power vacuum in Gujarat, which ultimately paved the way for the Mughals to become the region's dominant force.While Humayun succeeded in protecting Agra from Sher Shah, the second city of the Empire, Gaur the capital of the ''vilayat'' of Bengal, was sacked.", "Humayun's troops had been delayed while trying to take Chunar, a fort occupied by Sher Shah's son, in order to protect his troops from an attack from the rear.", "The stores of grain at Gauri, the largest in the empire, were emptied, and Humayun arrived to see corpses littering the roads.", "The vast wealth of Bengal was depleted and brought East, giving Sher Shah a substantial war chest.Sher Shah withdrew to the east, but Humayun did not follow: instead he \"shut himself up for a considerable time in his Harem, and indulged himself in every kind of luxury\".", "Hindal, Humayun's 19-year-old brother, had agreed to aid him in this battle and protect the rear from attack, but he abandoned his position and withdrew to Agra, where he decreed himself acting emperor.", "When Humayun sent the grand ''Mufti'', Sheikh Buhlul, to reason with him; the Sheikh was killed.", "Further provoking the rebellion, Hindal ordered that the ''Khutba'', or sermon, in the main mosque be surrounded.Raja Todar Mal, an ally of Sher Shah Suri, constructed the Rohtas Fort to check Humayun from Persia, and also halt the local Muslim tribes from joining the claimant emperor.Humayun's other brother, Kamran Mirza, marched from his territories in the Punjab, ostensibly to aid Humayun.", "However, his return home had treacherous motives as he intended to stake a claim for Humayun's apparently collapsing empire.", "He brokered a deal with Hindal providing that his brother would cease all acts of disloyalty in return for a share in the new empire, which Kamran would create once Humayun was deposed.In June 1539 Sher Shah met Humayun in the Battle of Chausa on the banks of the Ganges, near Buxar.", "This was to become an entrenched battle in which both sides spent a lot of time digging themselves into positions.", "The major part of the Mughal army, the artillery, was now immobile, and Humayun decided to engage in some diplomacy using Muhammad Aziz as ambassador.", "Humayun agreed to allow Sher Shah to rule over Bengal and Bihar, but only as provinces granted to him by his Emperor, Humayun, falling short of outright sovereignty.", "The two rulers also struck a bargain in order to save face: Humayun's troops would charge those of Sher Shah whose forces then retreat in feigned fear.", "Thus honour would, supposedly, be satisfied.Once the Army of Humayun had made its charge and Sher Shah's troops made their agreed-upon retreat, the Mughal troops relaxed their defensive preparations and returned to their entrenchments without posting a proper guard.", "Observing the Mughals' vulnerability, Sher Shah reneged on his earlier agreement.", "That very night, his army approached the Mughal camp and finding the Mughal troops unprepared with a majority asleep, they advanced and killed most of them.", "The Emperor survived by swimming across the Ganges using an air-filled \"water skin\", and quietly returned to Agra.", "Humayun was assisted across the Ganges by Shams al-Din Muhammad.===In Agra===Humayun, detail of miniature of the ''Baburnama''When Humayun returned to Agra, he found that all three of his brothers were present.", "Humayun once again not only pardoned his brothers for plotting against him, but even forgave Hindal for his outright betrayal.", "With his armies travelling at a leisurely pace, Sher Shah was gradually drawing closer and closer to Agra.", "This was a serious threat to the entire family, but Humayun and Kamran squabbled over how to proceed.", "Kamran withdrew after Humayun refused to make a quick attack on the approaching enemy, instead opting to build a larger army under his own name.When Kamran returned to Lahore, Humayun, with his other brothers Askari and Hindal, marched to meet Sher Shah east of Agra at the battle of Kannauj on 17 May 1540.Humayun was soundly defeated.", "He retreated to Agra, pursued by Sher Shah, and thence through Delhi to Lahore.", "Sher Shah's founding of the short-lived Sur Empire, with its capital at Delhi, resulted in Humayun's exile for 15 years in the court of Shah Tahmasp I.===In Lahore===The four brothers were united in Lahore, but every day they were informed that Sher Shah was getting closer and closer.", "When he reached Sirhind, Humayun sent an ambassador carrying the message \"I have left you the whole of Hindustan i.e.", "the lands to the East of Punjab, comprising most of the Ganges Valley.", "Leave Lahore alone, and let Sirhind be a boundary between you and me.\"", "Sher Shah, however, replied \"I have left you Kabul.", "You should go there.\"", "Kabul was the capital of the empire of Humayun's brother Kamran, who was far from willing to hand over any of his territories to his brother.", "Instead, Kamran approached Sher Shah and proposed that he actually revolt against his brother and side with Sher Shah in return for most of the Punjab.", "Sher Shah dismissed his help, believing it not to be required, though word soon spread to Lahore about the treacherous proposal, and Humayun was urged to make an example of Kamran and kill him.", "Humayun refused, citing the last words of his father, Babur, \"Do nothing against your brothers, even though they may deserve it.", "\"===Meeting with the Sikh Guru – Guru Angad Sahib===Historical photograph of Gurdwara Sri Khadur Sahib, ca.1920's.", "Published in the 1930 first edition of Mahan Kosh by Kahn Singh Nabha.Humayun visited Guru Angad at around 1540 after Humayun lost the Battle of Kannauj, and thereby the Mughal throne to Sher Shah Suri.", "According to Sikh hagiographies, when Humayun arrived in Gurdwara Mal Akhara Sahib at Khadur Sahib, Guru Angad was sitting and teaching children.", "The failure to greet the Emperor immediately angered Humayun.", "Humayun lashed out but the Guru reminded him that the time when you needed to fight when you lost your throne you ran away and did not fight and now you want to attack a person engaged in prayer.", "In the Sikh texts written more than a century after the event, Guru Angad is said to have blessed the emperor, and reassured him that someday he will regain the throne.===Withdrawing further===Humayun's Genealogical Order up to TimurHumayun decided it would be wise to withdraw still further.", "He and his army rode out through and across the Thar Desert, when the Hindu ruler Rao Maldeo Rathore allied with Sher Shah Suri against the Mughal Empire.", "In many accounts Humayun mentions how he and his pregnant wife had to trace their steps through the desert at the hottest time of year.", "Their rations were low, and they had little to eat; even drinking water was a major problem in the desert.", "When Hamida Bano's horse died, no one would lend the Queen (who was now eight months pregnant) a horse, so Humayun did so himself, resulting in him riding a camel for six kilometres (four miles), although Khaled Beg then offered him his mount.", "Humayun was later to describe this incident as the lowest point in his life.", "Humayun asked that his brothers join him as he fell back into Sindh.", "While the previously rebellious Hindal Mirza remained loyal and was ordered to join his brothers in Kandahar.", "Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza instead decided to head to the relative peace of Kabul.", "This was to be a definitive schism in the family.", "Humayun headed for Sindh because he expected aid from the Emir of Sindh, Hussein Umrani, whom he had appointed and who owed him his allegiance.", "Also, his wife Hamida hailed from Sindh; she was the daughter of a prestigious ''pir'' family (a ''pir'' is an Islamic religious guide) of Persian heritage long settled in Sindh.", "En route to the Emir's court, Humayun had to break journey because his pregnant wife Hamida was unable to travel further.", "Humayun sought refuge with the Hindu ruler of the oasis town of Amarkot (now part of Sindh province).Rana Prasad Rao of Amarkot duly welcomed Humayun into his home and sheltered the refugees for several months.", "Here, in the household of a Hindu Rajput nobleman, Humayun's wife Hamida Bano, daughter of a Sindhi family, gave birth to the future Emperor Akbar on 15 October 1542.The date of birth is well established because Humayun consulted his astronomer to utilise the astrolabe and check the location of the planets.", "The infant was the long-awaited heir-apparent to the 34-year-old Humayun and the answer of many prayers.", "Shortly after the birth, Humayun and his party left Amarkot for Sindh, leaving Akbar behind, who was not ready for the grueling journey ahead in his infancy.", "He was later adopted by Askari Mirza.For a change, Humayun was not deceived in the character of the man on whom he has pinned his hopes.", "Emir Hussein Umrani, ruler of Sindh, welcomed Humayun's presence and was loyal to him, just as he had been loyal to Babur against the renegade Arghuns.", "While in Sindh, Humayun alongside Hussein Umrani, gathered horses and weapons and formed new alliances that helped regain lost territories.", "Until finally Humayun had gathered hundreds of Sindhi and Baloch tribesmen alongside his Mughals and then marched towards Kandahar and later Kabul, thousands more gathered by his side as Humayun continually declared himself the rightful Timurid heir of the first Mughal Emperor, Babur." ], [ "Retreat to Kabul", "Humayun and his Mughal Army defeats Kamran Mirza in 1553.After Humayun set out from his expedition in Sindh, along with 300 camels (mostly wild) and 2000 loads of grain, he set off to join his brothers in Kandahar after crossing the Indus River on 11 July 1543 along with the ambition to regain the Mughal Empire and overthrow the Suri dynasty.", "Among the tribes that had sworn allegiance to Humayun were the Leghari, Magsi, Rind and many others.In Kamran Mirza's territory, Hindal Mirza had been placed under house arrest in Kabul after refusing to have the ''Khutba'' recited in Kamran Mirza's name.", "His other brother, Askari Mirza, was now ordered to gather an army and march on Humayun.", "When Humayun received word of the approaching hostile army he decided against facing them, and instead sought refuge elsewhere.", "Akbar was left behind in camp close to Kandahar, as it was December, too cold and dangerous to include the 14-month-old toddler in the march through the mountains of the Hindu Kush.", "Askari Mirza took Akbar in, leaving the wives of Kamran and Askari Mirza to raise him.", "The ''Akbarnama'' specifies Kamran Mirza's wife, Sultan Begam.Once again Humayun turned toward Kandahar where his brother Kamran Mirza was in power, but he received no help and had to seek refuge with the Shah of Persia" ], [ "Refuge in Persia", "Shah Tahmasp provided Humayun with 12,000 cavalry and 300 veterans of his personal guard along with provisions, so that his guests may recover their lost domains.Shah Tahmasp I and the Mughal Emperor Humayun in Isfahan.Humayun fled to the refuge of the Safavid Empire in Persia, marching with 40 men, his wife Bega Begum, and her companion through mountains and valleys.", "Among other trials the Imperial party were forced to live on horse meat boiled in the soldiers' helmets.", "These indignities continued during the month it took them to reach Herat, however after their arrival they were reintroduced to the finer things in life.", "Upon entering the city his army was greeted with an armed escort, and they were treated to lavish food and clothing.", "They were given fine accommodations and the roads were cleared and cleaned before them.", "The Shah, Tahmasp I, unlike Humayun's own family, actually welcomed the Mughal, and treated him as a royal visitor.", "Here Humayun went sightseeing and was amazed at the Persian artwork and architecture he saw: much of this was the work of the Timurid Sultan Husayn Bayqarah and his ancestor, princess Gauhar Shad, thus he was able to admire the work of his relatives and ancestors at first hand.The Mughal monarch was introduced to the work of the Persian miniaturists, and Kamaleddin Behzad had two of his pupils join Humayun in his court.", "Humayun was amazed at their work and asked if they would work for him if he were to regain the sovereignty of Hindustan: they agreed.", "With so much going on Humayun did not even meet Tahmasp until July, some six months after the former's arrival in Persia.", "After a lengthy journey from Herat the two met in Qazvin where a large feast and parties were held for the event.", "The meeting of the two emperors is depicted in a famous wall-painting in the Chehel Sotoun (Forty Columns) palace in Esfahan.Tahmasp urged that Humayun convert from Sunni to Shia Islam in order to keep himself and several hundred followers alive.", "Although the Mughals initially disagreed to their conversion they knew that with this outward acceptance of Shi'ism, Tahmasp was eventually prepared to offer Humayun more substantial support.", "When Humayun's brother, Kamran Mirza, offered to cede Kandahar to the Persians in exchange for Humayun, dead or alive, Tahmasp refused.", "Instead he staged a celebration, with 300 tents, an imperial Persian carpet, 12 musical bands and \"meat of all kinds\".", "Here the Shah announced that all this, and 12,000 elite cavalry were Humayun's to lead an attack on Kamran.", "All that Tahmasp asked for was that, if Humayun's forces were victorious, Kandahar would be his." ], [ "Kandahar and onward", "The infant Akbar presents a painting to his father Humayun.With this Persian Safavid aid Humayun took Kandahar from Askari Mirza after a two-week siege.", "He noted how the nobles who had served Askari Mirza quickly flocked to serve him, \"in very truth the greater part of the inhabitants of the world are like a flock of sheep, wherever one goes the others immediately follow\".", "Kandahar was, as agreed, given to the Shah of Persia who sent his infant son, Murad, as the viceroy.", "However, the baby soon died and Humayun thought himself strong enough to assume power.Humayun now prepared to take Kabul, ruled by his brother Kamran Mirza.", "In the end, there was no actual siege.", "Kamran Mirza was detested as a leader and as Humayun's Persian army approached the city hundreds of the former's troops changed sides, flocking to join Humayun and swelling his ranks.", "Kamran Mirza absconded and began building an army outside the city.", "In November 1545, Hamida and Humayun were reunited with their son Akbar, and held a huge feast.", "They also held another feast in the child's honour when he was circumcised.Humayun is reunited with Akbar.However, while Humayun had a larger army than Kamran Mirza and had the upper hand, on two occasions his poor military judgement allowed the latter to retake Kabul and Kandahar, forcing Humayun to mount further campaigns for their recapture.", "He might have been aided in this by his reputation for leniency towards the troops who had defended the cities against him, as opposed to Kamran Mirza, whose brief periods of possession were marked by atrocities against the inhabitants who, he supposed, had helped his brother.His youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, formerly the most disloyal of his siblings, died fighting on his behalf.", "His brother Askari Mirza was shackled in chains at the behest of his nobles and aides.", "He was allowed go on Hajj, and died en route in the desert outside Damascus.Humayun's other brother, Kamran Mirza, had repeatedly sought to have him killed.", "In 1552 Kamran Mirza attempted to make a pact with Islam Shah, Sher Shah's successor, but was apprehended by a Gakhar.", "The Gakhars were one of the minority of tribal groups who had consistently remained loyal to their oath to the Mughals.", "Sultan Adam of the Gakhars handed Kamran Mirza over to Humayun.", "Humayun, though inclined to forgive Kamran Mirza, was warned that allowing his brother's repeated acts of treachery to go unpunished could foment rebellion amongst his own supporters.", "So, instead of killing Kamran Mirza, Humayun had him blinded, thereby ending any claim by the latter to the throne.", "He then sent Kamran Mirza on Hajj, as he hoped to see his brother thereby absolved of his offences.", "However Kamran Mirza died close to Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula in 1557." ], [ "Restoration of the Mughal Empire", "Humayun receiving the head of his opponent, Qaracha Khan.An image from an album commissioned by Shah Jahan shows Humayun sitting beneath a tree in his garden in India.In 1535, When Humayun was Governor of Gujarat, he encamped near Cambay (Khambhat).", "Humayun and his army was robbed and plundered by Kolis of Gujarat.Sher Shah Suri had died in 1545; his son and successor Islam Shah died in 1554.These two deaths left the dynasty reeling and disintegrating.", "Three rivals for the throne all marched on Delhi, while in many cities leaders tried to stake a claim for independence.", "This was a perfect opportunity for the Mughals to march back to India.The Mughal Emperor Humayun gathered a vast army and attempted the challenging task of retaking the throne in Delhi.", "Due to the Safavid role in Humayun's army, the vast majority of the army of the Shi'a faith, as one Shaikh Ahmad described to Humayun, \"My king, I see the whole of your army are Rafizi...Everywhere the names of your soldiers are of this kind.", "I find they are all Yar Ali or Kashfi Ali or Haider Ali and I have, not found a single man bearing the names of the other Companions.\"", "Humayun placed the army under the leadership of Bairam Khan, a wise move given Humayun's record of military ineptitude, and it turned out to be prescient as Bairam proved himself a great tactician.Bairam Khan led the army through the Punjab virtually unopposed.", "The only major battle faced by Humayun's armies was against Sikandar Shah Suri in Sirhind, where Bairam Khan employed a tactic whereby he engaged his enemy in open battle but then retreated quickly in apparent fear.", "When the enemy followed after them, they were surprised by entrenched defensive positions and were easily annihilated.", "At the Battle of Sirhind on 22 June 1555, the armies of Sikandar Shah Suri were decisively defeated and the Mughal Empire was reestablished.After Sirhind, most towns and villages chose to welcome the invading army as it made its way to the capital.", "On 23 July 1555, Humayun once again sat on Babur's throne in Delhi.===Marriage relations with the Khanzadas===The ''Gazetteer of Ulwur'' states:===Ruling Kashmir===Copper coin of HumayunWith all of Humayun's brothers now dead, there was no fear of another usurping his throne during his military campaigns.", "He was also now an established leader and could trust his generals.", "With this new-found strength Humayun embarked on a series of military campaigns aimed at extending his reign over areas in the east and west of the subcontinent.", "His sojourn in exile seems to have reduced his reliance, and his military leadership came to imitate the more effective methods that he had observed in Persia." ], [ "Character", "Edward S. Holden writes; \"He was uniformly kind and considerate to his dependents, devotedly attached to his son Akbar, to his friends, and to his turbulent brothers.", "The misfortunes of his reign arose in great part, from his failure to treat them with rigor.\"", "He further writes: \"The very defects of his character, which render him less admirable as a successful ruler of nations, make us more fond of him as a man.", "His renown has suffered in that his reign came between the brilliant conquests of Babur and the beneficent statesmanship of Akbar; but he was not unworthy to be the son of the one and the father of the other.", "\"Stanley Lane-Poole writes in his book ''Medieval India'': \"His name meant the winner (Lucky/Conqueror), there is no king in the history to be named as wrong as Humayun\", he was of a forgiving nature.", "He further writes, \"He was in fact unfortunate ... Scarcely had he enjoyed his throne for six months in Delhi when he slipped down from the polished steps of his palace and died in his forty-ninth year (Jan. 24, 1556).", "If there was a possibility of falling, Humayun was not the man to miss it.", "He tumbled through his life and tumbled out of it.", "\"Humayun ordered the crushing by elephant of an imam he mistakenly believed to be critical of his reign." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Tomb entrance viewHumayun's Tomb in Delhi, India, was commissioned by his chief wife, Bega BegumOn 24 January 1556, Humayun, with his arms full of books, was descending the staircase from his library Sher Mandal when the muezzin announced the Azaan (the call to prayer).", "It was his habit, wherever and whenever he heard the summons, to bow his knee in holy reverence.", "Trying to kneel, he caught his foot in his robe, slipped down several steps and hit his temple on a rugged stone edge.", "He died three days later.", "His body was laid to rest in Purana Quila initially, but, because of an attack by Hemu on Delhi and the capture of Purana Qila, Humayun's body was exhumed by the fleeing army and transferred to Kalanaur in Punjab where Akbar was crowned.", "After young Mughal emperor Akbar defeated and killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat.", "Humayun's body was buried in Humayun's Tomb in Delhi the first very grand garden tomb in Mughal architecture, setting the precedent later followed by the Taj Mahal and many other Indian monuments.", "It was commissioned by his favorite and devoted chief wife, Bega Begum.Akbar later asked his paternal aunt, Gulbadan Begum, to write a biography of his father Humayun, the ''Humayun nameh'' (or ''Humayun-nama''), and what she remembered of Babur.The full title is ''Ahwal Humayun Padshah Jamah Kardom Gulbadan Begum bint Babur Padshah amma Akbar Padshah''.", "She was only eight when Babur died, and was married at 17, and her work is in simple Persian style.Unlike other Mughal royal biographies (the ''Zafarnama'' of Timur, ''Baburnama'', and his own ''Akbarnama'') no richly illustrated copy has survived, and the work is only known from a single battered and slightly incomplete manuscript, now in the British Library, that emerged in the 1860s.", "Annette Beveridge published an English translation in 1901, and editions in English and Bengali have been published since 2000." ], [ "See also", "*''Humayun'' (film)*Persian Inscriptions on Indian Monuments" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "*****" ], [ "Bibliography", "*; English translation only, as text***''Cambridge History of India'', Vol.", "III & IV, \"Turks and Afghan\" and \"The Mughal Period\".", "(Cambridge) 1928*William Irvine ''The Army of the Indian Moghuls''.", "(London) 1902.", "(''Last revised 1985'')*Jos Gommans ''Mughal Warfare'' (London) 2002*" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Prince-elector" ], [ "Introduction", "The imperial prince-electors left to right: Archbishop of Cologne, Archbishop of Mainz, Archbishop of Trier, Count Palatine, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Bohemia (''Codex Balduini Trevirorum'', )Count Palatine of the Rhine hands over a golden bowl, acting as a servant.", "Behind him, the Duke of Saxony with his marshal's staff and the Margrave of Brandenburg bringing a bowl of warm water, as a valet.", "Below, the new king in front of the great men of the empire (Heidelberg , around 1300)The '''prince-electors''' ( pl.", ", , ) were the members of the electoral college that elected the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.From the 13th century onwards, a small group of prince-electors gained the privilege of electing the King of the Romans.", "The king would then later be crowned Emperor by the pope.", "Charles V (elected in 1519) was the last emperor to be crowned (1530); his successors assumed the title \"Elected Emperor of the Romans\" (; ) upon their coronation as kings.The dignity of elector carried great prestige and was considered to be second only to that of king or emperor.", "The electors held exclusive privileges that were not shared with other princes of the Empire, and they continued to hold their original titles alongside that of elector.The heir apparent to a secular prince-elector was known as an '''electoral prince''' ()." ], [ "Rights and privileges", "Electors were rulers of (Imperial Estates), enjoying precedence over the other Imperial Princes.", "They were, until the 18th century, exclusively entitled to be addressed with the title (Serene Highness).", "In 1742, the electors became entitled to the superlative (Most Serene Highness), while other princes were promoted to .As rulers of Imperial Estates, the electors enjoyed all the privileges of princes, including the right to enter into alliances, to autonomy in relation to dynastic affairs, and to precedence over other subjects.", "The Golden Bull granted them the Privilegium de non appellando, which prevented their subjects from lodging an appeal to a higher Imperial court.", "However, while this privilege, and some others, were automatically granted to Electors, they were not exclusive to them and many of the larger Imperial Estates were also to be individually granted some or all those rights and privileges." ], [ "Imperial Diet", "The electors, like the other princes ruling States of the Empire, were members of the Imperial Diet, which was divided into three ''collegia'': the Council of Electors, the Council of Princes, and the Council of Cities.", "In addition to being members of the Council of Electors, most electors were also members of the Council of Princes by virtue of possessing territory or holding ecclesiastical position.", "The assent of both bodies was required for important decisions affecting the structure of the Empire, such as the creation of new electorates or States of the Empire.Many electors ruled a number of States of the Empire or held several ecclesiastical titles, and therefore had multiple votes in the Council of Princes.", "In 1792, the Elector of Brandenburg had eight votes, the Elector of Bavaria six votes, the Elector of Hanover six votes, the King of Bohemia three votes, the Elector-Archbishop of Trier three votes, the Elector-Archbishop of Cologne two votes, and the Elector-Archbishop of Mainz one vote.", "Thus, of the hundred votes in the Council of Princes in 1792, twenty-nine belonged to electors, giving them considerable influence in the Council of Princes in addition to their positions as electors.In addition to voting by colleges or councils, the Imperial Diet also voted in religious coalitions, as provided for in the Peace of Westphalia.", "The Archbishop of Mainz presided over the Catholic body, the , while the Elector of Saxony presided over the Protestant body, the .", "The division into religious bodies was on the basis of the official religion of the state." ], [ "Elections", "The electors were originally summoned by the Archbishop of Mainz within one month of an Emperor's death, and met within three months of being summoned.", "During the ''interregnum'', imperial power was exercised by two imperial vicars.", "Each vicar, in the words of the Golden Bull, was \"the administrator of the empire itself, with the power of passing judgments, of presenting to ecclesiastical benefices, of collecting returns and revenues and investing with fiefs, of receiving oaths of fealty for and in the name of the holy empire\".", "The Elector of Saxony was vicar in areas operating under Saxon law (Saxony, Westphalia, Hannover, and northern Germany), while the Elector Palatine was vicar in the remainder of the Empire (Franconia, Swabia, the Rhine, and southern Germany).", "The Elector of Bavaria replaced the Elector Palatine in 1623, but when the latter was granted a new electorate in 1648, there was a dispute between the two as to which was vicar.", "In 1659, both purported to act as vicar, but ultimately, the other vicar recognized the Elector of Bavaria.", "Later, the two electors made a pact to act as joint vicars, but the Imperial Diet rejected the agreement.", "In 1711, while the Elector of Bavaria was under the ban of the Empire, the Elector Palatine again acted as vicar, but his cousin was restored to his position upon his restoration three years later.Finally, in 1745, the two agreed to alternate as vicars, with Bavaria starting first.", "This arrangement was upheld by the Imperial Diet in 1752.In 1777, the question was settled when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria.", "On many occasions, however, there was no interregnum, as a new king had been elected during the lifetime of the previous Emperor.Frankfurt regularly served as the site of the election from the fourteenth century on, but elections were also held at Cologne (1531), Regensburg (1575 and 1636), and Augsburg (1653 and 1690).", "An elector could appear in person or could appoint another elector as his proxy.", "More often, an electoral suite or embassy was sent to cast the vote; the credentials of such representatives were verified by the Archbishop of Mainz, who presided over the ceremony.", "The deliberations were held at the city hall, but voting occurred in the cathedral.", "In Frankfurt, a special electoral chapel, or , was used for elections.", "Under the Golden Bull, a majority of electors sufficed to elect a king, and each elector could cast only one vote.", "Electors were free to vote for whomsoever they pleased (including themselves), but dynastic considerations played a great part in the choice.From the sixteenth century on, electors drafted a , or electoral capitulation, which was presented to the king-elect.", "The capitulation may be described as a contract between the princes and the king, the latter conceding rights and powers to the electors and other princes.", "Once an individual swore to abide by the electoral capitulation, he assumed the office of King of the Romans.In the 10th and 11th centuries, princes often acted merely to confirm hereditary succession in the Ottonian and Salian dynasty.", "But with the actual formation of the prince-elector class, elections became more open, starting with the election of Lothair III in 1125.The Staufen dynasty managed to get its sons formally elected in their fathers' lifetimes almost as a formality.", "After these lines ended in extinction, the electors began to elect kings from different families so that the throne would not once again settle within a single dynasty.", "All kings elected from 1438 onwards were from among the Habsburg dynasty until 1740, when Austria was inherited by a woman, Maria Theresa, sparking the War of the Austrian Succession an the short-lived rule of a Bavarian Wittelsbach emperor.", "In 1745, Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I of Lorraine, was elected emperor.", "All of his successors were also from the Habsburg-Lorraine family.", "=== High offices ===Each elector held a \"High Office of the Empire\" () analogous to a modern cabinet office position and was a member of the ceremonial Imperial Household.", "The three spiritual electors became Archchancellors (, ): the Archbishop of Mainz became ''Archchancellor of Germany'', the Archbishop of Cologne became ''Archchancellor of Italy'', and the Archbishop of Trier became ''Archchancellor of Burgundy''.", "The secular electors were granted heraldic augmentations to their coats of arms reflecting their positions in the Household.", "These augmentations were displayed in three alternative ways: firstly, as an inescutcheon on their coat of arms (as in the case of the Arch-Steward, Treasurer, and Chamberlain); secondly: as dexter impalements (as in the case of the Arch-Marshal and Arch-Bannerbearer) and thirdly: integrated into the charge within the escutcheon (as in the case of the Arch-Cupbearer, where the Lion of Bohemia acquired a \"simple crown\" held in his dexter paw).Imperial office(German, Latin) Augmentation Elector Arch-Cupbearer(''Erzmundschenk,Archipincerna'') 40px''A simple crown, or'' King of Bohemia Arch-Steward(''Erztruchseß'',''Archidapifer'') 40px''gules, an orb, Or''Elector Palatine (1356-1623)Elector of Bavaria (1623–1706)Elector Palatine (1706–1714)Elector of Bavaria (1714–1806) Arch-Marshal(''Erzmarschall'',''Archimarescallus'')40px''per fess sable and argent, two swords in saltire, gules'' Elector of SaxonyArch-Chamberlain(''Erzkämmerer'',''Archicamerarius'') 40px 40px''azure, a scepter palewise, or'' Elector of Brandenburg Arch-Treasurer(''Erzschatzmeister'',''Archithesaurarius'') 40px''Gules, Crown of the Holy Roman Empire, or''Elector Palatine (1648–1706)Elector of Hanover (1710–1714)Elector Palatine (1714–1777)Elector of Hanover (1777–1806) Arch-Bannerbearer(''Erzbannerträger'',''Archivexillarius'') 40px''Azure, a lance party per fess, or, and gules bendwiseflying to sinister chief a banner, or, with the Imperial Eagle'' Elector of Hanover (1692–1710)Elector of Hanover (1714–1777)Elector of Württemberg (1803–1806)Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria and Prince-Elector, with inescutcheon of the Arch-Steward of the Holy Roman EmpireKing George III.When the Duke of Bavaria replaced the Elector Palatine in 1623, he assumed the latter's office of Arch-Steward.", "When the Count Palatine was granted a new electorate, he assumed the position of Arch-Treasurer of the Empire.", "When the Duke of Bavaria was banned in 1706, the Elector Palatine returned to the office of Arch-Steward, and in 1710, the Elector of Hanover was promoted to the post of Arch-Treasurer.", "Matters were complicated by the Duke of Bavaria's restoration in 1714; the Elector of Bavaria resumed the office of Arch-Steward, while the Elector Palatine returned to the post of Arch-Treasurer, and the Elector of Hanover was given the new office of Archbannerbearer.", "The Electors of Hanover, however, continued to be styled Arch-Treasurers, though the Elector Palatine was the one who actually exercised the office until 1777, when he inherited Bavaria and the Arch-Stewardship.", "After 1777, no further changes were made to the Imperial Household; new offices were planned for the Electors admitted in 1803, but the Empire was abolished before they could be created.", "The Duke of Württemberg, however, started to adopt the trappings of the Arch-Bannerbearer.The electors discharged the ceremonial duties associated with their offices only during coronations, where they bore the crown and regalia of the Empire.", "Otherwise, they were represented by holders of corresponding \"Hereditary Offices of the Household\".", "The Arch-Butler was represented by the Hereditary Butler (Cupbearer) (the Count of Althann), the Arch-Seneschal by the Hereditary Steward (the Count of Waldburg, who adopted the title into their name as \"Truchsess von Waldburg\"), the Arch-Chamberlain by the Hereditary Chamberlain (the Count of Hohenzollern), the Arch-Marshal by the Hereditary Marshal (the Count of Pappenheim), and the Arch-Treasurer by the Hereditary Treasurer (the Count of Sinzendorf).", "After 1803, the Duke of Württemberg as Arch-Bannerbearer assigned the count of Zeppelin-Aschhausen as Hereditary Bannerbearer." ], [ "History", "Germania.", "Original colours were vivid.", "Germania's gown was gold, not beige, and the blue-grey was purple.", "Also, the browns were painted as vivid red and the muted grey in Saxony's arms was a brilliant green.The German practice of electing monarchs began when ancient Germanic tribes formed ''ad hoc'' coalitions and elected the leaders thereof.", "Elections were irregularly held by the Franks, whose successor states include France and the Holy Roman Empire.", "The French monarchy eventually became hereditary, but the Holy Roman Emperors remained elective.", "While all free men originally exercised the right to vote in such elections, suffrage eventually came to be limited to the leading men of the realm.", "In the election of Lothar III in 1125, a small number of eminent nobles chose the monarch and then submitted him to the remaining magnates for their approbation.Soon, the right to choose the monarch was settled on an exclusive group of princes, and the procedure of seeking the approval of the remaining nobles was abandoned.", "The college of electors was mentioned in 1152 and again in 1198.The composition of electors at that time is unclear, but appears to have included bishops and the dukes of the stem duchies.=== 1257 to Thirty Years' War ===The electoral college is known to have existed by 1152, but its composition is unknown.", "A letter written by Pope Urban IV in 1265 suggests that by \"immemorial custom\", seven princes had the right to elect the King and future Emperor.", "The pope wrote that the seven electors were those who had just voted in the election of 1257, which resulted in the election of two kings.", "* Three ecclesiastical Electors:** The Archbishop of Mainz** The Archbishop of Trier** The Archbishop of Cologne* Four secular Electors:** The King of Bohemia** The Count Palatine of the Rhine** The Duke of Saxony** The Margrave of BrandenburgThe three Archbishops oversaw the most venerable and powerful sees in Germany.", "Since 1214, the Palatinate and Bavaria were held by the same individual, but in 1253, they were divided between two members of the House of Wittelsbach.", "The other electors refused to allow two princes from the same dynasty to have electoral rights, so a heated rivalry arose between the Count Palatine and the Duke of Bavaria over who should hold the Wittelsbach seat.Meanwhile, the King of Bohemia, who held the ancient imperial office of Arch-Cupbearer, asserted his right to participate in elections.", "Sometimes he was challenged on the grounds that his kingdom was not German, though usually he was recognized, instead of Bavaria which after all was just a younger line of Wittelsbachs.The Declaration of Rhense issued in 1338 had the effect that election by the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation.", "The Golden Bull of 1356 finally resolved the disputes among the electors.", "Under it, the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, as well as the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg held the right to elect the King.The college's composition remained unchanged until the 17th century, although the Electorate of Saxony was transferred from the senior to the junior branch of the Wettin family in 1547, in the aftermath of the Schmalkaldic War.=== Thirty Years' War to Napoleon ===In 1623, the Elector Palatine, Frederick V, came under the imperial ban after participating in the Bohemian Revolt (a part of the Thirty Years' War).", "The Elector Palatine's seat was conferred on the Duke of Bavaria, the head of a junior branch of his family.", "Originally, the Duke held the electorate personally, but it was later made hereditary along with the duchy.", "When the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, a new electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine.", "Since the Elector of Bavaria retained his seat, the number of electors increased to eight; the two Wittelsbach lines were now sufficiently estranged so as not to pose a combined potential threat.In 1685, the religious composition of the College of Electors was disrupted when a Catholic branch of the Wittelsbach family inherited the Palatinate.", "A new Protestant electorate was created in 1692 for the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who became known as the Elector of Hanover (the Imperial Diet officially confirmed the creation in 1708).", "The Elector of Saxony converted to Catholicism in 1697 so that he could become King of Poland, but no additional Protestant electors were created.", "Although the Elector of Saxony was personally Catholic, the Electorate itself remained officially Protestant, and the Elector even remained the leader of the Protestant body in the Reichstag.In 1706, the Elector of Bavaria and Archbishop of Cologne were outlawed during the War of the Spanish Succession, but both were restored in 1714 after the Peace of Baden.", "In 1777, the number of electors was reduced to eight when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria.Many changes to the composition of the college were necessitated by Napoleon's aggression during the early 19th century.", "The Treaty of Lunéville (1801), which ceded territory on the Rhine's left bank to France, led to the abolition of the archbishoprics of Trier and Cologne, and the transfer of the remaining spiritual Elector from Mainz to Regensburg.", "In 1803, electorates were created for the Duke of Württemberg, the Margrave of Baden, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and the Duke of Salzburg, bringing the total number of electors to ten.", "When Austria annexed Salzburg under the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), the Duke of Salzburg moved to the Grand Duchy of Würzburg and retained his electorate.", "None of the new electors, however, had an opportunity to cast votes, as the Holy Roman Empire was abolished in 1806, and the new electorates were never confirmed by the Emperor.In 1788, the ruling family of Savoy pushed to receive an electoral title.", "Their ambition was backed by Brandenburg-Prussia.", "However, the French Revolution and subsequent Coalition Wars soon rendered this a moot point.=== After the Empire ===After the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in August 1806, the Electors continued to reign over their territories, many of them taking higher or alternative titles.", "The Electors of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony styled themselves Kings, while the Electors of Baden, Regensburg, and Würzburg became Grand Dukes.", "The Elector of Hesse-Kassel, however, retained the meaningless title \"Elector of Hesse\", thus distinguishing himself from other Hessian princes (the Grand Duke of Hesse(-Darmstadt) and the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg).", "Napoleon soon exiled him and Kassel was annexed to the Kingdom of Westphalia, a new creation.", "The King of Great Britain remained at war with Napoleon and continued to style himself Elector of Hanover, while the Hanoverian government continued to operate in London.The Congress of Vienna accepted the Electors of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony as Kings, along with the newly created Grand Duke of Baden.", "The Elector of Hanover finally joined his fellow Electors by declaring himself the King of Hanover.", "The restored Elector of Hesse tried to be recognized as the King of the Chatti.", "However, the European powers refused to acknowledge this title at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) and instead listed him with the Grand Dukes as a \"Royal Highness\".", "Believing the title of Prince-Elector to be superior in dignity to that of Grand Duke, the Elector of Hesse-Kassel chose to remain an Elector, even though there was no longer a Holy Roman Emperor to elect.", "Hesse-Kassel remained the only Electorate in Germany until 1866, when the country backed the losing side in the Austro-Prussian War and was absorbed into Prussia." ], [ "Marks of office", "===Electoral arms===Coats of arms of prince electors surround the Holy Roman Emperor's; from flags book of Jacob Köbel (163#+1545).", "Left to right: Cologne, Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, the Palatinate, Trier, MainzBelow are the State arms of each Imperial Elector.", "Emblems of Imperial High Offices are shown on the appropriate arms.Maximilian surrounded by shields of electoratesThree Electors Spiritual (Archbishops): all three were annexed by various powers through German Mediatisation of 1803.File:Mainz Arms.svg|MainzFile:Trier Arms.svg|TrierFile:Coat of Arms of Electorate of Cologne.svg|Cologne Four Electors Secular:File:Arch Cupbearer Holding Augment.png|alt=Kingdom of Bohemia.", "The white lion bears in his right paw a simple crown, the emblem of the office of Arch Cupbearer.", "Restored directly from Medieval, hand-drawn armorials.|Kingdom of Bohemia.", "The white lion bears in his right paw a simple crown, the device of the office of Arch Cupbearer.", "Restored directly from Medieval, hand-drawn armorials.File:Arms of the Electoral Palatinate (Variant 1).svg|The Palatinate was an electorate until 1777, when the Elector acceded to Bavaria.", "The office of Arch-Treasurer transferred to Hanover.File:Blason Jean-Georges IV de Saxe.svg|SaxonyFile:Arms of Brandenburg.svg|Brandenburg Electors added in the 17th century:File:Arms of Charles VII Albert, Holy Roman Emperor.svg|Bavaria was granted electoral dignity by Ferdinand II in 1623, removing the dignity from the Count Palatine of the Rhine.Royal Hanover Inescutcheon.svg|Hanover (Brunswick-Lüneburg), made an elector by Leopold I in 1692 as a reward for aid given in the War of the Grand Alliance.", "Later, the ceremonial office of Chief Treasurer was transferred here from the Palatinate.====Napoleonic additions====As Napoleon waged war on Europe, between 1803 and 1806, the following changes to the Constitution of the Holy Roman Empire were attempted until the Empire's collapse.", "Except for the prince Württemberg, who had already inherited his office, the electors were not given augments or high office in the imperial household.File:Augmented arms of electoral Württemberg.png|In 1777, the number of Electors dropped from nine to eight, until 1803, when Württemberg was raised to an electorate by Napoleon, while the prince himself was elevated from Standard-Bearer () to Arch-Standardbearer.File:Arms_of_the_house_of_Hesse-Kassel_(3).svg|Hesse-Cassel was added in 1803.File:Wappen Regensburg.svg|Principality of Regensburg was added in 1803, after the annexation of Mainz by the French.File:Kursalzburg.png|Grand Duchy of Salzburg was added in 1803.After it was mediatized to Austria in 1805, its electoral vote was transferred to Würzburg.", "Salzburg and Würzburg were ruled by the same person, Ferdinand III.File:Wappen Großherzogtum Würzburg.svg|Grand Duchy of Würzburg was added in 1805.File:Coat of arms of Baden.svg|Margraviate of Baden was added in 1803." ], [ "Timeline of electors", "Years'''Archchancellor of Kingdom of Germany''''''Archchancellor of Kingdom of Italy''''''Archchancellor of Kingdom of Burgundy (Head of Corpus Catholicorum)''''''Arch-Cupbearer''''''Arch-Steward (Imperial Vicar)''''''Arch-Marshal (Imperial Vicar) (Head of Corpus Evangelicorum)''''''Arch-Chamberlain''''''Arch-Treasurer''''''Arch-Bannerbearer'''1356–1623135x135pxPrince-Archbishopric of Mainz135x135pxPrince-Archbishopric of Cologne135x135pxPrince-Archbishopric of Trier125x125pxKingdom of Bohemia115x115pxCounty Palatine of the Rhine116x116pxDuchy of Saxe-Wittenberg115x115pxMargraviate of Brandenburg1623–164880x80pxDuchy of BavariaImperial Ban1648–1692115x115pxCounty Palatine of the Rhine1692–1706114x114pxDuchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg1706–1710Imperial Ban115x115pxCounty Palatine of the RhineImperial Ban1710-1714114x114pxDuchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg1714-1777135x135pxPrince-Archbishopric of Cologne80x80pxDuchy of Bavaria115x115pxCounty Palatine of the Rhine114x114pxDuchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg1777–1801114x114pxDuchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg1801–18031803–1805130x130pxPrince-Archbishopric of Regensburg115x115pxPrince-Archbishopric of Salzburg119x119pxMargraviate of Baden111x111pxDuchy of Württemberg116x116pxLandgraviate of Hesse-Kassel1805–1806118x118pxPrince-Bishopric of WürzburgDissolution of the Holy Roman Empire" ], [ "See also", "* Elective monarchy* Electoral Palace (disambiguation)* Electress* Imperial election" ], [ "References", "=== Armorials ====== Citations ====== Sources ===* Bryce, J.", "(1887).", "''The Holy Roman Empire'', 8th ed.", "New York: Macmillan.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* The Avalon Project.", "(2003).", "\"The Golden Bull of the Emperor Charles IV 1356 A.D.\"* Oestreich, G. and Holzer, E. (1973). \"", "Übersicht über die Reichsstände.\"", "In Gebhardt, Bruno.", "'''', 9th ed.", "(Vol.", "2, pp.", "769–784).", "Stuttgart: Ernst Ketler Verlag.", "* Velde, F. R. (2003).", "\"Royal Styles.", "\"* Velde, F. R. (2004).", "\"The Holy Roman Empire.", "\"* * Armin Wolf, Electors, published 9 May 2011, english version published 26 February 2020 ; in: Historisches Lexikon Bayerns" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Howard Hughes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Howard Robard Hughes Jr.''' (December 24, 1905 – April 5, 1976) was an American aerospace engineer, business magnate, film producer, investor, philanthropist, and pilot.", "He was best known during his lifetime as one of the richest and most influential people in the world.", "He first became prominent as a film producer, and then as an important figure in the aviation industry.", "Later in life, he became known for his eccentric behavior and reclusive lifestyle—oddities that were caused in part by his worsening obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), chronic pain from a near-fatal plane crash, and increasing deafness.As a film tycoon, Hughes gained fame in Hollywood beginning in the late 1920s, when he produced big-budget and often controversial films such as ''The Racket'' (1928), ''Hell's Angels'' (1930), and ''Scarface'' (1932).", "He later acquired the RKO Pictures film studio in 1948, recognized then as one of the Big Five studios of Hollywood's Golden Age, although the production company struggled under his control and ultimately ceased operations in 1957.Through his interest in aviation and aerospace travel, Hughes formed the Hughes Aircraft Company in 1932, hiring numerous engineers, designers, and defense contractors.", "He spent the rest of the 1930s and much of the 1940s setting multiple world air speed records and building the Hughes H-1 Racer (1935) and the gigantic H-4 Hercules (the ''Spruce Goose'', 1947), the largest flying boat in history with the longest wingspan of any aircraft from the time it was built until 2019.He acquired and expanded Trans World Airlines and later acquired Air West, renaming it Hughes Airwest.", "Hughes won the Harmon Trophy on two occasions (1936 and 1938), the Collier Trophy (1938), and the Congressional Gold Medal (1939) all for his achievements in aviation throughout the 1930s.", "He was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1973 and was included in ''Flying'' magazine's 2013 list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation, ranked at 25.During his final years, Hughes extended his financial empire to include several major businesses in Las Vegas, such as real estate, hotels, casinos, and media outlets.", "Known at the time as one of the most powerful men in the state of Nevada, he is largely credited with transforming Vegas into a more refined cosmopolitan city.", "After years of mental and physical decline, Hughes died of kidney failure in 1976.His legacy is maintained through the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the Howard Hughes Corporation." ], [ "Early life", "Hughes in April 1912Hughes's houseHoward Robard Hughes Jr. was the only child of Allene Stone Gano (1883–1922) and of Howard R. Hughes Sr. (1869–1924), a successful inventor and businessman from Missouri.", "He had English, Welsh and some French Huguenot ancestry, and was a descendant of John Gano (1727–1804), the minister who allegedly baptized George Washington.", "Through John Gano's sister Sussanah, Hughes was a 5th cousin 1 time removed of the Wright brothers Orville and Wilbur, who invented the first successful airplane.", "Hughes Sr. patented the two-cone roller bit in 1909, which allowed rotary drilling for petroleum in previously inaccessible places.", "The senior Hughes made the shrewd and lucrative decision to commercialize the invention by leasing the bits instead of selling them, obtaining several early patents, and founding the Hughes Tool Company in 1909.Hughes's uncle was the famed novelist, screenwriter, and film director Rupert Hughes.A 1941 affidavit birth certificate of Hughes, signed by his aunt Annette Gano Lummis and by Estelle Boughton Sharp, states that he was born on December 24, 1905, in Harris County, Texas.", "However, his certificate of baptism, recorded on October 7, 1906, in the parish register of St. John's Episcopal Church in Keokuk, Iowa, listed his date of birth as September 24, 1905, without any reference to the place of birth.At a young age, Hughes Jr. showed interest in science and technology.", "In particular, he had a great engineering aptitude, and built Houston's first \"wireless\" radio transmitter at age 11.He went on to be one of the first licensed ham-radio operators in Houston, having the assigned callsign W5CY (originally 5CY).", "At 12, Hughes was photographed for the local newspaper, which identified him as the first boy in Houston to have a \"motorized\" bicycle, which he had built from parts of his father's steam engine.", "He was an indifferent student, with a liking for mathematics, flying, and mechanics.", "He took his first flying lesson at 14, and attended Fessenden School in Massachusetts in 1921.After a brief stint at The Thacher School, Hughes attended math and aeronautical engineering courses at Caltech.", "The red-brick house where Hughes lived as a teenager at 3921 Yoakum Blvd., Houston, still stands, now known as Hughes House on the grounds of the University of St. Thomas.His mother Allene died in March 1922 from complications of an ectopic pregnancy.", "Howard Hughes Sr. died of a heart attack in 1924.Their deaths apparently inspired Hughes to include the establishment of a medical research laboratory in the will that he signed in 1925 at age 19.Howard Sr.'s will had not been updated since Allene's death, and Hughes Jr. inherited 75% of the family fortune.", "On his 19th birthday, Hughes was declared an emancipated minor, enabling him to take full control of his life.From a young age, Hughes became a proficient and enthusiastic golfer.", "He often scored near-par figures, playing the game to a two-three handicap during his 20s, and for a time aimed for a professional golf career.", "He golfed frequently with top players, including Gene Sarazen.", "Hughes rarely played competitively and gradually gave up his passion for the sport to pursue other interests.Hughes played golf every afternoon at LA courses including the Lakeside Golf Club, Wilshire Country Club, or the Bel-Air Country Club.", "Partners included George Von Elm or Ozzie Carlton.", "After Hughes hurt himself in the late 1920s, his golfing tapered off, and after his XF-11 crash, Hughes was unable to play at all.Hughes withdrew from Rice University shortly after his father's death.", "On June 1, 1925, he married Ella Botts Rice, daughter of David Rice and Martha Lawson Botts of Houston, and great-niece of William Marsh Rice, for whom Rice University was named.", "They moved to Los Angeles, where he hoped to make a name for himself as a filmmaker.They moved into the Ambassador Hotel, and Hughes proceeded to learn to fly a Waco, while simultaneously producing his first motion picture, ''Swell Hogan''." ], [ "Business career", "Hughes enjoyed a highly successful business career beyond engineering, aviation, and filmmaking; many of his career endeavors involved varying entrepreneurial roles.===Entertainment===Ralph Graves persuaded Hughes to finance a short film, ''Swell Hogan'', which Graves had written and would star in.", "Hughes himself produced it.", "However, it was a disaster.", "After hiring a film editor to try to salvage it, he finally ordered that it be destroyed.", "His next two films, ''Everybody's Acting'' (1926) and ''Two Arabian Knights'' (1927), achieved financial success; the latter won the first Academy Award for Best Director of a comedy picture.", "''The Racket'' (1928) and ''The Front Page'' (1931) were also nominated for Academy Awards.Hughes spent $3.5 million to make the flying film ''Hell's Angels'' (1930).", "''Hell's Angels'' received one Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography.He produced another hit, ''Scarface'' (1932), a production delayed by censors' concern over its violence.", "''The Outlaw'' premiered in 1943, but was not released nationally until 1946.The film featured Jane Russell, who received considerable attention from industry censors, this time owing to her revealing costumes.====RKO====Time'' magazine, July 1948 (with the Hughes H-4 Hercules in the background)From the 1940s to the late 1950s, the Hughes Tool Company ventured into the film industry when it obtained partial ownership of the RKO companies, which included RKO Pictures, RKO Studios, a chain of movie theaters known as RKO Theatres and a network of radio stations known as the RKO Radio Network.In 1948, Hughes gained control of RKO, a struggling major Hollywood studio, by acquiring the 929,000 shares owned by Floyd Odlum's Atlas Corporation, for $8,825,000 ($107,165,160 in 2023).", "Within weeks of acquiring the studio, Hughes dismissed 700 employees.", "Production dwindled to 9 pictures during the first year of Hughes's control; previously RKO had averaged 30 per year.Janet Leigh and John Wayne in ''Jet Pilot'' (1957).", "Hughes was the producer of the film when he acquired RKO.That same year, 1948, he was able to arrange for his previous films with United Artists (UA), ''The Outlaw'', ''Mad Wednesday'', and ''Vendetta'' to be transferred to RKO.", "In exchange for the three completed being removed from UA distribution, Hughes and James and Theodore Nasser of General Service Studios would provide the financing of three independent films for distribution by UA.", "In terms of negotiations directly with RKO, the company agree to remove the production of the film ''Jet Pilot'' from David O. Selznick to Hughes.", "Hughes produced the film during the years 1949-1950 and owned RKO and in turn the distribution for the film.", "However, the film was not released until 1957 by Universal Pictures due in part to the subsequent events that would take place at RKO Distribution, and largely due the extra aerial film footage that had been filmed over the years after the film's 1950 completion.", "Hughes was undertaking a final edit before the 1957 release.After his acquisition of RKO, Hughes shut down production at the studio for six months, during which time he ordered investigations into the political leanings of every remaining RKO employee.", "Only after ensuring that the stars under contract to RKO had no suspect affiliations would Hughes approve completed pictures to be sent back for re-shooting.", "This was especially true of the women under contract to RKO at that time.", "If Hughes felt that his stars did not properly represent the political views of his liking or if a film's anti-communist politics were not sufficiently clear, he pulled the plug.", "In 1952, an abortive sale to a Chicago-based five-man syndicate, two of whom had a history of complaints about their business practices and none with any experience in the movie industry, disrupted studio operations at RKO even further.In 1953, Hughes became involved with a high-profile lawsuit as part of the settlement of the ''United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.'' Antitrust Case.", "As a result of the hearings, the shaky status of RKO became increasingly apparent.", "A steady stream of lawsuits from RKO's minority shareholders had grown to become extremely annoying to Hughes.", "They had accused him of financial misconduct and corporate mismanagement.", "Since Hughes wanted to focus primarily on his aircraft manufacturing and TWA holdings during the years of the Korean War of 1950 to 1953, Hughes offered to buy out all other RKO stockholders in order to dispense with their distractions.By the end of 1954, Hughes had gained near-total control of RKO at a cost of nearly $24 million, becoming the first sole owner of a major Hollywood studio since the silent-film era.", "Six months later Hughes sold the studio to the General Tire and Rubber Company for $25 million.", "Hughes retained the rights to pictures that he had personally produced, including those made at RKO.", "He also retained Jane Russell's contract.", "For Howard Hughes, this was the virtual end of his 25-year involvement in the motion-picture industry.", "However, his reputation as a financial wizard emerged unscathed.", "During that time period, RKO became known as the home of classic ''film noir'' productions, thanks in part to the limited budgets required to make such films during Hughes's tenure.", "Hughes reportedly walked away from RKO having made $6.5 million in personal profit.", "According to Noah Dietrich, Hughes made a $10,000,000 profit from the sale of the theaters and made a profit of $1,000,000 from his 7-year ownership of RKO.===Real estate===According to Noah Dietrich, \"Land became a principal asset for the Hughes empire\".", "Hughes acquired 1200 acres in Culver City for Hughes Aircraft, bought 7 sections 4,480 acres in Tucson for his Falcon missile-plant, and purchased 25,000 acres near Las Vegas.", "In 1968, the Hughes Tool Company purchased the North Las Vegas Air Terminal.Originally known as Summa Corporation, the Howard Hughes Corporation formed in 1972 when the oil-tools business of Hughes Tool Company, then owned by Howard Hughes Jr., floated on the New York Stock Exchange under the \"Hughes Tool\" name.", "This forced the remaining businesses of the \"original\" Hughes Tool to adopt a new corporate name: \"Summa\".", "The name \"Summa\"Latin for \"highest\"was adopted without the approval of Hughes himself, who preferred to keep his own name on the business, and suggested \"HRH Properties\" (for Hughes Resorts and Hotels, and also his own initials).", "In 1988 Summa announced plans for Summerlin, a master-planned community named for the paternal grandmother of Howard Hughes, Jean Amelia Summerlin.Initially staying in the Desert Inn, Hughes refused to vacate his room, and instead decided to purchase the entire hotel.", "Hughes extended his financial empire to include Las Vegas real estate, hotels, and media outlets, spending an estimated $300 million, and using his considerable powers to acquire many of the well-known hotels, especially the venues connected with organized crime.", "He quickly became one of the most powerful men in Las Vegas.", "He was instrumental in changing the image of Las Vegas from its Wild West roots into a more refined cosmopolitan city.", "In addition to the Desert Inn, Hughes would eventually own the Sands, Frontier, Silver Slipper, Castaways, and Landmark and Harold's Club in Reno.", "During his four years in Las Vegas, Hughes became the largest employer in Nevada.===Aviation and aerospace===Hughes with his Boeing 100 in the 1940sAnother portion of Hughes's commercial interests involved aviation, airlines, and the aerospace and defense industries.", "A lifelong aircraft enthusiast and pilot, Hughes survived four airplane accidents: one in a Thomas-Morse Scout while filming ''Hell's Angels'', one while setting the airspeed record in the Hughes Racer, one at Lake Mead in 1943, and the near-fatal crash of the Hughes XF-11 in 1946.At Rogers Airport in Los Angeles, he learned to fly from pioneer aviators, including Moye Stephens and J.B. Alexander.", "He set many world records and commissioned the construction of custom aircraft for himself while heading Hughes Aircraft at the airport in Glendale, CA.", "Operating from there, the most technologically important aircraft he commissioned was the Hughes H-1 Racer.", "On September 13, 1935, Hughes, flying the H-1, set the landplane airspeed record of over his test course near Santa Ana, California (Giuseppe Motta reaching 362 mph in 1929 and George Stainforth reached 407.5 mph in 1931, both in seaplanes).", "This marked the last time in history that an aircraft built by a private individual set the world airspeed record.", "A year and a half later, on January 19, 1937, flying the same H-1 Racer fitted with longer wings, Hughes set a new transcontinental airspeed record by flying non-stop from Los Angeles to Newark in seven hours, 28 minutes, and 25 seconds (beating his own previous record of nine hours, 27 minutes).", "His average ground-speed over the flight was .The H-1 Racer featured a number of design innovations: it had retractable landing gear (as Boeing Monomail had five years before), and all rivets and joints set flush into the body of the aircraft to reduce drag.", "The H-1 Racer is thought to have influenced the design of a number of World War II fighters such as the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, Focke-Wulf Fw 190, and F8F Bearcat, although that has never been reliably confirmed.", "In 1975 the H-1 Racer was donated to the Smithsonian.====Hughes Aircraft====Hughes Aircraft Company logo until 1985In 1932 Hughes founded the Hughes Aircraft Company, a division of Hughes Tool Company, in a rented corner of a Lockheed Aircraft Corporation hangar in Burbank, California, to build the H-1 racer.Shortly after founding the company, Hughes used the alias \"Charles Howard\" to accept a job as a baggage handler for American Airlines.", "He was soon promoted to co-pilot.Hughes continued to work for American Airlines until his real identity was discovered.During and after World War II Hughes turned his company into a major defense contractor.", "The Hughes Helicopters division started in 1947 when helicopter manufacturer Kellett sold their latest design to Hughes for production.", "Hughes Aircraft became a major U.S. aerospace- and defense contractor, manufacturing numerous technology-related products that included spacecraft vehicles, military aircraft, radar systems, electro-optical systems, the first working laser, aircraft computer systems, missile systems, ion-propulsion engines (for space travel), commercial satellites, and other electronics systems.In 1948 Hughes created a new division of Hughes Aircraft: the Hughes Aerospace Group.", "The Hughes Space and Communications Group and the Hughes Space Systems Division were later spun off in 1948 to form their own divisions and ultimately became the Hughes Space and Communications Company in 1961.In 1953 Howard Hughes gave all his stock in the Hughes Aircraft Company to the newly formed Howard Hughes Medical Institute, thereby turning the aerospace and defense contractor into a tax-exempt charitable organization.", "The Howard Hughes Medical Institute sold Hughes Aircraft in 1985 to General Motors for $5.2 billion.", "In 1997 General Motors sold Hughes Aircraft to Raytheon and in 2000, sold Hughes Space & Communications to Boeing.", "A combination of Boeing, GM, and Raytheon acquired the Hughes Research Laboratories, which focused on advanced developments in microelectronics, information & systems sciences, materials, sensors, and photonics; their work-space spans from basic research to product delivery.", "It has particularly emphasized capabilities in high-performance integrated circuits, high-power lasers, antennas, networking, and smart materials.====Round-the-world flight====On July 14, 1938, Hughes set another record by completing a flight around the world in just 91 hours (three days, 19 hours, 17 minutes), beating the previous record of 186 hours (seven days, 18 hours, 49 minutes) set in 1933 by Wiley Post in a single-engine Lockheed Vega by almost four days.", "Hughes returned home ahead of photographs of his flight.", "Taking off from New York City, Hughes continued to Paris, Moscow, Omsk, Yakutsk, Fairbanks, and Minneapolis, then returning to New York City.", "For this flight he flew a Lockheed 14 Super Electra (NX18973, a twin-engine transport with a crew of four) fitted with the latest radio and navigational equipment.", "Harry Connor was the co-pilot, Thomas Thurlow the navigator, Richard Stoddart the engineer, and Ed Lund the mechanic.", "Hughes wanted the flight to be a triumph of U.S. aviation technology, illustrating that safe, long-distance air travel was possible.", "Albert Lodwick of Mystic, Iowa, provided organizational skills as the flight operations manager.", "While Hughes had previously been relatively obscure despite his wealth, better known for dating Katharine Hepburn, New York City now gave him a ticker-tape parade in the Canyon of Heroes.", "Hughes and his crew were awarded the 1938 Collier Trophy for flying around the world in record time.", "He was awarded the Harmon Trophy in 1936 and 1938 for the record-breaking global circumnavigation.In 1938 the William P. Hobby Airport in Houston, Texas—known at the time as Houston Municipal Airport—was renamed after Hughes, but the name was changed back due to public outrage over naming the airport after a living person.", "Hughes also had a role in the financing of the Boeing 307 Stratoliner for TWA, and the design and financing of the Lockheed L-049 Constellation.Other aviator awards include: the Bibesco Cup of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in 1938, the Octave Chanute Award in 1940, and a special Congressional Gold Medal in 1939 \"in recognition of the achievements of Howard Hughes in advancing the science of aviation and thus bringing great credit to his country throughout the world\".President Harry S. Truman sent the Congressional medal to Hughes after the F-11 crash.", "After his around-the-world flight, Hughes had declined to go to the White House to collect it.====Hughes D-2====Development of the D-2 began around 1937, but little is known about its early gestation because Hughes' archives on the aircraft have not been made public.", "Aircraft historian René Francillon speculates that Hughes designed the aircraft for another circumnavigation record attempt, but the outbreak of World War II closed much of the world's airspace and made it difficult to buy aircraft parts without government approval, so he decided to sell the aircraft to the U.S. Army instead.", "In December 1939, Hughes proposed that the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) procure it as a \"pursuit type airplane\" (i.e.", "a fighter aircraft).", "It emerged as a two or three-seat twin-boom aircraft powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-2800-49 engines and constructed mostly of Duramold, a type of molded plywood.", "The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF, successor to the USAAC) struggled to define a mission for the D-2, which lacked both the maneuverability of a fighter and the payload of a bomber, and was highly skeptical of the extensive use of plywood; however, the project was kept alive by high-level intervention from General Henry H. Arnold.", "The prototype was brought to Harper's Dry Lake in California in great secrecy in 1943 and first flew on June 20 of that year.", "The initial test flights revealed serious flight control problems, so the D-2 returned to the hangar for extensive changes to its wings, and Hughes proposed to redesignate it as the D-5.However, in November 1944, the still-incomplete D-2 was destroyed in a hangar fire reportedly caused by a lightning strike.====Fatal crash of the Sikorsky S-43====The S-43 Sikorsky in Brazoria County Airport in TexasBrazoria County Airport Texas: The S-43 Sikorsky prototypeIn the spring of 1943 Hughes spent nearly a month in Las Vegas, test-flying his Sikorsky S-43 amphibious aircraft, practicing touch-and-go landings on Lake Mead in preparation for flying the H-4 Hercules.", "The weather conditions at the lake during the day were ideal and he enjoyed Las Vegas at night.", "On May 17, 1943, Hughes flew the Sikorsky from California, carrying two Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA) aviation inspectors, two of his employees, and actress Ava Gardner.", "Hughes dropped Gardner off in Las Vegas and proceeded to Lake Mead to conduct qualifying tests in the S-43.The test flight did not go well.", "The Sikorsky crashed into Lake Mead, killing CAA inspector Ceco Cline and Hughes's employee Richard Felt.", "Hughes suffered a severe gash on the top of his head when he hit the upper control panel and had to be rescued by one of the others on board.", "Hughes paid divers $100,000 to raise the aircraft and later spent more than $500,000 restoring it.", "Hughes sent the plane to Houston, where it remained for many years.====Hughes XF-11====Acting on a recommendation of the president's son, Colonel Elliott Roosevelt, who had become friends with Hughes, in September 1943 General Arnold issued a directive to order 100 of a reconnaissance development of the D-2, known as the F-11 (XF-11 in prototype form).", "The project was controversial from the beginning, as the USAAF Air Materiel Command deeply doubted that Hughes Aircraft could fulfill a contract this large, but Arnold pushed the project forward.", "Materiel Command demanded a host of major design changes notably including the elimination of Duramold; Hughes, who sought $3.9 million in reimbursement for sunk costs from the D-2, strenuously objected because this undercut his argument that the XF-11 was a modified D-2 rather than a new design.", "Protracted negotiations caused months of delays but ultimately yielded few design concessions.", "The war ended before the first XF-11 prototype was completed and the F-11 production contract was canceled.", "The XF-11 emerged in 1946 as an all-metal, twin-boom, three-seat reconnaissance aircraft, substantially larger than the D-2 and powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-4360-31 engines, each driving a set of contra-rotating propellers.", "Only two prototypes were completed; the second one had a conventional single propeller per side.=====Near-fatal crash of the XF-11=====1946 newsreelHughes was almost killed on July 7, 1946, while performing the first flight of the XF-11 near Hughes Airfield at Culver City, California.", "Hughes extended the test flight well beyond the 45-minute limit decreed by the USAAF, possibly distracted by landing gear retraction problems.", "An oil leak caused one of the contra-rotating propellers to reverse pitch, causing the aircraft to yaw sharply and lose altitude rapidly.", "Hughes attempted to save the aircraft by landing it at the Los Angeles Country Club golf course, but just seconds before reaching the course, the XF-11 started to drop dramatically and crashed in the Beverly Hills neighborhood surrounding the country club.When the XF-11 finally came to a halt after destroying three houses, the fuel tanks exploded, setting fire to the aircraft and a nearby home at 808 North Whittier Drive owned by Lt Col. Charles E. Meyer.", "Hughes managed to pull himself out of the flaming wreckage but lay beside the aircraft until he was rescued by U.S. Marine Corps Master Sergeant William L. Durkin, who happened to be in the area visiting friends.", "Hughes sustained significant injuries in the crash, including a crushed collar bone, multiple cracked ribs, crushed chest with collapsed left lung, shifting his heart to the right side of the chest cavity, and numerous third-degree burns.", "An oft-told story said that Hughes sent a check to the Marine weekly for the remainder of his life as a sign of gratitude.", "Noah Dietrich asserted that Hughes did send Durkin $200 a month, but Durkin's daughter denied knowing that he received any money from Hughes.Despite his physical injuries, Hughes took pride that his mind was still working.", "As he lay in his hospital bed, he decided that he did not like the bed's design.", "He called in plant engineers to design a customized bed, equipped with hot and cold running water, built in six sections, and operated by 30 electric motors, with push-button adjustments.", "Hughes designed the hospital bed specifically to alleviate the pain caused by moving with severe burn injuries.", "He never used the bed that he designed.", "Hughes's doctors considered his recovery almost miraculous.Many attribute his long-term dependence on opiates to his use of codeine as a painkiller during his convalescence.", "Yet Dietrich asserts that Hughes recovered the \"hard way—no sleeping pills, no opiates of any kind\".", "The trademark mustache he wore afterward hid a scar on his upper lip resulting from the accident.====H-4 Hercules====The Hughes H-4 Hercules with Hughes at the controlsThe War Production Board (not the military) originally contracted with Henry Kaiser and Hughes to produce the gigantic HK-1 Hercules flying boat for use during World War II to transport troops and equipment across the Atlantic as an alternative to seagoing troop transport ships that were vulnerable to German U-boats.", "The military services opposed the project, thinking it would siphon resources from higher-priority programs, but Hughes's powerful allies in Washington, D.C. advocated it.", "After disputes, Kaiser withdrew from the project and Hughes elected to continue it as the H-4 Hercules.", "However, the aircraft was not completed until after World War II.The Hercules was the world's largest flying boat, the largest aircraft made from wood, and, at , had the longest wingspan of any aircraft (the next-largest wingspan was about ).", "(The Hercules is no longer the longest nor heaviest aircraft ever built - surpassed by the Antonov An-225 ''Mriya'' produced in 1985.", ")The Hercules flew only once for , and above the water, with Hughes at the controls, on November 2, 1947.Critics nicknamed the Hercules the ''Spruce Goose'', but it was actually made largely from birch (not spruce) rather than from aluminum, because the contract required that Hughes build the aircraft of \"non-strategic materials\".", "It was built in Hughes's Westchester, California, facility.", "In 1947, Howard Hughes was summoned to testify before the Senate War Investigating Committee to explain why the H-4 development had been so troubled, and why $22 million had produced only two prototypes of the XF-11.General Elliott Roosevelt and numerous other USAAF officers were also called to testify in hearings that transfixed the nation during August and November 1947.In hotly-disputed testimony over TWA's route awards and malfeasance in the defense-acquisition process, Hughes turned the tables on his main interlocutor, Maine senator Owen Brewster, and the hearings were widely interpreted as a Hughes victory.", "After being displayed at the harbor of Long Beach, California, the Hercules was moved to McMinnville, Oregon, where it features at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum.On November 4, 2017, the 70th anniversary of the only flight of the H-4 Hercules was celebrated at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum with Hughes's paternal cousin Michael Wesley Summerlin and Brian Palmer Evans, son of Hughes radio technology pioneer Dave Evans, taking their positions in the recreation of a photo that was previously taken of Hughes, Dave Evans, and Joe Petrali on board the H-4 Hercules.====Airlines====In 1939, at the urging of Jack Frye, president of Transcontinental & Western Airlines, the predecessor of Trans World Airlines (TWA), Hughes began to quietly purchase a majority share of TWA stock (78% of stock, to be exact); he took a controlling interest in the airline by 1944.Although he never had an official position with TWA, Hughes handpicked the board of directors, which included Noah Dietrich, and often issued orders directly to airline staff.", "Hughes Tool Co. purchased the first six Stratoliners Boeing manufactured.", "Hughes used one personally, and he let TWA operate the other five.Lockheed Constellation in TWA liveryHughes is commonly credited as the driving force behind the Lockheed Constellation airliner, which Hughes and Frye ordered in 1939 as a long-range replacement for TWA's fleet of Boeing 307 Stratoliners.", "Hughes personally financed TWA's acquisition of 40 Constellations for $18 million, the largest aircraft order in history up to that time.", "The Constellations were among the highest-performing commercial aircraft of the late 1940s and 1950s and allowed TWA to pioneer nonstop transcontinental service.", "During World War II Hughes leveraged political connections in Washington to obtain rights for TWA to serve Europe, making it the only U.S. carrier with a combination of domestic and transatlantic routes.After the announcement of the Boeing 707, Hughes opted to pursue a more advanced jet aircraft for TWA and approached Convair in late 1954.Convair proposed two concepts to Hughes, but Hughes was unable to decide which concept to adopt, and Convair eventually abandoned its initial jet project after the mockups of the 707 and Douglas DC-8 were unveiled.", "Even after competitors such as United Airlines, American Airlines and Pan American World Airways had placed large orders for the 707, Hughes only placed eight orders for 707s through the Hughes Tool Company and forbade TWA from using the aircraft.", "After finally beginning to reserve 707 orders in 1956, Hughes embarked on a plan to build his own \"superior\" jet aircraft for TWA, applied for CAB permission to sell Hughes aircraft to TWA, and began negotiations with the state of Florida to build a manufacturing plant there.", "However, he abandoned this plan around 1958, and in the interim, negotiated new contracts for 707 and Convair 880 aircraft and engines totaling $400 million.The financing of TWA's jet orders precipitated the end of Hughes's relationship with Noah Dietrich, and ultimately Hughes's ouster from control of TWA.", "Hughes did not have enough cash on hand or future cash flow to pay for the orders and did not immediately seek bank financing.", "Hughes's refusal to heed Dietrich's financing advice led to a major rift between the two by the end of 1956.Hughes believed that Dietrich wished to have Hughes committed as mentally incompetent, although the evidence of this is inconclusive.", "Dietrich resigned by telephone in May 1957 after repeated requests for stock options, which Hughes refused to grant, and with no further progress on the jet financing.", "As Hughes's mental state worsened, he ordered various tactics to delay payments to Boeing and Convair; his behavior led TWA's banks to insist that he be removed from management as a condition for further financing.In 1960, Hughes was ultimately forced out of the management of TWA, although he continued to own 78% of the company.", "In 1961, TWA filed suit against Hughes Tool Company, claiming that the latter had violated antitrust law by using TWA as a captive market for aircraft trading.", "The claim was largely dependent upon obtaining testimony from Hughes himself.", "Hughes went into hiding and refused to testify.", "A default judgment was issued against Hughes Tool Company for $135 million in 1963 but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1973, on the basis that Hughes was immune from prosecution.", "In 1966, Hughes was forced to sell his TWA shares.", "The sale of his TWA shares brought Hughes $546,549,771.Hughes acquired control of Boston-based Northeast Airlines in 1962.However, the airline's lucrative route authority between major northeastern cities and Miami was terminated by a CAB decision around the time of the acquisition, and Hughes sold control of the company to a trustee in 1964.Northeast went on to merge with Delta Air Lines in 1972.McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jets in Hughes Airwest liveryIn 1970, Hughes acquired San Francisco-based Air West and renamed it Hughes Airwest.", "Air West had been formed in 1968 by the merger of Bonanza Air Lines, Pacific Air Lines, and West Coast Airlines, all of which operated in the western U.S. By the late 1970s, Hughes Airwest operated an all-jet fleet of Boeing 727-200, Douglas DC-9-10, and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jetliners serving an extensive route network in the western U.S. with flights to Mexico and western Canada as well.", "By 1980, the airline's route system reached as far east as Houston (Hobby Airport) and Milwaukee with a total of 42 destinations being served.", "Hughes Airwest was then acquired by and merged into Republic Airlines (1979–1986) in late 1980.Republic was subsequently acquired by and merged into Northwest Airlines which in turn was ultimately merged into Delta Air Lines in 2008.=== Business with David Charnay ===Hughes had made numerous business partnerships through industrialist and producer David Charnay.", "Their friendship and many partnerships began with the film ''The Conqueror'', which was released to the public in 1956.The film caused many controversies due to its critical flop and radioactive location used in St. George, Utah, that eventually led to Hughes buying up nearly every copy of the film he could, only to watch the film at home repeatedly for many nights in a row.Charnay later bought Four Star, the film and television production company that produced ''The Conqueror.", "''Hughes and Charnay's most published dealings were with a contested AirWest leveraged buyout.", "Charnay led the buyout group that involved Howard Hughes and their partners acquiring Air West.", "Hughes, Charnay, as well as three others, were indicted.", "The indictment, made by U.S. Attorney DeVoe Heaton, accused the group of conspiring to drive down the stock price of Air West in order to pressure company directors to sell to Hughes.", "The charges were dismissed after a judge had determined that the indictment had failed to allege an illegal action on the part of Hughes, Charnay, and all the other accused in the indictment.", "Thompson, the federal judge that made the decision to dismiss the charges, called the indictment one of the worst claims that he had ever seen.", "The charges were filed a second time by U.S. Attorney DeVoe Heaton's assistant, Dean Vernon.", "The Federal Judge ruled on November 13, 1974, and elaborated to say that the case suggested a \"reprehensible misuse of the power of great wealth\", but in his judicial opinion, \"no crime had been committed.\"", "The aftermath of the Air West deal was later settled with the SEC by paying former stockholders for alleged losses from the sale of their investment in Air West stock.", "As noted above, Air West was subsequently renamed Hughes Airwest.", "During a long pause between the years of the dismissed charges against Hughes, Charnay, and their partners, Howard Hughes mysteriously died mid-flight while on the way to Houston from Acapulco.", "No further attempts were made to file any indictments after Hughes died." ], [ "Howard Hughes Medical Institute", "In 1953, Hughes launched the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Miami (currently located in Chevy Chase, Maryland near Washington, D.C.), with the expressed goal of basic biomedical research, including trying to understand, in Hughes's words, the \"genesis of life itself\", due to his lifelong interest in science and technology.", "Hughes's first will, which he signed in 1925 at the age of 19, stipulated that a portion of his estate should be used to create a medical institute bearing his name.", "When a major battle with the IRS loomed ahead, Hughes gave all his stock in the Hughes Aircraft Company to the institute, thereby turning the aerospace and defense contractor into a for-profit entity of a fully tax-exempt charity.", "Hughes's internist, Verne Mason, who treated Hughes after his 1946 aircraft crash, was chairman of the institute's medical advisory committee.", "The Howard Hughes Medical Institute's new board of trustees sold Hughes Aircraft in 1985 to General Motors for $5.2 billion, allowing the institute to grow dramatically.In 1954, Hughes transferred Hughes Aircraft to the foundation, which paid Hughes Tool Co. $18,000,000 for the assets.", "The foundation leased the land from Hughes Tool Co., which then subleased it to Hughes Aircraft Corp.", "The difference in rent, $2,000,000 per year, became the foundation's working capital.The deal was the topic of a protracted legal battle between Hughes and the Internal Revenue Service, which Hughes ultimately won.", "After his death in 1976, many thought that the balance of Hughes's estate would go to the institute, although it was ultimately divided among his cousins and other heirs, given the lack of a will to the contrary.", "The HHMI was the fourth largest private organization and one of the largest devoted to biological and medical research, with an endowment of $20.4 billion ." ], [ "''Glomar Explorer'' and the taking of ''K-129''", "In 1972, during the cold war era, Hughes was approached by the CIA through his longtime partner, David Charnay, to help secretly recover the Soviet submarine ''K-129'', which had sunk near Hawaii four years earlier.", "Hughes's involvement provided the CIA with a plausible cover story, conducting expensive civilian marine research at extreme depths and the mining of undersea manganese nodules.", "The recovery plan used the special-purpose salvage vessel ''Glomar Explorer''.", "In the summer of 1974, ''Glomar Explorer'' attempted to raise the Soviet vessel.", "However, during the recovery a mechanical failure in the ship's grapple caused half of the submarine to break off and fall to the ocean floor.", "This section is believed to have held many of the most sought-after items, including its code book and nuclear missiles.", "Two nuclear-tipped torpedoes and some cryptographic machines were recovered, along with the bodies of six Soviet submariners who were subsequently given formal burial at sea in a filmed ceremony.", "The operation, known as Project Azorian (but incorrectly referred to by the press as Project Jennifer), became public in February 1975 after secret documents were released, obtained by burglars of Hughes's headquarters in June 1974.Although he lent his name and his company's resources to the operation, Hughes and his companies had no operational involvement in the project.", "The ''Glomar Explorer'' was eventually acquired by Transocean and was sent to the scrap yard in 2015 during a large decline in oil prices." ], [ "Personal life", "=== Early romances ===In 1929, Hughes's wife of four years, Ella, returned to Houston and filed for divorce.Hughes dated many famous women, including Joan Crawford, Debra Paget, Billie Dove, Faith Domergue, Bette Davis, Yvonne De Carlo, Ava Gardner, Olivia de Havilland, Katharine Hepburn, Hedy Lamarr, Ginger Rogers, Pat Sheehan, Gloria Vanderbilt, Mamie Van Doren and Gene Tierney.", "He also proposed to Joan Fontaine several times, according to her autobiography ''No Bed of Roses''.", "Jean Harlow accompanied him to the premiere of ''Hell's Angels'', but Noah Dietrich wrote many years later that the relationship was strictly professional, as Hughes disliked Harlow personally.", "In his 1971 book, ''Howard: The Amazing Mr. Hughes'', Dietrich said that Hughes genuinely liked and respected Jane Russell, but never sought romantic involvement with her.", "According to Russell's autobiography, however, Hughes once tried to bed her after a party.", "Russell (who was married at the time) refused him, and Hughes promised it would never happen again.", "The two maintained a professional and private friendship for many years.", "Hughes remained good friends with Tierney who, after his failed attempts to seduce her, was quoted as saying \"I don't think Howard could love anything that did not have a motor in it\".", "Later, when Tierney's daughter Daria was born deaf and blind and with a severe learning disability because of Tierney's exposure to rubella during her pregnancy, Hughes saw to it that Daria received the best medical care and paid all expenses.=== Luxury yacht ===In 1933, Hughes made a purchase of a luxury steam yacht named the ''Rover'', which was previously owned by Scottish shipping magnate James Mackay, 1st Earl of Inchcape.", "Hughes stated that \"I have never seen the ''Rover'' but bought it on the blueprints, photographs and the reports of Lloyd's surveyors.", "My experience is that the English are the most honest race in the world.\"", "Hughes renamed the yacht ''Southern Cross'' and later sold her to Swedish entrepreneur Axel Wenner-Gren.=== 1936 automobile accident ===On July 11, 1936, Hughes struck and killed a pedestrian named Gabriel S. Meyer with his car at the corner of 3rd Street and Lorraine in Los Angeles.", "After the crash, Hughes was taken to the hospital and certified as sober, but an attending doctor made a note that Hughes had been drinking.", "A witness to the crash told police that Hughes was driving erratically and too fast and that Meyer had been standing in the safety zone of a streetcar stop.", "Hughes was booked on suspicion of negligent homicide and held overnight in jail until his attorney, Neil S. McCarthy, obtained a writ of ''habeas corpus'' for his release pending a coroner's inquest.", "By the time of the coroner's inquiry, however, the witness had changed his story and claimed that Meyer had moved directly in front of Hughes's car.", "Nancy Bayly (Watts), who was in the car with Hughes at the time of the crash, corroborated this version of the story.", "On July 16, 1936, Hughes was held blameless by a coroner's jury at the inquest into Meyer's death.", "Hughes told reporters outside the inquiry, \"I was driving slowly and a man stepped out of the darkness in front of me\".===Marriage to Jean Peters===On January 12, 1957, Hughes married actress Jean Peters at a small hotel in Tonopah, Nevada.", "The couple met in the 1940s, before Peters became a film actress.", "They had a highly publicized romance in 1947 and there was talk of marriage, but she said she could not combine it with her career.", "Some later claimed that Peters was \"the only woman Hughes ever loved\", and he reportedly had his security officers follow her everywhere even when they were not in a relationship.", "Such reports were confirmed by actor Max Showalter, who became a close friend of Peters while shooting ''Niagara'' (1953).", "Showalter told an interviewer that because he frequently met with Peters, Hughes's men threatened to ruin his career if he did not leave her alone.=== Connections to Richard Nixon and Watergate ===Shortly before the 1960 Presidential election, Richard Nixon was alarmed when it was revealed that his brother, Donald, had received a $205,000 loan from Hughes.", "It has long been speculated that Nixon's drive to learn what the Democrats were planning in 1972 was based in part on his belief that the Democrats knew about a later bribe that his friend Bebe Rebozo had received from Hughes after Nixon took office.In late 1971, Donald Nixon was collecting intelligence for his brother in preparation for the upcoming presidential election.", "One of his sources was John H. Meier, a former business adviser of Hughes who had also worked with Democratic National Committee Chairman Larry O'Brien.Meier, in collaboration with former Vice President Hubert Humphrey and others, wanted to feed misinformation to the Nixon campaign.", "Meier told Donald that he was sure the Democrats would win the election because Larry O'Brien had a great deal of information on Richard Nixon's illicit dealings with Howard Hughes that had never been released; O'Brien did not actually have any such information, but Meier wanted Nixon to think that he did.", "Donald told his brother that O'Brien was in possession of damaging Hughes information that could destroy his campaign.", "Terry Lenzner, who was the chief investigator for the Senate Watergate Committee, speculates that it was Nixon's desire to know what O'Brien knew about Nixon's dealings with Hughes that may have partially motivated the Watergate break-in." ], [ "Last years", "===Physical and mental decline===Hughes was widely considered eccentric and suffered from severe obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).Dietrich wrote that Hughes always ate the same thing for dinner; a New York strip steak cooked medium rare, dinner salad, and peas, but only the smaller ones, pushing the larger ones aside.", "For breakfast, he wanted his eggs cooked the way his family cook, Lily, made them.", "Hughes had a \"phobia about germs\", and \"his passion for secrecy became a mania.", "\"While directing ''The Outlaw'', Hughes became fixated on a small flaw in one of Jane Russell's blouses, claiming that the fabric bunched up along a seam and gave the appearance of two nipples on each breast.", "He wrote a detailed memorandum to the crew on how to fix the problem.", "Richard Fleischer, who directed ''His Kind of Woman'' with Hughes as executive producer, wrote at length in his autobiography about the difficulty of dealing with the tycoon.", "In his book ''Just Tell Me When to Cry'', Fleischer explained that Hughes was fixated on trivial details and was alternately indecisive and obstinate.", "He also revealed that Hughes's unpredictable mood swings made him wonder if the film would ever be completed.In 1958, Hughes told his aides that he wanted to screen some movies at a film studio near his home.", "He stayed in the studio's darkened screening room for more than four months, never leaving.", "He ate only chocolate bars and chicken and drank only milk and was surrounded by dozens of boxes of Kleenex that he continuously stacked and re-arranged.", "He wrote detailed memos to his aides giving them explicit instructions neither to look at him nor speak to him unless spoken to.", "Throughout this period, Hughes sat fixated in his chair, often naked, continuously watching movies.", "When he finally emerged in the summer of 1958, his hygiene was terrible.", "He had neither bathed nor cut his hair and nails for weeks; this may have been due to allodynia, which results in a pain response to stimuli that would normally not cause pain.After the screening room incident, Hughes moved into a bungalow at the Beverly Hills Hotel where he also rented rooms for his aides, his wife, and numerous girlfriends.", "He would sit naked in his bedroom with a pink hotel napkin placed over his genitals, watching movies.", "This may have been because Hughes found the touch of clothing painful due to allodynia.", "He may have watched movies to distract himself from his pain—a common practice among patients with intractable pain, especially those who do not receive adequate treatment.", "In one year, he spent an estimated $11 million at the hotel.Hughes began purchasing restaurant chains and four-star hotels that had been founded within the state of Texas.", "This included, if for only a short period, many unknown franchises currently out of business.", "He placed ownership of the restaurants with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and all licenses were resold shortly after.He became obsessed with the 1968 film ''Ice Station Zebra'', and had it run on a continuous loop in his home.", "According to his aides, he watched it 150 times.", "Feeling guilty about the failure of his film ''The Conqueror'', a commercial and critical flop, he bought every copy of the film for $12 million, watching the film on repeat.", "Paramount Pictures acquired the rights of the film in 1979, three years after his death.Hughes insisted on using tissues to pick up objects to insulate himself from germs.", "He would also notice dust, stains, or other imperfections on people's clothes and demand that they take care of them.", "Once one of the most visible men in America, Hughes ultimately vanished from public view, although tabloids continued to follow rumors of his behavior and whereabouts.", "He was reported to be terminally ill, mentally unstable, or even dead.Injuries from numerous aircraft crashes caused Hughes to spend much of his later life in pain, and he eventually became addicted to codeine, which he injected intramuscularly.", "He had his hair cut and nails trimmed only once a year, likely due to the pain caused by the RSD/CRPS, which was caused by the plane crashes.", "He also stored his urine in bottles.Hughes had this 1954 Chrysler New Yorker equipped with an aircraft-grade air filtration system that took up most of the trunk.=== Later years in Las Vegas ===The wealthy and aging Hughes, accompanied by his entourage of personal aides, began moving from one hotel to another, always taking up residence in the top floor penthouse.", "In the last ten years of his life, 1966 to 1976, Hughes lived in hotels in many cities—including Beverly Hills, Boston, Las Vegas, Nassau, Freeport and Vancouver.On November 24, 1966 (Thanksgiving Day), Hughes arrived in Las Vegas by railroad car and moved into the Desert Inn.", "Because he refused to leave the hotel and to avoid further conflicts with the owners, Hughes bought the Desert Inn in early 1967.The hotel's eighth floor became the center of Hughes' empire, and the ninth-floor penthouse became his personal residence.", "Between 1966 and 1968, he bought several other hotel-casinos, including the Castaways, New Frontier, the Landmark Hotel and Casino, and the Sands.", "He bought the small Silver Slipper casino for the sole purpose of moving its trademark neon silver slipper which was visible from his bedroom, and had apparently kept him awake at night.", "After Hughes left the Desert Inn, hotel employees discovered that his drapes had not been opened during the time he lived there and had rotted through.Hughes wanted to change the image of Las Vegas to something more glamorous.", "He wrote in a memo to an aide, \"I like to think of Las Vegas in terms of a well-dressed man in a dinner jacket and a beautifully jeweled and furred female getting out of an expensive car.\"", "Hughes bought several local television stations (including KLAS-TV).Eventually, the brain trauma from Hughes's previous accidents, the effects of neurosyphilis diagnosed in 1932 and undiagnosed obsessive-compulsive disorder considerably affected his decision-making.", "A small panel, unofficially dubbed the \"Mormon Mafia\" for the many Latter-day Saints on the committee, was led by Frank William Gay and originally served as Hughes's \"secret police\" headquartered at 7000 Romaine.", "Over the next two decades, however, this group oversaw and controlled considerable business holdings, with the CIA anointing Gay while awarding a contract to the Hughes corporation to acquire sensitive information on a sunken Russian submarine.", "In addition to supervising day-to-day business operations and Hughes's health, they also went to great pains to satisfy Hughes's every whim.", "For example, Hughes once became fond of Baskin-Robbins's banana nut ice cream, so his aides sought to secure a bulk shipment for him, only to discover that Baskin-Robbins had discontinued the flavor.", "They put in a request for the smallest amount the company could provide for a special order, 350 gallons (1,300 L), and had it shipped from Los Angeles.", "A few days after the order arrived, Hughes announced he was tired of banana nut and wanted only French vanilla ice cream.", "The Desert Inn ended up distributing free banana nut ice cream to casino customers for a year.", "In a 1996 interview, former Howard Hughes Chief of Nevada Operations Robert Maheu said, \"There is a rumor that there is still some banana nut ice cream left in the freezer.", "It is most likely true.", "\"As an owner of several major Las Vegas businesses, Hughes wielded much political and economic influence in Nevada and elsewhere.", "During the 1960s and early 1970s, he disapproved of underground nuclear testing at the Nevada Test Site.", "Hughes was concerned about the risk from residual nuclear radiation and attempted to halt the tests.", "When the tests finally went through despite Hughes's efforts, the detonations were powerful enough that the entire hotel in which he was living trembled from the shock waves.", "In two separate, last-ditch maneuvers, Hughes instructed his representatives to offer bribes of $1 million to both Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon.In 1970, Jean Peters filed for divorce.", "The two had not lived together for many years.", "Peters requested a lifetime alimony payment of $70,000 a year, adjusted for inflation, and waived all claims to Hughes's estate.", "Hughes offered her a settlement of over a million dollars, but she declined it.", "Hughes did not insist on a confidentiality agreement from Peters as a condition of the divorce.", "Aides reported that Hughes never spoke ill of her.", "She refused to discuss her life with Hughes and declined several lucrative offers from publishers and biographers.", "Peters would state only that she had not seen Hughes for several years before their divorce and had dealt with him only by phone.Hughes was living in the Intercontinental Hotel near Lake Managua in Nicaragua, seeking privacy and security, when a magnitude 6.5 earthquake damaged Managua in December 1972.As a precaution, Hughes moved to a large tent facing the hotel; after a few days, he moved to the Nicaraguan National Palace and stayed there as a guest of Anastasio Somoza Debayle before leaving for Florida on a private jet the following day.", "He subsequently moved into the penthouse at the Xanadu Princess Resort on Grand Bahama Island, which he had recently purchased.", "He lived almost exclusively in the penthouse of the Xanadu Beach Resort & Marina for the last four years of his life.", "Hughes spent a total of $300 million on his many properties in Las Vegas.====Autobiography hoax====In 1972, author Clifford Irving caused a media sensation when he claimed he had co-written an authorized Hughes autobiography.", "Irving claimed he and Hughes had corresponded through the United States mail and offered as proof handwritten notes allegedly sent by Hughes.", "Publisher McGraw-Hill, Inc. was duped into believing the manuscript was authentic.", "Hughes was so reclusive that he did not immediately publicly refute Irving's statement, leading many to believe that Irving's book was genuine.", "However, before the book's publication, Hughes finally denounced Irving in a teleconference attended by reporters Hughes knew personally: James Bacon of the Hearst papers, Marvin Miles of the ''Los Angeles Times'', Vernon Scott of UPI, Roy Neal of NBC News, Gene Handsaker of AP, Wayne Thomas of the ''Chicago Tribune'', and Gladwin Hill of the ''New York Times''.The entire hoax finally unraveled.", "The United States Postal Inspection Service (USPIS) got a subpoena to force Irving to turn over samples of his handwriting.", "The USPIS investigation led to Irving's indictment and subsequent conviction for using the postal service to commit fraud.", "He was incarcerated for 17 months.", "In 1974, the Orson Welles film ''F for Fake'' included a section on the Hughes autobiography hoax, leaving a question open as to whether it was actually Hughes who took part in the teleconference (since so few people had actually heard or seen him in recent years).", "In 1977, ''The Hoax'' by Clifford Irving was published in the United Kingdom, telling his story of these events.", "The 2006 film ''The Hoax'', starring Richard Gere, is also based on these events.===Death===Hughes's gravestoneGlenwood CemeteryHughes is reported to have died on April 5, 1976, at 1:27 p.m. on board an aircraft, Learjet 24B N855W, owned by Robert Graf and piloted by Roger Sutton and Jeff Abrams.", "He was en route from his penthouse at the Acapulco Princess Hotel (now the Fairmont Acapulco Princess) in Mexico to the Methodist Hospital in Houston.His reclusiveness and possibly his drug use made him practically unrecognizable.", "His hair, beard, fingernails, and toenails were long—his tall frame now weighed barely , and the FBI had to use fingerprints to conclusively identify the body.", "Howard Hughes's alias, John T. Conover, was used when his body arrived at a morgue in Houston on the day of his death.An autopsy recorded kidney failure as the cause of death.", "In an eighteen-month study investigating Hughes's drug abuse for the estate, it was found \"someone administered a deadly injection of the painkiller to this comatose man ... obviously needlessly and almost certainly fatal\".", "He suffered from malnutrition and was covered in bedsores.", "While his kidneys were damaged, his other internal organs, including his brain, which had no visible damage or illnesses, were deemed perfectly healthy.", "X-rays revealed five broken-off hypodermic needles in the flesh of his arms.", "To inject codeine into his muscles, Hughes had used glass syringes with metal needles that easily became detached.Hughes is buried next to his parents at Glenwood Cemetery in Houston.====Alleged survival====Following his death, Hughes was subject to several widely rebuked conspiracy theories that he had faked his own death.", "A notable allegation came from retired Major General Mark Musick, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force, who claimed Hughes went on to live under an assumed identity, dying on November 15, 2001, in Troy, Alabama.===Estate===Approximately three weeks after Hughes's death, a handwritten will was found on the desk of an official of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Salt Lake City, Utah.", "The so-called \"Mormon Will\" gave $1.56 billion to various charitable organizations (including $625 million to the Howard Hughes Medical Institute), nearly $470 million to the upper management in Hughes's companies and to his aides, $156 million to first cousin William Lummis, and $156 million split equally between his two ex-wives Ella Rice and Jean Peters.A further $156 million was endowed to a gas station owner, Melvin Dummar, who told reporters that in 1967, he found a disheveled and dirty man lying along U.S. Route 95, just north of Las Vegas.", "The man asked for a ride to Vegas.", "Dropping him off at the Sands Hotel, Dummar said the man told him that he was Hughes.", "Dummar later claimed that days after Hughes's death a \"mysterious man\" appeared at his gas station, leaving an envelope containing the will on his desk.", "Unsure if the will was genuine and unsure of what to do, Dummar left the will at the LDS Church office.", "In 1978, a Nevada court ruled the Mormon Will a forgery and officially declared that Hughes had died intestate (without a valid will).", "Dummar's story was later adapted into Jonathan Demme's film ''Melvin and Howard'' in 1980.Hughes's $2.5 billion estate was eventually split in 1983 among 22 cousins, including William Lummis, who serves as a trustee of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.", "The Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Hughes Aircraft was owned by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, which sold it to General Motors in 1985 for $5.2 billion.", "The court rejected suits by the states of California and Texas that claimed they were owed inheritance tax.In 1984, Hughes's estate paid an undisclosed amount to Terry Moore, who claimed she and Hughes had secretly married on a yacht in international waters off Mexico in 1949 and never divorced.", "Moore never produced proof of a marriage, but her book, ''The Beauty and the Billionaire,'' became a bestseller." ], [ "Awards", "* Harmon Trophy (1936 and 1938)* Collier Trophy (1938)* Congressional Gold Medal (1939)* Octave Chanute Award (1940)* National Aviation Hall of Fame (1973)* International Air & Space Hall of Fame (1987)* Motorsports Hall of Fame of America (2018)" ], [ "Archive", "The moving image collection of Howard Hughes is held at the Academy Film Archive.", "The collection consists of over 200 items including 35mm and 16mm elements of feature films, documentaries, and television programs made or accumulated by Hughes." ], [ "Filmography", " Year Title Director Producer Writer 1927 ''Two Arabian Knights'' 1930 ''Hell's Angels'' 1931 ''The Front Page'' 1932 ''Sky Devils'' ''Scarface'' 1943 ''The Outlaw'' ''Behind the Rising Sun'' 1947 ''The Sin of Harold Diddlebock'' 1950 ''Vendetta'' 1951 ''His Kind of Woman'' 1952 ''Macao'' 1955 ''Son of Sinbad'' 1956 ''The Conqueror'' 1957 ''Jet Pilot''" ], [ "In popular culture", "===Film===* In ''The Carpetbaggers'' (1964), the main character Jonas Cord (played by George Peppard) is loosely based on Howard Hughes.", "* The James Bond film ''Diamonds Are Forever'' (1971) features a tall, Texan, reclusive billionaire character named Willard Whyte (played by Jimmy Dean) who operates his business empire from the penthouse of a Las Vegas hotel.", "Although he appears only late in the film, his habitual seclusion and his control of a major aerospace contracting firm are key elements of the film's plot.", "Several sequences were actually filmed on location at The Landmark Hotel and Casino, which was owned by Hughes at the time.", "* ''The Amazing Howard Hughes'' is a 1977 American made-for-television biographical film which aired as a mini-series on the CBS network, made a year after Hughes's death and based on Noah Dietrich's book ''Howard: The Amazing Mr. Hughes''.", "Tommy Lee Jones plays Hughes.", "* ''Melvin and Howard'' (1980), directed by Jonathan Demme and starring Jason Robards as Howard Hughes and Paul Le Mat as Melvin Dummar.", "The film won Academy Awards for Best Original Screenplay (Bo Goldman) and Best Supporting Actress (Mary Steenburgen).", "The film focuses on Melvin Dummar's claims of meeting Hughes in the Nevada desert and subsequent estate battles over his inclusion in Hughes's will.", "Critic Pauline Kael called the film \"an almost flawless act of sympathetic imagination\".", "*The film Creepshow from 1982 has a segment entitled \"They're Creeping Up on You!\".", "The reclusive, paranoid, tycoon Upson Pratt, played by E. G. Marshall appears to be loosely based upon Hughes.", "*In ''Tucker: The Man and His Dream'', (1988), Hughes (played by Dean Stockwell) figures in the plot by telling Preston Tucker to source steel and engines for Tucker's automobiles from a helicopter manufacturer in New York.", "Scene occurs in a hangar with the Hercules.", "* In ''The Rocketeer'', a 1991 American period superhero film from Walt Disney Pictures, the title character attracts the attention of Howard Hughes (played by Terry O'Quinn) and the FBI, who are hunting for a missing jet pack, as well as Nazi operatives.", "* \"Howard Hughes Documentary\", broadcast in 1992 as an episode of the ''Time Machine'' documentary series, was introduced by Peter Graves, later released by A&E Home Video.", "* In ''Conspiracy Theory'' (1997), the character Jerry Fletcher (played by Mel Gibson) mentions one of his theories to a street vendor by saying, \"Did you know that the whole Vietnam War was fought over a bet that Howard Hughes lost to Aristotle Onassis?\"", "referring to his (Fletcher's) thoughts on the politics of that conflict.", "* In ''The Aviator'' (2004), directed by Martin Scorsese, Hughes is portrayed by Leonardo DiCaprio.", "The film focuses on Hughes's personal life from the making of ''Hell's Angels'' through his successful flight of the Hercules or ''Spruce Goose''.", "Critically acclaimed, it was nominated for 11 Academy Awards, winning five for Best Cinematography; Best Film Editing; Best Costume Design; Best Art Direction; and Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Cate Blanchett.", "* ''Howard Hughes: The Real Aviator'' documentary was broadcast in 2004 and went on to win the Grand Festival Award for Best Documentary at the 2004 Berkeley Video & Film Festival.", "* In the 2005 animated film ''Robots'', the character Mr Bigweld (voiced by Mel Brooks), a reclusive inventor and owner of Bigweld Industries, is loosely based on Howard Hughes.", "* In the 1973 episode of the Partridge Family, John Astin plays a reclusive millionaire in \"Diary of a Mad Millionaire\" who was readily recognized as a reference to Howard Hughes who was famous for being a recluse at that time.", "* ''The American Aviator: The Howard Hughes Story'' was broadcast in 2006 on the Biography Channel.", "It was later released to home media as a DVD with a copy of the full-length film ''The Outlaw'' starring Jane Russell.", "* ''Captain America: The First Avenger'' (2011), the character Howard Stark (played by Dominic Cooper), a wealthy inventor of futuristic technology, clearly embodying Hughes's persona and enthusiasm.", "His subsequent appearances in the TV series ''Agent Carter'' further this persona, as well as depicting him as sharing the real Hughes's reputation as a womanizer.", "Stan Lee has noted that Howard's son Tony Stark (Iron Man), who shared several of these traits himself, was based on Hughes.", "* ''Rules Don't Apply'' (2016), written and directed by Warren Beatty, features Beatty as Hughes from 1958 through 1964.", "* In the ''Dark Knight Trilogy'', director Christopher Nolan's characterization of Bruce Wayne is heavily inspired by Hughes's perceived lifestyle – from a playboy in ''Batman Begins'' to a recluse in ''The Dark Knight Rises''.", "Nolan is reported to have integrated his original material intended for a shelved Hughes biopic into the trilogy.", "* In The Hoax (2006) - in what would cause a fantastic media frenzy - Clifford Irving sells his bogus biography of Howard Hughes to a premiere publishing house in the early 1970s.===Games===* The character of Andrew Ryan in the 2007 video game ''BioShock'' is loosely based on Hughes.", "Ryan is a billionaire industrialist in post-World War II America who, seeking to avoid governments, religions, and other \"parasitic\" influences, ordered the secret construction of an underwater city, Rapture.", "Years later, when Ryan's vision for Rapture falls into dystopia, he hides himself away and uses armies of mutated humans, \"Splicers\", to defend himself and fight against those trying to take over his city, including the player-character.", "* In ''L.A.", "Noire'', Hughes makes an appearance presenting his Hercules H-4 aircraft in the game opening scene.", "The H-4 is later a central plot piece of DLC Arson Case, \"Nicholson Electroplating\".", "* In ''Fallout: New Vegas'', the character of Robert Edwin House, a wealthy business magnate and entrepreneur who owns the New Vegas strip, is based on Howard Hughes and closely resembles him in appearance, personality and background.", "A portrait of Mr. House can also be found in the game which strongly resembles a portrait of Howard Hughes standing in front of a Boeing Army Pursuit Plane.===Literature===* Stan Lee repeatedly stated he created the Marvel Comics character Iron Man's civilian persona, Tony Stark, drawing inspiration from Howard Hughes's colorful lifestyle and personality.", "Additionally, the first name of Stark's father is Howard.", "* Hughes is a supporting character in all three parts of James Ellroy's Underworld USA Trilogy, employing several of the protagonists as private investigators, bagmen, and consultants in his attempt to assume control of Las Vegas.", "Referred to behind his back as \"Count Dracula\" (due to his reclusiveness and rumored obsession with blood transfusions from Mormon donors), Hughes is portrayed as a spoiled, racist, opioid-addicted megalomaniac whose grandiose plans for Las Vegas are undermined by the manipulations of the Chicago Outfit.", "* In the 1981 novel ''Dream Park'' by Larry Niven and Steven Barnes, the weapon \"which might have defeated the Japs if it hadn't come so late\" is revealed to be the Spruce Goose, which had been magically hijacked on its test flight by evil Foré sorcerers in New Guinea.", "Hughes's skeleton is found at the controls, identified by Hughes's trademark fedora and cloth-and-leather jacket.===Music===* The 1973 song \"Broadway melody of 1974\" by Genesis referenced Howard Hughes: \"There's Howard Hughes in blue suede shoes / Smiling at the majorettes, smoking Winston cigarettes\".", "* The 1974 song \"Workin' at the Car Wash Blues\" by Jim Croce compares the main protagonist of the song to Howard Hughes in one of the lyrics.", "* The 1974 song \"The Wall Street Shuffle\" by English rock band 10cc directly references Hughes and his ways of life in the last verse.", "* The song \"Me and Howard Hughes\" by Irish band The Boomtown Rats on their 1978 album ''A Tonic for the Troops'' is about the title subject.", "* The song \"Closet Chronicles\" by American rock band Kansas on their 1977 album ''Point of Know Return'' is a Howard Hughes allegory.", "* The song \"Ain't No Fun (Waiting 'Round To Be a Millionaire)\" by AC/DC on their 1976 album \"Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap\" singer Bon Scott referenced Howard Hughes toward the end of the song: \"Hey, hello Howard, how you doin', my next door neighbour?", "Oh, yea... Get your fuckin' jumbo jet off my airport\"* The 1983 song \"Casanova Brown\" by Teena Marie includes the lyric \"He's had more girls than Howard Hughes had money\".", "* Hughes's name is mentioned in the title and the lyrics of the 2002 song \"Bargain Basement Howard Hughes\" by Jerry Cantrell.", "*The 2008 song \"Howard\" by American pop-punk band Bayside is written about Hughes.", "* The 2012 song \"Nancy From Now On\" by American songwriter Father John Misty likens Hughes's destructive and erratic tendencies to the singer's own.", "* The 1996 album \"Thanks for the Ether\" by Rasputina features a song titled \"Howard Hughes\" about Hughes' eccentricities and isolation in his later life.===Television===* In Episode 14 of ''Lupin III Part 2'', the owner of a cursed ruby is named Howard Heath.", "Heath is based on Hughes, who had only recently died when the episode aired.", "* In ''The Greatest American Hero'' Season 2 episode 3, \"Don't Mess Around with Jim\", Ralph and Bill are kidnapped by a reclusive tycoon, owner of Beck Air airplane company, who fakes his own death, and seems to know more about the suit than they do.", "He then blackmails them into retrieving his will to prevent it from being misused by the president of his company.", "* In ''Benson'' Season 6, Episode 2, \"The Inheritance,\" Benson learns he has inherited the assets of Hugh Howard, a pastiche of Howard Hughes and Hugh Hefner, including his ''Playboy''-like magazine, which becomes embarrassing for him, the Governor, and the Governor's staff.", "*In ''The Simpsons'' Season 5 episode \"$pringfield (Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling)\", Mr. Burns resembles Hughes in his recluse state.", "Various nods to his life appear in the episode, ranging from casino ownership and penthouse office to the \"Spruce Goose\" being renamed \"Spruce Moose\" as well as a lack of hygiene and being a germaphobe.", "* In ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' episode, \"The Clampett-Hewes Empire\", Jed Clampett, while in Hooterville, decides to merge his interests with a man Mr. Drysdale believes is Howard Hughes, the famous reclusive billionaire.", "Eventually it turns out, to Mr. Drysdale's chagrin, \"Howard Hughes\" is no billionaire; he is nothing but a plain old farmer named \"Howard Hewes\" (H-E-W-E-S).", "* In the ''Invader Zim'' episode, \"Germs\", the alien Zim becomes paranoid after discovering that Earth is covered in germs.", "Referencing Howard Hughes, he isolates himself in his home and dons tissue boxes on his feet.", "* In the ''Superjail!''", "episode \"The Superjail!", "Six\", The Warden repeatedly watches a film called ''Ice Station Jailpup'' which parodies Hughes's obsession with the film ''Ice Station Zebra''* In the ''Phineas and Ferb'' episode \"De Plane!", "De Plane!\"", ", Phineas and Ferb are watching an informational TV show, where it tells about Howard Hughes' Spruce Goose, which is the largest plane ever built.", "Phineas and Ferb set out to build a bigger plane than the wooden Spruce Goose." ], [ "See also", "* Analgesic nephropathy* List of richest Americans in history* List of aviation pioneers* List of entrepreneurs* Phenacetin" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* Barkow, Al.", "''Gettin' to the Dance Floor: An Oral History of American Golf''.", "Short Hills, New Jersey: Burford Books, 1986..* Barton, Charles.", "''Howard Hughes and his Flying Boat''.", "Fallbrook, CA: Aero Publishers, 1982.Republished in 1998, Vienna, VA: Charles Barton, Inc.", ".", "* Barlett, Donald L. and James B. Steele.", "''Empire: The Life, Legend and Madness of Howard Hughes''.", "New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1979., republished in 2004 as ''Howard Hughes: His Life and Madness''.", "* Bellett, Gerald.", "''Age of Secrets: The Conspiracy that Toppled Richard Nixon and the Hidden Death of Howard Hughes''.", "Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 1995..* Blackman, Tony ''Tony Blackman Test Pilot'' Grub Street, 2009, * Brown, Peter Harry and Pat H. Broeske.", "''Howard Hughes: The Untold Story''.", "New York: Penguin Books, 1996..* Burleson, Clyde W. ''The Jennifer Project''.", "College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1997..* Dietrich, Noah and Bob Thomas.", "''Howard: The Amazing Mr. Hughes''.", "New York: Fawcett Publications, 1972..* Drosnin, Michael.", "''Citizen Hughes: In his Own Words, How Howard Hughes Tried to Buy America''.", "Portland, Oregon: Broadway Books, 2004..* * Hack, Richard.", "''Hughes: The Private Diaries, Memos and Letters: The Definitive Biography of the First American Billionaire''.", "Beverly Hills, California: New Millennium Press, 2002..* Herman, Arthur.", "''Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II''.", "New York: Random House, 2012..* Higham, Charles.", "''Howard Hughes: The Secret Life'', 1993.", "* Porter, Donald J., ''Howard's Whirlybirds: Howard Hughes' Amazing Pioneering Helicopter Exploits''.", "Fonthill Media, 2015.", "* * Klepper, Michael and Michael Gunther.", "''The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates – A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present.''", "Secaucus, New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group, 1996.", "* Marrett, George J.", "''Howard Hughes: Aviator''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2004..* Kistler, Ron.", "''I Caught Flies for Howard Hughes''.", "Chicago: Playboy Press, 1976..* Lasky, Betty.", "''RKO: The Biggest Little Major of Them All, 2d ed'' .", "Santa Monica, California: Roundtable, 1989..* Maheu, Robert and Richard Hack.", "''Next to Hughes: Behind the Power and Tragic Downfall of Howard Hughes by his Closest Adviser''.", "New York: HarperCollins, 1992..* Moore, Terry.", "''The Beauty and the Billionaire''.", "New York: Pocket Books, 1984..* Moore, Terry and Jerry Rivers.", "''The Passions of Howard Hughes''.", "Los Angeles: General Publishing Group, 1996..* Parker, Dana T. ''Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II,'' Cypress, California: Dana T. Parker Books, 2013..* Phelan, James.", "''Howard Hughes: The Hidden Years''.", "New York, Random House, 1976..* Real, Jack.", "''The Asylum of Howard Hughes''.", "Philadelphia: Xlibris Corporation, 2003..* Thomas, Bob.", "''Liberace: The True Story''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987..* Tierney, Gene with Mickey Herskowitz.", "''Self-Portrait''.", "New York: Peter Wyden, 1979..* Weaver, Tom.", "''Science Fiction and Fantasy Film Flashbacks: Conversations with 24 Actors, Writers, Producers and Directors from the Golden Age.''", "New York: McFarland & Company, 2004.." ], [ "External links", "* * AZORIAN The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – 2 Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna* Welcome Home Howard: Collection of photographs kept by UNLV * A history of the remarkable achievements of Howard Hughes* FBI file on Howard Hughes* Exclutive Biography of Howard R. Hughes Jr.* Biography in the National Aviation Hall of Fame" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hook of Holland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hook of Holland''' (, ) is a town in the southwestern corner of Holland, hence the name; ''hoek'' means \"corner\" and was the word in use before the word ''kaap'' – \"cape\", from Portuguese ''cabo'' – became Dutch.", "The English translation using Hook is a false cognate of the Dutch Hoek, but has become commonplace (in official government records in English, the name tends not to get translated and Hoek van Holland is used).", "It is located at the mouth of the New Waterway shipping canal into the North Sea.", "The town is administered as a district of the municipality of Rotterdam.", "Its district covers an area of 16.7 km2, of which 13.92 km2 is land.", "On 1 January 1999 it had an estimated population of 9,400.Towns near \"the Hook\" () include Monster, 's-Gravenzande, Naaldwijk and Delft to the northeast, and Maassluis to the southeast.", "On the other side of the river is the Europort and the Maasvlakte.", "The wide sandy beach, one section of which is designated for use by naturists, runs for approximately 18 kilometres to Scheveningen and for most of this distance is backed by extensive sand dunes through which there are foot and cycle paths.", "On the north side of the New Waterway, to the west of the town, is a pier, part of which is accessible to pedestrians and cyclists.The Berghaven is a small harbour on the New Waterway where the Rotterdam and Europort pilots are based.", "This small harbour is only for the use of the pilot service, government vessels and the Hook of Holland lifeboat." ], [ "History", "DunesThe Hook of Holland area was created as a sandbar in the Maas estuary, when it became more and more silted after St. Elizabeth's flood of 1421.All kinds of plans were designed to improve the shipping channel to Rotterdam.", "In 1863 it was finally decided to construct the New Waterway which was dug between 1866 and 1868.The route ran through the Hook of Holland, where a primitive settlement, Old Hook (Oude Hoek - nowadays the Zuidelijk Strandcentrum), was created.", "Many workers and senior employees of the Rijkswaterstaat settled in Old Hook.The Hook initially fell under the administrative authority of 's-Gravenzande.", "An attempt by the inhabitants to transform the place into an independent municipality failed and, on 1 January 1914, Hook of Holland was added to Rotterdam.", "After the First World War the village started to develop into a seaside resort.", "It has since been informally known as 'Rotterdam by the sea'.During World War II, the Hook was one of the most important places for the Wehrmacht to hold because of its harbour, which comprised an important and strategic part of the Atlantic Wall.", "The German Army installed three 11\" guns (removed from the damaged battleship Gneisenau) as shore batteries to protect the port area from invasion.Hook of Holland already had a ward council in 1947 and has been a borough since 1973.In 2014, it was replaced by an \"area committee\"." ], [ "Kindertransport monument", "'''', Frank Meisler, unveiled November 2011The ''kindertransport'', with which Jewish children from Germany, Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia could be brought to England from December 1938 until the outbreak of the World War II, usually went from the children's home stations to the Netherlands by train.", "The crossing to Harwich then largely took place from Hoek of Holland.", "The transports were supported by the Dutch government and by volunteers.", "The first transport, which started on December 1, 1938, at the Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof, reached England on December 2, 1938.When the transport was allowed, the British government stipulated that the children could not be older than seventeen and that their parents could not come along.", "The Nazis stipulated, among other things, that the children at the railway station were not allowed to say goodbye to those left behind.", "By the time the war broke out in 1939, approximately 10,000 children had been brought to Britain in this way." ], [ "Transport links", "HSS Discovery in the backgroundPassport stamp issued at the ferry terminal to passengers to or from the UK===Railways===The Schiedam–Hoek van Holland railway was a 24-kilometre train service branch line from Schiedam Centrum station via Vlaardingen and Maassluis.", "The final two stations on the line were located within the town.", "Hoek van Holland Haven, the penultimate station, was close to the town centre, adjacent to the ferry terminal and the small harbour, the Berghaven.", "Hoek van Holland Strand, the terminus, is closest to the beach.", "The railway line opened for service in 1893 and was electrified in 1935.International trains ran from Berlin and Moscow to connected these with London via the ferry service.", "From 1928 to 1939 and from 1962 to 1979, Hook of Holland was the northern terminus of the Rheingold Express to Frankfurt and Geneva.", "Services on the line to Rotterdam Centraal station were operated by NS every half-hour during the day until April 2017, when the line was closed.It was then converted to a metro/lightrail system.", "It was reopened in September 2019, as an extension of the Rotterdam Metro / lightrail.", "The metro/ligthrail service from Hook of Holland terminates at the beach, stops at the redeveloped Hoek van Holland Haven metro station where it connects to the Stena Line ferry to Harwich.", "It connects to Dutch trains services at Schiedam Centrum station, Rotterdam Blaak station and Rotterdam Alexander station and after changing to other metro lines at Beurs metro station to Rotterdam Centraal.===Ferry===Hook of Holland is also the location of an international ferry terminal, from which service to eastern England has operated since 1893 except for the durations of the two World Wars.", "Currently, two routes are operated: one, a day-and-night freight and passenger service to Harwich, Essex, and the other, a night, freight-only service to North Killingholme Haven, Lincolnshire.", "The passenger ferry service is operated by Stena Line as part of the Dutchflyer rail-ferry service between Hook van Holland Haven station and Harwich International station in England, from which Greater Anglia provides service to Liverpool Street station in central London.A local ferry operated by RET links the Hook with the Maasvlakte part of the Port of Rotterdam.===Motorways===The A20 motorway begins approximately 10 kilometres east of Hook of Holland near Westerlee, heading east towards Rotterdam and Utrecht.", "It connects to the A4 heading north towards The Hague and Amsterdam 17 kilometres east of the town." ], [ "Climate" ], [ "Notable people", "* Jan Knippenberg (1948–1995), an ultrarunner and historian.", "In 1974, he ran from Hook of Holland to Stockholm, Sweden () in 18 days* Richard de Mos (born 1976), a PVV politician, brought up in Hook of Holland * Jesper Leerdam (born 1987) is a former footballer who played for the Dayton Dutch Lions, Excelsior Maassluis and SW Scheveningen* Roy Kortsmit (born 1992), a professional footballer who currently plays as a goalkeeper for NAC Breda* Bryan Janssen (born 1995), a former professional goalkeeper who plays for Kozakken Boys" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===*" ], [ "External links", "*** Hook of Holland VVV (tourist information) site* Harwich - Hoek ferry service" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hugh Binning" ], [ "Introduction", "Signatures of subscribers on The Solemn League and Covenant of 5?", "December 1643'''Hugh Binning''' (1627–1653) was a Scottish philosopher and theologian.", "He was born in Scotland during the reign of Charles I and was ordained in the (Presbyterian) Church of Scotland.", "He died in 1653, during the time of Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth of England." ], [ "Personal life", "Sir James Dalrymple of Stair, President of the Court of Session, Created 1st Viscount StairHugh Binning was the son of John Binning of Dalvennan, Straiton, South Ayrshire.", "and Margaret M'Kell.", "Margaret was the daughter of Matthew McKell, who was a minister in the parish of Bothwell, Scotland, and sister of Hugh M'Kell, a minister in Edinburgh.", "Binning was born on his father's estate in Dalvennan.", "The family owned other lands in the parishes of Straiton and Colmonell as well as Maybole in Carrick.A precocious child, Binning was admitted to the study of philosophy at the University of Glasgow at age thirteen.", "Binning has been described as \"an extraordinary instance of precocious learning and genius.", "\"In 1645, James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair, who was Hugh's master (primary professor) in the study of philosophy, announced he was retiring from the University of Glasgow.", "Dalrymple was afterward President of the Court of Session, and Viscount Stair.", "After a national search for a replacement on the faculty, three men were selected to compete for the position.", "Binning was one of those selected, but was at a disadvantage because of his extreme youth and because he was not of noble birth.", "However, he had strong support from the existing faculty, who suggested that the candidates speak extemporaneously on any topic of the candidate's choice.", "After hearing Hugh speak, the other candidates withdrew, making Hugh a regent and professor of philosophy, while he was still 18 years old.On 7 February 1648, (at the age of 21) Hugh was appointed an Advocate before the Court of Sessions (an attorney).", "In the same year, he married Barbara Simpson (sometimes called Mary), daughter of James Simpson a minister in Ireland.", "Their son, John, was born in 1650.Binning became a minister on 25 October 1649.As minister of Govan, he was the successor of William Wilkie.", "His ordination took place on 8 January 1649, when Mr David Dickson, one of the theological professors at the College of Glasgow, and author of ''Therapeutica Sacra'', presided.", "He was ordained in January, at the age of 22, holding his regency until 14 May that year.", "At that time Govan was a separate town rather than part of Glasgow.Hugh died around September 1653 and was buried in the churchyard of Govan, where Patrick Gillespie, then principal of the University of Glasgow, ordered a monument inscribed in Latin, roughly translated:Hugh's widow, Barbara (or Mary), then remarried James Gordon, an Anglican priest at Cumber in Ireland.", "Together they had a daughter,Jean who married Daniel MacKenzie, who was on the winning side of the Battle of Bothwell Bridge serving as an ensign under Lieutenant-Colonel William Ramsay (who became the third Earl of Dalhousie), in the Earl of Mar's Regiment of Foot.Binning's son, John Binning, married Hanna Keir, who was born in Ireland.", "The Binnings were Covenanters, a resistance movement that objected to the return of Charles II (who was received into the Catholic Church on his deathbed).", "They were on the losing side in the 1679 Battle of Bothwell Bridge.", "Most of the rebels who were not executed were exiled to the Americas; about 30 Covenanters were exiled to the Carolinas on the Carolina Merchant in 1684.After the battle, John and Hanna were separated.In the aftermath of the battle at Bothwell Bridge, Hugh Binning's widow (now Barbara Gordon) tried to reclaim the family estate at Dalvennan by saying that John and his wife owed his stepfather a considerable some of money.", "The legal action was successful and Dalvennan became the possession of John's half-sister Jean, and her husband Daniel MacKenzie.", "In addition, Jean came into possession of Hanna Keir's property in Ireland.By 1683, Jean was widowed.", "John Binning was branded a traitor, was sentenced to death and forfeited his property to the Crown.", "John's wife (Hanna Keir) was branded as a traitor and forfeited her property in Ireland.", "In 1685, Jean \"donated\" the Binning family's home at Dalvennan and other properties, along with the Keir properties, to Roderick MacKenzie, who was a Scottish advocate of James II (James VII of Scotland), and the baillie of Carrick.", "According to an act of the Scottish Parliament, Roderick MacKenzie was also very effective in \"suppressing the rebellious, fanatical party in the western and other shires of this realm, and putting the laws to vigorous execution against them\".Since Bothwell Bridge, Hanna had been hiding from the authorities.", "In 1685, Hanna was in Edinburgh where she was found during a sweep for subversives and imprisoned in the Tolbooth of Edinburgh, a combination city hall and prison.", "Those arrested with Hanna were exiled to North America, however, she developed dysentery and remained behind.", "By 1687, near death, Hanna petitioned the Privy Council of Scotland for her release; she was exiled to her family in Ireland, where she died around 1692.In 1690, the Scottish Parliament rescinded John's fines and forfeiture, but he was unable to recover his family's estates, the courts suggesting that he had relinquished his claim to Dalvennan in exchange for forgiveness of debt, rather than forfeiture.There is little documentation about John after his wife's death.", "John received a small income from royalties on his father's works after parliament extended copyrights on Binning's writings to him.", "However, the income was not significant and John made several petitions to the Scottish parliament for money, the last occurring in 1717.It is thought that he died in Somerset county, in southwestern England.He died of consumption at the age of 26 on September 1653.He was remarkably popular as a preacher, having been considered \"the most accomplished philosopher and divine in his time, and styled the Scottish Cicero.\"", "He married (cont.", "17 May 1650), Mary (who died at Paisley in 1694) and had a son, John of Dalvennan.", "She was the daughter of Richard Simson, minister of Sprouston.", "After John's early death Mary married her second husband, James Gordon, minister of Comber, in Ireland.", "A marble tablet, with an inscription in classical Latin, was erected to his memory by his friend Mr Patrick Gillespie, who was then Principal of the University of Glasgow.", "It has been placed in the vestibule of the present parish church.", "The whole of his works are posthumous publications.He was a follower of James Dalrymple.", "In later life, he was well known as an evangelical Christian." ], [ "Impact of the Commonwealth", "Hugh Binning was born two years after Charles I became monarch of England, Ireland, and Scotland.", "At the time, each was an independent country sharing the same monarch.", "The Acts of Union 1707 integrated Scotland and England to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Acts of Union 1800 integrated Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.The period was dominated by both political and religious strife between the three independent countries.", "Religious disputes centered on questions such as whether religion was to be dictated by the monarch or was to be the choice of the people, and whether individuals had a direct relationship with God or needed to use an intermediary.", "Civil disputes centered on debates about the extent of the King's power (a question of the Divine right of kings), and specifically whether the King had the right to raise taxes and armed forces without the consent of the governed.", "These wars ultimately changed the relationship between king and subjects.In 1638, the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland voted to remove bishops and the ''Book of Common Prayer'' that had been introduced by Charles I to impose the Anglican model on the Presbyterian Church of Scotland.", "Public riots followed, culminating in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, an interrelated series of conflicts that took place in the three countries.", "The first conflict, which was also the first of the Bishops' Wars, took place in 1639 and was a single border skirmish between England and Scotland, also known as ''the war the armys did not wanted to fight.", "''To maintain his English power base, Charles I made secret alliances with Catholic Ireland and Presbyterian Scotland to invade Anglican England, promising that each country could establish their own separate state religion.", "Once these secret entreaties became known to the English Long Parliament, the Congregationalist faction (of which Oliver Cromwell was a primary spokesman) took matters into its own hands and Parliament established an army separate from the King.", "Charles I was executed in January 1649, which led to the rule of Cromwell and the establishment of the Commonwealth.", "The conflicts concluded with The English Restoration of the monarchy and the return of Charles II in 1660.The Act of Classes was passed by the Parliament of Scotland on 23 January 1649; the act banned Royalists (people supporting the monarchy) from holding political or military office.", "In exile, Charles II signed the Treaty of Breda (1650) with the Scottish Parliament; among other things, the treaty established Presbyterianism as the national religion.", "Charles was crowned King of Scots at Scone in January 1651.By September 1651, Scotland was annexed by England, its legislative institutions abolished, Presbyterianism dis-established, and Charles was forced into exile in France.The Scottish Parliament rescinded the Act of Classes in 1651, which produced a split within Scottish society.", "The sides of the conflict were called the Resolutioners (who supported the rescission of the act – supported the monarchy and the Scottish House of Stewart) and the Protesters (who supported Cromwell and the Commonwealth); Binning sided with the Protestors.", "Binning joined the Protesters in 1651.When Cromwell had sent troops to Scotland, he was also attempting to dis-establish Presbyterianism and the Church of Scotland, Binning spoke against Cromwell's act.On Saturday 19 April 1651, Cromwell entered Glasgow and the next day he heard a sermon by three ministers who condemned him for invading Scotland.", "That evening, Cromwell summoned those ministers and others, to a debate on the issue.", "a discussion on some of the controverted points of the times was held in his presence, between his chaplains, the learned Dr John Owen, Joseph Caryl, and others on the one side, and some Scots ministers on the other.", "Mr. Binning, who was one of the disputants, apparently nonplussed the Independents, which led Cromwell to ask who the learned and bold young man was.", "Told it was Binning, he said: \"He hath bound well, indeed,\" ... \" but, laying his hand on his sword, this will lose all again.\"", "The late Mr. Orme was of the opinion that there is nothing improbable in the account of the meeting, but that such a meeting took place is certain.", "This appears from two letters which were written by Principal Robert Baillie, who was then Professor of Theology at the University of Glasgow.At the debate, Rev Hugh Binning is said to have out-debated Cromwell's ministers so completely that he silenced them." ], [ "Politics", "The Signing of the National Covenant.", "The Victorian painter William Hole places Alexander Henderson at the centre of events in 1638Hugh Binning's political views were based on his theology.", "Binning was a Covenanter, a movement that began in Scotland at Greyfriars Kirkyard in 1638 with the National Covenant and continued with the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant—in effect a treaty between the English Long Parliament and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed religion in exchange for troops to confront the threat of Irish Catholic troops joining the Royalist army.", "Binning could also be described as a Protestor; both political positions were taken because of their religious implications.", "However, he saw the evils of the politics of his day was not a \"fomenter of factions\" writing \"A Treatise of Christian Love\" as a response." ], [ "Theology", "Because of the tumultuous time in which Hugh Binning lived, politics and religion were inexorably intertwined.", "Binning was a Calvinist and follower of John Knox.", "As a profession, Binning was trained as a Philosopher, and he believed that philosophy was the servant of theology.", "He thought that both Philosophy and Theology should be taught in parallel.", "Binning's writing, which is primarily a collection of his sermons, \"forms an important bridge between the 17th century, when philosophy in Scotland was heavily dominated by Calvinism, and the 18th century when figures such as Francis Hutcheson re-asserted a greater degree of independence between the two and allied philosophy with the developing human sciences.", "\"Religiously, Hugh Binning was, what we would call today, an Evangelical Calvinist.", "He spoke on the primacy of God's love as the ground of salvation: \"... our salvation is not the business of Christ alone, but the whole Godhead is interested in it deeply, so deeply that you cannot say who loves it most, or who likes it most.", "The Father is the very fountain of it, his love is the spring of all.", "\"With regards to the extent of the 'atonement', Hugh Binning, did not hold that the offer of redemption applied only to the few that are elect but said that \"the ultimate ground of faith is in the electing will of God.\"", "In Scotland, during the 1600s, the questions concerning atonement revolved around the terms in which the offer was expressed.Binning believed that \"forgiveness is based on Christ's death, understood as a satisfaction and as a sacrifice: 'If he had pardoned sin without any satisfaction what rich grace it had been!", "But truly, to provide the Lamb and sacrifice himself, to find out the ransom, and to exact it of his own Son, in our name, is a testimonyof mercy and grace far beyond that.", "But then, his justice is very conspicuous in this work'.\"" ], [ "Works", "Govan in Binning's time.", "A part of Blaeu's 1654 map of Scotland.", "Modern Govan is at the site labeled ''Mekle Gouan'' (\"Big Govan\").", "The small town of Glasgow is on the north bank of the Clyde, across from ''Litle Gouan'' (\"Little Govan\").", "All of the works of Hugh Binning were published posthumously and were primarily collections of his sermons.", "Of his speaking style, it was said: \"There is originality without any affectation, a rich imagination, without anything fanciful or extravert, the utmost simplicity, without an thing mean or trifling.\"", "*''The Common Principles of the Christian Religion, Clearly Proved, and Singularly Improved; or, A Practical Catechism'' published by Patrick Gillespie in 1660 An analysis of the Westminster Confession of Faith.", "The work was translated into Dutch in 1678 by James Koelman, a minister of Sluys in Flanders.", "( The Common Principles of the Christian Religion, fulltext) Quotations from the publication include: ::''On the love of God'':::And what is love but the very motion of the soul to God?", "And so till it have attained that, to be in him, it can find no place of rest.", "::''On the free grace of the Gospel'':::I am guilty, and can say nothing against it, while I stand alone.", "But though I cannot satisfy, and have not; yet there is one, Jesus Christ, who gave his life a ransom for many, and whom God hath given as a propitiation for sins.", "He hath satisfied and paid the debt in my name; go and apprehend the cautioner, since he hath undertaken it, nay, he hath done it, and is absolved.", "::''On Learning'' :::Be not ignorant as beasts, that know no other things than to follow the drove; quæ pergunt, non quo eundum est, sed quo itur; ''they follow not whither they ought to go, but whither most go''.", "You are men, and have reasonable souls within you; therefore I beseech you, be not composed and fashioned according to custom and example, that is, brutish, but according to some inward knowledge and reason.", "Retire once from the multitude, and ask in earnest at God, What is the way?", "Him that fears him he will teach the way that he should choose.", "The way to his blessed end is very strait, very difficult; you must have a guide in it,—you must have a lamp and a light in it,—else you cannot but go wrong.", "*''Sinner's Sanctuary, being forty Sermons upon the eighth Chapter of the Epistle of the Romans, from the First Verse down to the Eighteenth.''", "a treatise originally published in 1670 *''Fellowship with God, being Twenty Eight Sermons on the First Epistle of John, Chap.", "1st and Chap.", "2nd, Verses 1, 2, 3.''", "a treatise originally published in 1671 by \"A.S. who in the preferace to the reader, styles himself, his servant in the gosple of our dearest Lord and Savior\" *''Heart Humiliation or Miscellany Sermons, preached upon some choice texts at several solemn occasions.''", "originally published in 1676 by the same A.S. that published the treatice \"Fellowship with God\".", "The first of the sermons was preached July 1650 *'' An Useful Case of Conscience, Learnedly and Accurately Discussed and Resolved, Concerning Associations and Confederacies with Idolaters, Infidels, Heretics, Malignants or any other Known Enemies of Truth and Godliness. ''", "The treatise was used by the Covenanters and seems to have been originally published in Holland in 1693.There is a reference to the treatise at a \"general meeting of Society people ... at Edinburgh 28 May 1683.\"", "The treatise expressed the opinion that Scotland should not support Charles I without some restraint placed on relatively absolute royal power and without assurance the Presbyterian religion could be maintained.", "The documents seem to have been presented to the Society either by Hugh Binning's son, John, or his widow, Barbara Gordon (who remarried about 1657 to James Gordon; he was born in Ireland and became a minister at Paisley, Renfrewshire, Scotland.)", "( An Useful Case of Conscience, fulltext).", "In the treatise Binning writes:::Where God hath given us liberty by the law of nature, or his word, no king can justly tie us, and when God binds and obliges us by any of these, no king or parliament can loose or untie us.", "*''A Treatise of Christian Love'' a sermon based on John 13:35, “By this shall all men know that ye are my disciples, if ye have love one to another” and 1 Corinthians 13.Binning explores the concept that as a believer in Christ, there is a need for Christians to show by their love for one another.", "( A Treatise of Christian Love, fulltext) Binning argues: ::But Christ’s last words persuade this, that unity in affection is more essential and fundamental.", "This is the badge he left to his disciples.", "If we cast away this upon every different apprehension of mind, we disown our Master, and disclaim his token and badge.", "::''On Charity'':::Charity \"thinketh no evil.\"", "1 Cor.", "13:5 Charity is apt to take all things in the best sense.", "If a thing may be subject to diverse acceptations, it can put the best construction on it.", "It is so benign and good in its own nature that it is not inclinable to suspect others.", "It desires to condemn no man, but would gladly, as far as reason and conscience will permit, absolve every man.", "It is so far from desire of revenge, that it is not provoked or troubled with an injury.", "For that were nothing else but to wrong itself because others have wronged it already, and it is so far from wronging others, that it will not willingly so much as think evil of them.", "Yet if need requires, charity can execute justice, and inflict chastisement, not out of desire of another’s misery, but out of love and compassion to mankind.", "Charitas non punit quia peccatum est, sed ne peccaretur, ''it looks more to prevention of future sin, than to revenge of a bypast fault'', and can do all without any discomposure of spirit, as a physician cuts a vein without anger.", "Quis enim cut medetur irascitur?", "\"''Who is angry at his own patient''?", "\"* In 1735, the collections of Binning's works were published posthumously, originally edited by M. Leishman, a minister who was a later successor to Hugh in the parish of Govan, which contained sermons not previously published.", "There have been several editions of ''The Complete Works of the Rev.", "Hugh Binning'', one of the latest (Classic Reprint) was published by Forgotten Books in 2012." ], [ "Bibliography", "*Scott's Fasti, ii.", "67-8; *Minutes Univ.", "Glasg.", "; *Wodrow's Analecta; *Reid's Presbyterianism of rights as against the invasion of the state, Ireland, i.; *Edin.", "Christian Instructor, xxii.", "Acts of Assembly; *New Statistical Account, vi.", "; *Chalmers's Biogr.", "Dict.", "; *Scots Worthies, i.", "205-10, ed.", "Macgavin, 1837.", "* \"Evangelical Beauties of Hugh Binning,\" 1829, with a memoir of the author by the Rev John Brown of Whitburn.", "*''The Common Principles of the Christian Religion, or a Practical Catechism'' (Edinburgh, 1659) ; *''The Sinner's Sanctuary'' (Edinburgh, 1670) ; *''Fellowship with God'' (Edinburgh, 1671); *''Heart Humiliation, or Miscellany Sermons'' (Edinburgh, 1676) ; *''A Useful Case of Conscience'' (1693) ; *''Works'' (which were recommended to be published by the General Assembly, 28 March 1704 and 10 May 1717)(Edinburgh, 1735 ; Glasgow, 1842) ; *''A Treatise of Christian Love'' (Edinburgh, 1743) ; *''Sermons on the most important subjects of Practical Religion'' (Glasgow, 1760) ; *''Evangelical Beauties'' (1829)*Wodrow's Anal., i.", "161, iii.", "40, 438; *Glasg.", "Tests.", "; *Reid's Ireland, ii., 351 ; *Inq.", "Ret., Ayr, 580; *''Dictionary of National Biography''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===********'''Attribution:'''**********" ], [ "External links", "* * ** Biographical Sketch from the home page of the Reformed Presbyterian Church (Covenanted)* John Binning of Dalvennan, The Forfeited: The Carrick Lairds at the Battle of Bothwell Bridge* Map of Dalvennan, South Ayrshire, Scotland" ] ]
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[ [ "Henry Home, Lord Kames" ], [ "Introduction", "David MartinAn illustration of Lord Kames, Hugo Arnot and Lord Monboddo by John KayThe Home-Drummond grave, Kincardine-in-Menteith'''Henry Home, Lord Kames''' (1695–27 December 1782) was a Scottish writer, philosopher and judge who played a major role in Scotland's Agricultural Revolution.", "A central figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, he was a founding member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh and active in The Select Society.", "Home acted as patron to some of the most influential thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, including philosopher David Hume, economist Adam Smith, writer James Boswell, philosopher William Cullen and naturalist John Walker." ], [ "Life", "Henry Home was born in 1695 at Kames House, between Eccles and Birgham in Berwickshire.", "Henry was the son of George Home of Kames, and was homeschooled by Mr Wingate, a private tutor, until the age of 16.In 1712, Home was apprenticed as a lawyer under a Writer to the Signet in Edinburgh, and was called to the Scottish bar as an advocate bar in 1724.He soon acquired reputation by a number of publications on the civil and Scottish law, and was one of the leaders of the Scottish Enlightenment.", "In 1752, he was \"raised to the bench\", thus acquiring the title of Lord Kames.Kames held an interest in the development and production of linen in Scotland.", "Kames was one of the original proprietors of the British Linen Company, serving as a director of the company from 1754 to 1756.Kames was on the panel of judges in the ''Knight v. Wedderburn'' case which ruled that slavery was illegal in Scotland.", "In 1775, he lived in a townhouse in Canongate.", "The house was located the head of the street's east side, facing onto the Canongate.", "He died of old age, aged 87, and is buried in the Home-Drummond plot at Kincardine-in-Menteith west of Blair Drummond." ], [ "Writings", "Home wrote much about the importance of property to society.", "In his ''Essay Upon Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities'', written just after the Jacobite rising of 1745, he showed that the politics of Scotland were based not on loyalty to Kings, as the Jacobites had said, but on the royal land grants that lay at the base of feudalism, the system whereby the sovereign maintained \"an immediate hold of the persons and property of his subjects\".In ''Historical Law Tracts'' Home described a four-stage model of social evolution that became \"a way of organizing the history of Western civilization\".", "The first stage was that of the hunter-gatherer, wherein families avoided each other as competitors for the same food.", "The second was that of the herder of domestic animals, which encouraged the formation of larger groups but did not result in what Home considered a true society.", "No laws were needed at these early stages except those given by the head of the family, clan, or tribe.", "Agriculture was the third stage, wherein new occupations such as \"plowman, carpenter, blacksmith, stonemason\" made \"the industry of individuals profitable to others as well as to themselves\", and a new complexity of relationships, rights, and obligations required laws and law enforcers.", "A fourth stage evolved with the development of market towns and seaports, \"commercial society\", bringing yet more laws and complexity but also providing more benefit.", "Lord Kames could see these stages within Scotland itself, with the pastoral Highlands, the agricultural Lowlands, the \"polite\" commercial towns of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and in the Western Isles a remaining culture of rude huts where fishermen and gatherers of seaweed eked out their subsistence living.Home was a polygenist, he believed God had created different races on earth in separate regions.", "In his book ''Sketches of the History of Man'', in 1774, Home claimed that the environment, climate, or state of society could not account for racial differences, so that the races must have come from distinct, separate stocks.The above studies created the genre of the story of civilization and defined the fields of anthropology and sociology and therefore the modern study of history for two hundred years.In the popular book ''Elements of Criticism'' (1762) Home interrogated the notion of fixed or arbitrary rules of literary composition, and endeavoured to establish a new theory based on the principles of human nature.", "The late eighteenth-century tradition of sentimental writing was associated with his notion that 'the genuine rules of criticism are all of them derived from the human heart.", "Prof Neil Rhodes has argued that Lord Kames played a significant role in the development of English as an academic discipline in the Scottish Universities." ], [ "Family", "He was married to Agatha Drummond of Blair Drummond.", "Their children included George Drummond-Home." ], [ "Major works", "*''Remarkable Decisions of the Court of Session 1706 to 1728'' (1728)*''Essays upon Several Subjects in Law'' (1732)*''Decisions of the Court of Session from its First Institution to the Year 1740'' (1740)*''Essay Upon Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities'' (1747)*''Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion'' (1751) He advocates the doctrine of philosophical necessity.", "*''The Statute Law of Scotland'' (1757)*''Historical Law-Tracts'' (1758)*''The Principles of Equity'' (1760)*''Introduction to the Art of Thinking'' (1761)*''Elements of Criticism'' (1762) Published by two Scottish booksellers, Andrew Millar and Alexander Kincaid.", "*''Remarkable Decisions of the Court of Session from 1730 to 1752'' (1766)*''Gentleman Farmer'' (1772)*''Sketches of the History of Man'' (1773)*''Elucidations Respecting the Common and Statute Law of Scotland'' (1777)*''Loose Hints upon Education'' (1781)" ], [ "See also", "*George Anderson (minister)" ], [ "Literature", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Henry Home, Lord Kames at James Boswell – a Guide" ] ]
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[ [ "Harwich" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harwich''' is a town in Essex, England, and one of the Haven ports on the North Sea coast.", "It is in the Tendring district.", "Nearby places include Felixstowe to the north-east, Ipswich to the north-west, Colchester to the south-west and Clacton-on-Sea to the south.", "It is the northernmost coastal town in Essex.Its position on the estuaries of the Stour and Orwell rivers, with its usefulness to mariners as the only safe anchorage between the Thames and the Humber, led to a long period of civil and military maritime significance.", "The town became a naval base in 1657 and was heavily fortified, with Harwich Redoubt, Beacon Hill Battery, and Bath Side Battery.Harwich is the likely launch point of the ''Mayflower'', which carried English Puritans to North America, and is the presumed birthplace of ''Mayflower'' captain Christopher Jones.Harwich today is contiguous with Dovercourt and the two, along with Parkeston, are often referred to collectively as ''Harwich''." ], [ "History", "An 1804 chart of Harwich from a survey by Graeme SpenceThe town's name means \"military settlement\", from Old English ''here-wic''.The town received its charter in 1238, although there is evidence of earlier settlement – for example, a record of a chapel in 1177, and some indications of a possible Roman presence.The town was the target of an abortive raid by French forces under Antonio Doria on 24 March 1339 during the Hundred Years' War.Because of its strategic position, Harwich was the target for the invasion of Britain by William of Orange on 11 November 1688.However, unfavourable winds forced his fleet to sail into the English Channel instead and eventually land at Torbay.", "Due to the involvement of the Schomberg family in the invasion, Charles Louis Schomberg was made Marquess of Harwich.Writer Daniel Defoe devotes a few pages to the town in ''A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain''.", "Visiting in 1722, he noted its formidable fort and harbour \"of a vast extent\".", "The town, he recounts, was also known for an unusual chalybeate spring rising on Beacon Hill (a promontory to the north-east of the town), which \"petrified\" clay, allowing it to be used to pave Harwich's streets and build its walls.", "The locals also claimed that \"the same spring is said to turn wood into iron\", but Defoe put this down to the presence of \"copperas\" in the water.", "Regarding the atmosphere of the town, he states: \"Harwich is a town of hurry and business, not much of gaiety and pleasure; yet the inhabitants seem warm in their nests and some of them are very wealthy\".Harwich played an important part in the Napoleonic and more especially the two world wars.", "Of particular note:Harwich Redoubt1793-1815—Post Office Station for communication with Europe, one of embarkation and evacuation bases for expeditions to Holland in 1799, 1809 and 1813/14; base for capturing enemy privateers.", "The dockyard built many ships for the Navy, including HMS ''Conqueror'' which captured the French Admiral Villeneuve at the Battle of Trafalgar.", "The Redoubt and the now-demolished Ordnance Building date from that era.1914-18—base for the Royal Navy's Harwich Force light cruisers and destroyers under Commodore Tyrwhitt, and for British submarines.", "In November 1918 the German U-boat fleet surrendered to the Royal Navy in the harbour.1939-1945—one of main East Coast minesweeping and destroyer bases, at one period base for British and French submarines; assembled fleets for Dutch and Dunkirk evacuations and follow-up to D-Day; unusually, a target for Italian bombers during the Battle of Britain.===Royal Naval Dockyard===Harwich Dockyard was established as a Naval Dockyard in 1652.It ceased to operate as a Royal Dockyard in 1713 (though a Royal Navy presence was maintained until 1829).", "During the various wars with France and Holland, through to 1815, the dockyard was responsible for both building and repairing numerous warships.", "HMS ''Conqueror'', a 74-gun ship completed in 1801, captured the French admiral Villeneuve at Trafalgar.", "The yard was then a semi-private concern, with the actual shipbuilding contracted to Joseph Graham, who was sometimes mayor of the town.", "During World War II parts of Harwich were again requisitioned for naval use and ships were based at HMS ''Badger''; ''Badger'' was decommissioned in 1946, but the Royal Naval Auxiliary Service maintained a headquarters on the site until 1992.===Lighthouses===In 1665, not long after the establishment of the Dockyard, a pair of lighthouses were set up on the Town Green to serve as leading lights for ships entering the harbour.", "Completely rebuilt in 1818, both towers are still standing (though they ceased functioning as lighthouses in 1863, when they were replaced by a new pair of lights at Dovercourt)." ], [ "Transport", "Harwich 'Navyard' and Harwich seen from the riverThe Royal Navy no longer has a presence in Harwich but Harwich International Port at nearby Parkeston continues to offer regular ferry services to the Hook of Holland (Hoek van Holland) in the Netherlands.", "Mann Lines operates a roll-on roll-off ferry service from Harwich Navyard to Bremerhaven, Cuxhaven, Paldiski and Turku.Many operations of the Port of Felixstowe and of Trinity House, the lighthouse authority, are managed from Harwich.The Mayflower railway line serves Harwich and there are three operational passenger stations: , and .", "The line also allows freight trains to access the Port.The port is famous for the phrase \"Harwich for the Continent\", seen on road signs and in London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) advertisements.From 1924 to 1987 (with a break during the Second World War), a train ferry service operated between Harwich and Zeebrugge.", "The train ferry linkspan still exists today and the rails leading from the former goods yard of Harwich Town railway station are still in position across the road, although the line is blocked by the Trinity House buoy store." ], [ "Architecture", "The Halfpenny PierDespite, or perhaps because of, its small size Harwich is highly regarded in terms of architectural heritage, and the whole of the older part of the town, excluding Navyard Wharf, is a conservation area.The regular street plan with principal thoroughfares connected by numerous small alleys indicates the town's medieval origins, although many buildings of this period are hidden behind 18th century facades.King's Head StreetHarwich GuildhallThe extant medieval structures are largely private homes.", "The house featured in the image of Kings Head St to the left is unique in the town and is an example of a sailmaker's house, thought to have been built circa 1600.Notable public buildings include the parish church of St. Nicholas (1821) in a restrained Gothic style, with many original furnishings, including a somewhat altered organ in the west end gallery.", "There is also the Harwich Guildhall of 1769, the only Grade I listed building in Harwich.Pier HotelThe Pier Hotel of 1860 and the building that was the Great Eastern Hotel of 1864 can both been seen on the quayside, both reflecting the town's new importance to travellers following the arrival of the Great Eastern Main Line from Colchester in 1854.In 1923, The Great Eastern Hotel was closed by the newly formed LNER, as the Great Eastern Railway had opened a new hotel with the same name at the new passenger port at Parkeston Quay, causing a decline in numbers.The hotel became the Harwich Town Hall, which included the Magistrates Court and, following changes in local government, was sold and divided into apartments.The Trinity House officesAlso of interest are the High Lighthouse (1818), the unusual Treadwheel Crane (late 17th century), the Old Custom Houses on West Street, a number of Victorian shopfronts and the Electric Palace Cinema (1911), one of the oldest purpose-built cinemas to survive complete with its ornamental frontage and original projection room still intact and operational.There is little notable building from the later parts of the 20th century, but major recent additions include the lifeboat station and two new structures for Trinity House.", "The Trinity House office building, next door to the Old Custom Houses, was completed in 2005.All three additions are influenced by the high-tech style." ], [ "International Shanty Festival", "A Harwich International Shanty Festival was set up in 2006 to organise and co-ordinate an annual sea shanty festival in October.", "Through concerts, 'singarounds', pub sessions, talks and workshops, the seafaring history and heritage of Harwich is celebrated by local people and international groups.", "This unique event for Essex attracts audiences countrywide and beyond.", "The festival is one of the biggest shanty festivals in the country." ], [ "Notable residents", "Harwich has also historically hosted a number of notable inhabitants, linked with Harwich's maritime past.", "* Christopher Newport (1561–1617) seaman and privateer, captain of the expedition that founded Jamestown, Virginia* Christopher Jones (c.1570–1622) Captain of the 1620 voyage of the Pilgrim ship ''Mayflower''* Thomas Cobbold (1708–1767), brewer and owner of Three Cups* William Shearman (1767–1861) physician and medical writer* James Francillon (1802–1866) barrister and legal writer* Captain Charles Fryatt (1872–1916) mariner executed by the Germans, brought back from Belgium and buried at Dovercourt* Peter Firmin (1928- 2018) artist and puppet maker* Randolph Stow (1935–2010) reclusive but award-winning Australian-born writer made his home in Harwich* Myles de Vries (born 1940), first-class cricketer* Liana Bridges (born 1969) actress, best known for co-presenting ''Sooty & Co''* Kate Hall (born 1983) British-Danish singer=== Politicians ===* Sir John Jacob, 1st Baronet of Bromley (c.1597–1666) politician who sat in the House of Commons in 1640 and 1641* Sir Capel Luckyn, 2nd Baronet (1622–1680) politician who sat in the House of Commons variously between 1647 and 1679* Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) diarist and member of parliament (MP) for Harwich* Sir Anthony Deane (1638–1721) Mayor of Harwich, naval architect, Master Shipwright, commercial shipbuilder and MP* Lieutenant-General Edward Harvey (1718–1788) Adjutant-General to the Forces and MP for Harwich 1768 to 1778* Tony Newton, Baron Newton of Braintree OBE, PC, DL (1937–2012) Conservative politician and former Cabinet member* Nick Alston (born 1952) Conservative Essex Police and Crime Commissioner* Bernard Jenkin (born 1959) Conservative politician, MP for Harwich and North Essex since 2010 * Andrew Murrison VR (born 1961) doctor and Conservative Party politician, MP since 2001* Dan Rowe singer" ], [ "Sport", "Harwich is home to Harwich & Parkeston F.C.", "; Harwich and Dovercourt RFC; Harwich Rangers FC; Sunday Shrimpers; Harwich & Dovercourt Sailing Club; Harwich, Dovercourt & Parkeston Swimming Club; Harwich & Dovercourt Rugby Union Football Club; Harwich & Dovercourt Cricket Club; and Harwich Runners who with support from Harwich Swimming Club host the annual Harwich Triathlons." ], [ "Media", "Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC East and ITV Anglia.", "Television signals are received from the Sudbury TV transmitter and the local relay transmitter.", "The town is served by both BBC Essex and BBC Radio Suffolk.", "Other radio stations including Heart East, Greatest Hits Radio Essex, Actual Radio, Nation Radio Suffolk and ''Radio Mi Amigo'', a community based station which broadcast from The Harwich Quay.", "The town is served by the local newspaper, ''Harwich and Manningtree Standard'' which publishes on Fridays." ], [ "Arms" ], [ "See also", "* Harwich Force* Harwich Redoubt* Harwich (UK Parliament constituency)* Harwich and Dovercourt High School* Harwich Lifeboat Station* Harwich Mayflower Heritage Centre* Harwich refinery" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Harwich Town Council* The Harwich Society" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hendrick Avercamp" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hendrick Avercamp''' (January 27, 1585 (bapt.)", "– May 15, 1634 (buried)) was a Dutch painter during the Dutch Golden Age of painting.", "He was one of the earliest landscape painters of the 17th-century Dutch school, he specialized in painting the Netherlands in winter.", "His paintings are colorful and lively, with carefully crafted images of the people in the landscape.", "His works give a vivid depiction of sport and leisure in the Netherlands in the beginning of the 17th century.", "Many of Avercamp's paintings feature people ice skating on frozen lakes.Avercamp's work enjoyed great popularity and he sold his drawings, many of which were tinted with water-color, as finished pictures to be pasted into the albums of collectors.", "The Royal Collection has an outstanding collection of his works." ], [ "Life", "Avercamp was born in Amsterdam, where he studied with the Danish-born portrait painter Pieter Isaacsz (1569–1625), and perhaps also with David Vinckboons, who was a follower of Pieter Brueghel the Elder.", "In 1608 he moved from Amsterdam to Kampen in the province of Overijssel.", "Avercamp was mute and probably deaf, he was known as \"de Stomme van Kampen\" (the mute of Kampen).", "He also had a nephew Barent Avercamp (1621-1679) who was also a painter and who imitated Hendrick's style of painting.", "Avercamp lived his entire life through the Eighty Years' war, where the young Dutch Republic resisted in a war against the Spanish Habsburgs.", "He died in Kampen and was interred there in the Sint Nicolaaskerk." ], [ "Artwork", "''Enjoying the Ice near a Town'' (1620)Avercamp probably painted in his studio on the basis of sketches he had made in the winter.Avercamp was famous even from abroad for his winter landscapes.", "The passion for painting skating characters probably came from his childhood as he practiced skating with his parents.", "The last quarter of the 16th century, during which Avercamp was born, was one of the coldest periods of the Little Ice Age.The Flemish painting tradition is mainly expressed in Avercamp's early work.", "This is consistent with the landscapes of Pieter Bruegel the Elder.", "Avercamp painted landscapes with a high horizon and many figures who are working on something.", "Many of his paintings are narrative based, with many anecdotes.", "For instance, included in the painting ''Winter Landscape with Skaters'' are several prurient details: a couple making love, naked buttocks, and a peeing male.", "Avercamp used the painting technique of aerial perspective.", "The depth is suggested by change of color in the distance.", "To the front objects are painted in richer colors, such as trees or a boat, while farther objects are lighter.", "This technique strengthens the impression of depth in the painting.Sometimes Avercamp used paper frames, which were a cheap alternative to oil paintings.", "He first drew with pen and ink.", "This work was then covered with finishing paint.", "The contours of the drawing remained.", "Even with this technique, Avercamp could show the pale wintry colors and nuances of the ice.", "Avercamp has also painted cattle and seascapes.", "Later in his life drawing the atmosphere was also important in his work.Avercamp produced about a hundred paintings.", "The bulk of his artwork can be seen in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam and the Mauritshuis in The Hague.", "From November 20, 2009, to February 15, 2010, the Rijksmuseum presented an exhibition of his work entitled the \"Little Ice Age\"." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Hendrick Avercamp - Winterlandschap met ijsvermaak.jpg|''Winter Landscape with Ice Skaters (1608)''File:Hendrik Avercamp - Winter Scene on a Canal - Google Art Project.jpg|''Winter Scene on a Canal (1615)''File:Hendrick Avercamp - A Winter River Landscape with Figures on the Ice.jpg|''A Winter River Landscape with Figures on the Ice''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Avercamp at the WebMuseum* Avercamp at Museum Syndicate * Avercamp at Rijksmuseum Amsterdam* master pieces from Hendrick Avercamp - Online Exhibition at Owlstand*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hans Baldung" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hans Baldung''' (1484 or 1485 – September 1545), called '''Hans Baldung Grien''', (being an early nickname, because of his predilection for the colour green), was a painter, printer, engraver, draftsman, and stained glass artist, who was considered the most gifted student of Albrecht Dürer and whose art belongs to both German Renaissance and Mannerism.", "''Portrait of a Man'', 1514Throughout his lifetime, he developed a distinctive style, full of colour, expression and imagination.", "His talents were varied, and he produced a great and extensive variety of work including portraits, woodcuts, drawings, tapestries, altarpieces, and stained glass, often relying on allegories and mythological motifs." ], [ "Life", "===Early life, c. 1484–1500===Self-portrait, c. 1502Hans was born in Schwäbisch Gmünd (formerly Gmünd in Germany), a small free city of the Empire, part of the East Württemberg region in former Swabia, Germany, in the year 1484 or 1485.Baldung was the son of Johann Baldung, a university-educated jurist, who held the office of legal adviser to the bishop of Strasbourg (Albert of Bavaria) from 1492, and Margarethe Herlin, daughter of Arbogast Herlin.", "His uncle, Hieronymus Baldung, was a doctor in medicine, with a son, Pius Hieronymus, Hans' cousin, who taught law at Freiburg and became chancellor of Tyrol in 1527.Hans was not propertyless, but with unknown occupation.", "He was the first male in his family not to attend university, but was one of the first German artists to come from an academic family." ], [ "Life as a student of Dürer", "Crucifixion (1512)Baldung's earliest training as an artist began around 1500 in the Upper Rhineland with an artist from Strasbourg.", "Beginning in 1503, during the \"Wanderjahre\" (\"years of wandering\") required of artists of the time, Baldung became an assistant in Albrecht Dürer's studio in Nuremberg, where he perfected his art between 1503 and 1507.Here, he may have been given his nickname \"Grien\".", "This name is thought to have come foremost from a preference to the color green: he seems to have worn green clothing.", "He may also have been given this nickname to distinguish him from at least two other Hanses in Dürer's shop, Hans Schäufelin and Hans Suess von Kulmbach.", "He later included the name \"Grien\" in his monogram, and it has also been suggested that the name came from, or consciously echoed, \"grienhals\", a German word for witch—one of his signature themes.", "Hans quickly picked up Dürer's influence and style, and they became friends.", "Baldung seems to have managed Dürer's workshop during the latter's second sojourn in Venice.", "In a later trip to the Netherlands in 1521 Dürer's account book records that he took with him and sold prints by Baldung.", "Near the end of his Nuremberg years, Grien oversaw the production by Dürer of stained glass, woodcuts and engravings, and therefore developed an affinity for these media and for the Nuremberg master's handing of them.", "On Dürer's death Baldung was sent a lock of his hair, which suggests a close friendship." ], [ "Strasbourg", "In 1509, when Baldung's time in Nuremberg was complete, he moved back to Strasbourg and became a citizen there.", "He became a celebrity of the town and received many important commissions.", "The following year, at age 26, he married Margarethe Herlin, a local merchant's daughter, with whom he had one child, Margarethe Baldungin.", "He also joined the guild \"Zur Steltz\", opened a workshop, and began signing his works with the HGB monogram that he used for the rest of his career.", "His style became much more deliberately individual—a tendency art historians used to term \"mannerist.\"", "He stayed in Freiburg im Breisgau in 1513–1516 where he made, among other things, the .Like Dürer and Cranach, Baldung supported the Protestant Reformation.", "He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of his woodcuts represents Luther in quasi-saintly guise, under the protection of (or being inspired by) the Holy Spirit, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove." ], [ "Witchcraft and religious imagery", "''The Trinity and Mystic Pietà'' (1512)In addition to traditional religious subjects, Baldung was concerned during these years with the profane themes of the imminence of death and the relation between the sexes, as well as with scenes of sorcery and witchcraft.", "The number of Baldung's religious works diminished with the Protestant Reformation, which generally repudiated church art as either wasteful or idolatrous.While Dürer had occasionally included images of witches in his work, Baldung was the first German artist to heavily incorporate witches and witchcraft and erotic themes into his artwork.", "His most characteristic works in this area are small in scale and mostly in the medium of drawing; these include a series of puzzling, often erotic allegories and mythological works executed in quill pen and ink and white body color on primed paper.", "His fascination with witchcraft began early, in 1510 when he produced an important chiaroscuro woodcut known as ''The Witches' Sabbath'', and lasted to the end of his career.", "Witches were also a local interest: Strasbourg's humanists studied witchcraft and its bishop was charged with finding and prosecuting witches.", "Baldung's work depicting witches was produced in the first half of the 16th century, before witch hunting became a widespread cultural phenomenon in Europe.", "According to one view, Baldung's work did not represent widespread cultural beliefs at the time of creation but reflected largely individual choices.", "''New Year's Greeting with Three Witches: DER COR CAPEN EIN GVT JAR'' (1514)On the other hand, Baldung may have taken inspiration from the humanism of the early 16th century.", "Baldung, through his family, stood closer to the leading humanist intellectuals of the day than any of his contemporaries and partook in this culture, producing not only many works depicting Strasbourg humanists and scenes from ancient art and literature, but also works reflecting their attitude, drawn in large part from classical poetry and satire, toward witches.", "To take one example, Baldung is believed to have alluded to the notion expressed in Latin and Greek literature that witches could control the weather in his 1523 oil painting ''Weather Witches'', which showcases two attractive and naked witches in front of a stormy sky.", "As Gert von der Osten commented, \"Baldung treats his witches humorously, an attitude that reflects the dominant viewpoint of the humanists in Strasbourg at this time who viewed witchcraft as 'lustig,' a matter that was more amusing than serious\".", "However, it has also proved difficult to distinguish between the satirical tone that some critics observe in Baldung's work and a more serious vilifying intent, just as it is for many other artists, including his rough contemporary Hieronymus Bosch.", "Baldung could also draw on a burgeoning literature on witchcraft, as well as on developing juridical and forensic strategies for witch-hunting.", "While Baldung never worked directly with any Reformation leaders to spread religious ideals through his artwork, even though he lived in fervently religious Strasbourg, he was a supporter of the movement, working on the high altar in the city of Münster, Germany.Baldung also regularly incorporated scenes of witches flying in his art, a characteristic that had been contested centuries before his artwork came into being.", "Flying was inherently attributed to witches by those who believed in the myth of the Sabbath Flight; without their ability to fly, the myth fragmented.", "Baldung depicted this in works such as ''Witches Preparing for the Sabbath Flight'' (1514)." ], [ "Work", "===Painting===Portrait of a Lady (c. 1530).", "Throughout his life, Baldung painted numerous portraits, known for their sharp characterizations.Baldung settled eventually in Strasbourg and then to Freiburg im Breisgau, where he executed what is held to be his masterpiece: an eleven-panel altarpiece for the Freiburg Cathedral, still intact today, depicting scenes from the life of the Virgin, including ''The Annunciation'', ''The Visitation'', ''The Nativity'', ''The Flight into Egypt'', ''The Crucifixion'', ''Four Saints'' and ''The Donators''.", "These depictions were a large part of the artist's greater body of work containing several renowned depictions of the Virgin.The earliest pictures assigned to him by some are altar-pieces with the monogram '''H.", "B.'''", "interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden.", "''The Martyrdom of St Sebastian and the Epiphany'' (now Berlin, 1507) was painted for the market-church of Halle in Saxony.Baldung is well known as a portrait painter, known for his sharp characterization of his subjects.", "His works include historical pictures and portraits, such as Maximilian I and Charles V. At a later period he had sittings with Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is still in the gallery at Karlsruhe.", "While Dürer rigorously details his models, Baldung's style differs by focusing more on the personality of the represented character, an abstract conception of the model's state of mind.===Printmaking===His prints are more important than his paintings.", "Baldung's prints, though Düreresque, are very individual in style, and often in subject, showing little direct Italian influence.", "He worked mainly in woodcut, although he made six engravings, one very fine.", "He joined in the fashion for chiaroscuro woodcuts, adding a tone block to a woodcut of 1510.Most of his hundreds of woodcuts were commissioned for books, as was usual at the time; his \"single-leaf\" woodcuts (i.e.", "prints not for book illustration) are fewer than 100, though no two catalogues agree as to the exact number.Unconventional as a draughtsman, his treatment of human form is often exaggerated and eccentric (hence his linkage, in the art historical literature, with European Mannerism), whilst his ornamental style—profuse, eclectic, and akin to the self-consciously \"German\" strain of contemporary limewood sculptors—is equally distinctive.", "Though Baldung has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green.", "Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines.His works are notable for their individualistic departure from the Renaissance composure of his model, Dürer, for the wild and fantastic strength that some of them display, and for their remarkable themes.", "In the field of painting, his ''Eve, the Serpent and Death'' (National Gallery of Canada) shows his strengths well.", "There is special force in the ''Death and the Maiden'' panel of 1517 (Basel), in the ''Weather Witches'' (Frankfurt), in the monumental panels of ''Adam'' and ''Eve'' (Madrid), and in his many powerful portraits.", "Baldung's most sustained effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the ''Coronation of the Virgin'', and the ''Twelve Apostles'', the ''Annunciation'', ''Visitation'', ''Nativity'' and ''Flight into Egypt'', and the ''Crucifixion'', with portraits of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power that Martin Schongauer bequeathed to the Swabian school.===Other works===One of his earliest works is a portrait of the emperor Maximilian, drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at Karlsruhe.", "His bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden as early as 1514." ], [ "Selected works", "Hans Baldung - Mater Dolorosa, detail (c. 1516)*''Phyllis and Aristotle'', Paris, Louvre.", "1503*Two altar wings (Charles the Great, St. George), Augsburg, State Gallery.", "*''Portrait of a Youth'', Hampton Court, Royal Collection 1509*''The birth of Christ'', Basel, Kunstmuseum Basel, 1510*''The Adoration of the Magi'', Dessau, Anhalt Art Gallery, 1510*''The Witches'', 1510*''The Mass of St. Gregory'', Cleveland, Cleveland Museum of Art, 1511*''The crucifixion of Christ'', Basel, Kunstmuseum Basel, 1512*''The crucifixion of Christ'', Berlin, Gemäldegalerie, 1512*''The Holy Trinity'', London, National Gallery, 1512*''The Rest on the Flight into Egypt'', Vienna, Paintings Gallery of the Academy of Fine Arts, 1513*''Portrait of a Man'', London, National Gallery, 1514 *''The Lamentation of Christ'', Berlin, Gemäldegalerie, 1516*''Death and the Maiden'', Basel, Kunstmuseum Basel, 1517*''The Baptism of Christ'', Frankfurt am Main, Städel, 1518*''Stoning of Saint Stephen'', Strasbourg, Musée de l’Œuvre Notre-Dame, 1522 (contains a self-portrait with a moustache)*''Two Witches'', Frankfurt am Main, Städel, 1523*''Venus with Cupid'', Otterlo, Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, 1525*''Pyramus and Thisbe'', Berlin, Gemäldegalerie, around 1530*''Ambrosius Volmar Keller'', Strasbourg, Musée de l’Œuvre Notre-Dame, 1538*''Christ as a Gardener'', Darmstadt, Hessen State Museum, 1539*''Adam and Eve'', Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi - Uffizi *''The unlikely couple'', Liverpool, Walker Art Gallery, 1527*''The Three Ages of Man and Death'', Museo del Prado, Madrid*''Portrait of a lady'', Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid, 1530*''Mercury as a Planet God'', Stockholm, Nationalmuseum, 1530–1540*''Harmony, or The Three Graces'' ''Die Jugend (Die drei Grazien) The youth (the three graces) Museo del Prado between 1541 and 1544''* ''The Seven Ages of Woman'', Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig, 1544File:Hans Baldung - Die Heilige Jungfrau als Königin des Himmels mit dem Christkind.jpg|''The Virgin as Queen of Heaven with the Christ Child in her arms'', date unknown File:1510 Baldung Der Heilige Johannes auf Patmos anagoria.JPG|''John of Patmos'', 1510File:Hans Baldung - The Mass of Saint Gregory - 1952.112 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tiff|''The Mass of St Gregory'', 1511File:Aristotle and Phyllis.jpg|Woodcut of Phyllis and Aristotle, 1515File:Hans Baldung Grien - Ruhe auf der Flucht der heiligen Familie nach Ägypten.jpg|''Rest on the Flight into Egypt'', c. 1515File:Hans Baldung - Mater Dolorosa - WGA01205.jpg|''Mater Dolorosa'', c. 1516File:Hans Baldung 004.jpg|''The Lamentation of Christ'', 1516File:Hans Baldung Grien Enthauptung der hl Dorothea.jpg|''Beheading of St Dorothea'', 1516File:Baldung FR Hochaltar.02.JPG|''Nativity'', 1516File:Gw11 0001031 20170619 001 Baldung Der Tod und das Maedchen.jpg|''Death and the Maiden'', 1517File:649_z-hans_baldung_grien-lucretia-1520.png| ''Lucretia'', 1520.Drawing with bodycolorTwo Witches (SM 1123).png|''Two Witches'', 1523File:Hans Baldung Grien - Adam - Google Art Project.jpg|''Adam'', c. 1525-1526File:Hans Baldung Grien - Eve - Google Art Project.jpg|''Eve'', c. 1525-1526 File:Hans Baldung Grien - Venus and Amor - Google Art Project.jpg| ''Venus with Cupid'', 1525File:Mercury (Hans Baldung Grien) - Nationalmuseum - 18076.tif|'' Mercury , 1530–1540File:Hans Baldung - The Three Graces - WGA01196.jpg|''Harmony'', 1541Baldung Vierge treille mba mb.jpg|''Madonna in the Vine Arbour'', 1541–1543" ], [ "See also", "*Early Renaissance painting*Old master print" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations===**** * * * * '''Attribution:'''* ===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Hans Baldung (see index)* Article: Sacred and Profane: Christian Imagery and Witchcraft in Prints by Hans Baldung Grien, by Stan Parchin* \"Hans Baldung Grien\", ''National Gallery of Art''* Hans Baldung in the \"A World History of Art\"* Several of Baldung's witches and erotic prints" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hammered dulcimer" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''hammered dulcimer''' (also called the '''hammer dulcimer''') is a percussion-stringed instrument which consists of strings typically stretched over a trapezoidal resonant sound board.", "The hammered dulcimer is set before the musician, who in more traditional styles may sit cross-legged on the floor, or in a more modern style may stand or sit at a wooden support with legs.", "The player holds a small spoon-shaped mallet hammer in each hand to strike the strings.", "The Graeco-Roman word ''dulcimer'' (\"sweet song\") derives from the Latin ''dulcis'' (sweet) and the Greek ''melos'' (song).", "The dulcimer, in which the strings are beaten with small hammers, originated from the psaltery, in which the strings are plucked.Hammered dulcimers and other similar instruments are traditionally played in Iraq, India, Iran, Southwest Asia, China, Korea, and parts of Southeast Asia, Central Europe (Hungary, Slovenia, Romania, Slovakia, Poland, Czech Republic, Switzerland (particularly Appenzell), Austria and Bavaria), the Balkans, Eastern Europe (Ukraine and Belarus), and Scandinavia.", "The instrument is also played in the United Kingdom (Wales, East Anglia, Northumbria), and the United States, where its traditional use in folk music saw a revival in the late 20th century." ], [ "Strings and tuning", "Major scale pattern on a diatonic hammered dulcimer tuned in 5thsAn early version of the hammered dulcimer accompanied by lute, tambourine and bagpipeThe ''Salzburger hackbrett'', a chromatic versionA dulcimer usually has two bridges, a bass bridge near the right and a treble bridge on the left side.", "The bass bridge holds up bass strings, which are played to the left of the bridge.", "The treble strings can be played on either side of the treble bridge.", "In the usual construction, playing them on the left side gives a note a fifth higher than playing them on the right of the bridge.The dulcimer comes in various sizes, identified by the number of strings that cross each of the bridges.", "A 15/14, for example, has 15 strings crossing the treble bridge and 14 crossing the bass bridge, and can span three octaves.", "The strings of a hammered dulcimer are usually found in pairs, two strings for each note (though some instruments have three or four strings per note).", "Each set of strings is tuned in unison and is called a course.", "As with a piano, the purpose of using multiple strings per course is to make the instrument louder, although as the courses are rarely in perfect unison, a chorus effect usually results like a mandolin.", "A hammered dulcimer, like an autoharp, harp, or piano, requires a tuning wrench for tuning, since the dulcimer's strings are wound around tuning pins with square heads.", "(Ordinarily, 5 mm \"zither pins\" are used, similar to, but smaller in diameter than piano tuning pins, which come in various sizes ranging upwards from \"1/0\" or 7 mm.", ")The strings of the hammered dulcimer are often tuned according to a circle of fifths pattern.", "Typically, the lowest note (often a G or D) is struck at the lower right-hand of the instrument, just to the left of the right-hand (bass) bridge.", "As a player strikes the courses above in sequence, they ascend following a repeating sequence of two whole steps and a half step.", "With this tuning, a diatonic scale is broken into two tetrachords, or groups of four notes.", "For example, on an instrument with D as the lowest note, the D major scale is played starting in the lower-right corner and ascending the bass bridge: D – E – F – G. This is the lower tetrachord of the D major scale.", "At this point the player returns to the bottom of the instrument and shifts to the treble strings to the right of the treble bridge to play the higher tetrachord: A – B – C – D. The player can continue up the scale on the right side of the treble bridge with E – F – G – A – B, but the next note will be C, not C, so he or she must switch to the left side of the treble bridge (and closer to the player) to continue the D major scale.", "See the drawing on the left above, in which \"DO\" would correspond to D (see Movable do solfège).The shift from the bass bridge to the treble bridge is required because the bass bridge's fourth string G is the start of the lower tetrachord of the G scale.", "The player could go on up a couple notes (G – A – B), but the next note will be a flatted seventh (C natural in this case), because this note is drawn from the G tetrachord.", "This D major scale with a flatted seventh is the mixolydian mode in D.The same thing happens as the player goes up the treble bridge – after getting to La (B in this case), one has to go to the left of the treble bridge.", "Moving from the left side of the bass bridge to the right side of the treble bridge is analogous to moving from the right side of the treble bridge to the left side of the treble bridge.The whole pattern can be shifted up by three courses, so that instead of a D-major scale one would have a G-major scale, and so on.", "This transposes one equally tempered scale to another.", "Shifting down three courses transposes the D-major scale to A-major, but of course the first Do-Re-Mi would be shifted off the instrument.This tuning results in most, but not all, notes of the chromatic scale being available.", "To fill in the gaps, many modern dulcimer builders include extra short bridges at the top and bottom of the soundboard, where extra strings are tuned to some or all of the missing pitches.", "Such instruments are often called \"chromatic dulcimers\" as opposed to the more traditional \"diatonic dulcimers\".The tetrachord markers found on the bridges of most hammered dulcimers in the English-speaking world were introduced by the American player and maker Sam Rizzetta in the 1960s.In the Alps there are also chromatic dulcimers with crossed strings, which are in a whole tone distance in every row.", "This chromatic ''Salzburger hackbrett'' was developed in the mid 1930s from the diatonic hammered dulcimer by Tobi Reizer and his son along with Franz Peyer and Heinrich Bandzauner.", "In the postwar period it was one of the instruments taught in state-sponsored music schools.Hammered dulcimers of non-European descent may have other tuning patterns, and builders of European-style dulcimers sometimes experiment with alternate tuning patterns." ], [ "Hammers", "The instrument is referred to as \"hammered\" in reference to the small mallets (referred to as ''hammers'') that players use to strike the strings.", "Hammers are usually made of wood (most likely hardwoods such as maple, cherry, padauk, oak, walnut, or any other hardwood), but can also be made from any material, including metal and plastic.", "In the Western hemisphere, hammers are usually stiff, but in Asia, flexible hammers are often used.", "The head of the hammer can be left bare for a sharp attack sound, or can be covered with adhesive tape, leather, or fabric for a softer sound.", "Two-sided hammers are also available.", "The heads of two sided hammers are usually oval or round.", "Most of the time, one side is left as bare wood while the other side may be covered in leather or a softer material such as piano felt.Several traditional players have used hammers that differ substantially from those in common use today.", "Paul Van Arsdale (1920–2018), a player from upstate New York, used flexible hammers made from hacksaw blades, with leather-covered wooden blocks attached to the ends (these were modeled after the hammers used by his grandfather, Jesse Martin).", "The Irish player John Rea (1915–1983) used hammers made of thick steel wire, which he made himself from old bicycle spokes wrapped with wool.", "Billy Bennington (1900–1986), a player from Norfolk, England, used cane hammers bound with wool." ], [ "Variants and adaptations", "A pianoThe hammered dulcimer was extensively used during the Middle Ages in England, France, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain.", "Although it had a distinctive name in each country, it was everywhere regarded as a kind of psalterium.", "The importance of the method of setting the strings in vibration by means of hammers, and its bearing on the acoustics of the instrument, were recognized only when the invention of the pianoforte had become a matter of history.", "It was then perceived that the psalterium (in which the strings were plucked) and the dulcimer (in which they were struck), when provided with keyboards would give rise to two distinct families of instruments, differing essentially in tone quality, in technique and in capabilities.", "The evolution of the psalterium resulted in the harpsichord; that of the dulcimer produced the pianoforte." ], [ "Around the world", "Tuning of a hammered dulcimer (southeastern Slovenia)Versions of the hammered dulcimer, each of which has its own distinct manner of construction and playing style, are used throughout the world:* Afghanistan – santur* Austria – Hackbrett* Bangladesh – santoor* Belarus – tsymbaly/цымбал* Belgium – hakkebord* Brazil – saltério* Cambodia – khim* Canada – hammered dulcimer* China – yangqin (扬琴, formerly 洋琴)* Croatian – cimbal, cimbale, cimbule* Czech Republic – cimbál* Denmark – hakkebræt* France – tympanon* Germany – Zymbal, Hackbrett* Greece – Σαντούρι* Hungary – cimbalom* India – santoor* Iran – santur* Iraq – santur* Ireland – tiompan* Israel – דולצימר פטישים* Italy – salterio* Japan – darushimaa (ダルシマー)* Korea – yanggeum (양금)* Laos – khim* Latgalia (Latvia) – cymbala* Latvia – cimbole* Lithuania – cimbalai, cimbolai* Mexico – salterio* Mongolia – yoochin (ёочин or ёчин)* Netherlands – hakkebord* Norway – hakkebrett* Pakistan – santoor* Poland – cymbały* Portugal – saltério* Romania – ţambal* Russia – цимбалы, dultsimer (дульцимер)* Serbia – цимбал (tsimbal)* Slovakia – cimbal* Slovenia – cimbale, oprekelj* Spain (and Spanish-speaking countries) – salterio, dulcémele* Sweden – hackbräde, hammarharpa* Switzerland – Hackbrett* Thailand – khim* Turkey – santur* Tibet - rgyud-mang or yangzi(རྒྱུད་མང་, literally \"many strings\")* Ukraine – tsymbaly (цимбали)* United Kingdom – hammered dulcimer* United States – hammered dulcimer* Uzbekistan – chang* Vietnam – đàn tam thập lục (lit.", "\"36 strings\")* Yiddish – tsimbl" ], [ "See also", "* List of hammered dulcimer players* Santoor – India* Santur§Santurs from around the world* Yangqin – China* Santouri – Greece" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Gifford, Paul M. (2001), ''The Hammered Dulcimer: A History'', The Scarecrow Press, Inc. .", "A comprehensive history of the hammered dulcimer and its variants.", "* Kettlewell, David (1976), ''The Dulcimer'', PhD thesis.", "History and playing traditions around the world; web-version at https://web.archive.org/web/20110717071302/http://www.new-renaissance.net/dulcimer." ], [ "External links", "* Santur on ''Nay-Nava'', the encyclopedia of Persian music instruments* Pete Rushefsky, \"Jewish Strings: An Introduction to the Klezmer Tsimbl\" (Related to the Hammered Dulcimer) (archive from 27 December 2009).", "* Smithsonian Institution booklet on hammered dulcimer history and playing* Smithsonian Institution booklet on making a hammered dulcimer (by Sam Rizzetta)* Hammered dulcimers from polish collections (''Polish folk musical instruments'')* East Anglian Dulcimers(ongoing historic research by John & Katie Howson about dulcimer players and makers from Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire and Essex, UK.)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Humanae vitae" ], [ "Introduction", "Pope Paul VI signed on 25 July 1968.''''''", "(Latin, meaning 'Of Human Life') is an encyclical written by Pope Paul VI and dated 25 July 1968.The text was issued at a Vatican press conference on 29 July.", "Subtitled ''On the Regulation of Birth'', it re-affirmed the teaching of the Catholic Church regarding married love, responsible parenthood, and the rejection of artificial contraception.", "In formulating his teaching he explained why he did not accept the conclusions of the Pontifical Commission on Birth Control established by his predecessor, Pope John XXIII, a commission he himself had expanded.Mainly because of its restatement of the Church's opposition to artificial contraception, the encyclical was politically controversial.", "It affirmed traditional Church moral teaching on the sanctity of life and the procreative and unitive nature of conjugal relations.It was the last of Paul's seven encyclicals." ], [ "Summary", "===Affirmation of traditional teaching===In this encyclical Paul VI reaffirmed the Catholic Church's view of marriage and marital relations and a continued condemnation of \"artificial\" birth control.", "Referencing two Papal committees and numerous independent experts examining new developments in artificial birth control, Paul VI built on the teachings of his predecessors, especially Pius XI, Pius XII and John XXIII, all of whom had insisted on the divine obligations of the marital partners in light of their partnership with God the creator.===Doctrinal basis===Paul VI himself, even as commission members issued their personal views over the years, always reaffirmed the teachings of the Church, repeating them more than once in the first years of his Pontificate.To Pope Paul VI, marital relations were much more than a union of two people.", "In his view, they constitute a union of the loving couple with a loving God, in which the two persons generate the matter for the body, while God creates the unique soul of a person.", "For this reason, Paul VI teaches in the first sentence of , that the \"transmission of human life is a most serious role in which married people collaborate freely and responsibly with God the Creator.\"", "This is divine partnership, so Paul VI does not allow for arbitrary human decisions, which may limit divine providence.", "According to Paul VI, marital relations are a source of great joy, but also of difficulties and hardships.", "The question of human procreation with God, exceeds in the view of Paul VI specific disciplines such as biology, psychology, demography or sociology.", "According to Paul VI, married love takes its origin from God, who is love, and from this basic dignity, he defines his position:The encyclical opens with an assertion of the competency of the magisterium of the Catholic Church to decide questions of morality.", "It then goes on to observe that circumstances often dictate that married couples should limit the number of children, and that the sexual act between husband and wife is still worthy even if it can be foreseen not to result in procreation.", "Nevertheless, it is held that the sexual act must retain its intrinsic relationship to the procreation of human life.Every action specifically intended to prevent procreation is forbidden, except in medically necessary circumstances.", "Therapeutic means necessary to cure diseases are exempted, even if a foreseeable impediment to procreation should result, but only if infertility is not directly intended.", "This is held to directly contradict the moral order which was established by God.", "Abortion, even for therapeutic reasons, is absolutely forbidden, as is sterilization, even if temporary.", "Therapeutic means which induce infertility are allowed (e.g., hysterectomy), if they are not specifically intended to cause infertility (e.g., the uterus is cancerous, so the preservation of life is intended).", "If there are well grounded reasons (arising from the physical or psychological condition of husband or wife, or from external circumstances), natural family planning methods (abstaining from intercourse during certain parts of the menstrual cycle) are allowed, since they take advantage of a faculty provided by nature.The acceptance of artificial methods of birth control is then claimed to result in several negative consequences, among them a general lowering of moral standards resulting from sex without consequences, and the danger that men may reduce women to being a mere instrument for the satisfaction of their own desires; finally, abuse of power by public authorities, and a false sense of autonomy.===Appeal to natural law and conclusion===Public authorities should oppose laws which undermine natural law; scientists should further study effective methods of natural birth control; doctors should further familiarize themselves with this teaching, in order to be able to give advice to their patients, and priests must spell out clearly and completely the Church's teaching on marriage.", "The encyclical acknowledges that \"perhaps not everyone will easily accept this particular teaching\", but that \"it comes as no surprise to the church that she, no less than her Divine founder is destined to be a sign of contradiction.\"", "Noted is the duty of proclaiming the entire moral law, \"both natural and evangelical.\"", "The encyclical also points out that the Roman Catholic Church cannot \"declare lawful what is in fact unlawful\", because she is concerned with \"safeguarding the holiness of marriage, in order to guide married life to its full human and Christian perfection.\"", "This is to be the priority for his fellow bishops and priests and lay people.", "Paul VI predicted that future progress in social cultural and economic spheres would make marital and family life more joyful, provided God's design for the world was faithfully followed.", "The encyclical closes with an appeal to observe the natural laws of the most high God.", "\"These laws must be wisely and lovingly observed.\"" ], [ "History", "===Origins===There had been a long-standing general Christian prohibition on contraception and abortion, with such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria and Saint Augustine condemning the practices.", "It was not until the 1930 Lambeth Conference that the Anglican Communion allowed for contraception in limited circumstances.", "Mainline Protestant denominations have since removed prohibitions against artificial contraception.", "In a partial reaction, Pope Pius XI wrote the encyclical (''On Christian Marriage'') in 1930, reaffirming the Catholic Church's belief in various traditional Christian teachings on marriage and sexuality, including the prohibition of artificial birth control even within marriage.", "is against contraception and regarding natural family planning allowed married couples to use their nuptial rights \"in the proper manner\" when because of either time or defects, new life could not be brought forth.===The commission of John XXIII===With the appearance of the first oral contraceptives in 1960, dissenters in the Church argued for a reconsideration of the Church positions.", "In 1963 Pope John XXIII established a commission of six European non-theologians to study questions of birth control and population.", "It met once in 1963 and twice in 1964.As Vatican Council II was concluding, Pope Paul VI enlarged it to fifty-eight members, including married couples, laywomen, theologians and bishops.", "The last document issued by the council () contained a section titled \"Fostering the Nobility of Marriage\" (1965, nos.", "47–52), which discussed marriage from the personalist point of view.", "The \"duty of responsible parenthood\" was affirmed, but the determination of licit and illicit forms of regulating birth was reserved to Pope Paul VI.", "In the spring of 1966, following the close of the council, the commission held its fifth and final meeting, having been enlarged again to include sixteen bishops as an executive committee.", "The commission was only consultative but it submitted a report approved by a majority of 64 members to Paul VI.", "It proposed he approve of artificial contraception without distinction of the various means.", "A minority of four members opposed this report and issued a parallel report to the Pope.", "Arguments in the minority report, against change in the church's teaching, were that a loosening of contraception restrictions would mean the Catholic Church would \"have to concede frankly that the Holy Spirit had been on the side of the Protestant churches in 1930\" (when was promulgated), and that \"it should likewise have to be admitted that for a half a century the Spirit failed to protect Pius XI, Pius XII, and a large part of the Catholic hierarchy from a very serious error.", "\"After two more years of study and consultation, the pope issued , which removed any doubt that the Church views hormonal anti-ovulants as contraceptive.", "He explained why he did not accept the opinion of the majority report of the commission (1968, #6).", "Arguments were raised in the decades that followed that his decision has never passed the condition of \"reception\" to become church doctrine.===Drafting of the encyclical===In his role as Theologian of the Pontifical Household, Mario Luigi Ciappi advised Pope Paul VI during the drafting of .", "Ciappi, a doctoral graduate of the , the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, , served as professor of dogmatic theology there and was Dean of the 's Faculty of Theology from 1935 to 1955.According to George Weigel, Paul VI named Archbishop Karol Wojtyła (later Pope John Paul II) to the commission, but Polish government authorities would not permit him to travel to Rome.", "Wojtyła had earlier defended the church's position from a philosophical standpoint in his 1960 book ''Love and Responsibility''.", "Wojtyła's position was strongly considered and it was reflected in the final draft of the encyclical, although much of his language and arguments were not incorporated.", "Weigel attributes much of the poor reception of the encyclical to the omission of many of Wojtyła's arguments.In 2017, anticipating the 50th anniversary of the encyclical, four theologians led by Mgr.", "Gilfredo Marengo, a professor of theological anthropology at the Pontifical John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family, launched a research project he called \"a work of historical-critical investigation without any aim other than reconstructing as well as possible the whole process of composing the encyclical\".", "Using the resources of the Vatican Secret Archives and the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, they hope to detail the writing process and the interaction between the commission, publicity surrounding the commission's work, and Paul's own authorship." ], [ "Highlights", "===Faithfulness to God's design======Lawful therapeutic means======Recourse to infertile periods======Concern of the Church======Developing countries===" ], [ "Response and criticism", "===Galileo affair comparison===Cardinal Leo Joseph Suenens, a moderator of the ecumenical council, questioned, \"whether moral theology took sufficient account of scientific progress, which can help determine, what is according to nature.", "I beg you my brothers let us avoid another Galileo affair.", "One is enough for the Church.\"", "In an interview in on 15 May 1969, he criticized the Pope's decision again as frustrating the collegiality defined by the council, calling it a non-collegial or even an anti-collegial act.", "He was supported by Vatican II theologians such as Karl Rahner, Hans Küng, several Episcopal conferences, e.g.", "the Episcopal Conference of Austria, Germany, and Switzerland, as well as several bishops, including Christopher Butler, who called it one of the most important contributions to contemporary discussion in the Church.===Open dissent===The publication of the encyclical marks the first time in the twentieth century that open dissent from the laity about teachings of the Church was voiced widely and publicly.", "The teaching has been criticized by development organizations and others who claim that it limits the methods available to fight worldwide population growth and struggle against HIV/AIDS.", "Within two days of the encyclical's release, a group of dissident theologians, led by Rev.", "Charles Curran, then of The Catholic University of America, issued a statement stating, \"spouses may responsibly decide according to their conscience that artificial contraception in some circumstances is permissible and indeed necessary to preserve and foster the value and sacredness of marriage.", "\"===Canadian bishops===Two months later, the controversial \"Winnipeg Statement\" issued by the Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops stated that those who cannot accept the teaching should not be considered shut off from the Catholic Church, and that individuals can in good conscience use contraception as long as they have first made an honest attempt to accept the difficult directives of the encyclical.===Dutch Catechism===The Dutch Catechism of 1966, based on the Dutch bishops' interpretation of the just completed Vatican Council, and the first post-Council comprehensive Catholic catechism, noted the lack of mention of artificial contraception in the Council.", "\"As everyone can ascertain nowadays, there are several methods of regulating births.", "The Second Vatican Council did not speak of any of these concrete methods...", "This is a different standpoint than that taken under Pius XI some thirty years ago which was also maintained by his successor... we can sense here a clear development in the Church, a development, which is also going on outside the Church.", "\"===Soviet Union===In the Soviet Union, , a publication of Soviet intellectuals, included an editorial and statement by Russian physicians against the encyclical.===Ecumenical reactions===Ecumenical reactions were mixed.", "Liberal and Moderate Lutherans and the World Council of Churches were disappointed.", "Eugene Carson Blake criticised the concepts of nature and natural law, which, in his view, still dominated Catholic theology, as outdated.", "This concern dominated several articles in Catholic and non-Catholic journals at the time.", "Patriarch Athenagoras I stated his full agreement with Pope Paul VI: \"He could not have spoken in any other way.", "\"===Latin America===In Latin America, much support developed for the Pope and his encyclical.", "As World Bank President Robert McNamara declared at the 1968 Annual Meeting of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group that countries permitting birth control practices will get preferential access to resources, doctors in La Paz, Bolivia, called it insulting that money should be exchanged for the conscience of a Catholic nation.", "In Colombia, Cardinal Aníbal Muñoz Duque declared, \"if American conditionality undermines Papal teachings, we prefer not to receive one cent\".", "The Senate of Bolivia passed a resolution, stating that can be discussed in its implications on individual consciences, but is of greatest significance because it defends the rights of developing nations to determine their own population policies.", "The Jesuit Journal ''Sic'' dedicated one edition to the encyclical with supportive contributions.", "However, against eighteen insubordinate priests, professors of theology at Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, and the ensuing conspiracy of silence practiced by the Chilean Episcopate, which had to be censured by the Nuncio in Santiago at the behest of Cardinal Gabriel-Marie Garrone, prefect of the Congregation for Catholic Education, triggering eventually a media conflict with , Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira expressed his affliction with the lamentations of Jeremiah: \"O ye all that pass through the way…\" (Lamentations 1:12, King James Bible).===Cardinal Martini===In the book \"Nighttime conversations in Jerusalem.", "On the risk of faith.", "\", well-known liberal Cardinal Carlo Maria Martini accused Paul VI of deliberately concealing the truth, leaving it to theologians and pastors to fix things by adapting precepts to practice: \"I knew Paul VI well.", "With the encyclical, he wanted to express consideration for human life.", "He explained his intention to some of his friends by using a comparison: although one must not lie, sometimes it is not possible to do otherwise; it may be necessary to conceal the truth, or it may be unavoidable to tell a lie.", "It is up to the moralists to explain where sin begins, especially in the cases in which there is a higher duty than the transmission of life.", "\"===Karol Wojtyla===When he was still Archbishop of Krakow, Karol Wojtyla asked Paul VI to apply Papal infallibility ''in docendo'' (in teaching) to the encyclical, equating it with the authority of a dogma.", "Paul VI and John XXIII did not.", "John Paul II himself declared the encyclical part of the ordinary and universal Magisterium of the Roman Catholic Church.===Response of Pope Paul VI===Pope Paul VI was troubled by the encyclical's reception in the West.", "Acknowledging the controversy, Paul VI in a letter to the Congress of German Catholics (30 August 1968), stated: \"May the lively debate aroused by our encyclical lead to a better knowledge of God's will.\"", "In March 1969, he had a meeting with one of the main critics of , Cardinal Leo Joseph Suenens.", "Paul heard him out and said merely, \"Yes, pray for me; because of my weaknesses, the Church is badly governed.\"", "To jog the memory of his critics, he also put in their minds the experience of no less a figure than Peter: \"now I understand St Peter: he came to Rome twice, the second time to be crucified\", – herewith directing their attention to his rejoicing in glorifying the Lord.", "Increasingly convinced, that \"the smoke of Satan entered the temple of God from some fissure\", Paul VI reaffirmed, on 23 June 1978, weeks before his death, in an address to the College of Cardinals, his : \"following the confirmations of serious science\", and which sought to affirm the principle of respect for the laws of nature and of \"a conscious and ethically responsible paternity\".=== Padre Pio ===In his last letter to Pope Paul VI, Christian mystic and canonized saint Padre Pio called \"clear and decisive words\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Polls have shown that many self-identified Catholics use artificial means of contraception, and that very few use natural family planning.", "However, John L. Allen Jr. wrote in 2008: \"Three decades of bishops' appointments by John Paul II and Benedict XVI, both unambiguously committed to , mean that senior leaders in Catholicism these days are far less inclined than they were in 1968 to distance themselves from the ban on birth control, or to soft-pedal it.", "Some Catholic bishops have brought out documents of their own defending .\"", "Developments in fertility awareness since the 1960s have also given rise to natural family planning organizations such as the Billings Ovulation Method, Couple to Couple League and the Creighton Model FertilityCare System, which actively provide formal instruction on the use and reliability of natural methods of birth control.===Pope John Paul I===Albino Luciani's views on have been debated.", "Journalist John L. Allen Jr. claims that \"it's virtually certain that John Paul I would not have reversed Paul VI's teaching, particularly since he was no doctrinal radical.", "Moreover, as Patriarch in Venice some had seen a hardening of his stance on social issues as the years went by.\"", "According to Allen, \"it is reasonable to assume that John Paul I would not have insisted upon the negative judgment in as aggressively and publicly as John Paul II did, and probably would not have treated it as a quasi-infallible teaching.", "It would have remained a more 'open' question\".", "Other sources take a different view and note that during his time as Patriarch of Venice that \"Luciani was intransigent with his upholding of the teaching of the Church and severe with those, through intellectual pride and disobedience paid no attention to the Church's prohibition of contraception\", though while not condoning the sin, he was tolerant of those who sincerely tried and failed to live up to the Church's teaching.", "Raymond and Lauretta's book ''The Smiling Pope, The Life & Teaching of John Paul I'' states that \"if some people think that his compassion and gentleness in this respect implies he was against one can only infer it was wishful thinking on their part and an attempt to find an ally in favor of artificial contraception.", "\"===Pope John Paul II===After he became pope in 1978, John Paul II continued on the Catholic Theology of the Body of his predecessors with a series of lectures, entitled ''Theology of the Body'', in which he talked about an \"original unity between man and women\", purity of heart (on the Sermon on the Mount), marriage and celibacy and reflections on , focusing largely on responsible parenthood and marital chastity.In 1981, the Pope's Apostolic exhortation, , restated the Church's opposition to artificial birth control stated previously in .John Paul II readdressed some of the same issues in his 1993 encyclical .", "He reaffirmed much of , and specifically described the practice of artificial contraception as an act not permitted by Catholic teaching in any circumstances.", "The same encyclical also clarifies the use of conscience in arriving at moral decisions, including in the use of contraception.", "However, John Paul also said, \"It is not right then to regard the moral conscience of the individual and the magisterium of the Church as two contenders, as two realities in conflict.", "The authority which the magisterium enjoys by the will of Christ exists so that the moral conscience can attain the truth with security and remain in it.\"", "John Paul quoted as a compassionate encyclical, \"Christ has come not to judge the world but to save it, and while he was uncompromisingly stern towards sin, he was patient and rich in mercy towards sinners\".Pope John Paul's 1995 encyclical ('The Gospel of Life') affirmed the Church's position on contraception and multiple topics related to the culture of life.===Pope Benedict XVI===On 12 May 2008, Benedict XVI accepted an invitation to talk to participants in the International Congress organized by the Pontifical Lateran University on the 40th anniversary of .", "He put the encyclical in the broader view of love in a global context, a topic he called \"so controversial, yet so crucial for humanity's future.\"", "became \"a sign of contradiction but also of continuity of the Church's doctrine and tradition... What was true yesterday is true also today.\"", "The Church continues to reflect \"in an ever new and deeper way on the fundamental principles that concern marriage and procreation.\"", "The key message of is love.", "Benedict states, that the fullness of a person is achieved by a unity of soul and body, but neither spirit nor body alone can love, only the two together.", "If this unity is broken, if only the body is satisfied, love becomes a commodity.===Pope Francis===On 16 January 2015, Pope Francis said to a meeting with families in Manila, insisting on the need to protect the family: \"The family is... threatened by growing efforts on the part of some to redefine the very institution of marriage, by relativism, by the culture of the ephemeral, by a lack of openness to life.", "I think of Blessed Paul VI.", "At a time when the problem of population growth was being raised, he had the courage to defend openness to life in families.", "He knew the difficulties that are there in every family, and so in his Encyclical he was very merciful towards particular cases, and he asked confessors to be very merciful and understanding in dealing with particular cases.", "But he also had a broader vision: he looked at the peoples of the earth and he saw this threat of the destruction of the family through the privation of children original Spanish: .", "Paul VI was courageous; he was a good pastor and he warned his flock of the wolves who were coming.", "\"A year before, on 1 May 2014, Pope Francis, in an interview given to Italian newspaper , expressed his opinion and praise for : \"Everything depends on how is interpreted.", "Paul VI himself, in the end, urged confessors to be very merciful and pay attention to concrete situations.", "But his genius was prophetic, he had the courage to take a stand against the majority, to defend moral discipline, to exercise a cultural restraint, to oppose present and future neo-Malthusianism.", "The question is not of changing doctrine, but of digging deep and making sure that pastoral care takes into account situations and what it is possible for persons to do.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Latin text of ''Humanae vitae'' at the Vatican website* English text of ''Humanae vitae'' at the Vatican website* The Humanae Vitae controversy , chapter from George Weigel's biography of Karol Wojtyła* G. E. M. Anscombe: ''Contraception and Chastity''* Cardinal Varkey's Letter on Family Planning Trends Among Catholics: Cardinal Mar Varkey Vithayathil, Kerala, India* Natural Family Planning, John and Sheila Kippley's website that supports ''Humanae vitae'' and provides instruction in natural family planning* The Vindication of Humanae Vitae, by Mary Eberstadt ''First Things'', August/September 2008.", "* John Paul II's THEOLOGY OF THE BODY on the EWTN website.", "* The Scientists who Dissented from Humanae Vitae, Sharon Kabel, The Pillar" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Wikipedia" ], [ "Introduction", "Wikipedia's Main Page as it appeared on 20 December 2001Wikipedia, a free-content online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers known as Wikipedians, began with its first edit on 15 January 2001, two days after the domain was registered.", "It grew out of Nupedia, a more structured free encyclopedia, as a way to allow easier and faster drafting of articles and translations.The technological and conceptual underpinnings of Wikipedia predate this; the earliest known proposal for an online encyclopedia was made by Rick Gates in 1993, and the concept of a free-as-in-freedom online encyclopedia (as distinct from mere open source) was proposed by Richard Stallman in 1998.Stallman's concept specifically included the idea that no central organization should control editing.", "This contrasted with contemporary digital encyclopedias such as Microsoft Encarta and ''Encyclopædia Britannica.''", "In 2001, the license for Nupedia was changed to GFDL, and Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger launched Wikipedia as a complementary project, using an online wiki as a collaborative drafting tool.", "While Wikipedia was initially imagined as a place to draft articles and ideas for eventual polishing in Nupedia, it quickly overtook its predecessor, becoming both draft space and home for the polished final product of a global project in hundreds of languages, inspiring a wide range of other online reference projects.In 2014, Wikipedia had approximately 495 million monthly readers.", "In 2015, according to comScore, Wikipedia received over 115 million monthly unique visitors from the United States alone.", "In September 2018, the projects saw 15.5 billion monthly page views." ], [ "Historical overview", "===Background===The concept of compiling the world's knowledge in a single location dates back to the ancient Library of Alexandria and Library of Pergamum, but the modern concept of a general-purpose, widely distributed, printed encyclopedia originated with Denis Diderot and the 18th-century French encyclopedists.", "The idea of using automated machinery beyond the printing press to build a more useful encyclopedia can be traced to Paul Otlet's 1934 book ''Traité de Documentation''.", "Otlet also founded the Mundaneum, an institution dedicated to indexing the world's knowledge, in 1910.This concept of a machine-assisted encyclopedia was further expanded in H. G. Wells' book of essays ''World Brain'' (1938) and Vannevar Bush's future vision of the microfilm-based Memex in his essay \"As We May Think\" (1945).", "Another milestone was Ted Nelson's hypertext design Project Xanadu, which began in 1960.The use of volunteers was integral in making and maintaining Wikipedia.", "However, even without the internet, huge complex projects of similar nature had made use of volunteers.", "Specifically, the creation of the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' was conceived with the speech at the London Library, on Guy Fawkes Day, 5 November 1857, by Richard Chenevix Trench.", "It took about 70 years to complete.", "Dr. Trench envisioned a grand new dictionary of every word in the English language, and to be used democratically and freely.", "According to author Simon Winchester, \"The undertaking of the scheme, he said, was beyond the ability of any one man.", "To peruse all of English literatureand to comb the London and New York newspapers and the most literate of the magazines and journalsmust be instead 'the combined action of many.'", "It would be necessary to recruit a teammoreover, a huge oneprobably comprising hundreds and hundreds of unpaid amateurs, all of them working as volunteers.", "\"Advances in information technology in the late 20th century led to changes in the form of encyclopedias.", "While previous encyclopedias, notably the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', were often book-based, Microsoft's Encarta, published in 1993, was available on CD-ROM and hyperlinked.", "The development of the World Wide Web led to many attempts to develop internet encyclopedia projects.", "An early proposal for an online encyclopedia was Interpedia in 1993 by Rick Gates; this project died before generating any encyclopedic content.", "Free software proponent Richard Stallman described the usefulness of a \"Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource\" in 1998.His published document outlined how to \"ensure that progress continues towards this best and most natural outcome.", "\"Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales said that the concept of Wikipedia came when he was a graduate student at Indiana University, where he was impressed with the successes of the open-source movement and found Richard Stallman's Emacs Manifesto promoting free software and a sharing economy interesting.", "At the time, Wales was studying finance and was intrigued by the incentives of the many people who contributed as volunteers toward creating free software, where many examples were having excellent results.According to ''The Economist'', Wikipedia \"has its roots in the techno-optimism that characterised the internet at the end of the 20th century.", "It held that ordinary people could use their computers as tools for liberation, education, and enlightenment.", "\"===Formulation of the concept===Wikipedia was initially conceived as a feeder project for the Wales-founded Nupedia, an earlier project to produce a free online encyclopedia, volunteered by Bomis, a web-advertising firm owned by Jimmy Wales, Tim Shell and Michael E. Davis.", "Nupedia was founded upon the use of qualified volunteer contributors and a considered multi-step peer review process.", "Despite its mailing list of over 2000 interested editors, and the presence of Sanger as full-time editor-in-chief, the production of content for Nupedia was extremely slow, with only 12 articles written during the first year.The Nupedians discussed various ways to create content more rapidly.", "Wikis had been used elsewhere on the web to organize knowledge, and the idea of a wiki-based complement to Nupedia was seeded by a conversation between Sanger and Ben Kovitz, and by another between Wales and Jeremy Rosenfeld.", "Kovitz was a computer programmer and regular on Ward Cunningham's revolutionary wiki \"the WikiWikiWeb\".", "He explained to Sanger what wikis were, over a dinner on 2 January 2001.Wales stated in October 2001 that \"Larry had the idea to use Wiki software\" for people bored by Nupedia process, and later stated in December 2005 that Rosenfeld had introduced him to the wiki concept.", "Sanger thought a wiki would be a good platform to use, and proposed on the Nupedia mailing list that a wiki based upon UseModWiki (then v. 0.90) be set up as a \"feeder\" project for Nupedia.", "Under the subject \"Let's make a wiki\", he wrote:Wales set one up and put it online on Wednesday 10 January 2001, under the nupedia.com domain.", "This moved to a new wiki under the wikipedia.com domain on 15 January.", "On 17 January, the Free Software Foundation's (FSF) GNUPedia project went online, potentially competing with Nupedia, but within a few years the FSF encouraged people \"to visit and contribute to Wikipedia\" instead.===Founding of Wikipedia===There was some hesitation among editors about binding Nupedia too closely to a wiki-style workflow.", "After a Nupedia wiki was launched under on 10 January 2001, Wales proposed launching the new project under its own name, and Sanger proposed ''Wikipedia'', framing it as \"a supplementary project to Nupedia which operates entirely independently.\"", "A new wiki was launched at on Monday 15 January 2001.The bandwidth and server (located in San Diego) used for these initial projects were donated by Bomis.", "Many former Bomis employees later contributed content to the encyclopedia: notably Tim Shell, co-founder and later CEO of Bomis, and programmer Jason Richey.Wales stated in December 2008 that he made Wikipedia's first edit, a test edit with the text \"Hello, World!", "\", but this may have been to an old version of Wikipedia which soon after was scrapped and replaced by a restart.", "The first recovered edit to Wikipedia.com was to the HomePage on 15 January 2001, reading \"This is the new WikiPedia!", "\"; it can be found here.", "The existence of the project was formally announced and an appeal for volunteers to engage in content creation was made to the Nupedia mailing list on 17 January 2001.The project received many new participants after being mentioned on the Slashdot website in July 2001, having already earned two minor mentions in March 2001.It then received a prominent pointer to a story on the community-edited technology and culture website Kuro5hin on 25 July.", "Between these influxes of traffic, there had been a steady stream of traffic from other sources, especially Google, which alone sent hundreds of new visitors to the site every day.", "Its first major mainstream media coverage was in ''The New York Times'' on 20 September 2001.The project gained its 1,000th article around Monday 12 February 2001 and reached 10,000 articles around 7 September.", "In the first year of its existence, over 20,000 encyclopedia entries were created – a rate of over 1,500 articles per month.", "On Friday 30 August 2002, the article count reached 40,000.=== Divisions and internationalization ===Early in Wikipedia's development, it began to expand internationally, with the creation of new namespaces, each with a distinct set of usernames.", "The first subdomain created for a non-English Wikipedia was (created on Friday 16 March 2001, 01:38 UTC), followed after a few hours by (at 13:07 UTC).", "The Japanese Wikipedia, started as , was created around that period, and initially used only Romanized Japanese.", "For about two months Catalan was the one with the most articles in a non-English language, although statistics of that early period are imprecise.", "The French Wikipedia was created on or around 11 May 2001, in a wave of new language versions that also included Chinese, Dutch, Esperanto, Hebrew, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, and Swedish.", "These languages were soon joined by Arabic and Hungarian.", "In September 2001, an announcement pledged commitment to the multilingual provision of Wikipedia, notifying users of an upcoming roll-out of Wikipedias for all major languages, the establishment of core standards, and a push for the translation of core pages for the new wikis.", "At the end of that year, when international statistics first began to be logged, Afrikaans, Norwegian, and Serbian versions were announced.In January 2002, 90% of all Wikipedia articles were in English.", "By January 2004, fewer than 50% were English, and this internationalization has continued to increase as the encyclopedia grows.", ", about 85% of all Wikipedia articles were in non-English Wikipedia versions, and by 2023, the early ratio had reversed: despite English and Simple English Wikipedias continuing to grow and having 7 million articles between them, roughly 90% of all Wikipedia articles were ''not'' in English.===Development of Wikipedia===Screenshot of Wikipedia's main page on 28 September 2002In March 2002, following the withdrawal of funding by Bomis during the dot-com bust, Sanger left both Nupedia and Wikipedia.", "By 2002, he and Wales differed in their views on how best to manage open encyclopedias.", "Both still supported the open-collaboration concept, but they disagreed on how to handle disruptive editors, specific roles for experts, and the best way to guide the project to success.Wales went on to establish self-governance and bottom-up self-direction by editors on Wikipedia.", "He made it clear that he would not be involved in the community's day-to-day management, but would encourage it to learn to self-manage and find its own best approaches.", ", Wales mostly restricted his role to occasional input on serious matters, executive activity, advocacy of knowledge, and encouragement of similar reference projects.Sanger said he is an \"inclusionist\" and is open to almost anything, and proposed that experts still have a place in the Web 2.0 world.", "In 2006 he founded Citizendium, an open encyclopedia that used real names for contributors to reduce disruptive editing, and hoped to facilitate \"gentle expert guidance\" to increase the accuracy of its content.", "Decisions about article content were to be up to the community, but the site was to include a statement about \"family-friendly content\".=== Past content of Wikipedia ===Old, even obsolete, encyclopedia articles are highly valuable for historical research.", "For each Wikipedia article, past versions are accessible through the \"View history\" link at the top of the page.", "In addition, the ZIM File Archive, at Internet Archive, contains past full snapshots of Wikipedia as well as article selections, in multiple languages, from different years.", "They can be opened with Kiwix software.Between 2007 and 2011, three CD/DVD versions (called Wikipedia Version 0.5, 0.7 and 0.8) containing a selection of articles from English Wikipedia were released.", "They became available as Kiwix ZIM files, both from the ZIM File Archive and from the Kiwix download site.===Evolution of logo===File:Old wikipedia logo.png|alt=This is the very first logo|Founding – late 2001 (tentative)File:Wiki logo The Cunctator.png|alt=This is the second \"improved\" logo|Late 2001 – 12 October 2003File:Wikipedia-logo-en.png|alt=This is the next logo.|13 October 2003 – 13 May 2010File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg|alt=This is the present logo|13 May 2010 – present" ], [ "Timeline", "===First decade: 2000–2009=======2000====Bomis staff in mid-2000In March 2000, the Nupedia project was started.", "Its intention was to publish articles written by experts which would be licensed as free content.", "Nupedia was founded by Wales, with Sanger as editor-in-chief, and funded by the web-advertising company Bomis.====2001====In January 2001, Wikipedia began as a side-project of Nupedia, to allow collaboration on articles prior to entering the peer-review process.", "The name was suggested by Sanger on 11 January 2001 as a portmanteau of the words ''wiki'' (Hawaiian for \"quick\") and ''encyclopedia''.", "The ''wikipedia.com'' and ''wikipedia.org'' domain names were registered on 12 and 13 January, respectively, with ''wikipedia.org'' being brought online on the same day.", "The project formally opened on 15 January (\"Wikipedia Day\"), with the first international Wikipedias – the French, German, Catalan, Swedish, and Italian editions – being created between March and May.", "The \"neutral point of view\" (NPOV) policy was officially formulated at this time, and Wikipedia's first slashdotter wave arrived on 26 July.", "The first media report about Wikipedia appeared in August 2001 in the newspaper ''Wales on Sunday''.The September 11 attacks spurred the appearance of breaking news stories on the homepage, as well as information boxes linking related articles.", "At the time, approximately 100 articles related to 9/11 had been created.", "After the September 11 attacks, a link to the Wikipedia article on the attacks appeared on Yahoo!", "'s home page, resulting in a spike in traffic.====2002====2002 saw the reduction of funding for Wikipedia from Bomis and the departure of Sanger.", "A fork of the Spanish Wikipedia took place, with the establishment of the ''Enciclopedia Libre''.", "Jimmy Wales confirmed that Wikipedia would never run commercial advertising.", "The first portable MediaWiki software went live on 25 January.", "Bots were introduced.", "The first sister project (Wiktionary) and first formal Manual of Style were launched.", "The creation of a community body to supervise the project was proposed and initially discussed at Meta-Wikipedia.", "Close to 200 contributors were editing Wikipedia daily.====2003====The English Wikipedia passed 100,000 articles in 2003, while the next largest edition, the German Wikipedia, passed 10,000.The Wikimedia Foundation was established.", "Wikipedia adopted its jigsaw world logo.", "Mathematical formulae using TeX were reintroduced to the website.", "The first Wikipedian social meeting took place in Munich, Germany, in October.", "The basic principles of English Wikipedia's (\"ArbCom\") were developed.Wikisource was created as a separate project on 24 November 2003, to host free textual sources as its aim in multiple languages and translations.====2004====The worldwide Wikipedia article pool continued to grow rapidly in 2004, doubling in size in 12 months, from under 500,000 articles in late 2003 to over 1 million in over 100 languages by the end of 2004.The English Wikipedia accounted for just under half of these articles.", "The website's server farms were moved from California to Florida.", "and CSS style configuration sheets were introduced.", "The first attempt to block Wikipedia occurred, with the website being blocked in China for two weeks in June.", "Formal elections began for a board for the Foundation, and an Arbitration Committee on English Wikipedia.", "The first national chapter of the Foundation, Wikimedia Deutschland, was recognized.The first formal projects were proposed to deliberately balance content and seek out systemic bias arising from Wikipedia's community structure.", "The first social meeting in the United States took place in Boston, Massachusetts, in July.Wikimedia Commons was created on 7 September 2004 to host media files for Wikipedia in all languages.", "''Bourgeois v. Peters'', (11th Cir.", "2004), a court case decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit was one of the earliest court opinions to cite and quote Wikipedia.", "It stated: \"We also reject the notion that the Department of Homeland Security's threat advisory level somehow justifies these searches.", "Although the threat level was 'elevated' at the time of the protest, 'to date, the threat level has stood at yellow (elevated) for the majority of its time in existence.", "It has been raised to orange (high) six times.", "\"====2005====In 2005, Wikipedia became the most popular reference website on the Internet, according to Hitwise, with English Wikipedia alone exceeding 750,000 articles.", "Wikipedia's first multilingual and subject portals were established in 2005.A formal fundraiser held in the first quarter of the year raised almost US$100,000 for system upgrades to handle growing demand.", "China again blocked Wikipedia in October 2005.The first major Wikipedia scandal, the Seigenthaler incident, occurred in 2005 when a well-known figure was found to have a vandalized biography that had gone unnoticed for months.", "In the wake of this and other concerns, the first policy and system changes specifically designed to counter this form of abuse were established.", "These included a new Checkuser privilege policy update to assist in sock puppetry investigations, a new feature called , a more strict policy on biographies of living people and the tagging of such articles for stricter review.", "A restriction of new article creation to registered users only was put in place in December 2005.", "''Wikimania – the Wikimentary'', documentary about Wikimania 2005, featuring Jimmy Wales and Ward CunninghamWikimania 2005, the first Wikimania conference, was held from 4 to 8 August 2005 at the ''Haus der Jugend'' in Frankfurt, Germany, attracting about 380 attendees.====2006====The English Wikipedia gained its one-millionth article, Jordanhill railway station, on 1 March 2006.The first approved Wikipedia article selection was made freely available to download, and \"Wikipedia\" became registered as a trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation.", "The congressional aides biography scandals – multiple incidents in which congressional staffers and a campaign manager were caught trying to covertly alter Wikipedia biographies – came to public attention, leading to the resignation of the campaign manager.", "Nonetheless, Wikipedia was rated as one of the top five global brands of 2006.Jimmy Wales indicated at Wikimania 2006 that Wikipedia had achieved sufficient volume and called for an emphasis on quality, perhaps best expressed in the call for 100,000 feature-quality articles.", "A new privilege, \"oversight\", was created, allowing specific versions of archived pages with unacceptable content to be marked as non-viewable.", "Semi-protection against anonymous vandalism, introduced in 2005, proved more popular than expected, with over 1,000 pages being semi-protected at any given time in 2006.====2007====Wikipedia continued to grow rapidly in 2007, possessing over 5 million registered editor accounts by 13 August.", "The 250 language editions of Wikipedia contained a combined total of 7.5 million articles, totalling 1.74 billion words, by 13 August.", "The English Wikipedia gained articles at a steady rate of 1,700 a day, with the wikipedia.org domain name ranked the 10th-busiest in the world.", "Wikipedia continued to garner visibility in the press – the Essjay controversy broke out when a prominent member of Wikipedia was found to have lied about his credentials.", "Citizendium, a competing online encyclopedia, launched publicly.", "A new trend developed in Wikipedia, with the encyclopedia addressing people whose notability stemmed from being a participant in a news story by adding a redirect from their name to the larger story, rather than creating a distinct biographical article.", "On 9 September 2007, the English Wikipedia gained its two-millionth article, ''El Hormiguero''.", "There was some controversy in late 2007 when the Volapük Wikipedia jumped from 797 to over 112,000 articles, briefly becoming the 15th-largest Wikipedia edition, due to automated stub generation by an enthusiast for the Volapük constructed language.According to the ''MIT Technology Review'', the number of regularly active editors on the English-language Wikipedia peaked in 2007 at more than 51,000, and has since been declining.In April 2007, Wikipedia Version 0.5 article selection release was published.====2008====Various in many areas continued to expand and refine article contents within their scope.", "In April 2008, the 10-millionth Wikipedia article was created, and by the end of the year the English Wikipedia exceeded 2.5 million articles.====2009====On 25 June 2009 at 3:15 pm PDT (22:15 UTC), following the death of pop icon Michael Jackson, the website temporarily crashed.The Wikimedia Foundation reported nearly a million visitors to Jackson's biography within one hour, probably the most visitors in a one-hour period to any article in Wikipedia's history.", "By late August 2009, the number of articles in all Wikipedia editions had exceeded 14 million.", "The three-millionth article on the English Wikipedia, Beate Eriksen, was created on 17 August 2009 at 04:05 UTC.", "On 27 December 2009, the German Wikipedia exceeded one million articles, becoming the second edition after the English Wikipedia to do so.", "A ''TIME'' article listed Wikipedia among 2009's best websites.Wikipedia content became licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license in 2009.===Second decade: 2010–2019=======2010====On 24 March, the European Wikipedia servers went offline due to an overheating problem.", "Failover to servers in Florida turned out to be broken, causing DNS resolution for Wikipedia to fail across the world.", "The problem was resolved quickly, but due to DNS caching effects, some areas were slower to regain access to Wikipedia than others.On 13 May, the site released a new interface.", "New features included an updated logo, new navigation tools, and a link wizard.", "However, the classic interface remained available for those who wished to use it.", "On 12 December, the English Wikipedia passed the 3.5-million-article mark, while the French Wikipedia's millionth article was created on 21 September.", "The 1-billionth Wikimedia project edit was performed on 16 April.In early 2010, Wikipedia Version 0.7 article selection release was published.====2011====several cakes made to celebrate Wikipedia's 10th anniversary in 2011.Wikipedia and its users held many celebrations worldwide to commemorate the site's 10th anniversary on 15 January.", "The site began efforts to expand its growth in India, holding its first Indian conference in Mumbai in November 2011.The English Wikipedia passed the 3.6-million-article mark on 2 April, and reached 3.8 million articles on 18 November.", "On 7 November 2011, the German Wikipedia exceeded 100 million page edits, becoming the second language edition to do so after the English edition, which attained 500 million page edits on 24 November 2011.The Dutch Wikipedia exceeded 1 million articles on 17 December 2011, becoming the fourth Wikipedia edition to do so.On 3 March 2011, Wikipedia Version 0.8 article selection release was published.The \"Wikimania 2011 – Haifa, Israel\" stamp was issued by Israel Post on 2 August 2011.This was the first-ever stamp dedicated to a Wikimedia-related project.Between 4 and 6 October 2011, the Italian Wikipedia became intentionally inaccessible in protest against the Italian Parliament's proposed DDL intercettazioni law, which, if approved, would allow any person to force websites to remove information that is perceived as untrue or offensive, without the need to provide evidence.Also in October 2011, Wikimedia announced the launch of Wikipedia Zero, an initiative to enable free mobile access to Wikipedia in developing countries through partnerships with mobile operators.====2012====The staff at the Wikimedia Foundation the moment the SOPA blackout happenedOn 16 January, Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales announced that the English Wikipedia would shut down for 24 hours on 18 January as part of a protest meant to call public attention to the proposed Stop Online Piracy Act and PROTECT IP Act, two anti-piracy laws under debate in the United States Congress.", "Calling the blackout a \"community decision\", Wales and other opponents of the laws believed that they would endanger free speech and online innovation.", "A similar blackout was staged on 10 July by the Russian Wikipedia, in protest against a proposed Russian internet regulation law.In late March 2012, the Wikimedia Deutschland announced Wikidata, a universal platform for sharing data between all Wikipedia language editions.", "The US$1.7-million Wikidata project was partly funded by Google, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, and the Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence.", "Wikimedia Deutschland assumed responsibility for the first phase of Wikidata, and initially planned to make the platform available to editors by December 2012.Wikidata's first phase became fully operational in March 2013.Justin KnappIn April 2012, Justin Knapp became the first single contributor to make over one million edits to Wikipedia.", "Jimmy Wales congratulated Knapp for his work and presented him with the site's ''Special Barnstar'' medal and the ''Golden Wiki'' award for his achievement.", "Wales also declared that 20 April would be \"Justin Knapp Day\".On 13 July 2012, the English Wikipedia gained its 4-millionth article, Izbat al-Burj.", "In October 2012, historian and Wikipedia editor Richard J. Jensen opined that the English Wikipedia was \"nearing completion\", noting that the number of regularly active editors had fallen significantly since 2007, despite Wikipedia's rapid growth in article count and readership.According to Alexa Internet, Wikipedia was the world's sixth-most-popular website as of November 2012.Dow Jones ranked Wikipedia fifth worldwide as of December 2012.====2013====On 22 January 2013, the Italian Wikipedia became the fifth language edition of Wikipedia to exceed 1 million articles, while the Russian and Spanish Wikipedias gained their millionth articles on 11 and 16 May respectively.", "On 15 July the Swedish and on 24 September the Polish Wikipedias gained their millionth articles, becoming the eighth and ninth Wikipedia editions to do so.On 27 January, the main belt asteroid 274301 was officially renamed \"Wikipedia\" by the Committee for Small Body Nomenclature.The first phase of the Wikidata database, automatically providing interlanguage links and other data, became available for all language editions in March 2013.In April 2013, the French secret service was accused of attempting to censor Wikipedia by threatening a Wikipedia volunteer with arrest unless \"classified information\" about a military radio station was deleted.Presentation about the Wikipedia VisualEditorIn July, the VisualEditor editing system was launched, forming the first stage of an effort to allow articles to be edited with a word processor-like interface instead of using wiki markup.", "An editor specifically designed for smartphones and other mobile devices was also launched.====2014====Video review of Wikipedia content in 2014, encouraging viewers to edit WikipediaIn February 2014, a project to make a print edition of the English Wikipedia, consisting of 1,000 volumes and over 1,100,000 pages, was launched by German Wikipedia contributors.", "The project sought funding through Indiegogo, and was intended to honor the contributions of Wikipedia's editors.", "On 22 October 2014, the first monument to Wikipedia was unveiled in the Polish town of Slubice.On 8 June 15 June, and 16 July 2014, the Waray Wikipedia, the Vietnamese Wikipedia and the Cebuano Wikipedia each exceeded the one million article mark.", "They were the tenth, eleventh and twelfth Wikipedias to reach that milestone.", "Despite having very few active users, the Waray and Cebuano Wikipedias had a high number of automatically generated articles created by bots.====2015====five million articles on 1 November 2015In mid-2015, Wikipedia was the world's seventh-most-popular website according to Alexa Internet, down one place from the position it held in November 2012.At the start of 2015, Wikipedia remained the largest general-knowledge encyclopedia online, with a combined total of over 36 million mainspace articles across all 291 language editions.", "On average, Wikipedia receives a total of 10 billion global pageviews from around 495 million unique visitors every month, including 85 million visitors from the United States alone, where it is the sixth-most-popular site.Artist Michael Mandiberg talks about Print Wikipedia''Print Wikipedia'' was an art project by Michael Mandiberg that created the ability to print 7473 volumes of Wikipedia as it existed on 7 April 2015.Each volume has 700 pages and only 110 were printed by the artist.On 1 November 2015, the English Wikipedia reached 5,000,000 articles with the creation of an article on ''Persoonia terminalis'', a type of shrub.====2016====On 19 January 2016, the Japanese Wikipedia exceeded the one million article mark, becoming the thirteenth Wikipedia to reach that milestone.", "The millionth article was 波号第二百二十四潜水艦 (a World War II submarine of the Imperial Japanese Navy).In mid-2016, Wikipedia was once again the world's sixth-most-popular website according to Alexa Internet, up one place from the position it held in the previous year.In October 2016, the mobile version of Wikipedia got a new look.====2017====In mid-2017, Wikipedia was listed as the world's fifth-most-popular website according to Alexa Internet, rising one place from the position it held in the previous year.", "Wikipedia Zero was made available in Iraq and Afghanistan.On 29 April 2017, online access to Wikipedia was blocked across all language editions in Turkey by the Turkish authorities.", "This block lasted until 15 January 2020, as the court of Turkey ruled that the block violated human rights.", "The encrypted Japanese Wikipedia has been blocked in China since 28 December 2017.====2018====During 2018, Wikipedia retained its listing as the world's fifth-most-popular website according to Alexa Internet.", "One notable development was the use of Artificial Intelligence to create draft articles on overlooked topics.On 13 April 2018, the number of Chinese Wikipedia articles exceeded 1 million, becoming the fourteenth Wikipedia to reach that milestone.", "The Chinese Wikipedia has been blocked in Mainland China since May 2015.Later in the year, on 26 June, the Portuguese Wikipedia exceeded the one million article mark, becoming the fifteenth Wikipedia to reach that milestone.", "The millionth article was ''Perdão de Richard Nixon'' (the Pardon of Richard Nixon).====2019====In August 2019, according to Alexa.com, Wikipedia fell from fifth-placed to seventh-placed website in the world for global internet engagement.On 23 April 2019, Chinese authorities expanded the block of Wikipedia to versions in all languages.", "The timing of the block coincided with the 30th anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre and the 100th anniversary of the May Fourth Movement, resulting in stricter internet censorship in China.===Third decade: 2020–present=======2020====On 23 January 2020, the six millionth article, the biography of Maria Elise Turner Lauder, was added to the English Wikipedia.", "Despite this growth in articles, Wikipedia's global internet engagement, as measured by Alexa, continued to decline.", "By February 2020, Wikipedia fell to the eleventh-placed website in the world for global internet engagement.", "Both Wikipedia's coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic crisis and the supporting edits, discussions, and even deletions were thought to be a useful resource for future historians seeking to understand the period in detail.", "The World Health Organization collaborated with Wikipedia as a key resource for the dissemination of COVID-19-related information as to help combat the spread of misinformation.====2021====In January 2021, Wikipedia's 20th anniversary was noted in the media.On 13 January 2021, the English Wikipedia reached one billion edits, where the billionth edit was made by Steven Pruitt.MIT Press published an open access book of essays ''Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Unfinished Revolution'', edited by Joseph Reagle and Jackie Koerner with contributions from prominent Wikipedians, Wikimedians, researchers, journalists, librarians and other experts reflecting on particular histories and themes.By November 2021, Wikipedia had fallen to the thirteenth-placed website in the world for global internet engagement.==== 2022 ====On 6 December 2022, Wikipedian Richard Knipel created the article Artwork title, whose first revision was a draft generated by ChatGPT that Knipel had made minor edits to more closely conform with Wikipedia standards.", "Knipel stated on a talk page that he believed this was the first time anyone had used ChatGPT to compose a Wikipedia article.", "The posting of this article was criticized by other editors and sparked controversy within the Wikipedia community, leading to an extensive debate about whether ChatGPT and similar models should be used in writing content for Wikipedia and, if so, to what extent.====2023====In January 2023, the default Wikipedia desktop interface was changed for the first time since 2010, to Vector 2022.Sound logo of Wikimedia (including Wikipedia)After consultation and a contest, the first sound logo of Wikimedia (including Wikipedia) was adopted." ], [ "History by subject area", "===Hardware and software===:''The software that runs Wikipedia, and the computer hardware, server farms and other systems upon which Wikipedia relies.", "''* In January 2001, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki, written in Perl by Clifford Adams.", "The server still runs on Linux, although the original text was stored in files rather than in a database.", "Articles were named with the CamelCase convention.", "* In January 2002, \"Phase II\" of the wiki software powering Wikipedia was introduced, replacing the older UseModWiki.", "Written specifically for the project by Magnus Manske, it included a PHP wiki engine.", "* In July 2002, a major rewrite of the software powering Wikipedia went live; dubbed \"Phase III\", it replaced the older \"Phase II\" version, and became MediaWiki.", "It was written by Lee Daniel Crocker in response to the increasing demands of the growing project.", "* In October 2002, Derek Ramsey created a botan automated program called Rambotto add a large number of articles about United States towns; these articles were automatically generated from U.S. census data.", "He thus increased the number of Wikipedia articles by 33,832.This has been called \"the most controversial move in Wikipedia history\".", "* In January 2003, support for mathematical formulas in TeX was added.", "The code was contributed by Tomasz Wegrzanowski.", "* On 9 June 2003, Wikipedia's ISBN interface was amended to make ISBNs in articles link to Special:Booksources, which fetches its contents from the user-editable page .", "Before this, ISBN link targets were coded into the software and new ones were suggested on the page.", "See the edit that changed this.", "* After 6 December 2003, various system messages shown to Wikipedia users were no longer hard coded, allowing Wikipedia to modify certain parts of MediaWiki's interface, such as the message shown to blocked users.", "* On 12 February 2004, server operations were moved from San Diego, California to Tampa, Florida.", "* On 29 May 2004, all the various websites were updated to a new version of the MediaWiki software.", "* On 30 May 2004, the first instances of \"categorization\" entries appeared.", "Category schemes, like Recent Changes and Edit This Page, had existed since the founding of Wikipedia.", "However, Sanger had viewed the schemes as lists, and even hand-entered articles, whereas the categorization effort centered on individual categorization entries in each article of the encyclopedia, as part of a larger automatic categorization of the articles of the encyclopedia.", "* After 3 June 2004, administrators could edit the style of the interface by changing the CSS in the monobook stylesheet at MediaWiki:Monobook.css.", "* Also on 30 May 2004, with MediaWiki 1.3, the Template namespace was created, allowing transclusion of standard texts.", "* On 7 June 2005 at 3:00 a.m. Eastern Standard Time, the bulk of the Wikimedia servers were moved to a new facility across the street.", "All Wikimedia projects were down during this time.", "* In March 2013, the first phase of the Wikidata interwiki database became available across Wikipedia's language editions.", "* In July 2013, the VisualEditor editing interface was inaugurated, allowing users to edit Wikipedia using a WYSIWYG text editor (similar to a word processor) instead of wiki markup.", "An editing interface optimised for mobile devices was also released.===Look and feel===:''The external face of Wikipedia, its look and feel, and the Wikipedia branding, as presented to users.", "''* On 4 April 2002, BrilliantProse, since renamed Featured Articles, was moved to the Wikipedia namespace from the article namespace.", "* Around 15 October 2003, a new Wikipedia logo was installed.", "The logo concept was selected by a voting process, which was followed by a revision process to select the best variant.", "The final selection was created by David Friedland (who edits Wikipedia under the username ''\"nohat\"'') based on a logo design and concept created by Paul Stansifer.", "* On 22 February 2004, Did You Know (DYK) made its first Main Page appearance.", "* On 23 February 2004, a coordinated new look for the Main Page appeared at 19:46 UTC.", "Hand-chosen entries for the Daily Featured Article, Anniversaries, In the News, and Did You Know rounded out the new look.", "* On 10 January 2005, the multilingual portal at www.wikipedia.org was set up, replacing a redirect to the English-language Wikipedia.", "* On 5 February 2005, was created, becoming the first thematic \"portal\" on the English Wikipedia.", "However, the concept was pioneered on the German Wikipedia, where Portal:Recht (law studies) was set up in October 2003.", "* On 16 July 2005, the English Wikipedia began the practice of including the day's \"featured pictures\" on the Main Page.", "* On 19 March 2006, following a vote, the Main Page of the English-language Wikipedia featured its first redesign in nearly two years.", "* On 13 May 2010, the site released a new interface.", "New features included an updated logo, new navigation tools, and a link wizard.", "The \"classic\" Wikipedia interface remained available as an option.==== Layout changes in 2023 ====Vector 2022, an update to Wikipedia's previous skin Vector 2010, was announced in September 2020, and initially slated for debut in 2021, before being ultimately deployed in January 2023.It is now the default skin on the desktop in over 300 of its language editions and some sister projects.Vector 2022 features a revised user interface which makes numerous changes to the arrangement of the interface elements.", "Among them, the language selection menu, previously located to the left of the screen, now is found in the top right corner of the display of the article that is currently read.", "Additionally, the sidebar is collapsible behind a hamburger button.", "Vector 2022 additionally increases the margins of the article display, which has the effect of limiting the width of the article; a toggle exists which can decrease the margins and expand the line width of the article to fill the screen.", "The default size of the text has not been increased, although the Wikimedia Foundation told ''Engadget'' that they hope to make this an option in future.", "The search function was also updated in Vector 2022, as the suggested results in response to user queries now include images and short descriptions from the pages in question.The Wikimedia Foundation said that the change was motivated by a desire to modernize the site and improve the navigation and editing experience for readers inexperienced with the internet, as the previous skin was deemed \"clunky and overwhelming.\"", "Tests conducted by the foundation yielded results of a 30 percent increase in user searches, and a 15 percent decrease in scrolling.", "Early versions of Vector 2022 first went live in 2020 on the French-, Hebrew-, and Portuguese-language Wikipedia sites, as the skin's new features were rolled out to users for testing gradually before its full release.", "The skin went live as the default skin for readers of Wikimedia sites in 300 (out of 318) languages on 18 January 2023.Following the mass rollout of Vector 2022, it is still possible to read Wikipedia using the previous skin.", "However, to do so requires readers to register for a Wikipedia account, and then set their preferences to display Vector 2010 instead.", "No changes were made to existing Wikipedia skins such as Monobook and Timeless, which also remain available to use.Wikipedia users were divided on the changes.", "A request for comment on the English Wikipedia asking the community whether or not Vector 2022 should be deployed as the default skin accumulated over 90,000 words in responses.", "Critics of the redesign objected most prominently to the white space left empty in the new skin, while other users criticized said critics as having a kneejerk resistance to change.", "165 editors participating in the discussion disapproved of the new skin, while 153 were in favor, and nine remained neutral.", "Despite the larger number of editors who expressed that they did not want Vector 2022 to be deployed in its then-current form, as consensus on Wikipedia is not decided by vote, the discussion was closed in favor of the redesign, considering the positive comments left by other users.", "The Vector 2022 developers made some changes to the skin in response to the criticisms, such as adding a toggle to enable article content to fill the entire width of the screen.", "Users on the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously disagreed with the enactment of the new skin.Journalists responding to Vector 2022's rollout considered the update and the new features introduced as useful additions, but generally characterized the skin as a minor update that did not fundamentally change their reading experience on Wikipedia.", "Annie Rauwerda, creator of the Depths of Wikipedia social media accounts, wrote in ''Slate'' that Vector 2022 was not \"dramatically different\" from the previous skin.", "Rauwerda additionally noted the similarity between the Wikipedia community backlash against the design and previous resistances to similar visual changes on popular sites such as Reddit.", "Rauwerda, and Mike Pearl of ''Mashable'', commented that users displeased with the change could weigh in on a discussion about the skin, or use the site's built-in customization features to alter their reading experience.===Internal structures===:''Landmarks in the Wikipedia community, and the development of its organization, internal structures, and policies.", "''* April 2001, Wales formally defines the \"neutral point of view\", Wikipedia's core non-negotiable editorial policy, a reformulation of the \"Lack of Bias\" policy outlined by Sanger for Nupedia in spring or summer 2000, which covered many of the same core principles.", "* In September 2001, collaboration by subject matter in is introduced.", "* In February 2002, concerns over the risk of future censorship and commercialization by Bomis Inc (Wikipedia's original host) combined with a lack of guarantee this would not happen, led most participants of the Spanish Wikipedia to break away and establish it independently as the ''Enciclopedia Libre''.", "Following clarification of Wikipedia's status and non-commercial nature later that year, re-merger talks between Enciclopedia Libre and the re-founded Spanish Wikipedia occasionally took place in 2002 and 2003, but no conclusion was reached.", "As of October 2009, the two continue to coexist as substantial Spanish language reference sources, with around 43,000 articles (EL) and 520,000 articles (Sp.W) respectively.", "* Also in 2002, policy and style issues were clarified with the creation of the ''Manual of Style'', along with a number of other policies and guidelines.", "* November 2002 – new mailing lists for WikiEN and Announce are set up, as well as other language mailing lists (e.g.", "Polish), to reduce the volume of traffic on mailing lists.", "* In July 2003, the rule against editing one's autobiography is introduced.", "* On 28 October 2003, the first \"real\" meeting of Wikipedians happened in Munich.", "Many cities followed suit, and soon a number of regular Wikipedian get-togethers were established around the world.", "Several Internet communities, including one on the popular blog website LiveJournal, have also sprung up since.", "* From 10 July to 30 August 2004 the and formerly on the Main Page were replaced by links to overviews.", "On 27 August 2004 the ''Community Portal'' was started, to serve as a focus for community efforts.", "These were previously accomplished on an informal basis, by individual queries of the Recent Changes, in wiki style, as ad hoc collaborations between like-minded editors.", "* During September to December 2005 following the Seigenthaler controversy and other similar concerns, several anti-abuse features and policies were added to Wikipedia.", "These were:::* The policy for \"Checkuser\" (a MediaWiki extension to assist detection of abuse via internet sock-puppetry) was established in November 2005.Checkuser function had previously existed but was viewed more as a system tool at the time, so there had been no need for a policy covering use on a more routine basis.", "::*Creation of new pages on the English Wikipedia was restricted to editors who had created a user account.", "::* The introduction and rapid adoption of the policy Wikipedia:Biographies of living people, giving a far tighter quality control and fact-check system to biographical articles related to living people.", "::* The \"semi-protection\" function and policy, allowing pages to be protected so that only those with an account could edit.", "* In May 2006, a new \"oversight\" feature was introduced on the English Wikipedia, allowing a handful of highly trusted users to permanently erase page revisions containing copyright infringements or libelous or personal information from a page's history.", "Previous to this, page version deletion was laborious, and also deleted versions remained visible to other administrators and could be un-deleted by them.", "* On 1 January 2007, the subcommunity named Esperanza was disbanded by communal consent.", "Esperanza had begun as an effort to promote \"wikilove\" and a social support network, but had developed its own subculture and private structures.", "Its disbanding was described as the painful but necessary remedy for a project that had allowed editors to \"see themselves as Esperanzans first and foremost\".", "A number of Esperanza's subprojects were integrated back into Wikipedia as free-standing projects, but most of them are now inactive.", "When the group was founded in September 2005, there had been concerns expressed that it would eventually be condemned as such.", "* In April 2007, the results of a 4 month policy review by a working group of several hundred editors seeking to merge the core Wikipedia policies into one core policy (See: Wikipedia:Attribution) were polled for community support.", "The proposal did not gain consensus; a significant view became evident that the existing structure of three strong focused policies covering the respective areas of policy, was frequently seen as more helpful to quality control than one more general merged proposal.", "* A one-day blackout of Wikipedia was called by Jimmy Wales on 18 January 2012, in conjunction with Google and over 7,000 other websites, to protest the Stop Online Piracy Act then under consideration by the United States Congress.===The Wikimedia Foundation and legal structures===:''Legal and organizational structure of the Wikimedia Foundation, its executive, and its activities as a foundation.", "''* In August 2002, shortly after Jimmy Wales announced that he would never run commercial advertisements on Wikipedia, the URL of Wikipedia was changed from ''wikipedia.com'' to ''wikipedia.org'' (see: .com and .org).", "* On 20 June 2003, the Wikimedia Foundation was founded.", "* Communications committee was formed in January 2006 to handle media inquiries and emails received for the foundation and Wikipedia via the newly implemented OTRS (a ticket handling system).", "* Angela Beesley and Florence Nibart-Devouard were elected to the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation.", "During this time, Angela was active in editing content and setting policies, such as privacy policy, within the Foundation.", "* On 10 January 2006, ''Wikipedia'' became a registered trademark of Wikimedia Foundation.", "* In July 2006, Angela Beesley resigned from the board of the Wikimedia Foundation.", "* In October 2006, Florence Nibart-Devouard became chair of the board of the Wikimedia Foundation.===Projects and milestones===:''Sister projects and milestones related to articles, user base, and other statistics.", "''* On 15 January 2001, the first recorded edit of Wikipedia was performed.", "* In December 2002, the first sister project, Wiktionary, was created; aiming to produce a dictionary and thesaurus of the words in all languages.", "It uses the same software as Wikipedia.", "* On 22 January 2003, the English Wikipedia was again slashdotted after having reached the '''100,000''' article milestone with the Hastings, New Zealand, article.", "Two days later, the German-language Wikipedia, the largest non-English language version, passed the '''10,000''' article mark.", "* On 20 June 2003, the same day that the Wikimedia Foundation was founded, \"Wikiquote\" was created.", "A month later, \"Wikibooks\" was launched.", "\"Wikisource\" was set up towards the end of the year.", "* In January 2004, Wikipedia reached the '''200,000'''-article milestone in English with the article on Neil Warnock, and reached '''450,000''' articles for both English and non-English Wikipedias.", "The next month, the combined article count of the English and non-English reached '''500,000'''.", "* On 20 April 2004, the article count of the English Wikipedia reached '''250,000'''.", "* On 7 July 2004, the article count of the English Wikipedia reached '''300,000'''.", "* On 20 September 2004, Wikipedia's total article count exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles in over 105 languages; the project received a flurry of related attention in the press.", "The one millionth article was published in the Hebrew Wikipedia and discusses the flag of Kazakhstan.", "* On 20 November 2004, the article count of the English Wikipedia reached '''400,000'''.", "* On 18 March 2005, Wikipedia passed the '''500,000'''-article milestone in English, with Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union being announced in a press release as the landmark article.", "* In May 2005, Wikipedia became the most popular reference website on the Internet according to traffic monitoring company Hitwise, relegating Dictionary.com to second place.", "* On 29 September 2005, the English Wikipedia passed the '''750,000'''-article mark.", "* On 1 March 2006, the English Wikipedia passed the '''1,000,000'''-article mark, with Jordanhill railway station being announced on the Main Page as the milestone article.", "* On 8 June 2006, the English Wikipedia passed the '''1,000'''-featured-article mark, with Iranian peoples.", "* On 15 August 2006, the Wikimedia Foundation launched Wikiversity.", "* On 1 September 2006, Wikipedia exceeded '''5,000,000''' articles across all 229 language editions.", "* On 24 November 2006, the English Wikipedia passed the '''1,500,000'''-article mark, with Kanab ambersnail being announced on the Main Page as the milestone article.", "* On 4 April 2007, the first Wikipedia CD selection in English was published as a free download.", "* On 22 April 2007, the English Wikipedia passed the '''1,750,000'''-article mark.", "RAF raid on La Caine HQ was the 1,750,000th article.", "* On 9 September 2007, the English Wikipedia passed the '''2,000,000'''-article mark.", "El Hormiguero was accepted by consensus as the 2,000,000th article.", "* On 28 March 2008, Wikipedia exceeded '''10 million''' articles across all 251 language editions.", "* On 11 October 2008, the English Wikipedia passed the '''2,500,000'''-article mark.", "While no attempt was made to officially identify the 2,500,000th article, Joe Connor (baseball) has been suggested as the possible article.", "* On 17 August 2009, the English Wikipedia passed the '''3,000,000'''-article mark, with Beate Eriksen being announced on the Main Page as the milestone article.", "* On 27 December 2009, the German Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the second Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 21 September 2010, the French Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the third Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 12 December 2010, the English Wikipedia passed the '''3,500,000'''-article mark.", "* On 22 November 2011, Wikipedia exceeded '''20 million''' articles across all 282 language editions.", "* On 7 November 2011, the German Wikipedia exceeded '''100 million''' page edits.", "* On 24 November 2011, the English Wikipedia exceeded '''500 million''' page edits.", "* On 17 December 2011, the Dutch Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the fourth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 13 July 2012, the English Wikipedia exceeded '''4,000,000''' articles, with Izbat al-Burj.", "* On 22 January 2013, the Italian Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the fifth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 11 May 2013, the Russian Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the sixth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 16 May 2013, the Spanish Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the seventh Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 15 June 2013, the Swedish Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the eighth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 25 September 2013, the Polish Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the ninth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 21 October 2013, Wikipedia exceeded '''30 million''' articles across all 287 language editions.", "* On 17 December 2013, the French Wikipedia exceeded '''100,000,000''' page edits.", "* On 25 April 2014, the English Wikipedia passed the '''4,500,000''' article mark.", "* On 8 June 2014, the Waray Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the tenth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 15 June 2014, the Vietnamese Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the eleventh Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 17 July 2014, the Cebuano Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the twelfth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 6 September 2015, the Swedish Wikipedia exceeded '''2,000,000''' articles, becoming the second Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 1 November 2015, the English Wikipedia exceeded '''5,000,000''' articles, with Persoonia terminalis, and it has over 125,000 editors who have made 1 or more edits in the past 30 days.", "* On 1 February 2016, the Japanese Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the thirteenth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 14 February 2016, the Cebuano Wikipedia exceeded '''2,000,000''' articles, becoming the third Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 29 April 2016, the Swedish Wikipedia exceeded '''3,000,000''' articles, becoming the third Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 26 May 2016, Wikipedia exceeded '''40 million''' articles across all 293 language editions.", "* On 26 September 2016, the Cebuano Wikipedia exceeded '''3,000,000''' articles, becoming the fourth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 19 November 2016, the German Wikipedia exceeded '''2,000,000''' articles, becoming the fifth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 3 March 2017, the Cebuano Wikipedia exceeded '''4,000,000''' articles, becoming the second Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 6 July 2017, the Spanish Wikipedia exceeded '''100,000,000''' page edits.", "* On 15 September 2017, the Russian Wikipedia exceeded '''100,000,000''' page edits.", "* On 27 October 2017, the English Wikipedia passed the '''5,500,000'''-article mark.", "* On 13 April 2018, the Chinese Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the fourteenth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 27 June 2018, the Portuguese Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the fifteenth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 8 July 2018, the French Wikipedia exceeded '''2,000,000''' articles, becoming the fifth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 14 October 2018, the Arabic Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the sixteenth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 20 January 2019, the Spanish Wikipedia exceeded '''1,500,000''' articles, becoming the seventh Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 1 February 2019, the Wikipedia News recalculated that the Italian Wikipedia exceeded '''1,500,000''' articles, becoming the eighth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 9 March 2019, Wikipedia exceeded '''50 million''' articles across all 309 language editions.", "* On 2 August 2019, the South Azerbaijani Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' page edits.", "* On 17 November 2019, the Arabic Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the eighteenth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 23 January 2020, the English Wikipedia exceeded '''6,000,000''' articles, with Maria Elise Turner Lauder as the milestone article.", "* On 9 March 2020, the Dutch Wikipedia exceeded '''2,000,000''' articles, becoming the sixth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 23 March 2020, the Ukrainian Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the seventeenth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 1 July 2020, the Egyptian Arabic Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' articles, becoming the eighteenth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 25 December 2020, the Bengali Wikipedia exceeded '''100,000''' articles.", "* On 3 February 2021, the Malagasy Wikipedia exceeded '''1,000,000''' page edits.", "* On 4 February 2021, the English Wikipedia exceeded '''1 billion''' page edits.", "* On 14 October 2021, the Cebuano Wikipedia exceeded '''6,000,000''' articles, becoming the second Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 14 December 2021, the Polish Wikipedia exceeded '''1,500,000''' articles, becoming the twelfth Wikipedia language edition to do so.", "* On 26 December 2021, the Egyptian Arabic Wikipedia exceeded '''1,500,000''' articles.", "* On 19 January 2022, the Indonesian Wikipedia exceeded '''20 million''' page edits.", "* On 17 October 2022, The Norwegian Wikipedia exceeded '''600,000''' articles.", "* On 27 November 2022, Wikipedia exceeded '''60 million''' articles across all 329 language editions.===Fundraising===Financial development of the Wikimedia Foundation (in US$), 2003–2023Black: Net assets (excluding the Wikimedia Endowment, which currently stands at $100m+)Green: Revenue (excluding third-party donations to Wikimedia Endowment)Red: Expenses (including WMF payments to Wikimedia Endowment)Every year, the Wikimedia Foundation runs fundraising campaigns on Wikipedia to support its operations.", "These generally last about a month and happen at different times of the year in different countries.", "In addition to the fundraising banners on Wikipedia itself, there are also email campaigns; some emails invite people to leave the Wikimedia Foundation money in their wills.Revenue has risen every year of the Wikimedia Foundation's existence, reaching as of 30 June 2023, versus expenses of : Year Source Revenue Expenses Asset rise Total assets '''2022/2023''' PDF $180,174,103 $169,095,381 $15,619,804$254,971,336 '''2021/2022''' PDF $154,686,521 $145,970,915 $8,173,996$239,351,532 '''2020/2021''' PDF $162,886,686 $111,839,819 $50,861,811 $231,177,536 '''2019/2020''' PDF $129,234,327 $112,489,397 $14,674,300 $180,315,725 '''2018/2019''' PDF $120,067,266 $91,414,010 $30,691,855 $165,641,425 '''2017/2018''' PDF $104,505,783 $81,442,265 $21,619,373 $134,949,570 '''2016/2017''' PDF $91,242,418 $69,136,758 $21,547,402 $113,330,197 '''2015/2016''' PDF $81,862,724 $65,947,465 $13,962,497 $91,782,795 '''2014/2015''' PDF $75,797,223 $52,596,782 $24,345,277 $77,820,298 '''2013/2014''' PDF $52,465,287 $45,900,745 $8,285,897 $53,475,021 '''2012/2013''' PDF $48,635,408 $35,704,796 $10,260,066 $45,189,124 '''2011/2012''' PDF $38,479,665 $29,260,652 $10,736,914 $34,929,058 '''2010/2011''' PDF $24,785,092 $17,889,794 $9,649,413 $24,192,144 '''2009/2010''' PDF $17,979,312 $10,266,793 $6,310,964 $14,542,731 '''2008/2009''' PDF $8,658,006 $5,617,236 $3,053,599 $8,231,767 '''2007/2008''' PDF $5,032,981 $3,540,724 $3,519,886 $5,178,168 '''2006/2007''' PDF $2,734,909 $2,077,843 $654,066 $1,658,282 '''2005/2006''' PDF $1,508,039 $791,907 $736,132 $1,004,216 '''2004/2005''' PDF $379,088 $177,670 $211,418 $268,084 '''2003/2004''' PDF $ 80,129 $23,463 $56,666 $56,666In addition, the Wikimedia Endowment, an organizationally separate fundraising effort begun in 2016, reached $100 million in 2021, five years sooner than planned.===External impact===* In 2007, Wikipedia was deemed fit to be used as a major source by the UK Intellectual Property Office in a Formula One trademark case ruling.", "* Over time, Wikipedia gained recognition amongst more traditional media as a \"key source\" for major new events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and related tsunami, the 2008 American Presidential election, and 2007 Virginia Tech shooting.", "The latter article was accessed 750,000 times in two days, with newspapers published locally to the shootings adding that \"Wikipedia has emerged as the clearinghouse for detailed information on the event.", "\"* On 21 February 2007, Noam Cohen of the ''New York Times'' reported that some academics were banning the use of Wikipedia as a research tool.", "* On 27 February 2007, an article in ''The Harvard Crimson'' newspaper reported that some professors at Harvard University included Wikipedia in their syllabi, but that there was a split in their perception of using Wikipedia.", "* In July 2013, a large-scale study by four major universities identified the most contested articles on Wikipedia, finding that Israel, Adolf Hitler, and God were more fiercely debated than any other subjects.====Effect of biographical articles====Because Wikipedia biographies are often updated as soon as new information comes to light, they are often used as a reference source on the lives of notable people.", "This has led to attempts to manipulate and falsify Wikipedia articles for promotional or defamatory purposes (see Controversies).", "It has also led to novel uses of the biographical material provided.", "Some notable people's lives are being affected by their Wikipedia biography.", "* November 2005: The Seigenthaler controversy occurred when a hoaxer asserted on Wikipedia that journalist John Seigenthaler had been involved in the Kennedy assassination of 1963.", "* December 2006: German comedian Atze Schröder sued Arne Klempert, secretary of Wikimedia Deutschland because he did not want his real name published in Wikipedia.", "Schröder later withdrew his complaint but wanted his attorney's costs to be paid by Klempert.", "A court decided that the artist had to cover those costs himself.", "* 16 February 2007: Turkish historian Taner Akçam was briefly detained upon arrival at Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport because of false information on his Wikipedia biography claiming he was a terrorist.", "* November 2008: The German Left Party politician Lutz Heilmann claimed that some remarks in his Wikipedia article caused damage to his reputation.", "He succeeded in getting a court order to make Wikimedia Deutschland remove a key search portal.", "The result was a national outpouring of support for Wikipedia, more donations to Wikimedia Deutschland, and a rise in daily pageviews of the Lutz Heilmann article from a few dozen to half a million.", "Shortly after, Heilmann asked the court to withdraw the court order.", "* December 2008: Wikimedia Nederland, the Dutch chapter, won a preliminary injunction after an entrepreneur was linked in \"his\" article with the criminal Willem Holleeder and wanted the article deleted.", "The judge in Utrecht believed Wikimedia's assertion that it has no influence on the content of Dutch Wikipedia.", "* February 2009: When Karl Theodor Maria Nikolaus Johann Jacob Philipp Franz Joseph Sylvester Buhl-Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg became federal minister on 10 February 2009, an unregistered user added an eleventh given name in the article on German Wikipedia: ''Wilhelm''.", "Numerous newspapers took it over.", "When wary Wikipedians wanted to erase ''Wilhelm'', the revert was reverted with regard to those newspapers.", "This case about Wikipedia reliability and journalists copying from Wikipedia became known as ''Falscher Wilhelm'' (\"wrong Wilhelm\").===Early roles of Wales and Sanger===Wales, along with others, came up with and funded the idea of an open-source, collaborative encyclopedia that would accept contributions from ordinary people.", "Sanger played an important role in this as Nupedia's Editor in Chief and main employee.", "In Sanger's introductory message to the Nupedia mailing list, he said that Jimmy Wales \"contacted me and asked me to apply as editor-in-chief of Nupedia.", "...", "He had had the idea for Nupedia since at least last fall.", "He tells me that, when thinking about people (particularly philosophers) he knew who could manage this sort of long-term project, he thought I would be perfect for the job.", "This is indeed my dream job\".Sanger suggested using a wiki to provide a complementary project for people \"intimidated and bored\" by Nupedia's elaborate processes, and coined the portmanteau \"Wikipedia\" as the project name.", "This was broadly seen as a way to unblock the growing community of Nupedians who found it hard to contribute.", "Sanger continued to work on Nupedia while contributing to Wikipedia (including drafting policies such as \"Ignore all rules\" and \"Neutral point of view\") and worked with an outreach lead to build up the community of both Nupedia and Wikipedia editors.", "Upon departure in March 2002, Sanger emphasized the main issue was purely the cessation of funding for his role, which was not viable part-time, and encouraged others to continue contributing to Wikipedia while noting that Nupedia could not survive without a full-time editor in chief.", "Later that year he stopped contributing to either project, and by 2004 had become publicly critical of Wikipedia.", "In December 2004 he wrote an essay arguing that Wikipedia was suffering from anti-elitism.", "In April 2005 he published a two-part memoir of his work on Nupedia and Wikipedia, highlighting his role in their creation and continuing belief that Nupedia deserved to be saved.", "Later that year Wales began to push back on Sanger's characterization of his role in the project.", "By 2006, after the launch of Citizendium, Sanger was harshly critical of Wikipedia, describing it as \"broken beyond repair.", "\"In 2005, Wales described himself simply as the founder of Wikipedia; however, according to Brian Bergstein of the Associated Press, \"Sanger has long been cited as a co-founder.\"", "Sanger and Wales were referred to as co-founders in various press releases, interviews, and news reports from 2001 and 2002.Before January 2004, Wales did not dispute Sanger's status as co-founder.", "In 2006, Wales said, \"He used to work for me ...", "I don't agree with calling him a co-founder, but he likes the title\".", "Starting in 2006, when Sanger wrote and was interviewed extensively about the launch of Citizendium, he emphasized his status as co-founder, and these earlier sources that described him as such.===Controversies===* January 2001: Licensing and structure.", "After the partial breakdown of licensing discussions with Bomis, Richard Stallman announced GNUpedia as a competing project.", "Besides having a nearly identical name, it was very similar functionally to Nupedia/Wikipedia (the former which launched in March 2000 but had as yet published very few articlesthe latter of which was intended to be a source of seed-articles for the former).", "The goals and methods of GNUpedia were nearly identical to Wikipedia: anyone can contribute, small contributions are welcome, plan on taking years, a narrow focus on encyclopedic content as the primary goal, anyone can read articles, anyone can mirror articles, anyone can translate articles, use libre-licensed code to run the site, encourage peer review, and rely primarily on volunteers.", "GNUpedia was roughly intended to be a combination of Wikipedia and also Wikibooks.", "The main exceptions were:# The strong prohibition against *any* sort of centralized control (\"must not be written under the direction of a single organization, which made all decisions about the content, and... published in a centralized fashion.", "...we dare not allow any organization to decide what counts as part of our encyclopedia\").", "In particular, deletionists were not allowed; editing an article would require forking it, making a change, and then saving the result as a 'new' article on the same topic.# Assuming attribution for articles (rather than anonymous by default), requiring attribution for quotations, and allowing original authors to control straightforward translations, In particular, the idea was to have a set of N articles covering the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, with some to-be-determined mechanism for readers to endorse/rank/like/plus/star the version of the article they found best.# Given the structure above, where every topic (especially controversial ones) might have a thousand articles purporting to be *the* GNUpedia article about Sarah Palin, Stallman explicitly rejected the idea of a centralized website that would specify which article of those thousand was worth reading.", "Instead of an official catalogue, the plan was to rely on search engines at first (the reader would begin by googling \"gnupedia sarah palin\"), and then eventually if necessary construct catalogues according to the same principles as articles were constructed.", "In Wikipedia, there is an official central website for each language (en.wikipedia.org), and an official catalogue of sorts (category-lists and lists-of-lists), but search engines still provide about 60% of the inbound traffic.The goals which led to GNUpedia were published at least as early as 18 December 2000, and these exact goals were finalized on the 12th and 13th of January 2001, albeit with a copyright of 1999, from when Stallman had first started considering the problem.", "The only sentence added between 18 December and the unveiling of GNUpedia the week of 12–16 January was this: \"The GNU Free Documentation License would be a good license to use for courses.", "\"GNUpedia was \"formally\" announced on the ''slashdot'' website, on 16 January, the same day that their mailing list first went online with a test-message.", "Wales posted to the list on 17 January, the first full day of messages, explaining the discussions with Stallman concerning the change in Nupedia content licensing, and suggesting cooperation.", "Stallman himself first posted on 19 January, and, in his second post on 22 January, mentioned that discussions about merging Wikipedia and GNUpedia were ongoing.", "Within a couple of months, Wales had changed his email signature from the open source encyclopedia to the free encyclopedia; both Nupedia and Wikipedia had adopted the GFDL; and the merger of GNUpedia into Wikipedia was effectively accomplished.", "* November 2001: Wales published some of his preliminary thoughts about future financing of Wikipedia, noting that \"''Someday, there will be advertising on Wikipedia... or we will have to find some other way to raise money, but I can't think of any,''\" possibly within the following year.", "Instead, in early 2002, Editor in Chief Sanger was fired, and by September 2002, Wales had publicly stated: \"There are currently no plans for advertising on Wikipedia.\"", "* By June 2003, the Wikimedia Foundation was formally incorporated.", "The Foundation is explicitly against paid advertising; although, it does \"internally\" advertise Wikimedia Foundation fundraising events on Wikipedia.", ", the by-laws of the Wikimedia Foundation do not explicitly prohibit the adoption of a broader advertising policy, if such an action is deemed necessary.", "* 2003: No notable controversies occurred.", "* 2004: No notable controversies occurred.", "* January 2005: The fake charity QuakeAID, in the month following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, attempted to use a Wikipedia page for promotional purposes.", "* October 2005: Alan Mcilwraith was exposed as a fake war hero through a Wikipedia page.", "* November 2005: The Seigenthaler controversy caused Brian Chase to resign from his employment, after his identity was ascertained by Daniel Brandt of Wikipedia Watch.", "Following this, the scientific journal ''Nature'' undertook a peer reviewed study to test articles in Wikipedia against their equivalents in ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', and concluded they are comparable in terms of accuracy.", "''Britannica'' rejected their methodology and their conclusion.", "''Nature'' refused to release any form of apology, and instead asserted the reliability of its study and a rejection of the criticisms.", "* Early-to-mid-2006: The congressional aides biography scandals were publicized, whereby several political aides were caught trying to influence the Wikipedia biographies of several politicians.", "The aides removed undesirable information (including pejorative quotes, or broken campaign promises), added favorable information or \"glowing\" tributes, or replaced the article in part or whole by staff-authored biographies.", "The staff of at least five politicians were implicated: Marty Meehan, Norm Coleman, Conrad Burns, Joe Biden and Gil Gutknecht.", "The activities documented were: Politician Editing undertaken Sources Marty Meehan Replacement with a staff-written biography Congressional staffers edit boss's bio on Wikipedia Norm Coleman Rewrite to make more favorable, claimed to be \"correcting errors\") Conrad BurnsMontana Removal of pejorative statements made by the Senator, replaced with \"glowing tributes\" as \"the voice of the farmer\" Joe Biden Removal of unfavorable information Congressional staffers edit boss's bio on Wikipedia Gil Gutknecht Staff rewrite and removal of information evidencing broken campaign promise.", "Multiple attempts, first using a named account, then an anonymous IP account.In a separate but similar incident, the campaign manager for Cathy Cox, Morton Brilliant, resigned after being found to have added negative information to the Wikipedia entries of political opponents.", "Following media publicity, the incidents tapered off around August 2006.", "* July 2006: Joshua Gardner was exposed as a fake Duke of Cleveland with a Wikipedia page.", "* January 2007: English-language Wikipedians in Qatar were briefly blocked from editing, following a spate of vandalism, by an administrator who did not realize that the country's internet traffic is routed through a single IP address.", "Multiple media sources promptly declared that Wikipedia was banning Qatar from the site.", "* On 23 January 2007, a Microsoft employee offered to pay Rick Jelliffe to review and change certain Wikipedia articles regarding an open-source document standard which was rival to a Microsoft format.", "* In February 2007, ''The New Yorker'' magazine issued a rare editorial correction that a prominent English Wikipedia editor and administrator known as \"Essjay\", had invented a persona using fictitious credentials.", "The editor, Ryan Jordan, became a Wikia employee in January 2007 and divulged his real name; this was noticed by Daniel Brandt of Wikipedia Watch, and communicated to the original article author.", "(See: Essjay controversy)* February 2007: Fuzzy Zoeller sued a Miami firm because defamatory information was added to his Wikipedia biography in an anonymous edit that came from their network.", "* 16 February 2007: Turkish historian Taner Akçam was briefly detained upon arrival at a Canadian airport because of false information on his biography indicating that he was a terrorist.", "* In June 2007, an anonymous user posted hoax information that, by coincidence, foreshadowed the Chris Benoit murder-suicide, hours before the bodies were found by investigators.", "The discovery of the edit attracted widespread media attention and was first covered in the sister site Wikinews.", "* In October 2007, in their obituaries of recently deceased TV theme composer Ronnie Hazlehurst, many British media organisations reported that he had co-written the S Club 7 song \"Reach\".", "In fact, he had not, and it was discovered that this information had been sourced from a hoax edit to Hazlehurst's Wikipedia article.", "* In February 2007, Barbara Bauer, a literary agent, sued Wikimedia for defamation and causing harm to her business, the Barbara Bauer Literary Agency.", "In ''Bauer v. Glatzer'', Bauer claimed that information on Wikipedia critical of her abilities as a literary agent caused this harm.", "The Electronic Frontier Foundation defended Wikipedia and moved to dismiss the case on 1 May 2008.The case against the Wikimedia Foundation was dismissed on 1 July 2008.", "* On 14 July 2009, the National Portrait Gallery issued a cease-and-desist letter for alleged breach of copyright, against a Wikipedia editor who downloaded more than 3,000 high-resolution images from the NPG website, and placed them on Wikimedia Commons.", "See National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute for more.", "* In April and May 2010, there was controversy over the hosting and display of sexual drawing and pornographic images including images of children on Wikipedia.", "It led to the mass removal of pornographic content from Wikimedia Foundation sites.", "* In November 2012, Lord Justice Leveson wrote in his report on British press standards, \"''The Independent'' was founded in 1986 by the journalists Andreas Whittam Smith, Stephen Glover and Brett Straub...\" He had used the Wikipedia article for ''The Independent'' newspaper as his source, but an act of vandalism had replaced Matthew Symonds (a genuine co-founder) with Brett Straub (an unknown character).", "''The Economist'' said of the Leveson report, \"Parts of it are a scissors-and-paste job culled from Wikipedia.", "\"* In late 2013, commentators publicly shared observations of the reappearance of many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010.=== Notable forks and derivatives ===There are a large number of .", "Other sites also use the MediaWiki software and concept, popularized by Wikipedia.", "No list of them is maintained.Specialized foreign language forks using the Wikipedia concept include Enciclopedia Libre (Spanish), ''Wikiweise'' (German), ''WikiZnanie'' (Russian), Susning.nu (Swedish), and Baidu Baike (Chinese).", "Some of these (such as ''Enciclopedia Libre'') use GFDL or compatible licenses as used by Wikipedia, leading to the exchange of material with their respective language Wikipedias.In 2006, Sanger founded Citizendium, based upon a modified version of MediaWiki.", "The site said it aimed 'to improve on the Wikipedia model with \"gentle expert oversight\", among other things'.", "(See also Nupedia).", "In 2006, conservative activist and lawyer Andrew Schlafly founded Conservapedia, based on MediaWiki.===Publication on other media===The German Wikipedia was the first to be partly published also using other media (rather than online on the internet), including releases on CD in November 2004 and more extended versions on CDs or DVD in April 2005 and December 2006.In December 2005, the publisher Zenodot Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, a sister company of Directmedia, published a 139-page book explaining Wikipedia, its history and policies, which was accompanied by a 7.5 GB DVD containing 300,000 articles and 100,000 images from the German Wikipedia.", "Originally, Directmedia also announced plans to print the German Wikipedia in its entirety, in 100 volumes of 800 pages each.", "The publication was due to begin in October 2006, and finish in 2010.In March 2006, however, this project was called off.In September 2008, Bertelsmann published a 1000 pages volume with a selection of popular German Wikipedia articles.", "Bertelsmann paid voluntarily 1 Euro per sold copy to Wikimedia Deutschland.A free software project has also been launched to make a static version of English Wikipedia available for use on iPods.", "The \"Encyclopodia\" project was started around March 2006 and can currently be used on 1st to 4th-generation iPods.==== English Wikipedia CD/DVD/Kiwix ZIM file releases ====+ReleaseYearDescriptionLink to ZIM file download2006 Wikipedia CD Selection2006First CD version, containing a selection of articles from the English Wikipedia.", "It was published in April 2006 by SOS Children.", "?Wikipedia Version 0.52007A CD containing around 2000 articles selected from the online encyclopedia was published by the Wikimedia Foundation and Linterweb.", "The selection of articles included was based on both the quality of the online version and the importance of the topic to be included.", "It was created as a test case in preparation for a DVD version including far more articles.", "Articles are categorized according to subject.", "The CD version could be purchased online, downloaded as a DVD image file or Torrent file, or accessed online at the project's website.Wikipedia Version 0.72009–2010First DVD version.", "General release of around 31,000 articles taken from all subject areas.", "The manual effort to remove vandalism, which delayed the release date.", "Includes topical and geographical indexes of articles, in addition to the alphabetical index.Wikipedia Version 0.82011General release of around 47,300 articles taken from all subject areas.", "Article selection and vandalism removal using systems developed by a group of volunteers from the Wikipedia community, greatly improved release time.", "It includes only an alphabetical index and no article categorization.As of June 2022, there have been no more article selection releases since Wikipedia Version 0.8.===Lawsuits===In limited ways, the Wikimedia Foundation is protected by Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act.", "In the defamation action ''Bauer et al.", "v. Glatzer et al.", "'', it was held that Wikimedia had no case to answer because of this section.", "A similar law in France caused a lawsuit to be dismissed in October 2007.In 2013, a German appeals court or Oberlandesgericht (the Higher Regional Court of Stuttgart) ruled that Wikipedia is a \"service provider\" not a \"content provider\", and as such is immune from liability as long as it takes down content that is accused of being illegal." ], [ "See also", "* History of wikis* Predictions of the end of Wikipedia* ''The Wikipedia Revolution'', 2009 book by Andrew Lih<!--" ], [ "Notes", "-->" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Scholarly studies===* Adams, Julia, Hannah Brückner, and Cambria Naslund.", "\"Who counts as a notable sociologist on Wikipedia?", ": Gender, race, and the 'professor test'.\"", "''Socius'' 5 (2019): 2378023118823946.online* Bayliss, Gemma.", "\"Exploring the cautionary attitude toward Wikipedia in higher education: Implications for higher education institutions.\"", "''New Review of Academic Librarianship'' 19.1 (2013): 36–57.", "* Bridges, Laurie M., and Meghan L. Dowell.", "\"A perspective on Wikipedia: Approaches to educational use.\"", "''Journal of Academic Librarianship'' 46.1 (2020).", "online* Davis, LiAnna L., et al.", "\"The Wikipedia education program as open educational practice: Global stories.\"", "in ''Open Educational Resources in Higher Education: A Global Perspective'' (Springer Nature Singapore, 2023) pp. 251–278.", "* Gildersleve, Patrick, Renaud Lambiotte, and Taha Yasseri.", "\"Between news and history: Identifying networked topics of collective attention on Wikipedia.\"", "''Journal of Computational Social Science'' (2023): 1–31.", "* Graells-Garrido, Eduardo, Mounia Lalmas, and Filippo Menczer.", "\"First women, second sex: Gender bias in Wikipedia.\"", "''Proceedings of the 26th ACM conference on hypertext & social media'' (2015) online* Konieczny, Piotr.", "\"Teaching with Wikipedia in a 21st‐century classroom: Perceptions of Wikipedia and its educational benefits.\"", "''Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology'' 67.7 (2016): 1523–1534.", "* London, Daniel A., et al.", "\"Is Wikipedia a complete and accurate source for musculoskeletal anatomy?\"", "''Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy'' 41 (2019): 1187–1192.", "* Reagle Jr., Joseph Michael.", "''Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia'' (MIT Press, 2015)* Salutari, Flavia, et al.", "\"Analyzing Wikipedia users' perceived quality of experience: A large-scale study.\"", "''IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management'' 17.2 (2020): 1082–1095.DOI: 10.1109/TNSM.2020.2978685 States 85% of users are satisfied.", "* Sunvy, Ahmed Shafkat, and Raiyan Bin Reza.", "\"Students' Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source.\"", "''Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review'' 6.1 (2023).", "online* Timperley, Claire.", "\"The subversive potential of Wikipedia: A resource for diversifying political science content online.\"", "''PS: Political Science & Politics'' 53.3 (2020): 556–560.online* Torres-Salinas, Daniel, Esteban Romero-Frías, and Wenceslao Arroyo-Machado.", "\"Mapping the backbone of the Humanities through the eyes of Wikipedia.\"", "''Journal of Informetrics'' 13.3 (2019): 793–803.online* Van Dijck, José.", "\"Neutrality and the Wikipedia Principle,\" in ''The culture of connectivity: A critical history of social media'' by Van Dijck, (Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 132–153.", "* Wagner, Claudia, et al.", "\"Women through the glass ceiling: Gender asymmetries in Wikipedia.\"", "''EPJ Data Science'' 5 (2016): 1–24.online* Wang, Ping, and Xiaodan Li.", "\"Assessing the quality of information on wikipedia: A deep‐learning approach.\"", "''Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology'' 71.1 (2020): 16–28.online* Zheng, Lei, et al.", "\"The roles bots play in Wikipedia.\"", "''Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 3.CSCW'' (2019): 1–20.online===Contemporary reports===* Baker, Nicolas.", "\"The Charms of Wikipedia,\" ''New York Review of Books'' (March 20, 2008) online* Poe, Marshall.", "\"The Hive\" ''The Atlantic'' (Sept 2006), online* Schiff, Stacy.", "\"Know It All: Can Wikipedia Conquer Expertise?\"", "''New Yorker'' (July 31, 2006) online===Primary sources===* Messer-Kruse, Timothy.", "\"The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia,\" ''Chronicle Review of Higher Education'' (February 12, 2012) online* Sanger, Larry.", "\"The early history of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A memoir.\"", "''Open sources'' 2 (2005): 307–38.online" ], [ "External links", "===Wikipedia records and archives===:''Wikipedia's project files contain a large quantity of reference and archive material.", "Useful internal resources on Wikipedia history include:'''''Historical summaries'''* :Category:Wikipedia years – historical events by year* History of Wikipedia – from the Wikipedia:Meta* meta:Wikimedia News – news and milestones index from all Wikipedias* Wikipedia:BrilliantProse – predecessor of Wikipedia:Featured articles and Wikipedia:Good articles* Wikipedia:Historic debates* Wikipedia:History of Wikipedia bots* Wikipedia:Wikipedia records* Wikipedia:Wikipedia's oldest articles'''Milestones, size and statistics'''* Stats.wikimedia.org – the Wikimedia Foundation's main interface for all project statistics, including the various and combined Wikipedia's.", "* Wikipedia milestones* Wikipedia:Milestones (inactive)* Wikipedia:Size of Wikipedia* Wikipedia:Statistics'''Discussion and debate archives'''* Wikipedia:Announcement archive* Wikipedia:Mailing lists'''Other'''* MediaWiki history* Nostalgia Wikipedia – a snapshot of Wikipedia from 20 December 2001, running a later version of MediaWiki for security reasons but using a skin that looks like the software of the time* Wikipedia:CamelCase and Wikipedia* Wikipedia:Magnus Manske Day – MediaWiki software goes live into production* Wikipedia:Volunteer Fire Department – handling of major editorial influx.", "Disbanded when no longer needed (2004)* ZIM File Archive, at Internet Archive, contains full Wikipedia snapshots (as well as articles selections) in multiple languages, from different years.", "Files can be open with Kiwix software.===Third party===* \"Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal ''Nature''\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "March 2006.", "* Early Wikipedia snapshot via Internet Archive.", "28 February 2001.", "* Giles, Jim, \"Internet encyclopaedias go head to head\".", "''Nature'' comparison between Wikipedia and ''Britannica''.", "14 December 2005 * Larry Sanger.", "\"The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir\" and \"Part II\".", "Slashdot.", "18 April 2005 to 19 April 2005.", "* ''Nature's'' responses to ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "''Nature''.", "23 March 2006.", "* ''New York Times'' on Wikipedia.", "September 2001.", "* The Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource – Free Software Foundation endorsement of Nupedia (later updated to include Wikipedia).", "1999." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hydropower" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hydropower''' (from Ancient Greek -, \"water\"), also known as '''water power''', is the use of falling or fast-running water to produce electricity or to power machines.", "This is achieved by converting the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of a water source to produce power.", "Hydropower is a method of sustainable energy production.", "Hydropower is now used principally for hydroelectric power generation, and is also applied as one half of an energy storage system known as pumped-storage hydroelectricity.Hydropower is an attractive alternative to fossil fuels as it does not directly produce carbon dioxide or other atmospheric pollutants and it provides a relatively consistent source of power.", "Nonetheless, it has economic, sociological, and environmental downsides and requires a sufficiently energetic source of water, such as a river or elevated lake.", "International institutions such as the World Bank view hydropower as a low-carbon means for economic development.Since ancient times, hydropower from watermills has been used as a renewable energy source for irrigation and the operation of mechanical devices, such as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore mills.", "A trompe, which produces compressed air from falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance." ], [ "Calculating the amount of available power", "The Three Gorges Dam in China; the hydroelectric dam is the world's largest power station by installed capacity.A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available power.", "Power is a function of the hydraulic head and volumetric flow rate.", "The head is the energy per unit weight (or unit mass) of water.", "The static head is proportional to the difference in height through which the water falls.", "Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water.", "Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head.The power available from falling water can be calculated from the flow rate and density of water, the height of fall, and the local acceleration due to gravity::::where::* (work flow rate out) is the useful power output (SI unit: watts)::* (\"eta\") is the efficiency of the turbine (dimensionless)::* is the mass flow rate (SI unit: kilograms per second)::* (\"rho\") is the density of water (SI unit: kilograms per cubic metre)::* is the volumetric flow rate (SI unit: cubic metres per second)::* is the acceleration due to gravity (SI unit: metres per second per second)::* (\"Delta h\") is the difference in height between the outlet and inlet (SI unit: metres)To illustrate, the power output of a turbine that is 85% efficient, with a flow rate of 80 cubic metres per second (2800 cubic feet per second) and a head of , is 97 megawatts::Operators of hydroelectric stations compare the total electrical energy produced with the theoretical potential energy of the water passing through the turbine to calculate efficiency.", "Procedures and definitions for calculation of efficiency are given in test codes such as ASME PTC 18 and IEC 60041.Field testing of turbines is used to validate the manufacturer's efficiency guarantee.", "Detailed calculation of the efficiency of a hydropower turbine accounts for the head lost due to flow friction in the power canal or penstock, rise in tailwater level due to flow, the location of the station and effect of varying gravity, the air temperature and barometric pressure, the density of the water at ambient temperature, and the relative altitudes of the forebay and tailbay.", "For precise calculations, errors due to rounding and the number of significant digits of constants must be considered.Some hydropower systems such as water wheels can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height.", "In this case, the available power is the kinetic energy of the flowing water.", "Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy.", "The flow in a stream can vary widely from season to season.", "The development of a hydropower site requires analysis of flow records, sometimes spanning decades, to assess the reliable annual energy supply.", "Dams and reservoirs provide a more dependable source of power by smoothing seasonal changes in water flow.", "However, reservoirs have a significant environmental impact, as does alteration of naturally occurring streamflow.", "Dam design must account for the worst-case, \"probable maximum flood\" that can be expected at the site; a spillway is often included to route flood flows around the dam.", "A computer model of the hydraulic basin and rainfall and snowfall records are used to predict the maximum flood." ], [ "Disadvantages and limitations", "Some disadvantages of hydropower have been identified.", "Dam failures can have catastrophic effects, including loss of life, property and pollution of land.Dams and reservoirs can have major negative impacts on river ecosystems such as preventing some animals traveling upstream, cooling and de-oxygenating of water released downstream, and loss of nutrients due to settling of particulates.", "River sediment builds river deltas and dams prevent them from restoring what is lost from erosion.", "Furthermore, studies found that the construction of dams and reservoirs can result in habitat loss for some aquatic species.A hydropower scheme which harnesses the power of the water which pours down from the Brecon Beacons mountains, Wales; 2017Large and deep dam and reservoir plants cover large areas of land which causes greenhouse gas emissions from underwater rotting vegetation.", "Furthermore, although at lower levels than other renewable energy sources, it was found that hydropower produces methane gas which is a greenhouse gas.", "This occurs when organic matters accumulate at the bottom of the reservoir because of the deoxygenation of water which triggers anaerobic digestion.People who live near a hydro plant site are displaced during construction or when reservoir banks become unstable.", "Another potential disadvantage is cultural or religious sites may block construction." ], [ "Applications", "A shishi-odoshi powered by falling water breaks the quietness of a Japanese garden with the sound of a bamboo rocker arm hitting a rock.===Mechanical power=======Watermills========Compressed air ====A plentiful head of water can be made to generate compressed air directly without moving parts.", "In these designs, a falling column of water is deliberately mixed with air bubbles generated through turbulence or a venturi pressure reducer at the high-level intake.", "This allows it to fall down a shaft into a subterranean, high-roofed chamber where the now-compressed air separates from the water and becomes trapped.", "The height of the falling water column maintains compression of the air in the top of the chamber, while an outlet, submerged below the water level in the chamber allows water to flow back to the surface at a lower level than the intake.", "A separate outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed air.", "A facility on this principle was built on the Montreal River at Ragged Shutes near Cobalt, Ontario, in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines.===Electricity===Hydroelectricity is the biggest hydropower application.", "Hydroelectricity generates about 15% of global electricity and provides at least 50% of the total electricity supply for more than 35 countries.", "In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1400 GW, the highest among all renewable energy technologies.Hydroelectricity generation starts with converting either the potential energy of water that is present due to the site's elevation or the kinetic energy of moving water into electrical energy.Hydroelectric power plants vary in terms of the way they harvest energy.", "One type involves a dam and a reservoir.", "The water in the reservoir is available on demand to be used to generate electricity by passing through channels that connect the dam to the reservoir.", "The water spins a turbine, which is connected to the generator that produces electricity.The other type is called a run-of-river plant.", "In this case, a barrage is built to control the flow of water, absent a reservoir.", "The run-of river power plant needs continuous water flow and therefore has less ability to provide power on demand.", "The kinetic energy of flowing water is the main source of energy.Both designs have limitations.", "For example, dam construction can result in discomfort to nearby residents.", "The dam and reservoirs occupy a relatively large amount of space that may be opposed by nearby communities.", "Moreover, reservoirs can potentially have major environmental consequences such as harming downstream habitats.", "On the other hand, the limitation of the run-of-river project is the decreased efficiency of electricity generation because the process depends on the speed of the seasonal river flow.", "This means that the rainy season increases electricity generation compared to the dry season.The size of hydroelectric plants can vary from small plants called micro hydro, to large plants that supply power to a whole country.", "As of 2019, the five largest power stations in the world are conventional hydroelectric power stations with dams.Hydroelectricity can also be used to store energy in the form of potential energy between two reservoirs at different heights with pumped-storage.", "Water is pumped uphill into reservoirs during periods of low demand to be released for generation when demand is high or system generation is low.Other forms of electricity generation with hydropower include tidal stream generators using energy from tidal power generated from oceans, rivers, and human-made canal systems to generating electricity.File:Hydroelectric dam.svg|A conventional dammed-hydro facility (hydroelectric dam) is the most common type of hydroelectric power generation.File:Chief Joseph Dam.jpg|Chief Joseph Dam near Bridgeport, Washington, is a major run-of-the-river station without a sizeable reservoir.File:Nw vietnam hydro.jpg|Micro hydro in Northwest VietnamFile:Stwlan.dam.jpg|The upper reservoir and dam of the Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme in Wales.", "The lower power station can generate 360 MW of electricity." ], [ "Rain power", "Rain has been referred to as \"one of the last unexploited energy sources in nature.", "When it rains, billions of litres of water can fall, which have enormous electric potential if used in the right way.\"", "Research is being done into the different methods of generating power from rain, such as by using the energy in the impact of raindrops.", "This is in its very early stages with new and emerging technologies being tested, prototyped and created.", "Such power has been called rain power.", "One method in which this has been attempted is by using hybrid solar panels called \"all-weather solar panels\" that can generate electricity from both the sun and the rain.According to zoologist and science and technology educator, Luis Villazon, \"A 2008 French study estimated that you could use piezoelectric devices, which generate power when they move, to extract 12 milliwatts from a raindrop.", "Over a year, this would amount to less than 0.001kWh per square metre – enough to power a remote sensor.\"", "Villazon suggested a better application would be to collect the water from fallen rain and use it to drive a turbine, with an estimated energy generation of 3 kWh of energy per year for a 185 m2 roof.", "A microturbine-based system created by three students from the Technological University of Mexico has been used to generate electricity.", "The Pluvia system \"uses the stream of rainwater runoff from houses' rooftop rain gutters to spin a microturbine in a cylindrical housing.", "Electricity generated by that turbine is used to charge 12-volt batteries.", "\"The term rain power has also been applied to hydropower systems which include the process of capturing the rain." ], [ "History", "===Ancient history===Wang Zhen (fl.", "1290–1333)Saint Anthony Falls, United States; hydropower was used here to mill flour.Directly water-powered ore mill, late nineteenth centuryEvidence suggests that the fundamentals of hydropower date to ancient Greek civilization.", "Other evidence indicates that the waterwheel independently emerged in China around the same period.", "Evidence of water wheels and watermills date to the ancient Near East in the 4th century BC.", "Moreover, evidence indicates the use of hydropower using irrigation machines to ancient civilizations such as Sumer and Babylonia.", "Studies suggest that the water wheel was the initial form of water power and it was driven by either humans or animals.In the Roman Empire, water-powered mills were described by Vitruvius by the first century BC.", "The Barbegal mill, located in modern-day France, had 16 water wheels processing up to 28 tons of grain per day.", "Roman waterwheels were also used for sawing marble such as the Hierapolis sawmill of the late 3rd century AD.", "Such sawmills had a waterwheel that drove two crank-and-connecting rods to power two saws.", "It also appears in two 6th century Eastern Roman sawmills excavated at Ephesus and Gerasa respectively.", "The crank and connecting rod mechanism of these Roman watermills converted the rotary motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades.Water-powered trip hammers and bellows in China, during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), were initially thought to be powered by water scoops.", "However, some historians suggested that they were powered by waterwheels.", "This is since it was theorized that water scoops would not have had the motive force to operate their blast furnace bellows.", "Many texts describe the Hun waterwheel; some of the earliest ones are the ''Jijiupian'' dictionary of 40 BC, Yang Xiong's text known as the ''Fangyan'' of 15 BC, as well as ''Xin Lun,'' written by Huan Tan about 20 AD.", "It was also during this time that the engineer Du Shi (c. AD 31) applied the power of waterwheels to piston-bellows in forging cast iron.Another example of the early use of hydropower is seen in hushing, a historic method of mining that uses flood or torrent of water to reveal mineral veins.", "The method was first used at the Dolaucothi Gold Mines in Wales from 75 AD onwards.", "This method was further developed in Spain in mines such as Las Médulas.", "Hushing was also widely used in Britain in the Medieval and later periods to extract lead and tin ores.", "It later evolved into hydraulic mining when used during the California Gold Rush in the 19th century.The Islamic Empire spanned a large region, mainly in Asia and Africa, along with other surrounding areas.", "During the Islamic Golden Age and the Arab Agricultural Revolution (8th–13th centuries), hydropower was widely used and developed.", "Early uses of tidal power emerged along with large hydraulic factory complexes.", "A wide range of water-powered industrial mills were used in the region including fulling mills, gristmills, paper mills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and tide mills.", "By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic Empire had these industrial mills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.", "Muslim engineers also used water turbines while employing gears in watermills and water-raising machines.", "They also pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.Furthermore, in his book, ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'', the Muslim mechanical engineer, Al-Jazari (1136–1206) described designs for 50 devices.", "Many of these devices were water-powered, including clocks, a device to serve wine, and five devices to lift water from rivers or pools, where three of them are animal-powered and one can be powered by animal or water.", "Moreover, they included an endless belt with jugs attached, a cow-powered shadoof (a crane-like irrigation tool), and a reciprocating device with hinged valves.Benoît Fourneyron, the French engineer who developed the first hydropower turbine===19th century===In the 19th century, French engineer Benoît Fourneyron developed the first hydropower turbine.", "This device was implemented in the commercial plant of Niagara Falls in 1895 and it is still operating.", "In the early 20th century, English engineer William Armstrong built and operated the first private electrical power station which was located in his house in Cragside in Northumberland, England.", "In 1753, the French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published his book, ''Architecture Hydraulique'', which described vertical-axis and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines.The growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well.", "At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the main power source for new inventions such as Richard Arkwright's water frame.", "Although water power gave way to steam power in many of the larger mills and factories, it was still used during the 18th and 19th centuries for many smaller operations, such as driving the bellows in small blast furnaces (e.g.", "the Dyfi Furnace) and gristmills, such as those built at Saint Anthony Falls, which uses the drop in the Mississippi River.Technological advances moved the open water wheel into an enclosed turbine or water motor.", "In 1848, the British-American engineer James B. Francis, head engineer of Lowell's Locks and Canals company, improved on these designs to create a turbine with 90% efficiency.", "He applied scientific principles and testing methods to the problem of turbine design.", "His mathematical and graphical calculation methods allowed the confident design of high-efficiency turbines to exactly match a site's specific flow conditions.", "The Francis reaction turbine is still in use.", "In the 1870s, deriving from uses in the California mining industry, Lester Allan Pelton developed the high-efficiency Pelton wheel impulse turbine, which used hydropower from the high head streams characteristic of the Sierra Nevada.===20th century===The modern history of hydropower begins in the 1900s, with large dams built not simply to power neighboring mills or factories but provide extensive electricity for increasingly distant groups of people.", "Competition drove much of the global hydroelectric craze: Europe competed amongst itself to electrify first, and the United States' hydroelectric plants in Niagara Falls and the Sierra Nevada inspired bigger and bolder creations across the globe.", "American and USSR financers and hydropower experts also spread the gospel of dams and hydroelectricity across the globe during the Cold War, contributing to projects such as the Three Gorges Dam and the Aswan High Dam.", "Feeding desire for large scale electrification with water inherently required large dams across powerful rivers, which impacted public and private interests downstream and in flood zones.", "Inevitably smaller communities and marginalized groups suffered.", "They were unable to successfully resist companies flooding them out of their homes or blocking traditional salmon passages.", "The stagnant water created by hydroelectric dams provides breeding ground for pests and pathogens, leading to local epidemics.", "However, in some cases, a mutual need for hydropower could lead to cooperation between otherwise adversarial nations.", "Hydropower technology and attitude began to shift in the second half of the 20th century.", "While countries had largely abandoned their small hydropower systems by the 1930s, the smaller hydropower plants began to make a comeback in the 1970s, boosted by government subsidies and a push for more independent energy producers.", "Some politicians who once advocated for large hydropower projects in the first half of the 20th century began to speak out against them, and citizen groups organizing against dam projects increased.In the 1980s and 90s the international anti-dam movement had made finding government or private investors for new large hydropower projects incredibly difficult, and given rise to NGOs devoted to fighting dams.", "Additionally, while the cost of other energy sources fell, the cost of building new hydroelectric dams increased 4% annually between 1965 and 1990, due both to the increasing costs of construction and to the decrease in high quality building sites.", "In the 1990s, only 18% of the world's electricity came from hydropower.", "Tidal power production also emerged in the 1960s as a burgeoning alternative hydropower system, though still has not taken hold as a strong energy contender.====United States====Especially at the start of the American hydropower experiment, engineers and politicians began major hydroelectricity projects to solve a problem of 'wasted potential' rather than to power a population that needed the electricity.", "When the Niagara Falls Power Company began looking into damming Niagara, the first major hydroelectric project in the United States, in the 1890s they struggled to transport electricity from the falls far enough away to actually reach enough people and justify installation.", "The project succeeded in large part due to Nikola Tesla's invention of the alternating current motor.", "On the other side of the country, San Francisco engineers, the Sierra Club, and the federal government fought over acceptable use of the Hetch Hetchy Valley.", "Despite ostensible protection within a national park, city engineers successfully won the rights to both water and power in the Hetch Hetchy Valley in 1913.After their victory they delivered Hetch Hetchy hydropower and water to San Francisco a decade later and at twice the promised cost, selling power to PG&E which resold to San Francisco residents at a profit.The American West, with its mountain rivers and lack of coal, turned to hydropower early and often, especially along the Columbia River and its tributaries.", "The Bureau of Reclamation built the Hoover Dam in 1931, symbolically linking the job creation and economic growth priorities of the New Deal.", "The federal government quickly followed Hoover with the Shasta Dam and Grand Coulee Dam.", "Power demand in Oregon did not justify damming the Columbia until WWI revealed the weaknesses of a coal-based energy economy.", "The federal government then began prioritizing interconnected power—and lots of it.", "Electricity from all three dams poured into war production during WWII.After the war, the Grand Coulee Dam and accompanying hydroelectric projects electrified almost all of the rural Columbia Basin, but failed to improve the lives of those living and farming there the way its boosters had promised and also damaged the river ecosystem and migrating salmon populations.", "In the 1940s as well, the federal government took advantage of the sheer amount of unused power and flowing water from the Grand Coulee to build a nuclear site placed on the banks of the Columbia.", "The nuclear site leaked radioactive matter into the river, contaminating the entire area.Post-WWII Americans, especially engineers from the Tennessee Valley Authority, refocused from simply building domestic dams to promoting hydropower abroad.", "While domestic dam building continued well into the 1970s, with the Reclamation Bureau and Army Corps of Engineers building more than 150 new dams across the American West, organized opposition to hydroelectric dams sparked up in the 1950s and 60s based on environmental concerns.", "Environmental movements successfully shut down proposed hydropower dams in Dinosaur National Monument and the Grand Canyon, and gained more hydropower-fighting tools with 1970s environmental legislation.", "As nuclear and fossil fuels grew in the 70s and 80s and environmental activists push for river restoration, hydropower gradually faded in American importance.====Africa====\tForeign powers and IGOs have frequently used hydropower projects in Africa as a tool to interfere in the economic development of African countries, such as the World Bank with the Kariba and Akosombo Dams, and the Soviet Union with the Aswan Dam.", "The Nile River especially has borne the consequences of countries both along the Nile and distant foreign actors using the river to expand their economic power or national force.", "After the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, the British worked with Egypt to construct the first Aswan Dam, which they heightened in 1912 and 1934 to try to hold back the Nile floods.", "Egyptian engineer Adriano Daninos developed a plan for the Aswan High Dam, inspired by the Tennessee Valley Authority's multipurpose dam.When Gamal Abdel Nasser took power in the 1950s, his government decided to undertake the High Dam project, publicizing it as an economic development project.", "After American refusal to help fund the dam, and anti-British sentiment in Egypt and British interests in neighboring Sudan combined to make the United Kingdom pull out as well, the Soviet Union funded the Aswan High Dam.", "Between 1977 and 1990 the dam's turbines generated one third of Egypt's electricity.", "The building of the Aswan Dam triggered a dispute between Sudan and Egypt over the sharing of the Nile, especially since the dam flooded part of Sudan and decreased the volume of water available to them.", "Ethiopia, also located on the Nile, took advantage of the Cold War tensions to request assistance from the United States for their own irrigation and hydropower investments in the 1960s.", "While progress stalled due to the coup d'état of 1974 and following 17-year-long Ethiopian Civil War Ethiopia began construction on the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011.Beyond the Nile, hydroelectric projects cover the rivers and lakes of Africa.", "The Inga powerplant on the Congo River had been discussed since Belgian colonization in the late 19th century, and was successfully built after independence.", "Mobutu's government failed to regularly maintain the plants and their capacity declined until the 1995 formation of the Southern African Power Pool created a multi-national power grid and plant maintenance program.", "States with an abundance of hydropower, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ghana, frequently sell excess power to neighboring countries.", "Foreign actors such as Chinese hydropower companies have proposed a significant amount of new hydropower projects in Africa, and already funded and consulted on many others in countries like Mozambique and Ghana.Small hydropower also played an important role in early 20th century electrification across Africa.", "In South Africa, small turbines powered gold mines and the first electric railway in the 1890s, and Zimbabwean farmers installed small hydropower stations in the 1930s.", "While interest faded as national grids improved in the second half of the century, 21st century national governments in countries including South Africa and Mozambique, as well as NGOs serving countries like Zimbabwe, have begun re-exploring small-scale hydropower to diversify power sources and improve rural electrification.====Europe====In the early 20th century, two major factors motivated the expansion of hydropower in Europe: in the northern countries of Norway and Sweden high rainfall and mountains proved exceptional resources for abundant hydropower, and in the south coal shortages pushed governments and utility companies to seek alternative power sources.Early on, Switzerland dammed the Alpine rivers and the Swiss Rhine, creating, along with Italy and Scandinavia, a Southern Europe hydropower race.", "In Italy's Po Valley, the main 20th century transition was not the creation of hydropower but the transition from mechanical to electrical hydropower.", "12,000 watermills churned in the Po watershed in the 1890s, but the first commercial hydroelectric plant, completed in 1898, signaled the end of the mechanical reign.", "These new large plants moved power away from rural mountainous areas to urban centers in the lower plain.", "Italy prioritized early near-nationwide electrification, almost entirely from hydropower, which powered their rise as a dominant European and imperial force.", "However, they failed to reach any conclusive standard for determining water rights before WWI.Modern German hydropower dam construction built off a history of small dams powering mines and mills going back to the 15th century.", "Some parts of Germany industry even relied more on waterwheels than steam until the 1870s.", "The German government did not set out building large dams such as the prewar Urft, Mohne, and Eder dams to expand hydropower: they mostly wanted to reduce flooding and improve navigation.", "However, hydropower quickly emerged as an added bonus for all these dams, especially in the coal-poor south.", "Bavaria even achieved a statewide power grid by damming the Walchensee in 1924, inspired in part by loss of coal reserves after WWI.Hydropower became a symbol of regional pride and distaste for northern 'coal barons', although the north also held strong enthusiasm for hydropower.", "Dam building rapidly increased after WWII, this time with the express purpose of increasing hydropower.", "However, conflict accompanied the dam building and spread of hydropower: agrarian interests suffered from decreased irrigation, small mills lost water flow, and different interest groups fought over where dams should be located, controlling who benefited and whose homes they drowned." ], [ "See also", "* Deep water source cooling* Gravitation water vortex power plant* Energy conversion efficiency* Hydraulic ram* International Hydropower Association* Low-head hydro power* Marine current power* Marine energy* Ocean thermal energy conversion* Osmotic power* Wave power" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* International Hydropower Association* International Centre for Hydropower (ICH) hydropower portal with links to numerous organizations related to hydropower worldwide* IEC TC 4: Hydraulic turbines (International Electrotechnical Commission – Technical Committee 4) IEC TC 4 portal with access to scope, documents and TC 4 website * Micro-hydro power, Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group.", "Retrieved 1 January 2005* Microhydropower Systems, US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horse breed" ], [ "Introduction", "Illustration of horse breeds from Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (1890–1907)A '''horse breed''' is a selectively bred population of domesticated horses, often with pedigrees recorded in a breed registry.", "However, the term is sometimes used in a broader sense to define landrace animals of a common phenotype located within a limited geographic region, or even feral \"breeds\" that are naturally selected.", "Depending on definition, hundreds of \"breeds\" exist today, developed for many different uses.", "Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited \"hot bloods\" with speed and endurance; \"cold bloods,\" such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and \"warmbloods,\" developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe.Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition.", "These inherited traits are usually the result of a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods aimed at producing horses for specific tasks.", "Certain breeds are known for certain talents.", "For example, Standardbreds are known for their speed in harness racing.", "Some breeds have been developed through centuries of crossings with other breeds, while others, such as the Morgan horse, originated from a single sire from which all current breed members descend.", "More than 300 horse breeds exist in the world today." ], [ "Origin of breeds", "Modern horse breeds developed in response to a need for \"form to function\", the necessity to develop certain physical characteristics to perform a certain type of work.", "Thus, powerful but refined breeds such as the Andalusian or the Lusitano developed in the Iberian peninsula as riding horses that also had a great aptitude for dressage, while heavy draft horses such as the Clydesdale and the Shire developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.", "Ponies of all breeds originally developed mainly from the need for a working animal that could fulfill specific local draft and transportation needs while surviving in harsh environments.", "However, by the 20th century, many pony breeds had Arabian and other blood added to make a more refined pony suitable for riding.", "Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work, heavy and light carriage and road work, various equestrian disciplines, or simply as pets." ], [ "Purebreds and registries", "Australian Stud Books from the 1990sOne volume of the 1873 American Stud BookHorses have been selectively bred since their domestication.", "However, the concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry only became of significant importance in modern times.", "Today, the standards for defining and registration of different breeds vary.", "Sometimes, purebred horses are called \"Thoroughbreds\", which is incorrect; \"Thoroughbred\" is a specific breed of horse, while a \"purebred\" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful breeding practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.", "Though these pedigrees were originally transmitted by an oral tradition, written pedigrees of Arabian horses can be found that date to the 14th century.", "In the same period of the early Renaissance, the Carthusian monks of southern Spain bred horses and kept meticulous pedigrees of the best bloodstock; the lineage survives to this day in the Andalusian horse.", "One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the Arabian stallions imported to England from the Middle East that became the foundation stallions for the breed.Some breed registries have a closed stud book, where registration is based on pedigree, and no outside animals can gain admittance.", "For example, a registered Thoroughbred or Arabian must have two registered parents of the same breed.Other breeds have a partially closed stud book, but still allow certain infusions from other breeds.", "For example, the modern Appaloosa must have at least one Appaloosa parent, but may also have a Quarter Horse, Thoroughbred, or Arabian parent, so long as the offspring exhibits appropriate color characteristics.", "The Quarter Horse normally requires both parents to be registered Quarter Horses, but allows \"Appendix\" registration of horses with one Thoroughbred parent, and the horse may earn its way to full registration by completing certain performance requirements.Open stud books exist for horse breeds that either have not yet developed a rigorously defined standard phenotype, or for breeds that register animals that conform to an ideal via the process of passing a studbook selection process.", "Most of the warmblood breeds used in sport horse disciplines have open stud books to varying degrees.", "While pedigree is considered, outside bloodlines are admitted to the registry if the horses meet the set standard for the registry.", "These registries usually require a selection process involving judging of an individual animal's quality, performance, and conformation before registration is finalized.", "A few \"registries,\" particularly some color breed registries, are very open and will allow membership of all horses that meet limited criteria, such as coat color and species, regardless of pedigree or conformation.Breed registries also differ as to their acceptance or rejection of breeding technology.", "For example, all Jockey Club Thoroughbred registries require that a registered Thoroughbred be a product of a natural mating, so-called \"live cover\".", "A foal born of two Thoroughbred parents, but by means of artificial insemination or embryo transfer, cannot be registered in the Thoroughbred studbook.", "However, since the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, most breed registries now allow artificial insemination, embryo transfer, or both.", "The high value of stallions has helped with the acceptance of these techniques because they allow a stallion to breed more mares with each \"collection\" and greatly reduce the risk of injury during mating.", "Cloning of horses is highly controversial, and at the present time most mainstream breed registries will not accept cloned horses, though several cloned horses and mules have been produced.", "Such restrictions have led to legal challenges in the United States, sometime based on state law and sometimes based on antitrust laws." ], [ "Hybrids", "Mules with pack saddles during a demonstration (2014)Horses can crossbreed with other equine species to produce hybrids.", "These hybrid types are not breeds, but they resemble breeds in that crosses between certain horse breeds and other equine species produce characteristic offspring.", "The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a \"jack\" (male donkey) and a mare.", "A related hybrid, the hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (female donkey).", "Most other hybrids involve the zebra (see Zebroid).", "With rare exceptions, most equine hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.", "A notable exception is hybrid crosses between horses and ''Equus ferus przewalskii'', commonly known as Przewalski's horse." ], [ "See also", "* List of horse breeds* Horse breeding* Selective breeding*" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horse breeding" ], [ "Introduction", "Mares and a foal'''Horse breeding''' is reproduction in horses, and particularly the human-directed process of selective breeding of animals, particularly purebred horses of a given breed.", "Planned matings can be used to produce specifically desired characteristics in domesticated horses.", "Furthermore, modern breeding management and technologies can increase the rate of conception, a healthy pregnancy, and successful foaling." ], [ "Terminology", "The male parent of a horse, a stallion, is commonly known as the ''sire'' and the female parent, the mare, is called the ''dam''.", "Both are genetically important, as each parent genes can be existent with a 50% probability in the foal.", "Contrary to popular misuse, \"colt\" refers to a young male horse only; \"filly\" is a young female.", "Though many horse owners may simply breed a family mare to a local stallion in order to produce a companion animal, most professional breeders use selective breeding to produce individuals of a given phenotype, or breed.", "Alternatively, a breeder could, using individuals of differing phenotypes, create a new breed with specific characteristics.A horse is \"bred\" where it is foaled (born).", "Thus a colt conceived in England but foaled in the United States is regarded as being bred in the US.", "In some cases, most notably in the Thoroughbred breeding industry, American- and Canadian-bred horses may also be described by the state or province in which they are foaled.", "Some breeds denote the country, or state, where conception took place as the origin of the foal.Similarly, the \"breeder\", is the person who owned or leased the mare at the time of foaling.", "That individual may not have had anything to do with the mating of the mare.", "It is important to review each breed registry's rules to determine which applies to any specific foal.In the horse breeding industry, the term \"half-brother\" or \"half-sister\" only describes horses which have the same dam, but different sires.", "Horses with the same sire but different dams are simply said to be \"by the same sire\", and no sibling relationship is implied.", "\"Full\" (or \"own\") siblings have both the same dam and the same sire.", "The terms paternal half-sibling, and maternal half-sibling are also often used.", "Three-quarter siblings are horses out of the same dam, and are by sires that are either half-brothers (i.e.", "same dam) or who are by the same sire.Thoroughbreds and Arabians are also classified through the \"distaff\" or direct female line, known as their \"family\" or \"tail female\" line, tracing back to their taproot foundation bloodstock or the beginning of their respective stud books.", "The female line of descent always appears at the bottom of a tabulated pedigree and is therefore often known as the ''bottom line''.", "In addition, the maternal grandfather of a horse has a special term: damsire.", "\"Linebreeding\" technically is the duplication of fourth-generation or more distant ancestors.", "However, the term is often used more loosely, describing horses with duplication of ancestors closer than the fourth generation.", "It also is sometimes used as a euphemism for the practice of inbreeding, a practice that is generally frowned upon by horse breeders, though used by some in an attempt to fix certain traits." ], [ "Estrous cycle of the mare", "Stallion checking a mare in estrus.", "The mare welcomes the stallion by lowering her rear and lifting her tail.The estrous cycle (also spelled oestrous) controls when a mare is sexually receptive toward a stallion, and helps to physically prepare the mare for conception.", "It generally occurs during the spring and summer months, although some mares may be sexually receptive into the late fall, and is controlled by the photoperiod (length of the day), the cycle first triggered when the days begin to lengthen.", "The estrous cycle lasts about 19–22 days, with the average being 21 days.", "As the days shorten, the mare returns to a period when she is not sexually receptive, known as anestrus.", "Anestrus – occurring in the majority of, but not all, mares – prevents the mare from conceiving in the winter months, as that would result in her foaling during the harshest part of the year, a time when it would be most difficult for the foal to survive.This cycle contains 2 phases:* Estrus, or Follicular, phase: 5–7 days in length, when the mare is sexually receptive to a stallion.", "Estrogen is secreted by the follicle.", "Ovulation occurs in the final 24–48 hours of estrus.", "* Diestrus, or Luteal, phase: 14–15 days in length, the mare is not sexually receptive to the stallion.", "The corpus luteum secretes progesterone.Depending on breed, on average, 16% of mares have double ovulations, allowing them to twin, though this does not affect the length of time of estrus or diestrus.=== Effects on the reproductive system during the estrous cycle ===Changes in hormone levels can have great effects on the physical characteristics of the reproductive organs of the mare, thereby preparing, or preventing, her from conceiving.", "* '''Uterus''': increased levels of estrogen during estrus cause edema within the uterus, making it feel heavier, and the uterus loses its tone.", "This edema decreases following ovulation, and the muscular tone increases.", "High levels of progesterone do not cause edema within the uterus.", "The uterus becomes flaccid during anestrus.", "* '''Cervix''': the cervix starts to relax right before estrus occurs, with maximal relaxation around the time of ovulation.", "The secretions of the cervix increase.", "High progesterone levels (during diestrus) cause the cervix to close and become toned.", "* '''Vagina''': the portion of the vagina near the cervix becomes engorged with blood right before estrus.", "The vagina becomes relaxed and secretions increase.", "* '''Vulva''': relaxes right before estrus begins.", "Becomes dry, and closes more tightly, during diestrus.=== Hormones involved in the estrous cycle, during foaling, and after birth ===The cycle is controlled by several hormones which regulate the estrous cycle, the mare's behavior, and the reproductive system of the mare.", "The cycle begins when the increased day length causes the pineal gland to reduce the levels of melatonin, thereby allowing the hypothalamus to secrete GnRH.", "* '''GnRH (Gonadotropin releasing hormone)''': secreted by the hypothalamus, causes the pituitary to release two gonadotrophins: LH and FSH.", "* '''LH (Luteinizing hormone)''': levels are highest 2 days following ovulation, then slowly decrease over 4–5 days, dipping to their lowest levels 5–16 days after ovulation.", "Stimulates maturation of the follicle, which then in turn secretes estrogen.", "Unlike most mammals, the mare does not have an increase of LH right before ovulation.", "* '''FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone)''': secreted by the pituitary, causes the ovarian follicle to develop.", "Levels of FSH rise slightly at the end of estrus, but have their highest peak about 10 days before the next ovulation.", "FSH is inhibited by inhibin (see below), at the same time LH and estrogen levels rise, which prevents immature follicles from continuing their growth.", "Mares may however have multiple FSH waves during a single estrous cycle, and diestrus follicles resulting from a diestrus FSH wave are not uncommon, particularly in the height of the natural breeding season.", "* '''Estrogen''': secreted by the developing follicle, it causes the pituitary gland to secrete more LH (therefore, these 2 hormones are in a positive feedback loop).", "Additionally, it causes behavioral changes in the mare, making her more receptive toward the stallion, and causes physical changes in the cervix, uterus, and vagina to prepare the mare for conception (see above).", "Estrogen peaks 1–2 days before ovulation, and decreases within 2 days following ovulation.", "* '''Inhibin''': secreted by the developed follicle right before ovulation, \"turns off\" FSH, which is no longer needed now that the follicle is larger.", "* '''Progesterone''': prevents conception and decreases sexual receptibility of the mare to the stallion.", "Progesterone is therefore lowest during the estrus phase, and increases during diestrus.", "It decreases 12–15 days after ovulation, when the corpus luteum begins to decrease in size.", "* '''Prostaglandin''': secreted by the endrometrium 13–15 days following ovulation, causes luteolysis and prevents the corpus luteum from secreting progesterone* '''eCG – equine chorionic gonadotropin – also called PMSG (pregnant mare serum gonadotropin)''': chorionic gonadotropins secreted if the mare conceives.", "First secreted by the endometrial cups around the 36th day of gestation, peaking around day 60, and decreasing after about 120 days of gestation.", "Also help to stimulate the growth of the fetal gonads.", "* '''Prolactin''': stimulates lactation* '''Oxytocin''': stimulates the uterus to contract" ], [ "Breeding and gestation", "While horses in the wild mate and foal in mid to late spring, in the case of horses domestically bred for competitive purposes, especially horse racing, it is desirable that they be born as close to January 1 in the northern hemisphere or August 1 in the southern hemisphere as possible, so as to be at an advantage in size and maturity when competing against other horses in the same age group.", "When an early foal is desired, barn managers will put the mare \"under lights\" by keeping the barn lights on in the winter to simulate a longer day, thus bringing the mare into estrus sooner than she would in nature.", "Mares signal estrus and ovulation by urination in the presence of a stallion, raising the tail and revealing the vulva.", "A stallion, approaching with a high head, will usually nicker, nip and nudge the mare, as well as sniff her urine to determine her readiness for mating.Once fertilized, the oocyte (egg) remains in the oviduct for approximately 5.5 more days, and then descends into the uterus.", "The initial single cell combination is already dividing and by the time of entry into the uterus, the egg might have already reached the blastocyst stage.The gestation period lasts for about eleven months, or about 340 days (normal average range 320–370 days).", "During the early days of pregnancy, the conceptus is mobile, moving about in the uterus until about day 16 when \"fixation\" occurs.", "Shortly after fixation, the embryo proper (so called up to about 35 days) will become visible on trans-rectal ultrasound (about day 21) and a heartbeat should be visible by about day 23.After the formation of the endometrial cups and early placentation is initiated (35–40 days of gestation) the terminology changes, and the embryo is referred to as a fetus.", "True implantation – invasion into the endometrium of any sort – does not occur until about day 35 of pregnancy with the formation of the endometrial cups, and true placentation (formation of the placenta) is not initiated until about day 40-45 and not completed until about 140 days of pregnancy.", "The fetus's sex can be determined by day 70 of the gestation using ultrasound.", "Halfway through gestation the fetus is the size of between a rabbit and a beagle.", "The most dramatic fetal development occurs in the last 3 months of pregnancy when 60% of fetal growth occurs.Colts are carried on average about 4 days longer than fillies.=== Care of the pregnant mare ===Domestic mares receive specific care and nutrition to ensure that they and their foals are healthy.", "Mares are given vaccinations against diseases such as the Rhinopneumonitis (EHV-1) virus (which can cause miscarriage) as well as vaccines for other conditions that may occur in a given region of the world.", "Pre-foaling vaccines are recommended 4–6 weeks prior to foaling to maximize the immunoglobulin content of the colostrum in the first milk.", "Mares are dewormed a few weeks prior to foaling, as the mare is the primary source of parasites for the foal.Mares can be used for riding or driving during most of their pregnancy.", "Exercise is healthy, though should be moderated when a mare is heavily in foal.", "Exercise in excessively high temperatures has been suggested as being detrimental to pregnancy maintenance during the embryonic period; however ambient temperatures encountered during the research were in the region of 100 degrees F and the same results may not be encountered in regions with lower ambient temperatures.During the first several months of pregnancy, the nutritional requirements do not increase significantly since the rate of growth of the fetus is very slow.", "However, during this time, the mare may be provided supplemental vitamins and minerals, particularly if forage quality is questionable.", "During the last 3–4 months of gestation, rapid growth of the fetus increases the mare's nutritional requirements.", "Energy requirements during these last few months, and during the first few months of lactation are similar to those of a horse in full training.", "Trace minerals such as copper are extremely important, particularly during the tenth month of pregnancy, for proper skeletal formation.", "Many feeds designed for pregnant and lactating mares provide the careful balance required of increased protein, increased calories through extra fat as well as vitamins and minerals.", "Overfeeding the pregnant mare, particularly during early gestation, should be avoided, as excess weight may contribute to difficulties foaling or fetal/foal related problems." ], [ "Foaling", "A mare in the early stages of laborMares due to foal are usually separated from other horses, both for the benefit of the mare and the safety of the soon-to-be-delivered foal.", "In addition, separation allows the mare to be monitored more closely by humans for any problems that may occur while giving birth.", "In the northern hemisphere, a special foaling stall that is large and clutter free is frequently used, particularly by major breeding farms.", "Originally, this was due in part to a need for protection from the harsh winter climate present when mares foal early in the year, but even in moderate climates, such as Florida, foaling stalls are still common because they allow closer monitoring of mares.", "Smaller breeders often use a small pen with a large shed for foaling, or they may remove a wall between two box stalls in a small barn to make a large stall.", "In the milder climates seen in much of the southern hemisphere, most mares foal outside, often in a paddock built specifically for foaling, especially on the larger stud farms.", "Many stud farms worldwide employ technology to alert human managers when the mare is about to foal, including webcams, closed-circuit television, or assorted types of devices that alert a handler via a remote alarm when a mare lies down in a position to foal.On the other hand, some breeders, particularly those in remote areas or with extremely large numbers of horses, may allow mares to foal out in a field amongst a herd, but may also see higher rates of foal and mare mortality in doing so.Most mares foal at night or early in the morning, and prefer to give birth alone when possible.", "Labor is rapid, often no more than 30 minutes, and from the time the feet of the foal appear to full delivery is often only about 15 to 20 minutes.", "Once the foal is born, the mare will lick the newborn foal to clean it and help blood circulation.", "In a very short time, the foal will attempt to stand and get milk from its mother.", "A foal should stand and nurse within the first hour of life.To create a bond with her foal, the mare licks and nuzzles the foal, enabling her to distinguish the foal from others.", "Some mares are aggressive when protecting their foals, and may attack other horses or unfamiliar humans that come near their newborns.After birth, a foal's navel is dipped in antiseptic to prevent infection.", "The foal is sometimes given an enema to help clear the meconium from its digestive tract.", "The newborn is monitored to ensure that it stands and nurses without difficulty.", "While most horse births happen without complications, many owners have first aid supplies prepared and a veterinarian on call in case of a birthing emergency.", "People who supervise foaling should also watch the mare to be sure that she passes the placenta in a timely fashion, and that it is complete with no fragments remaining in the uterus.", "Retained fetal membranes can cause a serious inflammatory condition (endometritis) and/or infection.", "If the placenta is not removed from the stall after it is passed, a mare will often eat it, an instinct from the wild, where blood would attract predators.=== Foal care ===A foal with its mother, or damFoals develop rapidly, and within a few hours a wild foal can travel with the herd.", "In domestic breeding, the foal and dam are usually separated from the herd for a while, but within a few weeks are typically pastured with the other horses.", "A foal will begin to eat hay, grass and grain alongside the mare at about 4 weeks old; by 10–12 weeks the foal requires more nutrition than the mare's milk can supply.", "Foals are typically weaned at 4–8 months of age, although in the wild a foal may nurse for a year." ], [ "How breeds develop", "Beyond the appearance and conformation of a specific type of horse, breeders aspire to improve physical performance abilities.", "This concept, known as matching \"form to function,\" has led to the development of not only different breeds, but also families or bloodlines within breeds that are specialists for excelling at specific tasks.For example, the Arabian horse of the desert naturally developed speed and endurance to travel long distances and survive in a harsh environment, and domestication by humans added a trainable disposition to the animal's natural abilities.", "In the meantime, in northern Europe, the locally adapted heavy horse with a thick, warm coat was domesticated and put to work as a farm animal that could pull a plow or wagon.", "This animal was later adapted through selective breeding to create a strong but rideable animal suitable for the heavily armored knight in warfare.Then, centuries later, when people in Europe wanted faster horses than could be produced from local horses through simple selective breeding, they imported Arabians and other oriental horses to breed as an outcross to the heavier, local animals.", "This led to the development of breeds such as the Thoroughbred, a horse taller than the Arabian and faster over the distances of a few miles required of a European race horse or light cavalry horse.", "Another cross between oriental and European horses produced the Andalusian, a horse developed in Spain that was powerfully built, but extremely nimble and capable of the quick bursts of speed over short distances necessary for certain types of combat as well as for tasks such as bullfighting.Later, the people who settled America needed a hardy horse that was capable of working with cattle.", "Thus, Arabians and Thoroughbreds were crossed on Spanish horses, both domesticated animals descended from those brought over by the Conquistadors, and feral horses such as the Mustangs, descended from the Spanish horse, but adapted by natural selection to the ecology and climate of the west.", "These crosses ultimately produced new breeds such as the American Quarter Horse and the Criollo of Argentina.", "In Canada, the Canadian Horse descended from the French stock Louis XIV sent to Canada in the late 17th century.6 The initial shipment, in 1665, consisted of two stallions and twenty mares from the Royal Stables in Normandy and Brittany, the centre of French horse breeding.7 Only 12 of the 20 mares survived the trip.", "Two more shipments followed, one in 1667 of 14 horses (mostly mares, but with at least one stallion), and one in 1670 of 11 mares and a stallion.", "The shipments included a mix of draft horses and light horses, the latter of which included both pacing and trotting horses.1 The exact origins of all the horses are unknown, although the shipments probably included Bretons, Normans, Arabians, Andalusians and Barbs.In modern times, these breeds themselves have since been selectively bred to further specialize at certain tasks.", "One example of this is the American Quarter Horse.", "Once a general-purpose working ranch horse, different bloodlines now specialize in different events.", "For example, larger, heavier animals with a very steady attitude are bred to give competitors an advantage in events such as team roping, where a horse has to start and stop quickly, but also must calmly hold a full-grown steer at the end of a rope.", "On the other hand, for an event known as cutting, where the horse must separate a cow from a herd and prevent it from rejoining the group, the best horses are smaller, quick, alert, athletic and highly trainable.", "They must learn quickly, have conformation that allows quick stops and fast, low turns, and the best competitors have a certain amount of independent mental ability to anticipate and counter the movement of a cow, popularly known as \"cow sense.", "\"Another example is the Thoroughbred.", "While most representatives of this breed are bred for horse racing, there are also specialized bloodlines suitable as show hunters or show jumpers.", "The hunter must have a tall, smooth build that allows it to trot and canter smoothly and efficiently.", "Instead of speed, value is placed on appearance and upon giving the equestrian a comfortable ride, with natural jumping ability that shows bascule and good form.A show jumper, however, is bred less for overall form and more for power over tall fences, along with speed, scope, and agility.", "This favors a horse with a good galloping stride, powerful hindquarters that can change speed or direction easily, plus a good shoulder angle and length of neck.", "A jumper has a more powerful build than either the hunter or the racehorse." ], [ "History of horse breeding", "The history of horse breeding goes back millennia.", "Though the precise date is in dispute, humans could have domesticated the horse as far back as approximately 4500 BCE.", "However, evidence of planned breeding has a more blurry history.", "It is well known, for example, that the Romans did breed horses and valued them in their armies, but little is known regarding their breeding and husbandry practices: all that remains are statues and artwork.", "Mankind has plenty of equestrian statues of Roman emperors, horses are mentioned in the Odyssey by Homer, and hieroglyphics and paintings left behind by Egyptians tell stories of pharaohs hunting elephants from chariots.", "Nearly nothing is known of what became of the horses they bred for hippodromes, for warfare, or even for farming.One of the earliest people known to document the breedings of their horses were the Bedouin of the Middle East, the breeders of the Arabian horse.", "While it is difficult to determine how far back the Bedouin passed on pedigree information via an oral tradition, there were written pedigrees of Arabian horses by CE 1330.The Akhal-Teke of West-Central Asia is another breed with roots in ancient times that was also bred specifically for war and racing.", "The nomads of the Mongolian steppes bred horses for several thousand years as well, and the Caspian horse is believed to be a very close relative of Ottoman horses from the earliest origins of the Turks in Central Asia.The types of horse bred varied with culture and with the times.", "The uses to which a horse was put also determined its qualities, including smooth amblers for riding, fast horses for carrying messengers, heavy horses for plowing and pulling heavy wagons, ponies for hauling cars of ore from mines, packhorses, carriage horses and many others.Medieval Europe bred large horses specifically for war, called destriers.", "These horses were the ancestors of the great heavy horses of today, and their size was preferred not simply because of the weight of the armor, but also because a large horse provided more power for the knight's lance.", "Weighing almost twice as much as a normal riding horse, the destrier was a powerful weapon in battle meant to act like a giant battering ram that could quite literally run down men on an enemy line.On the other hand, during this same time, lighter horses were bred in northern Africa and the Middle East, where a faster, more agile horse was preferred.", "The lighter horse suited the raids and battles of desert people, allowing them to outmaneuver rather than overpower the enemy.", "When Middle Eastern warriors and European knights collided in warfare, the heavy knights were frequently outmaneuvered.", "The Europeans, however, responded by crossing their native breeds with \"oriental\" type horses such as the Arabian, Barb, and Turkoman horse This cross-breeding led both to a nimbler war horse, such as today's Andalusian horse, but also created a type of horse known as a Courser, a predecessor to the Thoroughbred, which was used as a message horse.During the Renaissance, horses were bred not only for war, but for haute ecole riding, derived from the most athletic movements required of a war horse, and popular among the elite nobility of the time.", "Breeds such as the Lipizzan and the now extinct Neapolitan horse were developed from Spanish-bred horses for this purpose, and also became the preferred mounts of cavalry officers, who were derived mostly from the ranks of the nobility.", "It was during this time that firearms were developed, and so the light cavalry horse, a faster and quicker war horse, was bred for \"shoot and run\" tactics rather than the shock action as in the Middle Ages.", "Fine horses usually had a well muscled, curved neck, slender body, and sweeping mane, as the nobility liked to show off their wealth and breeding in paintings of the era.After Charles II retook the British throne in 1660, horse racing, which had been banned by Cromwell, was revived.", "The Thoroughbred was developed 40 years later, bred to be the ultimate racehorse, through the lines of three foundation Arabian stallions and one Turkish horse.In the 18th century, James Burnett, Lord Monboddo noted the importance of selecting appropriate parentage to achieve desired outcomes of successive generations.", "Monboddo worked more broadly in the abstract thought of species relationships and evolution of species.", "The Thoroughbred breeding hub in Lexington, Kentucky was developed in the late 18th century, and became a mainstay in American racehorse breeding.The 17th and 18th centuries saw more of a need for fine carriage horses in Europe, bringing in the dawn of the warmblood.", "The warmblood breeds have been exceptionally good at adapting to changing times, and from their carriage horse beginnings they easily transitioned during the 20th century into a sport horse type.", "Today's warmblood breeds, although still used for competitive driving, are more often seen competing in show jumping or dressage.The Thoroughbred continues to dominate the horse racing world, although its lines have been more recently used to improve warmblood breeds and to develop sport horses.", "The French saddle horse is an excellent example as is the Irish Sport Horse, the latter being an unusual combination between a Thoroughbred and a draft breed.The American Quarter Horse was developed early in the 18th century, mainly for quarter racing (racing ¼ of a mile).", "Colonists did not have racetracks or any of the trappings of Europe that the earliest Thoroughbreds had at their disposal, so instead the owners of Quarter Horses would run their horses on roads that lead through town as a form of local entertainment.", "As the USA expanded West, the breed went with settlers as a farm and ranch animal, and \"cow sense\" was particularly valued: their use for herding cattle increased on rough, dry terrain that often involved sitting in the saddle for long hours.However, this did not mean that the original ¼-mile races that colonists held ever went out of fashion, so today there are three types: the stock horse type, the racer, and the more recently evolving sport type.", "The racing type most resembles the finer-boned ancestors of the first racing Quarter Horses, and the type is still used for ¼-mile races.", "The stock horse type, used in western events and as a farm and patrol animal is bred for a shorter stride, an ability to stop and turn quickly, and an unflappable attitude that remains calm and focused even in the face of an angry charging steer.", "The first two are still to this day bred to have a combination of explosive speed that exceeds the Thoroughbred on short distances clocked as high as 55 mph, but they still retain the gentle, calm, and kindly temperament of their ancestors that makes them easily handled.The Canadian horse's origin corresponds to shipments of French horses, some of which came from Louis XIV's own stable and most likely were Baroque horses meant to be gentlemen's mounts.", "These were ill-suited to farm work and to the hardscrabble life of the New World, so like the Americans, early Canadians crossed their horses with natives escapees.", "In time they evolved along similar lines as the Quarter Horse to the South as both the US and Canada spread westward and needed a calm and tractable horse versatile enough to carry the farmer's son to school but still capable of running fast and running hard as a cavalry horse, a stockhorse, or a horse to pull a conestoga wagon.Other horses from North America retained a hint of their mustang origins by being either derived from stock that Native Americans bred that came in a rainbow of color, like the Appaloosa and American Paint Horse.", "with those East of the Mississippi River increasingly bred to impress and mimic the trends of the upper classes of Europe: The Tennessee Walking Horse and Saddlebred were originally plantation horses bred for their gait and comfortable ride in the saddle as a plantation master would survey his vast lands like an English lord.Horses were needed for heavy draft and carriage work until replaced by the automobile, truck, and tractor.", "After this time, draft and carriage horse numbers dropped significantly, though light riding horses remained popular for recreational pursuits.", "Draft horses today are used on a few small farms, but today are seen mainly for pulling and plowing competitions rather than farm work.", "Heavy harness horses are now used as an outcross with lighter breeds, such as the Thoroughbred, to produce the modern warmblood breeds popular in sport horse disciplines, particularly at the Olympic level." ], [ "Deciding to breed a horse", "Breeding a horse is an endeavor where the owner, particularly of the mare, will usually need to invest considerable time and money.", "For this reason, a horse owner needs to consider several factors, including:* Does the proposed breeding animal have valuable genetic qualities to pass on?", "* Is the proposed breeding animal in good physical health, fertile, and able to withstand the rigors of reproduction?", "* For what purpose will the foal be used?", "* Is there a market for the foal if the owner does not wish to keep the foal for its entire life?", "* What is the anticipated economic benefit, if any, to the owner of the ensuing foal?", "* What is the anticipated economic benefit, if any, to the owner(s) of the sire and dam or the foal?", "* Does the owner of the mare have the expertise to properly manage the mare through gestation and parturition?", "* Does the owner of the potential foal have the expertise to properly manage and train a young animal once it is born?There are value judgements involved in considering whether an animal is suitable breeding stock, hotly debated by breeders.", "Additional personal beliefs may come into play when considering a suitable level of care for the mare and ensuing foal, the potential market or use for the foal, and other tangible and intangible benefits to the owner.If the breeding endeavor is intended to make a profit, there are additional market factors to consider, which may vary considerably from year to year, from breed to breed, and by region of the world.", "In many cases, the low end of the market is saturated with horses, and the law of supply and demand thus allows little or no profit to be made from breeding unregistered animals or animals of poor quality, even if registered.The minimum cost of breeding for a mare owner includes the stud fee, and the cost of proper nutrition, management and veterinary care of the mare throughout gestation, parturition, and care of both mare and foal up to the time of weaning.", "Veterinary expenses may be higher if specialized reproductive technologies are used or health complications occur.Making a profit in horse breeding is often difficult.", "While some owners of only a few horses may keep a foal for purely personal enjoyment, many individuals breed horses in hopes of making some money in the process.A rule of thumb is that a foal intended for sale should be worth three times the cost of the stud fee if it were sold at the moment of birth.", "From birth forward, the costs of care and training are added to the value of the foal, with a sale price going up accordingly.", "If the foal wins awards in some form of competition, that may also enhance the price.On the other hand, without careful thought, foals bred without a potential market for them may wind up being sold at a loss, and in a worst-case scenario, sold for \"salvage\" value—a euphemism for sale to slaughter as horsemeat.Therefore, a mare owner must consider their reasons for breeding, asking hard questions of themselves as to whether their motivations are based on either emotion or profit and how realistic those motivations may be." ], [ "Choosing breeding stock", "stallion with a proven competition record is one criterion for being a suitable sire.The stallion should be chosen to complement the mare, with the goal of producing a foal that has the best qualities of both animals, yet avoids having the weaker qualities of either parent.", "Generally, the stallion should have proven himself in the discipline or sport the mare owner wishes for the \"career\" of the ensuing foal.", "Mares should also have a competition record showing that they also have suitable traits, though this does not happen as often.Some breeders consider the quality of the sire to be more important than the quality of the dam.", "However, other breeders maintain that the mare is the most important parent.", "Because stallions can produce far more offspring than mares, a single stallion can have a greater overall impact on a breed.", "Research from Nagoya University supports the belief that the most important factor affecting a thoroughbred's race performance is the quality of its sire, whereas the effect of the age of its broodmare is negligible.", "However, the mare may have a greater influence on an individual foal because its physical characteristics influence the developing foal in the womb and the foal also learns habits from its dam when young.", "Foals may also learn the \"language of intimidation and submission\" from their dam, and this imprinting may affect the foal's status and rank within the herd.", "Many times, a mature horse will achieve status in a herd similar to that of its dam; the offspring of dominant mares become dominant themselves.A purebred horse is usually worth more than a horse of mixed breeding, though this matters more in some disciplines than others.", "The breed of the horse is sometimes secondary when breeding for a sport horse, but some disciplines may prefer a certain breed or a specific phenotype of horse.", "Sometimes, purebred bloodlines are an absolute requirement: For example, most racehorses in the world must be recorded with a breed registry in order to race.Bloodlines are often considered, as some bloodlines are known to cross well with others.", "If the parents have not yet proven themselves by competition or by producing quality offspring, the bloodlines of the horse are often a good indicator of quality and possible strengths and weaknesses.", "Some bloodlines are known not only for their athletic ability, but could also carry a conformational or genetic defect, poor temperament, or for a medical problem.", "Some bloodlines are also fashionable or otherwise marketable, which is an important consideration should the mare owner wish to sell the foal.Horse breeders also consider conformation, size and temperament.", "All of these traits are heritable, and will determine if the foal will be a success in its chosen discipline.", "The offspring, or \"get\", of a stallion are often excellent indicators of his ability to pass on his characteristics, and the particular traits he actually passes on.", "Some stallions are fantastic performers but never produce offspring of comparable quality.", "Others sire fillies of great abilities but not colts.", "At times, a horse of mediocre ability sires foals of outstanding quality.Mare owners also look into the question of if the stallion is fertile and has successfully \"settled\" (i.e.", "impregnated) mares.", "A stallion may not be able to breed naturally, or old age may decrease his performance.", "Mare care boarding fees and semen collection fees can be a major cost." ], [ "Costs related to breeding", "Breeding a horse can be an expensive endeavor, whether breeding a backyard competition horse or the next Olympic medalist.", "Costs may include:* The stud and booking fee* Fees for collecting, handling, and transporting semen (if AI is used and semen is shipped)* Mare exams: to determine if she is healthy enough to breed, to determine when she ovulates, and (if AI is used) to inseminate her* Mare transport, care, and board if the mare is bred live cover at the stallion's residence* Veterinary bills to keep the pregnant mare healthy while in foal* Possible veterinary bills during pregnancy or foaling should something go wrong* Veterinary bills for the foal for its first exam a few days following foalingStud fees are determined by the quality of the stallion, his performance record, the performance record of his get (offspring), as well as the sport and general market that the animal is standing for.The highest stud fees are generally for racing Thoroughbreds, which may charge from two to three thousand dollars for a breeding to a new or unproven stallion, to several hundred thousand dollars for a breeding to a proven producer of stakes winners.", "Stallions in other disciplines often have stud fees that begin in the range of $1,000 to $3,000, with top contenders who produce champions in certain disciplines able to command as much as $20,000 for one breeding.", "The lowest stud fees to breed to a grade horse or an animal of low-quality pedigree may only be $100–$200, but there are trade-offs: the horse will probably be unproven, and likely to produce lower-quality offspring than a horse with a stud fee that is in the typical range for quality breeding stock.As a stallion's career, either performance or breeding, improves, his stud fee tends to increase in proportion.", "If one or two offspring are especially successful, winning several stakes races or an Olympic medal, the stud fee will generally greatly increase.", "Younger, unproven stallions will generally have a lower stud fee earlier on in their careers.To help decrease the risk of financial loss should the mare die or abort the foal while pregnant, many studs have a live foal guarantee (LFG) – also known as \"no foal, free return\" or \"NFFR\" - allowing the owner to have a free breeding to their stallion the next year.", "However, this is not offered for every breeding." ], [ "Covering the mare", "An artificial vagina, used to collect semenThere are two general ways to \"cover\" or breed the mare:* '''Live cover''': the mare is brought to the stallion's residence and is covered \"live\" in the breeding shed.", "She may also be turned out in a pasture with the stallion for several days to breed naturally ('pasture bred').", "The former situation is often preferred, as it provides a more controlled environment, allowing the breeder to ensure that the mare was covered, and places the handlers in a position to remove the horses from one another should one attempt to kick or bite the other.", "* '''Artificial Insemination (AI)''': the mare is inseminated by a veterinarian or an equine reproduction manager, using either fresh, cooled or frozen semen.After the mare is bred or artificially inseminated, she is checked using ultrasound 14–16 days later to see if she \"took\", and is pregnant.", "A second check is usually performed at 28 days.", "If the mare is not pregnant, she may be bred again during her next cycle.It is considered safe to breed a mare to a stallion of much larger size.", "Because of the mare's type of placenta and its attachment and blood supply, the foal will be limited in its growth within the uterus to the size of the mare's uterus, but will grow to its genetic potential after it is born.", "Test breedings have been done with draft horse stallions bred to small mares with no increase in the number of difficult births.=== Live cover ===When breeding live cover, the mare is usually boarded at the stud.", "She may be \"teased\" several times with a stallion that will not breed to her, usually with the stallion being presented to the mare over a barrier.", "Her reaction to the teaser, whether hostile or passive, is noted.", "A mare that is in heat will generally tolerate a teaser (although this is not always the case), and may present herself to him, holding her tail to the side.", "A veterinarian may also determine if the mare is ready to be bred, by ultrasound or palpating daily to determine if ovulation has occurred.", "Live cover can also be done in liberty on a paddock or on pasture, although due to safety and efficacy concerns, it is not common at professional breeding farms.When it has been determined that the mare is ready, both the mare and intended stud will be cleaned.", "The mare will then be presented to the stallion, usually with one handler controlling the mare and one or more handlers in charge of the stallion.", "Multiple handlers are preferred, as the mare and stallion can be easily separated should there be any trouble.The Jockey Club, the organization that oversees the Thoroughbred industry in the United States, requires all registered foals to be bred through live cover.", "Artificial insemination, listed below, is not permitted.", "Similar rules apply in other countries, such as Australia.By contrast, the U.S. standardbred industry allows registered foals to be bred by live cover, or by artificial insemination (AI) with fresh or frozen (not dried) semen.", "No other artificial fertility treatment is allowed.", "In addition, foals bred via AI of frozen semen may only be registered if the stallion's sperm was collected during his lifetime, and used no later than the calendar year of his death or castration.=== Artificial insemination ===Whereas the various national Thoroughbred associations typically require live cover, by 2009 most horse breeds allowed for the artificial insemination of mares with cooled, frozen or even fresh semen.Artificial insemination (AI) has several advantages over live cover, and has a very similar conception rate:* The mare and stallion never have to come in contact with each other, which therefore reduces breeding accidents, such as the mare kicking the stallion.", "* AI opens up the world to international breeding, as semen may be shipped across continents to mares that would otherwise be unable to breed to a particular stallion.", "* A mare also does not have to travel to the stallion, so the process is less stressful on her, and if she already has a foal, the foal does not have to travel.", "* AI allows more mares to be bred from one stallion, as the ejaculate may be split between mares.", "* AI reduces the chance of spreading sexually transmitted diseases between mare and stallion.", "* AI allows mares or stallions with health issues, such as sore hocks which may prevent a stallion from mounting, to continue to breed.", "* Frozen semen may be stored and used to breed mares even after the stallion is dead, allowing his lines to continue.", "However, the semen of some stallions does not freeze well.", "Some breed registries may not permit the registration of foals resulting from the use of frozen semen after the stallion's death, although other large registries accept such usage and provide registrations.", "The overall trend is toward permitting use of frozen semen after the death of the stallion.A stallion is usually trained to mount a phantom (or dummy) mare, although a live mare may be used, and he is most commonly collected using an artificial vagina (AV) which is heated to simulate the vagina of the mare.", "The AV has a filter and collection area at one end to capture the semen, which can then be processed in a lab.", "The semen may be chilled or frozen and shipped to the mare owner or used to breed mares \"on-farm\".", "When the mare is in heat, the person inseminating introduces the semen directly into her uterus using a syringe and pipette.=== Advanced reproductive techniques ===The Thoroughbred industry does not allow AI or embryo transplant.Often an owner does not want to take a valuable competition mare out of training to carry a foal.", "This presents a problem, as the mare will usually be quite old by the time she is retired from her competitive career, at which time it is more difficult to impregnate her.", "Other times, a mare may have physical problems that prevent or discourage breeding.", "However, there are now several options for breeding these mares.", "These options also allow a mare to produce multiple foals each breeding season, instead of the usual one.", "Therefore, mares may have an even greater value for breeding.", "* '''Embryo transfer''': This relatively new method involves flushing out the mare's fertilized embryo a few days following insemination, and transferring to a surrogate mare, which has been synchronized to be in the same phase of the estrous cycle as the donor mare.", "* '''Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)''': The mare's ovum and the stallion's sperm are deposited in the oviduct of a surrogate dam.", "This technique is very useful for subfertile stallions, as fewer sperm are needed, so a stallion with a low sperm count can still successfully breed.", "* '''Egg transfer''': An oocyte is removed from the mare's follicle and transferred into the oviduct of the recipient mare, who is then bred.", "This is best for mares with physical problems, such as an obstructed oviduct, that prevent breeding.", "* '''Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)''': Used in horses due to lack of successful co-incubation of female and male gametes in simple IVF.", "A plug of the zona pellucida is removed and a single sperm cell is injected into the ooplasm of the mature oocyte.", "An advantage of ICSI over IVF is that lower quality sperm can be used since the sperm does not have to penetrate the zona pellucida.", "The success rate of ICSI is 23-44% blastocyst development.The world's first cloned horse, Prometea, was born in 2003.Other notable instances of horse cloning are:* In 2006, Scamper, an extremely successful barrel racing horse, a gelding, was cloned.", "The resulting stallion, Clayton, became the first cloned horse to stand at stud in the U.S.* In 2007, a renowned show jumper and Thoroughbred, Gem Twist, was cloned by Frank Chapot and his family.", "In September 2008, Gemini was born and several other clones followed, leading to the development of a breeding line from Gem Twist.", "* In 2010, the first lived equine cloned of a Criollo horse was born in Argentina, and was the first horse clone produced in Latin America.", "In the same year a cloned polo horse was sold for $800,000 - the highest known price ever paid for a polo horse.", "* In 2013, the world-famous polo star Adolfo Cambiaso helped his high-handicap team La Dolfina win the Argentine National Open, scoring nine goals in the 16-11 match.", "Two of those he scored atop a horse named Show Me, a clone, and the first to ride onto the Argentine pitch." ], [ "See also", "* Domestication of the horse* Endometrosis* Evolution of the horse* Glossary of equestrian terms* Pedigree chart* Thoroughbred breeding theories" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Riegal, Ronald J. DMV, and Susan E. Hakola DMV.", "''Illustrated Atlas of Clinical Equine Anatomy and Common Disorders of the Horse Vol.", "II''.", "Equistar Publication, Limited.", "Marysville, OH.", "Copyright 2000." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heterosexuality" ], [ "Introduction", "A straight couple'''Heterosexuality''' is romantic attraction, sexual attraction or sexual behavior between people of the opposite sex or gender.", "As a sexual orientation, heterosexuality is \"an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions\" to people of the opposite sex; it \"also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions.\"", "Someone who is heterosexual is commonly referred to as ''straight.", "''Along with bisexuality and homosexuality, heterosexuality is one of the three main categories of sexual orientation within the heterosexual–homosexual continuum.", "Across cultures, most people are heterosexual, and heterosexual activity is by far the most common type of sexual activity.Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences, and do not view it as a choice.", "Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor biologically based theories.", "There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.The term ''heterosexual'' or ''heterosexuality'' is usually applied to humans, but heterosexual behavior is observed in all other mammals and in other animals, as it is necessary for sexual reproduction." ], [ "Terminology", "''Hetero-'' comes from the Greek word ''ἕτερος'' héteros, meaning \"other party\" or \"another\", used in science as a prefix meaning \"different\"; and the Latin word for sex (that is, characteristic sex or sexual differentiation).The current use of the term ''heterosexual'' has its roots in the broader 19th century tradition of personality taxonomy.", "The term ''heterosexual'' was coined alongside the word ''homosexual'' by Karl Maria Kertbeny in 1869.The terms were not in current use during the late nineteenth century, but were reintroduced by Richard von Krafft-Ebing and Albert Moll around 1890.The noun came into wider use from the early 1920s, but did not enter common use until the 1960s.", "The colloquial shortening \"hetero\" is attested from 1933.The abstract noun \"heterosexuality\" is first recorded in 1900.The word ''\"heterosexual\"'' was listed in Merriam-Webster's ''New International Dictionary'' in 1923 as a medical term for \"morbid sexual passion for one of the opposite sex\"; however, in 1934 in their ''Second Edition Unabridged'' it is defined as a \"manifestation of sexual passion for one of the opposite sex; normal sexuality\".In LGBT slang, the term ''breeder'' has been used as a denigrating phrase to deride heterosexuals.", "Hyponyms of heterosexual include ''heteroflexible''.The word can be informally shortened to \"hetero\".", "The term ''straight'' originated as a mid-20th century gay slang term for heterosexuals, ultimately coming from the phrase \"to go straight\" (as in \"straight and narrow\"), or stop engaging in homosexual sex.", "One of the first uses of the word in this way was in 1941 by author G. W. Henry.", "Henry's book concerned conversations with homosexual males and used this term in connection with people who are identified as ex-gays.", "It is now simply a colloquial term for \"heterosexual\", having changed in primary meaning over time.", "Some object to usage of the term ''straight'' because it implies that non-heterosexual people are crooked." ], [ "Demographics", "In their 2016 literature review, Bailey ''et al.''", "stated that they \"expect that in all cultures the vast majority of individuals are sexually predisposed exclusively to the other sex (i.e., heterosexual)\" and that there is no persuasive evidence that the demographics of sexual orientation have varied much across time or place.", "Heterosexual activity between only one male and one female is by far the most common type of sociosexual activity.According to several major studies, 89% to 98% of people have had only heterosexual contact within their lifetime; but this percentage falls to 79–84% when either or both same-sex attraction and behavior are reported.A 1992 study reported that 93.9% of males in Britain have only had heterosexual experience, while in France the number was reported at 95.9%.", "According to a 2008 poll, 85% of Britons have only opposite-sex sexual contact while 94% of Britons identify themselves as heterosexual.", "Similarly, a survey by the UK Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2010 found that 95% of Britons identified as heterosexual, 1.5% of Britons identified themselves as homosexual or bisexual, and the last 3.5% gave more vague answers such as \"don't know\", \"other\", or did not respond to the question.", "In the United States, according to a Williams Institute report in April 2011, 96% or approximately 250 million of the adult population are heterosexual.An October 2012 Gallup poll provided unprecedented demographic information about those who identify as heterosexual, arriving at the conclusion that 96.6%, with a margin of error of ±1%, of all U.S. adults identify as heterosexual.", "The Gallup results show:Age/GenderHeterosexual\tNon-heterosexual\t\tDon'tknow/Refused\t\t\t '''18–29'''\t90.1%\t6.4%\t3.5%\t '''30–49'''93.6%3.2%\t\t3.2%\t '''50–64'''93.1%\t2.6%\t\t4.3%\t '''65+'''\t91.5%1.9%\t\t6.5%\t\t '''18–29, Women'''88.0%\t8.3%\t\t3.8%\t '''18–29, Men'''92.1%\t4.6%\t\t3.3%\tIn a 2015 YouGov survey of 1,000 adults of the United States, 89% of the sample identified as heterosexual, 4% as homosexual (2% as homosexual male and 2% as homosexual female) and 4% as bisexual (of either sex).Bailey ''et al.", "'', in their 2016 review, stated that in recent Western surveys, about 93% of men and 87% of women identify as completely heterosexual, and about 4% of men and 10% of women as mostly heterosexual." ], [ "Academic study", "=== Biological and environmental===No simple and singular determinant for sexual orientation has been conclusively demonstrated, but scientists believe that a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors determine sexual orientation.", "They favor biological theories for explaining the causes of sexual orientation, as there is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes than social ones, especially for males.Factors related to the development of a heterosexual orientation include genes, prenatal hormones, and brain structure, and their interaction with the environment.==== Prenatal hormones ====The neurobiology of the masculinization of the brain is fairly well understood.", "Estradiol and testosterone, which is catalyzed by the enzyme 5α-reductase into dihydrotestosterone, act upon androgen receptors in the brain to masculinize it.", "If there are few androgen receptors (people with androgen insensitivity syndrome) or too much androgen (females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia), there can be physical and psychological effects.", "It has been suggested that both male and female heterosexuality are the results of this process.", "In these studies heterosexuality in females is linked to a lower amount of masculinization than is found in lesbian females, though when dealing with male heterosexuality there are results supporting both higher and lower degrees of masculinization than homosexual males.==== Animals and reproduction ====Sexual reproduction in the animal world is facilitated through opposite-sex sexual activity, although there are also animals that reproduce asexually, including protozoa and lower invertebrates.Reproductive sex does not require a heterosexual orientation, since sexual orientation typically refers to a long-term enduring pattern of sexual and emotional attraction leading often to long-term social bonding, while reproduction requires as little as a single act of copulation to fertilize the ovum by sperm.===Sexual fluidity===Often, sexual orientation and sexual orientation identity are not distinguished, which can impact accurately assessing sexual identity and whether or not sexual orientation is able to change; sexual orientation identity can change throughout an individual's life, and may or may not align with biological sex, sexual behavior or actual sexual orientation.", "Sexual orientation is stable and unlikely to change for the vast majority of people, but some research indicates that some people may experience change in their sexual orientation, and this is more likely for women than for men.", "The American Psychological Association distinguishes between sexual orientation (an innate attraction) and sexual orientation identity (which may change at any point in a person's life).A 2012 study found that 2% of a sample of 2,560 adult participants reported a change of sexual orientation identity after a 10-year period.", "For men, a change occurred in 0.78% of those who had identified as heterosexual, 9.52% of homosexuals, and 47% of bisexuals.", "For women, a change occurred in 1.36% of heterosexuals, 63.6% of lesbians, and 64.7% of bisexuals.A 2-year study by Lisa M. Diamond on a sample of 80 non-heterosexual female adolescents (age 16–23) reported that half of the participants had changed sexual-minority identities more than once, one third of them during the 2-year follow-up.", "Diamond concluded that \"although sexual attractions appear fairly stable, sexual identities and behaviors are more fluid.", "\"Heteroflexibility is a form of sexual orientation or situational sexual behavior characterized by minimal homosexual activity in an otherwise primarily heterosexual orientation that is considered to distinguish it from bisexuality.", "It has been characterized as \"mostly straight\".===Sexual orientation change efforts===Sexual orientation change efforts are methods that aim to change sexual orientation, used to try to convert homosexual and bisexual people to heterosexuality.", "Scientists and mental health professionals generally do not believe that sexual orientation is a choice.", "There are no studies of adequate scientific rigor that conclude that sexual orientation change efforts are effective." ], [ "Society and culture", "An intimate heterosexual coupleA heterosexual couple, a man and woman in an intimate relationship, form the core of a nuclear family.Many societies throughout history have insisted that a marriage take place before the couple settle down, but enforcement of this rule or compliance with it has varied considerably.=== Symbolism ===A heterosexuality symbolHeterosexual symbolism dates back to the earliest artifacts of humanity, with gender symbols, ritual fertility carvings, and primitive art.", "This was later expressed in the symbolism of fertility rites and polytheistic worship, which often included images of human reproductive organs, such as lingam in Hinduism.", "Modern symbols of heterosexuality in societies derived from European traditions still reference symbols used in these ancient beliefs.", "One such image is a combination of the symbol for Mars, the Roman god of war, as the definitive male symbol of masculinity, and Venus, the Roman goddess of love and beauty, as the definitive female symbol of femininity.", "The unicode character for this combined symbol is ⚤ (U+26A4).===Historical views===There was no need to coin a term such as ''heterosexual'' until there was something else to contrast and compare it with.", "Jonathan Ned Katz dates the definition of heterosexuality, as it is used today, to the late 19th century.", "According to Katz, in the Victorian era, sex was seen as a means to achieve reproduction, and relations between the sexes were not believed to be overtly sexual.", "The body was thought of as a tool for procreation – \"Human energy, thought of as a closed and severely limited system, was to be used in producing children and in work, not wasted in libidinous pleasures.", "\"Katz argues that modern ideas of sexuality and eroticism began to develop in America and Germany in the later 19th century.", "The changing economy and the \"transformation of the family from producer to consumer\" resulted in shifting values.", "The Victorian work ethic had changed, pleasure became more highly valued and this allowed ideas of human sexuality to change.", "Consumer culture had created a market for the erotic, pleasure became commoditized.", "At the same time medical doctors began to acquire more power and influence.", "They developed the medical model of \"normal love\", in which healthy men and women enjoyed sex as part of a \"new ideal of male-female relationships that included.. an essential, necessary, normal eroticism.\"", "This model also had a counterpart, \"the Victorian Sex Pervert\", anyone who failed to meet the norm.", "The basic oppositeness of the sexes was the basis for normal, healthy sexual attraction.", "\"The attention paid the sexual abnormal created a need to name the sexual normal, the better to distinguish the average him and her from the deviant it.\"", "The creation of the term ''heterosexual'' consolidated the social existence of the pre-existing heterosexual experience and created a sense of ensured and validated normalcy within it.=== Religious views ===The Judeo-Christian tradition has several scriptures related to heterosexuality.", "The Book of Genesis states that God created women because \"It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him,\", and that \"Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh\"For the most part, religious traditions in the world reserve marriage to heterosexual unions, but there are exceptions including certain Buddhist and Hindu traditions, Unitarian Universalists, Metropolitan Community Church, some Anglican dioceses, and some Quaker, United Church of Canada, and Reform and Conservative Jewish congregations.Almost all religions believe that sex between a man and a woman within marriage is allowed, but there are a few that believe that it is a sin, such as The Shakers, The Harmony Society, and The Ephrata Cloister.", "These religions tend to view all sexual relations as sinful, and promote celibacy.", "Some religions require celibacy for certain roles, such as Catholic priests; however, the Catholic Church also views heterosexual marriage as sacred and necessary.=== Heteronormativity and heterosexism ===This image is often used on Straight Pride T-shirtsHeteronormativity denotes or relates to a world view that promotes heterosexuality as the normal or preferred sexual orientation for people to have.", "It can assign strict gender roles to males and females.", "The term was popularized by Michael Warner in 1991.Feminist Adrienne Rich argues that compulsory heterosexuality, a continual and repeating reassertion of heterosexual norms, is a facet of heterosexism.", "Compulsory heterosexuality is the idea that female heterosexuality is both assumed and enforced by a patriarchal society.", "Heterosexuality is then viewed as the natural inclination or obligation by both sexes.", "Consequently, anyone who differs from the normalcy of heterosexuality is deemed deviant or abhorrent.Heterosexism is a form of bias or discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships.", "It may include an assumption that everyone is heterosexual and may involve various kinds of discrimination against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, asexuals, heteroflexible people, or transgender or non-binary individuals.Straight pride is a slogan that arose in the late 1980s and early 1990s and has been used primarily by social conservative groups as a political stance and strategy.", "The term is described as a response to gay pride adopted by various LGBT groups in the early 1970s or to the accommodations provided to gay pride initiatives." ], [ "See also", "* Heterosociality* Human reproduction* Queer heterosexuality" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* LeVay, Simon.", "''Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation'', Oxford University Press, 2017* Johnson, P. (2005) ''Love, Heterosexuality and Society''.", "London: Routledge* Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality.", "American Psychiatric Association.", "* Bohan, Janis S., ''Psychology and Sexual Orientation: Coming to Terms'', Routledge, 1996 * Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male''.", "Indiana University Press.", "*Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female''.", "Indiana University Press." ], [ "External links", "**** Keel, Robert O., '' Heterosexual Deviance''.", "(Goode, 1994, chapter 8, and Chapter 9, 6th edition, 2001.)", "Sociology of Deviant Behavior: FS 2003, University of Missouri–St.", "Louis.", "* Coleman, Thomas F., What's Wrong with Excluding Heterosexual Couples from Domestic Partner Benefits Programs?", "Unmarried America, American Association for Single People." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hopewell Centre (Hong Kong)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hopewell Centre''' is a , 64-storey skyscraper at 183 Queen's Road East, in Wan Chai, Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong.", "The tower is the first circular skyscraper in Hong Kong.", "It is named after Hong Kong–listed property firm Hopewell Holdings Limited, which constructed the building.", "Hopewell Holdings Limited's headquarters are in the building and its chief executive officer, Gordon Wu, has his office on the top floor." ], [ "Description", "Construction started in 1977 and was completed in 1980.Upon completion, Hopewell Centre surpassed Jardine House as Hong Kong's tallest building.", "It was also the second tallest building in Asia at the time.", "It kept its title in Hong Kong until 1989, when the Bank of China Tower was completed.", "The building is now the 20th tallest building in Hong Kong.The building has a circular floor plan.", "Although the front entrance is on the 'ground floor', commuters are taken through a set of escalators to the 3rd floor lift lobby.", "Hopewell Centre stands on the slope of a hill so steep that the building has its back entrance on the 17th floor towards Kennedy Road.", "There is a circular private swimming pool on the roof of the building built for feng shui reasons because people thought the building resembled a cigarette.A revolving restaurant located on the 62nd floor, called \"Revolving 66\", overlooks other tall buildings below and the harbour.", "It was originally called Revolving 62, but soon changed its name as locals kept calling it Revolving 66.It completes a 360-degree rotation each hour.", "Passengers take either office lifts (faster) or the scenic lifts (with a view) to the 56/F, where they transfer to smaller lifts up to the 62/F.", "The restaurant is now named The Grand Buffet.The building comprises several groups of lifts.", "Lobbies are on the 3rd and 17th floor, and are connected to Queen's Road East and Kennedy Road respectively.", "A mini-skylobby is on the 56th floor and serves as a transfer floor for diners heading to the 60/F and 62/F restaurants.", "The building's white 'bumps' between the windows have built in window-washer guide rails.This skyscraper was the filming location for R&B group Dru Hill's music video for \"How Deep Is Your Love,\" directed by Brett Ratner, who also directed the movie Rush Hour, whose soundtrack features the song.", "The circular private swimming pool is well visible in this music video.", "This swimming pool has also featured in an Australian television advertisement by one of that country's major gaming companies, Tattersall's Limited, promoting a weekly lottery competition.The skyscraper was also featured on the cover of post-hardcore band Fugazi's 1998 album ''End Hits''." ], [ "Access", "* MTR Wan Chai station Exit D, followed by a 5-minute walk south through Lee Tung Avenue." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Hopewell Centre 17Floor Lobby 2015.jpg|Hopewell Centre Lobby at 17/FFile:The Grand Buffet 201504.JPG|The Grand Buffet Restaurant at 62/FFile:Hopewell Centre Upper.jpg|Hopewell Centre front entrance at street levelFile:Hopewell Centre View.jpg|View of Wan Chai from Hopewell Centre in November 2006" ], [ "Privatisation", "Hopewell shares shot up 31 per cent at one point, after the developer unveiled a privatisation plan worth HK$21.26 billion.", "The company was privatised in 2019 and its stock ticker 54 was removed from the exchange." ], [ "See also", "* List of tallest buildings in Hong Kong* List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong* List of tallest buildings* List of buildings" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Building's Website* Dru Hill's music video ''How Deep Is Your Love'' at YouTube* Elevator Layout" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harwich, Massachusetts" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harwich''' ( ) is a New England town on Cape Cod, in Barnstable County in the state of Massachusetts in the United States.", "At the 2020 census it had a population of 13,440.Harwich experiences a seasonal increase to roughly 37,000.The town is a popular vacation spot, located near the Cape Cod National Seashore.", "Harwich's beaches are on the Nantucket Sound side of Cape Cod.", "Harwich has three active harbors.", "Saquatucket, Wychmere and Allen Harbors are all in Harwich Port.", "The town of Harwich includes the villages of Pleasant Lake, West Harwich, East Harwich, Harwich Port, Harwich Center, North Harwich and South Harwich." ], [ "History", "Harwich was first settled by Europeans in 1670 as part of Yarmouth.", "The town was officially incorporated in 1694, and originally included the lands of the current town of Brewster.", "Early industry involved fishing and farming.", "The town is considered by some to be the birthplace of the cranberry industry, with the first commercial operation opened in 1846.There are still many bogs in the town, although the economy is now more centered on tourism and as a residential community.", "The town is also the site of the start/finish line of the \"Sail Around the Cape\", which rounds the Cape counter-clockwise, returning via the Cape Cod Canal." ], [ "Geography", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 36.97%, is water.", "The seven villages of Harwich are West Harwich, North Harwich, East Harwich, South Harwich, Harwich Center, Harwich Port and Pleasant Lake.", "These are also referred to as the Harwiches.Harwich is on the southern side of Cape Cod, just west of the southeastern corner.", "It is bordered by Dennis to the west, Brewster to the north, Orleans to the northeast, Chatham to the east, and Nantucket Sound to the south.", "Harwich is approximately east of Barnstable, east of the Cape Cod Canal, south of Provincetown, and southeast of Boston.The town shares the largest lake on the Cape, called Long Pond, with the town of Brewster.", "Long Pond serves as a private airport for planes with the ability to land on water.", "The village of Pleasant Lake is at the southwest corner of the lake.", "Numerous other smaller bodies of water dot the town.", "Sand Pond, a public beach and swimming area, is located off Great Western Road in North Harwich.The shore is home to several harbors and rivers, including the Herring River, Allens Harbor, Wychmere Harbor, Saquatucket Harbor, and the Andrews River.", "The town is also the home to the Hawksnest State Park, as well as a marina and several beaches, including two on Long Pond.", "There are also many beaches in West Harwich and South Harwich." ], [ "Climate", "According to the Köppen climate classification system, Harwich, Massachusetts, has a warm-summer, wet all year, humid continental climate (''Dfb'').", "Dfb climates are characterized by at least one month having an average mean temperature ≤ 32.0 °F (≤ 0.0 °C), at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ 50.0 °F (≥ 10.0 °C), all months with an average mean temperature ≤ 71.6 °F (≤ 22.0 °C), and no significant precipitation difference between seasons.", "The average seasonal (Nov–Apr) snowfall total is around 30 in (76 cm).", "The average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity.", "The plant hardiness zone is 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 4.0 °F (−15.6 °C)." ], [ "Ecology", "According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Harwich, Massachusetts, would primarily contain a Northeastern oak/pine (''110'') vegetation type with a Southern mixed forest (''26'') vegetation form." ], [ "Demographics", "The First Congregational Church of Harwich, in Harwich CenterAs of the census of 2000, there were 12,386 people, 5,471 households, and 3,545 families residing in the town.", "The population density was .", "There were 9,450 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the town was 95.41% White, 0.71% Black or African American, 0.19% Native American, 0.22% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 2.03% from other races, and 1.40% from two or more races.", "0.96% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 5,471 households, out of which 21.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% were married couples living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.2% were non-families.", "29.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.72.In the town, the population was spread out, with 18.3% under the age of 18, 4.2% from 18 to 24, 22.1% from 25 to 44, 25.8% from 45 to 64, and 29.6% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 49 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 84.5 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.7 males.The median income for a household in the town was $41,552, and the median income for a family was $51,070.Males had a median income of $38,948 versus $27,439 for females.", "The per capita income for the town was $23,063.About 2.9% of families and 15.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.The town of Harwich contains several smaller census-designated places (CDPs) for which the U.S. Census reports more focused geographic and demographic information.", "The CDPs in Harwich are Harwich Center, Harwich Port (including South Harwich), East Harwich and Northwest Harwich (including West Harwich, North Harwich, and Pleasant Lake)." ], [ "Government", "Harwich is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a part of the Fourth Barnstable district, which includes (with the exception of Brewster) all the towns east and north of Harwich on the Cape.", "The town is represented in the Massachusetts Senate as a part of the Cape and Islands District, which includes all of Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket except the towns of Bourne, Falmouth, Sandwich and a portion of Barnstable.", "The town is patrolled by the Second (Yarmouth) Barracks of Troop D of the Massachusetts State Police.After results from the 2020 census, Massachusetts decreased from 10 to 9 congressional districts due to decreased growth in population.", "These new boundaries now put Harwich in the 9th congressional district as the 10th no longer exists.", "Harwich is currently represented by William R. Keating.", "The state's senior member of the United States Senate is Elizabeth Warren, elected in 2012.The junior senator is Ed Markey, elected in 2013.Harwich is governed by the open town meeting form of government, led by a town administrator and a board of selectmen." ], [ "Public and health services", "There are three libraries in the town.", "The municipal library, the Brooks Free Library in Harwich Center, is the largest and is a member of the Cape Libraries Automated Materials Sharing (CLAMS) library network.", "There are two smaller non-municipal libraries – the Chase Library on Route 28 in West Harwich at the Dennis town line, and the Harwich Port Library on Lower Bank Street in Harwich Port.Harwich is the site of the Long Pond Medical Center, which serves the southeastern Cape region.Harwich has police and fire departments, with one fire and police station headquarters, and Station 2 in East Harwich.There are post offices in Harwich Port, South Harwich, West Harwich, and East Harwich." ], [ "Education", "Harwich's schools are part of the Monomoy Regional School District.", "Harwich Elementary School serves students from pre-school through fourth grade, Monomoy Regional Middle School which serves both Harwich and its joining town, Chatham.", "This middle school serves grades 5–7, and Monomoy Regional High School serves grades 8–12 for both Harwich and Chatham.", "Monomoy's teams are known as the Sharks.", "Harwich is known for its excellent boys basketball, girls basketball, girls field hockey, softball and baseball teams.The Lighthouse Charter School recently moved into where the Harwich Cinema building was located.Harwich is the site of Cape Cod Regional Technical High School, a grades 9–12 high school which serves most of Cape Cod.", "The town is also home to Holy Trinity PreSchool, a Catholic pre-school which serves pre-kindergarten in West Harwich." ], [ "Sports and recreation", "DJ LeMahieu played for the Harwich Mariners in 2008.Harwich is home to the Harwich Mariners, an amateur collegiate summer baseball team in the Cape Cod Baseball League.", "The team plays at B.F.C.", "Whitehouse Field and has featured dozens of players who went on to careers in Major League Baseball such as Kevin Millar, Josh Donaldson, and DJ LeMahieu.Since 1976, the town has hosted the annual Harwich Cranberry Festival, noted for its fireworks display, in September.Harwich Port is a popular destination in the summer.", "The most popular beach in Harwich Port is Bank Street Beach.", "Harwich has 18 beaches and ponds." ], [ "Transportation", "===Roadways===Two of Massachusetts major routes, U.S. Route 6 and Massachusetts Route 28, cross the town.", "The town has the southern termini of Routes 39 and 124, and a portion of Route 137 passes through the town.", "Route 39 leads east through East Harwich to Orleans.", "Route 28 passes through West Harwich and Harwich Port, connecting the towns of Dennis and Chatham.", "Route 124 leads from Harwich Center to Brewster, and Route 137 cuts through East Harwich leading from Chatham to Brewster.===Cape Cod Rail Trail===A portion of the Cape Cod Rail Trail, as well as several other bicycle routes, are in town.", "There is no rail service in town, but the Cape Cod Rail Trail rotary is located in North Harwich near Main Street.===Air travel===Other than the occasional sea plane landing on the pond, the nearest airport is in neighboring Chatham; the nearest regional service is at Barnstable Municipal Airport; and the nearest national and international air service is at Logan International Airport in Boston.===CCRTA bus connections===In recent years parts of Cape Cod have introduced bus service, especially during the summer to help cut down on traffic.", "*The Flex Harwich Port – West Harwich – Dennis Port – South Dennis – East Dennis – South Yarmouth – West Yarmouth – Hyannis*Route H2O Hyannis – Orleans via South Dennis, West Dennis, Dennis Port, Harwich Port, Chatham and Orleans." ], [ "Notable people", "* Ruby Braff (1927–2003), jazz trumpeter and cornetist, former resident of Harwich in his later life* A. Elmer Crowell (1862–1952), was a master decoy carver from East Harwich.", "Crowell specialized in shorebirds, waterfowl, and miniatures.", "Crowell's decoys are consistently regarded as the finest and most desirable decoys ever made.", "Two of Crowell's decoys have repeatedly set world records for sales.", "Currently, Crowell's preening pintail drake and Canada goose decoys share the world record at $1.13 million* Seth Doane, award-winning television journalist; raised in Harwich and graduate of Harwich High School* Shawn Fanning, creator and owner of MP3 music downloading application Napster; graduated from Harwich High School* John Kendrick (1740–1794), maritime fur trader; one of the first Americans to visit the Pacific Northwest, the Hawaiian Islands, and China* Thomas Nickerson, survivor of the ill-fated whaleship ''Essex'', which inspired Melville's novel ''Moby Dick''* Tip O'Neill (1912–1994), politician; owned a vacation home near Bank Street Beach and buried in Mount Pleasant Cemetery* Andrea Silbert, nonprofit executive* Fay Vincent, commissioner of Major League Baseball* Jonathan Walker (1799–1878), abolitionist; had his hand branded as a consequence of helping free slaves* Joseph N. Welch, chief counsel for the United States Army; famously asked Senator Joseph McCarthy \"At long last, have you left no sense of decency?\"" ], [ "Notable events", "* In 1975, during the bicentennial celebrations across America, a time capsule was buried in front of Brooks Academy in Harwich Center.", "The time capsule is due to be opened in 100 years, in the year 2075.", "* On September 14, 1994, the town celebrated its tricentennial, which marked 300 years since the town's founding on the same day in 1694." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Town of Harwich official website* Brooks Free Library* Harwich Chamber of Commerce* Monomoy Regional School District* Harwich Mariners* Harwich Harbormaster & Natural Resources* ''The Cape Cod Chronicle'', local newspaper* Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hull classification symbol" ], [ "Introduction", "The United States Navy, United States Coast Guard, and United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) use a '''hull classification symbol''' (sometimes called '''hull code''' or '''hull number''') to identify their ships by type and by individual ship within a type.", "The system is analogous to the pennant number system that the Royal Navy and other European and Commonwealth navies use." ], [ "History", "=== United States Navy ===The U.S. Navy began to assign unique Naval Registry Identification Numbers to its ships in the 1890s.", "The system was a simple one in which each ship received a number which was appended to its ship type, fully spelled out, and added parenthetically after the ship's name when deemed necessary to avoid confusion between ships.", "Under this system, for example, the battleship ''Indiana'' was USS ''Indiana'' (Battleship No.", "1), the cruiser ''Olympia'' was USS ''Olympia'' (Cruiser No.", "6), and so on.", "Beginning in 1907, some ships also were referred to alternatively by single-letter or three-letter codes—for example, USS ''Indiana'' (Battleship No.", "1) could be referred to as USS ''Indiana'' (B-1) and USS ''Olympia'' (Cruiser No.", "6) could also be referred to as USS ''Olympia'' (C-6), while USS ''Pennsylvania'' (Armored Cruiser No.", "4) could be referred to as USS ''Pennsylvania'' (ACR-4).", "However, rather than replacing it, these codes coexisted and were used interchangeably with the older system until the modern system was instituted on 17 July 1920.During World War I, the U.S. Navy acquired large numbers of privately owned and commercial ships and craft for use as patrol vessels, mine warfare vessels, and various types of naval auxiliary ships, some of them with identical names.", "To keep track of them all, the Navy assigned unique identifying numbers to them.", "Those deemed appropriate for patrol work received section patrol numbers (SP), while those intended for other purposes received \"identification numbers\", generally abbreviated \"Id.", "No.\"", "or \"ID;\" some ships and craft changed from an SP to an ID number or vice versa during their careers, without their unique numbers themselves changing, and some ships and craft assigned numbers in anticipation of naval service were never acquired by the Navy.", "The SP/ID numbering sequence was unified and continuous, with no SP number repeated in the ID series or vice versa so that there could not be, for example, both an \"SP-435\" and an \"Id.", "No.", "435\".", "The SP and ID numbers were used parenthetically after each boat's or ship's name to identify it; although this system pre-dated the modern hull classification system and its numbers were not referred to at the time as \"hull codes\" or \"hull numbers,\" it was used in a similar manner to today's system and can be considered its precursor.=== United States Revenue Cutter Service and United States Coast Guard ===The United States Revenue Cutter Service, which merged with the United States Lifesaving Service in January 1915 to form the modern United States Coast Guard, began following the Navy's lead in the 1890s, with its cutters having parenthetical numbers called Naval Registry Identification Numbers following their names, such as (Cutter No.", "1), etc.", "This persisted until the Navy's modern hull classification system's introduction in 1920, which included Coast Guard ships and craft.=== United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ===Like the U.S. Navy, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey – a uniformed seagoing service of the United States Government and a predecessor of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – adopted a hull number system for its fleet in the 20th century.", "Its largest vessels, \"Category I\" oceanographic survey ships, were classified as \"ocean survey ships\" and given the designation \"OSS\".", "Intermediate-sized \"Category II\" oceanographic survey ships received the designation \"MSS\" for \"medium survey ship,\" and smaller \"Category III\" oceanographic survey ships were given the classification \"CSS\" for \"coastal survey ship.\"", "A fourth designation, \"ASV\" for \"auxiliary survey vessel,\" included even smaller vessels.", "In each case, a particular ship received a unique designation based on its classification and a unique hull number separated by a space rather than a hyphen; for example, the third Coast and Geodetic Survey ship named ''Pioneer'' was an ocean survey ship officially known as USC&GS ''Pioneer'' (OSS 31).", "The Coast and Geodetic Surveys system persisted after the creation of NOAA in 1970, when NOAA took control of the Surveys fleet, but NOAA later changed to its modern hull classification system.=== United States Fish and Wildlife Service ===The Fish and Wildlife Service, created in 1940 and reorganized as the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 1956, adopted a hull number system for its fisheries research ships and patrol vessels.", "It consisted of \"FWS\" followed by a unique identifying number.", "In 1970, NOAA took control of the seagoing ships of the USFWS's Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, and as part of the NOAA fleet they were assigned new hull numbers beginning with \"FRV,\" for Fisheries Research Vessel, followed by a unique identifying number.", "They eventually were renumbered under the modern NOAA hull number system." ], [ "The modern hull classification system", "=== United States Navy ===The U.S. Navy instituted its modern hull classification system on 17 July 1920, doing away with section patrol numbers, \"identification numbers\", and the other numbering systems described above.", "In the new system, all hull classification symbols are at least two letters; for basic types the symbol is the first letter of the type name, doubled, except for aircraft carriers.The combination of symbol and hull number identifies a modern Navy ship uniquely.", "A heavily modified or re-purposed ship may receive a new symbol, and either retain the hull number or receive a new one.", "For example, the heavy gun cruiser was converted to a gun/missile cruiser, changing the hull number to CAG-1.Also, the system of symbols has changed a number of times both since it was introduced in 1907 and since the modern system was instituted in 1920, so ships' symbols sometimes change without anything being done to the physical ship.Hull numbers are assigned by classification.", "Duplication between, but not within, classifications is permitted.", "Hence, CV-1 was the aircraft carrier and BB-1 was the battleship .Ship types and classifications have come and gone over the years, and many of the symbols listed below are not presently in use.", "The Naval Vessel Register maintains an online database of U.S. Navy ships showing which symbols are presently in use.After World War II until 1975, the U.S. Navy defined a \"frigate\" as a type of surface warship larger than a destroyer and smaller than a cruiser.", "In other navies, such a ship generally was referred to as a \"flotilla leader\", or \"destroyer leader\".", "Hence the U.S. Navy's use of \"DL\" for \"frigate\" prior to 1975, while \"frigates\" in other navies were smaller than destroyers and more like what the U.S. Navy termed a \"destroyer escort\", \"ocean escort\", or \"DE\".", "The United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification of cruisers, frigates, and ocean escorts brought U.S. Navy classifications into line with other nations' classifications, at least cosmetically in terms of terminology, and eliminated the perceived \"cruiser gap\" with the Soviet Navy by redesignating the former \"frigates\" as \"cruisers\".==== Military Sealift Command ====If a U.S. Navy ship's hull classification symbol begins with \"T-\", it is part of the Military Sealift Command, has a primarily civilian crew, and is a United States Naval Ship (USNS) in non-commissioned service – as opposed to a commissioned United States Ship (USS) with an all-military crew.=== United States Coast Guard ===If a ship's hull classification symbol begins with \"W\", it is a commissioned cutter of the United States Coast Guard.", "Until 1965, the Coast Guard used U.S. Navy hull classification codes, prepending a \"W\" to their beginning.", "In 1965, it retired some of the less mission-appropriate Navy-based classifications and developed new ones of its own, most notably WHEC for \"high endurance cutter\" and WMEC for \"medium endurance cutter\".=== National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ===The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), a component of the United States Department of Commerce, includes the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps (or \"NOAA Corps\"), one of the eight uniformed services of the United States, and operates a fleet of seagoing research and survey ships.", "The NOAA fleet also uses a hull classification symbol system, which it also calls \"hull numbers,\" for its ships.After NOAA took over the former fleets of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service Bureau of Commercial Fisheries in 1970, it initially retained the Coast and Geodetic Survey's hull-number dresignations for its survey ships and adopted hull numbers beginning with \"FRV\", for \"Fisheries Research Vessel\", for its fisheries research ships.", "It later adopted a new system of ship classification, which it still uses today.", "In its modern system, the NOAA fleet is divided into two broad categories, research ships and survey ships.", "The research ships, which include oceanographic and fisheries research vessels, are given hull numbers beginning with \"R\", while the survey ships, generally hydrographic survey vessels, receive hull numbers beginning with \"S\".", "The letter is followed by a three-digit number; the first digit indicates the NOAA \"class\" (i.e., size) of the vessel, which NOAA assigns based on the ship's gross tonnage and horsepower, while the next two digits combine with the first digit to create a unique three-digit identifying number for the ship.Generally, each NOAA hull number is written with a space between the letter and the three-digit number, as in, for example, or .Unlike in the U.S. Navy system, once an older NOAA ship leaves service, a newer one can be given the same hull number; for example, \"S 222\" was assigned to , then assigned to NOAAS ''Thomas Jefferson'' (S 222), which entered NOAA service after ''Mount Mitchell'' was stricken." ], [ "United States Navy hull classification codes", "The U.S. Navy's system of alpha-numeric ship designators, and its associated hull numbers, have been for several decades a unique method of categorizing ships of all types: combatants, auxiliaries and district craft.", "Although considerably changed in detail and expanded over the years, this system remains essentially the same as when formally implemented in 1920.It is a very useful tool for organizing and keeping track of naval vessels, and also provides the basis for the identification numbers painted on the bows (and frequently the sterns) of most U.S. Navy ships.The ship designator and hull number system's roots extend back to the late 1880s when ship type serial numbers were assigned to most of the new-construction warships of the emerging \"Steel Navy\".", "During the course of the next thirty years, these same numbers were combined with filing codes used by the Navy's clerks to create an informal version of the system that was put in place in 1920.Limited usage of ship numbers goes back even earlier, most notably to the \"Jeffersonian Gunboats\" of the early 1800s and the \"Tinclad\" river gunboats of the Civil War Mississippi Squadron.It is important to understand that hull number-letter prefixes are not acronyms, and should not be carelessly treated as abbreviations of ship type classifications.", "Thus, \"DD\" does not stand for anything more than \"Destroyer\".", "\"SS\" simply means \"Submarine\".", "And \"FF\" is the post-1975 type code for \"Frigate.", "\"The hull classification codes for ships in active duty in the United States Navy are governed under Secretary of the Navy Instruction 5030.8B.=== Warships ===Warships are designed to participate in combat operations.The origin of the two-letter code derives from the need to distinguish various cruiser subtypes.", "Battleship Heavy gun-armed vessel (–1962) BB Cruiser armored (1921–1931)heavy (1931–1975) CA large (–1947) CB battlecommand(–1961) CC light (–1950) CL aviation or ''voler'' CV Destroyer ship DD escort DE==== Aircraft carrier type ====Aircraft carriers are ships designed primarily for the purpose of conducting combat operations by aircraft which engage in attacks against airborne, surface, sub-surface and shore targets.", "Contrary to popular belief, the \"CV\" hull classification symbol does not stand for \"carrier vessel\".", "\"CV\" derives from the cruiser designation, with one popular theory that the V comes from French ''voler'', \"to fly\", but this has never been definitively proven.", "The V has long been used by the U.S. Navy for heavier-than-air craft and possibly comes from the French volplane.", "Aircraft carriers are designated in two sequences: the first sequence runs from CV-1 USS ''Langley'' to the very latest ships, and the second sequence, \"CVE\" for escort carriers, ran from CVE-1 ''Long Island'' to CVE-127 ''Okinawa'' before being discontinued.", "* AV: Heavier-than-air aircraft tender, later Seaplane tender (retired)* AVD: Seaplane tender destroyer (retired)* AVP: Seaplane tender, Small (retired)* AZ: Lighter-than-air aircraft tender (retired) (1920–1923)* AVG: General-purpose aircraft tender (repurposed escort carrier) (1941–42)* AVT (i) Auxiliary aircraft transport (retired)* AVT (ii) Auxiliary training carrier (retired)* ACV: Auxiliary aircraft carrier (escort carrier, replaced by CVE) (1942)* CV: Fleet aircraft carrier (1921–1975), multi-purpose aircraft carrier (1975–present)* CVA: Aircraft carrier, attack (category merged into CV, 30 June 1975)* CV(N): Aircraft carrier, night (deck equipped with lighting and pilots trained for nighttime fights) (1944) (retired)* CVAN: Aircraft carrier, attack, nuclear-powered (category merged into CVN, 30 June 1975)* CVB: Aircraft carrier, large (original USS ''Midway'' class, category merged into CVA, 1952)* CVE: Aircraft carrier, escort (retired) (1943–retirement of type)* CVHA: Aircraft carrier, helicopter assault (retired in favor of several LH-series amphibious assault ship hull codes)* CVHE: Aircraft carrier, helicopter, escort (retired)* CVL: Light aircraft carrier or aircraft carrier, small (retired)* CVN: Aircraft carrier, nuclear-powered* CVS: Antisubmarine aircraft carrier (retired)* CVT: Aircraft carrier, training (changed to AVT (auxiliary))* CVU: Aircraft carrier, utility (retired)* CVG: Aircraft carrier, guided missile (retired)* CF: Flight deck cruiser (1930s, retired unused)* CVV: Aircraft carrier, vari-purpose, medium (retired unused)==== Surface combatant type ====Surface combatants are ships which are designed primarily to engage enemy forces on the high seas.", "The primary surface combatants are battleships, cruisers and destroyers.", "Battleships are very heavily armed and armored; cruisers moderately so; destroyers and smaller warships, less so.", "Before 1920, ships were called \" no.", "X\", with the type fully pronounced.", "The types were commonly abbreviated in ship lists to \"B-X\", \"C-X\", \"D-X\" et cetera—for example, before 1920, would have been called \"USS ''Minnesota'', Battleship number 22\" orally and \"USS ''Minnesota'', B-22\" in writing.", "After 1920, the ship's name would have been both written and pronounced \"USS ''Minnesota'' (BB-22)\".", "In generally decreasing size, the types are:* ACR: Armored cruiser (pre-1920)* AFSB: Afloat forward staging base (also AFSB(I) for \"interim\", changed to MLP (Mobile Landing Platform, then ESD and ESB)* B: Battleship (pre-1920)* BB: Battleship* BBG: Battleship, guided missile or arsenal ship (never used operationally)* BM: Monitor (1920–retirement)* C: Cruiser (pre-1920 protected cruisers and peace cruisers)* CA: (first series) Cruiser, armored (retired, comprised all surviving pre-1920 armored and protected cruisers)* CA: (second series) Heavy cruiser, category later renamed gun cruiser (retired)* CAG: Cruiser, heavy, guided missile (retired)* CB: Large cruiser (retired)* CBC: Large command cruiser (never used operationally)* CC: (first usage) Battlecruiser (never used operationally)* CC: (second usage) Command cruiser (retired)* CLC: Command cruiser, light (retired)* CG: Cruiser, guided missile* CGN: Cruiser, guided missile, nuclear-powered: and * CL: Cruiser, light (retired)* CLAA: Cruiser, light, anti-aircraft (retired)* CLD: Cruiser-destroyer, light (never used operationally)* CLG: Cruiser, light, guided missile (retired)* CLGN: Cruiser, light, guided missile, nuclear-powered (never used operationally)* CLK: Cruiser, hunter–killer (never used operationally)* CM: Cruiser–minelayer (retired)* CS: Scout cruiser (retired)* CSGN: Cruiser, strike, guided missile, nuclear-powered (never used operationally)* D: Destroyer (pre-1920)* DD: Destroyer* DDC: Corvette (briefly proposed in the mid-1950s)* DDE: Escort destroyer, a destroyer (DD) converted for antisubmarine warfare – category abolished 1962.", "(''not to be confused with destroyer escort DE'')* DDG: Destroyer, guided missile* DDK: Hunter–killer destroyer (category merged into DDE, 4 March 1950)* DDR: Destroyer, radar picket (retired)* DE: Destroyer escort (World War II, later became Ocean escort)* DE: Ocean escort (abolished 30 June 1975)* DEG: Guided missile ocean escort (abolished 30 June 1975)* DER: Destroyer escort, radar picket (abolished 30 June 1975) There were two distinct breeds of DER, the DEs which were converted to DERs during World War II and the more numerous postwar DER conversions.", "* DL: Destroyer leader (later frigate) (retired)* DLG: Destroyer leader, guided missile (later frigate) (abolished 30 June 1975)* DLGN: Destroyer leader, guided missile, nuclear-propulsion (later frigate) (abolished 30 June 1975) The DL category was established in 1951 with the abolition of the CLK category.", "CLK 1 became DL 1 and DD 927–930 became DL 2–5.By the mid-1950s the term destroyer leader had been dropped in favor of frigate.", "Most DLGs and DLGNs were reclassified as CGs and CGNs, 30 June 1975.However, DLG 6–15 became DDG 37–46.The old DLs were already gone by that time.", "Only applied to .", "* DM: Destroyer, minelayer (retired)* DMS: Destroyer, minesweeper (retired)* FF: Frigate* PF: Patrol frigate (retired)* FFG: Frigate, guided missile* FFH: Frigate with assigned helicopter* FFL: Frigate, light* FFR: Frigate, radar picket (retired)* FFT: Frigate (reserve training) (retired) The FF, FFG, and FFR designations were established 30 June 1975 as new type symbols for ex-DEs, DEGs, and DERs.", "The first new-built ships to carry the FF/FFG designation were the s.* PG: Patrol gunboat (retired)* PCH: Patrol craft, hydrofoil (retired)* PHM: Patrol, hydrofoil, missile (retired)* K: Corvette (retired)* LCS: Littoral combat ship In January 2015, the Navy announced that the up-gunned LCS will be reclassified as a frigate, since the requirements of the SSC Task Force was to upgrade the ships with frigate-like capabilities.", "The Navy is hoping to start retrofitting technological upgrades onto existing and under construction LCSs before 2019.", "* LSES: Large Surface Effect Ship* M: Monitor (1880s–1920)* SES: Surface Effect Ship* TB: Torpedo boat==== Submarine type ====Submarines are all self-propelled submersible types (usually started with SS) regardless of whether employed as combatant, auxiliary, or research and development vehicles which have at least a residual combat capability.", "While some classes, including all diesel-electric submarines, are retired from USN service, non-U.S. navies continue to employ SS, SSA, SSAN, SSB, SSC, SSG, SSM, and SST types.", "With the advent of new Air Independent Propulsion/Power (AIP) systems, both SSI and SSP are used to distinguish the types within the USN, but SSP has been declared the preferred term.", "SSK, retired by the USN, continues to be used colloquially and interchangeably with SS for diesel-electric attack/patrol submarines within the USN, and, more formally, by the Royal Navy and British firms such as Jane's Information Group.", "* SC: Cruiser Submarine (retired)* SF: Fleet Submarine (retired)* SM: Submarine Minelayer (retired)* SS: Submarine, Attack Submarine* SSA: Submarine Auxiliary, Auxiliary/Cargo Submarine* SSAN: Submarine Auxiliary Nuclear, Auxiliary/Cargo Submarine, Nuclear-powered* SSB: Submarine Ballistic, Ballistic Missile Submarine* SSBN: Submarine Ballistic Nuclear, Ballistic Missile Submarine, Nuclear-powered* SSC: Coastal Submarine, over 150 tons* SSG: Guided Missile Submarine* SSGN: Guided Missile Submarine, Nuclear-powered* SSI: Attack Submarine (Diesel Air-Independent Propulsion)* SSK: Hunter-Killer/ASW Submarine (retired)* SSKN: Hunter-Killer/ASW Submarine, Nuclear-powered (retired)* SSM: Midget Submarine, under 150 tons* SSN: Attack Submarine, Nuclear-powered* SSNR: Special Attack Submarine * SSO: Submarine Oiler (retired)* SSP: Attack Submarine (Diesel Air-Independent Power) (alternate use), formerly Submarine Transport* SSQ: Auxiliary Submarine, Communications (retired)* SSQN: Auxiliary Submarine, Communications, Nuclear-powered (retired)* SSR: Radar Picket Submarine (retired)* SSRN: Radar Picket Submarine, Nuclear-powered (retired)* SST: Training Submarine* AGSS: Auxiliary Submarine* AOSS: Submarine Oiler (retired)* ASSP: Transport Submarine (retired)* APSS: Transport Submarine (retired)* LPSS: Amphibious Transport Submarine (retired)* SSLP: Transport Submarine (retired)SSP, ASSP, APSS, and LPSS were all the same type, redesignated over the years.", "* X: Midget submarine* IXSS: Unclassified Miscellaneous Submarine* MTS: Moored Training Ship (Naval Nuclear Power School Training Platform; reconditioned SSBNs and SSNs)==== Patrol combatant type ====Patrol combatants are ships whose mission may extend beyond coastal duties and whose characteristics include adequate endurance and seakeeping, providing a capability for operations exceeding 48 hours on the high seas without support.", "This notably included Brown Water Navy/Riverine Forces during the Vietnam War.", "Few of these ships are in service today.", "* PBR: Patrol Boat, River, Brown Water Navy (Pibber or PBR-Vietnam)* PC: Coastal Patrol, originally Sub Chaser* PCF: Patrol Craft, Fast; Swift Boat, Brown Water Navy (Vietnam)* PE: Eagle Boat of World War I* PF: World War II Frigate, based on British .", "** PFG: Original designation of * PG: WWII-era Gunboats, later Patrol combatant, with ability to operate in rivers; what is generally known as River gunboats* PGH: Patrol Combatant, Hydrofoil ()* PHM: Patrol, Hydrofoil Missile ()* PR: Patrol, River, such as the * PT: Patrol Torpedo Boat, the U.S. take on the Motor Torpedo Boat (World War II)* PTF: Patrol Torpedo Fast, Brown Water Navy (Vietnam)* PTG/PTGB: Patrol Torpedo Gunboat* Monitor: Heavily gunned riverine boat, Brown Water Navy (Vietnam and prior).", "Named for * ASPB: Assault Support Patrol Boat, \"Alpha Boat\", Brown Water Navy; also used as riverine minesweeper (Vietnam)* PACV: Patrol Air Cushion Vehicle, hovercraft that was part of the Brown Water Navy (Vietnam)* SP: Section Patrol, used indiscriminately for patrol vessels, mine warfare vessels, and some other types (World War I; retired 1920)==== Amphibious warfare type ====Amphibious warfare vessels include all ships having an organic capability for amphibious warfare and which have characteristics enabling long duration operations on the high seas.", "There are two classifications of craft: amphibious warfare ships, which are built to cross oceans, and landing craft, which are designed to take troops from ship to shore in an invasion.The U.S. Navy hull classification symbol for a ship with a well deck depends on its facilities for aircraft:* An LSD has a helicopter deck, which was removable in the older ships.", "* An LPD has a hangar in addition to the helicopter deck.", "* An LHD or LHA has a full-length flight deck.Ships* AKA: Attack Cargo Ship (To LKA, 1969)* APA: Attack Transport (To LPA, 1969)* APD: High speed transport (Converted Destroyer or Destroyer Escort) (To LPR, 1969)* APM: Mechanized Artillery Transports (To LSD)* AGC: Amphibious Force Flagship (To LCC, 1969)* LCC: (second usage) Amphibious Command Ship* LHA: General-Purpose Amphibious Assault Ship, also known as Landing ship, Helicopter, Assault* LHD: Multi-Purpose Amphibious Assault Ship, also known as Landing ship, Helicopter, Dock* LKA: Amphibious Cargo Ship (out of commission)* LPA: Amphibious Transport* LPD: Amphibious transport dock, also known as Landing ship, Personnel, Dock* LPH: Landing ship, Personnel, Helicopter* LPR: High speed transport* LSD: Landing Ship, Dock* LSH: Landing Ship, Heavy* LSIL: Landing Ship, Infantry (Large) (formerly LCIL)* LSL: Landing Ship, Logistics* LSM: Landing Ship, Medium** LSM(R): Landing Ship, Medium (Rocket)* LSSL: Landing Ship, Support (Large) (formerly LCSL)* LST: Landing Ship, Tank** LST(H): Landing Ship, Tank (Hospital)* LSV: Landing Ship, VehicleLanding Craft* LCA: Landing Craft, Assault* LCAC: Landing Craft Air Cushion* LCC: (first usage) Landing Craft, Control* LCFF: (Flotilla Flagship)* LCH: Landing Craft, Heavy* LCI: Landing Craft, Infantry, World War II-era classification further modified by** (G) – Gunboat** (L) – Large** (M) – Mortar** (R) – Rocket* LCL: Landing Craft, Logistics (UK)* LCM: Landing Craft, Mechanized* LCP: Landing Craft, Personnel* LCP(L): Landing Craft, Personnel, Large* LCP(R): Landing Craft, Personnel, Ramped* LCPA: Landing Craft, Personnel, Air-Cushioned* LCS(L): Landing Craft, Support (Large) changed to '''LSSL''' in 1949* LCT: Landing Craft, Tank (World War II era)* LCU: Landing Craft, Utility* LCVP: Landing Craft, Vehicle and Personnel* LSH: Landing Ship Heavy (Royal Australian Navy)====Expeditionary support====Operated by Military Sealift Command, have ship prefix \"USNS\", hull code begins with \"T-\".", "* EMS: Expeditionary Medical Ship, an EPF modified into a hospital ship* EPF: Expeditionary fast transport* ESB: Expeditionary Mobile Base (a variant of ESD, formerly Afloat Forward Staging Base (AFSB))* ESD: Expeditionary Transfer Dock* HST: High-Speed Transport (similar to JHSV, not to be confused with WWII-era High-speed transport (APD))* HSV: High-Speed Vessel* JHSV: Joint High-Speed Vessel (changed to EPF)* MLP: Mobile Landing Platform (changed to ESD)==== Mine warfare type ====Mine warfare ships are those ships whose primary function is mine warfare on the high seas.", "* ADG: Degaussing ship* AM: Minesweeper* AMb: Harbor minesweeper* AMc: Coastal minesweeper* AMCU: Underwater mine locater* AMS: Motor minesweeper* CM: Cruiser (i.e., large) minelayer* CMc: Coastal minelayer* DM: High-speed minelayer (converted destroyer)* DMS: High-speed minesweeper (converted-destroyer)* PCS: Submarine chasers (wooden) fitted for minesweeping* YDG: District degaussing vesselIn 1955 all mine warfare vessels except for degaussing vessels had their hull codes changed to begin with \"M\".", "* MCM: Mine countermeasures ship* MCS: Mine countermeasures support ship* MH(C)(I)(O)(S): Minehunter, (coastal) (inshore) (ocean) (hunter and sweeper, general)* MLC: Coastal minelayer* MSC: Minesweeper, coastal* MSF: Minesweeper, steel hulled* MSO: Minesweeper, ocean==== Coastal defense type ====Coastal defense ships are those whose primary function is coastal patrol and interdiction.", "* FS: Corvette* PB: Patrol boat* PBR: Patrol boat, river* PC: Patrol, coastal* PCE: Patrol craft, escort* PCF: Patrol craft, fast, (swift boat)* PCS: Patrol craft, sweeper (modified-motor minesweepers meant for anti-submarine warfare)* PF: Frigate, in a role similar to World War II Commonwealth corvette* PG: Patrol gunboat* PGM: Motor gunboat (To PG, 1967)* PR: Patrol, river* SP: Section patrol=== Auxiliaries ===An auxiliary ship is designed to operate in any number of roles supporting combatant ships and other naval operations.==== Combat logistics type ====Ships which have the capability to provide underway replenishment (UNREP) to fleet units.", "* AE: Ammunition ship* AF: Stores ship (retired)* AFS: Combat stores ship* AK: Dry cargo ship* AKE: Advanced dry cargo ship* AKS: General stores ship* AO: Fleet Oiler* AOE: Fast combat support ship* AOL: Light replenishment oiler* AOR: Replenishment oiler* AVS: Aviation Stores Issue Ship (retired)==== Mobile logistics type ====Mobile logistics ships have the capability to provide direct material support to other deployed units operating far from home ports.", "* AC: Collier (retired)* AD: Destroyer tender* AGP: Patrol craft tender* AR: Repair ship* ARB: Repair ship, battle damage* ARC: Repair ship, cable* ARG: Repair ship, internal combustion engine* ARH: Repair ship, heavy-hull* ARL: Repair ship, landing craft* ARV: Repair ship, aircraft* ARVH: Repair ship, aircraft, helicopter* AS: Submarine tender* AW: Distilling ship (retired)==== Support ships ====Support ships are not designed to participate in combat and are generally not armed.", "For ships with civilian crews (owned by and/or operated for Military Sealift Command and the Maritime Administration), the prefix T- is placed at the front of the hull classification.Support ships are designed to operate in the open ocean in a variety of sea states to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore-based establishments.", "They include smaller auxiliaries which, by the nature of their duties, leave inshore waters.", "* AB: Auxiliary Crane Ship (1920–41) * ACS: Auxiliary Crane Ship* AG: Miscellaneous Auxiliary* AGB: Icebreaker* AGDE: Testing Ocean Escort * AGDS: Deep Submergence Support Ship* AGEH: Hydrofoil, experimental * AGER: (i): Miscellaneous Auxiliary, Electronic Reconnaissance* AGER: (ii): Environmental Research Ship* AGF: Miscellaneous Command Ship* AGFF: Testing Frigate * AGHS: Patrol combatant support ship—ocean or inshore* AGL: Auxiliary vessel, lighthouse tender* AGM: Missile Range Instrumentation Ship* AGMR: Major Communications Relay Ship* AGOR: Oceanographic Research Ship* AGOS: Ocean Surveillance Ship* AGR: Radar picket ship* AGS: Surveying Ship* AGSC: Coastal Survey Ships* AGSE: Submarine and Special Warfare Support* AGTR: Technical research ship* AH: Hospital ship* AKD: Cargo Ship, Dock * AKL: Cargo Ship, Small* AKN: Cargo Ship, Net* AKR: Cargo Ship, Vehicle* AKV: Cargo Ship, Aircraft* AN: Net laying ship* AOG: Gasoline tanker* AOT: Transport Oiler* AP: Transport* APB: Self-propelled Barracks Ship* APC: Coastal Transport* APc: Coastal Transport, Small* APH: Evacuation Transport* APL: Barracks Craft* ARS: Rescue and Salvage Ship* ARSD: Salvage Lifting Vessels* ASR: Submarine Rescue Ship* AT: Fleet Tug* ATA: Auxiliary Ocean Tug* ATF: Fleet Ocean Tug* ATLS: Drone Launch Ship* ATO: Fleet Tug, Old* ATR: Rescue Tug* ATS: Salvage and Rescue Ship* AVB(i): Aviation Logistics Support Ship* AVB(ii): Advance Aviation Base Ship* AVM: Guided Missile Ship * AVT(i): Auxiliary Aircraft Transport* AVT(ii): Auxiliary Aircraft Landing Training Ship* EPCER: Experimental – Patrol Craft Escort – Rescue* PCER: Patrol Craft Escort – Rescue * SBX: Sea-based X-band Radar – a mobile active electronically scanned array early-warning radar station.==== Service type craft ====Service craft are navy-subordinated craft (including non-self-propelled) designed to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore-based establishments.", "The suffix \"N\" refers to non-self-propelled variants.", "* AFDB: Large Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock* AFD/AFDL: Small Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock* AFDM: Medium Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock* ARD: Auxiliary Repair Dry Dock* ARDM: Medium Auxiliary Repair Dry Dock * JUB/JB : Jack Up Barge==== Submersibles ====* DSRV: Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle* DSV: Deep Submergence Vehicle* NR: Submersible Research Vehicle===Yard and district craft===* YC: Open Lighter* YCF: Car Float* YCV: Aircraft Transportation Lighter* YD: Floating Crane* YDT: Diving Tender* YF: Covered Lighter* YFB: Ferry Boat or Launch* YFD: Yard Floating Dry Dock* YFN: Covered Lighter (non-self propelled)* YFNB: Large Covered Lighter (non-self propelled)* YFND: Dry Dock Companion Craft (non-self propelled)* YFNX: Lighter (Special purpose) (non-self propelled)* YFP: Floating Power Barge* YFR: Refrigerated Cover Lighter* YFRN: Refrigerated Covered Lighter (non-self propelled)* YFRT: Range Tender USNS ''Range Recoverer'' (T-AG-161)* YFU: Harbor Utility Craft* YG: Garbage Lighter* YGN: Garbage Lighter (non-self propelled)* YH: Ambulance boat/small medical support vessel* YLC: Salvage Lift Craft* YM: Dredge* YMN: Dredge (non-self propelled)* YNG: Net Gate Craft* YN: Yard Net Tender* YNT: Net Tender* YO: Fuel Oil Barge* YOG: Gasoline Barge* YOGN: Gasoline Barge (non-self propelled)* YON: Fuel Oil Barge (non-self propelled)* YOS: Oil Storage Barge* YP: Patrol Craft, Training* YPD: Floating Pile Driver* YR: Floating Workshop* YRB: Repair and Berthing Barge* YRBM: Repair, Berthing and Messing Barge* YRDH: Floating Dry Dock Workshop (Hull)* YRDM: Floating Dry Dock Workshop (Machine)* YRR: Radiological Repair Barge nuclear ships and submarines service* YRST: Salvage Craft Tender* YSD: Seaplane Wrecking Derrick - Yard Seaplane Derrick* YSR: Sludge Removal Barge* YT: Harbor Tug (craft later assigned YTB, YTL, or YTM classifications)* YTB: Large Harbor tug* YTL: Small Harbor Tug* YTM: Medium Harbor Tug* YTT: Torpedo trials craft* YW: Water Barge* YWN: Water Barge (non-self propelled)===Miscellaneous ships and craft===* ID or Id.", "No.", ": Civilian ship taken into service for auxiliary duties, used indiscriminately for large ocean-going ships of all kinds and coastal and yard craft (World War I; retired 1920)* IX: Unclassified Miscellaneous Unit* \"none\": To honor her unique historical status, USS ''Constitution'', formerly IX 21, was reclassified to \"none\", effective 1 September 1975.=== Airships ===Although aircraft, pre-World War II rigid airships were commissioned (no different from surface warships and submarines), flew the U.S. ensign from their stern and carried a United States Ship (USS) designation.Rigid airships:* ZR: Rigid airship* ZRS: Rigid airship scout * ZRCV: Rigid airship aircraft carrier, proposed, not builtLighter-than-air aircraft (e.g., blimps) continued to fly the U.S. ensign from their stern but were registered as aircraft:===Temporary designations===United States Navy Designations (Temporary) are a form of U.S. Navy ship designation, intended for temporary identification use.", "Such designations usually occur during periods of sudden mobilization, such as that which occurred prior to, and during, World War II or the Korean War, when it was determined that a sudden temporary need arose for a ship for which there was no official Navy designation.During World War II, for example, a number of commercial vessels were requisitioned, or acquired, by the U.S. Navy to meet the sudden requirements of war.", "A yacht acquired by the U.S. Navy during the start of World War II might seem desirable to the Navy whose use for the vessel might not be fully developed or explored at the time of acquisition.On the other hand, a U.S. Navy vessel, such as the yacht in the example above, already in commission or service, might be desired, or found useful, for another need or purpose for which there is no official designation.", "* IX: Unclassified Miscellaneous Auxiliary Ship, for example, yacht ''Chanco'' acquired by the U.S. Navy on 1 October 1940.It was classified as a minesweeper , but instead, mainly used as a patrol craft along the New England coast.", "When another assignment came, and it could not be determined how to classify the vessel, it was redesignated IX-175 on 10 July 1944.", "* IXSS: Unclassified Miscellaneous Submarines, such as the , the and the .", "* YAG: Miscellaneous Auxiliary Service Craft, such as the , and which, curiously, was earlier known as .Numerous other U.S. Navy vessels were launched with a temporary, or nominal, designation, such as YMS or PC, since it could not be determined, at the time of construction, what they should be used for.", "Many of these were vessels in the 150 to 200 feet length class with powerful engines, whose function could be that of a minesweeper, patrol craft, submarine chaser, seaplane tender, tugboat, or other.", "Once their destiny, or capability, was found or determined, such vessels were reclassified with their actual designation." ], [ "United States Coast Guard vessels", "Prior to 1965, U.S. Coast Guard cutters used the same designation as naval ships but preceded by a \"W\" to indicate Coast Guard commission.", "The U.S. Coast Guard considers any ship over 65 feet in length with a permanently assigned crew, a cutter.=== Current USCG cutter classes and types ====== Historic USCG cutter classes and types ====== USCG classification symbols definitions ===* CG: all Coast Guard ships in the 1920s (retired)* WAGB: Coast Guard * WAGL: Auxiliary vessel, lighthouse tender (retired 1960's)* WAVP: seagoing Coast Guard seaplane tenders (retired 1960s)* WDE: seagoing Coast Guard destroyer escorts (retired 1960s)* WHEC: Coast Guard high endurance cutters* WIX: Coast Guard barque * WLB: Coast Guard buoy tenders* WLBB: Coast Guard seagoing buoy tenders/ice breaker* WLI: Coast Guard inland buoy tenders* WLIC: Coast Guard inland construction tenders* WLM: Coast Guard coastal buoy tenders* WLR: Coast Guard river buoy tenders* WMEC: Coast Guard medium endurance cutters* WMSL: Coast Guard maritime security cutter, large (referred to as national security cutters)* WPB: Coast Guard patrol boats* WPC: Coast Guard patrol craft—later reclassed under WHEC, symbol reused for Coast Guard patrol cutter (referred to as fast response cutters)* WPG: seagoing Coast Guard gunboats (retired 1960s)* WTGB: Coast Guard tug boat (140' icebreakers)* WYTL: Small harbor tug=== USCG classification symbols for small craft and boats ===* MLB: Motor Life Boat (52', 47', and 44' variants)* UTB: Utility Boat * DPB: Deployable Pursuit Boat* ANB: Aids to Navigation Boats* TPSB: Transportable Port Security Boat* RHIB: Rigid Hull Inflatable Boats* SRB: Surf Rescue Boat (30')" ], [ "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration hull codes", "* R: Research ships, including oceanographic and fisheries research ships* S: Survey ships, including hydrographic survey shipsThe letter is paired with a three-digit number.", "The first digit of the number is determined by the ships \"power tonnage,\" defined as the sum of its shaft horsepower and gross international tonnage, as follows:* If the power tonnage is 5,501 through 9,000, the first digit is \"1\".", "* If the power tonnage 3,501 through 5,500, the first digit is \"2.", "\"* If the power tonnage is 2,001 through 3,500, the first digit is \"3.", "\"* If the power tonnage is 1,001 through 2,000, the first digit is \"4.", "\"* If the power tonnage is 501 through 1,000, the first digit is \"5.", "\"* If the power tonnage is 500 or less and the ship is at least long, the first digit is \"6.", "\"The second and third digits are assigned to create a unique three-digit hull number." ], [ "See also", "* United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification* List of hull classifications - same as this article but in alphabetical order* List of ships of the United States Army* Ship prefix* Hull classification symbol (Canada)* Pennant number for the British Commonwealth equivalent" ], [ "Notes", "=== Explanatory notes ====== Wikilink footnotes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * ''United States Naval Aviation 1910–1995, Appendix 16: U.S. Navy and Marine Corps Squadron Designations and Abbreviations''.", "U.S. Navy, c. 1995.Quoted in Derdall and DiGiulian, ''op cit''.", "* * USCG Designations* Naval History and Heritage Command Online Library of Selected Images: U.S. Navy Ships – Listed by Hull Number: \"SP\" #s and \"ID\" #s — World War I Era Patrol Vessels and other Acquired Ships and Craft* Wertheim, Eric.", "''The Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World, 15th Edition: Their Ships, Aircraft, and Systems''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2007.. ." ], [ "Further reading", "* Friedman, Norman.", "''U.S.", "Small Combatants, Including PT-Boats, Subchasers, and the Brown-Water Navy: An Illustrated Design History''.", "Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press, 1987.." ], [ "External links", "* Current U.S. Navy Ship Classifications* U.S. Navy Inactive Classification Symbols* U.S.", "Naval Vessels Registry (Service Craft)* U.S.", "Naval Vessels Registry (Ships)* U.S.", "Naval Vessel Register (Current ships)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Habeas corpus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Habeas corpus''''' (; from Medieval Latin, ) is a recourse in law by which a report can be made to a court in the events of unlawful detention or imprisonment, requesting that the court orders the person's custodian (usually a prison official), to bring the prisoner to court, to determine whether their detention is lawful.The writ of ''habeas corpus'' was described in the eighteenth century by William Blackstone as a \"great and efficacious writ in all manner of illegal confinement\".", "It is a summons with the force of a court order; it is addressed to the custodian (a prison official, for example) and demands that a prisoner be brought before the court, and that the custodian present proof of authority, allowing the court to determine whether the custodian has lawful authority to detain the prisoner.", "If the custodian is acting beyond their authority, then the prisoner must be released.", "Any prisoner, or another person acting on their behalf, may petition the court, or a judge, for a writ of ''habeas corpus''.", "One reason for the writ to be sought by a person other than the prisoner is that the detainee might be held incommunicado.", "Most civil law jurisdictions provide a similar remedy for those unlawfully detained, but this is not always called ''habeas corpus''.", "For example, in some Spanish-speaking nations, the equivalent remedy for unlawful imprisonment is the ''amparo de libertad'' (\"protection of freedom\").", "''Habeas corpus'' has certain limitations.", "The petitioner must present a ''prima facie'' case that a person has been unlawfully restrained.", "As a procedural remedy, it applies when detention results from neglect of legal process, but not when the lawfulness of the process itself is in question.", "In some countries, the writ has been temporarily or permanently suspended on the basis of a war or state of emergency, for example with the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act 1794 in Britain and the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act (1863) in the United States.", "The right to petition for a writ of ''habeas corpus'' has nonetheless long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject.", "The jurist Albert Venn Dicey wrote that the British Habeas Corpus Acts \"declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty\".The writ of ''habeas corpus'' is one of what are called the \"extraordinary\", \"common law\", or \"prerogative writs\", which were historically issued by the English courts in the name of the monarch to control inferior courts and public authorities within the kingdom.", "The most common of the other such prerogative writs are ''quo warranto'', ''prohibito'', ''mandamus'', ''procedendo'', and ''certiorari''.", "The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, because they incorporate the presumption of non-authority.", "The official who is the respondent must prove their authority to do or not do something.", "Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person, not just an interested party.", "This differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof." ], [ "Etymology", "The phrase is from the Latin ''habeās'', 2nd person singular present subjunctive active of ''habēre'', \"to have\", \"to hold\"; and ''corpus'', accusative singular of ''corpus'', \"body\".", "In reference to more than one person, the phrase is ''habeas corpora''.Literally, the phrase means \"we command that you should have the detainee's body brought to court\"; that is, that the detainee be brought to court in person.", "The complete phrase ''habeas corpus coram nobis ad subjiciendum'' means \"that you have the person before us for the purpose of subjecting (the case to examination)\".", "These are words of writs included in a 14th-century Anglo-French document requiring a person to be brought before a court or judge, especially to determine if that person is being legally detained.===Examples===;United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland:;United States of America:===Similarly named writs===The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs, also named ''habeas corpus''.", "These include:* ''Habeas corpus ad deliberandum et recipiendum'': a writ for bringing an accused from a different county into a court in the place where a crime had been committed for purposes of trial, or more literally to return holding the body for purposes of \"deliberation and receipt\" of a decision.", "(\"Extradition\")* ''Habeas corpus ad faciendum et recipiendum'' (also called ''habeas corpus cum causa''): a writ of a superior court to a custodian to return with the body being held by the order of a lower court \"with reasons\", for the purpose of \"receiving\" the decision of the superior court and of \"doing\" what it ordered.", "* ''Habeas corpus ad prosequendum'': a writ ordering return with a prisoner for the purpose of \"prosecuting\" him before the court.", "* ''Habeas corpus ad respondendum'': a writ ordering return to allow the prisoner to \"answer\" to new proceedings before the court.", "* writ of habeas corpus''Habeas corpus ad testificandum'': a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for the purposes of \"testifying\"." ], [ "Origins in England", "''Habeas corpus'' originally stems from the Assize of Clarendon of 1166, a re-issuance of rights during the reign of Henry II of England in the 12th century.", "The foundations for ''habeas corpus'' are \"wrongly thought\" to have originated in Magna Carta, but in fact predates it.", "This charter declared that:However the preceding article of Magna Carta, nr 38, declares:Pursuant to that language, a person may not be subjected to any legal proceeding, such as arrest and imprisonment, without sufficient evidence having already been collected to show that there is a ''prima facie'' case to answer.", "This evidence must be collected beforehand, because it must be available to be exhibited in a public hearing within hours, or at the most days, after arrest.", "Any charge levelled at the hearing thus must be based on evidence already collected, and an arrest and incarceration order is not lawful if not supported by sufficient evidence.William Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of ''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum'' in 1305, during the reign of King Edward I.", "However, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century.", "Blackstone explained the basis of the writ, saying \"the king is at all times entitled to have an account, why the liberty of any of his subjects is restrained, wherever that restraint may be inflicted.\"", "The procedure for issuing a writ of ''habeas corpus'' was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, following judicial rulings which had restricted the effectiveness of the writ.", "A previous law (the Habeas Corpus Act 1640) had been passed forty years earlier to overturn a ruling that the command of the king was a sufficient answer to a petition of ''habeas corpus''.", "The cornerstone purpose of the ''writ of habeas corpus'' was to limit the king's Chancery's ability to undermine the surety of law by allowing courts of justice decisions to be overturned in favor and application of ''equity'', a process managed by the Chancellor (a bishop) with the king's authority.The 1679 codification of ''habeas corpus'' took place in the context of a sharp confrontation between King Charles II and Parliament, which was dominated by the then sharply oppositional, nascent Whig Party.", "The Whig leaders had good reasons to fear the king moving against them through the courts (as indeed happened in 1681) and regarded ''habeas corpus'' as safeguarding their own persons.", "The short-lived parliament which made this enactment came to be known as the ''Habeas Corpus Parliament'' – being dissolved by the king immediately afterwards.Then, as now, the writ of ''habeas corpus'' was issued by a superior court in the name of the sovereign, and commanded the addressee (a lower court, sheriff, or private subject) to produce the prisoner before the royal courts of law.", "A ''habeas corpus'' petition could be made by the prisoner him or herself or by a third party on his or her behalf and, as a result of the Habeas Corpus Acts, could be made regardless of whether the court was in session, by presenting the petition to a judge.", "Since the 18th century the writ has also been used in cases of unlawful detention by private individuals, most famously in ''Somersett's Case'' (1772), where the black slave, Somersett, was ordered to be freed.", "During that case, these famous words are said to have been uttered: \"... that the air of England was too pure for slavery\" (although it was the lawyers in argument who expressly used this phrase – referenced from a much earlier argument heard in the Star Chamber – and not Lord Mansfield himself).", "During the Seven Years' War and later conflicts, the writ was used on behalf of soldiers and sailors pressed into military and naval service.", "The Habeas Corpus Act 1816 introduced some changes and expanded the territoriality of the legislation.The privilege of ''habeas corpus'' has been suspended or restricted several times during English history, most recently during the 18th and 19th centuries.", "Although internment without trial has been authorised by statute since that time, for example during the two World Wars and the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the ''habeas corpus'' procedure has in modern times always technically remained available to such internees.", "However, as ''habeas corpus'' is only a procedural device to examine the lawfulness of a prisoner's detention, so long as the detention is in accordance with an Act of Parliament, the petition for ''habeas corpus'' is unsuccessful.", "Since the passage of the Human Rights Act 1998, the courts have been able to declare an Act of Parliament to be incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but such a declaration of incompatibility has no legal effect unless and until it is acted upon by the government.The wording of the writ of ''habeas corpus'' implies that the prisoner is brought to the court for the legality of the imprisonment to be examined.", "However, rather than issuing the writ immediately and waiting for the return of the writ by the custodian, modern practice in England is for the original application to be followed by a hearing with both parties present to decide the legality of the detention, without any writ being issued.", "If the detention is held to be unlawful, the prisoner can usually then be released or bailed by order of the court without having to be produced before it.", "With the development of modern public law, applications for ''habeas corpus'' have been to some extent discouraged, in favour of applications for judicial review.", "The writ, however, maintains its vigour, and was held by the UK Supreme Court in 2012 to be available in respect of a prisoner captured by British forces in Afghanistan, albeit that the Secretary of State made a valid return to the writ justifying the detention of the claimant." ], [ "Precedents in medieval Catalonia and Biscay", "Although the first recorded historical references come from Anglo-Saxon law in the 12th century and one of the first documents referring to this right is a law of the English Parliament (1679), in Catalonia there are references from 1428 in the (appeal of people's manifestation) collected in the of the Crown of Aragon and some references to this term in the Law of the Lordship of Biscay (1527)." ], [ "Other jurisdictions", "===Australia===The writ of ''habeas corpus'' as a procedural remedy is part of Australia's English law inheritance.", "In 2005, the Australian parliament passed the Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005.Some legal experts questioned the constitutionality of the act, due in part to limitations it placed on ''habeas corpus''.===Canada===''Habeas corpus'' rights are part of the British legal tradition inherited by Canada.", "The rights exist in the common law and have been enshrined in section 10(c) of the ''Charter of Rights and Freedoms'', which states that \"everyone has the right on arrest or detention ... to have the validity of the detention determined by way of ''habeas corpus'' and to be released if the detention is not lawful\".", "The test for ''habeas corpus'' in Canada was established by the Supreme Court of Canada in ''Mission Institution v Khela'', as follows:To be successful, an application for ''habeas corpus'' must satisfy the following criteria.", "First, the applicant i.e., the person seeking ''habeas corpus'' review must establish that he or she has been deprived of liberty.", "Once a deprivation of liberty is proven, the applicant must raise a legitimate ground upon which to question its legality.", "If the applicant has raised such a ground, the onus shifts to the respondent authorities i.e., the person or institution detaining the applicant to show that the deprivation of liberty was lawful.Suspension of the writ in Canadian history occurred at multiple times.", "During the October Crisis in 1970, the ''War Measures Act'' was invoked by the Governor General of Canada on the constitutional advice of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, who had received a request from the Quebec Cabinet.", "The Act was also used to justify German, Slavic, and Ukrainian Canadian internment during the First World War, and the internment of German-Canadians, Italian-Canadians and Japanese-Canadians during the Second World War.", "The writ was suspended for several years following the Battle of Fort Erie (1866) during the Fenian Rising, though the suspension was only ever applied to suspects in the Thomas D'Arcy McGee assassination.The writ is available where there is no other adequate remedy.", "However, a superior court always has the discretion to grant the writ even in the face of an alternative remedy (see ''May v Ferndale Institution'').", "Under the ''Criminal Code'' the writ is largely unavailable if a statutory right of appeal exists, whether or not this right has been exercised.===France===As a fundamental human right in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen drafted by Lafayette in cooperation with Thomas Jefferson, safeguards against arbitrary detention are enshrined in the French Constitution and regulated by the Penal Code.", "These safeguards are equivalent to those found under the Habeas-Corpus provisions found in Germany, the United States and several Commonwealth countries.", "The French system of accountability prescribes severe penalties for ministers, police officers and civil and judiciary authorities who either violate or fail to enforce the law.France and the United States played a synergistic role in the international team, led by Eleanor Roosevelt, which crafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "The French judge and Nobel Peace Laureate René Cassin produced the first draft and argued against arbitrary detentions.", "René Cassin and the French team subsequently championed the ''habeas corpus'' provisions enshrined in the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.===Germany===Germany has constitutional guarantees against improper detention and these have been implemented in statutory law in a manner that can be considered as equivalent to writs of ''habeas corpus''.Article 104, paragraph 1 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany provides that deprivations of liberty may be imposed only on the basis of a specific enabling statute that also must include procedural rules.", "Article 104, paragraph 2 requires that any arrested individual be brought before a judge by the end of the day following the day of the arrest.", "For those detained as criminal suspects, article 104, paragraph 3 specifically requires that the judge must grant a hearing to the suspect in order to rule on the detention.Restrictions on the power of the authorities to arrest and detain individuals also emanate from article 2 paragraph 2 of the Basic Law which guarantees liberty and requires a statutory authorization for any deprivation of liberty.", "In addition, several other articles of the Basic Law have a bearing on the issue.", "The most important of these are article 19, which generally requires a statutory basis for any infringements of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Basic Law while also guaranteeing judicial review; article 20, paragraph 3, which guarantees the rule of law; and article 3 which guarantees equality.In particular, a constitutional obligation to grant remedies for improper detention is required by article 19, paragraph 4 of the Basic Law, which provides as follows: \"Should any person's right be violated by public authority, he may have recourse to the courts.", "If no other jurisdiction has been established, recourse shall be to the ordinary courts.", "\"===India===In the Republic of India, the Supreme Court and High Courts possess the authority to issue a writ of ''habeas corpus'', as granted by Articles 32 and 226 of the Constitution of India, respectively.On December 9, 1948, during a session of the Constituent Assembly, H.V.", "Kamath, a member, suggested the removal of specific references to writs in Article 32, expressing concern that such references could restrict judges from establishing new types of writs in the future, while Dr. B.R.", "Ambedkar, the Chairperson of the Drafting Committee, emphasized the significance of retaining references to the writs.", "Dr. B.R.", "Ambedkar noted that writs, including ''habeas corpus'', are already part of the Indian legal framework, but the existing writs are vulnerable to modifications through legislative changes, whereby the legislature, particularly with a strong majority, can amend the relevant laws, potentially leading to the suspension of writs like ''habeas corpus''.", "However, following the Constitution's enactment, which includes explicit references to writs, these writs cannot be easily nullified by any legislative body because the Constitution grants the Supreme Court the authority to issue them.The Indian judiciary, in a catena of cases, has effectively resorted to the writ of ''habeas corpus'' to secure release of a person from illegal detention.", "The Indian judiciary has dispensed with the traditional doctrine of ''locus standi'', so that if a detained person is not in a position to file a petition, it can be moved on his behalf by any other person.", "The scope of ''habeas'' relief has expanded in recent times by actions of the Indian judiciary.Usually, in most other jurisdictions, the writ is directed at police authorities.", "The extension to non-state authorities has its grounds in two cases: the 1898 Queen's Bench case of ''Ex Parte Daisy Hopkins'', wherein the Proctor of Cambridge University did detain and arrest Hopkins without his jurisdiction, and Hopkins was released, and that of ''Somerset v Stewart'', in which an African slave whose master had moved to London was freed by action of the writ.", "For example, in October 2009, the Karnataka High Court heard a ''habeas corpus'' petition filed by the parents of a girl who married a Muslim boy from Kannur district and was allegedly confined in a ''madrasa'' in Malapuram town.", "In 1976, the ''habeas'' writ was used in the Rajan case, a student victim of torture in local police custody during the nationwide Emergency in India.", "On 12 March 2014, Subrata Roy's counsel approached the Chief Justice moving a ''habeas corpus'' petition.", "It was also filed by the Panthers Party to protest the imprisonment of Anna Hazare, a social activist.===Ireland===In the Republic of Ireland, the writ of ''habeas corpus'' is available at common law and under the Habeas Corpus Acts of 1782 and 1816.A remedy equivalent to ''habeas corpus'' is also guaranteed by Article 40 of the 1937 constitution.", "The article guarantees that \"no citizen shall be deprived of his personal liberty save in accordance with law\" and outlines a specific procedure for the High Court to enquire into the lawfulness of any person's detention.", "It does not mention the Latin term ''habeas corpus'', but includes the English phrase \"produce the body\".Article 40.4.2° provides that a prisoner, or anyone acting on his behalf, may make a complaint to the High Court (or to any High Court judge) of unlawful detention.", "The court must then investigate the matter \"forthwith\" and may order that the defendant bring the prisoner before the court and give reasons for his detention.", "The court must immediately release the detainee unless it is satisfied that he is being held lawfully.", "The remedy is available not only to prisoners of the state, but also to persons unlawfully detained by any private party.", "However, the constitution provides that the procedure is not binding on the Defence Forces during a state of war or armed rebellion.The full text of Article 40.4.2° is as follows:The writ of ''habeas corpus'' continued as part of the Irish law when the state seceded from the United Kingdom in 1922.A remedy equivalent to ''habeas corpus'' was also guaranteed by Article 6 of the Constitution of the Irish Free State, enacted in 1922.That article used similar wording to Article 40.4 of the current constitution, which replaced it 1937.The relationship between the Article 40 and the Habeas Corpus Acts of 1782 and 1816 is ambiguous, and Forde and Leonard write that \"The extent if any to which Article 40.4 has replaced these Acts has yet to be determined\".", "In ''The State (Ahern) v. Cotter'' (1982) Walsh J. opined that the ancient writ referred to in the Habeas Corpus Acts remains in existence in Irish law as a separate remedy from that provided for in Article 40.In 1941, the Article 40 procedure was restricted by the Second Amendment.", "Prior to the amendment, a prisoner had the constitutional right to apply to any High Court judge for an enquiry into her detention, and to as many High Court judges as she wished.", "If the prisoner successfully challenged her detention before the High Court she was entitled to immediate, unconditional release.The Second Amendment provided that a prisoner has only the right to apply to a single judge, and, once a writ has been issued, the President of the High Court has authority to choose the judge or panel of three judges who will decide the case.", "If the High Court finds that the prisoner's detention is unlawful due to the unconstitutionality of a law the judge must refer the matter to the Supreme Court, and until the Supreme Court's decision is rendered the prisoner may be released only on bail.The power of the state to detain persons prior to trial was extended by the Sixteenth Amendment, in 1996.In 1965, the Supreme Court ruled in the ''O'Callaghan'' case that the constitution required that an individual charged with a crime could be refused bail only if she was likely to flee or to interfere with witnesses or evidence.", "Since the Sixteenth Amendment, it has been possible for a court to take into account whether a person has committed serious crimes while on bail in the past.===Italy===The right to freedom from arbitrary detention is guaranteed by Article 13 of the Constitution of Italy, which states: This implies that within 48 hours every arrest made by a police force must be validated by a court.Furthermore, if subject to a valid detention, an arrested can ask for a review of the detention to another court, called the Review Court (''Tribunale del Riesame'', also known as the Freedom Court, ''Tribunale della Libertà'').=== Macau ===In Macau, the relevant provision is Article 204 in the Code of Penal Processes, which became law in 1996 under Portuguese rule.", "cases are heard before the Tribunal of Ultimate Instance.", "A notable case is Case 3/2008 in Macau.===Malaysia===In Malaysia, the remedy of ''habeas corpus'' is guaranteed by the federal constitution, although not by name.", "Article 5(2) of the Constitution of Malaysia provides that \"Where complaint is made to a High Court or any judge thereof that a person is being unlawfully detained the court shall inquire into the complaint and, unless satisfied that the detention is lawful, shall order him to be produced before the court and release him\".As there are several statutes, for example, the Internal Security Act 1960, that still permit detention without trial, the procedure is usually effective in such cases only if it can be shown that there was a procedural error in the way that the detention was ordered.===New Zealand===In New Zealand, ''habeas corpus'' may be invoked against the government or private individuals.", "In 2006, a child was allegedly kidnapped by his maternal grandfather after a custody dispute.", "The father began ''habeas corpus'' proceedings against the mother, the grandfather, the grandmother, the great-grandmother, and another person alleged to have assisted in the kidnap of the child.", "The mother did not present the child to the court and so was imprisoned for contempt of court.", "She was released when the grandfather came forward with the child in late January 2007.===Pakistan===Issuance of a writ is an exercise of an extraordinary jurisdiction of the superior courts in Pakistan.", "A writ of ''habeas corpus'' may be issued by any High Court of a province in Pakistan.", "Article 199 of the 1973 Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, specifically provides for the issuance of a writ of ''habeas corpus'', empowering the courts to exercise this prerogative.", "Subject to the Article 199 of the Constitution, \"A High Court may, if it is satisfied that no other adequate remedy is provided by law, on the application of any person, make an order that a person in custody within the territorial jurisdiction of the Court be brought before it so that the Court may satisfy itself that he is not being held in custody without a lawful authority or in an unlawful manner\".", "The hallmark of extraordinary constitutional jurisdiction is to keep various functionaries of State within the ambit of their authority.", "Once a High Court has assumed jurisdiction to adjudicate the matter before it, justiciability of the issue raised before it is beyond question.", "The Supreme Court of Pakistan has stated clearly that the use of words \"in an unlawful manner\" implies that the court may examine, if a statute has allowed such detention, whether it was a colorable exercise of the power of authority.", "Thus, the court can examine the malafides of the action taken.===Portugal===In Portugal, article 31 of the Constitution guarantees citizens against improper arrest, imprisonment or detention.The full text of Article 31 is as follows: There are also statutory provisions, most notably the Code of Criminal Procedure, articles 220 and 222 that stipulate the reasons by which a judge may guarantee ''habeas corpus''.===The Philippines===In the Bill of Rights of the Philippine constitution, ''habeas corpus'' is guaranteed in terms almost identically to those used in the U.S. Constitution.", "Article 3, Section 15 of the Constitution of the Philippines states that \"The privilege of the writ of ''habeas corpus'' shall not be suspended except in cases of invasion or rebellion when the public safety requires it\".In 1971, after the Plaza Miranda bombing, the Marcos administration, under Ferdinand Marcos, suspended ''habeas corpus'' in an effort to stifle the oncoming insurgency, having blamed the Filipino Communist Party for the events of August 21.Many considered this to be a prelude to martial law.", "After widespread protests, however, the Marcos administration decided to reintroduce the writ.", "The writ was again suspended when Marcos declared martial law in 1972.In December 2009, ''habeas corpus'' was suspended in Maguindanao as President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo placed the province under martial law.", "This occurred in response to the Maguindanao massacre.In 2016, President Rodrigo Duterte said he was planning on suspending ''habeas corpus''.At 10 pm on 23 May 2017 Philippine time, President Rodrigo Duterte declared martial law in the whole island of Mindanao including Sulu and Tawi-tawi for the period of 60 days due to the series of attacks mounted by the Maute group, an ISIS-linked terrorist organization.", "The declaration suspended the writ.===Scotland===The Parliament of Scotland passed a law to have the same effect as ''habeas corpus'' in the 18th century.", "This is now known as the Criminal Procedure Act 1701 c. 6.It was originally called \"the Act for preventing wrongful imprisonment and against undue delays in trials\".", "It is still in force although certain parts have been repealed.===Spain===The present Constitution of Spain states that \"A ''habeas corpus'' procedure shall be provided for by law to ensure the immediate handing over to the judicial authorities of any person illegally arrested\".", "The statute which regulates the procedure is the ''Law of Habeas Corpus of 24 May 1984'', which provides that a person imprisoned may, on her or his own or through a third person, allege that she or he is imprisoned unlawfully and request to appear before a judge.", "The request must specify the grounds on which the detention is considered to be unlawful, which can be, for example, that the custodian holding the prisoner does not have the legal authority, that the prisoner's constitutional rights have been violated, or that he has been subjected to mistreatment.", "The judge may then request additional information if needed, and may issue a ''habeas corpus'' order, at which point the custodian has 24 hours to bring the prisoner before the judge.Historically, many of the territories of Spain had remedies equivalent to the ''habeas corpus'', such as the privilege of ''manifestación'' in the Crown of Aragon or the right of the Tree in Biscay.===Taiwan===''Habeas corpus'' is explicitly stated in article 8 of the Constitution of the Republic of China, in which guarantees that anyone has the right to request a writ of ''habeas corpus'' for himself or any other person that is being detained by any organization or individual other than courts.", "Also, courts shall not reject the request, nor order the detainer to investigate and report before surrendering the detainee; the detainer must bring the person in question to the court within 24 hours without condition, and the detainee shall be released on the spot if the detention is deemed illegal.", "The article was further enforced by the Habeas Corpus Act.===United States===The United States inherited ''habeas corpus'' from the English common law.", "In England, the writ was issued in the name of the monarch.", "When the original thirteen American colonies declared independence, and became a republic based on popular sovereignty, any person, in the name of the people, acquired authority to initiate such writs.", "The U.S. Constitution specifically includes the ''habeas'' procedure in the Suspension Clause (Clause 2), located in Article One, Section 9.This states that \"The privilege of the writ of ''habeas corpus'' shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it\".The writ of ''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum'' is a civil, not criminal, ''ex parte'' proceeding in which a court inquires as to the legitimacy of a prisoner's custody.", "Typically, ''habeas corpus'' proceedings are to determine whether the court that imposed sentence on the defendant had jurisdiction and authority to do so, or whether the defendant's sentence has expired.", "''Habeas corpus'' is also used as a legal avenue to challenge other types of custody such as pretrial detention or detention by the United States Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement pursuant to a deportation proceeding.Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant suspended ''habeas corpus'' during the Civil War and Reconstruction for some places or types of cases.", "During World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt suspended habeas corpus.", "Following the September 11 attacks, President George W. Bush attempted to place Guantanamo Bay detainees outside of the jurisdiction of ''habeas corpus'', but the Supreme Court of the United States overturned this action in ''Boumediene v. Bush''." ], [ "Equivalent remedies", "===Biscay===In 1526, the ''Fuero Nuevo of the Señorío de Vizcaya'' (''New Charter of the Lordship of Biscay'') established a form of ''habeas corpus'' in the territory of the ''Señorío de Vizcaya'', now part of Spain.", "This revised version of the ''Fuero Viejo'' (Old Charter) of 1451 codified the medieval custom whereby no person could be arbitrarily detained without being summoned first to the Oak of Gernika, an ancestral oak tree located in the outskirts of Gernika under which all laws of the Lordship of Biscay were passed.The New Charter formalised that no one could be detained without a court order (Law 26 of Chapter 9) nor due to debts (Law 3 of Chapter 16).", "It also established due process and a form of ''habeas corpus'': no one could be arrested without previously having been summoned to the Oak of Gernika and given 30 days to answer the said summons.", "Upon appearing under the Tree, they had to be provided with accusations and all evidence held against them so that they could defend themselves (Law 7 of Chapter 9).No one could be sent to prison or deprived of their freedom until being formally trialed.", "No one could be accused of a different crime until their current court trial was over (Law 5 of Chapter 5).", "Those fearing they were being arrested illegally could appeal to the ''Regimiento General'' that their rights could be upheld.", "The ''Regimiento'', the executive arm of the Juntas Generales of Biscay, would demand the prisoner be handed over to them, and thereafter the prisoner would be released and placed under the protection of the Regimiento while awaiting trial.===Crown of Aragon===The Crown of Aragon had a remedy equivalent to the ''habeas corpus'' called the ''manifestación de personas'', literally, ''demonstration of persons''.", "According to the right of ''manifestación'', the Justicia de Aragon, lit.", "''Justice of Aragon'', an Aragonese judiciary figure similar to an ombudsman, but with far reaching executive powers, could require a judge, a court of justice, or any other official that they handed over to the ''Justicia'', i.e., that they be ''demonstrated'' to the Justicia, anyone being prosecuted, so as to guarantee that this person's rights were upheld, and that no violence would befall this person prior to their being sentenced.The ''Justicia'' retained the right to examine the judgement passed, and decide whether it satisfied the conditions of a fair trial.", "If the ''Justicia'' was not satisfied, he could refuse to hand over the accused back to the authorities.", "The right of ''manifestación'' acted like a ''habeas corpus'': knowing that the appeal to the ''Justicia'' would immediately follow any unlawful detention, these were effectively illegal.", "Equally, torture, which had been banned in Aragon since 1325, would never take place.In some cases, people exerting their right of ''manifestación'' were kept under the Justicia's watch in ''manifestación'' prisons, famous for their mild and easy conditions, or under house arrest.", "More generally however, the person was released from confinement and placed under the ''Justicia's protection'', awaiting for trial.", "The ''Justicia'' always granted the right of ''manifestación'' by default, but they only really had to act in extreme cases, as for instance famously happened in 1590 when Antonio Pérez, the disgraced secretary to Philip II of Spain, fled from Castile to Aragon and used his Aragonese ascendency to appeal to the ''Justicia'' for manifestación right, thereby preventing his arrest at the King's behest.The right of ''manifestación'' was codified in 1325 in the Declaratio Privilegii generalis passed by the Aragonese Corts under king James II of Aragon.", "It had been practised since the inception of the kingdom of Aragon in the 11th century, and therefore predates the English ''habeas corpus'' itself.===Poland===In 1430, King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland granted the Privilege of Jedlnia, which proclaimed, ''Neminem captivabimus nisi iure victum'' (\"We will not imprison anyone except if convicted by law\").", "This revolutionary innovation in civil libertarianism gave Polish citizens due process-style rights that did not exist in any other European country for another 250 years.", "Originally, the Privilege of Jedlnia was restricted to the nobility, the szlachta.", "It was extended to cover townsmen in the 1791 Constitution.", "Importantly, social classifications in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were not as rigid as in other European countries; townspeople and Jews were sometimes ennobled.", "The Privilege of Jedlnia provided broader coverage than many subsequently enacted habeas corpus laws, because Poland's nobility constituted an unusually large percentage of the country's total population, which was Europe's largest.", "As a result, by the 16th century, it was protecting the liberty of between five hundred thousand and a million Poles.===Roman-Dutch law===In South Africa and other countries whose legal systems are based on Roman-Dutch law, the ''interdictum de homine libero exhibendo'' is the equivalent of the writ of ''habeas corpus''.", "In South Africa, it has been entrenched in the Bill of Rights, which provides in section 35(2)(d) that every detained person has the right to challenge the lawfulness of the detention in person before a court and, if the detention is unlawful, to be released." ], [ "World ''habeas corpus''", "In the 1950s, American lawyer Luis Kutner began advocating an international writ of ''habeas corpus'' to protect individual human rights.", "In 1952, he filed a petition for a \"United Nations Writ of Habeas Corpus\" on behalf of William N. Oatis, an American journalist jailed the previous year by the Communist government of Czechoslovakia.", "Alleging that Czechoslovakia had violated Oatis' rights under the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and that the United Nations General Assembly had \"inherent power\" to fashion remedies for human rights violations, the petition was filed with the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.", "The commission forwarded the petition to Czechoslovakia, but no other United Nations action was taken.", "Oatis was released in 1953.Kutner went on to publish numerous articles and books advocating the creation of an \"International Court of Habeas Corpus\"." ], [ "International human rights standards", "Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that \"everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person\".", "Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights goes further and calls for persons detained to have the right to challenge their detention, providing at article 5.4:" ], [ "See also", "* Arbitrary arrest and detention* ''Corpus delicti'' – another Latin legal term using ''corpus'', here meaning the fact of a crime having been committed, not the body of the person being detained nor (as sometimes inaccurately used) the body of the victim* ''Habeas corpus'' petitions of Guantanamo Bay detainees* ''Habeas Corpus'', a play by the English writer and playwright Alan Bennett* Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007* ''Habeas data''* Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon* Habeas Corpus Parliament * List of legal Latin terms* Military Commissions Act of 2006* Murder conviction without a body* ''Neminem captivabimus''* Presumption of innocence* Philippine ''habeas corpus'' cases* Remand* Security of person* ''Recurso de amparo'' (writ of ''amparo'')* ''Subpoena ad testificandum''* ''Subpoena duces tecum''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * Political context for ''Ex Parte Milligan'' explained on pp. 186–189.", "* * * * * * *: *: *: *: *: * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Prince Henry the Navigator" ], [ "Introduction", "Dom '''Henrique of Portugal, Duke of Viseu''' (4 March 1394 – 13 November 1460), better known as '''Prince Henry the Navigator''' (), was a central figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and in the 15th-century European maritime discoveries and maritime expansion.", "Through his administrative direction, he is regarded as the main initiator of what would be known as the Age of Discovery.", "Henry was the fourth child of King Dom John I of Portugal, who founded the House of Aviz.After procuring the new caravel ship, Henry was responsible for the early development of Portuguese exploration and maritime trade with other continents through the systematic exploration of Western Africa, the islands of the Atlantic Ocean, and the search for new routes.", "He encouraged his father to conquer Ceuta (1415), the Muslim port on the North African coast across the Straits of Gibraltar from the Iberian Peninsula.", "He learned of the opportunity offered by the Saharan trade routes that terminated there, and became fascinated with Africa in general; he was most intrigued by the Christian legend of Prester John and the expansion of Portuguese trade.", "He is regarded as the patron of Portuguese exploration." ], [ "Life", "Henry was the third surviving son of King John I and his wife Philippa, sister of King Henry IV of England.", "He was baptized in Porto, and may have been born there, probably when the royal couple was living in the city's old mint, now called Casa do Infante (Prince's House), or in the region nearby.", "Another possibility is that he was born at the Monastery of Leça do Balio, in Leça da Palmeira, during the same period of the royal couple's residence in the city of Porto.Portuguese presence in Africa and Middle East - 1415 1975.Henry was 21 when he, his father and brothers captured the Moorish port of Ceuta in northern Morocco.", "Ceuta had long been a base for Barbary pirates who raided the Portuguese coast, depopulating villages by capturing their inhabitants to be sold in the African slave trade.", "Following this success, Henry began to explore the coast of Africa, most of which was unknown to Europeans.", "His objectives included finding the source of the West African gold trade and the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John, and stopping the pirate attacks on the Portuguese coast.Arms of Prince Henry.", "At that time, the cargo ships of the Mediterranean were too slow and heavy to undertake such voyages.", "Under Henry's direction, a new and much lighter ship was developed, the caravel, which could sail farther and faster.", "Above all, it was highly maneuverable and could sail \"into the wind\", making it largely independent of the prevailing winds.", "The caravel used the lateen sail, the prevailing rig in Christian Mediterranean navigation since late antiquity.With this ship, Portuguese mariners freely explored uncharted waters around the Atlantic, from rivers and shallow waters to transoceanic voyages.In 1419, Henry's father appointed him governor of the province of the Algarve." ], [ "Resources and income", "On May 25, 1420, Henry gained appointment as the Governor of the Military Order of Christ, the Portuguese successor to the Knights Templar, which had its headquarters at Tomar in central Portugal.", "Henry held this position for the remainder of his life, and the Order was an important source of funds for Henry's ambitious plans, especially his persistent attempts to conquer the Canary Islands, which the Portuguese had claimed to have discovered before the year 1346.In 1425, his second brother the Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra, made a diplomatic tour of Europe, with an additional charge from Henry to seek out geographic material.", "Peter returned with a current world map from Venice.In 1431, Henry donated houses for the ''Estudo Geral'' to teach all the sciences—grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, music, and astronomy—in what would later become the University of Lisbon.", "For other subjects like medicine or philosophy, he ordered that each room should be decorated according to the subject taught.Henry also had other resources.", "When John I died in 1433, Henry's eldest brother Edward of Portugal became king.", "He granted Henry all profits from trading within the areas he discovered as well as the sole right to authorize expeditions beyond Cape Bojador.", "Henry also held a monopoly on tuna fishing in the Algarve.", "When Edward died eight years later, Henry supported his brother Peter, Duke of Coimbra for the regency during the minority of Edward's son Afonso V, and in return received a confirmation of this levy.Henry functioned as a primary organizer of the disastrous expedition to Tangier in 1437 against Çala Ben Çala, which ended in Henry's younger brother Ferdinand being given as hostage to guarantee Portuguese promises in the peace agreement.", "The Portuguese Cortes refused to return Ceuta as ransom for Ferdinand, who remained in captivity until his death six years later.", "Prince Regent Peter supported Portuguese maritime expansion in the Atlantic Ocean and Africa, and Henry promoted the colonization of the Azores during Peter's regency (1439–1448).", "For most of the latter part of his life, Henry concentrated on his maritime activities and court politics." ], [ "Vila do Infante and Portuguese exploration", "polyptych of St. Vincent by Nuno Gonçalves, c. 1470.According to João de Barros, in Algarve, Prince Henry the Navigator repopulated a village that he called Terçanabal (from ''terça nabal'' or ''tercena nabal'').", "This village was situated in a strategic position for his maritime enterprises and was later called Vila do Infante (\"Estate or Town of the Prince\").It is traditionally suggested that Henry gathered at his villa on the Sagres peninsula a school of navigators and map-makers.", "However modern historians hold this to be a misconception.", "He did employ some cartographers to chart the coast of Mauritania after the voyages he sent there, but there was no center of navigation science or observatory in the modern sense of the word, nor was there an organized navigational center.Referring to Sagres, sixteenth-century Portuguese mathematician and cosmographer Pedro Nunes remarked, \"from it our sailors went out well taught and provided with instruments and rules which all map makers and navigators should know.", "\"The view that Henry's court rapidly grew into the technological base for exploration, with a naval arsenal and an observatory, etc., although repeated in popular culture, has never been established.", "Henry did possess geographical curiosity, and employed cartographers.", "Jehuda Cresques, a noted cartographer, has been said to have accepted an invitation to come to Portugal to make maps for the infante.", "Prestage makes the argument that the presence of the latter at the Prince's court \"probably accounts for the legend of the School of Sagres, which is now discredited.\"" ], [ "Henry's explorations", "Henry sponsored voyages, collecting a 20% tax (''o quinto'') on profits, the usual practice in the Iberian states at the time.", "The nearby port of Lagos provided a convenient home port for these expeditions.", "The voyages were made in very small ships, mostly the caravel, a light and maneuverable vessel equipped by lateen sails.", "Most of the voyages sent out by Henry consisted of one or two ships that navigated by following the coast, stopping at night to tie up along some shore.Approximate routes of the Portuguese ships under Henry's command.During Prince Henry's time and after, the Portuguese navigators discovered and perfected the North Atlantic ''volta do mar'' (the \"turn of the sea\" or \"return from the sea\"): the dependable pattern of trade winds blowing largely from the east near the equator and the returning westerlies in the mid-Atlantic.", "This was a major step in the history of navigation, when an understanding of oceanic wind patterns was crucial to Atlantic navigation, from Africa and the open ocean to Europe, and enabled the main route between the New World and Europe in the North Atlantic in future voyages of discovery.", "Although the lateen sail allowed sailing upwind to some extent, it was worth even major extensions of course to have a faster and calmer following wind for most of a journey.", "Portuguese mariners who sailed south and southwest towards the Canary Islands and West Africa would afterwards sail far to the northwest—that is, away from continental Portugal, and seemingly in the wrong direction—before turning northeast near the Azores islands and finally east to Europe in order to have largely following winds for their full journey.", "Christopher Columbus used this on his transatlantic voyages.=== Madeira ===The first explorations followed not long after the capture of Ceuta in 1415.Henry was interested in locating the source of the caravans that brought gold to the city.", "During the reign of his father, John I, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira were sent to explore along the African coast.", "Zarco, a knight in service to Prince Henry, had commanded the caravels guarding the coast of Algarve from the incursions of the Moors.", "He had also been at Ceuta.In 1418, Zarco and Teixeira were blown off-course by a storm while making the ''volta do mar'' westward swing to return to Portugal.", "They found shelter at an island they named Porto Santo.", "Henry directed that Porto Santo be colonized.", "The move to claim the Madeiran islands was probably a response to Castile's efforts to claim the Canary Islands.", "In 1420, settlers then moved to the nearby island of Madeira.=== The Azores ===A chart drawn by the Catalan cartographer, Gabriel de Vallseca of Mallorca, has been interpreted to indicate that the Azores were first discovered by Diogo de Silves in 1427.In 1431, Gonçalo Velho was dispatched with orders to determine the location of \"islands\" first identified by de Silves.", "Velho apparently got as far as the Formigas, in the eastern archipelago, before having to return to Sagres, probably due to bad weather.By this time the Portuguese navigators had also reached the Sargasso Sea (western North Atlantic region), naming it after the ''Sargassum'' seaweed growing there (''sargaço'' / ''sargasso'' in Portuguese).=== West African coast ===In 1424 Cape Bojador was the most southerly point known to Europeans on the west coast of Africa.", "For centuries, superstitious seafarers held that beyond the cape lay sea monsters and the edge of the world.", "However, Prince Henry was determined to know the truth.", "He was persistent and sent 15 expeditions over a ten-year period to pass the dreaded Cape.", "Each returned unsuccessful.", "The captains gave various excuses for having failed.", "Finally, in 1434 Gil Eanes, the commander of one of Henry's expeditions, became the first known European to pass Cape Bojador since Hanno almost two millennium before.", "''Henry the Navigator'' bronze by Léon-Joseph Chavalliaud (1899), outside the Palm House at Sefton Park, Liverpool (appears similar to a sculpture of the beginning of the 16th century, in the Jerónimos Monastery, Lisbon, possibly close to a true likeness of Prince Henry)Using the new ship type, the expeditions then pushed onwards.", "Nuno Tristão and Antão Gonçalves reached Cape Blanco in 1441.The Portuguese sighted the Bay of Arguin in 1443 and built an important \"forte-feitoria\" (a fort protecting a trading post) on the island of Arguin around the year 1448.Dinis Dias soon came across the Senegal River and rounded the peninsula of Cap-Vert in 1444.By this stage the explorers had passed the southern boundary of the desert, and from then on Henry had one of his wishes fulfilled: the Portuguese had circumvented the Muslim land-based trade routes across the western Sahara Desert, and slaves and gold began arriving in Portugal.", "This rerouting of trade devastated Algiers and Tunis, but made Portugal rich.", "By 1452, the influx of gold permitted the minting of Portugal's first gold ''cruzado'' coins.", "A cruzado was equal to 400 reis at the time.", "From 1444 to 1446, as many as forty vessels sailed from Lagos on Henry's behalf, and the first private mercantile expeditions began.Alvise Cadamosto explored the Atlantic coast of Africa and discovered several islands of the Cape Verde archipelago between 1453 and 1456.In his first voyage, which started on 22 March 1455, he visited the Madeira Islands and the Canary Islands.", "On the second voyage, in 1456, Cadamosto became the first European to reach the Cape Verde Islands.", "António Noli later claimed the credit.", "By 1462, the Portuguese had explored the coast of Africa as far as present-day Sierra Leone.", "Twenty-eight years later, Bartolomeu Dias proved that Africa could be circumnavigated when he reached the southern tip of the continent, now known as the Cape of Good Hope.", "In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first European sailor to reach India by sea." ], [ "Origin of the \"Navigator\" nickname", "Henry's tomb in the Monastery of BatalhaNo one used the nickname \"Henry the Navigator\" to refer to prince Henry during his lifetime or in the following three centuries.", "The term was coined by two nineteenth-century German historians: Heinrich Schaefer and Gustave de Veer.", "Later on it was made popular by two British authors who included it in the titles of their biographies of the prince: Henry Major in 1868 and Raymond Beazley in 1895.Contrary to his brothers, Prince Henry was not praised for his intellectual gifts by his contemporaries.", "It was only later chroniclers such as João de Barros and Damião de Góis who attributed him a scholarly character and an interest for cosmography.", "The myth of the \"Sagres school\" allegedly founded by Prince Henry was created in the 17th century, mainly by Samuel Purchas and Antoine Prévost.", "In nineteenth-century Portugal, the idealized vision of Prince Henry as a putative pioneer of exploration and science reached its apogee." ], [ "Legacy", "Henry is depicted in the Monument of the Discoveries located in Lisbon, featured in the front of the monument.In 1994, the Prince Henry Society in conjunction with the Portuguese government gifted Prince Henry the Navigator Park in New Bedford, Massachusetts." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Ariganello, Lisa.", "''Henry the Navigator : prince of Portuguese exploration'' (2007); for elementary schools.", "online* * * * Bradford, Ernle.", "''A Wind from the North: The Life of Henry the Navigator'' (1960) online or ''Southward the Caravels: The Story of Henry the Navigator'' (UK edition, 1961)* Cerqueiro Daniel.", "El Navegante y la Fuerza de las Ideas.", "Ediciones Pequeña Venecia.", "Buenos Aires 1999.", "* * * Elbl, Ivana.", "\"Man of His Time (and Peers): A New Look at Henry the Navigator.\"", "''Luso-Brazilian Review'' 28.2 (1991): 73–89.online* * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Human cloning" ], [ "Introduction", "Diagram of the ways to reprogram cells along with the development of humans'''Human cloning''' is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human.", "The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning, which is the reproduction of human cells and tissue.", "It does not refer to the natural conception and delivery of identical twins.", "The possibilities of human cloning have raised controversies.", "These ethical concerns have prompted several nations to pass laws regarding human cloning.Two commonly discussed types of human cloning are ''therapeutic cloning'' and ''reproductive cloning''.Therapeutic cloning would involve cloning cells from a human for use in medicine and transplants.", "It is an active area of research, and is in medical practice in the world.", "Two common methods of therapeutic cloning that are being researched are somatic-cell nuclear transfer and (more recently) pluripotent stem cell induction.Reproductive cloning would involve making an entire cloned human, instead of just specific cells or tissues." ], [ "History", "Although the possibility of cloning humans had been the subject of speculation for much of the 20th century, scientists and policymakers began to take the prospect seriously in 1969.J.", "B. S. Haldane was the first to introduce the idea of human cloning, for which he used the terms \"clone\" and \"cloning\", which had been used in agriculture since the early 20th century.", "In his speech on \"Biological Possibilities for the Human Species of the Next Ten Thousand Years\" at the ''Ciba Foundation Symposium on Man and his Future'' in 1963, he said:Nobel Prize-winning geneticist Joshua Lederberg advocated cloning and genetic engineering in an article in ''The American Naturalist'' in 1966 and again, the following year, in ''The Washington Post''.", "He sparked a debate with conservative bioethicist Leon Kass, who wrote at the time that \"the programmed reproduction of man will, in fact, dehumanize him.\"", "Another Nobel Laureate, James D. Watson, publicized the potential and the perils of cloning in his ''Atlantic Monthly'' essay, \"Moving Toward the Clonal Man\", in 1971.With the cloning of a sheep known as Dolly in 1996 by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), the idea of human cloning became a hot debate topic.", "Many nations outlawed it, while a few scientists promised to make a clone within the next few years.", "The first hybrid human clone was created in November 1998, by Advanced Cell Technology.", "It was created using SCNT; a nucleus was taken from a man's leg cell and inserted into a cow's egg from which the nucleus had been removed, and the hybrid cell was cultured and developed into an embryo.", "The embryo was destroyed after 12 days.In 2004 and 2005, Hwang Woo-suk, a professor at Seoul National University, published two separate articles in the journal '' Science'' claiming to have successfully harvested pluripotent, embryonic stem cells from a cloned human blastocyst using SCNT techniques.", "Hwang claimed to have created eleven different patient-specific stem cell lines.", "This would have been the first major breakthrough in human cloning.", "However, in 2006 ''Science'' retracted both of his articles on account of clear evidence that much of his data from the experiments was fabricated.In January 2008, Dr. Andrew French and Samuel Wood of the biotechnology company Stemagen announced that they successfully created the first five mature human embryos using SCNT.", "In this case, each embryo was created by taking a nucleus from a skin cell (donated by Wood and a colleague) and inserting it into a human egg from which the nucleus had been removed.", "The embryos were developed only to the blastocyst stage, at which point they were studied in processes that destroyed them.", "Members of the lab said that their next set of experiments would aim to generate embryonic stem cell lines; these are the \"holy grail\" that would be useful for therapeutic or reproductive cloning.In 2011, scientists at the New York Stem Cell Foundation announced that they had succeeded in generating embryonic stem cell lines, but their process involved leaving the oocyte's nucleus in place, resulting in triploid cells, which would not be useful for cloning.In 2013, a group of scientists led by Shoukhrat Mitalipov published the first report of embryonic stem cells created using SCNT.", "In this experiment, the researchers developed a protocol for using SCNT in human cells, which differs slightly from the one used in other organisms.", "Four embryonic stem cell lines from human fetal somatic cells were derived from those blastocysts.", "All four lines were derived using oocytes from the same donor, ensuring that all mitochondrial DNA inherited was identical.", "A year later, a team led by Robert Lanza at Advanced Cell Technology reported that they had replicated Mitalipov's results and further demonstrated the effectiveness by cloning adult cells using SCNT.In 2018, the first successful cloning of primates using SCNT was reported with the birth of two live female clones, crab-eating macaques named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua." ], [ "Methods", "===Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)===Diagram of SCNT processIn somatic cell nuclear transfer (\"SCNT\"), the nucleus of a somatic cell is taken from a donor and transplanted into a host egg cell, which had its own genetic material removed previously, making it an enucleated egg.", "After the donor somatic cell genetic material is transferred into the host oocyte with a micropipette, the somatic cell genetic material is fused with the egg using an electric current.", "Once the two cells have fused, the new cell can be permitted to grow in a surrogate or artificially.", "This is the process that was used to successfully clone Dolly the sheep (see ).", "The technique, now refined, has indicated that it was possible to replicate cells and reestablish pluripotency, or \"the potential of an embryonic cell to grow into any one of the numerous different types of mature body cells that make up a complete organism\".===Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)===Overview of iPS cellsCreating induced pluripotent stem cells (\"iPSCs\") is a long and inefficient process.", "Pluripotency refers to a stem cell that has the potential to differentiate into any of the three germ layers: endoderm (interior stomach lining, gastrointestinal tract, the lungs), mesoderm (muscle, bone, blood, urogenital), or ectoderm (epidermal tissues and nervous tissue).", "A specific set of genes, often called \"reprogramming factors\", are introduced into a specific adult cell type.", "These factors send signals in the mature cell that cause the cell to become a pluripotent stem cell.", "This process is highly studied and new techniques are being discovered frequently on how to improve this induction process.Depending on the method used, reprogramming of adult cells into iPSCs for implantation could have severe limitations in humans.", "If a virus is used as a reprogramming factor for the cell, cancer-causing genes called oncogenes may be activated.", "These cells would appear as rapidly dividing cancer cells that do not respond to the body's natural cell signaling process.", "However, in 2008 scientists discovered a technique that could remove the presence of these oncogenes after pluripotency induction, thereby increasing the potential use of iPSC in humans.===Comparing SCNT to reprogramming===Both the processes of SCNT and iPSCs have benefits and deficiencies.", "Historically, reprogramming methods were better studied than SCNT derived embryonic stem cells (ESCs).", "However, more recent studies have put more emphasis on developing new procedures for SCNT-ESCs.", "The major advantage of SCNT over iPSCs at this time is the speed with which cells can be produced.", "iPSCs derivation takes several months while SCNT would take a much shorter time, which could be important for medical applications.", "New studies are working to improve the process of iPSC in terms of both speed and efficiency with the discovery of new reprogramming factors in oocytes.", "Another advantage SCNT could have over iPSCs is its potential to treat mitochondrial disease, as it uses a donor oocyte.", "No other advantages are known at this time in using stem cells derived from one method over stem cells derived from the other." ], [ "Uses and actual potential", "Stem cell treatmentsWork on cloning techniques has advanced understanding of developmental biology in humans.", "Observing human pluripotent stem cells grown in culture provides great insight into human embryo development, which otherwise cannot be seen.", "Scientists are now able to better define steps of early human development.", "Studying signal transduction along with genetic manipulation within the early human embryo has the potential to provide answers to many developmental diseases and defects.", "Many human-specific signaling pathways have been discovered by studying human embryonic stem cells.", "Studying developmental pathways in humans has given developmental biologists more evidence toward the hypothesis that developmental pathways are conserved throughout species.iPSCs and cells created by SCNT are useful for research into the causes of disease, and as model systems used in drug discovery.Cells produced with SCNT, or iPSCs could eventually be used in stem cell therapy, or to create organs to be used in transplantation, known as regenerative medicine.", "Stem cell therapy is the use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition.", "Bone marrow transplantation is a widely used form of stem cell therapy.", "No other forms of stem cell therapy are in clinical use at this time.", "Research is underway to potentially use stem cell therapy to treat heart disease, diabetes, and spinal cord injuries.", "Regenerative medicine is not in clinical practice, but is heavily researched for its potential uses.", "This type of medicine would allow for autologous transplantation, thus removing the risk of organ transplant rejection by the recipient.", "For instance, a person with liver disease could potentially have a new liver grown using their same genetic material and transplanted to remove the damaged liver.", "In current research, human pluripotent stem cells have been promised as a reliable source for generating human neurons, showing the potential for regenerative medicine in brain and neural injuries." ], [ "Ethical implications", "In bioethics, the ethics of cloning refers to a variety of ethical positions regarding the practice and possibilities of cloning, especially human cloning.", "While many of these views are religious in origin, for instance relating to Christian views of procreation and personhood, the questions raised by cloning engage secular perspectives as well, particularly the concept of identity.Advocates support development of therapeutic cloning in order to generate tissues and whole organs to treat patients who otherwise cannot obtain transplants, to avoid the need for immunosuppressive drugs, and to stave off the effects of aging.", "Advocates for reproductive cloning believe that parents who cannot otherwise procreate should have access to the technology.Opposition to therapeutic cloning mainly centers around the status of embryonic stem cells, which has connections with the abortion debate.", "The moral argument put forward is based on the notion that embryos deserve protection from the moment of their conception because it is at this precise moment that a new human entity emerges, already a unique individual.", "Since it is deemed unacceptable to sacrifice human lives for any purpose, the argument asserts that the destruction of embryos for research purposes is no longer justifiable.Some opponents of reproductive cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe – for example, the position of the American Association for the Advancement of Science while others emphasize that reproductive cloning could be prone to abuse (leading to the generation of humans whose organs and tissues would be harvested), and have concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with society at large.Members of religious groups are divided.", "Some Christian theologians perceive the technology as usurping God's role in creation and, to the extent embryos are used, destroying a human life; others see no inconsistency between Christian tenets and cloning's positive and potentially life-saving benefits." ], [ "Current law", "In 2015, it was reported that about 70 countries had banned human cloning.In Morocco, all research on human embryos or fetuses is forbidden, as is the conception of human embryos or fetuses for research or experimental purposes, in accordance with article 7 of Dahir no.", "1-19-50.Country Legality References Illegal Human cloning is banned by the Presidential Decree 200/97 of 7 March 1997.Some forms legal Australia has prohibited human cloning, though , a bill legalizing therapeutic cloning and the creation of human embryos for stem cell research passed the House of Representatives.", "Within certain regulatory limits, and subject to the effect of state legislation, therapeutic cloning is now legal in some parts of Australia.", "Illegal Canadian law prohibits the following: cloning humans, cloning stem cells, growing human embryos for research purposes, and buying or selling of embryos, sperm, eggs or other human reproductive material.", "It also bans making changes to human DNA that would pass from one generation to the next, including use of animal DNA in humans.", "Surrogate mothers are legally allowed, as is donation of sperm or eggs for reproductive purposes.", "Human embryos and stem cells are also permitted to be donated for research.There have been consistent calls in Canada to ban human reproductive cloning since the 1993 Report of the Royal Commission on New Reproductive Technologies.", "Polls have indicated that an overwhelming majority of Canadians oppose human reproductive cloning, though the regulation of human cloning continues to be a significant national and international policy issue.", "The notion of \"human dignity\" is commonly used to justify cloning laws.", "The basis for this justification is that reproductive human cloning necessarily infringes notions of human dignity.Some forms legal The government \"does not approve, does not allow, does not support, does not accept\" any reproductive human cloning experiments, but does not oppose therapeutic cloning.In the Eleventh Amendment to the Criminal Law, which came into effect on March 1, 2021, an additional provision was added to Article 336, which stipulates that \"implanting gene-edited or cloned human embryos into human or animal bodies, or implanting gene-edited, cloned Implantation of cloned animal embryos into human bodies, if the circumstances are serious, shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years or criminal detention and a fine; if the circumstances are especially serious, the sentence shall be fixed-term imprisonment of not less than three years but not more than seven years and a fine.\"", "Illegal Human cloning is prohibited in Article 133 of the Colombian Penal Code.", "Illegal The European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine prohibits human cloning in one of its additional protocols; this protocol has been ratified by 24 states.", "Some forms legal The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union explicitly prohibits reproductive human cloning.", "The charter is legally binding for the institutions of the European Union under the Treaty of Lisbon and for some member countries of the Union implementing EU regulations.", "Illegal The Code Civil in its article 16-4 prohibits all forms of cloning.", "All forms of cloning including Therapeutic cloning has been specifically prohibited by 6 August 2004 bioethics law Some forms legal India does not have specific laws regarding cloning but has guidelines prohibiting whole human cloning or reproductive cloning.", "India allows therapeutic cloning and the use of embryonic stem cells for research purposes.", "There are legal implications in this case.India has already succeeded in mammalian cloning.", "Some forms legal Pakistan's Council of Islamic Ideology has declared human cloning as an un-Islamic act.", "According to Pakistan's Council of Islamic Ideology, research and thinking are not banned in Islam; new innovations are allowed, but within the limits of the religion.", "Illegal Human cloning forbidden by article 87 of Act of 25 June 2015.Illegal The Federal Assembly of Russia introduced the Federal Law N 54-FZ \"On the temporary ban on human cloning\" on 19 April 2002.On 20 May 2002, President Vladimir Putin signed this moratorium on the implementation of human cloning.", "On 29 March 2010, The Federal Assembly introduced second revision of this law without time limit.", "Illegal Human cloning is explicitly prohibited in Article 24, \"Right to Life\" of the 2006 Constitution of Serbia.", "Some forms legal Section 5 of the Human Cloning and Other Prohibited Practices Act 2004 prohibits the placing of a human embryo clone in the body of a human or animal.", "Illegal In terms of section 39A of the Human Tissue Act 65 of 1983, genetic manipulation of gametes or zygotes outside the human body is absolutely prohibited.", "A zygote is the cell resulting from the fusion of two gametes; thus the fertilised ovum.", "Section 39A thus prohibits human cloning.", "Some forms legal On 14 January 2001, the British government passed The Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001 to amend the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 by extending allowable reasons for embryo research to permit research around stem cells and cell nuclear replacement, thus allowing therapeutic cloning.", "However, on 15 November 2001, a pro-life group won a High Court legal challenge, which struck down the regulation and effectively left all forms of cloning unregulated in the UK.", "Their hope was that Parliament would fill this gap by passing prohibitive legislation.", "Parliament was quick to pass the Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001 which explicitly prohibited reproductive cloning.", "The remaining gap with regard to therapeutic cloning was closed when the appeals courts reversed the previous decision of the High Court.The first license was granted on 11 August 2004, to researchers at the University of Newcastle to allow them to investigate treatments for diabetes, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.", "The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008, a major review of fertility legislation, repealed the 2001 Cloning Act by making amendments of similar effect to the 1990 Act.", "The 2008 Act also allows experiments on hybrid human-animal embryos.", "Illegal On 13 December 2001, the United Nations General Assembly began elaborating an international convention against the reproductive cloning of humans.", "A broad coalition of states, including Spain, Italy, the Philippines, the United States, Costa Rica, and the Holy See sought to extend the debate to ban all forms of human cloning, noting that, in their view, therapeutic human cloning violates human dignity.", "Costa Rica proposed the adoption of an international convention to ban all forms of human cloning.", "Unable to reach a consensus on a binding convention, in March 2005 a non-binding United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning, calling for the ban of all forms of human cloning contrary to human dignity, was adopted.", "Some forms legal The Patients First Act of 2017 (HR 2918, 115th Congress) aims to promote stem cell research, using cells that are \"ethically obtained\", that could contribute to a better understanding of diseases and therapies, as well as promote the \"derivation of pluripotent stem cell lines without the creation of human embryos\".In 1998, 2001, 2004, 2005, 2007 and 2009, the United States Congress voted whether to ban all human cloning, both reproductive and therapeutic (Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act).", "Divisions in the Senate, or an eventual veto from the sitting President (George W. Bush in 2005 and 2007), over therapeutic cloning prevented either competing proposal (a ban on both forms or on reproductive cloning only) from being passed into law.", "On 10 March 2010, a bill (HR 4808) was introduced with a section banning federal funding for human cloning.", "Such a law, if passed, would not have prevented research from occurring in private institutions (such as universities) that have both private and federal funding.", "However, the 2010 law was not passed.There are currently no federal laws in the United States which ban cloning completely.", "Fifteen American states (Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Indiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, North Dakota, New Jersey, Rhode Island, South Dakota, and Virginia) ban reproductive cloning and three states (Arizona, Maryland and Missouri) prohibit use of public funds for such activities.Ten states, California, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey and Rhode Island, have \"clone and kill\" laws that prevent cloned embryo implantation for childbirth, but allow embryos to be destroyed.+Penalties for human cloning State PenaltiesReproductive cloningTherapeutic cloningArkansasCriminal and civilCriminal and civilCaliforniaCivilN/AIowaCriminal and civilCriminal and civilLouisianaCriminal and civilN/AMichiganCriminal and civilCriminal and civilNorth DakotaCriminal and civilCriminal and civilRhode IslandCriminal and civilN/AVirginiaCivilUnclearHuman cloning laws" ], [ "In popular culture", "Science fiction has used cloning, most commonly and specifically human cloning, due to the fact that it brings up controversial questions of identity.", "Humorous fiction, such as ''Multiplicity'' (1996) and the Maxwell Smart feature ''The Nude Bomb'' (1980), have featured human cloning.", "A recurring sub-theme of cloning fiction is the use of clones as a supply of organs for transplantation.", "Robin Cook's 1997 novel ''Chromosome 6'', Michael Bay's ''The Island'', and Nancy Farmer's 2002 novel ''House of the Scorpion'' are examples of this; ''Chromosome 6'' also features genetic manipulation and xenotransplantation.", "The ''Star Wars'' saga makes use of millions of human clones to form the Grand Army of the Republic that participated in the Clone Wars.", "The series ''Orphan Black'' follows human clones' stories and experiences as they deal with issues and react to being the property of a chain of scientific institutions.", "In the 2019 horror film ''Us'', the entirety of the United States' population is secretly cloned.", "Years later, these clones (known as The Tethered) reveal themselves to the world by successfully pulling off a mass genocide of their counterparts." ], [ "See also", "* Homunculus* Hwang affair" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Araujo, Robert John, \"The UN Declaration on Human Cloning: a survey and assessment of the debate,\" 7 The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly 129 – 149 (2007).", "* Oregon Health & Science University.", "\"Human skin cells converted into embryonic stem cells: First time human stem cells have been produced via nuclear transfer.\"", "ScienceDaily.", "ScienceDaily, 15 May 2013.Human skin cells converted into embryonic stem cells: First time human stem cells have been produced via nuclear transfer.", "* Seyyed Hassan Eslami Ardakani, ''Human Cloning in Catholic and Islamic Perspectives'', University of Religions and Denominations, 2007" ], [ "External links", "* \"Variations and voids: the regulation of human cloning around the world\" academic article by S. Pattinson & T. Caulfield* Cloning Fact Sheet* General Assembly Adopts United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning By Vote of 84-34-37* How Human Cloning Will Work* Moving Toward the Clonal Man* Should We Really Fear Reproductive Human Cloning* United Nation declares law against cloning." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Asia" ], [ "Introduction", "Detail of Chinese silk from the 4th century BCE.", "The characteristic trade of silk through the Silk Road connected various regions from China, India, Central Asia, and the Middle East to Europe and Africa.The '''history of Asia''' can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.", "See History of the Middle East and History of the Indian Subcontinent for further details on those regions.The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations and religions, with each of three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys.", "These valleys were fertile because the soil there was rich and could bear many root crops.", "The civilizations in Mesopotamia, ancient India, and ancient China shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel.", "Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area.", "Cities, states, and then empires developed in these lowlands.The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes, they could reach all areas of the Asian continent.", "The northern part of the continent, covering much of Siberia was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the tundra.", "These areas in Siberia were very sparsely populated.The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts.", "The Caucasus, Himalaya, Karakum Desert, and Gobi Desert formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty.", "While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe.", "However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force.", "Thus the nomads who conquered states in the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.The spread of Islam waved the Islamic Golden Age and the Timurid Renaissance, which later influenced the age of Islamic gunpowder empires.Asia's history features major developments seen in other parts of the world, as well as events that have affected those other regions.", "These include the trade of the Silk Road, which spread cultures, languages, religions, and diseases throughout Afro-Eurasian trade.", "Another major advancement was the innovation of gunpowder in medieval China, later developed by the Gunpowder empires, mainly by the Mughals and Safavids, which led to advanced warfare through the use of guns." ], [ "Prehistory", "Some henges at Göbekli Tepe in Turkey were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predating those of Stonehenge, by over seven millennia.A report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa, India shows new C14 datings that range between 9000 and 8000 BC associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia.", "Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BC.Göbekli Tepe is a Neolithic site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey.", "Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, between 9500 and 8000 BC, the site comprises a number of large circular structures supported by massive stone pillars – the world's oldest known megaliths.The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 8000–7000 BC, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures.", "The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.Around 5500 BC the Halafian culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Anatolia, and northern Mesopotamia, based upon dryland agriculture.In southern Mesopotamia were the alluvial plains of Sumer and Elam.", "Since there was little rainfall, irrigation systems were necessary.", "The Ubaid culture flourished from 5500 BC." ], [ "Ancient", "===Bronze Age===The Chalcolithic period (or Copper Age) began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.The Indus Valley civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BC; mature period 2600–1900 BC) which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this civilization.", "Some of the great cities of this civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which had a high level of town planning and arts.", "The cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BC is debatable, although evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially flooding).", "This era marks Vedic period in India, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BC.", "During this period, the Sanskrit language developed and the Vedas were written, epic hymns that told tales of gods and wars.", "This was the basis for the Vedic religion, which would eventually sophisticate and develop into Hinduism.China and Vietnam were also centres of metalworking.", "Dating back to the Neolithic Age, the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums have been uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China.", "These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam.Song Da bronze drum's surface, Dong Son culture, VietnamIn Ban Chiang, Thailand (Southeast Asia), bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BC.In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts.", "Dating is still currently broad (3500–500 BC).===Iron and Axial Age===The Iron Age saw the widespread use of iron tools, weaponry, and armor throughout the major civilizations of Asia.====Middle East====The First Persian Empire at its greatest extent, c. 500 BCThe Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, ruled an area from Greece and Turkey to the Indus River and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BC.", "Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures, a highly centralized government, and significant infrastructure developments.", "Later, in Darius the Great's rule, the territories were integrated, a bureaucracy was developed, nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection was carefully organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional officials.", "The primary religion of Persia at this time was Zoroastrianism, developed by the philosopher Zoroaster.", "It introduced an early form of monotheism to the area.", "The religion banned animal sacrifice and the use of intoxicants in rituals; and introduced the concept of spiritual salvation through personal moral action, an end time, and both general and Particular judgment with a heaven or hell.", "These concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the masses.", "It was itself heavily influenced by earlier much older ancient religious beliefs and practices dating to the beginning of known history and before.", "The Persian Empire was successful in establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle East and were a major influence in art, politics (affecting Hellenistic leaders), and religion.Alexander the Great conquered this dynasty in the 4th century BC, creating the brief Hellenistic period.", "He was unable to establish stability and after his death, Persia broke into small, weak dynasties including the Seleucid Empire, followed by the Parthian Empire.", "By the end of the Classical age, Persia had been reconsolidated into the Sassanid Empire, also known as the second Persian Empire.The Roman Empire would later control parts of Western Asia.", "The Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanid dynasties of Persia dominated Western Asia for centuries.====India====The Maurya and Gupta empires are called the Golden Age of India and were marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, art, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Indian culture.", "The religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, which began in Indian sub-continent, were an important influence on South, East and Southeast Asia.Hinduism expansion in Asia, from its heartland in Indian Subcontinent, to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia, started circa 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements and polities in Southeast Asia.By 600 BC, India had been divided into 17 regional states that would occasionally feud amongst themselves.", "In 327 BC, Alexander the Great came to India with a vision of conquering the whole world.", "He crossed northwestern India and created the province Bactria but could not move further because his army wanted to go back to their family.", "Shortly prior, the soldier Chandragupta Maurya began to take control of the Ganges river and soon established the Maurya Empire.", "The Maurya Empire (Sanskrit: मौर्य राजवंश, Maurya Rājavaṃśa) was the geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC.", "It was one of the world's largest empires in its time, stretching to the Himalayas in the north, what is now Assam in the east, probably beyond modern Pakistan in the west, and annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, at its greatest extent.", "South of Mauryan empire was the Tamilakam, an independent country dominated by three dynasties, the Pandyans, Cholas and Cheras.", "The government established by Chandragupta was led by an autocratic king, who primarily relied on the military to assert his power.", "It also applied the use of a bureaucracy and even sponsored a postal service.", "Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka, greatly extended the empire by conquering most of modern-day India (save for the southern tip).", "He eventually converted to Buddhism, though, and began a peaceful life where he promoted the religion as well as humane methods throughout India.", "The Maurya Empire would disintegrate soon after Ashoka's death and was conquered by the Kushan invaders from the northwest, establishing the Kushan Empire.", "Their conversion to Buddhism caused the religion to be associated with foreigners and therefore a decline in its popularity occurred.The Kushan Empire would fall apart by 220 AD, creating more political turmoil in India.", "Then in 320, the Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: गुप्त राजवंश, Gupta Rājavanśha) was established and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent.", "Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization.", "Gupta kings united the area primarily through negotiation of local leaders and families as well as strategical intermarriage.", "Their rule covered less land than the Maurya Empire, but established the greatest stability.", "In 535, the empire ended when India was overrun by the Hunas.====Classical China=========Zhou dynasty=====Population concentration and boundaries of the Western Zhou dynasty in ChinaSince 1029 BC, the Zhou dynasty ( ), had existed in China and it would continue to until 258 BC.", "The Zhou dynasty had been using a feudal system by giving power to local nobility and relying on their loyalty in order to control its large territory.", "As a result, the Chinese government at this time tended to be very decentralized and weak, and there was often little the emperor could do to resolve national issues.", "Nonetheless, the government was able to retain its position with the creation of the Mandate of Heaven, which could establish an emperor as divinely chosen to rule.", "The Zhou additionally discouraged the human sacrifice of the preceding eras and unified the Chinese language.", "Finally, the Zhou government encouraged settlers to move into the Yangtze River valley, thus creating the Chinese Middle Kingdom.But by 500 BC, its political stability began to decline due to repeated nomadic incursions and internal conflict derived from the fighting princes and families.", "This was lessened by the many philosophical movements, starting with the life of Confucius.", "His philosophical writings (called Confucianism) concerning the respect of elders and of the state would later be popularly used in the Han dynasty.", "Additionally, Laozi's concepts of Taoism, including yin and yang and the innate duality and balance of nature and the universe, became popular throughout this period.", "Nevertheless, the Zhou dynasty eventually disintegrated as the local nobles began to gain more power and their conflict devolved into the Warring States period, from 402 to 201 BC.=====Qin dynasty=====One leader eventually came on top, Qin Shi Huang (, ''Shǐ Huángdì''), who overthrew the last Zhou emperor and established the Qin dynasty.", "The Qin dynasty (Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: Qín Cháo) was the first ruling dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC.", "The new Emperor abolished the feudal system and directly appointed a bureaucracy that would rely on him for power.", "Huang's imperial forces crushed any regional resistance, and they furthered the Chinese empire by expanding down to the South China Sea and northern Vietnam.", "Greater organization brought a uniform tax system, a national census, regulated road building (and cart width), standard measurements, standard coinage, and an official written and spoken language.", "Further reforms included new irrigation projects, the encouragement of silk manufacturing, and (most famously) the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China—designed to keep out the nomadic raiders who'd constantly badger the Chinese people.", "However, Shi Huang was infamous for his tyranny, forcing laborers to build the Wall, ordering heavy taxes, and severely punishing all who opposed him.", "He oppressed Confucians and promoted Legalism, the idea that people were inherently evil, and that a strong, forceful government was needed to control them.", "Legalism was infused with realistic, logical views and rejected the pleasures of educated conversation as frivolous.", "All of this made Shi Huang extremely unpopular with the people.", "As the Qin began to weaken, various factions began to fight for control of China.=====Han dynasty=====The Silk Road in AsiaThe Han dynasty (; 206 BC – 220 AD) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–265 AD).", "Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history.", "One of the Han dynasty's greatest emperors, Emperor Wu of Han, established a peace throughout China comparable to the Pax Romana seen in the Mediterranean a hundred years later.", "To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the \"Han people\".", "The Han dynasty was established when two peasants succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son.", "The new Han government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the repression seen before.", "They expanded their territory into Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asia, creating an even larger empire than the Qin.The Han developed contacts with the Persian Empire in the Middle East and the Romans, through the Silk Road, with which they were able to trade many commodities—primarily silk.", "Many ancient civilizations were influenced by the Silk Road, which connected China, India, the Middle East and Europe.", "Han emperors like Wu also promoted Confucianism as the national \"religion\" (although it is debated by theologians as to whether it is defined as such or as a philosophy).", "Shrines devoted to Confucius were built and Confucian philosophy was taught to all scholars who entered the Chinese bureaucracy.", "The bureaucracy was further improved with the introduction of an examination system that selected scholars of high merit.", "These bureaucrats were often upper-class people educated in special schools, but whose power was often checked by the lower-class brought into the bureaucracy through their skill.", "The Chinese imperial bureaucracy was very effective and highly respected by all in the realm and would last over 2,000 years.", "The Han government was highly organized and it commanded the military, judicial law (which used a system of courts and strict laws), agricultural production, the economy, and the general lives of its people.", "The government also promoted intellectual philosophy, scientific research, and detailed historical records.The Han dynasty and main polities in Asia c. 200 BCHowever, despite all of this impressive stability, central power began to lose control by the turn of the Common Era.", "As the Han dynasty declined, many factors continued to pummel it into submission until China was left in a state of chaos.", "By 100 AD, philosophical activity slowed, and corruption ran rampant in the bureaucracy.", "Local landlords began to take control as the scholars neglected their duties, and this resulted in heavy taxation of the peasantry.", "Taoists began to gain significant ground and protested the decline.", "They started to proclaim magical powers and promised to save China with them; the Taoist Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 (led by rebels in yellow scarves) failed but was able to weaken the government.", "The aforementioned Huns combined with diseases killed up to half of the population and officially ended the Han dynasty by 220.The ensuing period of chaos was so terrible it lasted for three centuries, where many weak regional rulers and dynasties failed to establish order in China.", "This period of chaos and attempts at order is commonly known as that of the Six Dynasties.", "The first part of this included the Three Kingdoms which started in 220 and describes the brief and weak successor \"dynasties\" that followed the Han.", "In 265, the Jin dynasty of China was started and this soon split into two different empires in control of northwestern and southeastern China.", "In 420, the conquest and abdication of those two dynasties resulted in the first of the Southern and Northern dynasties.", "The Northern and Southern dynasties passed through until finally, by 557, the Northern Zhou dynasty ruled the north and the Chen dynasty ruled the south." ], [ "Medieval{{anchor|Medieval}}", "During this period, the Eastern world empires continued to expand through trade, migration and conquests of neighboring areas.", "Gunpowder was widely used as early as the 11th century and they were using moveable type printing five hundred years before Gutenberg created his press.", "Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism were the dominant philosophies of the Far East during the Middle Ages.", "Marco Polo was not the first Westerner to travel to the Orient and return with amazing stories of this different culture, but his accounts published in the late 13th and early 14th centuries were the first to be widely read throughout Europe.===Western Asia (Middle East)===Byzantine and Sassanian Empires in 600 ADThe Arabian peninsula and the surrounding Middle East and Near East regions saw dramatic change during the Medieval era caused primarily by the spread of Islam and the establishment of the Arabian Empires.In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the Sassanian Empire of the Persians in what is now Iran and Iraq, and the Byzantine Empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).", "The Byzantines and Sassanians fought with each other continually, a reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years.", "The fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power.", "Meanwhile, the nomadic Bedouin tribes who dominated the Arabian desert saw a period of tribal stability, greater trade networking and a familiarity with Abrahamic religions or monotheism.While the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, a new power in the form of Islam grew in the Middle East under Muhammad in Medina.", "In a series of rapid Muslim conquests, the Rashidun army, led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of Byzantine territory in the Arab–Byzantine wars and completely engulfing Persia in the Muslim conquest of Persia.", "It would be the Arab Caliphates of the Middle Ages that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant ethnic identity that persists today.", "These Caliphates included the Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, and later the Seljuq Empire.The early Muslim conquests, 622–750After Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture into an Islamic Golden Age, inspiring achievements in architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life.", "Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, and ethics that would later finds it way back to Western Europe.The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia.", "They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the Hejaz.", "This was followed by a series of Christian Western Europe invasions.", "The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France, and the emerging Holy Roman Empire, to enter the region.", "In 1099 the knights of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem and founded the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which survived until 1187, when Saladin retook the city.", "Smaller crusader fiefdoms survived until 1291.In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire, swept through the region, sacking Baghdad in the Siege of Baghdad (1258) and advancing as far south as the border of Egypt in what became known as the Mongol conquests.", "The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks.", "In 1401, the region was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol, Timur, and his ferocious raids.", "By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the Ottomans.===Central Asia=======Mongol Empire====Turco-Mongol residual states and domains by the 15th centuryThe Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe.", "Medieval Asia was the kingdom of the Khans.", "Never before had any person controlled as much land as Genghis Khan.", "He built his power unifying separate Mongol tribes before expanding his kingdom south and west.", "He and his grandson, Kublai Khan, controlled lands in China, Burma, Central Asia, Russia, Iran, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe.", "Genghis Khan was a Khagan who tolerated nearly every religion.===South Asia/Indian Subcontinent=======India====The Delhi Sultanate.The Indian early medieval age, 600 to 1200, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.", "When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.", "When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.", "When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.", "The Cholas could under the rule of Raja Raja Chola defeat their rivals and rise to a regional power.", "Cholas expanded northward and defeated Eastern Chalukya, Kalinga and the Pala.", "Under Rajendra Chola the Cholas created the first notable navy of Indian subcontinent.", "The Chola navy extended the influence of Chola empire to southeast asia.", "During this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 12th century onwards, though earlier Muslim conquests include the limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and the Umayyad campaigns in India, during the time of the Rajput kingdoms in the 8th century.Major economic and military powers like the Delhi Sultanate and Bengal Sultanate, were seen to be established.", "The search of their wealth led the Voyages of Christopher Columbus.The Vijayanagara Empire based in the Deccan Plateau region of South India, was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, patronized by saint Vidyaranya, the 12th Shankaracharya of Sringeri in Karnataka.", "The empire rose to prominence as a result of attempts by the southern powers to resist and ward off Turkic Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century.", "At its peak, it subjugated almost all of South India's rulers and pushed the sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river region.", "After annexing modern day Odisha (ancient Kalinga) from the Gajapati Kingdom, became a notable power.", "The Kingdome lasted until 1646 after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates.===East Asia===The Song dynasty and main polities in Asia c. 1200====China====China saw the rise and fall of the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties and therefore improvements in its bureaucracy, the spread of Buddhism, and the advent of Neo-Confucianism.", "It was an unsurpassed era for Chinese ceramics and painting.", "Medieval architectural masterpieces the Great South Gate in Todaiji, Japan, and the Tien-ning Temple in Peking, China are some of the surviving constructs from this era.=====Sui dynasty=====A new powerful dynasty began to rise in the 580s, amongst the divided factions of China.", "This was started when an aristocrat named Yang Jian married his daughter into the Northern Zhou dynasty.", "He proclaimed himself Emperor Wen of Sui and appeased the nomadic military by abandoning the Confucian scholar-gentry.", "Emperor Wen soon led the conquest of the southern Chen dynasty and united China once more under the Sui dynasty.", "The emperor lowered taxes and constructed granaries that he used to prevent famine and control the market.", "Later Wen's son would murder him for the throne and declare himself Emperor Yang of Sui.", "Emperor Yang revived the Confucian scholars and the bureaucracy, much to anger of the aristocrats and nomadic military leaders.", "Yang became an excessive leader who overused China's resources for personal luxury and perpetuated exhaustive attempts to conquer Goguryeo.", "His military failures and neglect of the empire forced his own ministers to assassinate him in 618, ending the Sui dynasty.=====Tang dynasty=====Battle of Talas between Tang dynasty and Abbasid Caliphate c. 751Fortunately, one of Yang's most respectable advisors, Li Yuan, was able to claim the throne quickly, preventing a chaotic collapse.", "He proclaimed himself Emperor Gaozu, and established the Tang dynasty in 623.The Tang saw expansion of China through conquest to Tibet in the west, Vietnam in the south, and Manchuria in the north.", "Tang emperors also improved the education of scholars in the Chinese bureaucracy.", "A Ministry of Rites was established and the examination system was improved to better qualify scholars for their jobs.", "In addition, Buddhism became popular in China with two different strains between the peasantry and the elite, the Pure Land and Zen strains, respectively.", "Greatly supporting the spread of Buddhism was Empress Wu, who additionally claimed an unofficial \"Zhou dynasty\" and displayed China's tolerance of a woman ruler, which was rare at the time.", "However, Buddhism would also experience some backlash, especially from Confucianists and Taoists.", "This would usually involve criticism about how it was costing the state money, since the government was unable to tax Buddhist monasteries, and additionally sent many grants and gifts to them.The Tang dynasty began to decline under the rule of Emperor Xuanzong, who began to neglect the economy and military and caused unrest amongst the court officials due to the excessive influence of his concubine, Yang Guifei, and her family.", "This eventually sparked a revolt in 755.Although the revolt failed, subduing it required involvement with the unruly nomadic tribes outside of China and distributing more power to local leaders—leaving the government and economy in a degraded state.", "The Tang dynasty officially ended in 907 and various factions led by the aforementioned nomadic tribes and local leaders would fight for control of China in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.=====Liao, Song and Jin dynasties=====Song period at the capital, Bianjing, today's KaifengBy 960, most of China proper had been reunited under the Song dynasty, although it lost territories in the north and could not defeat one of the nomadic tribes there—the Liao dynasty of the highly sinicized Khitan people.", "From then on, the Song would have to pay tribute to avoid invasion and thus set the precedent for other nomadic kingdoms to oppress them.", "The Song also saw the revival of Confucianism in the form of Neo-Confucianism.", "This had the effect of putting the Confucian scholars at a higher status than aristocrats or Buddhists and also intensified the reduction of power in women.", "The infamous practice of foot binding developed in this period as a result.", "Eventually the Liao dynasty in the north was overthrown by the Jin dynasty of the Manchu-related Jurchen people.", "The new Jin kingdom invaded northern China, leaving the Song to flee farther south and creating the Southern Song dynasty in 1126.There, cultural life flourished.=====Yuan dynasty===== Map of Marco Polo's travelsBy 1227, the Mongols had conquered the Western Xia kingdom northwest of China.", "Soon the Mongols incurred upon the Jin empire of the Jurchens.", "Chinese cities were soon besieged by the Mongol hordes that showed little mercy for those who resisted and the Southern Song Chinese were quickly losing territory.", "In 1271 the current great khan, Kublai Khan, claimed himself Emperor of China and officially established the Yuan dynasty.", "By 1290, all of China was under control of the Mongols, marking the first time they were ever completely conquered by a foreign invader; the new capital was established at Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing).", "Kublai Khan segregated Mongol culture from Chinese culture by discouraging interactions between the two peoples, separating living spaces and places of worship, and reserving top administrative positions to Mongols, thus preventing Confucian scholars to continue the bureaucratic system.", "Nevertheless, Kublai remained fascinated with Chinese thinking, surrounding himself with Chinese Buddhist, Taoist, or Confucian advisors.Mongol women displayed a contrasting independent nature compared to the Chinese women who continued to be suppressed.", "Mongol women often rode out on hunts or even to war.", "Kublai's wife, Chabi, was a perfect example of this; Chabi advised her husband on several political and diplomatic matters; she convinced him that the Chinese were to be respected and well-treated in order to make them easier to rule.", "However, this was not enough to affect Chinese women's position, and the increasingly Neo-Confucian successors of Kublai further repressed Chinese and even Mongol women.The Black Death, which would later ravage Western Europe, had its beginnings in Asia, where it wiped out large populations in China in 1331.====Japan====Sculpture of Prince Shōtoku=====Asuka period=====Japan's medieval history began with the Asuka period, from around 600 to 710.The time was characterized by the Taika Reform and imperial centralization, both of which were a direct result of growing Chinese contact and influences.", "In 603, Prince Shōtoku of the Yamato dynasty began significant political and cultural changes.", "He issued the Seventeen-article constitution in 604, centralizing power towards the emperor (under the title ''tenno'', or heavenly sovereign) and removing the power to levy taxes from provincial lords.", "Shōtoku was also a patron of Buddhism and he encouraged building temples competitively.=====Nara period=====Shōtoku's reforms transitioned Japan to the Nara period (c. 710 to c. 794), with the moving of the Japanese capital to Nara in Honshu.", "This period saw the culmination of Chinese-style writing, etiquette, and architecture in Japan along with Confucian ideals to supplement the already present Buddhism.", "Peasants revered both Confucian scholars and Buddhist monks.", "However, in the wake of the 735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic, Buddhism gained the status of state religion and the government ordered the construction of numerous Buddhist temples, monasteries, and statues.", "The lavish spending combined with the fact that many aristocrats did not pay taxes, put a heavy burden on peasantry that caused poverty and famine.", "Eventually the Buddhist position got out of control, threatening to seize imperial power and causing Emperor Kanmu to move the capital to Heian-kyō to avoid a Buddhist takeover.", "This marked the beginning of the Heian period and the end of Taika reform.=====Heian period=====With the Heian period (from 794 to 1185) came a decline of imperial power.", "Chinese influence also declined, as a result of its correlation with imperial centralization and the heavenly mandate, which came to be regarded as ineffective.", "By 838, the Japanese court discontinued its embassies in China; only traders and Buddhist monks continued to travel to China.", "Buddhism itself came to be considered more Japanese than Chinese, and persisted to be popular in Japan.", "Buddhists monks and monasteries continued their attempts to gather personal power in courts, along with aristocrats.", "One particular noble family that dominated influence in the imperial bureaucracy was the Fujiwara clan.", "During this time cultural life in the imperial court flourished.", "There was a focus on beauty and social interaction and writing and literature was considered refined.", "Noblewomen were cultured the same as noblemen, dabbling in creative works and politics.", "A prime example of both Japanese literature and women's role in high-class culture at this time was ''The Tale of Genji'', written by the lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu.", "Popularization of wooden palaces and shōji sliding doors amongst the nobility also occurred.Machiya in Heian periodLoss of imperial power also led to the rise of provincial warrior elites.", "Small lords began to function independently.", "They administered laws, supervised public works projects, and collected revenue for themselves instead of the imperial court.", "Regional lords also began to build their own armies.", "These warriors were loyal only their local lords and not the emperor, although the imperial government increasingly called them in to protect the capital.", "The regional warrior class developed into the samurai, which created its own culture: including specialized weapons such as the katana and a form of chivalry, bushido.", "The imperial government's loss of control in the second half of the Heian period allowed banditry to grow, requiring both feudal lords and Buddhist monasteries to procure warriors for protection.", "As imperial control over Japan declined, feudal lords also became more independent and seceded from the empire.", "These feudal states squandered the peasants living in them, reducing the farmers to an almost serfdom status.", "Peasants were also rigidly restricted from rising to the samurai class, being physically set off by dress and weapon restrictions.", "As a result of their oppression, many peasants turned to Buddhism as a hope for reward in the afterlife for upright behavior.With the increase of feudalism, families in the imperial court began to depend on alliances with regional lords.", "The Fujiwara clan declined from power, replaced by a rivalry between the Taira clan and the Minamoto clan.", "This rivalry grew into the Genpei War in the early 1180s.", "This war saw the use of both samurai and peasant soldiers.", "For the samurai, battle was ritual and they often easily cut down the poorly trained peasantry.", "The Minamoto clan proved successful due to their rural alliances.", "Once the Taira was destroyed, the Minamoto established a military government called the shogunate (or bakufu), centered in Kamakura.=====Kamakura period=====The end of the Genpei War and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate marked the end of the Heian period and the beginning of the Kamakura period in 1185, solidifying feudal Japan.====Korea=========Three Kingdoms of Korea=====Korean peninsula in 476 AD.", "There are three kingdoms and Gaya Union in the picture.", "This picture shows the heyday of GoguryeoThe three Kingdoms of Korea involves Goguryeo in north, Baekje in southwest, and Silla in southeast Korean peninsula.", "These three kingdoms act as a bridge of cultures between China and Japan.", "Prince Shōtoku of Japan had been taught by two teachers.", "One was from Baekje, the other was from Goguryeo.", "Once Japan invaded Silla, Goguryeo helped Silla to defeat Japan.", "Baekje met the earliest heyday of them.", "Its heyday was the 5th century AD.", "Its capital was Seoul.", "During its heyday, the kingdom made colonies overseas.", "Liaodong, China and Kyushu, Japan were the colonies of Baekje during its short heyday.", "Goguryeo was the strongest kingdom of all.", "They sometimes called themselves as an Empire.", "Its heyday was 6th century.", "King Gwanggaeto widened its territory to north.", "So Goguryeo dominated from Korean peninsula to Manchuria.", "And his son, King Jangsu widened its territory to south.", "He occupied Seoul, and moved its capital to Pyeongyang.", "Goguryeo almost occupied three quarters of South Korean peninsula thanks to king Jangsu who widened the kingdom's territory to south.", "Silla met the latest heyday.", "King Jinheung went north and occupiedSeoul.", "But it was short.", "Baekje became stronger and attacked Silla.", "Baekje occupied more than 40 cities of Silla.", "So Silla could hardly survive.China's Sui dynasty invaded Goguryeo and Goguryeo–Sui War occurred between Korea and China.", "Goguryeo won against China and Sui dynasty fell.", "After then, Tang dynasty reinvaded Goguryeo and helped Silla to unify the peninsula.", "Goguryeo, Baekje, and Japan helped each other against Tang-Silla alliance, but Baekje and Goguryeo fell.", "Unfortunately, Tang dynasty betrayed Silla and invaded Korean peninsula in order to occupy the whole Korean peninsula (Silla-Tang war).", "Silla advocated 'Unification of Three Korea', so people of fallen Baekje and Goguryeo helped Silla against Chinese invasion.", "Eventually Silla could beat China and unified the peninsula.", "This war helped Korean people to unite mentally.=====North-South States Period=====Balhae in the north, Later Silla in the souththe Goryeo ware, which shows splendid culture of Goryeo in mediaeval Korea.The rest of Goguryeo people established Balhae and won the war against Tang in later 7th century AD.", "Balhae is the north state, and Later Silla was the south state.", "Balhae was a quite strong kingdom as their ancestor Goguryeo did.", "Finally, the Emperor of Tang dynasty admits Balhae as 'A strong country in the East'.", "They liked to trade with Japan, China, and Silla.", "Balhae and Later Silla sent a lot of international students to China.", "And Arabian merchants came into Korean peninsula, so Korea became known as 'Silla' in the western countries.", "Silla improved Korean writing system called Idu letters.", "Idu affected Katakana of Japan.", "Liao dynasty invaded Balhae in early 10th century, so Balhae fell.=====Later Three Kingdoms of Korea=====The unified Korean kingdom, Later Silla divided into three kingdoms again because of the corrupt central government.", "It involves Later Goguryeo (also as known as \"Taebong\"), Later Baekje, and Later Silla.", "The general of Later Goguryeo, Wang Geon took the throne and changed the name of kingdom into Goryeo, which was derived by the ancient strong kingdom, Goguryeo, and Goryeo reunified the peninsula.=====Goryeo =====Goryeo reunited the Korean peninsula during the later three kingdoms period and named itself as 'Empire'.", "But nowadays, Goryeo is known as a kingdom.", "The name 'Goryeo' was derived from Goguryeo, and the name Korea was derived from Goryeo.", "Goryeo adopted people from fallen Balhae.", "They also widened their territory to north by defending Liao dynasty and attacking the Jurchen people.", "Goryeo developed a splendid culture.", "The first metal type printed book Jikji was also from Korea.", "The Goryeo ware is one of the most famous legacies of this kingdom.", "Goryeo imported Chinese government system and developed into their own ways.During this period, laws were codified and a civil service system was introduced.", "Buddhism flourished and spread throughout the peninsula.", "The Tripitaka Koreana is 81,258 books total.", "It was made to keep Korea safe against the Mongolian invasion.", "It is now a UNESCO world heritage.", "Goryeo won the battle against Liao dynasty.", "Then, the Mongolian Empire invaded Goryeo.", "Goryeo did not disappear but it had to obey Mongolians.", "After 80 years, in 14th century, the Mongolian dynasty Yuan lost power, King Gongmin tried to free themselves against Mongol although his wife was also Mongolian.", "At the 14th century, Ming dynasty wanted Goryeo to obey China.", "But Goryeo didn't.", "They decided to invade China.", "Going to China, the general of Goryeo, Lee Sung-Gae came back and destroyed Goryeo.", "Then, in 1392, he established new dynasty, Joseon.", "And he became Taejo of Joseon, which means the first king of Joseon.===Southeast Asia======= Khmers ====The Hindu-Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat.In 802, Jayavarman II consolidated his rule over neighboring peoples and declared himself chakravartin, or \"universal ruler\".", "The Khmer Empire effectively dominated all Mainland Southeast Asia from the early 9th until the 15th century, during which time they developed a sophisticated monumental architecture of most exquisite expression and mastery of composition at Angkor.====Vietnam====The history of Vietnam can be traced back to around 20,000 years ago, as the first modern humans arrived and settled on this land, known as the Hoabinhians, which can be traced back to the modern-day Negritos.", "Archaeological findings from 1965, which are still under research, show the remains of two hominins closely related to the Sinanthropus, dating as far back as the Middle Pleistocene era, roughly half a million years ago.Map of Vietnam showing the conquest of the south (the ''Nam tiến, 1069–1757'').Pre-historic Vietnam was home to some of the world's earliest civilizations and societies—making them one of the world's first people who had practiced agriculture.", "The Red River valley formed a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the north and west by mountains and jungles, to the east by the sea and to the south by the Red River Delta.", "The need to have a single authority to prevent floods of the Red River, to cooperate in constructing hydraulic systems, trade exchange, and to repel invaders, led to the creation of the first legendary Vietnamese states approximately 2879 BC.", "While in the later times, ongoing research from archaeologists have suggested that the Vietnamese Đông Sơn culture were traceable back to Northern Vietnam, Guangxi and Laos around 700 BC.Vietnam's long coastal and narrowed lands, rugged mountainous terrains, with two major deltas, were soon home to several different ancient cultures and civilizations.", "In the north, the Đông Sơn culture and its indigenous chiefdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc started to flourish by 500 BC.", "In Central, Sa Huỳnh culture of Austronesian Chamic peoples also thrived.", "Both were swept by the Chinese Han dynasty expansion from the north - the Han conquest of Nanyue brought parts of Vietnam under the Chinese rule in 111 BC.", "Traditional Chinese became the official script as well as the later developed independent Nôm script of Vietnamese.In 40 BC, the Trưng Sisters led the first uprising of indigenous tribes and peoples against Chinese domination.", "The rebellion was however defeated, but as the Han dynasty began to weaken by late 2nd century and China (中国) started to descend into state of turmoil, the indigenous peoples of Vietnam rose again and some became free.", "In 192 AD, the Chams of Central Vietnam revolted against the Chinese and subsequently became independent Kingdom of Champa, while the Red River Delta saw loosening Northern control.", "At that time, with the introduction of Buddhism and Hinduism by the second century AD, Vietnam was the first place in Southeast Asia which shared influences of both Indian and Sino cultures, and the rise of first Indianized kingdoms Champa and Funan.Đại Việt, Champa, Angkor Empire and their neighbours, late 13th centuryDuring these 1,000 years there were many uprisings against Chinese domination, and at certain periods Vietnam was independently governed under the Trưng Sisters, Early Lý, Khúc and Dương Đình Nghệ—although their triumphs and reigns were temporary.When Ngô Quyền (Emperor of Vietnam, 938–944) restored sovereign power in the country with the victory at The battle of Bạch Đằng River (938), the next millennium was advanced by the accomplishments of successive local dynasties: Ngô, Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần, Hồ, Later Trần, Later Lê, Mạc, Revival Lê, Tây Sơn and Nguyễn.", "Nôm script (Chữ Nôm) of the Vietnamese started to develop and become more sophisticated, with literature being published and written in Nôm.", "At various points during the imperial dynasties, Vietnam was ravaged and divided by civil wars and witnessed interventions by the Song, Yuan, Cham, Ming, Siamese, Qing, French, and Empire of Japan.The Ming Empire conquered the Red River valley for a while before native Vietnamese regained control and the French Empire reduced Vietnam to a French dependency for nearly a century, followed by brief but brutal occupation by the Japanese Empire.", "During the French period, widespread brutality, inequality and cultural remnants of Hán-Nôm were being destroyed, with the French wishing to rid the Vietnamese of their Confucian legacy from the 1880s.", "French was the official language during this period.", "The Vietnamese Latin script, seen to be a Latin transliteration of Hán-Nôm, superseded the Hán-Nôm logographic scripts and became the main mode of written as well as spoken language since the 20th century.Japan invaded in 1940, creating deep resentment that fuelled resistance to post-World War II military-political efforts by the returning power of France, and the United States who had viewed themselves as fighters for liberty and democracy against the red waves of communism.", "In the Vietnam War, the United States or the Western Bloc supported South Vietnam and the Soviet Union or the Eastern Bloc supported North Vietnam.", "Political upheaval, a period of intense fighting and war, followed by Communist insurrection and victory further put an end to the monarchy after World War II, and the country was proclaimed a Socialist Republic.", "Vietnam suffered heavy sanctions as well as political and economic isolation following brutal wars with China and Cambodia in the successive years.", "Following that era, the Đổi Mới (renovation/innovation) reformations were enacted.", "The forces of market liberalisation and globalisation has shaped Vietnam's economic and political circumstances since." ], [ "Early modern", "A 1796 map of Asia (or the \"Eastern world\"), which also included the continent of Australia (then known as New Holland) within its realm.The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century.", "The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the 16th century onwards.", "In the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing dynasty.", "In the 16th century, the Mughal Empire controlled much of India and initiated the second golden age for India.", "China was the largest economy in the world for much of the time, followed by India until the 18th century.===Ming China===By 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang had claimed himself Hongwu Emperor and established the Ming dynasty of China.", "Immediately, the new emperor and his followers drove the Mongols and their culture out of China and beyond the Great Wall.", "The new emperor was somewhat suspicious of the scholars that dominated China's bureaucracy, for he had been born a peasant and was uneducated.", "Nevertheless, Confucian scholars were necessary to China's bureaucracy and were reestablished as well as reforms that would improve the exam systems and make them more important in entering the bureaucracy than ever before.", "The exams became more rigorous, cut down harshly on cheating, and those who excelled were more highly appraised.", "Finally, Hongwu also directed more power towards the role of emperor so as to end the corrupt influences of the bureaucrats.====Society and economy====The Hongwu emperor, perhaps for his sympathy of the common-folk, had built many irrigation systems and other public projects that provided help for the peasant farmers.", "They were also allowed to cultivate and claim unoccupied land without having to pay any taxes and labor demands were lowered.", "However, none of this was able to stop the rising landlord class that gained many privileges from the government and slowly gained control of the peasantry.", "Moneylenders foreclosed on peasant debt in exchange for mortgages and bought up farmer land, forcing them to become the landlords' tenants or to wander elsewhere for work.", "Also during this time, Neo-Confucianism intensified even more than the previous two dynasties (the Song and Yuan).", "Focus on the superiority of elders over youth, men over women, and teachers over students resulted in minor discrimination of the \"inferior\" classes.", "The fine arts grew in the Ming era, with improved techniques in brush painting that depicted scenes of court, city or country life; people such as scholars or travelers; or the beauty of mountains, lakes, or marshes.", "The Chinese novel fully developed in this era, with such classics written such as ''Water Margin'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Jin Ping Mei''.Economics grew rapidly in the Ming dynasty as well.", "The introduction of American crops such as maize, sweet potatoes, and peanuts allowed for cultivation of crops in infertile land and helped prevent famine.", "The population boom that began in the Song dynasty accelerated until China's population went from 80 or 90 million to 150 million in three centuries, culminating in 1600.This paralleled the market economy that was growing both internally and externally.", "Silk, tea, ceramics, and lacquer-ware were produced by artisans that traded them in Asia and to Europeans.", "Westerners began to trade (with some Chinese-assigned limits), primarily in the port-towns of Macau and Canton.", "Although merchants benefited greatly from this, land remained the primary symbol of wealth in China and traders' riches were often put into acquiring more land.", "Therefore, little of these riches were used in private enterprises that could've allowed for China to develop the market economy that often accompanied the highly-successful Western countries.====Foreign interests====A view of the Fort St George in 18th-century Madras.In the interest of national glory, the Chinese began sending impressive junk ships across the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean.", "From 1403 to 1433, the Yongle Emperor commissioned expeditions led by the admiral Zheng He, a Muslim eunuch from China.", "Chinese junks carrying hundreds of soldiers, goods, and animals for zoos, traveled to Southeast Asia, Persia, southern Arabia, and east Africa to show off Chinese power.", "Their prowess exceeded that of current Europeans at the time, and had these expeditions not ended, the world economy may be different from today.", "In 1433, the Chinese government decided that the cost of a navy was an unnecessary expense.", "The Chinese navy was slowly dismantled and focus on interior reform and military defense began.", "It was China's longstanding priority that they protect themselves from nomads and they have accordingly returned to it.", "The growing limits on the Chinese navy would leave them vulnerable to foreign invasion by sea later on.Here a Jesuit, Adam Schall von Bell (1592–1666), is dressed as an official of the Chinese Department of Astronomy.As was inevitable, Westerners arrived on the Chinese east coast, primarily Jesuit missionaries which reached the mainland in 1582.They attempted to convert the Chinese people to Christianity by first converting the top of the social hierarchy and allowing the lower classes to subsequently convert.", "To further gain support, many Jesuits adopted Chinese dress, customs, and language.", "Some Chinese scholars were interested in certain Western teachings and especially in Western technology.", "By the 1580s, Jesuit scholars like Matteo Ricci and Adam Schall amazed the Chinese elite with technological advances such as European clocks, improved calendars and cannons, and the accurate prediction of eclipses.", "Although some the scholar-gentry converted, many were suspicious of the Westerners whom they called \"barbarians\" and even resented them for the embarrassment they received at the hand of Western correction.", "Nevertheless, a small group of Jesuit scholars remained at the court to impress the emperor and his advisors.====Decline====Dutch Batavia in the 17th century, built in what is now North JakartaNear the end of the 1500s, the extremely centralized government that gave so much power to the emperor had begun to fail as more incompetent rulers took the mantle.", "Along with these weak rulers came increasingly corrupt officials who took advantage of the decline.", "Once more the public projects fell into disrepair due to neglect by the bureaucracy and resulted in floods, drought, and famine that rocked the peasantry.", "The famine soon became so terrible that some peasants resorted to selling their children to slavery to save them from starvation, or to eating bark, the feces of geese, or other people.", "Many landlords abused the situation by building large estates where desperate farmers would work and be exploited.", "In turn, many of these farmers resorted to flight, banditry, and open rebellion.All of this corresponded with the usual dynastic decline of China seen before, as well as the growing foreign threats.", "In the mid-16th century, Japanese and ethnic Chinese pirates began to raid the southern coast, and neither the bureaucracy nor the military were able to stop them.", "The threat of the northern Manchu people also grew.", "The Manchu were an already large state north of China, when in the early 17th century a local leader named Nurhaci suddenly united them under the Eight Banners—armies that the opposing families were organized into.", "The Manchus adopted many Chinese customs, specifically taking after their bureaucracy.", "Nevertheless, the Manchus still remained a Chinese vassal.", "In 1644 Chinese administration became so weak, the 16th and last emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor, did not respond to the severity of an ensuing rebellion by local dissenters until the enemy had invaded the Forbidden City (his personal estate).", "He soon hanged himself in the imperial gardens.", "For a brief amount of time, the Shun dynasty was claimed, until a loyalist Ming official called support from the Manchus to put down the new dynasty.", "The Shun dynasty ended within a year and the Manchu were now within the Great Wall.", "Taking advantage of the situation, the Manchus marched on the Chinese capital of Beijing.", "Within two decades all of China belonged to the Manchu and the Qing dynasty was established.===Korea: Joseon dynasty (1392–1897)===Gyeonghoeru of Gyeongbokgung, the Joseon dynasty's royal palace.In early-modern Korea, the 500-year-old kingdom, Goryeo fell and new dynasty Joseon rose in August 5, 1392.Taejo of Joseon changed the country's name from Goryeo to Joseon.", "Sejong the Great created Hangul, the modern Korean alphabet, in 1443; likewise the Joseon dynasty saw several improvements in science and technology, like Sun Clocks, Water Clocks, Rain-Measuring systems, Star Maps, and detailed records of Korean small villages.", "The ninth king, Seongjong accomplished the first complete Korean law code in 1485.So the culture and people's lives were improved again.In 1592, Japan under Toyotomi Hideyoshi invaded Korea.", "That war is Imjin war.", "Before that war, Joseon was in a long peace like PAX ROMANA.", "So Joseon was not ready for the war.", "Joseon had lost again and again.", "Japanese army conquered Seoul.", "The whole Korean peninsula was in danger.", "But Yi Sun-sin, the most renowned general of Korea, defeated Japanese fleet in southern Korea coast even 13 ships VS 133 ships.", "This incredible battle is called \"Battle of Myeongnyang\".", "After that, Ming dynasty helped Joseon, and Japan lost the battle.", "So Toyotomi Hideyoshi's campaign in Korea failed, and the Tokugawa Shogunate has later began.", "Korea was hurt a lot at Imjin war.", "Not long after, Manchurian people invaded Joseon again.", "It is called Qing invasion of Joseon.", "The first invasion was for sake.", "Because Qing was at war between Ming, so Ming's alliance with Joseon was threatening.", "And the second invasion was for Joseon to obey Qing.", "After that, Qing defeated Ming and took the whole Chinese territories.", "Joseon also had to obey Qing because Joseon lose the second war against Qing.After the Qing invasion, the princes of the Joseon dynasty lived their childhood in China.", "The son of King Injo met Adam Schall in Beijing.", "So he wanted to introduce western technologies to Korean people when he becomes a king.", "He died before he could take the throne.", "After then, the alternative prince became the 17th king of the Joseon dynasty, Hyojong, trying to revenge for his kingdom and fallen Ming dynasty to Qing.", "Later kings such as Yeongjo and Jeongjo tried to improve their people's lives and stop the governors' unreasonable competition.", "From the 17th century to the 18th century, Joseon sent diplomats and artists to Japan more than 10 times.", "This group was called 'Tongshinsa'.", "They were sent to Japan to teach Japan about advanced Korean culture.", "Japanese people liked to receive poems from Korean nobles.", "At that time, Korea was more powerful than Japan.", "But that relationship between Joseon and Japan was reversed after the 19th century.", "Because Japan became more powerful than Korea and China, either.", "So Joseon sent diplomats called 'Sooshinsa' to learn Japanese advanced technologies.", "After king Jeongjo's death, some noble families controlled the whole kingdom in the early 19th century.", "At the end of that period, Western people invaded Joseon.", "In 1876, Joseon was set free from Qing so they did not have to obey Qing.", "But Japanese Empire was happy because Joseon became a perfect independent kingdom.", "So Japan could intervene in the kingdom more.", "After this, Joseon traded with the United States and sent 'Sooshinsa' to Japan, 'Youngshinsa' to Qing, and 'Bobingsa' to the US and Europe.", "These groups took many modern things to the Korean peninsula.===Japan: Tokugawa or Edo period (1603–1867)===''The Great Wave off Kanagawa'', by Hokusai, an example of art flourishing in the Edo PeriodIn early-modern Japan following the Sengoku period of \"warring states\", central government had been largely reestablished by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the Azuchi–Momoyama period.", "After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu who completed this process and received the title of ''shōgun'' in 1603.Society in the Japanese \"Tokugawa period\" (see Edo society), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.", "The ''daimyōs'' (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and merchants ranking below.", "The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the ''Sakoku'' policy.", "Literacy rose in the two centuries of isolation.In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, ''daimyōs'' and samurai were more or less identical, since ''daimyōs'' might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords.", "Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time.", "Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value.", "As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time.", "This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants.", "None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.=== India ===Mughal ambassador Khan’Alam in 1618 negotiating with Shah Abbas the Great of Iran.", "In the Indian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India in the early 18th century.", "During emperor Shah Jahan and his son Aurangzeb's Islamic sharia reigns, the empire reached its architectural and economic zenith, and became the world's largest economy, worth over 25% of world GDP.", "In the mid-18th century it was a major proto-industrializing region.Following major events such as the Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire, Battle of Plassey, Battle of Buxar and the long Anglo-Mysore Wars, most of South Asia was colonised and governed by the British Empire, thus establishing the British Raj.", "The \"classic period\" ended with the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, although the dynasty continued for another 150 years.", "During this period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions.", "All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterised by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results.", "The Maratha Empire was located in the south west of present-day India and expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas, the prime ministers of the Maratha empire.", "In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat against Ahmad shah Durrani king of Afghanistan which halted imperial expansion and the empire was then divided into a confederacy of Maratha states.=== British and Dutch colonization ===The European economic and naval powers pushed into Asia, first to do trading, and then to take over major colonies.", "The Dutch led the way followed by the British.", "Portugal had arrived first, but was too weak to maintain its small holdings and was largely pushed out, retaining only Goa and Macau.", "The British set up a private organization, the East India Company, which handled both trade and Imperial control of much of India.The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company, in 1765, when the company was granted the ''diwani'', or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar, or in 1772, when the company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance.Robert Clive and Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey, 1757 by Francis HaymanThe Maratha states, following the Anglo-Maratha wars, eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 with the Third Anglo-Maratha War.", "The rule lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and consequent of the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj.", "In 1819 Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch.", "However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia.", "From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear.The Dutch East India Company (1800) and British East India Company (1858) were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies.", "Only Thailand was spared the experience of foreign rule, although, Thailand itself was also greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers.", "Colonial rule had a profound effect on Southeast Asia.", "While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent." ], [ "Late modern", "===Central Asia: The Great Game, Russia vs Great Britain===Emir Sher Ali with the rival \"friends\" the Russian Bear and British Lion (1878)The Great Game was a political and diplomatic confrontation between Great Britain and Russia over Afghanistan and neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia.", "It lasted from 1828 to 1907.There was no war, but there were many threats.", "Russia was fearful of British commercial and military inroads into Central Asia, and Britain was fearful of Russia threatening its largest and most important possession, India.", "This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and the constant threat of war between the two empires.", "Britain made it a high priority to protect all the approaches to India, and the \"great game\" is primarily how the British did this in terms of a possible Russian threat.", "Historians with access to the archives have concluded that Russia had no plans involving India, as the Russians repeatedly stated.The Great Game began in 1838 when Britain decided to gain control over the Emirate of Afghanistan and make it a protectorate, and to use the Ottoman Empire, the Persian Empire, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara as buffer states between both empires.", "This would protect India and also key British sea trade routes by stopping Russia from gaining a port on the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean.", "Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone, and the final result was diving up Afghanistan with a neutral zone in the middle between Russian areas in the north and British in the South.", "Important episodes included the failed First Anglo-Afghan War of 1838, the First Anglo-Sikh War of 1845, the Second Anglo-Sikh War of 1848, the Second Anglo-Afghan War of 1878, and the annexation of Kokand by Russia.", "The 1901 novel ''Kim'' by Rudyard Kipling made the term popular and introduced the new implication of great power rivalry.", "It became even more popular after the 1979 advent of the Soviet–Afghan War.===Qing China===The Qing Empire in 1832.By 1644, the northern Manchu people had conquered Ming dynasty and established a foreign dynasty—the Qing dynasty—once more.", "The Manchu Qing emperors, especially Confucian scholar Kangxi, remained largely conservative—retaining the bureaucracy and the scholars within it, as well as the Confucian ideals present in Chinese society.", "However, changes in the economy and new attempts at resolving certain issues occurred too.", "These included increased trade with Western countries that brought large amounts of silver into the Chinese economy in exchange for tea, porcelain, and silk textiles.", "This allowed for a new merchant-class, the compradors, to develop.", "In addition, repairs were done on existing dikes, canals, roadways, and irrigation works.", "This, combined with the lowering of taxes and government-assigned labor, was supposed to calm peasant unrest.", "However, the Qing failed to control the growing landlord class which had begun to exploit the peasantry and abuse their position.By the late 18th century, both internal and external issues began to arise in Qing China's politics, society, and economy.", "The exam system with which scholars were assigned into the bureaucracy became increasingly corrupt; bribes and other forms of cheating allowed for inexperienced and inept scholars to enter the bureaucracy and this eventually caused rampant neglect of the peasantry, military, and the previously mentioned infrastructure projects.", "Poverty and banditry steadily rose, especially in rural areas, and mass migrations looking for work throughout China occurred.", "The perpetually conservative government refused to make reforms that could resolve these issues.====Opium War====Zhenjiang from Qing troopsChina saw its status reduced by what it perceived as parasitic trade with Westerners.", "Originally, European traders were at a disadvantage because the Chinese cared little for their goods, while European demand for Chinese commodities such as tea and porcelain only grew.", "In order to tip the trade imbalance in their favor, British merchants began to sell Indian opium to the Chinese.", "Not only did this sap Chinese bullion reserves, it also led to widespread drug addiction amongst the bureaucracy and society in general.", "A ban was placed on opium as early as 1729 by the Yongzheng Emperor, but little was done to enforce it.", "By the early 19th century, under the new Daoguang Emperor, the government began serious efforts to eradicate opium from Chinese society.", "Leading this endeavour were respected scholar-officials including Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu.After Lin destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium in the summer of 1839, Europeans demanded compensation for what they saw as unwarranted Chinese interference in their affairs.", "When it was not paid, the British declared war later the same year, starting what became known as the First Opium War.", "The outdated Chinese junks were no match for the advanced British gunboats, and soon the Yangzi River region came under threat of British bombardment and invasion.", "The emperor had no choice but to sue for peace, resulting in the exile of Lin and the making of the Treaty of Nanking, which ceded the British control of Hong Kong and opened up trade and diplomacy with other European countries, including Germany, France, and the USA.Political map of Asia in 1860====Manchuria====Manchuria/Northeast China came under influence of Russia with the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin to Vladivostok.", "The Empire of Japan replaced Russian influence in the region as a result of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904–1905, and Japan laid the South Manchurian Railway in 1906 to Port Arthur.", "During the Warlord Era in China, Zhang Zuolin established himself in Northeast China, but was murdered by the Japanese for being too independent.", "The former Chinese emperor, Puyi, was then placed on the throne to lead a Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo.", "In August 1945, the Soviet Union invaded the region.", "From 1945 to 1948, Northeast China was a base area for Mao Zedong's People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War.", "With the encouragement of the Kremlin, the area was used as a staging ground during the Civil War for the Chinese Communists, who were victorious in 1949 and have controlled ever since.=== Joseon ===Gojong (1852–1919), the 26th king of Joseon dynasty and the first emperor of Korean Empire.Deoksugung, the palace where Emperor Gojong established Korean Empire.When it became the 19th century, the king of Joseon was powerless.", "Because the noble family of the king's wife got the power and ruled the country by their way.", "The 26th king of Joseon dynasty, Gojong's father, Heungseon Daewongun wanted the king be powerful again.", "Even he wasn't the king.", "As the father of young king, he destroyed noble families and corrupt organizations.", "So the royal family got the power again.", "But he wanted to rebuild Gyeongbokgung palace in order to show the royal power to people.", "So he was criticized by people because he spent enormous money and inflation occurred because of that.", "So his son, the real king Gojong got power.=== Korean Empire ===By the Treaty of Shimonoseki article 1 of the first Sino-Japanese war, Korea was independented from China.", "The 26th king of Joseon, Gojong changed the nation's name to ''Daehan Jeguk'' (Korean Empire).", "And he also promoted himself as an emperor.", "The new empire accepted more western technology and strengthened military power.", "And Korean Empire was going to become a neutral nation.", "Unfortunately, in the Russo-Japanese war, Japan ignored this, and eventually Japan won against Russian Empire, and started to invade Korea.", "Japan first stole the right of diplomacy from Korean Empire illegally.", "But every western country ignored this invasion because they knew Japan became a strong country as they defeated Russian Empire.", "So emperor Gojong sent diplomats to a Dutch city known as The Hague to let everyone know that Japan stole the Empire's right illegally.", "But it was failed.", "Because the diplomats couldn't go into the conference room.", "Japan kicked Gojong off on the grounds that this reason.", "3 years after, In 1910, Korean Empire became a part of Empire of Japan.", "It was the first time ever after invasion of Han dynasty in 108 BC." ], [ "Contemporary", "Map of Asia for early 20th centuryThe European powers had control of other parts of Asia by the early 20th century, such as British India, French Indochina, Spanish East Indies, and Portuguese Macau and Goa.", "The Great Game between Russia and Britain was the struggle for power in the Central Asian region in the nineteenth century.", "The Trans-Siberian Railway, crossing Asia by train, was complete by 1916.Parts of Asia remained free from European control, although not influence, such as Persia, Thailand and most of China.", "In the twentieth century, Imperial Japan expanded into China and Southeast Asia during World War II.", "After the war, many Asian countries became independent from European powers.", "During the Cold War, the northern parts of Asia were communist controlled with the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China, while western allies formed pacts such as CENTO and SEATO.", "Conflicts such as the Korean War, Vietnam War and Soviet invasion of Afghanistan were fought between communists and anti-communists.", "In the decades after the Second World War, a massive restructuring plan drove Japan to become the world's second-largest economy, a phenomenon known as the Japanese post-war economic miracle.", "The Arab–Israeli conflict has dominated much of the recent history of the Middle East.", "After the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991, there were many new independent nations in Central Asia.===China===Prior to World War II, China faced a civil war between Mao Zedong's Communist party and Chiang Kai-shek's nationalist party; the nationalists appeared to be in the lead.", "However, once the Japanese invaded in 1937, the two parties were forced to form a temporary cease-fire in order to defend China.", "The nationalists faced many military failures that caused them to lose territory and subsequently, respect from the Chinese masses.", "In contrast, the communists' use of guerilla warfare (led by Lin Biao) proved effective against the Japanese's conventional methods and put the Communist Party on top by 1945.They also gained popularity for the reforms they were already applying in controlled areas, including land redistribution, education reforms, and widespread health care.", "For the next four years, the nationalists would be forced to retreat to the small island east of Fujian province, known as Taiwan (formerly known as Formosa), where they remain today.", "In mainland China, People's Republic of China was established by the Communist Party, with Mao Zedong as its state chairman.The communist government in China was defined by the party cadres.", "These hard-line officers controlled the People's Liberation Army, which itself controlled large amounts of the bureaucracy.", "This system was further controlled by the Central Committee, which additionally supported the state chairman who was considered the head of the government.", "The People's Republic's foreign policies included the repressing of secession attempts in Mongolia and Tibet and supporting of North Korea and North Vietnam in the Korean War and Vietnam War, respectively.", "By 1960 China and the USSR became adversaries, battling worldwide for control of local communist movements.Today China plays important roles in world economics and politics.", "China today is the world's second largest economy and the second fastest growing economy.=== Indian Subcontinent ===From the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, large regions of India were gradually annexed by the East India Company, a chartered company acting as a sovereign power on behalf of the British government.", "Dissatisfaction with company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which rocked parts of north and central India, and led to the dissolution of the company.", "India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj.", "After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, and noted for nonviolence.", "Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state.In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan.", "In particular, the partition of Punjab and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead.", "The police and army units were largely ineffective.", "The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.", "Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).", "In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan through an armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self-determination movement.===Korea===The third Inter-Korean Summit, which was held in 2018, between South Korean president Moon Jae-in and North Korean supreme leader Kim Jong Un.", "It was a historical event that symbolized the peace of Asia.During the period when the Korean War occurred, Korea divided into North and South.", "Syngman Rhee became the first president of South Korea, and Kim Il Sung became the supreme leader of North Korea.", "After the war, the president of South Korea, Syngman Rhee tries to become a dictator.", "So the April Revolution occurred, eventually Syngman Rhee was exiled from his country.", "In 1963, Park Chung Hee was empowered with a military coup d'état.", "He dispatched Republic of Korea Army to Vietnam War.", "And during this age, the economy of South Korea outran that of North Korea.Although Park Chung Hee improved the nation's economy, he was a dictator, so people didn't like him.", "Eventually, he was murdered by Kim Jae-gyu.", "In 1979, Chun Doo-hwan was empowered by another coup d’état by military.", "He oppressed the resistances in the city of Gwangju.", "That event is called 'Gwangju Uprising'.", "Despite the Gwangju Uprising, Chun Doo-hwan became the president.", "But the people resisted again in 1987.This movement is called 'June Struggle'.", "As a result of Gwangju Uprising and June Struggle, South Korea finally became a democratic republic in 1987.Roh Tae-woo (1988–93), Kim Young-sam (1993–98), Kim Dae-jung (1998–2003), Roh Moo-hyun (2003–2008), Lee Myung-bak (2008–2013), Park Geun-hye (2013–2017), Moon Jae-in (2017–) were elected as a president in order after 1987.In 1960, North Korea was far wealthier than South Korea.", "But in 1970, South Korea begins to outrun the North Korean economy.", "In 2018, South Korea is ranked #10 in world GDP ranking." ], [ "See also", "* Ancient Asian history* History of Southeast Asia* * Prehistoric Asia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * Cotterell, Arthur.", "''Asia: A Concise History'' (2011)* Cotterell, Arthur.", "''Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415 - 1999'' (2009) popular history; excerpt* Curtin, Philip D. ''The World and the West: The European Challenge and the Overseas Response in the Age of Empire'' (2002) * Embree, Ainslie T., and Carol Gluck, eds. ''", "Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching'' (M.E.", "Sharpe, 1997).", "* Embree, Ainslie T., ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Asian history'' (1988) ** vol.", "1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online* Fairbank, John K., Edwin O. Reischauer. ''", "A History of East Asian Civilization: Volume One : East Asia the Great Tradition'' and ''A History of East Asian Civilization: Volume Two : East Asia the Modern transformation'' (1966) Online free to borrow* * Moffett, Samuel Hugh.", "''A History of Christianity in Asia, Vol.", "II: 1500–1900'' (2003) excerpt* Murphey, Rhoads.", "''A History of Asia'' (8th ed, 2019) excerpt also Online* Paine, S. C. M. ''The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949'' (2014) excerpt* * * Stearns, Peter N., and William L. Langer.", "''The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern'' (2001)===Regions===* Adshead, Samuel Adrian Miles.", "''Central Asia in world history'' (Springer, 2016).", "* Best, Antony.", "''The International History of East Asia, 1900-1968: Trade, Ideology and the Quest for Order'' (2010) online * Catchpole, Brian.", "''A map history of modern China'' (1976), new maps & diagrams* Clyde, Paul Herbert.", "''International-Rivalries-In-Manchuria-1689-1928'' (2nd ed.", "1928) online free* Clyde, Paul H, and Burton H. Beers.", "''The Far East, a history of the Western impact and the Eastern response, 1830-1975'' (6th ed.", "1975) 575pp**Clyde, Paul Hibbert.", "''The Far East: A History of the Impact of the West on Eastern Asia'' (3rd ed.", "1948) online free; 836pp* Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall and James Palais.", "''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History'' (2006); 639pp; also in 2-vol edition split at 1600.", "* Fenby, Jonatham ''The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power 1850 to the Present'' (3rd ed.", "2019) popular history.", "* Gilbert, Marc Jason.", "''South Asia in World History'' (Oxford UP, 2017)* Goldin, Peter B.", "''Central Asia in World History'' (Oxford UP, 2011) * Holcombe, Charles.", "''A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century'' (2010).", "* Huffman, James L. ''Japan in World History'' (Oxford, 2010)* Jansen, Marius B.", "''Japan and China: From War to Peace, 1894-1972'' (1975) * Karl, Rebecca E. \"Creating Asia: China in the world at the beginning of the twentieth century.\"", "''American Historical Review'' 103.4 (1998): 1096–1118.online* Lockard, Craig.", "''Southeast Asia in world history'' (Oxford UP, 2009).", "* Ludden, David.", "''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013).", "* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013).", "* Park, Hye Jeong.", "\"East Asian Odyssey Towards One Region: The Problem of East Asia as a Historiographical Category.\"", "''History Compass'' 12.12 (2014): 889–900.online* Ropp, Paul S. ''China in World History'' (Oxford UP, 2010)===Economic history===* Allen, G.C.", "''A Short Economic History Of Modern Japan 1867-1937'' (1945) online; also 1981 edition free to borrow* Cowan, C.D.", "ed.", "''The economic development of China and Japan: studies in economic history and political economy'' (1964) online free to borrow* Hansen, Valerie.", "''The Silk Road: A New History'' (Oxford University Press, 2012).", "* Jones, Eric.", "''The European miracle: environments, economies and geopolitics in the history of Europe and Asia.", "(Cambridge UP, 2003).", "* Lockwood, William W. ''The economic development of Japan; growth and structural change'' (1970) online free to borrow* Pomeranz, Kenneth.", "''The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy.''", "(2001)* Schulz-Forberg, Hagen, ed.", "''A Global Conceptual History of Asia, 1860–1940'' (2015)* Smith, Alan K. ''Creating a World Economy: Merchant Capital, Colonialism, and World Trade, 1400-1825'' (Routledge, 2019).", "* Von Glahn, Richard.", "''The Economic History of China'' (2016)===Relations with Europe===* Belk, Russell.", "\"China’s global trade history: A western perspective.\"", "Journal of China Marketing 6.1 (2016): 1-22 1 online.", "* Hoffman, Philip T. ''Why did Europe conquer the world?''", "(Princeton UP, 2017).\\* Ji, Fengyuan.", "\"The West and China: discourses, agendas and change.\"", "''Critical Discourse Studies'' 14.4 (2017): 325-340.", "* Lach, Donald F. ''Asia in the Making of Europe'' (3 vol.", "U of Chicago Press, 1994).", "* Lach, Donald F. ''Southeast Asia in the eyes of Europe: the sixteenth century'' (U of Chicago Press, 1968).", "* Lach, Donald F., and Edwin J.", "Van Kley.", "\"Asia in the eyes of Europe: the seventeenth century.\"", "''The Seventeenth Century'' 5.1 (1990): 93-109.", "* Lach, Donald F. ''China in the eyes of Europe: the Sixteenth Century'' (U of Chicago Press, 1968).", "* Lee, Christina H., ed.", "''Western visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522-1657'' (Routledge, 2016).", "* Nayar, Pramod K. \"Marvelous excesses: English travel writing and India, 1608–1727.\"", "''Journal of British Studies'' 44.2 (2005): 213-238.", "* Pettigrew, William A., and Mahesh Gopalan, eds.", "''The East India Company, 1600-1857: Essays on Anglo-Indian Connection'' (Routledge, 2016).", "* Smith, Alan K. ''Creating a World Economy: Merchant Capital, Colonialism, and World Trade, 1400-1825'' (Routledge, 2019).", "* Steensgaard, Niels.", "\"European shipping to Asia 1497–1700.\"", "''Scandinavian Economic History Review'' 18.1 (1970): 1–11." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Americas" ], [ "Introduction", "A true-color image of the Americas.", "Much of the information in the image comes from a single remote-sensing device—NASA's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, or MODIS, flying over 700 km above the Earth on board the Terra satellite in 2001.The '''history of the Americas''' begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an ice age.", "These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from the people of the \"Old World\" until the coming of Europeans in the 10th century from Iceland led by Leif Erikson, and in 1492 with the voyages of Christopher Columbus.The ancestors of today's American Indigenous peoples were the Paleo-Indians; they were hunter-gatherers who migrated into North America.", "The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the Americas via Beringia, the land mass now covered by the ocean waters of the Bering Strait.", "Small lithic stage peoples followed megafauna like bison, mammoth (now extinct), and caribou, thus gaining the modern nickname \"big-game hunters.\"", "Groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast.Sedentary societies developed primarily in two regions: Mesoamerica and the Andean civilizations.", "Mesoamerican cultures include Zapotec, Toltec, Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Mixtec, Totonac, Teotihuacan, Huastec people, Purépecha, Izapa and Mazatec.", "Andean cultures include Inca, Caral-Supe, Wari, Tiwanaku, Chimor, Moche, Muisca, Chavin, Paracas and Nazca.After the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Spanish and later Portuguese, English, French and Dutch colonial expeditions arrived in the New World, conquering and settling the discovered lands, which led to a transformation of the cultural and physical landscape in the Americas.", "Spain colonized most of the Americas from present-day Southwestern United States, Florida and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America.", "Portugal settled in what is mostly present-day Brazil while England established colonies on the Eastern coast of the United States, as well as the North Pacific coast and in most of Canada.", "France settled in Quebec and other parts of Eastern Canada and claimed an area in what is today the central United States.", "The Netherlands settled New Netherland (administrative centre New Amsterdam – now New York), some Caribbean islands and parts of Northern South America.European colonization of the Americas led to the rise of new cultures, civilizations and eventually states, which resulted from the fusion of Native American, European, and African traditions, peoples and institutions.", "The transformation of American cultures through colonization is evident in architecture, religion, gastronomy, the arts and particularly languages, the most widespread being Spanish (376 million speakers), English (348 million) and Portuguese (201 million).", "The colonial period lasted approximately three centuries, from the early 16th to the early 19th centuries, when Brazil and the larger Hispanic American nations declared independence.", "The United States obtained independence from Great Britain much earlier, in 1776, while Canada formed a federal dominion in 1867 and received legal independence in 1931.Others remained attached to their European parent state until the end of the 19th century, such as Cuba and Puerto Rico which were linked to Spain until 1898.Smaller territories such as Guyana obtained independence in the mid-20th century, while certain Caribbean islands and French Guiana remain part of a European power to this day." ], [ "Pre-colonization", "===Migration into the continents===Map of early human migrations The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion.", "The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000 – 17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation.", "These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ''ice-free corridors'' that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets.", "Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America.", "Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of a hundred meters following the last ice age.Archaeologists contend that the Paleo-Indian migration out of Beringia (eastern Alaska), ranges from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago.", "This time range is a hot source of debate.", "The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around 16,000 – 13,000 years before present.The American Journal of Human Genetics released an article in 2007 stating \"Here we show, by using 86 complete mitochondrial genomes, that all Indigenous American haplogroups, including Haplogroup X (mtDNA), were part of a single founding population.\"", "Amerindian groups in the Bering Strait region exhibit perhaps the strongest DNA or mitochondrial DNA relations to Siberian peoples.", "The genetic diversity of Amerindian indigenous groups increase with distance from the assumed entry point into the Americas.", "Certain genetic diversity patterns from West to East suggest, particularly in South America, that migration proceeded first down the west coast, and then proceeded eastward.", "Geneticists have variously estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from 42,000 to 21,000 years ago.New studies shed light on the founding population of indigenous Americans, suggesting that their ancestry traced to both east Asian and western Eurasians who migrated to North America directly from Siberia.", "A 2013 study in the journal Nature reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy in Mal’ta Siberia suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry that can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have \"had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought\" Professor Kelly Graf said that \"Our findings are significant at two levels.", "First, it shows that Upper Paleolithic Siberians came from a cosmopolitan population of early modern humans that spread out of Africa to Europe and Central and South Asia.", "Second, Paleoindian skeletons with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day Native Americans can be explained as having a direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia.\"", "A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the Solutrean hypothesis.On October 3, 2014, the Oregon cave where the oldest DNA evidence of human habitation in North America was found was added to the National Register of Historic Places.", "The DNA, radiocarbon dated to 14,300 years ago, was found in fossilized human coprolites uncovered in the Paisley Five Mile Point Caves in south central Oregon.===Lithic stage (before 8000 BCE)===Stemmed fluted \"Fishtail\" point found in BelizeThe Lithic stage or ''Paleo-Indian period'', is the earliest classification term referring to the first stage of human habitation in the Americas, covering the Late Pleistocene epoch.", "The time period derives its name from the appearance of \"Lithic flaked\" stone tools.", "Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest well known human activity in the Americas.", "Lithic reduction stone tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods.===Archaic stage (8000–1000 BCE)===Several thousand years after the first migrations, the first complex civilizations arose as hunter-gatherers settled into semi-agricultural communities.", "Identifiable sedentary settlements began to emerge in the so-called Middle Archaic period around 6000 BCE.", "Particular archaeological cultures can be identified and easily classified throughout the Archaic period.In the late Archaic, on the north-central coastal region of Peru, a complex civilization arose which has been termed the Norte Chico civilization, also known as Caral-Supe.", "It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization originated independently and indigenously in the ancient world, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC.", "It pre-dated the Mesoamerican Olmec civilization by nearly two millennia.", "It was contemporaneous with the Egypt following the unification of its kingdom under Narmer and the emergence of the first Egyptian hieroglyphics.Monumental architecture, including earthwork platform mounds and sunken plazas have been identified as part of the civilization.", "Archaeological evidence points to the use of textile technology and the worship of common god symbols.", "Government, possibly in the form of theocracy, is assumed to have been required to manage the region.", "However, numerous questions remain about its organization.", "In archaeological nomenclature, the culture was pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic period.", "It appears to have lacked ceramics and art.Ongoing scholarly debate persists over the extent to which the flourishing of Norte Chico resulted from its abundant maritime food resources, and the relationship that these resources would suggest between coastal and inland sites.", "The role of seafood in the Norte Chico diet has been a subject of scholarly debate.", "In 1973, examining the Aspero region of Norte Chico, Michael E. Moseley contended that a maritime subsistence (seafood) economy had been the basis of society and its early flourishing.", "This theory, later termed \"maritime foundation of Andean Civilization\" was at odds with the general scholarly consensus that civilization arose as a result of intensive grain-based agriculture, as had been the case in the emergence of civilizations in northeast Africa (Egypt) and southwest Asia (Mesopotamia).While earlier research pointed to edible domestic plants such as squash, beans, lucuma, guava, pacay, and camote at Caral, publications by Haas and colleagues have added avocado, achira, and maize (Zea Mays) to the list of foods consumed in the region.", "In 2013, Haas and colleagues reported that maize was a primary component of the diet throughout the period of 3000 to 1800 BC.", "Cotton was another widespread crop in Norte Chico, essential to the production of fishing nets and textiles.", "Jonathan Haas noted a mutual dependency, whereby \"The prehistoric residents of the Norte Chico needed the fish resources for their protein and the fishermen needed the cotton to make the nets to catch the fish.", "\"In the 2005 book ''1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus'', journalist Charles C. Mann surveyed the literature at the time, reporting a date \"sometime before 3200 BC, and possibly before 3500 BC\" as the beginning date for the formation of Norte Chico.", "He notes that the earliest date securely associated with a city is 3500 BC, at Huaricanga in the (inland) Fortaleza area.", "The Norte Chico civilization began to decline around 1800 BC as more powerful centers appeared to the south and north along its coast, and to the east within the Andes Mountains.===Mesoamerica, the Woodland Period, and Mississippian culture (2000 BCE – 500 CE)===Simple map of subsistence methods in the Americas at 1000 BCE:After the decline of the Norte Chico civilization, numerous complex civilizations and centralized polities developed in the Western Hemisphere: The Chavin, Nazca, Moche, Huari, Quitus, Cañaris, Chimu, Pachacamac, Tiahuanaco, Aymara and Inca in the Andes; the Muisca, Tairona, Miskito, Huetar, and Talamanca in the Intermediate Area; the Taínos in the Caribbean; and the Olmecs, Maya, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Aztecs, Purepecha and Nicoya in Mesoamerica.The Olmec civilization was the first Mesoamerican civilization, beginning around 1600–1400 BC and ending around 400 BC.", "Mesoamerica is considered one of the six sites around the globe in which civilization developed independently and indigenously.", "This civilization is considered the mother culture of the Mesoamerican civilizations.", "The Mesoamerican calendar, numeral system, writing, and much of the Mesoamerican pantheon seem to have begun with the Olmec.Some elements of agriculture seem to have been practiced in Mesoamerica quite early.", "The domestication of maize is thought to have begun around 7,500 to 12,000 years ago.", "The earliest record of lowland maize cultivation dates to around 5100 BC.", "Agriculture continued to be mixed with a hunting-gathering-fishing lifestyle until quite late compared to other regions, but by 2700 BC, Mesoamericans were relying on maize, and living mostly in villages.", "Temple mounds and classes started to appear.", "By 1300/ 1200 BC, small centres coalesced into the Olmec civilization, which seems to have been a set of city-states, united in religious and commercial concerns.", "The Olmec cities had ceremonial complexes with earth/clay pyramids, palaces, stone monuments, aqueducts and walled plazas.", "The first of these centers was at San Lorenzo (until 900 bc).", "La Venta was the last great Olmec centre.", "Olmec artisans sculpted jade and clay figurines of Jaguars and humans.", "Their iconic giant heads – believed to be of Olmec rulers – stood in every major city.The Olmec civilization ended in 400 BC, with the defacing and destruction of San Lorenzo and La Venta, two of the major cities.", "It nevertheless spawned many other states, most notably the Mayan civilization, whose first cities began appearing around 700–600 BC.", "Olmec influences continued to appear in many later Mesoamerican civilizations.Cities of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas were as large and organized as the largest in the Old World, with an estimated population of 200,000 to 350,000 in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire.", "The market established in the city was said to have been the largest ever seen by the conquistadors when they arrived.", "The capital of the Cahokians, Cahokia, located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois, may have reached a population of over 20,000.At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia may have been the most populous city in North America.", "Monk's Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World.These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breeding maize (corn) from having ears 2–5 cm in length to perhaps 10–15 cm in length.", "Potatoes, tomatoes, beans (greens), pumpkins, avocados, and chocolate are now the most popular of the pre-Columbian agricultural products.", "The civilizations did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species, although alpacas and llamas were domesticated for use as beasts of burden and sources of wool and meat in the Andes.", "By the 15th century, maize was being farmed in the Mississippi River Valley after introduction from Mexico.", "The course of further agricultural development was greatly altered by the arrival of Europeans.===Classic stage (800 BCE – 1533 CE)===language families, including northern Mexico====Cahokia====Cahokia was a major regional chiefdom, with trade and tributary chiefdoms located in a range of areas from bordering the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.", ";HaudenosauneThe Iroquois League of Nations or \"People of the Long House\", based in present-day upstate and western New York, had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century.", "It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government.", "Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies.Leadership was restricted to a group of 50 sachem chiefs, each representing one clan within a tribe; the Oneida and Mohawk people had nine seats each; the Onondagas held fourteen; the Cayuga had ten seats; and the Seneca had eight.", "Representation was not based on population numbers, as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others.", "When a sachem chief died, his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in consultation with other female members of the clan; property and hereditary leadership were passed matrilineally.", "Decisions were not made through voting but through consensus decision making, with each sachem chief holding theoretical veto power.", "The Onondaga were the \"firekeepers\", responsible for raising topics to be discussed.", "They occupied one side of a three-sided fire (the Mohawk and Seneca sat on one side of the fire, the Oneida and Cayuga sat on the third side.", ")Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare and displacement among the indigenous peoples, and their oral histories tell of numerous migrations to the historic territories where Europeans encountered them.", "The Iroquois invaded and attacked tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky and claimed the hunting grounds.", "Historians have placed these events as occurring as early as the 13th century, or in the 17th century Beaver Wars.Through warfare, the Iroquois drove several tribes to migrate west to what became known as their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River.", "Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included the Osage, Kaw, Ponca and Omaha people.", "By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their historical lands in present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas and Oklahoma.", "The Osage warred with Caddo-speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories.====Oasisamerica====;Pueblo peopleChaco Canyon Chetro Ketl great kiva plaza NPS.jpg|The Great Kiva of Chetro Ketl at the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, UNESCO World Heritage Sitemesaverde cliffpalace 20030914.752.jpg|Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteNMtrip-05-047.jpg|Taos Pueblo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is an Ancient Pueblo belonging to a Native American tribe of Pueblo people, marking the cultural development in the region during the Pre-Columbian era.Canyon de Chelly1.jpg|White House Ruins, Canyon de Chelly National MonumentThe Pueblo people of what is now occupied by the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico, living conditions were that of large stone apartment like adobe structures.", "They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas.K'inich Kan B'alam II, the Classic period ruler of Palenque, as depicted on a stela====Aridoamerica====;ChichimecaChichimeca was the name that the Mexica (Aztecs) generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, and carried the same sense as the European term \"barbarian\".", "The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico.====Mesoamerica====;OlmecThe Olmec civilization emerged around 1200 BCE in Mesoamerica and ended around 400 BCE.", "Olmec art and concepts influenced surrounding cultures after their downfall.", "This civilization was thought to be the first in America to develop a writing system.", "After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan arose.", ";PurepechaThe Purepecha civilization emerged around 1000 CE in Mesoamerica.", "They flourished from 1100 CE to 1530 CE.", "They continue to live on in the state of Michoacán.", "Fierce warriors, they were never conquered and in their glory years, successfully sealed off huge areas from Aztec domination.", ";MayaMaya history spans 3,000 years.", "The Classic Maya may have collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the 10th century.", ";ToltecThe Toltec were a nomadic people, dating from the 10th–12th century, whose language was also spoken by the Aztecs.", ";TeotihuacanTeotihuacan (4th century BCE – 7/8th century CE) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its zenith between 150 and the 5th century, covered most of Mesoamerica.", ";AztecThe Aztec having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly ended by the Spanish conquistadors.", "They lived in Mesoamerica, and surrounding lands.", "Their capital city Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities of all time.====South America====Larco Museum Collection.", ";Valdivia cultureThe Valdivia culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas.", "It emerged from the earlier Las Vegas culture and thrived along the coast of Santa Elena peninsula in Santa Elena Province of Ecuador between 3500 BCE and 1500 BCE.", ";Norte ChicoOne of the oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of modern Peru.", "Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE.", "The Quipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico's prominence.", ";ChavínThe Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900 BCE according to some estimates and archaeological finds.", "Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters.", "Chavín civilization spanned from 900 BCE to 300 BCE.", "'''Upano Valley'''The Upano Valley sites in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies, spanning from approximately 500 BCE to 300-600 CE.", ";IncaHolding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533.Known as ''Tawantinsuyu'', or \"the land of the four regions\", in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed.", "Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.", "Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture.", "There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful trepanation of the skull in Inca civilization." ], [ "European colonization", "Amerigo Vespucci awakens \"America\" in a Stradanus's engraving (circa 1638).Non-Native American nations' claims over North America, 1750–1999Political evolution of Central America and the Caribbean since 1700European nations’ control over South America, 1700 to presentAround 1000, the Vikings established a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland, now known as L'Anse aux Meadows.", "Speculations exist about other Old World discoveries of the New World, but none of these are generally or completely accepted by most scholars.Spain sponsored a major exploration led by Italian explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492; it quickly led to extensive European colonization of the Americas.", "The Europeans brought Old World diseases which are thought to have caused catastrophic epidemics and a huge decrease of the native population.", "Columbus came at a time in which many technical developments in sailing techniques and communication made it possible to report his voyages easily and to spread word of them throughout Europe.", "It was also a time of growing religious, imperial and economic rivalries that led to a competition for the establishment of colonies.===Colonial period===15th to 19th century colonies in the New World:*Spanish colonization of the Americas (1492)*Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535–1821)*Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1824)*Spanish Main*Spanish West Indies*Captaincy General of Guatemala*British America / Thirteen Colonies (1584/1607 – 1776/20th century)*French Saint-Domingue (1659–1804)*Danish West Indies*New Netherland*New France*Captaincy General of Venezuela*Portuguese colonization of the Americas (1499–1822)*Colonial Brazil (1500–1815)===Decolonization===The formation of sovereign states in the New World began with the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776.The American Revolutionary War lasted through the period of the Siege of Yorktown—its last major campaign—in the early autumn of 1781, with peace being achieved in 1783.In 1804, after the French of Napoleon Bonaparte were defeated during the Haitian Revolution under the black leadership of Jean-Jacques Dessalines declare the colony of Saint-Domingue independence of the Haitian Declaration of Independence as he renamed the country ''Ayiti'' meaning (Land of Mountains), Haiti became the world's first black-led republic in the New World, the first Caribbean state as well as the first Latin American country and the second oldest independent nation in the Western Hemisphere after the United States to win independence from Britain in 1783.The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the Spanish American wars of independence.", "Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín, among others, led their independence struggle.", "Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of Latin America politically allied, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific.", "(See Latin American integration.)", "In the Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor.", "This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal, upon compensation.===Effects of slavery===Slavery has had a significant role in the economic development of the New World after the colonization of the Americas by the Europeans.", "The cotton, tobacco, and sugarcane harvested by slaves became important exports for the United States and the Caribbean countries." ], [ "20th century", "===North America===A Canadian World War I recruiting poster (1914–1918)As a part of the British Empire, Canada immediately entered World War I when it broke out in 1914.Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war, including the use of poison gas attacks at Ypres.", "Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in conscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of French Canadians.", "In the ensuing Conscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets of Montreal.", "In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on July 1, 1916, the First day on the Somme.The United States stayed out of the conflict until 1917, when it joined the Entente powers.", "The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that shaped interwar Europe.", "Mexico was not part of the war, as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time.The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada.", "But the Wall Street Crash of 1929 combined with drought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and Canada.", "From 1936 to 1949, there was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917.Once again, Canada found itself at war before its neighbors, with numerically modest but significant contributions overseas such as the Battle of Hong Kong and the Battle of Britain.", "The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favour of the allies.", "Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the Gulf of Mexico waters, in 1942.The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time.", "This led Mexico to enter the conflict with a declaration of war on the Axis nations.", "The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs, especially the United States, which emerged as a \"superpower\".The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part.", "In Canada, Quebec was transformed by the Quiet Revolution and the emergence of Quebec nationalism.", "Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as ''\"El Milagro Mexicano\"'' (the Mexican miracle).", "The Caribbean saw the beginnings of decolonization, while on the largest island the Cuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America.The civil rights movement in the U.S. ended Jim Crow and empowered black voters in the 1960s, which allowed black citizens to move into high government offices for the first time since Reconstruction.", "However, the dominant New Deal coalition collapsed in the mid 1960s in disputes over race and the Vietnam War, and the conservative movement began its rise to power, as the once dominant liberalism weakened and collapsed.", "Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau.", "In 1982, at the end of his tenure, Canada enshrined a new constitution.Canada's Brian Mulroney not only ran on a similar platform but also favored closer trade ties with the United States.", "This led to the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in January 1989.Mexican presidents Miguel de la Madrid, in the early 1980s and Carlos Salinas de Gortari in the late 1980s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move.", "However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation.", "In the United States president Ronald Reagan attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community.", "Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package of privatization and regulation to stimulate the economy.The end of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s.", "On January 1, 1994, Canada, Mexico and the United States signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, creating the world's largest free trade area.", "In 2000, Vicente Fox became the first non-PRI candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years.", "The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the 9/11 attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted military intervention in Afghanistan, which also involved Canada.", "Canada did not support the United States' later move to invade Iraq, however.In the U.S. the Reagan Era of conservative national policies, deregulation and tax cuts took control with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980.By 2010, political scientists were debating whether the election of Barack Obama in 2008 represented an end of the Reagan Era, or was only a reaction against the bubble economy of the 2000s (decade), which burst in 2008 and became the Late-2000s recession with prolonged unemployment.", "Country orTerritory with flag Area(km²) (sq mi) Population(2021 est.)", "Population densityper km² (per sq mi) Capital (United Kingdom) 64,185 Hamilton 39,858,480 Ottawa Clipperton Island (France) Uninhabited N/A (Denmark) 56,583 Nuuk 129,875,529 Mexico City (France) 6,008 Saint-Pierre 336,997,624 Washington, D.C. Total 496,858,409 25.7/km² (66.4/sq mi)===Central America===Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, rises from time to time.", "In 1856–1857 the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by United States adventurer William Walker.", "Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe.", "(Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor).In 1907, a Central American Court of Justice was created.", "On December 13, 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established the Central American Common Market (\"CACM\").", "Costa Rica, because of its relative economic prosperity and political stability, chose not to participate in the CACM.", "The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success of import substitution industrialization policies.", "The project was an immediate economic success, but was abandoned after the 1969 \"Football War\" between El Salvador and Honduras.", "A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991.Costa Rica has repeatedly declined invitations to join the regional parliament, which seats deputies from the four other former members of the Union, as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic.", "Country orTerritory with flag Area(km²) (sq mi) Population(2021 est.)", "Population densityper km² (per sq mi) Capital 441,471 Belmopan 5,044,197 San José 6,602,370 San Salvador 17,980,803 Guatemala City 9,571,352 Tegucigalpa 6,359,689 Managua 4,337,768 Panama City Total 50,807,776 74/km² (191/sq mi)===South America===In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned military dictatorships.", "These dictatorships detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, see Operation Condor).", "Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies.", "They placed their own actions within the United States Cold War doctrine of \"National Security\" against internal subversion.", "Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path).", "Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.", "Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued.International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century.", "In recent years, South American governments have drifted to the left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, and a leftist president in Argentina and Uruguay.", "Despite the move to the left, South America is still largely capitalist.", "With the founding of the Union of South American Nations, South America has started down the road of economic integration, with plans for political integration in the European Union style.", "Country orTerritory with flag Area(km²) (sq mi) Population(2021 est.)", "Population densityper km² (per sq mi) Capital 45,276,780 Buenos Aires 12,079,472 Sucre; La Paz 214,326,223 Brasília 19,493,184 Santiago 51,516,562 Bogotá 17,797,737 Quito (United Kingdom) 3,398 Stanley French Guiana (France) 294,071 Cayenne 804,567 Georgetown 6,831,306 Asunción 33,715,471 Lima 20 King Edward Point 612,985 Paramaribo 3,477,780 Montevideo 28,199,867 Caracas Total 21.5/km² (/sq mi)=== Caribbean ===Throughout the 20th century, several island countries, such as Jamaica and Barbados gained independence from British rule.", "As a result, many of the English-speaking states and territories shifted their economies to tourism and offshore bank industries.During the Cold War, the Caribbean has faced a series of military interventions from the United States, such as the Banana Wars and the Cuban Missile Crisis.", "Country orTerritory with flag Area(km²) (sq mi) Population(2021 est.)", "Population densityper km² (per sq mi) Capital (United Kingdom) 15,753 The Valley 93,219 St. John's (Netherlands) 106,537 Oranjestad 407,906 Nassau (United States / Colombia / Jamaica) Uninhabited N/A 287,025 Bridgetown (Netherlands) 20,104 Kralendijk (United Kingdom) 31,122 Road Town (United Kingdom) 68,136 George Town 11,256372 Havana (Netherlands) 190,338 Willemstad 72,412 Roseau 11,117,873 Santo Domingo (Venezuela) 2,155 N/A 124,610 St. George's Guadeloupe (France) 396,051 Basse-Terre 11,447,569 Port-au-Prince 2,827,695 Kingston Martinique (France) 368,796 Fort-de-France (United Kingdom) 4,417 Plymouth; Brades (United States / Haiti) Uninhabited Lulu Town (United States) 3,256,028 San Juan (Netherlands) 1,537 The Bottom Saint Barthélemy (France) 7,448 Gustavia 47,606 Basseterre 179,651 Castries Saint Martin (France) 29,820 Marigot 104,332 Kingstown (United States / Colombia / Honduras) Uninhabited N/A (Netherlands) 2,739 Oranjestad (Netherlands) 44,042 Philipsburg 1,525,663 Port of Spain (United Kingdom) 45,144 Cockburn Town (United States) 100,091 Charlotte Amalie Total 44,636,789 189.4/km² (191/sq mi)" ], [ "See also", "* History of the west coast of North America* History of Latin America* History of the Southern United States* American frontier* History of New England* Spanish Empire* Portuguese Empire* List of oldest buildings in the Americas" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Boyer, Paul S. ''The Oxford Companion to United States History'' (2001) excerpt and text search; online at many libraries*Carnes, Mark C., and John A. Garraty.", "''The American Nation: A History of the United States: AP Edition'' (2008)* Egerton, Douglas R. et al.", "''The Atlantic World: A History, 1400–1888'' (2007), college textbook; 530pp* Elliott, John H. ''Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492–1830'' (2007), 608pp excerpt and text search, advanced synthesis* Hardwick, Susan W., Fred M. Shelley, and Donald G. Holtgrieve.", "''The Geography of North America: Environment, Political Economy, and Culture'' (2007)* Jacobs, Heidi Hayes, and Michal L. LeVasseur.", "''World Studies: Latin America: Geography – History – Culture'' (2007)* Bruce E. Johansen, ''The Native Peoples of North America: A History'' (2006)* Kaltmeier, Olaf, Josef Raab, Michael Stewart Foley, Alice Nash, Stefan Rinke, and Mario Rufer.", "''The Routledge Handbook to the History and Society of the Americas.''", "New York: Routledge (2019) * Keen, Benjamin, and Keith Haynes.", "''A History of Latin America'' (2008)* Kennedy, David M., Lizabeth Cohen, and Thomas Bailey.", "''The American Pageant'' (2 vol 2008), U.S. history* The Canadian Encyclopedia* Morton, Desmond.", "''A Short History of Canada'' 5th ed (2001)* Veblen, Thomas T. Kenneth R. Young, and Antony R. Orme.", "''The Physical Geography of South America'' (2007)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Africa" ], [ "Introduction", "Map showing the states, people and material cultures of the African continent c.1800BCContemporary political map of Africa (Includes Sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa)Obelisk at temple of Luxor, Egypt.", "Baguirmi knight in full padded armour suit, Early 19th Century.", "The '''history of Africa''' begins with the emergence of hominids, archaic humans and — around 300,000–250,000 years ago — anatomically modern humans (''Homo sapiens''), in East Africa, and continues unbroken into the present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states.", "The earliest known recorded history arose in Ancient Egypt, and later in Nubia, the Sahel, the Maghreb, and the Horn of Africa.Following the desertification of the Sahara, North African history became entwined with the Middle East and Southern Europe while the Bantu expansion swept from modern day Cameroon (Central West Africa) across much of the sub-Saharan continent in waves between around 1000 BC and 1 AD, creating a linguistic commonality across much of the central and Southern continent.During the Middle Ages, Islam spread west from Arabia to Egypt, crossing the Maghreb and the Sahel.", "Some notable pre-colonial states and societies in Africa include the Ajuran Empire, Bachwezi Empire, D'mt, Adal Sultanate, Alodia, Dagbon Kingdom, Warsangali Sultanate, Buganda Kingdom, Kingdom of Nri, Nok civilization, Mali Empire, Bono State, Songhai Empire, Benin Empire, Oyo Empire, Kingdom of Lunda (Punu-yaka), Ashanti Empire, Ghana Empire, Mossi Kingdoms, Mutapa Empire, Kingdom of Mapungubwe, Kingdom of Sine, Kingdom of Sennar, Kingdom of Saloum, Kingdom of Baol, Kingdom of Cayor, Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Kingdom of Kongo, Empire of Kaabu, Ife Empire, Ancient Carthage, Numidia, Mauretania, and the Aksumite Empire.", "At its peak, prior to European colonialism, it is estimated that Africa had up to 10,000 different states and autonomous groups with distinct languages and customs.From the late 15th century, Europeans joined the slave trade.", "That includes the triangular trade, with the Portuguese initially acquiring slaves through trade and later by force as part of the Atlantic slave trade.", "They transported enslaved West, Central, and Southern Africans overseas.", "Subsequently, European colonization of Africa developed rapidly from around 10% (1870) to over 90% (1914) in the Scramble for Africa (1881–1914).", "However following struggles for independence in many parts of the continent, as well as a weakened Europe after the Second World War , decolonization took place across the continent, culminating in the 1960 Year of Africa.Disciplines such as recording of oral history, historical linguistics, archaeology, and genetics have been vital in rediscovering the great African civilizations of antiquity." ], [ "Prehistory", "Lucy\"The first known hominids evolved in Africa.", "According to paleontology, the early hominids' skull anatomy was similar to that of the gorilla and the chimpanzee, great apes that also evolved in Africa, but the hominids had adopted a bipedal locomotion which freed their hands.", "This gave them a crucial advantage, enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open savanna at a time when Africa was drying up and the savanna was encroaching on forested areas.", "This would have occurred 10 to 5 million years ago, but these claims are controversial because biologists and genetics have humans appearing around the last 70 thousand to 200 thousand years.The fossil record shows ''Homo sapiens'' (also known as \"modern humans\" or \"anatomically modern humans\") living in Africa by about 350,000-260,000 years ago.", "The earliest known ''Homo sapiens'' fossils include the Jebel Irhoud remains from Morocco (), the Florisbad Skull from South Africa (), and the Omo remains from Ethiopia ().", "Scientists have suggested that ''Homo sapiens'' may have arisen between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in East Africa and South Africa.Evidence of a variety of behaviors indicative of Behavioral modernity date to the African Middle Stone Age, associated with early ''Homo sapiens'' and their emergence.", "Abstract imagery, widened subsistence strategies, and other \"modern\" behaviors have been discovered from that period in Africa, especially South, North, and East Africa.", "The Blombos Cave site in South Africa, for example, is famous for rectangular slabs of ochre engraved with geometric designs.", "Using multiple dating techniques, the site was confirmed to be around 77,000 and 100–75,000 years old.", "Ostrich egg shell containers engraved with geometric designs dating to 60,000 years ago were found at Diepkloof, South Africa.", "Beads and other personal ornamentation have been found from Morocco which might be as much as 130,000 years old; as well, the Cave of Hearths in South Africa has yielded a number of beads dating from significantly prior to 50,000 years ago, and shell beads dating to about 75,000 years ago have been found at Blombos Cave, South Africa.Around 65–50,000 years ago, the species' expansion out of Africa launched the colonization of the planet by modern human beings.", "By 10,000 BC, ''Homo sapiens'' had spread to most corners of Afro-Eurasia.", "Their dispersals are traced by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence.", "Eurasian back-migrations, specifically West-Eurasian backflow, started in the early Holocene or already earlier in the Paleolithic period, sometimes between 30-15,000 years ago, followed by pre-Neolithic and Neolithic migration waves from the Middle East, mostly affecting Northern Africa, the Horn of Africa, and wider regions of the Sahel zone and East Africa.Pre-Neolithic and Neolithic migration events in Africa.Affad 23 is an archaeological site located in the Affad region of southern Dongola Reach in northern Sudan, which hosts \"the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest open-air hut in the world) and diverse hunting and gathering loci some 50,000 years old\".Vegetation and water bodies in early Holocene (top), between about 12,000 and 7,000 years ago, and Eemian (bottom)Around 16,000 BC, from the Red Sea Hills to the northern Ethiopian Highlands, nuts, grasses and tubers were being collected for food.", "By 13,000 to 11,000 BC, people began collecting wild grains.", "This spread to Western Asia, which domesticated its wild grains, wheat and barley.", "Between 10,000 and 8000 BC, Northeast Africa was cultivating wheat and barley and raising sheep and cattle from Southwest Asia.", "A wet climatic phase in Africa turned the Ethiopian Highlands into a mountain forest.", "Omotic speakers domesticated enset around 6500–5500 BC.", "Around 7000 BC, the settlers of the Ethiopian highlands domesticated donkeys, and by 4000 BC domesticated donkeys had spread to Southwest Asia.", "Cushitic speakers, partially turning away from cattle herding, domesticated teff and finger millet between 5500 and 3500 BC.During the 11th millennium BP, pottery was independently invented in Africa, with the earliest pottery there dating to about 9,400 BC from central Mali.", "It soon spread throughout the southern Sahara and Sahel.", "In the steppes and savannahs of the Sahara and Sahel in Northern West Africa, the Nilo-Saharan speakers and Mandé peoples started to collect and domesticate wild millet, African rice and sorghum between 8000 and 6000 BC.", "Later, gourds, watermelons, castor beans, and cotton were also collected and domesticated.", "The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges, resulting in domestication.", "They also started making pottery and built stone settlements (e.g., Tichitt, Oualata).", "Fishing, using bone-tipped harpoons, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains.", "Mande peoples have been credited with the independent development of agriculture about 4000–3000 BC.Igbo-Ukwu, NigeriaEvidence of the early smelting of metals lead, copper, and bronze dates from the fourth millennium BC.Egyptians smelted copper during the predynastic period, and bronze came into use after 3,000 BC at the latest in Egypt and Nubia.", "Nubia became a major source of copper as well as of gold.", "The use of gold and silver in Egypt dates back to the predynastic period.In the Aïr Mountains of present-day Niger people smelted copper independently of developments in the Nile valley between 3,000 and 2,500 BC.", "They used a process unique to the region, suggesting that the technology was not brought in from outside; it became more mature by about 1,500 BC.By the 1st millennium BC iron working had reached Northwestern Africa, Egypt, and Nubia.", "Zangato and Holl document evidence of iron-smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500 BC.", "Assyrians using iron weapons pushed Nubians out of Egypt in 670 BC, after which the use of iron became widespread in the Nile valley.The theory that iron spread to Sub-Saharan Africa via the Nubian city of Meroe is no longer widely accepted, and some researchers believe that sub-Saharan Africans invented iron metallurgy independently.", "Metalworking in West Africa has been dated as early as 2,500 BC at Egaro west of the Termit in Niger, and iron working was practiced there by 1,500 BC.", "Iron smelting has been dated to 2,000 BC in southeast Nigeria.", "Central Africa provides possible evidence of iron working as early as the 3rd millennium BC.", "Iron smelting developed in the area between Lake Chad and the African Great Lakes between 1,000 and 600 BC, and in West Africa around 2,000 BC, long before the technology reached Egypt.", "Before 500 BC, the Nok culture in the Jos Plateau was already smelting iron.", "Archaeological sites containing iron-smelting furnaces and slag have been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria in Igboland: dating to 2,000 BC at the site of Lejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009) and to 750 BC and at the site of Opi (Holl 2009).", "The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has also yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896-773 BC and 907-796 BC respectively." ], [ "Antiquity", "The ancient history of North Africa is inextricably linked to that of the Ancient Near East.", "This is particularly true of Ancient Egypt and Nubia.", "In the Horn of Africa the Kingdom of Aksum ruled modern-day Eritrea, northern Ethiopia and the coastal area of the western part of the Arabian Peninsula.", "The Ancient Egyptians established ties with the Land of Punt in 2,350 BC.", "Punt was a trade partner of Ancient Egypt and it is believed that it was located in modern-day Somalia, Djibouti or Eritrea.", "Phoenician cities such as Carthage were part of the Mediterranean Iron Age and classical antiquity.", "Sub-Saharan Africa developed more or less independently in those times.In the western Sahel the rise of settled communities occurred largely as a result of the domestication of millet and of sorghum.", "Archaeology points to sizable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 2nd millennium BC.", "Symbiotic trade relations developed before the trans-Saharan trade, in response to the opportunities afforded by north–south diversity in ecosystems across deserts, grasslands, and forests.", "The agriculturists received salt from the desert nomads.", "The desert nomads acquired meat and other foods from pastoralists and farmers of the grasslands, and fishermen on the Niger River.", "The forest-dwellers provided furs and meat.The Bantu expansion involved a significant movement of people in African history and in the settling of the continent.", "People speaking Bantu languages (a branch of the Niger–Congo family) began in the second millennium BC to spread from Cameroon eastward to the Great Lakes region.", "In the first millennium BC, Bantu languages spread from the Great Lakes to southern and east Africa.", "One early movement headed south to the upper Zambezi valley in the 2nd century BC.", "Then Bantu-speakers pushed westward to the savannahs of present-day Angola and eastward into Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe in the 1st century AD.", "The second thrust from the Great Lakes was eastward, 2,000 years ago, expanding to the Indian Ocean coast, Kenya and Tanzania.", "The eastern group eventually met the southern migrants from the Great Lakes in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.", "Both groups continued southward, with eastern groups continuing to Mozambique and reaching Maputo in the 2nd century AD, and expanding as far as Durban." ], [ "Medieval and early modern period", "The Sao civilization flourished from about the sixth century BC to as late as the 16th century AD in Central Africa.", "The Sao lived by the Chari River south of Lake Chad in territory that later became part of present-day Cameroon and Chad.", "They are the earliest people to have left clear traces of their presence in the territory of modern Cameroon.", "Today, several ethnic groups of northern Cameroon and southern Chad – but particularly the Sara people – claim descent from the civilization of the Sao.", "Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers in bronze, copper, and iron.", "Finds include bronze sculptures and terracotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewelry, highly decorated pottery, and spears.", "The largest Sao archaeological finds have occurred south of Lake Chad.Settlements of Bantu-speaking peoples who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen were long already well established south of the Limpopo River by the 4th century CE, displacing and absorbing the original Khoisan speakers.", "They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050.The southernmost group was the Xhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoi-San people, reaching the Great Fish River in today's Eastern Cape Province." ], [ "Colonial period", "Between 1878 and 1898, European states partitioned and conquered most of Africa.", "For 400 years, European nations had mainly limited their involvement to trading stations on the African coast.", "Few dared venture inland from the coast; those that did, like the Portuguese, often met defeats and had to retreat to the coast.", "Several technological innovations helped to overcome this 400-year pattern.", "One was the development of repeating rifles, which were easier and quicker to load than muskets.", "Artillery was being used increasingly.", "In 1885, Hiram S. Maxim developed the maxim gun, the model of the modern-day machine gun.", "European states kept these weapons largely among themselves by refusing to sell these weapons to African leaders.African germs took numerous European lives and deterred permanent settlements.", "Diseases such as yellow fever, sleeping sickness, yaws, and leprosy made Africa a very inhospitable place for Europeans.", "The deadliest disease was malaria, endemic throughout Tropical Africa.", "In 1854, the discovery of quinine and other medical innovations helped to make conquest and colonization in Africa possible.Strong motives for conquest of Africa were at play.", "Raw materials were needed for European factories.", "Europe in the early part of the 19th century was undergoing its Industrial Revolution.", "Nationalist rivalries and prestige were at play.", "Acquiring African colonies would show rivals that a nation was powerful and significant.", "These factors culminated in the Scramble for Africa.In the 1880s the European powers had divided up almost all of Africa (only Ethiopia and Liberia were independent).", "They ruled until after World War II when forces of nationalism grew much stronger.", "In the 1950s and 1960s the colonial holdings became independent states.", "The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria, Kenya and elsewhere.", "Across Africa the powerful new force of nationalism drew upon the organizational skills that natives learned in the British and French and other armies in the world wars.", "It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers not the traditional local power structures that were collaborating with the colonial powers.", "Nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures and finally displaced them.", "Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities exited; many ruled for decades or until they died off.", "These structures included political, educational, religious, and other social organizations.", "In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervor, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state.Areas controlled by European powers in 1939.British (red) and Belgian (marroon) colonies fought with the Allies.", "Italian (light green) with the Axis.", "French colonies (dark blue) fought alongside the Allies until the Fall of France in June 1940.Vichy was in control until the Free French prevailed in late 1942.Portuguese (dark green) and Spanish (yellow) colonies remained neutral." ], [ "Postcolonial period", "Dates of independence of African countriesThe decolonization of Africa started with Libya in 1951, although Liberia, South Africa, Egypt and Ethiopia were already independent.", "Many countries followed in the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in 1960 with the Year of Africa, which saw 17 African nations declare independence, including a large part of French West Africa.", "Most of the remaining countries gained independence throughout the 1960s, although some colonizers (Portugal in particular) were reluctant to relinquish sovereignty, resulting in bitter wars of independence which lasted for a decade or more.", "The last African countries to gain formal independence were Guinea-Bissau (1974), Mozambique (1975) and Angola (1975) from Portugal; Djibouti from France in 1977; Zimbabwe from the United Kingdom in 1980; and Namibia from South Africa in 1990.Eritrea later split off from Ethiopia in 1993." ], [ "Historiography", "===Historiography of British Africa===The first historical studies in English appeared in the 1890s, and followed one of four approaches.", "1) The territorial narrative was typically written by a veteran soldier or civil servant who gave heavy emphasis to what he had seen.", "2) The \"apologia\" were essays designed to justify British policies.", "3) Popularizers tried to reach a large audience.", "4) Compendia appeared designed to combine academic and official credentials.", "Professional scholarship appeared around 1900, and began with the study of business operations, typically using government documents and unpublished archives.The economic approach was widely practiced in the 1930s, primarily to provide descriptions of the changes underway in the previous half-century.", "In 1935, American historian William L. Langer published ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890–1902'', a book that is still widely cited.", "In 1939, Oxford professor Reginald Coupland published ''The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856–1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble'', another popular treatment.World War II diverted most scholars to wartime projects and accounted for a pause in scholarship during the 1940s.By the 1950s many African students were studying in British universities, and they produced a demand for new scholarship, and started themselves to supply it as well.", "Oxford University became the main center for African studies, with activity as well at Cambridge University and the London School of Economics.", "The perspective of British government policymakers or international business operations slowly gave way to a new interest in the activities of the natives, especially nationalistic movements and the growing demand for independence.", "The major breakthrough came from Ronald Robinson and John Andrew Gallagher, especially with their studies of the impact of free trade on Africa.", "In 1985 ''The Oxford History of South Africa'' (2 vols.)", "was published, attempting to synthesize the available materials.", "In 2013, ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History'' was published, bringing the scholarship up to date.===Historiographic and Conceptual Problems===The current major problem in African studies that Mohamed (2010/2012) identified is the inherited religious, Orientalist, colonial paradigm that European Africanists have preserved in present-day secularist, post-colonial, Anglophone African historiography.", "African and African-American scholars also bear some responsibility in perpetuating this European Africanist preserved paradigm.Following conceptualizations of Africa developed by Leo Africanus and Hegel, European Africanists conceptually separated continental Africa into two racialized regions – Sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa.", "Sub-Saharan Africa, as a racist geographic construction, serves as an objectified, compartmentalized region of \"Africa proper\", \"Africa noire,\" or \"Black Africa.\"", "The African diaspora is also considered to be a part of the same racialized construction as Sub-Saharan Africa.", "North Africa serves as a racialized region of \"European Africa\", which is conceptually disconnected from Sub-Saharan Africa, and conceptually connected to the Middle East, Asia, and the Islamic world.As a result of these racialized constructions and the conceptual separation of Africa, darker skinned North Africans, such as the so-called Haratin, who have long resided in the Maghreb, and do not reside south of Saharan Africa, have become analogically alienated from their indigeneity and historic reality in North Africa.", "While the origin of the term \"Haratin\" remains speculative, the term may not date much earlier than the 18th century CE and has been involuntarily assigned to darker skinned Maghrebians.", "Prior to the modern use of the term Haratin as an identifier, and used in contrast to bidan or bayd (white), sumr/asmar, suud/aswad, or Sudan/sudani (black/brown) were Arabic terms used as identifiers for darker skinned Maghrebians before the modern period.", "\"Haratin\" is considered to be an offensive term by the darker skinned Maghrebians it is intended to identify; for example, people in the southern region (e.g., Wad Noun, Draa) of Morocco consider it to be an offensive term.", "Despite its historicity and etymology being questionable, European colonialists and European Africanists have used the term Haratin as identifiers for groups of \"black\" and apparently \"mixed\" people found in Algeria, Mauritania, and Morocco.The Saadian invasion of the Songhai Empire serves as the precursor to later narratives that grouped darker skinned Maghrebians together and identified their origins as being Sub-Saharan West Africa.", "With gold serving as a motivation behind the Saadian invasion of the Songhai Empire, this made way for changes in latter behaviors toward dark-skinned Africans.", "As a result of changing behaviors toward dark-skinned Africans, darker skinned Maghrebians were forcibly recruited into the army of Ismail Ibn Sharif as the Black Guard, based on the claim of them having descended from enslaved peoples from the times of the Saadian invasion.", "Shurafa historians of the modern period would later use these events in narratives about the manumission of enslaved \"Hartani\" (a vague term, which, by merit of it needing further definition, is implicit evidence for its historicity being questionable).", "The narratives derived from Shurafa historians would later become analogically incorporated into the Americanized narratives (e.g., the trans-Saharan slave trade, imported enslaved Sub-Saharan West Africans, darker skinned Magrebian freedmen) of the present-day European Africanist paradigm.As opposed to having been developed through field research, the analogy in the present-day European Africanist paradigm, which conceptually alienates, dehistoricizes, and denaturalizes darker skinned North Africans in North Africa and darker skinned Africans throughout the Islamic world at-large, is primarily rooted in an Americanized textual tradition inherited from 19th century European Christian abolitionists.", "Consequently, reliable history, as opposed to an antiquated analogy-based history, for darker skinned North Africans and darker skinned Africans in the Islamic world are limited.", "Part of the textual tradition generally associates an inherited status of servant with dark skin (e.g., Negro labor, Negro cultivators, Negroid slaves, freedman).", "The European Africanist paradigm uses this as the primary reference point for its construction of origins narratives for darker skinned North Africans (e.g., imported slaves from Sub-Saharan West Africa).", "With darker skinned North Africans or darker skinned Africans in the Islamic world treated as an allegory of alterity, another part of the textual tradition is the trans-Saharan slave trade and their presence in these regions are treated as that of an African diaspora in North Africa and the Islamic world.", "Altogether, darker skinned North Africans (e.g., \"black\" and apparently \"mixed\" Maghrebians), darker skinned Africans in the Islamic world, the inherited status of servant associated with dark skin, and the trans-Saharan slave trade are conflated and modeled in analogy with African-Americans and the trans-Atlantic slave trade.The trans-Saharan slave trade has been used as a literary device in narratives that analogically explain the origins of darker skinned North Africans in North Africa and the Islamic world.", "Caravans have been equated with slave ships, and the amount of forcibly enslaved Africans transported across the Sahara are alleged to be numerically comparable to the considerably large amount of forcibly enslaved Africans transported across the Atlantic Ocean.", "The simulated narrative of comparable numbers is contradicted by the limited presence of darker skinned North Africans in the present-day Maghreb.", "As part of this simulated narrative, post-classical Egypt has also been characterized as having plantations.", "Another part of this simulated narrative is an Orientalist construction of hypersexualized Moors, concubines, and eunuchs.", "Concubines in harems have been used as an explanatory bridge between the allegation of comparable numbers of forcibly enslaved Africans and the limited amount of present-day darker skinned Maghrebians who have been characterized as their diasporic descendants.", "Eunuchs were characterized as sentinels who guarded these harems.", "The simulated narrative is also based on the major assumption that the indigenous peoples of the Maghreb were once purely white Berbers, who then became biracialized through miscegenation with black concubines (existing within a geographic racial binary of pale-skinned Moors residing further north, closer to the Mediterranean region, and dark-skinned Moors residing further south, closer to the Sahara).", "The religious polemical narrative involving the suffering of enslaved European Christians of the Barbary slave trade has also been adapted to fit the simulated narrative of a comparable number of enslaved Africans being transported by Muslim slaver caravans, from the south of Saharan Africa, into North Africa and the Islamic world.Despite being an inherited part of the 19th century religious polemical narratives, the use of race in the secularist narrative of the present-day European Africanist paradigm has given the paradigm an appearance of possessing scientific quality.", "The religious polemical narrative (e.g., holy cause, hostile neologisms) of 19th century European abolitionists about Africa and Africans are silenced, but still preserved, in the secularist narratives of the present-day European Africanist paradigm.", "The Orientalist stereotyped hypersexuality of the Moors were viewed by 19th century European abolitionists as deriving from the Quran.", "The reference to times prior, often used in concert with biblical references, by 19th century European abolitionists, may indicate that realities described of Moors may have been literary fabrications.", "The purpose of these apparent literary fabrications may have been to affirm their view of the Bible as being greater than the Quran and to affirm the viewpoints held by the readers of their composed works.", "The adoption of 19th century European abolitionists' religious polemical narrative into the present-day European Africanist paradigm may have been due to its correspondence with the established textual tradition.", "The use of stereotyped hypersexuality for Moors are what 19th century European abolitionists and the present-day European Africanist paradigm have in common.Due to a lack of considerable development in field research regarding enslavement in Islamic societies, this has resulted in the present-day European Africanist paradigm relying on unreliable estimates for the trans-Saharan slave trade.", "However, insufficient data has also used as a justification for continued use of the faulty present-day European Africanist paradigm.", "Darker skinned Maghrebians, particularly in Morocco, have grown weary of the lack of discretion foreign academics have shown toward them, bear resentment toward the way they have been depicted by foreign academics, and consequently, find the intended activities of foreign academics to be predictable.", "Rather than continuing to rely on the faulty present-day European Africanist paradigm, Mohamed (2012) recommends revising and improving the current Africanist paradigm (e.g., critical inspection of the origins and introduction of the present characterization of the Saharan caravan; reconsideration of what makes the trans-Saharan slave trade, within its own context in Africa, distinct from the trans-Atlantic slave trade; realistic consideration of the experiences of darker-skinned Maghrebians within their own regional context).===Conceptual Problems===Merolla (2017) has indicated that the academic study of Sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa by Europeans developed with North Africa being conceptually subsumed within the Middle East and Arab world, whereas, the study of Sub-Saharan Africa was viewed as conceptually distinct from North Africa, and as its own region, viewed as inherently the same.", "The common pattern of conceptual separation of continental Africa into two regions and the view of conceptual sameness within the region of Sub-Saharan Africa has continued until present-day.", "Yet, with increasing exposure of this problem, discussion about the conceptual separation of Africa has begun to develop.The Sahara has served as a trans-regional zone for peoples in Africa.", "Authors from various countries (e.g., Algeria, Cameroon, Sudan) in Africa have critiqued the conceptualization of the Sahara as a regional barrier, and provided counter-arguments supporting the interconnectedness of continental Africa; there are historic and cultural connections as well as trade between West Africa, North Africa, and East Africa (e.g., North Africa with Niger and Mali, North Africa with Tanzania and Sudan, major hubs of Islamic learning in Niger and Mali).", "Africa has been conceptually compartmentalized into meaning \"Black Africa\", \"Africa South of the Sahara\", and \"Sub-Saharan Africa.\"", "North Africa has been conceptually \"Orientalized\" and separated from Sub-Saharan Africa.", "While its historic development has occurred within a longer time frame, the epistemic development (e.g., form, content) of the present-day racialized conceptual separation of Africa came as a result of the Berlin Conference and the Scramble for Africa.In African and Berber literary studies, scholarship has remained largely separate from one another.", "The conceptual separation of Africa in these studies may be due to how editing policies of studies in the Anglophone and Francophone world are affected by the international politics of the Anglophone and Francophone world.", "While studies in the Anglophone world have more clearly followed the trend of the conceptual separation of Africa, the Francophone world has been more nuanced, which may stem from imperial policies relating to French colonialism in North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.", "As the study of North Africa has largely been initiated by the Arabophone and Francophone world, denial of the Arabic language having become Africanized throughout the centuries it has been present in Africa has shown that the conceptual separation of Africa remains pervasive in the Francophone world; this denial may stem from historic development of the characterization of an Islamic Arabia existing as a diametric binary to Europe.", "Among studies in the Francophone world, ties between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa have been denied or downplayed, while the ties (e.g., religious, cultural) between the regions and peoples (e.g., Arab language and literature with Berber language and literature) of the Middle East and North Africa have been established by diminishing the differences between the two and selectively focusing on the similarities between the two.", "In the Francophone world, construction of racialized regions, such as Black Africa (Sub-Saharan Africans) and White Africa (North Africans, e.g., Berbers and Arabs), has also developed.Despite having invoked and used identities in reference to the racialized conceptualizations of Africa (e.g., North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa) to oppose imposed identities, Berbers have invoked North African identity to oppose Arabized and Islamicized identities, and Sub-Saharan Africans (e.g., Negritude, Black Consciousness) and the African diaspora (e.g., Black is Beautiful) have invoked and used black identity to oppose colonialism and racism.", "While Berber studies has largely sought to establish ties between Berbers and North Africa with Arabs and the Middle East, Merolla (2017) indicated that efforts to establish ties between Berbers and North Africa with Sub-Saharan Africans and Sub-Saharan Africa have recently started to being undertaken." ], [ "See also", "* Architecture of Africa* History of science and technology in Africa* Military history of Africa* Genetic history of Africa * Economic history of Africa* African historiography* Historians of Africa* List of history journals#Africa* List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa* List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa* Outline of Africa#History of Africa* Africa-Europe relations* Africa-United States relations* Africa–China relations* Soviet Union-Africa relations" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ** * * * * * * ** * * * * * * Looks at the slave trade, the adaptation of Africans to new conditions, their struggle for freedom and equality, and the establishment of a \"black\" diaspora and its local influence around the world; covers 1430 to 2001.", "* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Byfield, Judith A. et al.", "eds.", "''Africa and World War II'' (Cambridge UP, 2015).", "* Clark, J. Desmond (1970).", "''The Prehistory of Africa''.", "Thames and Hudson* Davidson, Basil (1964).", "''The African Past''.", "Penguin, Harmondsworth* Devermont, Judd.", "\"World Is Coming to Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Where Is the United States?\"", "(Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2018) online.", "* Duignan, P., and L. H. Gann.", "''The United States and Africa: A History'' (Cambridge University Press, 1984)* Fage, J.D.", "and Roland Oliver, eds.", "''The Cambridge History of Africa'' (8 vol 1975–1986)* Falola, Toyin.", "''Africa'', Volumes 1–5.", "* FitzSimons, William.", "\"Sizing Up the 'Small Wars' of African Empire: An Assessment of the Context and Legacies of Nineteenth-Century Colonial Warfare\".", "''Journal of African Military History'' 2#1 (2018): 63–78.", "* * Freund, Bill (1998).", "''The Making of Contemporary Africa'', Lynne Rienner, Boulder (including a substantial \"Annotated Bibliography\" pp. 269–316).", "* Herbertson, A. J. and O. J. R. Howarth.", "eds.", "''The Oxford Survey Of The British Empire'' (6 vol 1914) on Africa; 550pp; comprehensive coverage of South Africa and British colonies* July, Robert (1998).", "''A History of the African People'', (Waveland Press, 1998).", "* Killingray, David, and Richard Rathbone, eds.", "''Africa and the Second World War'' (Springer, 1986).", "* Lamphear, John, ed.", "''African Military History'' (Routledge, 2007).", "* Obenga, Théophile (1980).", "''Pour une Nouvelle Histoire'' Présence Africaine, Paris* Reader, John (1997).", "''Africa: A Biography of the Continent''.", "Hamish Hamilton.", "* Roberts, Stephen H. ''History of French Colonial Policy (1870–1925)'' (2 vols., 1929) vol 1 online also vol 2 online; comprehensive scholarly history* Shillington, Kevin (1989).", "''History of Africa'', New York: St.", "Martin's.", "* Thornton, John K. ''Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800'' (Routledge, 1999).", "* UNESCO (1980–1994).", "''General History of Africa'' .", "8 volumes.", "* Worden, Nigel (1995).", "''The Making of Modern South Africa'', Oxford UK, Cambridge US: Blackwell.===Atlases===* Ajayi, A.J.F.", "and Michael Crowder.", "''Historical Atlas of Africa'' (1985); 300 color maps.", "* Fage, J.D.", "''Atlas of African History'' (1978)* Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P.", "''The New Atlas of African History'' (1991).", "* Kwamena-Poh, Michael, et al.", "''African history in Maps'' (Longman, 1982).", "* McEvedy, Colin.", "''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed.", "1996).", "excerpt===Historiography===* Boyd, Kelly, ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers'' (Rutledge, 1999) 1:4–14.", "* Fage, John D. \"The development of African historiography.\"", "''General history of Africa'' 1 (1981): 25-42.online* Lonsdale, John.", "\"States and social processes in Africa: a historiographical survey.\"", "''African studies review'' 24.2-3 (1981): 139-226.online* * * Philips, John Edward, ed.", "''Writing African History'' (2005)* Whitehead, Clive.", "\"The historiography of British Imperial education policy, Part II: Africa and the rest of the colonial empire.\"", "''History of Education'' 34.4 (2005): 441-454.online* Zimmerman, Andrew.", "\"Africa in Imperial and Transnational History: multi-sited historiography and the necessity of theory.\"", "'' Journal of African History'' 54.3 (2013): 331-340.online" ], [ "External links", "* \" Race, Evolution and the Science of Human Origins\" by Allison Hopper, ''Scientific American'' (5 July 2021).", "* Worldtimelines.org.uk – Africa The British Museum.", "2005* The Historyscoper.", "* About.com:African History .", "* The Story of Africa BBC World Service.", "* Wonders of the African World, PBS.", "* Civilization of Africa by Richard Hooker, Washington State University.", "* African Art Metropolitan Museum of Art.", "* African Kingdoms, by Khaleel Muhammad.", "* Mapungubwe Museum at the University of Pretoria* Project Diaspora .", "* Kush Communications |Media Production Company London." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Oceania" ], [ "Introduction", "1852 map of Oceania by J.G.", "Barbie du Bocage, includding subregions of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.Māori war dance, New Zealand, circa 1850An exclusive economic zone map of the Pacific which excludes non-tropical islandsThe '''history of Oceania''' includes the history of Australia, Easter Island, Fiji, Hawaii, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Western New Guinea, and other Pacific island nations." ], [ "Prehistory", "The prehistory of Oceania is divided into the prehistory of each of its major areas: Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, and these vary greatly as to when they were first inhabited by humans — from 70,000 years ago (Near Oceania) to 3,000 years ago (Remote Oceania).=== Australia ===Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands.", "Indigenous Australians migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia around 50,000 years ago.", "The Torres Strait Islanders are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea.", "The term \"Aboriginal\" is traditionally applied to only the indigenous inhabitants of mainland Australia and Tasmania, along with some of the adjacent islands, i.e.", ": the \"first peoples\".", "''Indigenous Australians'' is an inclusive term used when referring to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders.The earliest definite human remains found to date are that of Mungo Man, which have been dated at about 40,000 years old, but the time of arrival of the ancestors of Indigenous Australians is a matter of debate among researchers, with estimates dating back as far as 125,000 years ago.", "There is great diversity among different Indigenous communities and societies in Australia, each with its own unique mixture of cultures, customs and languages.", "In present-day Australia these groups are further divided into local communities.=== Melanesia ===The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived between 50,000 and 30,000 years ago, when Neanderthals still roamed Europe.", "The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people.", "Migrating from Southeast Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands (archipelago), including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian peoples, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples.", "In the late 20th century, some academics proposed a long period of interaction that led to numerous complex changes in the peoples' genetics, languages, and cultures.", "Kayser, et al.", "proposed that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking an Austronesian language) departed to the east to become the forebears of the Polynesian people.Boy from VanuatuHowever, the theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008; based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a wide variety of Pacific peoples, it found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians.", "Both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians, particularly Taiwanese aborigines.", "It appeared that, having developed their sailing outrigger canoes, the Polynesian ancestors migrated from East Asia, moved through the Melanesian area quickly on their way, and kept going to eastern areas, where they settled.", "They left little genetic evidence in Melanesia.The study found a high rate of genetic differentiation and diversity among the groups living within the Melanesian islands, with the peoples distinguished by island, language, topography, and geography among the islands.", "Such diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands.", "For instance, populations developed differently in coastal areas, as opposed to those in more isolated mountainous valleys.Additional DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more human species have been discovered since the late 20th century.", "Based on his genetic studies of the Denisova hominin, an ancient human species discovered in 2010, Svante Pääbo claims that ancient human ancestors of the Melanesians interbred in Asia with these humans.", "He has found that people of New Guinea share 4–6% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this exchange.", "The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals; both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago.", "This is based on genetic evidence from a fossil found in Siberia.", "The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into south Asia, where ancestors of the Melanesians developed.Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair.=== Micronesia ===Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers.", "There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage.", "As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.", "The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan, dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before.The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago.", "A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Yap and Pohnpei.", "The prehistory of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.Central Nan MadolNan Madol, capital of the Saudeleur DynastyOn Pohnpei, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras: ''Mwehin Kawa'' or ''Mwehin Aramas'' (Period of Building, or Period of Peopling, before c. 1100); ''Mwehin Sau Deleur'' (Period of the Lord of Deleur, c. 1100 to c. 1628); and ''Mwehin Nahnmwarki'' (Period of the Nahnmwarki, c. 1628 to c. 1885).", "Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin.", "The Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations.", "Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment among Pohnpeians.", "The Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized ''nahnmwarki'' system in existence today.", "Isokelekel is regarded as the creator of the modern Pohnpeian ''nahnmwarki'' social system and the father of the Pompeian people.Construction of Nan Madol, a megalithic complex made from basalt lava logs in Pohnpei began as early as 1200 CE.", "Nan Madol is offshore of Temwen Island near Pohnpei, consists of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals, and is often called the ''Venice of the Pacific''.", "It is located near the island of Pohnpei and was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until its centralized system collapsed amid the invasion of Isokelekel.", "Isokelekel and his descendants initially occupied the stone city, but later abandoned it.The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from Southeast Asia.", "They became known as the Chamorros, and spoke an Austronesian language called Chamorro.", "The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone.", "The Refaluwasch or Carolinian people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands.", "Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BCE, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts.=== Polynesia ===The Polynesians are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological, and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian peoples and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan.", "Between about 3000 and 1000 BCE speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Maritime Southeast Asia, as tribes whose natives were thought to have arrived through South China about 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia, although they are different from the Han Chinese who now form the majority of people in China and Taiwan.", "There are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia.", "These are outlined well by Kayser ''et al.''", "(2000) and are as follows:* Express Train model: A recent (c. 3000–1000 BCE) expansion out of Taiwan, via the Philippines and eastern Indonesia and from the north-west (\"Bird's Head\") of New Guinea, on to Island Melanesia by roughly 1400 BCE, reaching western Polynesian islands right about 900 BCE.", "This theory is supported by the majority of current human genetic data, linguistic data, and archaeological data* Entangled Bank model: Emphasizes the long history of Austronesian speakers' cultural and genetic interactions with indigenous Island South-East Asians and Melanesians along the way to becoming the first Polynesians.", "* Slow Boat model: Similar to the express-train model but with a longer hiatus in Melanesia along with admixture, both genetically, culturally and linguistically with the local population.", "This is supported by the Y-chromosome data of Kayser ''et al.''", "(2000), which shows that all three haplotypes of Polynesian Y chromosomes can be traced back to Melanesia.In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty.", "It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE, \"Lapita peoples\", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of northwest Melanesia.", "This culture is seen as having adapted and evolved through time and space since its emergence \"Out of Taiwan\".", "They had given up rice production, for instance, after encountering and adapting to breadfruit in the Bird's Head area of New Guinea.", "In the end, the most eastern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered so far has been through work on the archaeology in Samoa.", "The site is at Mulifanua on Upolu.", "The Mulifanua site, where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied, has a \"true\" age of c. 1000 BCE based on C14 dating.", "A 2010 study places the beginning of the human archaeological sequences of Polynesia in Tonga at 900 BCE, the small differences in dates with Samoa being due to differences in radiocarbon dating technologies between 1989 and 2010, the Tongan site apparently predating the Samoan site by some few decades in real time.Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BCE, the Lapita archaeological culture spread 6,000 kilometres further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa.", "The area of Tonga, Fiji, and Samoa served as a gateway into the rest of the Pacific region known as Polynesia.", "Ancient Tongan mythologies recorded by early European explorers report the islands of 'Ata and Tongatapu as the first islands being hauled to the surface from the deep ocean by Maui.", "'''Haʻamonga ʻa Maui''' is a stone trilithon on the Tongan island of Tongatapu.", "It is constructed of three coral limestone slabs each weighing at least 30–40 tons.", "It was built at the beginning of the 13th century under the 11th Tuʻi Tonga Tuʻi-tā-tui.The '''\"Tuʻi Tonga Empire\"''' or \"Tongan Empire\" in Oceania are descriptions sometimes given to Tongan expansionism and projected hegemony dating back to 950 CE, but at its peak during the period 1200–1500.While modern researchers and cultural experts attest to widespread Tongan influence and evidences of transoceanic trade and exchange of material and non-material cultural artifacts, empirical evidence of a true political empire ruled for any length of time by successive rulers is lacking.Modern archeology, anthropology and linguistic studies confirm widespread Tongan cultural influence ranging widely through East 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa and Niue, parts of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, and while some academics prefer the term \"maritime chiefdom\", others argue that, while very different from examples elsewhere, ''...\"empire\" is probably the most convenient term.", "''Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that '''Fiji''' was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, although the question of Pacific migration still lingers.", "It is believed that the Lapita people or the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first but not much is known of what became of them after the Melanesians arrived; they may have had some influence on the new culture, and archaeological evidence shows that they would have then moved on to Tonga, Samoa, and even Hawai'i.The first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago.", "Lapita pottery shards have been found at numerous excavations around the country.", "Aspects of Fijian culture are similar to the Melanesian culture of the western Pacific but have a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures.", "Across from east to west, Fiji has been a nation of many languages.", "Fiji's history was one of settlement but also of mobility.Over the centuries, a unique Fijian culture developed.", "Constant warfare and cannibalism between warring tribes were quite rampant and very much part of everyday life.", "In later centuries, the ferocity of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near Fijian waters, giving Fiji the name ''Cannibal Isles''; as a result, Fiji remained unknown to the rest of the world.Moai at Ahu Tongariki on Rapa Nui (Easter Island)Early European visitors to '''Easter Island''' recorded the local oral traditions about the original settlers.", "In these traditions, Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matuꞌa arrived on the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family.", "They are believed to have been Polynesian.", "There is considerable uncertainty about the accuracy of this legend as well as the date of settlement.", "Published literature suggests the island was settled around 300–400 CE, or at about the time of the arrival of the earliest settlers in Hawaii.Some scientists say that Easter Island was not inhabited until 700–800 CE.", "This date range is based on glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities.Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was settled as recently as 1200 CE.", "This seems to be supported by a 2006 study of the island's deforestation, which could have started around the same time.", "A large now extinct palm, ''Paschalococos disperta'', related to the Chilean wine palm ''(Jubaea chilensis)'', was one of the dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence; this species, whose sole occurrence was Easter Island, became extinct due to deforestation by the early settlers." ], [ "European contact and exploration (1500s–1700s)", "===Iberian pioneers=======Early Iberian exploration====Ferdinand MagellanVictoria'', one of the original five ships, circumnavigated the globe after the death of Ferdinand Magellan.Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards.", "Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Moluccas (by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512), Timor, the Aru Islands (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands (by Gomes de Sequeira in 1525), and west Papua New Guinea (by Jorge de Menezes in 1526).", "In 1519 a Castilian ('Spanish') expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the strait that bears his name and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named \"Pacific\".", "The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão, then sailed north and caught the trade winds which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed.", "One surviving ship led by Juan Sebastián Elcano returned west across the Indian Ocean and the other went north in the hope of finding the westerlies and reaching Mexico.", "Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies.", "The Magellan-Elcano expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the world and reached the Philippines, the Mariana Islands and other islands of Oceania.====Other large expeditions====From 1527 to 1595 a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the discovery of the Marshall Islands and Palau in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands archipelago, the Cook Islands and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.In 1565, Spanish navigator Andrés de Urdaneta found a wind system that would allow ships to sail eastward from Asia, back to the Americas.", "From then until 1815 the annual Manila galleons crossed the Pacific from Mexico to the Philippines and back, in the first transpacific trade route in history.", "Combined with the Spanish Atlantic or West Indies Fleet, the Manila galleons formed one of the first global maritime exchange in human history, linking Seville in Spain with Manila in the Philippines, via Mexico.Later, in the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorers in the 17th century discovered the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres.", "In 1668 the Spanish founded a colony on Guam as a resting place for west-bound galleons.", "For a long time this was the only non-coastal European settlement in the Pacific.===Oceania during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery===Regions of Oceania (including Australasia, Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia).", "\"The Island Continent\" Australia was the last human-inhabited continent to be largely known to the civilized world.====Early Dutch exploration====The Dutch were the first non-natives to undisputedly explore and chart coastlines of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, and Easter Island.", "Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (or VOC) was a major force behind the Golden Age of Dutch exploration (category; c. 1590s–1720s) and Netherlandish cartography (c. 1570s–1670s).", "In the 17th century, the VOC's navigators and explorers charted almost three-quarters of the Australian coastline, except the east coast.====Abel Tasman's exploratory voyages====Abel Tasman was the first known European explorer to reach the islands of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight the Fiji islands.", "His navigator François Visscher, and his merchant Isaack Gilsemans, mapped substantial portions of Australia, New Zealand, Tonga and the Fijian islands.On 24 November 1642 Abel Tasman sighted the west coast of Tasmania, north of Macquarie Harbour.", "He named his discovery Van Diemen's Land after Antonio van Diemen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.", "then claimed formal possession of the land on 3 December 1642.After some exploration, Tasman had intended to proceed in a northerly direction but as the wind was unfavourable he steered east.", "On 13 December they sighted land on the north-west coast of the South Island, New Zealand, becoming the first Europeans to do so.", "Tasman named it ''Staten Landt'' on the assumption that it was connected to an island (Staten Island, Argentina) at the south of the tip of South America.", "Proceeding north and then east, he stopped to gather water, but one of his boats was attacked by Māori in a double hulled waka (canoes) and four of his men were attacked and killed by mere.", "As Tasman sailed out of the bay he was again attacked, this time by 11 waka .", "The waka approached the Zeehan which fired and hit one Māori who fell down.", "Canister shot hit the side of a waka.Archeological research has shown the Dutch had tried to land at a major agricultural area, which the Māori may have been trying to protect.", "Tasman named the bay ''Murderers' Bay'' (now known as Golden Bay) and sailed north, but mistook Cook Strait for a bight (naming it ''Zeehaen's Bight'').", "Two names he gave to New Zealand landmarks still endure, Cape Maria van Diemen and Three Kings Islands, but ''Kaap Pieter Boreels'' was renamed by Cook 125 years later to Cape Egmont.En route back to Batavia, Tasman came across the Tongan archipelago on 20 January 1643.While passing the Fiji Islands Tasman's ships came close to being wrecked on the dangerous reefs of the north-eastern part of the Fiji group.", "He charted the eastern tip of Vanua Levu and Cikobia before making his way back into the open sea.", "He eventually turned north-west to New Guinea, and arrived at Batavia on 15 June 1643.For over a century after Tasman's voyages, until the era of James Cook, Tasmania and New Zealand were not visited by Europeans—mainland Australia was visited, but usually only by accident.File:Thevenot - Hollandia Nova detecta 1644.png|A typical map from the Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography.", "Australasia during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s): including Nova Guinea (New Guinea), Nova Hollandia (mainland Australia), Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and Nova Zeelandia (New Zealand).File:EarleWarSpeech.jpg|Waka taua (war canoes) at the Bay of Islands, 1827–1828.File:AbelTasman.jpg|Abel Tasman.File:Tasmanroutes.PNG|The route of Abel Tasman's first and second voyageFile:Modern Asia (1796).tif|The continent of Australia (then known as New Holland) integrated within Asia in a 1796 map.File:Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie spiegelretourschip Amsterdam replica.jpg|The Dutch East India CompanyFile:Tasmanmap1644.jpg|The Abel Tasman map 1644.File:Gilsemans 1642.jpg| The first European impression of Māori, at Murderers' Bay.", "Drawing by Isaack Gilsemans in Abel Tasman's travel journal (1642).File:Tasman-dagboek-b.jpg| Tongatapu, drawing by Isaack GilsemansFile:Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg| The bay of Tongatapu with the two ships, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans===British exploration and Captain James Cook's voyages======= First voyage (1768–1771) ====Cook's map of New ZealandFamous official portrait of Captain James Cook.In 1766 the Royal Society engaged James Cook to travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe and record the transit of Venus across the Sun.", "The expedition sailed from England on 26 August 1768, rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the Venus Transit were made.", "Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders which were additional instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage: to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of ''Terra Australis''.With the help of a Tahitian named Tupaia, who had extensive knowledge of Pacific geography, Cook managed to reach New Zealand on 6 October 1769, leading only the second group of Europeans to do so (after Abel Tasman over a century earlier, in 1642).", "Cook mapped the complete New Zealand coastline, making only some minor errors (such as calling Banks Peninsula an island, and thinking Stewart Island/Rakiura was a peninsula of the South Island).", "He also identified Cook Strait, which separates the North Island from the South Island, and which Tasman had not seen.Cook then voyaged west, reaching the south-eastern coast of Australia on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.", "On 23 April he made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in his journal: \"''…and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the Clothes they might have on I know not''.\"", "On 29 April Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula.", "It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal.After his departure from Botany Bay he continued northwards.", "After a grounding mishap on the Great Barrier Reef, the voyage continued, sailing through Torres Strait before returning to England via Batavia, the Cape of Good Hope, and Saint Helena.moko).", "Drawn by Sydney Parkinson, the artist on Captain Cook's 1st voyage to New Zealand in 1769.==== Second voyage (1772–1775) ====Waimea, Kauai commemorating his first contact with the Hawaiian Islands at the town's harbour in January 1778In 1772 the Royal Society commissioned Cook to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis again.", "On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south.", "Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed by the Royal Society to lie further south.Cook commanded on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, .", "Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle (17 January 1773).", "In the Antarctic fog, ''Resolution'' and ''Adventure'' became separated.", "Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.James Cook witnessing human sacrifice in Tahiti c. 1773Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica, but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship.", "He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent.", "On this leg of the voyage he brought a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage.", "On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu.Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from Cape Horn.", "He then turned north to South Africa, and from there continued back to England.", "His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.==== Third voyage (1776–1779) ====On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS ''Resolution'', while Captain Charles Clerke commanded .", "The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the Pacific Islander, Omai to Tahiti, or so the public were led to believe.", "The trip's principal goal was to locate a North-West Passage around the American continent.", "After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to visit the Hawaiian Islands.", "After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour, Kauai, Cook named the archipelago the \"Sandwich Islands\" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty.From the Sandwich Islands Cook sailed north and then north-east to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in Alta California.", "Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska.", "In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the West) and Spanish (from the South) exploratory probes of the Northern limits of the Pacific.Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779.After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at Kealakekua Bay, on 'Hawaii Island', largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago.", "Cook's arrival coincided with the ''Makahiki'', a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono.", "Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS ''Resolution'', or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.", "Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals.", "It has been argued (most extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono.", "Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992.The Death of Captain James Cook, 14 February 1779'', an unfinished painting by Johann Zoffany, After a month's stay, Cook resumed his exploration of the Northern Pacific.", "Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island, however, the ''Resolution'' foremast broke, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs.", "Tensions rose, and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians.", "On 14 February 1779, at Kealakekua Bay, some Hawaiians took one of Cook's small boats.", "As thefts were quite common in Tahiti and the other islands, Cook would have taken hostages until the stolen articles were returned.", "He attempted to take as hostage the King of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.", "The Hawaiians prevented this, and Cook's men had to retreat to the beach.", "As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf.", "Hawaiian tradition says that he was killed by a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina.", "The Hawaiians dragged his body away.", "Four of Cook's men were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation.The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body.", "Following their practice of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society.", "The body was disembowelled, baked to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages.", "Some of Cook's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burial at sea.Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition.", "Following the death of Clerke, ''Resolution'' and ''Discovery'' returned home in October 1780 commanded by John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, and Captain James King.", "After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage.The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages.", "The first voyage is shown in '''red''', second voyage in '''green''', and third voyage in '''blue'''.", "The route of Cook's crew following his death is shown as a dashed blue line." ], [ "Colonialism", "Political Map of the Asia-Pacific Region, 1939.=== British colonialism ===In 1789 the Mutiny on the Bounty against William Bligh led to several of the mutineers escaping the Royal Navy and settling on Pitcairn Islands, which later became a British colony.", "Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania being annexed by the British Empire.The Gilbert Islands (now known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (now known as Tuvalu) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century.", "The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), and later as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.Among the last islands in Oceania to be colonised was Niue (1900).", "In 1887, King Fata-a-iki, who reigned Niue from 1887 to 1896, offered to cede sovereignty to the British Empire, fearing the consequences of annexation by a less benevolent colonial power.", "The offer was not accepted until 1900.Niue was a British protectorate, but the UK's direct involvement ended in 1901 when New Zealand annexed the island.=== French colonialism ===Society Island kingdomsFrench Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838.In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed.", "The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843.In 1880, France annexed Tahiti, changing the status from that of a protectorate to that of a colony.On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854.A few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years.", "New Caledonia became a penal colony, and from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia, among them many Communards, including Henri de Rochefort and Louise Michel.", "Between 1873 and 1876, 4,200 political prisoners were \"relegated\" in New Caledonia.", "Only forty of them settled in the colony, the rest returned to France after being granted amnesty in 1879 and 1880.In the 1880s, France claimed the Tuamotu Archipelago, which formerly belonged to the Pōmare Dynasty, without formally annexing it.", "Having declared a protectorate over Tahuata in 1842, the French regarded the entire Marquesas Islands as French.", "In 1885, France appointed a governor and established a general council, thus giving it the proper administration for a colony.", "The islands of Rimatara and Rūrutu unsuccessfully lobbied for British protection in 1888, so in 1889 they were annexed by France.", "Postage stamps were first issued in the colony in 1892.The first official name for the colony was ''Établissements de l'Océanie'' (Settlements in Oceania); in 1903 the general council was changed to an advisory council and the colony's name was changed to ''Établissements Français de l'Océanie'' (French Settlements in Oceania).=== Spanish colonialism ===The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529.They were later named by Krusenstern, after English explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet).Map of ''Isla de San Carlos'' after the 1770 exploration.In November 1770, Felipe González de Ahedo commanded an expedition from the Viceroyalty of Peru that searched for Davis Land and Madre de Dios Island and looked for foreign naval activities.This expedition landed on ''Isla de San Carlos'' (Easter Island) and signed a treaty of annexation with Rapa Nui king Atamu Tekena.=== Dutch colonialism ===In 1606 Luís Vaz de Torres explored the southern coast of New Guinea from Milne Bay to the Gulf of Papua including Orangerie Bay which he named ''Bahía de San Lorenzo''.", "His expedition also discovered Basilaki Island naming it ''Tierra de San Buenaventura'', which he claimed for Spain in July 1606.On 18 October his expedition reached the western part of the island in present-day Indonesia, and also claimed the territory for the King of Spain.The Netherlands controlled the western half of New Guinea, Germany the north-eastern part, and Britain the south-eastern part.A successive European claim occurred in 1828, when the Netherlands formally claimed the western half of the island as Dutch New Guinea.", "In 1883, following a short-lived French annexation of New Ireland, the British colony of Queensland annexed south-eastern New Guinea.", "However, the Queensland government's superiors in the United Kingdom revoked the claim, and (formally) assumed direct responsibility in 1884, when Germany claimed north-eastern New Guinea as the protectorate of German New Guinea (also called Kaiser-Wilhelmsland).The first Dutch government posts were established in 1898 and in 1902: Manokwari on the north coast, Fak-Fak in the west and Merauke in the south at the border with British New Guinea.", "The German, Dutch and British colonial administrators each attempted to suppress the still-widespread practices of inter-village warfare and headhunting within their respective territories.In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area \"Territory of Papua\"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia.", "During World War I, Australian forces seized German New Guinea, which in 1920 became the Territory of New Guinea,to be administered by Australia under a League of Nations mandate.", "The territories under Australian administration became collectively known as The Territories of Papua and New Guinea (until February 1942).=== German colonialism ===Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884 and Samoa in 1900.Following papal mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain recognized a German claim in 1885.Germany established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade.", "Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect German colonial rule.=== American colonialism ===The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaii becoming a U.S. territory in 1898.Territorial disputes between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899.Samoa aligned its interests with the United States in a Deed of Succession, signed by the ''Tui Manúʻa'' (supreme chief of Manúʻa) on 16 July 1904 at the Crown residence of the Tuimanuʻa called the ''Faleula'' in the place called Lalopua (from Official documents of the Tuimanuʻa government, 1893; Office of the Governor, 2004).Cession followed the Tripartite Convention of 1899 that partitioned the eastern islands of Samoa (including Tutuila and the Manúʻa Group) from the western islands of Samoa (including ʻUpolu and Savaiʻi).=== Japanese colonialism ===At the beginning of World War I, Japan assumed control of the South Seas Mandate after annexing it from Germany.", "The Japanese headquarters was established at the German center of administration, Jaluit.", "On 31 January 1944, during World War II, American forces landed on Kwajalein atoll and U.S. Marines and Army troops later took control of the islands from the Japanese on 3 February, following intense fighting on Kwajalein and Enewetak atolls.", "In 1947, the United States, as the occupying power, entered into an agreement with the UN Security Council to administer much of Micronesia, including the Marshall Islands, as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.During World War II, Japan occupied many Oceanic colonies by wresting control from western powers." ], [ "Samoan Crisis 1887–1889", "Wrecked vessels at Apia, 1889SMS ''Adler'' wrecked at Apia, 1889The '''Samoan Crisis''' was a confrontation standoff between the United States, Imperial Germany, and the British Empire from 1887 to 1889 over control of the Samoan Islands during the Samoan Civil War.The prime minister of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Walter M. Gibson, had long aimed to establishing an empire in the Pacific.In 1887 his government sent the \"homemade battleship\" Kaimiloa to Samoa looking for an alliance against colonial powers.It ended in suspicions from the German Navy and embarrassment for the conduct of the crew.The 1889 incident involved three American warships, , and and three German warships, SMS ''Adler'', SMS ''Olga'', and SMS ''Eber'', keeping each other at bay over several months in Apia harbor, which was monitored by the British warship .The standoff ended on 15 and 16 March when a cyclone wrecked all six warships in the harbor.", "''Calliope'' was able to escape the harbor and survived the storm.", "Robert Louis Stevenson witnessed the storm and its aftermath at Apia and later wrote about what he saw.", "The Samoan Civil War continued, involving Germany, United States, and Britain, eventually resulting, via the Tripartite Convention of 1899, in the partition of the Samoan Islands into American Samoa and German Samoa." ], [ "World War I", "Location of Bita Paka, 1914.The '''Asian and Pacific Theatre''' of World War I was a conquest of German colonial possession in the Pacific Ocean and China.", "The most significant military action was the Siege of Tsingtao in what is now China, but smaller actions were also fought at Battle of Bita Paka and Siege of Toma in German New Guinea.All other German and Austrian possessions in Asia and the Pacific fell without bloodshed.", "Naval warfare was common; all of the colonial powers had naval squadrons stationed in the Indian or Pacific Oceans.", "These fleets operated by supporting the invasions of German held territories and by destroying the East Asia Squadron.A platoon of German reservists at Bita Paka in 1914.One of the first land offensives in the Pacific theatre was the Occupation of German Samoa in August 1914 by New Zealand forces.", "The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony, supported by an Australian and French naval squadron.Australian forces attacked German New Guinea in September 1914: 500 Australians encountered 300 Germans and native policemen at the Battle of Bita Paka; the Allies won the day and the Germans retreated to Toma.", "A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.After the fall of Toma, only minor German forces were left in New Guinea and these generally capitulated once met by Australian forces.", "In December 1914, one German officer near Angorum attempted resist the occupation with thirty native police but his force deserted him after they fired on an Australian scouting party and he was subsequently captured.German Micronesia, the Marianas, the Carolines and the Marshall Islands also fell to Allied forces during the war." ], [ "World War II", "Photograph from a Japanese plane of Battleship Row at the beginning of the attack.", "The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the .", "Two attacking Japanese planes can be seen: one over the and one over the Naval Yard.The Pacific front saw major action during the Second World War, mainly between the belligerents Japan and the United States.The '''attack on Pearl Harbor''' was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941 (8 December in Japan).", "The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II.The attack was intended as a preventive action in order to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions the Empire of Japan was planning in South-East Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States.", "There were simultaneous Japanese attacks on the U.S.-held Philippines and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands.", "The Japanese were turned back at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945.Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the Solomon Islands campaign, the Air raids on Darwin, the Kokada Track, and the Borneo campaign.In 1940 the administration of French Polynesia recognized the Free French Forces and many Polynesians served in World War II.", "Unknown at the time to French and Polynesians, the Konoe Cabinet in Imperial Japan on 16 September 1940 included French Polynesia among the many territories which were to become Japanese possessions in the post-war world—though in the course of the war in the Pacific the Japanese were not able to launch an actual invasion of the French islands.New Zealand troops land on Vella Lavella, in the Solomon IslandsThe aircraft carrier under aerial attack during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons=== Solomon Islands campaign ===Some of the most intense fighting of the Second World War occurred in the Solomons.", "The most significant of the Allied Forces' operations against the Japanese Imperial Forces was launched on 7 August 1942, with simultaneous naval bombardments and amphibious landings on the Florida Islands at Tulagi and Red Beach on Guadalcanal.The Guadalcanal Campaign became an important and bloody campaign fought in the Pacific War as the Allies began to repulse Japanese expansion.", "Of strategic importance during the war were the coastwatchers operating in remote locations, often on Japanese held islands, providing early warning and intelligence of Japanese naval, army and aircraft movements during the campaign.", "\"The Slot\" was a name for New Georgia Sound, when it was used by the Tokyo Express to supply the Japanese garrison on Guadalcanal.", "Of more than 36,000 Japanese on Guadalcanal, about 26,000 were killed or missing, 9,000 died of disease, and 1,000 were captured.Papuan carriers evacuate Australian casualties on 30 August 1942=== Kokoda Track campaign ===The '''Kokoda Track campaign''' was a campaign consisting of a series of battles fought between July and November 1942 between Japanese and Allied—primarily Australian—forces in what was then the Australian territory of Papua.", "Following a landing near Gona, on the north coast of New Guinea, Japanese forces attempted to advance south overland through the mountains of the Owen Stanley Range to seize Port Moresby as part of a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States.", "Initially only limited Australian forces were available to oppose them, and after making rapid progress the Japanese South Seas Force clashed with under strength Australian forces at Awala, forcing them back to Kokoda.", "A number of Japanese attacks were subsequently fought off by the Australian Militia, yet they began to withdraw over the Owen Stanley Range, down the Kokoda Track.In sight of Port Moresby itself, the Japanese began to run out of momentum against the Australians who began to receive further reinforcements.", "Having outrun their supply lines and following the reverses suffered by the Japanese at Guadalcanal, the Japanese were now on the defensive, marking the limit of the Japanese advance southwards.", "The Japanese subsequently withdrew to establish a defensive position on the north coast, but they were followed by the Australians who recaptured Kokoda on 2 November.", "Further fighting continued into November and December as the Australian and United States forces assaulted the Japanese beachheads, in what later became known as the Battle of Buna–Gona." ], [ "Nuclear testing in Oceania", "A 21 kiloton underwater nuclear weapons test, known as Operation CROSSROADS (Event Baker), conducted at Bikini Atoll (1946)Due to its low population, Oceania was a popular location for atmospheric and underground nuclear tests.", "Tests were conducted in various locations by the United Kingdom (Operation Grapple and Operation Antler), the United States (Bikini atoll and the Marshall Islands) and France (Moruroa), often with devastating consequences for the inhabitants.From 1946 to 1958, the Marshall Islands served as the Pacific Proving Grounds for the United States, and was the site of 67 nuclear tests on various atolls.", "The world's first hydrogen bomb, codenamed \"Mike\", was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on 1 November (local date) in 1952, by the United States.In 1954, fallout from the American Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test in the Marshall Islands was such that the inhabitants of the Rongelap Atoll were forced to abandon their island.", "Three years later the islanders were allowed to return, but suffered abnormally high levels of cancer.", "They were evacuated again in 1985 and in 1996 given $45 million in compensation.A series of British tests were also conducted in the 1950s at Maralinga in South Australia, forcing the removal of the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara peoples from their ancestral homelands.In 1962, France's early nuclear testing ground of Algeria became independent and the atoll of Moruroa in the Tuamotu Archipelago was selected as the new testing site.", "Moruroa atoll became notorious as a site of French nuclear testing, primarily because tests were carried out there after most Pacific testing had ceased.", "These tests were opposed by most other nations in Oceania.", "The last atmospheric test was conducted in 1974, and the last underground test in 1996.French nuclear testing in the Pacific was controversial in the 1980s, in 1985 French agents caused the Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior in Auckland to prevent it from arriving at the test site in Moruroa.", "In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing at Fangataufa atoll after a three-year moratorium.", "The last test was on 27 January 1996.On 29 January 1996, France announced that it would accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and no longer test nuclear weapons." ], [ "Fijian coups", "The burnt out remains of Govinda's Restaurant in Suva: over 100 shops and businesses were ransacked in Suva's central business district on 19 May 2000Fiji has suffered several coups d'état: military in 1987 and 2006 and civilian in 2000.All were ultimately due to ethnic tension between indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians, who originally came to the islands as indentured labor in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.", "The 1987 coup followed the election of a multi-ethnic coalition, which Lieutenant Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka overthrew, claiming racial discrimination against ethnic Fijians.", "The coup was denounced by the United Nations and Fiji was expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations.The 2000 coup was essentially a repeat of the 1987 affair, although it was led by civilian George Speight, apparently with military support.", "Commodore Frank Bainimarama, who was opposed to Speight, then took over and appointed a new Prime Minister.", "Speight was later tried and convicted for treason.", "Many indigenous Fijians were unhappy at the treatment of Speight and his supporters, feeling that the coup had been legitimate.", "In 2006 the Fijian parliament attempted to introduce a series of bills which would have, amongst other things, pardoned those involved in the 2000 coup.", "Bainimarama, concerned that the legal and racial injustices of the previous coups would be perpetuated, staged his own coup.", "It was internationally condemned, and Fiji again suspended from the Commonwealth.In 2006 the then Australia Defence Minister, Brendan Nelson, warned Fijian officials of an Australian Naval fleet within proximity of Fiji that would respond to any attacks against its citizens." ], [ "Bougainville Civil War", "The Australian government estimated that anywhere between 15,000 and 20,000 people could have died in the Bougainville Civil War.", "More conservative estimates put the number of combat deaths as 1–2,000.From 1975, there were attempts by the Bougainville Province to secede from Papua New Guinea.", "These were resisted by Papua New Guinea primarily because of the presence in Bougainville of the Panguna mine, which was vital to Papua New Guinea's economy.", "The Bougainville Revolutionary Army began attacking the mine in 1988, forcing its closure the following year.", "Further BRA activity led to the declaration of a state of emergency and the conflict continued until about 2005, when successionist leader and self-proclaimed King of Bougainville Francis Ona died of malaria.", "Peacekeeping troops led by Australia have been in the region since the late 1990s, and a referendum on independence will be held in the 2010s." ], [ "Modern age", "New Zealand and Australian military personnel boarding a Sea Hawk helicopter as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands in 2007In 1946, French Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia).Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively, marking their legislative independence from the United Kingdom.", "Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959.Samoa became the first pacific nation to gain independence in 1962, Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970, with many other nations following in the 1970s and 1980s.", "The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000.Bougainville Island, geographically part of the Solomon Islands archipelago but politically part of Papua New Guinea, tried unsuccessfully to become independent in 1975, and a civil war followed in the early 1990s, with it later being granted autonomy.On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands.", "The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts.In 1852, French Polynesia was granted partial internal autonomy; in 1984, the autonomy was extended.", "French Polynesia became a full overseas collectivity of France in 2004.Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's Pacific Solution policy transferred asylum seekers to several Pacific nations, including the Nauru detention centre.", "Australia, New Zealand and other nations took part in the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands from 2003 after a request for aid." ], [ "See also", "* Europeans in Oceania* History of Australia* History of Bougainville* History of New Zealand* History of Solomon Islands* History of the Pacific Islands* List of countries and islands by first human settlement* List of Oceanian cuisines" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *** * **" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hanseatic League" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hanseatic League''' was a medieval commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Central and Northern Europe.", "Growing from a few North German towns in the late 12th century, the League expanded between the 13th and 15th centuries and ultimately encompassed nearly 200 settlements across nine modern-day countries, ranging from Estonia in the north and east, to King's Lynn, England in the west, and Kraków, Poland, in the south.The League originated from various loose associations of German traders and towns formed to advance mutual commercial interests, such as protection against robbers.", "These arrangements gradually coalesced into the Hanseatic League, whose traders enjoyed toll privileges and protection in affiliated communities and their trade routes.", "Economic interdependence and kinship ties between merchant families, who held important positions in towns, led to deeper political integration and the removal of obstacles to trade.", "Hanseatic Cities gradually developed common trade regulations.During its heyday, the Hanseatic League dominated maritime trade in the North and Baltic Seas.", "It established trading posts in numerous towns and cities across Europe; some of these, like the Kontors in London (the Steelyard), Bruges, Bergen, and Novgorod, became extraterritorial entities that enjoyed considerable legal autonomy.", "Hanseatic merchants, called Hansards, operated in basic private companies and were widely known for their access to a variety of commodities, and enjoyed privileges and protections abroad.", "The collective economic power made the League capable of imposing blockades and even waging war against kingdoms and principalities.Even at its peak, the Hanseatic League was never more than a loosely aligned confederation of city-states.", "It lacked a permanent administrative body, a treasury, and a standing military force.", "In the 14th century, the Hanseatic League instated an irregular negotiating ''diet'' ( or ; or ) that operated on deliberation and consensus.", "By the mid-16th century, these weak connections left the Hanseatic League vulnerable, and it gradually unraveled as members became consolidated into other realms or departed, ultimately disintegrating in 1669.Ubena von Bremen, a replica of the Bremen cogThe Hanseatic League used several types of ships that sailed over seas and on rivers.", "The most emblematic type was the cog.", "Knowing great diversity in construction, it was depicted on Hanseatic seals and coats of arms.", "By the end of the Middle Ages, the cog was replaced by other types like the hulk, which later gave way to larger carvel types." ], [ "Etymology", " is the Old High German word for a band or troop.", "This word was applied to bands of merchants traveling between the Hanseatic cities — whether by land or by sea.", "in Middle Low German came to mean a society of merchants or a trader guild.", "That it originally meant ''An-See'', or \"on the sea\", is incorrect.Hanseatic Seal of Elbing (now Elbląg)" ], [ "History", "Exploratory trading adventures, raids, and piracy occurred early throughout the Baltic Sea.", "The sailors of Gotland sailed up rivers as far away as Novgorod, which was a major trade centre of Rus'.", "Scandinavians led international trade in the Baltic area before the Hanseatic League, establishing major trading hubs at Birka, Haithabu, and Schleswig by the 9th century CE.", "The later Hanseatic ports between Mecklenburg and Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad) originally formed part of the Scandinavian-led Baltic trade-system.The Hanseatic League was never formally founded, so it lacks a date of founding.", "Historians traditionally traced its origins to the rebuilding of the north German town of Lübeck in 1159 by the powerful Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, after he had captured the area from Adolf II, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein.", "More recent scholarship has deemphasized the focus on Lübeck, viewing it as one of several regional trading centers, and presenting the League as the combination of a north German trading system oriented on the Baltic and a Rhinelandic trading system targeting England and Flanders.The Hanseatic League left a significant cultural and architectural heritage.", "It is especially renowned for its Brick Gothic monuments, such as Stralsund's St. Nikolai Church and its City Hall, shown here.", "The old town of Stralsund, together with Wismar, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed during the 13th century, and Lübeck became a central node in the seaborne trade that linked the areas around the North and Baltic seas.", "The hegemony of Lübeck peaked during the 15th century.=== Foundation and early development ===Well before the term ''Hanse'' appeared in a document in 1267,merchants in different cities began to form guilds, or ''hansas'', with the intention of trading with towns overseas, especially in the economically less-developed eastern Baltic.", "This area could supply timber, wax, amber, resins, and furs, along with rye and wheat brought down on barges from the hinterland to port markets.", "Merchant guilds formed in both hometowns and destination ports as medieval corporations (''universitates mercatorum''), and despite competition would increasingly cooperate to coalesce into the Hanseatic network of merchant guilds.", "The dominant language of trade was Middle Low German, which had significant impact on the languages spoken in the area, particularly the larger Scandinavian languages, Estonian, and Latvian.Lübeck soon became a base for merchants from Saxony and Westphalia trading eastward and northward; for them, because of its shorter and easier access route and better legal protections, it was a more attractive port than Schleswig.", "It became a transshipment port for trade between the North Sea and the Baltic too.", "In addition, Lübeck granted extensive trade privileges to Russian and Scandinavian traders.", "It was also the main supply port for the Northern Crusades, improving its relations with the Pope.", "Lübeck gained imperial privileges to become a free imperial city in 1226, under Valdemar II of Denmark during the Danish dominion, as had Hamburg in 1189.Also in this period Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund and Danzig received city charters.Visby, on the island of Gotland, functioned as the leading centre in the Baltic before the Hansa.", "Sailing east, Visby merchants established a trading post at Novgorod called ''Gutagard'' (also known as ''Gotenhof'') in 1080.Gotland became separate from Sweden after 1120 and allowed traders from the south and west.", "Merchants from northern Germany from then on stayed there in the early period of the Gotlander settlement, through a treaty with the Visby Hansa.", "Later, in the first half of the 13th century, they established their own trading station or ''Kontor'' in Novgorod, known as the Peterhof, further up the river Volkhov.Hansa societies worked to remove restrictions on trade for their members.", "The earliest extant documentary mention (although without a name) of a specific German commercial federation dates between 1173 and 1175 (but commonly misdated to 1157) in London.", "That year, the merchants of the Hansa in Cologne convinced King Henry II of England to exempt them from all tolls in London and to grant protection to merchants and goods throughout England.German colonists in the 12th and 13th centuries settled in numerous cities on and near the east Baltic coast, such as Elbing (Elbląg), Thorn (Toruń), Reval (Tallinn), Riga, and Dorpat (Tartu), which became members of the Hanseatic League, and some of which still retain many Hansa buildings and bear the style of their Hanseatic days.", "Most were granted Lübeck law, after the league's most prominent town.", "The law provided that they had to appeal in all legal matters to Lübeck's city council.", "Others, like Danzig from 1295, had Magdeburg law or its derivative Culm law.", "Later the Livonian Confederation of 1435 to incorporated modern-day Estonia and parts of Latvia; all of its major towns were members of the Hanseatic League.Foundation of the alliance between Lübeck and Hamburg in the part about ship law (''Van schiprechte'') in the Hamburg city right from 1497Over the 13th century, older and wealthier long-distance traders increasingly settled in their hometowns as senior trade partners, while they previously became landowners.", "Already in older times merchants had often begun partnerships or private companies.", "Factors, who were junior partners or associates, were instead sent to foreign places and settled on location.", "By the end of the century foreign long-distance trade had developed a division of labor with three roles: the settled senior merchant, the transporter (skipper, carrier or land carter) and the factor abroad.", "But inside the area of Hanseatic towns travelling representatives were sent on individual trade expeditions.", "The larger number of settled merchants allowed long-distance traders to influence town policy more, combined with an increased presence of the ministerial class this raised the rank of merchants and enabled them to dominate more cities.", "This decentralised arrangement was fostered by slow travel speeds, going from Reval to Lübeck took between 4 weeks and, in winter, 4 months.In 1241 Lübeck, which had access to the Baltic and North seas' fishing grounds, formed an alliance—a precursor to the League—with Hamburg, another trading city, which controlled access to salt-trade routes from Lüneburg.", "The allied cities gained control over most of the salt-fish trade, especially the Scania Market; Cologne joined them in the Diet of 1260.The towns raised their own armies, with each guild required to provide levies when needed.", "The Hanseatic cities came to the aid of one another, and commercial ships often had to be used to carry soldiers and their arms.", "Over the period, a network of alliances grew to include a flexible roster of 70 to 170 cities.In the West, cities of the Rhineland like Cologne enjoyed trading privileges in Flanders and England.", "In 1266 King Henry III of England granted the Lübeck and Hamburg Hansa a charter for operations in England, initially causing competition with the Westphalians.", "But the Cologne Hansa and the Wendish Hansa joined in 1282 to form the Hanseatic colony in London, although they didn't completely merge until the 15th century.There were blockades against Novgorod in 1268 and 1277/1278.Nonetheless Westphalian traders continued to dominate trade on London and also Ipswich and Colchester, while Baltic and Wendish traders concentrated between King's Lynn and Newcastle upon Tyne.", "Much of the drive for co-operation came from the fragmented nature of existing territorial governments, which failed to provide security for trade.", "Over the next 50 years, the merchant Hansa solidified with formal agreements for confederation and co-operation covering the west and east trade routes.", "Cities not only from the east modern day Low Countries, but also Utrecht, Holland, Zealand, Brabant, Namur and modern Limburg began to participate from the thirteenth century.", "This network of Hanseatic trading guilds is called the ''Kaufmannshanse'' in the historiography.=== Commercial expansion ===Main trading routes of the Hanseatic LeagueThe League succeeded in establishing additional ''Kontors'' in Bruges (Flanders), Bryggen in Bergen (Norway), and London (England) beside the Peterhof in Novgorod.", "These trading posts were institutionalised by the first half of the 14th century at the latest (for Bergen and Bruges) and, except for the Kontor of Bruges, became significant enclaves.", "The London ''Kontor'', the Steelyard (Middle Low German ''stâlhof'', German ''Stahlhof''), stood west of London Bridge near Upper Thames Street, on the site now occupied by Cannon Street station.", "It grew into a significant walled community with its own warehouses, weighhouse, church, offices and houses, reflecting the importance and scale of trading activity on the premises.In addition to the major ''Kontors'', individual ports with Hanseatic trading outposts or factories had a representative merchant and warehouse.", "Often they were not permanently manned.", "In Scania, Denmark, there were around 30 Hanseatic seasonal factories for traders in salted herring, these were called ''vitten'' and were granted considerable legal autonomy to the extent that Burkhardt argues that they resembled a fifth kontor and would be seen as such if not for their early decline.", "The Scanian herring fairs drew large numbers from the Wendish towns, who consolidated the herring trade through an integral approach where they supplied their own salt, but also traders from elsewhere in Scandinavia or from the lands around the North Sea attended.", "In England there were factories in Boston (the outpost was also called the Stalhof), Bristol, Bishop's Lynn (now King's Lynn, which features the sole remaining Hanseatic warehouse in England), Hull, Ipswich, Newcastle upon Tyne, Norwich, Scarborough, Yarmouth (now Great Yarmouth), and York, many of which were important for the Baltic trade and become centres of cloth industry in the late 14th century.", "Hansards and cloth manufacturers coordinated to make fabrics meet local demand and fashion in the traders' hometowns.", "Outposts in Lisbon, Bordeaux, Bourgneuf, La Rochelle and Nantes offered the cheaper Bay salt.", "Ships that plied this trade sailed home in the salt fleet.", "There were also trading posts in Flanders, Denmark-Norway, the Baltic interior, Upper Germany, Iceland and Venice.+Imports and exports, 18 Mar 1368 – 10 Mar 1369(in thousands of Port Lübeck marks)Imports Origin, DestinationExports Total%150 London/Hamburg 38 188 34.444 Livonian towns: 51 95 17.4 10 Riga 14 34 Reval (Tallinn) 14.3 -Pernau 22.7 49.4 Scania 32.6 82 1552 Gotland, Sweden 29.4 81.4 14.919 Prussian towns: 29.5 48.5 8.9 16 Danzig 22.8 3 Elbing 6.6 17.2 Wendish & Pomeranian towns: 25.2 42.4 7.8 5.5 Stettin 7 4 Stralsund 7.5 2.2 Rostock 4.6 5.5 Wismar 6.1 4.3 Bergen – 4.3 0.83 Small Baltic ports 1.2 4.2 0.8338.9 Total 206.9 545.8 100Starting with trade in coarse woollen fabrics, the Hanseatic League had the effect of bringing both commerce and industry to northern Germany.", "As trade increased, newer and finer woollen and linen fabrics, and even silks, were manufactured in northern Germany.", "The same refinement of products out of cottage industry occurred in other fields, e.g.", "etching, wood carving, armour production, engraving of metals, and wood-turning.The league primarily traded beeswax, furs, timber, resin (or tar), flax, honey, wheat, and rye from the east to Flanders and England with cloth, in particular broadcloth, (and, increasingly, manufactured goods) going in the other direction.", "Metal ore (principally copper and iron) and herring came southwards from Sweden, the Carpathians were another important source of copper and iron, often sold in Thorn.", "Lubeck also had a vital role in the salt trade; salt was acquired in Lunenburg or shipped from France and Portugal and sold on Central European markets, taken to Scania for salting herring or exported to Russia.", "Stockfish was traded from Bergen in exchange for grain; Hanseatic grain inflows allowed more permanent settlements further north in Norway.", "The league also traded in beer, with beer from Hanseatic towns the most valued, and Wendish cities like Lübeck, Hamburg, Wismar and Rostock developed export breweries for hopped beer.Hanseatic trade was not exclusively maritime trade, or even overwater trade.", "Most Hanseatic towns did not have immediate access to the sea and there were many that were linked to partners by river trade or even generally expensive land trade.", "These combined into an integrated network and many smaller Hanseatic towns had their main trading activity in subregional trade.", "Internal Hanseatic trade was in fact the Hanse's quantitatively most voluminous and important business.", "Trade over rivers and land was not tied to specific Hanseatic privileges, but sea ports like Bremen, Hamburg and Riga managed to dominate trade on their rivers.", "This was not possible for the Rhine where trade retained an open character.", "Digging canals for trade routes was very uncommon, but the Stecknitz Canal was built between Lübeck and Lauenburg from 1391 to 1398.====Protection and defence====The Hanseatic League, at first the merchant hansas and eventually its cities, relied on power to secure protection and gain and preserve privileges.", "Bandits and pirates were also persistent problems, during wars these could be joined by privateers.", "Traders could be arrested abroad and their goods could be confiscated.", "The league sought to codify protection; internal treaties established mutual defence and external treaties codified privileges.Many locals, merchant and noble alike, envied the power of the League and tried to diminish it.", "For example, in London, the local merchants exerted continuing pressure for the revocation of privileges.", "Most foreign cities confined the Hanseatic traders to certain trading areas and to their own trading posts.", "The refusal of the Hansa to offer reciprocal arrangements to their counterparts exacerbated the tension.Stargard Mill Gate, Pomerania, today in PolandThe merchants of the Hanseatic League succeeded in using their economic power to pressure cities and rulers.", "It could call embargoes, redirect trade away from towns and even boycott entire countries.", "There were blockades against Novgorod in 1268 and 1277/1278.Bruges was pressured by temporarily moving the Hanseatic emporium to Aardenburg from 1280 to 1282, from 1307 or 1308 to 1310 and in 1350, to Dordt in 1358 and 1388, and to Antwerp in 1436.Boycotts against Norway in 1284 and Flanders in 1358 almost caused famines there.", "They sometimes resorted to their military might, several Hanseatic cities maintained their own warships and in times of need merchant ships could be repurposed.", "But military action against political powers often didn't involve the entire league.", "Instead an ad hoc coalition of stakeholders, called an alliance (''tohopesate''), was often formed.As an essential part of protecting their investment in ships and their cargoes, League members trained pilots and erected lighthouses, like the still working Kõpu Lighthouse, and other lights.", "Lübeck also erected in 1202 what's claimed to be the first lighthouse proper in northern Europe in Falsterbo.", "There were by 1600 at least 15 lights erected along the German and Scandinavian coasts making it the best lighted sea area then in the world, largely thanks to the Hansa.=== Zenith ===The weakening of imperial power and imperial protection for merchants under the late Hohenstaufen dynasty forced the Hanseatic League to institutionalise into a cooperating network of cities with a fluid structure, called the ''Städtehanse'' in the historiography, but it never became a closely managed formal organisation and the ''Kaufmannshanse'' continued to exist by its side.", "This development was delayed by the conquest of many Wendish cities by the Danish king Eric VI Menved or by their feudal overlords between 1306 and 1319 and the restriction of their autonomy.", "Assemblies of the Hanse towns met irregularly in Lübeck for a ''Hansetag'' (Hanseatic Diet), some argue from about 1300, while others date the first diet to 1356.But many towns chose not to attend nor to send representatives, and decisions were not binding on individual cities if their delegates were not included in the recesses; representatives would sometimes leave the Diet prematurely in an attempt to give their towns an excuse not to ratify decisions.", "Only a very small number of Hanseatic cities were free imperial cities or enjoyed comparable autonomy and liberties, but many cities temporarily gained limited autonomy from their overlords.Town Hall of Reval (now Tallinn, Estonia)Between 1361 and 1370 members of the league fought against Denmark in the Danish-Hanseatic War.", "Though initially unsuccessful with a Wendish offensive, Prussian, Dutch and eventually Wendish towns in 1368 allied in the Confederation of Cologne, sacked Copenhagen and Helsingborg, and forced Valdemar IV, King of Denmark, and his son-in-law Haakon VI, King of Norway, to grant considerable incomes and influence over Øresund fortresses for 15 years in the subsequent peace treaty of Stralsund in 1370.It extended privileges in Scania to the wider Hanseatic League, too, including the towns of Holland and Zeeland.", "This favourable treaty marked the height of Hanseatic influence; for this period the Hanseatic League has in the past been called a \"Northern European great power\".", "The Confederation of Cologne lasted until 1385, the Øresund fortresses were returned to Denmark the same year.After Valdemar's heir Olav died, a succession dispute erupted over Denmark and Norway between Albert of Mecklenburg, King of Sweden and Margaret I, Queen of Denmark.", "This was further complicated when Swedish nobles rebelled against Albert and invited Margaret.", "Albert hired privateers in 1392, the Victual Brothers.", "They and their descendants threatened maritime trade of the league between 1392 and the 1430s with their raids.", "From 1395 to 1398 Stockholm was ruled by a consortium of 7 Hanseatic cities under the release agreement for Albert of Mecklenburg, and enjoyed full Hanseatic trading privileges.", "The Victual Brothers still controlled Gotland in 1398, when it was conquered by the Teutonic Order with support from the Prussian towns; Gotland was transferred to Denmark in 1408.The grandmaster of the Teutonic Order was often seen as head of the Hanse (''caput Hansae''), not only abroad.=== Rise of rival powers ===In the 15th century the League became more formally institutionalised and more regionalised.", "This was in part a response to challenges in governance or competition with rivals, but also a result of changes in trade.", "A slow shift occurred from Hanseatic cities' loose participation to formal recognition of membership, but only if a city's use of the Hanseatic privileges was controversial.The Novgorod Republic c. 1400.Novgorod created a vast territorial empire and controlled much of the fur trade with Europe.", "The city was one of the main trading posts of the Hanseatic League.Russian principalities gained trading privileges in 1392 in Livonia and on Gotland in exchange for renewing the German privileges, after conflict since the 1380s.", "English traders also received trade privileges in Prussia with the treaties of Marienburg and became prominent in the trade there, after extended conflicts from the 1370s till the early 1400s.", "The importance of Hanseatic trade in England decreased during the 15th century.The Hanseatic cities of Holland and Zealandic had participated in the Hansa as late as 1394, but in 1395 they were prevented from cooperation by feudal obligations to Albert I, Duke of Bavaria who warred against the Frisians.", "Their Hanseatic ties weakened and their economies started to develop in another direction.", "The economic reorientation was even more drastic when Holland and Zealand became between 1417 and 1432 slowly part of the Burgundian State.In the 15th century, tensions between the Prussian region and the \"Wendish\" cities (Lübeck and its eastern neighbours) increased.", "Lübeck was dependent on its role as centre of the Hansa, being on the shore of the sea without a major river.", "It was on the entrance of the land route to Hamburg, but this land route could be bypassed by sea travel around Denmark and through the Kattegat.", "Prussia's main interest, on the other hand, was the export of bulk products like grain and timber, which were very important for England, the Low Countries, and, later on, also for Spain and Italy.Lübeck was in financial troubles from 1403 and dissenting craftsmen established in 1405 a supervising committee of 60.A constitutional crisis broke out in 1408 when the committee of 60 rebelled and put a new town council in place.", "Similar revolts broke out in Wismar and Rostock and new town councils were establisged in 1410.The crisis was only ended in 1418 by compromise.Eric of Pomerania succeeded Margaret of Denmark in 1412, sought to expand into Schleswig and Holstein and levied tolls at the Øresund.", "Hanseatic cities were divided initially, Lübeck tried to appease Eric while Hamburg supported the Schauenburg counts of Holstein.", "The Danish-Hanseatic War eventually began in 1426.After the Bombardment of Copenhagen, the Treaty of Vordingborg renewed the commercial privileges in 1435 but the Øresund tolls continued.", "Eric of Pomerania was deposed in 1438 or 1439 by Denmark, Sweden and Norway.", "In 1438 Lübeck took control of the Øresund toll for a while.", "This caused tension with Holland and Zeeland.", "The Sound tolls, and the later attempt of Lübeck to exclude the English and Dutch merchants from Scania, harmed the Scanian herring trade in the long term when the excluded regions began to develop their own herring industries.The Holy Roman Empire was a limited elective monarchy composed of hundreds of state-like entities.In the Dutch–Hanseatic War (1438–1441), a privateer war mostly waged by Wendish towns, the merchants of Amsterdam sought and eventually won free access to the Baltic.", "Although the blockade of the grain trade hurt Holland and Zeeland more than Hanseatic cities, it was against Prussian interest to maintain it.The economic crises of the late 15th century did not spare the Hansa.", "Nevertheless, its eventual rivals emerged in the form of the territorial states, whether new or revived.", "New vehicles of credit were imported from Italy.A general trend over the 15th century was that the Hanseatic hometowns increasingly introduced new statures into the kontors' legislation, especially after 1474.Only the Bergen kontor grew more independent in this period.Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg, tried to assert authority over the Hanseatic towns Berlin and Cölln in 1442 and blocked all towns of Brandenburg from participating in Hanseatic diets.", "For some but not all Brandenburg towns this was the end of their Hanseatic involvement.", "In 1488 John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg did the same to Stendal and Salzwedel in the Altmark.Georg Giese from Danzig, 34-year-old German Hanseatic merchant at the Steelyard, painted in London by Hans HolbeinIn 1454, the year of the marriage of Elisabeth of Austria to King-Grand Duke Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland-Lithuania, the towns of the Prussian Confederation rose up against the dominance of the Teutonic Order and asked Casimir IV for help.", "Gdańsk (Danzig), Thorn and Elbing became part of the Kingdom of Poland, (from 1466 to 1569 referred to as Royal Prussia, region of Poland) by the Second Peace of Thorn.Poland in turn was heavily supported by the Holy Roman Empire through family connections and by military assistance under the Habsburgs.", "Kraków, then the capital of Poland, had a loose association with the Hansa.", "The lack of customs borders on the River Vistula after 1466 helped to gradually increase Polish grain exports, transported to the sea down the Vistula, from per year, in the late 15th century, to over in the 17th century.", "The Hansa-dominated maritime grain trade made Poland one of the main areas of its activity, helping Danzig to become the Hansa's largest city.", "The Polish kings soon began to reduce the towns' political freedoms.The Griffin dukes of Pomerania from the middle of the fifteenth century began constant conflicts to bring the Pomeranian Hanseatic towns under their control.", "This was not very successful at first, but Bogislav X subjugated Stettin and Köslin and harmed the economy and restricted the independence of many other towns.View of the in the port city of Gdańsk (Danzig), today in PolandHanseatic museum in Bergen, NorwayA major economic advantage for the Hansa was its control of the shipbuilding market, mainly in Lübeck and Danzig.", "The League sold ships throughout Europe.When Flanders and Holland became part of the Duchy of Burgundy, Burgund Dutch and Prussian cities increasingly excluded Lübeck from their grain trade in the 15th and 16th century.", "Burgund Dutch demand for Prussian and Livonian grain grew in the late 15th century.", "These trade interests differed from Wendish interests, threatening political unity, but it also showed a trade where the Hanseatic system was unpractical.", "Hollandish freight costs were much lower than those of the Hansa, and the Hansa were excluded as middlemen.", "After several naval wars between Burgundy and the Hanseatic fleets, Amsterdam gained the position of leading port for Polish and Baltic grain from the late 15th century onwards.Nuremberg in Franconia developed an overland route to sell formerly Hansa-monopolised products from Frankfurt via Nuremberg and Leipzig to Poland and Russia, trading Flemish cloth and French wine in exchange for grain and furs from the east.", "The Hansa profited from the Nuremberg trade by allowing Nurembergers to settle in Hanseatic towns, which the Franconians exploited by taking over trade with Sweden as well.", "The Nuremberger merchant Albrecht Moldenhauer was influential in developing the trade with Sweden and Norway, and his sons Wolf Moldenhauer and Burghard Moldenhauer established themselves in Bergen and Stockholm, becoming leaders of the local Hanseatic activities.King Edward IV of England reconfirmed the league's privileges in the Treaty of Utrecht despite the latent hostility, in part thanks to the significant financial contribution the League made to the Yorkist side during the Wars of the Roses of 1455–1487.Tsar Ivan III of Russia closed the Hanseatic ''Kontor'' at Novgorod in 1494 and deported its merchants to Moscow, in an attempt to reduce Hanseatic influence on Russian trade.", "At the time only 49 traders were at the Peterhof.", "The fur trade was redirected to Leipzig, taking out the Hansards; while the Hanseatic trade with Russia moved to Riga, Reval and Pleskau.", "When the Peterhof reopened in 1514, Novgorod wasn't a trade hub any longer.", "In the same period the burghers of Bergen tried to develop an independent intermediate trade with the northern population, against the Hansards' obstruction.", "The very existence of the League and its privileges and monopolies created economic and social tensions that often crept over into rivalries between League members.=== End of the Hansa ===Heinrich SudermannThe development of the Transatlantic trade after the discovery of the Americas caused the remaining kontors' decline, especially in Bruges, because it centred on other ports.", "It also changed business practice to short-term contracts and made the Hanseatic model of privileged guaranteed trade outdated.The trends of local feudal lords asserting control over towns and suppressing their autonomy, and of foreign rulers repressing Hanseatic traders continued in the next century.In the Swedish War of Liberation 1521–1523 the Hanseatic League was successful in opposition in an economic conflict it had over the trade, mining and metal industry in Bergslagen (the main mining area of Sweden in the 16th century) with Jakob Fugger (early extremely rich industrialist in the mining and metal industry on the continent) and his unfriendly business take-over attempt.", "Fugger allied with his financially dependent pope Leo X, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Christian II of Denmark/Norway.", "Both sides made huge costly investments in support of larger amounts of expensive hired mercenaries to win the war.", "After the war Gustav Vasa's Sweden and Frederick I's Denmark pursued independent policies and didn't support Lübeck's effort against Dutch trade.However, Lübeck under Jürgen Wullenwever overextended in the Count's Feud in Scania and Denmark and lost influence in 1536 after Christian III's victory.", "Lübeck's attempts at forcing competitors out of the Sound eventually alienated even Gustav Vasa.", "Its influence in the Nordic countries began to decline.The Hanseatic towns of Guelders were obstructed in the 1530s by Charles II, Duke of Guelders.", "The strict Catholic Charles objected to the Lutheranism, in his words \"Lutheran heresy\", of Lübeck and other north German cities.", "This frustrated but did not end the towns' Hanseatic trade and there was a small resurgence later.Later in the 16th century, Denmark-Norway took control of much of the Baltic Sea.", "Sweden had regained control over its own trade, the ''Kontor'' in Novgorod had closed, and the ''Kontor'' in Bruges had become effectively moribund because the Zwin inlet was closing up.", "Finally, the growing political authority of the German princes constrained the independence of the Hanse's towns.The league attempted to deal with some of these issues: it created the post of syndic in 1556 and elected Heinrich Sudermann to the position, who worked to protect and extend the diplomatic agreements of the member towns.", "In 1557 and 1579 revised agreements spelled out the duties of towns and some progress was made.", "The Bruges ''Kontor'' moved to Antwerp in 1520 and the Hansa attempted to pioneer new routes.", "However the league proved unable to prevent the growing mercantile competition.In 1567, a Hanseatic League agreement reconfirmed previous obligations and rights of league members, such as common protection and defense against enemies.", "The Prussian Quartier cities of Thorn, Elbing, Königsberg and Riga and Dorpat also signed.", "When pressed by the King of Poland–Lithuania, Danzig remained neutral and would not allow ships running for Poland into its territory.", "They had to anchor somewhere else, such as at Pautzke (Puck).The Antwerp ''Kontor'', moribund after the Fall of Antwerp, closed in 1593.In 1597 Queen Elizabeth of England expelled the League from London, and the Steelyard closed and sequestered in 1598.The Kontor was returned in 1606 under King James but it couldn't recover.", "The Bergen ''Kontor'' continued until 1754; of all the ''Kontore'', only its buildings, the ''Bryggen'', survive.Not all states tried to suppress their cities' former Hanseatic links; the Dutch Republic encouraged its eastern former members to maintain ties with the remaining Hanseatic League.", "The States-General relied on those cities in diplomacy at the time of the Kalmar War.The Thirty Years War was destructive for the Hanseatic League and members suffered heavily from both the imperials, the Danes and the Swedes.", "At the beginning, Saxon and Wendish faced attacks because of the desire of Christian IV of Denmark to control the Elbe and Weser.", "Pomerania had a very strong population decline.", "Sweden took Bremen-Verden (excluding the city of Bremen), Swedish Pomerania (including Stralsund, Greifswald, Rostock) and Swedish Wismar, preventing their cities from participating in the League, and controlled the Oder, Weser and Elbe, and could levy tolls on their traffic.", "The league became increasingly irrelevant despite its inclusion in the Peace of Westphalia.In 1666, the Steelyard in London was burned down by the Great Fire of London.", "The Kontor-manager sent a letter to Lübeck appealing for immediate financial assistance for a reconstruction.", "Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck called for a Hanseatic Day in 1669.Only a few cities participated and those who came were very reluctant to contribute financially to the reconstruction.", "It was the last formal meeting, without any of the parties knowing it would be the last.", "This date is often taken in retrospect as the effective end date of the Hansa, but the Hansa was never formally disbanded.", "It simply disintegrated and petered out silently.=== After disintegration ===The Hanseatic League, however, lived on in the public mind.", "Leopold I even requested Lübeck to call a Tagfahrt to rally support for him against the Turks.Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen continued to attempt common diplomacy, although interests had already diverged by the Peace of Ryswick.", "Nonetheless, the Hanseatic Republics were able to jointly perform some diplomacy, such as a joint delegation to the United States in 1827, led by Vincent Rumpff; later the U.S. established a consulate to the ''Hanseatic and Free Cities'' from 1857 to 1862.Britain maintained diplomats to the ''Hanseatic Cities'' until the unification of Germany in 1871.The three cities also had a common \"Hanseatic\" representation in Berlin until 1920.Three kontors also remained as, often unused, Hanseatic property after the League's effective disbandment, as the Peterhof was already closed in the 16th century.", "Bryggen was sold to Norwegian owners in 1754.The Steelyard in London and the Oostershuis in Antwerp were long impossible to sell.", "The Steelyard was finally sold in 1852 and the Oostershuis, closed in 1593, was sold in 1862.Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck remained as the only members until the League's formal end in 1862, on the eve of the 1867 founding of the North German Confederation and the 1871 founding of the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm I.", "Despite its collapse, they still cherished the link to the Hanseatic League.", "Until German reunification, these three cities were the only ones that retained the words \"Hanseatic City\" in their official German names.", "Hamburg and Bremen continue to style themselves officially as \"free Hanseatic cities\", with Lübeck named \"Hanseatic City\".", "For Lübeck in particular, this anachronistic tie to a glorious past remained important in the 20th century.", "In 1937, the Nazi Party revoked its imperial immediacy through the Greater Hamburg Act.", "Since 1990, 24 other German cities have adopted this title." ], [ "Organization", "Hanseatic Seal of StralsundThe Hanseatic League was a complex and loose-jointed constellation of protagonists pursuing their own interests, which coincided in a shared program of economic domination in the Baltic region, and by no means a monolithic organization or a 'state within a state'.", "It gradually grew from a network of merchant guilds to develop a more formal association of cities and was never even formed into a legal person.The members of the Hanseatic League were Low German speaking merchants, with the exception of Dinant, whose towns were where these merchants held citizenship.", "Not all towns with Low German merchant communities were members of the league (e.g., Emden, Memel (today Klaipėda), Viborg (today Vyborg) and Narva never joined).", "However, Hansards could also come from settlements without German town law—the premise for league membership was birth to German parents, subjection to German law, and a commercial education.", "The league served to advance and defend the common interests of its heterogeneous members: commercial ambitions such as enhancement of trade, and political ambitions such as ensuring maximum independence from the noble territorial rulers.Decisions and actions of the Hanseatic League were the result of a consensus-based procedure.", "If an issue arose, the league's members were invited to participate in a central meeting, the ''Tagfahrt'' (Hanseatic Diet, \"meeting ride\", sometimes also referred to as ''Hansetag''), that some argue already happened around 1300 but were formalised since 1358; some date the first diet to 1356.The member communities then chose envoys (''Ratssendeboten'') to represent their local consensus on the issue at the Diet.", "Not every community sent an envoy; delegates were often entitled to represent a set of communities.", "Consensus-building on local and ''Tagfahrt'' levels followed the Low Saxon tradition of ''Einung'', where consensus was defined as absence of protest: after a discussion, the proposals which gained sufficient support were dictated aloud to the scribe and passed as binding ''Rezess'' if the attendees did not object; those favouring alternative proposals unlikely to get sufficient support were obliged to remain silent during this procedure.", "If consensus could not be established on a certain issue, it was found instead in the appointment of a number of league members who were then empowered to work out a compromise.The Hanseatic League was characterised by legal pluralism and the diets could not issue laws.", "But the cities cooperated to achieve limited trade regulation, like measures against fraud, or worked together on a regional level.", "There was also interest in harmonising maritime law, a long series of ordinances on maritime law was issued in the 15th and 16th centuries.", "The most extensive maritime ordinance was the ''Ship Ordinance and Sea Law'' of 1614, but it's dubious that it was ever enforced.=== Kontors ===The Oostershuis, a kontor in AntwerpThe Hanseatic ''Kontore'', which operated like an early stock exchange, were settlements of Hansards and organised in the mid 14th century as private corporations that each had their own treasury, court, legislation and seal.They were probably established first to provide security, but also served to secure privileges and engage in diplomacy.", "The quality of goods was also examined at kontors, increasing the efficiency of trade, and the kontors served as bases to develop connections with local rulers and as sources of economic and political information.", "Most kontors were also physical locations containing several buildings, that were integrated and segregated from citylife to different degrees.", "The kontor of Bruges was an exception, it didn't acquire any buildings until the 15th century.", "Like the guilds, the ''Kontore'' were usually led by ''Ältermänner'' (\"eldermen\", or English aldermen).", "The Stalhof, as a special case, had a Hanseatic and an English alderman.", "In Novgorod the aldermen were replaced by a ''hofknecht'' in the 15th century.", "The kontors' statutes were read aloud to the present merchants once a year.In 1347 the ''Kontor'' of Bruges modified its statute to ensure an equal representation of the league's members.", "To that end, member communities from different regions were pooled into three circles (''Drittel'' (\"third part\"): the Wendish and Saxon Drittel, the Westphalian and Prussian Drittel as well as the Gothlandian, Livonian and Swedish Drittel).", "The merchants from their respective ''Drittel'' would then each choose two aldermen and six members of the Eighteen Men's Council (''Achtzehnmännerrat'') to administer the ''Kontor'' for a set period of time.In 1356, during a Hanseatic meeting in preparation of the first ''Tagfahrt'', or one of the first, the league confirmed this statute.", "All trader settlements including the ''Kontors'' were subordinated to the Diet's decisions around this time, and their envoys also received the right to attend and speak at Diets but they lacked voting power.=== Drittel ===The league gradually divided the organisation into three constituent parts called ''Drittel'' (German ''thirds''), as shown in the table below.", "''Drittel'' (1356–1554) Regions Chief city (''Vorort'') Wendish-Saxon Holstein, Saxony, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg Lübeck Westphalian-Prussian Westphalia, Rhineland, Prussia Dortmund, later Cologne Gothlandian-Livonian-Swedish Gotland, Livonia, Sweden Visby, later RigaThe ''Hansetag'' was the only central institution of the Hanseatic League.", "However, with the division into ''Drittel'', the members of the respective subdivisions frequently held a ''Dritteltage'' (\"''Drittel'' meeting\") to work out common positions which could then be presented at a ''Hansetag''.", "On a more local level, league members also met, and while such regional meetings were never formalized into a Hanseatic institution, they gradually gained importance in the process of preparing and implementing a Diet's decisions.=== Quarters ===From 1554, the division into ''Drittel'' was modified to reduce the circles' heterogeneity, to enhance the collaboration of the members on a regional level and thus to make the League's decision-making process more efficient.", "The number of circles rose to four, so they were called ''Quartiere'' (quarters): Quartier (since 1554) Chief city (''Vorort'') Wendish and Pomeranian Lübeck Saxon, Thuringian and Brandenburg Brunswick, Magdeburg Prussia, Livonia and Sweden – or East Baltic Danzig (now Gdańsk) Rhine, Westphalia and the Netherlands CologneThis division was however not adopted by the ''Kontore'', who, for their purposes (like ''Ältermänner'' elections), grouped the league members in different ways (e.g., the division adopted by the Stalhof in London in 1554 grouped the league members into ''Dritteln'', whereby Lübeck merchants represented the Wendish, Pomeranian Saxon and several Westphalian towns, Cologne merchants represented the Cleves, Mark, Berg and Dutch towns, while Danzig merchants represented the Prussian and Livonian towns)." ], [ "Hanseatic ships", "A number of different types of ships was used in the Hanseatic League for transport over sea and inland waters.The type that was the most used by the Hansa, and the most emblematic, was the cog.", "The cog was a multi-purpose clinker-built ship with carvel bottom, a stern rudder and a square rigged mast.", "Most cogs were privately owned merchant ships, but they were also used as warships.", "It was built in a variety of sizes and specifications and was used to navigate seas and rivers.", "They could be outfitted with castles starting from the thirteenth century.", "The cog was depicted on many seals and several coats of arms of Hanseatic cities, like Stralsund, Elbląg and Wismar.", "Several ship wrecks of cogs have been found.", "The most famous one is the well preserved Bremen cog.", "It could carry a cargo of about 125 tons.", "The hulk began to replace the cog by 1400 and cogs lost their dominance to them around 1450.Modern, faithful painting of the ''Adler von Lübeck'' – the world's largest ship in its timeThe hulk was a bulkier ship that could carry larger loads; Elbl estimates they could carry up to 500 tons by the 15th century.", "It could be clinker or carvel-built.", "No archeological evidence of a hulk has been found.In 1464 Danzig acquired a French carvel ship through a legal dispute and renamed it the Peter von Danzig.", "It was 40 m long and had three masts, being one of the largest ships of its time.", "Danzig adopted carvel construction around 1470, other cities also shifted to carvel type starting from this time.", "An example is the Jesus of Lübeck, later sold to England for use as a warship and slave ship.The galleonlike carvel warship ''Adler von Lübeck'' was constructed by Lübeck for military use against Sweden during the Northern Seven Years' War (1563–70), launched in 1566, but was never put to military use after the Treaty of Stettin.", "It was the biggest ship of its day at 78 m long and had four masts, including a bonaventure mizzen.", "It served as a merchant ship until it was damaged in 1581 on a return voyage from Lisbon and broken up in 1588." ], [ "Lists of former Hanseatic cities", "Map of the Hanseatic League, showing principal Hanseatic cities===Hansa Proper===In the hidden table below, the names listed in the column labelled '''Quarter''' have been summarised as follows: * \"Wendish\": Wendish and Pomeranian (or just Wendish) quarter* \"Saxon\": Saxon, Thuringian and Brandenburg (or just Saxon) quarter* \"Baltic\": Prussian, Livonian and Swedish (or East Baltic) quarter* \"Westphalian\": Rhine-Westphalian and Netherlands (including Flanders) (or Rhineland) quarterThe remaining column headings are as follows:* '''City''' – the city's name, with any variants* '''Territory''' – the jurisdiction to which the city was subject at the time of the League* '''Now''' – the modern nation-state in which the city is located* '''From''' and '''Until''' – the dates at which the city joined and/or left the league* '''Notes''' – additional details about the city * '''Ref.'''", "– one or more references to works about the city Quarter City Territory Now From Until Notes Wendish Capital of the Hanseatic League, main town of the Wendish and Pomeranian Circle Wendish Wendish Wendish Joined the 10-year Rostock Peace Treaty (''Rostocker Landfrieden'') in 1283, which was the predecessor of the federation of Wendish towns (1293 onwards).", "Wendish Joined the 10-year Rostock Peace Treaty in 1283, which was the predecessor of the federation of Wendish towns (1293 onwards).", "Wendish Rügen was a fief of the Danish crown to 1325.Stralsund joined the 10-year Rostock Peace Treaty in 1283, which was the predecessor of the federation of Wendish towns (1293 onwards).", "From 1339 to the 17th century, Stralsund was a member of the ''Vierstädtebund'' with Greifswald, Demmin and Anklam.", "Wendish Joined the 10-year Rostock Peace Treaty in 1283, which was the predecessor of the federation of Wendish towns (1293 onwards).", "From 1339 to the 17th century, Demmin was a member of the ''Vierstädtebund'' with Stralsund, Greifswald and Anklam.", "Wendish Joined the 10-year Rostock Peace Treaty in 1283, which was the predecessor of the federation of Wendish towns (1293 onwards).", "From 1339 to the 17th century, Greifswald was a member of the ''Vierstädtebund'' with Stralsund, Demmin and Anklam.", "Wendish Joined the 10-year Rostock Peace Treaty in 1283, which was the predecessor of the federation of Wendish towns (1293 onwards).", "From 1339 to the 17th century, Anklam was a member of the ''Vierstädtebund'' with Stralsund, Greifswald and Demmin.", "Wendish Joined the 10-year Rostock Peace Treaty in 1283, which was the predecessor of the federation of Wendish towns (1293 onwards); since the 14th century gradually adopted the role of a chief city for the Pomeranian Hanse towns to its east Wendish Wendish Wendish Wendish Wendish Baltic In 1285 at Kalmar, the League agreed with Magnus III, King of Sweden, that Gotland be joined with Sweden.", "In 1470, Visby's status was rescinded by the League, with Lübeck razing the city's churches in May 1525.Saxon 13th cent.", "17th cent.", "Main town of the Saxon, Thuringian and Brandenburg Circle Saxon Saxon 13th cent.", "Main town of the Saxon, Thuringian and Brandenburg Circle Saxon Goslar was a fief of Saxony until 1280.Saxon Saxon Saxon Saxon Saxon Brandenburg was raised to an Electorate in 1356.Elector Frederick II caused all the Brandenburg cities to leave the League in 1442.Saxon Elector Frederick II caused all the Brandenburg cities to leave the League in 1442.Saxon In 1488 the Hanseatic cities of the Altmark region rebelled against a beer tax against Elector of Brandenburg John Cicero.", "They lost and were punished by being forced to leave the Hanseatic League.", "Salzwedel and Stendal managed to stay in the Hanseatic League until 1518.Saxon Saxon In 1488 the Hanseatic cities of the Altmark region rebelled against a beer tax against Elector of Brandenburg John Cicero.", "They lost and were punished by being forced to leave the Hanseatic League.", "Salzwedel and Stendal managed to stay in the Hanseatic League until 1518.Saxon Baltic Main town of the Prussian, Livonian and Swedish (or East Baltic) Circle.", "Danzig had been first a part of the Duchy of Pomerelia with a Kashubian and German population, then part of the State of the Teutonic Order from 1308 until 1457.After the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) Danzig became an autonomous city under the protection of the Polish Crown until the 18th century when it returned to Prussia.", "Baltic Elbing had originally been part of the territory of the Old Prussians, until the 1230s when it became part of the State of the Teutonic Order.", "After the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), Royal Prussia, including Elbląg was part of the Kingdom of Poland.", "Baltic Toruń was part of the State of the Teutonic Order from 1233 until 1466.After the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), Royal Prussia, including Toruń, was part of the Kingdom of Poland.", "Baltic Kraków was the capital of the Kingdom of Poland, 1038–1596/1611.It adopted Magdeburg town law and 5000 Poles and 3500 Germans lived within the city proper in the 15th century; Poles steadily rose in the ranks of guild memberships reaching 41% of guild members in 1500.It was very loosely associated with Hansa, and paid no membership fees, nor sent representatives to League meetings.", "Baltic Breslau, a part of the Duchy of Breslau and the Kingdom of Bohemia, was only loosely connected to the League and paid no membership fees nor did its representatives take part in Hansa meetings Baltic Baltic Königsberg was the capital of the Teutonic Order, it accepted the sovereignty of the Polish crown in 1466.It became Ducal Prussia in 1525 after secularisation, a German principality that was a fief of the Polish crown until gaining its independence in the 1660 Treaty of Oliva.", "The city was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946 after East Prussia was divided between the People's Republic of Poland and the Soviet Union at the Potsdam Conference.", "Baltic During the Livonian War (1558–83), Riga became a Free imperial city until the 1581 Treaty of Drohiczyn ceded Livonia to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the city was captured by Sweden in the Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625).", "Baltic On joining the Hanseatic League, Reval was a Danish fief, but was sold in 1346, with the rest of northern Estonia, to the Teutonic Order.", "In 1561, Reval became a dominion of Sweden.", "Baltic 1280s The Bishopric of Dorpat had increasing autonomy within the Terra Mariana (Livonian confederation).", "With the Treaty of Drohiczyn in 1581, Dorpat fell under the rule of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the city was captured by Sweden in the Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625).", "Baltic Baltic Baltic Baltic Baltic Baltic Baltic Baltic Baltic Baltic Westphalian Main town of the Rhine-Westphalian and Netherlands Circle until after the Anglo-Hanseatic War (1470–74), when the city was prosecuted in 1475 with temporary trade sanctions () for some years for having supported England; Dortmund was made main town of the Circle.", "Cologne also was called \"Electorate of Cologne\" (German: Kurfürstentum Köln or Kurköln).", "In June 1669 the last Hanseday was held in the town of Lübeck by the last remaining Hanse members, amongst others Cologne.", "Westphalian After Cologne was excluded after the Anglo-Hanseatic War (1470–74), Dortmund was made the main town of the Rhine-Westphalian and Netherlands Circle.", "Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian 1294 Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Frisia Frisia Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian 12th cent.", "Westphalian Westphalian The city was a part of the Electorate of Cologne until acquiring its freedom in 1444–49, after which it aligned with the Duchy of Cleves.", "Westphalian Westphalian Westphalian ===''Kontore''===The ''kontore'' were the major foreign trading posts of the League, not cities that were Hanseatic members, and are listed in the hidden table below.", "Quarter City Territory Now From Until Notes ''Kontor'' 1500s Novgorod was one of the principal Kontore of the League and the easternmost.", "In 1494, Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, closed the Peterhof; it was reopened a few years later, but the League's Russian trade never recovered.", "''Kontor'' Bryggen was one of the principal Kontore of the League.", "It was razed by accidental fire in 1476.In 1560, administration of Bryggen was placed under Norwegian administration.", "''Kontor'' Bruges was one of the principal Kontore of the League until the 15th century, when the seaway to the city silted up; trade from Antwerp benefiting from Bruges's loss.", "''Kontor'' The Steelyard was one of the principal Kontore of the League.", "King Edward I granted a ''Carta Mercatoria'' in 1303.The Steelyard was destroyed in 1469 and Edward IV exempted Cologne merchants, leading to the Anglo-Hanseatic War (1470–74).", "The Treaty of Utrecht, sealing the peace, led to the League purchasing the Steelyard outright in 1475, with Edward having renewed the League's privileges without insisting on reciprocal rights for English merchants in the Baltic.", "London merchants persuaded Elizabeth I to rescind the League's privileges on 13 January 1598; while the Steelyard was re-established by James I, the advantage never returned.", "Consulates continued however, providing communication during the Napoleonic Wars, and the Hanseatic interest was only sold in 1853.", "''Kontor'' Antwerp became a major Kontor of the League, particularly after the seaway to Bruges silted up in the 15th century, leading to its fortunes waning in Antwerp's favour, despite Antwerp's refusal to grant special privileges to the League's merchants.", "Between 1312 and 1406, Antwerp was a margraviate, independent of Brabant.", "===''Vitten''===The ''vitten'' were significant foreign trading posts of the League in Scania, not cities that were Hanseatic members, they are argued by some to have been similar in status to the ''kontors'', and are listed in the hidden table below.", "Quarter City Territory Now From Until Notes ''Vitte'' 15th cent.", "Skåne (Scania) was Danish until ceded to Sweden by the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, during the Second Northern War.", "''Vitte'' 15th cent.", "Skåne was Danish until ceded to Sweden by the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, during the Second Northern War.", "=== Ports with Hansa trading posts === Hanseatic Warehouse in King's Lynn is the only surviving League building in England.", "* Åhus* Berwick-upon-Tweed* Bishop's Lynn (King's Lynn)* Boston* Bordeaux* Bourgneuf* Bristol* Copenhagen* Damme* Frankfurt* Ghent* Hull (Kingston upon Hull)* Ipswich* Kalundborg* Kaunas* Landskrona* La Rochelle* Leith * Lisbon* Nantes* Narva* Næstved* Newcastle* Norwich* Nuremberg* Oslo* Pleskau (Pskov)* Polotsk* Rønne* Scarborough* Yarmouth (Great Yarmouth)* Sluis* Smolensk* Tønsberg* Venice* Vilnius* Vitebsk* York* Ystad=== Other cities with a Hansa community === * Aberdeen* Åbo (Turku)* Avaldsnes* Brae* Grindavík* Grundarfjörður* Gunnister* Hafnarfjörður* Harlingen* Haroldswick* Hildesheim* Hindeloopen (Hylpen)* Kalmar* Krambatangi* Kumbaravogur* Leghorn* Lunna Wick* Messina* Naples* Nordhausen* Nyborg* Nyköping* Scalloway* Stockholm* Tórshavn* Trondheim* Tver* Walk (Valka)* Weißenstein (Paide)* Wesenberg (Rakvere)" ], [ "Legacy", "=== Historiography ===The European Hansemuseum in LübeckAcademic historiography of the Hanseatic League is considered to begin with Georg Sartorius, who started writing his first work in 1795 and founded the liberal historiographical tradition about the Hanseatic League.", "The German conservative nationalist historiographical tradition was first published with F.W.", "Barthold's ''Geschichte der Deutschen Hansa'' of 1853/1854.The conservative view was associated with Little German ideology and came to predominate from the 1850s until the end of the First World War.", "Hanseatic history was used to justify a stronger German navy and conservative historians drew a link between the League and the rise of Prussia as the leading German state.", "This climate deeply influenced the historiography of the Baltic trade for long.Issues of social, cultural and economic history became more important in German research after the First World War.", "But a leading historian like Fritz Rörig also promoted a National Socialist perspective.", "After the Second World War the conservative nationalist view was forsaken, allowing exchanges between German, Swedish and Norwegian historians on the Hanseatic League's role in Sweden and Norway.", "Views on the League were very negative in those countries, as they still are in Denmark.", "Philippe Dollinger's book ''The German Hansa'' became the standard work in the 1960s.", "From that time on, the dominant perspective has been of loosely aligned trading network bridging several northern European markets.", "Marxist historians in the GDR were split on whether the League was a \"late feudal\" or \"proto-capitalist\" phenomenon.There are two museums in Europe dedicated specifically to the history of the Hanseatic League: the European Hansemuseum in Lübeck and the Hanseatic Museum and Schøtstuene in Bergen.=== Popular views ===From the 19th century Hanseatic history was often used to promote a national cause in Germany.", "German liberals built a fictional literature around Jürgen Wullenwever, that contained fierce anti-Danish sentiment.", "Hanseatic subjects were used to propagate nation building, colonialism, fleet building and warfare, and the League was presented as a bringer of culture and pioneer of German expansion.The preoccupation with a strong navy motivated German painters since the 19th century to paint supposedly Hanseatic ships.", "They used the traditions of maritime paintings and, not wanting Hanseatic ships to look unimpressive, ignored historical evidence to fictionalise cogs into tall two- or three-masted ships.", "The depictions were widely reproduced, like on plates of Norddeutscher Lloyd.", "This misleading artistic tradition influenced public perception for the entire 20th century.In the late 19th century, a social-critical view developed, where opponents of the League like the ''likedeelers'' were presented as heroes and liberators from economic oppression.", "This was very popular from the end of the First World War into the 30s, and lives on in the Störtebeker Festival on Rügen, founded as the Rügenfestspiele by the GDR.From the late 1970s, the Europeanness and cooperation of the Hanseatic League has come to prominence in popular culture.", "It also is associated with innovation, entrepreneurism and internationalness in economic circles.", "In this way it often used for tourism, city branding and commercial marketing.", "The League's unique governance structure has been identified as a precursor to the supranational model of the European Union.=== Modern transnational organisations named after the Hanseatic League ======= Union of Cities THE HANSA ====In 1979 Zwolle invited over 40 cities from West Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway with historic links to the Hanseatic League to sign the recesses of 1669, at Zwolle's 750 year city rights' anniversary in August of the next year.", "In 1980, those cities established a \"new Hanse\" in Zwolle, named ''Städtebund Die Hanse'' (Union of Cities THE HANSA) in German and reinstituted the Hanseatic diets.", "This league is open to all former Hanseatic League members and cities that share a Hanseatic heritage.In 2012 the city league had 187 members.", "This includes twelve Russian cities, most notably Novgorod, and 21 Polish cities.", "No Danish cities have joined the Union of Cities.", "The \"new Hanse\" fosters business links, tourism and cultural exchange.The headquarters of the New Hansa is in Lübeck, Germany.", "The current President of the Hanseatic League of New Time is Jan Lindenau, Mayor of Lübeck.Dutch cities including Groningen, Deventer, Kampen, Zutphen and Zwolle, and a number of German cities including Bremen, Buxtehude, Demmin, Greifswald, Hamburg, Lübeck, Lüneburg, Rostock, Salzwedel, Stade, Stendal, Stralsund, Uelzen and Wismar now call themselves ''Hanse'' cities (the German cities' car license plates are prefixed ''H'', e.g.", "–''HB''– for \"Hansestadt Bremen\").Each year one of the member cities of the New Hansa hosts the Hanseatic Days of New Time international festival.In 2006, King's Lynn became the first English member of the union of cities.", "It was joined by Hull in 2012 and Boston in 2016.==== New Hanseatic League ====The New Hanseatic League was established in February 2018 by finance ministers from Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands and Sweden through the signing of a foundational document which set out the countries' \"shared views and values in the discussion on the architecture of the EMU\".=== Other entities named after the Hanseatic League ===The legacy of the Hansa is remembered today in several names: the German airline Lufthansa (lit.", "\"Air Hansa\"); F.C.", "Hansa Rostock, nickamed the Kogge or Hansa-Kogge; Hansa-Park, one of the biggest theme parks in Germany; Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen, Netherlands; Hanze oil production platform, Netherlands; the Hansa Brewery in Bergen and the Hanse Sail in Rostock; Hanseatic Trade Center in Hamburg; DDG Hansa, which was a major German shipping company from 1881 until its bankruptcy and takeover by Hapag-Lloyd in 1980; the district of New Hanza City in Riga, Latvia; and Hansabank in Estonia, which has been rebranded into Swedbank." ], [ "Historical maps", "File:First.Crusade.Map.jpg|Europe in 1097File:Europe in 1430.PNG|Europe in 1430File:Europe in 1470.png|Europe in 1470File:Carta Marina.jpeg| of the Baltic Sea region (1539)" ], [ "In popular culture", "* In the ''Patrician'' series of trading simulation video games, the player assumes the role of a merchant in any of several cities of the Hanseatic League.", "* In the ''Saga of Seven Suns'' series of space opera novels by American writer Kevin J. Anderson, the human race has colonized multiple planets in the Spiral Arm, most of which are governed by the powerful Terran Hanseatic League (Hansa).", "* ''Hansa Teutonica'' is a German board game designed by Andreas Steding and published by Argentum Verlag in 2009.", "* In the ''Metro franchise'' of post-apocalyptic novels and video games, a trading alliance of stations called The Commonwealth of the Stations of the Ring Line is also known as the Hanseatic League, usually shortened to Hansa or Hanza." ], [ "See also", "* Baltic maritime trade (c. 1400–1800)* Bay Fleet* Brick Gothic* Company of Merchant Adventurers of London* Hanseatic Cross* Hanseatic Days of New Time* Hanseatic flags* Hanseatic Museum and Schøtstuene* History of Bremen (City)* Maritime republics* Peasants' Republic* Schiffskinder* Thalassocracy" ], [ "Explanatory footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Halliday, Stephen.", "\"The First Common Market?\"", "''History Today'' 59 (2009): 31–37.", "* Harreld, Donald J.", "''A companion to the Hanseatic League'' (Brill, 2015).", "* * * * * * * * Wubs-Mrozewicz, Justyna, and Jenks, Stuart eds. ''", "The Hanse in Medieval and Early Modern Europe'' (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2013)* ===Historiography===* Cowan, Alexander.", "\"Hanseatic League: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide\" (Oxford University Press, 2010) online* Harrison, Gordon.", "\"The Hanseatic League in Historical Interpretation.\"", "''The Historian'' 33 (1971): 385–97..* Szepesi, Istvan.", "\"Reflecting the Nation: The Historiography of Hanseatic Institutions.\"", "''Waterloo Historical Review'' 7 (2015).", "online" ], [ "External links", "* 29th International Hansa Days in Novgorod* 30th International Hansa Days 2010 in Parnu-Estonia* Chronology of the Hanseatic League* Hanseatic Cities in the Netherlands* Hanseatic League Historical Re-enactors* Hanseatic Towns Network* Hanseatic League related sources in the German Wikisource* Colchester: a Hanseatic port – Gresham* The Lost Port of Sutton: Maritime trade" ] ]
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[ [ "Harvard (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harvard University''' is a university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.", "'''Harvard''' may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Harvard (name), a given name and surname, including list of people with this name" ], [ "Boston area", "*Harvard Book Store, an independent bookstore in Harvard Square*Harvard Bridge, a bridge over the Charles River near the Massachusetts Institute of Technology*Harvard Club of Boston, a private social club founded by Harvard alumni*Harvard College, the undergraduate division of Harvard University*Harvard Crimson, Harvard University's athletic program*''The Harvard Crimson'', Harvard University's daily student newspaper*Harvard Square, a plaza in Cambridge, Massachusetts, adjacent to the Harvard University campus*Harvard Yard, the center of the Harvard campus, adjacent to Harvard Square*Harvard (MBTA station), the subway station located in Harvard Square" ], [ "Cities", "*Harvard, Idaho*Harvard, Illinois, a city in the United States*Harvard, Massachusetts, a town in the United States*Harvard, Nebraska, a city in the United States*Harvard Township, Clay County, Nebraska, a township in the United States" ], [ "Aeroplanes", "*Harvard (aeroplane), often used name for the North American T-6.", "*Harvard Blue Yonder EZ (aeroplane), a replica of the Harvard." ], [ "Ships", "*List of ships named Harvard*USS Harvard, several ships of the United States Navy" ], [ "Other", "* Harvard architecture, a type of computer architecture.", "* Harvard (automobile), a Brass Era car built in New York between 1915 and 1921.", "* Harvard Graphics, an early breaking computer software for handling diagrams.", "* Harvard Mark I, an early digital computer.", "* Harvard referencing, a citation style also known as the \"author-date method\".", "* Harvard station (disambiguation), stations of the name.", "* Harvard-Westlake School, a prep school in Los Angeles.", "* Harvard 736 (planet), a minor planet orbiting the Sun.", "* Fender Harvard, a guitar amplifier.", "* Harvard Islands, an island group in northwestern Greenland." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Historical African place names" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a list of '''historical African place names'''.", "The names on the left are linked to the corresponding subregion(s) from History of Africa.", "* Axum - Eritrea and Ethiopia * Africa (province) - Tunisia* Barbary Coast - Algeria* Bechuanaland - Botswana* Belgian Congo - Democratic Republic of the Congo* Carthage - Tunisia* Central African Empire - Central African Republic* Congo Free State - Democratic Republic of the Congo* Dahomey - Benin* Equatoria - Sudan and Uganda* Fernando Pó - Bioko* French Congo - Gabon and Republic of the Congo* French Equatorial Africa - Chad, Central African Republic, Gabon, Republic of the Congo* French Sudan - Mali* French West Africa - Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Benin* German East Africa - Tanzania and Zanzibar* German South-West Africa - Namibia* The Gold Coast - Ghana* Guinea* Grain Coast or Pepper Coast - Liberia* Malagasy Republic - Madagascar* Mauritania Tingitana-Morocco* Mdre Bahri -Eritrea* Monomotapa - Zimbabwe, South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique and parts of Namibia and Botswana* Middle Congo - Republic of the Congo* Nubia - Sudan and Egypt* Numidia - Algeria, Libya and Tunisia* Nyasaland - Malawi* Western Pentapolis - Libya* Portuguese Guinea - Guinea-Bissau* Rhodesia -:*Northern Rhodesia - Zambia:*Southern Rhodesia - Zimbabwe::*(Southern Rhodesia was commonly referred to simply as Rhodesia from 1964 to 1980)* Rwanda-Urundi - Rwanda and Burundi* The Slave Coast - Benin* Somaliland - Somalia* South-West Africa - Namibia* Spanish Sahara - Western Sahara* Swaziland - Eswatini* French Upper Volta - Republic of Upper Volta - Burkina Faso* Zaire - Republic of the Congo - Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "See also", "* List of former sovereign states" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horror fiction" ], [ "Introduction", "Poe's \"The Raven\" by Gustave Doré'''Horror''' is a genre of fiction that is intended to disturb, frighten or scare.", "Horror is often divided into the sub-genres of psychological horror and supernatural horror, which are in the realm of speculative fiction.", "Literary historian J.", "A. Cuddon, in 1984, defined the horror story as \"a piece of fiction in prose of variable length... which shocks, or even frightens the reader, or perhaps induces a feeling of repulsion or loathing\".", "Horror intends to create an eerie and frightening atmosphere for the reader.", "Often the central menace of a work of horror fiction can be interpreted as a metaphor for larger fears of a society.Prevalent elements include ghosts, demons, vampires, monsters, zombies, werewolves, the Devil, serial killers, extraterrestrial life, killer toys, psychopaths, sexual deviancy, rape, gore, torture, evil clowns, cults, cannibalism, vicious animals, the apocalypse, evil witches, dystopia, and human-made or natural disasters." ], [ "History", "===Before 1000===alt= Athenodorus and the ghost, by AthenodorusThe horror genre has ancient origins, with roots in folklore and religious traditions focusing on death, the afterlife, evil, the demonic and the principle of the thing embodied in the person.", "These manifested in stories of beings such as demons, witches, vampires, werewolves and ghosts.", "European horror-fiction became established through works of the Ancient Greeks and Ancient Romans.", "Mary Shelley's well-known 1818 novel about Frankenstein was greatly influenced by the story of Hippolytus, whom Asclepius revives from death.", "Euripides wrote plays based on the story, ''Hippolytos Kalyptomenos'' and ''Hippolytus''.", "In Plutarch's ''The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' in the account of Cimon, the author describes the spirit of a murderer, Damon, who himself was murdered in a bathhouse in Chaeronea.Pliny the Younger (61 to 113) tells the tale of Athenodorus Cananites, who bought a haunted house in Athens.", "Athenodorus was cautious since the house seemed inexpensive.", "While writing a book on philosophy, he was visited by a ghostly figure bound in chains.", "The figure disappeared in the courtyard; the following day, the magistrates dug in the courtyard and found an unmarked grave.Elements of the horror genre also occur in Biblical texts, notably in the Book of Revelation.===After 1000===The Witch of Berkeley by William of Malmesbury has been viewed as an early horror story.", "Werewolf stories were popular in medieval French literature.", "One of Marie de France's twelve lais is a werewolf story titled \"Bisclavret\".Vlad III \"The Impaler\", the inspiration for Count Dracula.The Countess Yolande commissioned a werewolf story titled \"Guillaume de Palerme\".", "Anonymous writers penned two werewolf stories, \"Biclarel\" and \"Melion\".Much horror fiction derives from the cruellest personages of the 15th century.", "Dracula can be traced to the Prince of Wallachia Vlad III, whose alleged war crimes were published in German pamphlets.", "A 1499 pamphlet was published by Markus Ayrer, which is most notable for its woodcut imagery.", "The alleged serial-killer sprees of Gilles de Rais have been seen as the inspiration for \"Bluebeard\".", "The motif of the vampiress is most notably derived from the real-life noblewoman and murderer, Elizabeth Bathory, and helped usher in the emergence of horror fiction in the 18th century, such as through László Turóczi's 1729 book ''Tragica Historia''.===18th century=== Horace Walpole wrote the first Gothic novel, ''The Castle of Otranto'' (1764), initiating a new literary genre.The 18th century saw the gradual development of Romanticism and the Gothic horror genre.", "It drew on the written and material heritage of the Late Middle Ages, finding its form with Horace Walpole's seminal and controversial 1764 novel, ''The Castle of Otranto''.", "In fact, the first edition was published disguised as an actual medieval romance from Italy, discovered and republished by a fictitious translator.", "Once revealed as modern, many found it anachronistic, reactionary, or simply in poor taste but it proved immediately popular.", "''Otranto'' inspired ''Vathek'' (1786) by William Beckford, ''A Sicilian Romance'' (1790), ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' (1794), ''The Italian'' (1796) by Ann Radcliffe, and ''The Monk'' (1797) by Matthew Lewis.", "A significant amount of horror fiction of this era was written by women and marketed towards a female audience, a typical scenario of the novels being a resourceful female menaced in a gloomy castle.===19th century===Mary Shelley by Richard Rothwell (1840–41)The Gothic tradition blossomed into the genre that modern readers today call horror literature in the 19th century.", "Influential works and characters that continue resonating in fiction and film today saw their genesis in the Brothers Grimm's \"Hänsel und Gretel\" (1812), Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'' (1818), John Polidori's \"The Vampyre\" (1819), Charles Maturin's ''Melmoth the Wanderer'' (1820), Washington Irving's \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\" (1820), Jane C. Loudon's ''The Mummy!", ": Or a Tale of the Twenty-Second Century'' (1827), Victor Hugo's ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' (1831), Thomas Peckett Prest's ''Varney the Vampire'' (1847), the works of Edgar Allan Poe, the works of Sheridan Le Fanu, Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'' (1886), Oscar Wilde's ''The Picture of Dorian Gray'' (1890), H. G. Wells' ''The Invisible Man'' (1897), and Bram Stoker's ''Dracula'' (1897).", "Each of these works created an enduring icon of horror seen in later re-imaginings on the page, stage, and screen.===20th century===A proliferation of cheap periodicals around the turn of the century led to a boom in horror writing.", "For example, Gaston Leroux serialized his ''Le Fantôme de l'Opéra'' before it became a novel in 1910.One writer who specialized in horror fiction for mainstream pulps, such as ''All-Story Magazine,'' was Tod Robbins, whose fiction deals with themes of madness and cruelty.", "In Russia, the writer Alexander Belyaev popularized these themes in his story ''Professor Dowell's Head'' (1925), in which a mad doctor performs experimental head transplants and reanimations on bodies stolen from the morgue, and which was first published as a magazine serial before being turned into a novel.", "Later, specialist publications emerged to give horror writers an outlet, prominent among them was ''Weird Tales'' and ''Unknown Worlds''.Influential horror writers of the early 20th century made inroads in these mediums.", "Particularly, the venerated horror author H. P. Lovecraft, and his enduring Cthulhu Mythos transformed and popularized the genre of cosmic horror, and M. R. James is credited with redefining the ghost story in that era.", "The serial murderer became a recurring theme.", "Yellow journalism and sensationalism of various murderers, such as Jack the Ripper, and lesser so, Carl Panzram, Fritz Haarman, and Albert Fish, all perpetuated this phenomenon.", "The trend continued in the postwar era, partly renewed after the murders committed by Ed Gein.", "In 1959, Robert Bloch, inspired by the murders, wrote ''Psycho''.", "The crimes committed in 1969 by the Manson Family influenced the slasher theme in horror fiction of the 1970s.", "In 1981, Thomas Harris wrote ''Red Dragon'', introducing Dr. Hannibal Lecter.", "In 1988, the sequel to that novel, ''The Silence of the Lambs'', was published.Early cinema was inspired by many aspects of horror literature, and started a strong tradition of horror films and subgenres that continues to this day.", "Up until the graphic depictions of violence and gore on the screen commonly associated with 1960s and 1970s slasher films and splatter films, comic books such as those published by EC Comics (most notably ''Tales From The Crypt'') in the 1950s satisfied readers' quests for horror imagery that the silver screen could not provide.", "This imagery made these comics controversial, and as a consequence, they were frequently censored.The modern zombie tale dealing with the motif of the living dead harks back to works including H. P. Lovecraft's stories \"Cool Air\" (1925), \"In The Vault\" (1926), and \"The Outsider\" (1926), and Dennis Wheatley's \"Strange Conflict\" (1941).", "Richard Matheson's novel ''I Am Legend'' (1954) influenced an entire genre of apocalyptic zombie fiction emblematized by the films of George A. Romero.In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the enormous commercial success of three books - ''Rosemary's Baby'' (1967) by Ira Levin, ''The Exorcist'' by William Peter Blatty, and ''The Other'' by Thomas Tryon - encouraged publishers to begin releasing numerous other horror novels, thus creating a \"horror boom\".Stephen KingOne of the best-known late-20th century horror writers is Stephen King, known for ''Carrie'', ''The Shining'', ''It'', ''Misery'', and several dozen other novels and about 200 short stories.", "Beginning in the 1970s, King's stories have attracted a large audience, for which he was awarded by the U.S. National Book Foundation in 2003.Other popular horror authors of the period included Anne Rice, Brian Lumley, Graham Masterton, James Herbert, Dean Koontz, Richard Laymon, Clive Barker, Ramsey Campbell, and Peter Straub.===21st century===Best-selling book series of contemporary times exist in genres related to horror fiction, such as the werewolf fiction urban fantasy Kitty Norville books by Carrie Vaughn (2005 onward).", "Horror elements continue to expand outside the genre.", "The alternate history of more traditional historical horror in Dan Simmons's 2007 novel ''The Terror'' sits on bookstore shelves next to genre mash ups such as ''Pride and Prejudice and Zombies'' (2009), and historical fantasy and horror comics such as ''Hellblazer'' (1993 onward) and Mike Mignola's Hellboy (1993 onward).", "Horror also serves as one of the central genres in more complex modern works such as Mark Z. Danielewski's ''House of Leaves'' (2000), a finalist for the National Book Award.", "There are many horror novels for children and teens, such as R. L. Stine's Goosebumps series or ''The Monstrumologist'' by Rick Yancey.", "Additionally, many movies for young audiences, particularly animated ones, use horror aesthetics and conventions (for example, ''ParaNorman'').", "These are what can be collectively referred to as \"children's horror\".", "Although it is unknown for sure why children enjoy these movies (as it seems counter-intuitive), it is theorized that it is, in part, grotesque monsters that fascinate kids.", "Tangential to this, the internalized impact of horror television programs and films on children is rather under-researched, especially when compared to the research done on the similar subject of violence in TV and film's impact on the young mind.", "What little research there is tends to be inconclusive on the impact that viewing such media has." ], [ "Characteristics", "One defining trait of the horror genre is that it provokes an emotional, psychological, or physical response within readers that causes them to react with fear.", "One of H. P. Lovecraft's most famous quotes about the genre is that: \"The oldest and strongest emotion of mankind is fear, and the oldest and strongest kind of fear is fear of the unknown.\"", "the first sentence from his seminal essay, \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\".", "Science fiction historian Darrell Schweitzer has stated, \"In the simplest sense, a horror story is one that scares us\" and \"the true horror story requires a sense of evil, not in necessarily in a theological sense; but the menaces must be truly menacing, life-destroying, and antithetical to happiness.", "\"In her essay \"Elements of Aversion\", Elizabeth Barrette articulates the need by some for horror tales in a modern world:In a sense similar to the reason a person seeks out the controlled thrill of a roller coaster, readers in the modern era seek out feelings of horror and terror to feel a sense of excitement.", "However, Barrette adds that horror fiction is one of the few mediums where readers seek out a form of art that forces themselves to confront ideas and images they \"might rather ignore to challenge preconceptions of all kinds.", "\"One can see the confrontation of ideas that readers and characters would \"rather ignore\" throughout literature in famous moments such as Hamlet's musings about the skull of Yorick, its implications of the mortality of humanity, and the gruesome end that bodies inevitably come to.", "In horror fiction, the confrontation with the gruesome is often a metaphor for the problems facing the current generation of the author.There are many theories as to why people enjoy being scared.", "For example, \"people who like horror films are more likely to score highly for openness to experience, a personality trait linked to intellect and imagination.", "\"It is a now commonly accepted view that the horror elements of Dracula's portrayal of vampirism are metaphors for sexuality in a repressed Victorian era.", "But this is merely one of many interpretations of the metaphor of Dracula.", "Jack Halberstam postulates many of these in his essay ''Technologies of Monstrosity: Bram Stoker's Dracula''.", "He writes:Punch'': An English editorial cartoonist conceives the Irish Fenian movement as akin to Frankenstein's monster, in the wake of the Phoenix Park killings.", "Menacing villains and monsters in horror literature can often be seen as metaphors for the fears incarnate of a society.Halberstram articulates a view of Dracula as manifesting the growing perception of the aristocracy as an evil and outdated notion to be defeated.", "The depiction of a multinational band of protagonists using the latest technologies (such as a telegraph) to quickly share, collate, and act upon new information is what leads to the destruction of the vampire.", "This is one of many interpretations of the metaphor of only one central figure of the canon of horror fiction, as over a dozen possible metaphors are referenced in the analysis, from the religious to the antisemitic.Noël Carroll's ''Philosophy of Horror'' postulates that a modern piece of horror fiction's \"monster\", villain, or a more inclusive menace must exhibit the following two traits:* A menace that is threatening — either physically, psychologically, socially, morally, spiritually, or some combination of the aforementioned.", "* A menace that is impure — that violates the generally accepted schemes of cultural categorization.", "\"We consider impure that which is categorically contradictory\"." ], [ "Scholarship and criticism", "In addition to those essays and articles shown above, scholarship on horror fiction is almost as old as horror fiction itself.", "In 1826, the gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe published an essay distinguishing two elements of horror fiction, \"terror\" and \"horror.\"", "Whereas terror is a feeling of dread that takes place before an event happens, horror is a feeling of revulsion or disgust after an event has happened.", "Radcliffe describes terror as that which \"expands the soul and awakens the faculties to a high degree of life,\" whereas horror is described as that which \"freezes and nearly annihilates them.", "\"Modern scholarship on horror fiction draws upon a range of sources.", "In their historical studies of the gothic novel, both Devendra Varma and S. L. Varnado make reference to the theologian Rudolf Otto, whose concept of the \"numinous\" was originally used to describe religious experience.A recent survey reports how often horror media is consumed:To assess frequency of horror consumption, we asked respondents the following question: \"In the past year, about how often have you used horror media (for example, horror literature, film, and video games) for entertainment?\"", "11.3% said \"Never,\" 7.5% \"Once,\" 28.9% \"Several times,\" 14.1% \"Once a month,\" 20.8% \"Several times a month,\" 7.3% \"Once a week,\" and 10.2% \"Several times a week.\"", "Evidently, then, most respondents (81.3%) claimed to use horror media several times a year or more often.", "Unsurprisingly, there is a strong correlation between liking and frequency of use (r=.79, p" ], [ "Awards and associations", "Achievements in horror fiction are recognized by numerous awards.", "The Horror Writers Association presents the Bram Stoker Awards for Superior Achievement, named in honor of Bram Stoker, author of the seminal horror novel ''Dracula''.", "The Australian Horror Writers Association presents annual Australian Shadows Awards.", "The International Horror Guild Award was presented annually to works of horror and dark fantasy from 1995 to 2008.The Shirley Jackson Awards are literary awards for outstanding achievement in the literature of psychological suspense, horror, and the dark fantastic works.", "Other important awards for horror literature are included as subcategories within general awards for fantasy and science fiction in such awards as the Aurealis Award." ], [ "Alternative terms", "Some writers of fiction normally classified as \"horror\" tend to dislike the term, considering it too lurid.", "They instead use the terms dark fantasy or Gothic fantasy for supernatural horror, or \"psychological thriller\" for non-supernatural horror." ], [ "See also", "* Related genres** Christmas horror** Crime fiction** Dark fantasy** Death metal** Ghost stories** Monster literature** Mystery fiction** Speculative fiction** Thriller** Weird fiction* History of horror films* Horror convention* Horror film * Horror podcast* LGBT themes in horror fiction* List of ghost films* List of horror fiction writers* List of horror podcasts* List of horror television programs" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Neil Barron, '' Horror Literature: A Reader's Guide''.", "New York: Garland, 1990..* Jason Colavito, ''Knowing Fear: Science, Knowledge and the Development of the Horror Genre''.", "Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008..* Brian Docherty, ''American Horror Fiction: From Brockden Brown to Stephen King''.", "New York: St. Martin's, 1990..* * Stephen Jones and Kim Newman, (eds.", "), ''Horror: 100 Best Books''.", "New York: Carroll & Graf, 1998..* Stephen King, ''Danse Macabre''.", "New York: Everest House, 1981..* H. P. Lovecraft, ''Supernatural Horror in Literature'', 1927, rev.", "1934, collected in ''Dagon and Other Macabre Tales''.", "Arkham House, 1965.", "* David J. Skal, ''The Monster Show: A Cultural History of Horror''.", "New York: Norton, 1993..* Andrea Sauchelli \"Horror and Mood\" , ''American Philosophical Quarterly'', 51:1 (2014), pp. 39–50.", "* Gina Wisker, ''Horror Fiction: An Introduction''.", "New York: Continuum, 2005.." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Holomorphic function" ], [ "Introduction", "A rectangular grid (top) and its image under a conformal map (bottom).In mathematics, a '''holomorphic function''' is a complex-valued function of one or more complex variables that is complex differentiable in a neighbourhood of each point in a domain in complex coordinate space .", "The existence of a complex derivative in a neighbourhood is a very strong condition: it implies that a holomorphic function is infinitely differentiable and locally equal to its own Taylor series (is ''analytic'').", "Holomorphic functions are the central objects of study in complex analysis.Though the term ''analytic function'' is often used interchangeably with \"holomorphic function\", the word \"analytic\" is defined in a broader sense to denote any function (real, complex, or of more general type) that can be written as a convergent power series in a neighbourhood of each point in its domain.", "That all holomorphic functions are complex analytic functions, and vice versa, is a major theorem in complex analysis.Holomorphic functions are also sometimes referred to as ''regular functions''.", "A holomorphic function whose domain is the whole complex plane is called an entire function.", "The phrase \"holomorphic at a point \" means not just differentiable at , but differentiable everywhere within some neighbourhood of in the complex plane." ], [ "Definition", "The function is not complex differentiable at zero, because as shown above, the value of varies depending on the direction from which zero is approached.", "Along the real axis, equals the function and the limit is , while along the imaginary axis, equals and the limit is .", "Other directions yield yet other limits.Given a complex-valued function of a single complex variable, the '''derivative''' of at a point in its domain is defined as the limit:This is the same definition as for the derivative of a real function, except that all quantities are complex.", "In particular, the limit is taken as the complex number tends to , and this means that the same value is obtained for any sequence of complex values for that tends to .", "If the limit exists, is said to be '''complex differentiable''' at .", "This concept of complex differentiability shares several properties with real differentiability: it is linear and obeys the product rule, quotient rule, and chain rule.A function is '''holomorphic''' on an open set if it is ''complex differentiable'' at ''every'' point of .", "A function is ''holomorphic'' at a point if it is holomorphic on some neighbourhood of .", "A function is ''holomorphic'' on some non-open set if it is holomorphic at every point of .", "A function may be complex differentiable at a point but not holomorphic at this point.", "For example, the function is complex differentiable at , but not complex differentiable elsewhere (see the Cauchy–Riemann equations, below).", "So, it is ''not'' holomorphic at .", "The relationship between real differentiability and complex differentiability is the following: If a complex function is holomorphic, then and have first partial derivatives with respect to and , and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations::or, equivalently, the Wirtinger derivative of with respect to the complex conjugate of is zero::which is to say that, roughly, is functionally independent from the complex conjugate of .If continuity is not given, the converse is not necessarily true.", "A simple converse is that if and have ''continuous'' first partial derivatives and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations, then is holomorphic.", "A more satisfying converse, which is much harder to prove, is the Looman–Menchoff theorem: if is continuous, and have first partial derivatives (but not necessarily continuous), and they satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations, then is holomorphic." ], [ "Terminology", "The term ''holomorphic'' was introduced in 1875 by Charles Briot and Jean-Claude Bouquet, two of Augustin-Louis Cauchy's students, and derives from the Greek ὅλος (''hólos'') meaning \"whole\", and μορφή (''morphḗ'') meaning \"form\" or \"appearance\" or \"type\", in contrast to the term ''meromorphic'' derived from μέρος (''méros'') meaning \"part\".", "A holomorphic function resembles an entire function (\"whole\") in a domain of the complex plane while a meromorphic function (defined to mean holomorphic except at certain isolated poles), resembles a rational fraction (\"part\") of entire functions in a domain of the complex plane.", "Cauchy had instead used the term ''synectic''.Today, the term \"holomorphic function\" is sometimes preferred to \"analytic function\".", "An important result in complex analysis is that every holomorphic function is complex analytic, a fact that does not follow obviously from the definitions.", "The term \"analytic\" is however also in wide use." ], [ "Properties", "Because complex differentiation is linear and obeys the product, quotient, and chain rules, the sums, products and compositions of holomorphic functions are holomorphic, and the quotient of two holomorphic functions is holomorphic wherever the denominator is not zero.", "That is, if functions and are holomorphic in a domain , then so are , , , and .", "Furthermore, is holomorphic if has no zeros in , or is meromorphic otherwise.If one identifies with the real plane , then the holomorphic functions coincide with those functions of two real variables with continuous first derivatives which solve the Cauchy–Riemann equations, a set of two partial differential equations.Every holomorphic function can be separated into its real and imaginary parts , and each of these is a harmonic function on (each satisfies Laplace's equation ), with the harmonic conjugate of .", "Conversely, every harmonic function on a simply connected domain is the real part of a holomorphic function: If is the harmonic conjugate of , unique up to a constant, then is holomorphic.Cauchy's integral theorem implies that the contour integral of every holomorphic function along a loop vanishes::Here is a rectifiable path in a simply connected complex domain whose start point is equal to its end point, and is a holomorphic function.Cauchy's integral formula states that every function holomorphic inside a disk is completely determined by its values on the disk's boundary.", "Furthermore: Suppose is a complex domain, is a holomorphic function and the closed disk is completely contained in .", "Let be the circle forming the boundary of .", "Then for every in the interior of ::where the contour integral is taken counter-clockwise.The derivative can be written as a contour integral using Cauchy's differentiation formula::for any simple loop positively winding once around , and:for infinitesimal positive loops around .In regions where the first derivative is not zero, holomorphic functions are conformal: they preserve angles and the shape (but not size) of small figures.Every holomorphic function is analytic.", "That is, a holomorphic function has derivatives of every order at each point in its domain, and it coincides with its own Taylor series at in a neighbourhood of .", "In fact, coincides with its Taylor series at in any disk centred at that point and lying within the domain of the function.From an algebraic point of view, the set of holomorphic functions on an open set is a commutative ring and a complex vector space.", "Additionally, the set of holomorphic functions in an open set is an integral domain if and only if the open set is connected.", "In fact, it is a locally convex topological vector space, with the seminorms being the suprema on compact subsets.From a geometric perspective, a function is holomorphic at if and only if its exterior derivative in a neighbourhood of is equal to for some continuous function .", "It follows from:that is also proportional to , implying that the derivative is itself holomorphic and thus that is infinitely differentiable.", "Similarly, implies that any function that is holomorphic on the simply connected region is also integrable on .", "(For a path from to lying entirely in , define in light of the Jordan curve theorem and the generalized Stokes' theorem, is independent of the particular choice of path , and thus is a well-defined function on having and .)" ], [ "Examples", "All polynomial functions in with complex coefficients are entire functions (holomorphic in the whole complex plane ), and so are the exponential function and the trigonometric functions and (cf.", "Euler's formula).", "The principal branch of the complex logarithm function is holomorphic on the domain .", "The square root function can be defined as and is therefore holomorphic wherever the logarithm is.", "The reciprocal function is holomorphic on .", "(The reciprocal function, and any other rational function, is meromorphic on .", ")As a consequence of the Cauchy–Riemann equations, any real-valued holomorphic function must be constant.", "Therefore, the absolute value , the argument , the real part and the imaginary part are not holomorphic.", "Another typical example of a continuous function which is not holomorphic is the complex conjugate (The complex conjugate is antiholomorphic.)" ], [ "Several variables", "The definition of a holomorphic function generalizes to several complex variables in a straightforward way.", "A function in complex variables is '''analytic''' at a point if there exists a neighbourhood of in which is equal to a convergent power series in complex variables; the function is '''holomorphic''' in an open subset of if it is analytic at each point in .", "Osgood's lemma shows (using the multivariate Cauchy integral formula) that, for a continuous function , this is equivalent to being holomorphic in each variable separately (meaning that if any coordinates are fixed, then the restriction of is a holomorphic function of the remaining coordinate).", "The much deeper Hartogs' theorem proves that the continuity assumption is unnecessary: is holomorphic if and only if it is holomorphic in each variable separately.More generally, a function of several complex variables that is square integrable over every compact subset of its domain is analytic if and only if it satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations in the sense of distributions.Functions of several complex variables are in some basic ways more complicated than functions of a single complex variable.", "For example, the region of convergence of a power series is not necessarily an open ball; these regions are logarithmically-convex Reinhardt domains, the simplest example of which is a polydisk.", "However, they also come with some fundamental restrictions.", "Unlike functions of a single complex variable, the possible domains on which there are holomorphic functions that cannot be extended to larger domains are highly limited.", "Such a set is called a domain of holomorphy.A complex differential -form is holomorphic if and only if its antiholomorphic Dolbeault derivative is zero: ." ], [ "Extension to functional analysis", "The concept of a holomorphic function can be extended to the infinite-dimensional spaces of functional analysis.", "For instance, the Fréchet or Gateaux derivative can be used to define a notion of a holomorphic function on a Banach space over the field of complex numbers." ], [ "See also", "* Antiderivative (complex analysis)* Antiholomorphic function* Biholomorphy* Holomorphic separability* Meromorphic function* Quadrature domains* Harmonic maps* Harmonic morphisms* Wirtinger derivatives" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Algeria" ], [ "Introduction", "Much of the '''history of Algeria''' has taken place on the fertile coastal plain of North Africa, which is often called the Maghreb (or Maghreb).", "North Africa served as a transit region for people moving towards Europe or the Middle East, thus, the region's inhabitants have been influenced by populations from other areas, including the Carthaginians, Romans, and Vandals.", "The region was conquered by the Muslims in the early 8th century AD, but broke off from the Umayyad Caliphate after the Berber Revolt of 740.During the Ottoman period, Algeria became an important state in the Mediterranean sea which led to many naval conflicts.", "The last significant events in the country's recent history have been the Algerian War and Algerian Civil War.Roman inscription from Agueneb in the Laghouat Province" ], [ "Prehistory", "Evidence of the early human occupation of Algeria is demonstrated by the discovery of 1.8 million year old Oldowan stone tools found at Ain Hanech in 1992.In 1954 fossilised ''Homo erectus'' bones were discovered by C. Arambourg at Ternefine that are 700,000 years old.", "Neolithic civilization (marked by animal domestication and subsistence agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghrib between 6000 and 2000 BC.", "This type of economy, richly depicted in the Tassili n'Ajjer cave paintings in southeastern Algeria, predominated in the Maghrib until the classical period." ], [ "Numidia", "Numidia (Berber: ''Inumiden''; 202–40 BC) was the ancient kingdom of the Numidians located in northwest Africa, initially comprising the territory that now makes up modern-day Algeria, but later expanding across what is today known as Tunisia, Libya, and some parts of Morocco.", "The polity was originally divided between the Massylii in the east and the Masaesyli in the west.", "During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), Masinissa, king of the Massylii, defeated Syphax of the Masaesyli to unify Numidia into one kingdom.", "The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later alternated between being a Roman province and a Roman client state.Numidia, at its largest extent, was bordered by Mauretania to the west, at the Moulouya River, Africa to the east (also exercising control over Tripolitania), the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Sahara to the south.", "It was one of the first major states in the history of Algeria and the Berbers.=== War With Rome ===By 112 BC, Jugurtha resumed his war with Adherbal.", "He incurred the wrath of Rome in the process by killing some Roman businessmen who were aiding Adherbal.", "After a brief war with Rome, Jugurtha surrendered and received a highly favourable peace treaty, which raised suspicions of bribery once more.", "The local Roman commander was summoned to Rome to face corruption charges brought by his political rival Gaius Memmius.", "Jugurtha was also forced to come to Rome to testify against the Roman commander, where Jugurtha was completely discredited once his violent and ruthless past became widely known, and after he had been suspected of murdering a Numidian rival.War broke out between Numidia and the Roman Republic and several legions were dispatched to North Africa under the command of the Consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus.", "The war dragged out into a long and seemingly endless campaign as the Romans tried to defeat Jugurtha decisively.", "Frustrated at the apparent lack of action, Metellus' lieutenant Gaius Marius returned to Rome to seek election as Consul.", "Marius was elected, and then returned to Numidia to take control of the war.", "He sent his Quaestor Sulla to neighbouring Mauretania in order to eliminate their support for Jugurtha.", "With the help of Bocchus I of Mauretania, Sulla captured Jugurtha and brought the war to a conclusive end.", "Jugurtha was brought to Rome in chains and was placed in the Tullianum.Jugurtha was executed by the Romans in 104 BC, after being paraded through the streets in Gaius Marius' Triumph.=== Independence ===The Greek historians referred to these peoples as \"Νομάδες\" (i.e.", "Nomads), which by Latin interpretation became \"Numidae\" (but cf.", "also the correct use of ''Nomades'').", "Historian Gabriel Camps, however, disputes this claim, favoring instead an African origin for the term.The name appears first in Polybius (second century BC) to indicate the peoples and territory west of Carthage including the entire north of Algeria as far as the river Mulucha (Muluya), about 160 kilometres (100 mi) west of Oran.The Numidians were composed of two great tribal groups: the Massylii in eastern Numidia, and the Masaesyli in the west.", "During the first part of the Second Punic War, the eastern Massylii, under their king Gala, were allied with Carthage, while the western Masaesyli, under king Syphax, were allied with Rome.", "The Kingdom of Masaesyli under Syphax extended from the Moulouya river to Oued Rhumel.Map of NumidiaMasinissaHowever, in 206 BC, the new king of the eastern Massylii, Masinissa, allied himself with Rome, and Syphax of the Masaesyli switched his allegiance to the Carthaginian side.", "At the end of the war, the victorious Romans gave all of Numidia to Masinissa of the Massylii.", "At the time of his death in 148 BC, Masinissa's territory extended from the Moulouya to the boundary of the Carthaginian territory, and also southeast as far as Cyrenaica to the gulf of Sirte, so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage (Appian, ''Punica'', 106) except towards the sea.", "Furthermore, after the capture of Syphax the king in modern day Morocco with his capital based in Tingis, Bokkar, had become a vassal of Massinissa.", "Massinissa had also penetrated as far south beyond the Atlas to the Gaetuli and Fezzan was part of his domain.In 179 B.C.", "Masinissa had received a golden crown from the inhabitants of Delos as he had offered them a shipload of grain.", "A statue of Masinissa was set up in Delos in honour of him as well as an inscription dedicated to him in Delos by a native from Rhodes.", "His sons too had statues of them erected on the island of Delos and the King of Bithynia, Nicomedes, had also dedicated a statue to Masinissa.After the death of the long-lived Masinissa around 148 BC, he was succeeded by his son Micipsa.", "When Micipsa died in 118 BC, he was succeeded jointly by his two sons Hiempsal I and Adherbal and Masinissa's illegitimate grandson, Jugurtha, who was very popular among the Numidians.", "Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarrelled immediately after the death of Micipsa.", "Jugurtha had Hiempsal killed, which led to open war with Adherbal.Phoenician traders arrived on the North African coast around 900 BC and established Carthage (in present-day Tunisia) around 800 BC.", "During the classical period, Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states.", "Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others.The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars, and in 146 BC, the city of Carthage was destroyed.", "As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew.By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged.", "After that, king Masinissa managed to unify Numidia under his rule." ], [ "Roman empire", "mausoleum of king Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II in TipazaChristianity arrived in the 2nd century.", "By the end of the 4th century, the settled areas had become Christianized, and some Berber tribes had converted en masse.After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Algeria came under the control of the Vandal Kingdom.", "Later, the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire) conquered Algeria from the Vandals, incorporating it into the Praetorian prefecture of Africa and later the Exarchate of Africa." ], [ "Medieval Muslim Algeria", "From the 8th century Umayyad conquest of North Africa led by Musa bin Nusayr, Arab colonization started.", "The 11th century invasion of migrants from the Arabian peninsula brought oriental tribal customs.", "The introduction of Islam and Arabic had a profound impact on North Africa.", "The new religion and language introduced changes in social and economic relations, and established links with the Arab world through acculturation and assimilation.The second Arab military expeditions into the Maghreb, between 642 and 669, resulted in the spread of Islam.", "The Umayyads (a Muslim dynasty based in Damascus from 661 to 750) recognised that the strategic necessity of dominating the Mediterranean dictated a concerted military effort on the North African front.", "By 711 Umayyad forces helped by Berber converts to Islam had conquered all of North Africa.", "In 750 the Abbasids succeeded the Umayyads as Muslim rulers and moved the caliphate to Baghdad.", "Under the Abbasids, Berber Kharijites Sufri Banu Ifran were opposed to Umayyad and Abbasids.", "After, the Rustumids (761–909) actually ruled most of the central Maghrib from Tahirt, southwest of Algiers.", "The imams gained a reputation for honesty, piety, and justice, and the court of Tahirt was noted for its support of scholarship.", "The Rustumid imams failed, however, to organise a reliable standing army, which opened the way for Tahirt's demise under the assault of the Fatimid dynasty.The Fatimids left the rule of most of Algeria to the Zirids and Hammadid (972–1148), a Berber dynasty that centered significant local power in Algeria for the first time, but who were still at war with Banu Ifran (kingdom of Tlemcen) and Maghraoua (942-1068).", "This period was marked by constant conflict, political instability, and economic decline.", "Following a large incursion of Arab Bedouin from Egypt beginning in the first half of the 11th century, the use of Arabic spread to the countryside, and sedentary Berbers were gradually Arabised.The Almoravid (\"those who have made a religious retreat\") movement developed early in the 11th century among the Sanhaja Berbers of southern Morocco.", "The movement's initial impetus was religious, an attempt by a tribal leader to impose moral discipline and strict adherence to Islamic principles on followers.", "But the Almoravid movement shifted to engaging in military conquest after 1054.By 1106, the Almoravids had conquered the Maghreb as far east as Algiers and Morocco, and Spain up to the Ebro River.Like the Almoravids, the Almohads (\"unitarians\") found their inspiration in Islamic reform.", "The Almohads took control of Morocco by 1146, captured Algiers around 1151, and by 1160 had completed the conquest of the central Maghrib.", "The zenith of Almohad power occurred between 1163 and 1199.For the first time, the Maghrib was united under a local regime, but the continuing wars in Spain overtaxed the resources of the Almohads, and in the Maghrib their position was compromised by factional strife and a renewal of tribal warfare.In the central Maghrib, the Abdalwadid founded a dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of Tlemcen in Algeria.", "For more than 300 years, until the region came under Ottoman suzerainty in the 16th century, the Zayanids kept a tenuous hold in the central Maghrib.", "Many coastal cities asserted their autonomy as municipal republics governed by merchant oligarchies, tribal chieftains from the surrounding countryside, or the privateers who operated out of their ports.", "Nonetheless, Tlemcen, the \"pearl of the Maghrib,\" prospered as a commercial center.=== Berber dynasties ===According to historians of the Middle Ages, the Berbers were divided into two branches, both going back to their ancestors Mazigh.", "The two branches, called Botr and Barnès were divided into tribes, and each Maghreb region is made up of several tribes.", "The large Berber tribes or peoples are Sanhaja, Houara, Zenata, Masmuda, Kutama, Awarba, Barghawata ... etc.", "Each tribe is divided into sub tribes.", "All these tribes had independent and territorial decisions.Several Berber dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages: - In North and West Africa, in Spain (al-Andalus), Sicily, Egypt, as well as in the southern part of the Sahara, in modern-day Mali, Niger, and Senegal.", "The medieval historian Ibn Khaldun described the follying Berber dynasties: Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad Caliphate, Marinid, Zayyanid, Wattasid, Meknes, Hafsid dynasty, Fatimids.The invasion of the Banu Hilal Arab tribes in the 11th century sacked Kairouan, and the area under Zirid control was reduced to the coastal region, and the Arab conquests fragmented into petty Bedouin emirates.=== Maghrawa Dynasty ===The Maghrawa or Meghrawa (Arabic: '''المغراويون''') were a large Zenata Berber tribal confederation whose cradle and seat of power was the territory located on the Chlef in the north-western part of today's Algeria, bounded by the Ouarsenis to the south, the Mediterranean Sea to the north and Tlemcen to the west.", "They ruled these areas on behalf of the ''Umayyad'' Caliphate of Cordoba at the end of the 10th century and during the first half of the 11th century.", "The Maghrawa confederation of zanata Berbers supposedly originated in the region of modern Algeria between Tlemcen and Tenes.Lands controlled by the Maghrawa in the first half of the 11th centuryThe confederation of Maghrawa were the majority people of the central Maghreb among the Zenata (Gaetuli).", "Both nomadic and sedentary, the Maghrawa lived under the command of Maghrawa chiefs or Zenata.", "Algiers has been the territory of the Maghrawa since ancient times.", "The name Maghrawa was transcribed into Greek by historians.", "The great kingdom of the Maghrawa was located between Algiers, Cherchell, Ténès, Chlef, Miliana and Médéa.", "The Maghrawa imposed their domination in the Aurès.''when?''", "Chlef and its surroundings were populated by the Maghrawa according to Ibn Khaldun.", "The Maghrawa settled and extended their domination throughout the Dahra and beyond Miliana to the Tafna wadi near Tlemcen,''when?''", "and were found as far away as Mali.", "''citation needed''The Maghrawa were one of the first Berber tribes to submit to Islam in the 7th century.", "They supported Uqba ibn Nafi in his campaign to the Atlantic in 683.They defected from Sunni Islam and became Kharijite Muslims from the 8th century, and allied first with the Idrisids, and, from the 10th century on, with the Umayyads of Córdoba in Al-Andalus.", "As a result, they were caught up in the Umayyad-Fatimid conflict in Morocco and Algeria.", "Although they won a victory over the allies of the Fatimids in 924, they soon allied with them.", "When they switched back to the side of Córdoba, the Zirids briefly took control over most of Morocco, and ruled on behalf of the Fatimids.", "In 976/977 the Maghrawa conquered Sijilmasa from the Banu Midrar, and in 980 were able to drive the Miknasa out of Sijilmasa as well.The Maghrawa reached their peak under Ziri ibn Atiyya (to 1001), who achieved supremacy in Fez under Umayyad suzerainty, and expanded their territory at the expense of the Banu Ifran in the northern Maghreb – another Zenata tribe whose alliances had shifted often between the Fatimids and the Umayyads of Córdoba.", "Ziri ibn Atiyya conquered as much as he could of what is now northern Morocco and was able to achieve supremacy in Fez by 987.In 989 he defeated his enemy, Abu al-Bahār, which resulted in Ziri ruling from Zab to Sous Al-Aqsa, in 991 achieving supremacy in the western Maghreb.", "As a result of his victory he was invited to Córdoba by Ibn Abi 'Amir al-Mansur (also Latinized as Almanzor), the regent of Caliph Hisham II and ''de facto'' ruler of the Caliphate of Córdoba.", "Ziri brought many gifts and Al-Mansur housed him in a lavish palace, but Ziri soon returned to North Africa.", "The Banu Ifran took advantage of his absence and, under Yaddū, managed to capture Fez.", "''full citation needed'' After a bloody struggle, Ziri reconquered Fez in 993 and displayed Yaddū's severed head on its walls.", "''citation needed''A period of peace followed, in which Ziri founded the city of Oujda in 994 and made it his capital.", "However, Ziri was loyal to the Umayyad caliphs in Cordoba and increasingly resented the way that Ibn Abi 'Amir was holding Hisham II captive while progressively usurping his power.", "In 997 Ziri rejected Ibn Abi 'Amir's authority and declared himself a direct supporter of Caliph Hisham II.", "Ibn Abi 'Amir sent an invasion force to Morocco.", "After three unsuccessful months, Ibn Abi 'Amir's army was forced to retreat to the safety of Tangiers, so Ibn Abi 'Amir sent a powerful reinforcements under his son Abd al-Malik.", "''citation needed'' The armies clashed near Tangiers, and in this battle, Ziri was stabbed by an African soldier who reported to Abd al-Malik that he had seriously wounded the Zenata leader.", "Abd al-Malik pressed home the advantage, and the wounded Ziri fled, hotly pursued by the Caliph's army.", "The inhabitants of Fez would not let him enter the city, but opened the gates to Abd al-Malik on 13 October 998.Ziri fled to the Sahara, where he rallied the Zenata tribes and overthrew the unpopular remnants of the Idrisid dynasty at Tiaret.", "He was able to expand his territory to include Tlemcen and other parts of western Algeria, this time under Fatimid protection.", "Ziri died in 1001 of the after-effects of the stab wounds.", "He was succeeded by his son Al-Mu'izz, who made peace with Al-Mansur, and regained possession of all his father's former territories.", "''citation needed''A revolt against the Andalusian Umayyads was put down by Ibn Abi 'Amir, although the Maghrawa were able to regain power in Fez.", "Under the succeeding rulers al-Muizz (1001–1026), Hamman (1026–1039) and Dunas (1039), they consolidated their rule in northern and central Morocco.", "''citation needed''Internal power struggles after 1060 enabled the Almoravid dynasty to conquer the Maghrawa realm in 1070 and put an end to their rule.", "In the mid 11th century the Maghrawa still controlled most of Morocco, notably most of the Sous and Draa River area as well as Aghmat, Fez and Sijilmasa.", "Later, Zenata power declined.", "The Maghrawa and Banu Ifran began oppressing their subjects, shedding their blood, violating their women, breaking into homes to seize food and depriving traders of their goods.", "Anyone who tried to ward them off was killed.=== Zirid Dynasty ===Maximum extent of the Zirid KingdomThe Zirid dynasty (), Banu Ziri (), or the Zirid state () was a Sanhaja Berber dynasty from modern-day Algeria which ruled the central Maghreb from 972 to 1014 and Ifriqiya (eastern Maghreb) from 972 to 1148.Descendants of Ziri ibn Manad, a military leader of the Fatimid Caliphate and the eponymous founder of the dynasty, the Zirids were emirs who ruled in the name of the Fatimids.", "The Zirids gradually established their autonomy in Ifriqiya through military conquest until officially breaking with the Fatimids in the mid-11th century.", "The rule of the Zirid emirs opened the way to a period in North African history where political power was held by Berber dynasties such as the Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Zayyanid dynasty, Marinid Sultanate and Hafsid dynasty.Under Buluggin ibn Ziri the Zirids extended their control westwards and briefly occupied Fez and much of present-day Morocco after 980, but encountered resistance from the local Zenata Berbers who gave their allegiance to the Caliphate of Cordoba.", "To the east, Zirid control was extended over Tripolitania after 978 and as far as Ajdabiya (in present-day Libya).", "One member of the dynastic family, Zawi ibn Ziri, revolted and fled to al-Andalus, eventually founding the Taifa of Granada in 1013, after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba.", "Another branch of the Zirids, the Hammadids, broke away from the main branch after various internal disputes and took control of the territories of the central Maghreb after 1015.The Zirids proper were then designated as Badicides and occupied only Ifriqiya between 1048 and 1148.They were based in Kairouan until 1057, when they moved the capital to Mahdia on the coast.", "The Zirids of Ifriqiya also intervened in Sicily during the 11th century, as the Kalbids, the dynasty who governed the island on behalf of the Fatimids, fell into disorder.The Zirids of Granada surrendered to the Almoravids in 1090, but the Badicides and the Hammadids remained independent during this time.", "Sometime between 1041 and 1051 the Zirid ruler al-Mu'izz ibn Badis renounced the Fatimid Caliphs and recognized the Sunni Muslim Abbasid Caliphate.", "In retaliation, the Fatimids instigated the migration of the Banu Hilal tribe to the Maghreb, dealing a serious blow to Zirid power in Ifriqiya.", "In the 12th century, the Hilalian invasions combined with the attacks of the Normans of Sicily along the coast further weakened Zirid power.", "The last Zirid ruler, al-Hasan, surrendered Mahdia to the Normans in 1148, thus ending independent Zirid rule.", "The Almohad Caliphate conquered the central Maghreb and Ifriqiya by 1160, ending the Hammadid dynasty in turn and finally unifying the whole of the Maghreb.==== Origins and establishment ====The Zirids were Sanhaja Berbers, from the sedentary Talkata tribe, originating from the area of modern Algeria.", "In the 10th century this tribe served as vassals of the Fatimid Caliphate, an Isma'ili Shi'a state that challenged the authority of the Sunni Abbasid caliphs.", "The progenitor of the Zirid dynasty, Ziri ibn Manad (r. 935–971) was installed as governor of the central Maghreb (roughly north-eastern Algeria today) on behalf of the Fatimids, guarding the western frontier of the Fatimid Caliphate.", "With Fatimid support Ziri founded his own capital and palace at 'Ashir, south-east of Algiers, in 936.He proved his worth as a key ally in 945, during the Kharijite rebellion of Abu Yazid, when he helped break Abu Yazid's siege of the Fatimid capital, Mahdia.", "After playing this valuable role, he expanded 'Ashir with a new palace circa 947.In 959 he aided Jawhar al-Siqili on a Fatimid military expedition which successfully conquered Fez and Sijilmasa in present-day Morocco.", "On their return home to the Fatimid capital they paraded the emir of Fez and the “Caliph” Ibn Wasul of Sijilmasa in cages in a humiliating manner.", "After this success, Ziri was also given Tahart to govern on behalf of the Fatimids.", "He was eventually killed in battle against the Zanata in 971.When the Fatimids moved their capital to Egypt in 972, Ziri's son Buluggin ibn Ziri (r. 971–984) was appointed viceroy of Ifriqiya.", "He soon led a new expedition west and by 980 he had conquered Fez and most of Morocco, which had previously been retaken by the Umayyads of Cordoba in 973.He also led a successful expedition to Barghawata territory, from which he brought back a large number of slaves to Ifriqiya.", "In 978 the Fatimids also granted Buluggin overlordship of Tripolitania (in present-day Libya), allowing him to appoint his own governor in Tripoli.", "In 984 Buluggin died in Sijilmasa from an illness and his successor decided to abandon Morocco in 985.==== Buluggin's successors and the first divisions ====After Buluggin's death, rule of the Zirid state passed to his son, Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin (r. 984–996), and continued through his descendants.", "However, this alienated the other sons of Ziri ibn Manad who now found themselves excluded from power.", "In 999 many of these brothers launched a rebellion in 'Ashir against Badis ibn al-Mansur (r. 996–1016), Buluggin's grandson, marking the first serious break in the unity of the Zirids.", "The rebels were defeated in battle by Hammad ibn Buluggin, Badis' uncle, and most of the brothers were killed.", "The only remaining brother of stature, Zawi ibn Ziri, led the remaining rebels westwards and sought new opportunity in al-Andalus under the Umayyads Caliphs of Cordoba, the former enemies of the Fatimids and Zirids.", "He and his followers eventually founded an independent kingdom in al-Andalus, the ''Taifa'' of Granada, in 1013.After 1001 Tripolitania broke away under the leadership of Fulful ibn Sa'id ibn Khazrun, a Maghrawa leader who founded the Banu Khazrun dynasty, which endured until 1147.Fulful fought a protracted war against Badis ibn al-Mansur and sought outside help from the Fatimids and even from the Umayyads of Cordoba, but after his death in 1009 the Zirids were able to retake Tripoli for a time.", "The region nonetheless remained effectively under control of the Banu Khazrun, who fluctuated between practical autonomy and full independence, often playing the Fatimids and the Zirids against each other.", "The Zirids finally lost Tripoli to them in 1022.Badis appointed Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of 'Ashir and the western Zirid territories in 997.He gave Hammad a great deal of autonomy, allowing him to campaign against the Zanata and control any new territories he conquered.", "Hammad constructed his own capital, the Qal'at Bani Hammad, in 1008, and in 1015 he rebelled against Badis and declared himself independent altogether, while also recognizing the Abbasids instead of the Fatimids as caliphs.", "Badis besieged Hammad's capital and nearly subdued him, but died in 1016 shortly before this could be accomplished.", "His son and successor, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062), defeated Hammad in 1017, which forced the negotiation of a peace agreement between them.", "Hammad resumed his recognition of the Fatimids as caliphs but remained independent, forging a new Hammadid state which controlled a large part of present-day Algeria thereafter.==== Apogee in Ifriqiya ====The Zirid period of Ifriqiya is considered a high point in its history, with agriculture, industry, trade and learning, both religious and secular, all flourishing, especially in their capital, Qayrawan (Kairouan).", "The early reign of al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062) was particularly prosperous and marked the height of their power in Ifriqiya.", "In the eleventh century, when the question of Berber origin became a concern, the dynasty of al-Mu'izz started, as part of the Zirids' propaganda, to emphasize its supposed links to the Himyarite kings as a title to nobility, a theme that was taken the by court historians of the period.", "Management of the area by later Zirid rulers was neglectful as the agricultural economy declined, prompting an increase in banditry among the rural population.", "The relationship between the Zirids their Fatimid overlords varied - in 1016 thousands of Shiites died in rebellions in Ifriqiya, and the Fatimids encouraged the defection of Tripolitania from the Zirids, but nevertheless the relationship remained close.", "In 1049 the Zirids broke away completely by adopting Sunni Islam and recognizing the Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs, a move which was popular with the urban Arabs of Kairouan.In Sicily the Kalbids continued to govern on behalf of the Fatimids but the island descended into political disarray during the 11th century, inciting the Zirids to intervene on the island.", "In 1025 (or 1021), al-Mu'izz ibn Badis sent a fleet of 400 ships to the island in response to the Byzantines reconquering Calabria (in southern Italy) from the Muslims, but the fleet was lost in a powerful storm off the coast of Pantelleria.", "In 1036, the Muslim population of the island request aid from al-Mu'izz to overthrow the Kalbid emir Ahmad ibn Yusuf al-Akhal, whose rule they considered flawed and unjust.", "The request also contained a pledge to recognize al-Mu'izz as their ruler.", "Al-Mu'izz, eager to expand his influence after the fragmentation of Zirid North Africa, accepted and sent his son, 'Abdallah, to the island with a large army.", "Al-Akhal, who had been in negotiations with the Byzantines, requested help from them.", "A Byzantine army intervened and defeated the Zirid army on the island, but it then withdrew to Calabria, allowing 'Abdallah to finish off al-Akhal.", "Al-Akhal was besieged in Palermo and killed in 1038.", "'Abdallah was subsequently forced to withdraw from the island, either due to the ever-divided Sicilians turning against him or due to another Byzantine invasion in 1038, led by George Maniakes.", "Another Kalbid amir, al-Hasan al-Samsam, was elected to govern Sicily, but Muslim rule there disintegrated into various petty factions leading up to the Norman conquest of the island in the second half of the 11th century.==== Hilalian invasions and withdrawal to Mahdia ====The Zirids renounced the Fatimids and recognized the Abbasid Caliphs in 1048-49, or sometime between 1041 and 1051.In retaliation, the Fatimids sent the Arab tribes of the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym to the Maghreb.", "The Banu Sulaym settled first in Cyrenaica, but the Banu Hilal continued towards Ifriqiya.", "The Zirids attempted to stop their advance towards Ifriqiya, they sent 30,000 Sanhaja cavalry to meet the 3,000 Arab cavalry of Banu Hilal in the Battle of Haydaran of 14 April 1052.Nevertheless, the Zirids were decisively defeated and were forced to retreat, opening the road to Kairouan for the Hilalian Arab cavalry.", "The resulting anarchy devastated the previously flourishing agriculture, and the coastal towns assumed a new importance as conduits for maritime trade and bases for piracy against Christian shipping, as well as being the last holdout of the Zirids.", "The Banu Hilal invasions eventually forced al-Mu'izz ibn Badis to abandon Kairouan in 1057 and move his capital to Mahdia, while the Banu Hilal largely roamed and pillaged the interior of the former Zirid territories.As a result of the Zirid withdrawal, various local principalities emerged in different areas.", "In Tunis, the shaykhs of the city elected Abd al-Haqq ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Khurasan (r. 1059-1095) as local ruler.", "He founded the local Banu Khurasan dynasty that governed the city thereafter, alternately recognizing the Hammadids or the Zirids as overlords depending on the circumstances.", "In Qabis (Gabès), the Zirid governor, al-Mu'izz ibn Muhammad ibn Walmiya remained loyal until 1062 when, outraged by the expulsion of his two brothers from Mahdia by al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, he declared his independence and placed himself under the protection of Mu'nis ibn Yahya, a chief of Banu Hilal.", "Sfaqus (Sfax) was declared independent by the Zirid governor, Mansur al-Barghawati, who was murdered and succeeded by his cousin Hammu ibn Malil al-Barghawati.Al-Mui'zz ibn Badis was succeeded by his son, Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz (r. 1062-1108), who spent much of his reign attempting to restore Zirid power in the region.", "In 1063 he repelled a siege of Mahdia by the independent ruler of Sfax while also capturing the important port of Sus (Sousse).", "Meanwhile, the Hammadid ruler al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) began to intervene in Ifriqiya around this time, having his sovereignty recognized in Sfax, Tunis, and Kairouan.", "Tamim organized a coalition with some of the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes and succeeded in inflicting a heavy defeat on al-Nasir at the Battle of Sabiba in 1065.The war between the Zirids and Hammadids continued until 1077, when a truce was negotiated, sealed by a marriage between Tamim and one of al-Nasir's daughters.", "In 1074 Tamim sent a naval expedition to Calabria where they ravaged the Italian coasts, plundered Nicotera and enslaved many of its inhabitants.", "The next year (1075) another Zirid raid resulted in the capture of Mazara in Sicily; however, the Zirid emir rethought his involvement in Sicily and decided to withdraw, abandoning what they had briefly held.", "In 1087, the Zirid capital, Mahdia, was sacked by the Pisans.", "According to Ettinghausen, Grabar, and Jenkins-Madina, the Pisa Griffin is believed to have been part of the spoils taken during the sack.", "In 1083 Mahdia was besieged by a chief of the Banu Hilal, Malik ibn 'Alawi.", "Unable to take the city, Malik instead turned to Kairouan and captured that city, but Tamim marched out with his entire army and defeated the Banu Hilal forces, at which point he also brought Kairouan back under Zirid control.", "He went on to capture Gabès in 1097 and Sfax in 1100.Gabès, however, soon declared itself independent again under the leadership of the Banu Jami', a family from the Riyahi branch of the Banu Hilal.Tamim's son and successor, Yahya ibn Tamim (r. 1108-1116), formally recognized the Fatimid caliphs again and received an emissary from Cairo in 1111.He captured an important fortress near Carthage called Iqlibiya and his fleet launched raids against Sardinia and Genoa, bringing back many captives.", "He was assassinated in 1116 and succeeded by his son, 'Ali ibn Yahya (r. 1116-1121).", "'Ali continued to recognize the Fatimids, receiving another embassy from Cairo in 1118.He imposed his authority on Tunis, but failed to recapture Gabès from its local ruler, Rafi' ibn Jami', whose counterattack he then had to repel from Mahdia.", "He was succeeded by his son al-Hasan in 1121, the last Zirid ruler.==== End of Zirid rule ====During the 1130s and 1140s the Normans of Sicily began to capture cities and islands along the coast of Ifriqiya.", "Jerba was captured in 1135 and Tripoli was captured in 1146.In 1148, the Normans captured Sfax, Gabès, and Mahdia.", "In Mahdia, the population was weakened by years of famine and the bulk of the Zirid army was away on another campaign when the Norman fleet, commanded by George of Antioch, arrived off the coast.", "Al-Hasan decided to abandon the city, leaving it to be occupied, which effectively ended the Zirid dynasty's rule.", "Al-Hasan fled to the citadel of al-Mu'allaqa near Carthage and stayed there for a several months.", "He planned to flee to the Fatimid court in Egypt but the Norman fleet blocked his way, so instead he headed west, making for the Almohad court of 'Abd al-Mu'min in Marrakesh.", "He obtained permission from Yahya ibn al-'Aziz, the Hammadid ruler, to cross his territory, but after entering Hammadid territory he was detained and placed under house arrest in Algiers.", "When 'Abd al-Mu'min captured Algiers in 1151, he freed al-Hasan, who accompanied him back to Marrakesh.", "Later, when 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Mahdia in 1160, placing all of Ifriqiya under Almohad rule, al-Hasan was with him.", "'Abd al-Mu'min appointed him governor of Mahdia, where he remained, residing in the suburb of Zawila, until 'Abd al-Mu'min's death in 1163.The new Almohad caliph, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf, subsequently ordered him to come back to Marrakesh, but al-Hasan died along the way in Tamasna in 1167.=== Hammadid Dynasty ===Hammadid territory circa 1050 (in green), and extended territories (dotted line) controlled in certain periodsThe Hammadid dynasty (Arabic: الحمّاديون) was a branch of the Sanhaja Berber dynasty that ruled an area roughly corresponding to north-eastern modern Algeria between 1008 and 1152.The state reached its peak under Nasir ibn Alnas during which it was briefly the most important state in Northwest Africa.The Hammadid dynasty's first capital was at Qalaat Beni Hammad.", "It was founded in 1007, and is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "When the area was sacked by the Banu Hilal tribe, the Hammadids moved their capital to Béjaïa in 1090.=== Almohad Caliphate ===The Almohad Caliphate (; or or from) was a North African Berber Muslim empire founded in the 12th century.", "At its height, it controlled muchof the Iberian Peninsula (Al Andalus) and North Africa (the Maghreb).The Almohad docrtine was founded by Ibn Tumart among the Berber Masmuda tribes, but the Almohad caliphate and its ruling dynasty were founded after his death by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi, which was born in the Hammadid region of Tlemcen, Algeria.", "Around 1120, Ibn Tumart first established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains.", "Under Abd al-Mu'min (r. 1130–1163) they succeeded in overthrowing the ruling Almoravid dynasty governing Morocco in 1147, when he conquered Marrakesh and declared himself caliph.", "They then extended their power over all of the Maghreb by 1159.Al-Andalus soon followed, and all of Muslim Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172.The turning point of their presence in the Iberian Peninsula came in 1212, when Muhammad III, \"al-Nasir\" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian forces from Castile, Aragon and Navarre.", "Much of the remaining territories of al-Andalus were lost in the ensuing decades, with the cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.The Almohads continued to rule in Africa until the piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, the Marinids, from northern Morocco in 1215.The last representative of the line, Idris al-Wathiq, was reduced to the possession of Marrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the Western Maghreb.==== Origins ====Statue of Abd al Mumin in Tlemcen, AlgeriaThe Almohad movement originated with Ibn Tumart, a member of the Masmuda, a Berber tribal confederation of the Atlas Mountains of southern Morocco.", "At the time, Morocco, western Algeria and Spain (al-Andalus), were under the rule of the Almoravids, a Sanhaja Berber dynasty.", "Early in his life, Ibn Tumart went to Spain to pursue his studies, and thereafter to Baghdad to deepen them.", "In Baghdad, Ibn Tumart attached himself to the theological school of al-Ash'ari, and came under the influence of the teacher al-Ghazali.", "He soon developed his own system, combining the doctrines of various masters.", "Ibn Tumart's main principle was a strict unitarianism (''tawhid''), which denied the independent existence of the attributes of God as being incompatible with His unity, and therefore a polytheistic idea.", "Ibn Tumart represented a revolt against what he perceived as anthropomorphism in Muslim orthodoxy.", "His followers would become known as the ''al-Muwaḥḥidūn'' (\"Almohads\"), meaning those who affirm the unity of God.After his return to the Maghreb c. 1117, Ibn Tumart spent some time in various Ifriqiyan cities, preaching and agitating, heading riotous attacks on wine-shops and on other manifestations of laxity.", "He laid the blame for the latitude on the ruling dynasty of the Almoravids, whom he accused of obscurantism and impiety.", "He also opposed their sponsorship of the Maliki school of jurisprudence, which drew upon consensus (''ijma'') and other sources beyond the Qur'an and Sunnah in their reasoning, an anathema to the stricter Zahirism favored by Ibn Tumart.", "His antics and fiery preaching led fed-up authorities to move him along from town to town.", "After being expelled from Bejaia, Ibn Tumart set up camp in Mellala, in the outskirts of the city, where he received his first disciples – notably, al-Bashir (who would become his chief strategist) and Abd al-Mu'min (a Zenata Berber, who would later become his successor).In 1120, Ibn Tumart and his small band of followers proceeded to Morocco, stopping first in Fez, where he briefly engaged the Maliki scholars of the city in debate.", "He even went so far as to assault the sister of the Almoravid emir ʿAli ibn Yusuf, in the streets of Fez, because she was going about unveiled, after the manner of Berber women.", "After being expelled from Fez, he went to Marrakesh, where he successfully tracked down the Almoravid emir Ali ibn Yusuf at a local mosque, and challenged the emir, and the leading scholars of the area, to a doctrinal debate.", "After the debate, the scholars concluded that Ibn Tumart's views were blasphemous and the man dangerous, and urged him to be put to death or imprisoned.", "But the emir decided merely to expel him from the city.Ibn Tumart took refuge among his own people, the Hargha, in his home village of Igiliz (exact location uncertain), in the Sous valley.", "He retreated to a nearby cave, and lived out an ascetic lifestyle, coming out only to preach his program of puritan reform, attracting greater and greater crowds.", "At length, towards the end of Ramadan in late 1121, after a particularly moving sermon, reviewing his failure to persuade the Almoravids to reform by argument, Ibn Tumart 'revealed' himself as the true Mahdi, a divinely guided judge and lawgiver, and was recognized as such by his audience.", "This was effectively a declaration of war on the Almoravid state.On the advice of one of his followers, Omar Hintati, a prominent chieftain of the Hintata, Ibn Tumart abandoned his cave in 1122 and went up into the High Atlas, to organize the Almohad movement among the highland Masmuda tribes.", "Besides his own tribe, the Hargha, Ibn Tumart secured the adherence of the Ganfisa, the Gadmiwa, the Hintata, the Haskura, and the Hazraja to the Almohad cause.", "Around 1124, Ibn Tumart erected the ribat of Tinmel, in the valley of the Nfis in the High Atlas, an impregnable fortified complex, which would serve both as the spiritual center and military headquarters of the Almohad movement.For the first eight years, the Almohad rebellion was limited to a guerilla war along the peaks and ravines of the High Atlas.", "Their principal damage was in rendering insecure (or altogether impassable) the roads and mountain passes south of Marrakesh – threatening the route to all-important Sijilmassa, the gateway of the trans-Saharan trade.", "Unable to send enough manpower through the narrow passes to dislodge the Almohad rebels from their easily defended mountain strong points, the Almoravid authorities reconciled themselves to setting up strongholds to confine them there (most famously the fortress of Tasghîmût that protected the approach to Aghmat, which was conquered by the Almohads in 1132), while exploring alternative routes through more easterly passes.Ibn Tumart organized the Almohads as a commune, with a minutely detailed structure.", "At the core was the ''Ahl ad-dār'' (\"House of the Mahdi:), composed of Ibn Tumart's family.", "This was supplemented by two councils: an inner Council of Ten, the Mahdi's privy council, composed of his earliest and closest companions; and the consultative Council of Fifty, composed of the leading ''sheikh''s of the Masmuda tribes.", "The early preachers and missionaries (''ṭalaba'' and ''huffāẓ'') also had their representatives.", "Militarily, there was a strict hierarchy of units.", "The Hargha tribe coming first (although not strictly ethnic; it included many \"honorary\" or \"adopted\" tribesmen from other ethnicities, e.g.", "Abd al-Mu'min himself).", "This was followed by the men of Tinmel, then the other Masmuda tribes in order, and rounded off by the black fighters, the ''ʻabīd''.", "Each unit had a strict internal hierarchy, headed by a ''mohtasib'', and divided into two factions: one for the early adherents, another for the late adherents, each headed by a ''mizwar'' (or ''amzwaru''); then came the ''sakkakin'' (treasurers), effectively the money-minters, tax-collectors, and bursars, then came the regular army (''jund''), then the religious corps – the muezzins, the ''hafidh'' and the ''hizb'' – followed by the archers, the conscripts, and the slaves.", "Ibn Tumart's closest companion and chief strategist, al-Bashir, took upon himself the role of \"political commissar\", enforcing doctrinal discipline among the Masmuda tribesmen, often with a heavy hand.Phases of the expansion of the Almohad stateIn early 1130, the Almohads finally descended from the mountains for their first sizeable attack in the lowlands.", "It was a disaster.", "The Almohads swept aside an Almoravid column that had come out to meet them before Aghmat, and then chased their remnant all the way to Marrakesh.", "They laid siege to Marrakesh for forty days until, in April (or May) 1130, the Almoravids sallied from the city and crushed the Almohads in the bloody Battle of al-Buhayra (named after a large garden east of the city).", "The Almohads were thoroughly routed, with huge losses.", "Half their leadership was killed in action, and the survivors only just managed to scramble back to the mountains.Ibn Tumart died shortly after, in August 1130.That the Almohad movement did not immediately collapse after such a devastating defeat and the death of their charismatic Mahdi, is likely due to the skills of his successor, Abd al-Mu'min.", "Ibn Tumart's death was kept a secret for three years, a period which Almohad chroniclers described as a ''ghayba'' or \"occultation\".", "This period likely gave Abd al-Mu'min time to secure his position as successor to the political leadership of the movement.", "Although a Zenata Berber from Tagra (Algeria), and thus an alien among the Masmuda of southern Morocco, Abd al-Mu'min nonetheless saw off his principal rivals and hammered wavering tribes back to the fold.", "In an ostentatious gesture of defiance, in 1132, if only to remind the emir that the Almohads were not finished, Abd al-Mu'min led an audacious night operation that seized Tasghîmût fortress and dismantled it thoroughly, carting off its great gates back to Tinmel.", "Three years after Ibn Tumart's death he was officially proclaimed \"Caliph\".In order to neutralise the Masmudas, to whom he was a stranger, Abd al-Mumin relied on his tribe of origin, the Kumiyas (a Berber tribe from Orania), which he integrated massively into the army and within the Almohad power.", "He thus appointed his son as his successor and his other children as governors of the provinces of the Caliphate.", "The Kumiyas would later form the bodyguard of Abd al Mumin and his successor.", "In addition, he also relied on Arabs, representatives of the great Hilalian families, whom he deported to Morocco to weaken the influence of the Masmuda sheikhs.", "These moves have the effect of advancing the Arabisation of the future Morocco.Almohad dynasty and surrounding states, c. 1200.==== Al-Andalus ====Abd al-Mu'min then came forward as the lieutenant of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart.", "Between 1130 and his death in 1163, Abd al-Mu'min not only rooted out the Almoravids, but extended his power over all northern Africa as far as Egypt, becoming amir of Marrakesh in 1147.Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa.", "Between 1146 and 1173, the Almohads gradually wrested control from the Almoravids over the Moorish principalities in Iberia.", "The Almohads transferred the capital of Muslim Iberia from Córdoba to Seville.", "They founded a great mosque there; its tower, the Giralda, was erected in 1184 to mark the accession of Ya'qub I.", "The Almohads also built a palace there called Al-Muwarak on the site of the modern day Alcázar of Seville.The Almohads transferred the capital of Al-Andalus to Seville.The Almohad princes had a longer and more distinguished career than the Almoravids.", "The successors of Abd al-Mumin, Abu Yaqub Yusuf (Yusuf I, ruled 1163–1184) and Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur (Yaʻqūb I, ruled 1184–1199), were both able men.", "Initially their government drove many Jewish and Christian subjects to take refuge in the growing Christian states of Portugal, Castile, and Aragon.", "Ultimately they became less fanatical than the Almoravids, and Ya'qub al-Mansur was a highly accomplished man who wrote a good Arabic style and protected the philosopher Averroes.", "In 1190–1191, he campaigned in southern Portugal and won back territory lost in 1189.His title of \"''al-Manṣūr''\" (\"the Victorious\") was earned by his victory over Alfonso VIII of Castile in the Battle of Alarcos (1195).From the time of Yusuf II, however, the Almohads governed their co-religionists in Iberia and central North Africa through lieutenants, their dominions outside Morocco being treated as provinces.", "When Almohad emirs crossed the Straits it was to lead a jihad against the Christians and then return to Morocco.==== Holding years ====Coin minted during the reign of Abu Yaqub YusufIn 1212, the Almohad Caliph Muhammad 'al-Nasir' (1199–1214), the successor of al-Mansur, after an initially successful advance north, was defeated by an alliance of the four Christian kings of Castile, Aragón, Navarre, and Portugal, at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena.", "The battle broke the Almohad advance, but the Christian powers remained too disorganized to profit from it immediately.Before his death in 1213, al-Nasir appointed his young ten-year-old son as the next caliph Yusuf II \"al-Mustansir\".", "The Almohads passed through a period of effective regency for the young caliph, with power exercised by an oligarchy of elder family members, palace bureaucrats and leading nobles.", "The Almohad ministers were careful to negotiate a series of truces with the Christian kingdoms, which remained more-or-less in place for next fifteen years (the loss of Alcácer do Sal to the Kingdom of Portugal in 1217 was an exception).In early 1224, the youthful caliph died in an accident, without any heirs.", "The palace bureaucrats in Marrakesh, led by the ''wazir'' Uthman ibn Jam'i, quickly engineered the election of his elderly grand-uncle, Abd al-Wahid I 'al-Makhlu', as the new Almohad caliph.", "But the rapid appointment upset other branches of the family, notably the brothers of the late al-Nasir, who governed in al-Andalus.", "The challenge was immediately raised by one of them, then governor in Murcia, who declared himself Caliph Abdallah al-Adil.", "With the help of his brothers, he quickly seized control of al-Andalus.", "His chief advisor, the shadowy Abu Zayd ibn Yujjan, tapped into his contacts in Marrakesh, and secured the deposition and assassination of Abd al-Wahid I, and the expulsion of the al-Jami'i clan.This coup has been characterized as the pebble that finally broke al-Andalus.", "It was the first internal coup among the Almohads.", "The Almohad clan, despite occasional disagreements, had always remained tightly knit and loyally behind dynastic precedence.", "Caliph al-Adil's murderous breach of dynastic and constitutional propriety marred his acceptability to other Almohad ''sheikhs''.", "One of the recusants was his cousin, Abd Allah al-Bayyasi (\"the Baezan\"), the Almohad governor of Jaén, who took a handful of followers and decamped for the hills around Baeza.", "He set up a rebel camp and forged an alliance with the hitherto quiet Ferdinand III of Castile.", "Sensing his greater priority was Marrakesh, where recusant Almohad ''sheikh''s had rallied behind Yahya, another son of al-Nasir, al-Adil paid little attention to this little band of misfits.=== Zayyanid Dynasty ===Coin of the Hafsids with ornemental Kufic, Bougie, Algeria, 1249–1276.The kingdom of Tlemcen at the beginning of the 14th century.The Kingdom of Tlemcen or Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen () was a Berber kingdom in what is now the northwest of Algeria.", "Its territory stretched from Tlemcen to the Chelif bend and Algiers, and at its zenith reached Sijilmasa and the Moulouya River in the west, Tuat to the south and the Soummam in the east.The Tlemcen Kingdom was established after the demise of the Almohad Caliphate in 1236, and later fell under Ottoman rule in 1554.It was ruled by sultans of the Zayyanid dynasty.", "The capital of the Tlemcen kingdom centred on Tlemcen, which lay on the primary east–west route between Morocco and Ifriqiya.", "The kingdom was situated between the realm of the Marinids the west, centred on Fez, and the Hafsids to the east, centred on Tunis.Tlemcen was a hub for the north–south trade route from Oran on the Mediterranean coast to the Western Sudan.", "As a prosperous trading centre, it attracted its more powerful neighbours.", "At different times the kingdom was invaded and occupied by the Marinids from the west, by the Hafsids from the east, and by Aragonese from the north.", "At other times, they were able to take advantage of turmoil among their neighbours: during the reign of Abu Tashfin I (r. 1318–1337) the Zayyanids occupied Tunis and in 1423, under the reign of Abu Malek, they briefly captured Fez.", "In the south the Zayyanid realm included Tuat, Tamentit and the Draa region which was governed by Abdallah Ibn Moslem ez Zerdali, a sheikh of the Zayyanids.==== Rise to power (13th century) ====The ''Bānu ʿabd āl-Wād'', also called the ''Bānu Ziyān'' or Zayyanids after Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan, the founder of the dynasty, were leaders of a Berber group who had long been settled in the Central Maghreb.", "Although contemporary chroniclers asserted that they had a noble Arab origin, he reportedly spoke in Zenati dialect and denied the lineage that genealogists had attributed to him.", "The town of Tlemcen, called Pomaria by the Romans, is about 806m above sea level in fertile, well-watered country.Tlemcen was an important centre under the Almoravid dynasty and its successors the Almohad Caliphate, who began a new wall around the town in 1161.Yaghmurasen ibn Zayyan (1235–83) of the ''Bānu ʿabd āl-Wād'' was governor of Tlemcen under the Almohads.", "He inherited leadership of the family from his brother in 1235.When the Almohad empire began to fall apart, in 1235, Yaghmurasen declared his independence.", "The city of Tlemcen became the capital of one of three successor states, ruled for centuries by successive Ziyyanid sultans.", "Its flag was a white crescent pointing upwards on a blue field.", "The kingdom covered the less fertile regions of the Tell Atlas.", "Its people included a minority of settled farmers and villagers, and a majority of nomadic herders.Yaghmurasen was able to maintain control over the rival Berber groups, and when faced with the outside threat of the Marinid dynasty, he formed an alliance with the Emir of Granada and the King of Castile, Alfonso X.", "According to Ibn Khaldun, \"he was the bravest, most dreaded and honourable man of the 'Abd-la-Wadid family.", "No one looked after the interest of his people, maintained the influence of the kingdom and managed the state administration better than he did.\"", "In 1248 he defeated the Almohad Caliph in the Battle of Oujda during which the Almohad Caliph was killed.", "In 1264 he managed to conquer Sijilmasa, therefore bringing Sijilmasa and Tlemcen, the two most important outlets for trans-Saharan trade under one authority.", "Sijilmasa remained under his control for 11 years.", "Before his death he instructed his son and heir Uthman to remain on the defensive with the Marinid kingdom, but to expand into Hafsid territory if possible.==== 14th century ====For most of its history the kingdom was on the defensive, threatened by stronger states to the east and the west.", "The nomadic Arabs to the south also took advantage of the frequent periods of weakness to raid the centre and take control of pastures in the south.The city of Tlemcen was several times attacked or besieged by the Marinids, and large parts of the kingdom were occupied by them for several decades in the fourteenth century.Mansura Mosque, begun by the Marinids in 1303 during their siege of TlemcenThe Marinid Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr besieged Tlemcen from 1299 to 1307.During the siege he built a new town, al-Mansura, diverting most of the trade to this town.", "The new city was fortified and had a mosque, baths and palaces.", "The siege was raised when Abu Yakub was murdered in his sleep by one of his eunuchs.When the Marinids left in 1307, the Zayyanids promptly destroyed al-Mansura.", "The Zayyanid king Abu Zayyan I died in 1308 and was succeeded by Abu Hammu I (r. 1308–1318).", "Abu Hammu was later killed in a conspiracy instigated by his son and heir Abu Tashufin I (r. 1318–1337).", "The reigns of Abu Hammu I and Abu Tashufin I marked the second apogee of the Zayyanids, a period during which they consolidated their hegemony in the central Maghreb.", "Tlemcen recovered its trade and its population grew, reaching about 100,000 by around the 1330s.", "Abu Tashufin initiated hostilities against Ifriqiya while the Marinids were distracted by their internal struggles.", "He besieged Béjaïa and sent an army into Tunisia that defeated the Hafsid king Abu Yahya Abu Bakr II, who fled to Constantine while the Zayyanids occupied Tunis in 1325.The Marinid sultan Abu al-Hasan (r. 1331–1348) cemented an alliance with Hafsids by marrying a Hafsid princess.", "Upon being attacked by the Zayyanids again, the Hafsids appealed to Abu al-Hasan for help, providing him with an excuse to invade his neighbour.", "The Marinid sultan initiated a siege of Tlemcen in 1335 and the city fell in 1337.Abu Tashufin died during the fighting.", "Abu al-Hasan received delegates from Egypt, Granada, Tunis and Mali congratulating him on his victory, by which he had gained complete control of the trans-Saharan trade.", "In 1346 the Hafsid Sultan, Abu Bakr, died and a dispute over the succession ensued.", "In 1347 Abu al-Hasan annexed Ifriqiya, briefly reuniting the Maghrib territories as they had been under the Almohads.However, Abu al-Hasan went too far in attempting to impose more authority over the Arab tribes, who revolted and in April 1348 defeated his army near Kairouan.", "His son, Abu Inan Faris, who had been serving as governor of Tlemcen, returned to Fez and declared that he was sultan.", "Tlemcen and the central Maghreb revolted.", "The Zayyanid Abu Thabit I (1348-1352) was proclaimed king of Tlemcen.", "Abu al-Hasan had to return from Ifriqiya by sea.", "After failing to retake Tlemcen and being defeated by his son, Abu al-Hasan died in May 1351.In 1352 Abu Inan Faris recaptured Tlemcen.", "He also reconquered the central Maghreb.", "He took Béjaïa in 1353 and Tunis in 1357, becoming master of Ifriqiya.", "In 1358 he was forced to return to Fez due to Arab opposition, where he fell sick and was killed.The Zayyanid king Abu Hammu Musa II (r. 1359–1389) next took the throne of Tlemcen.", "He pursued an expansionist policy, pushing towards Fez in the west and into the Chelif valley and Béjaïa in the east.", "He had a long reign punctuated by fighting against the Marinids or various rebel groups.", "The Marinids reoccupied Tlemcen in 1360 and in 1370.In both cases, the Marinids found they were unable to hold the region against local resistance.", "Abu Hammu attacked the Hafsids in Béjaïa again in 1366, but this resulted in Hafsid intervention in the kingdom's affairs.", "The Hafsid sultan released Abu Hammu's cousin, Abu Zayyan, and helped him in laying claim to the Zayyanid throne.", "This provoked an internecine war between the two Zayyanids until 1378, when Abu Hammu finally captured Abu Zayyan in Algiers.The historian Ibn Khaldun lived in Tlemcen for a period during the generally prosperous reign of Abu Hammu Musa II, and helped him in negotiations with the nomadic Arabs.", "He said of this period, \"Here in Tlemcen science and arts developed with success; here were born scholars and outstanding men, whose glory penetrated into other countries.\"", "Abu Hammu was deposed by his son, Abu Tashfin II (1389–94), and the state went into decline.==== Decline (late 14th and 15th centuries) ====A man of TlemcenIn the late 14th century and the 15th century, the state was increasingly weak and became intermittently a vassal of Hafsid Ifriqiya, Marinid Morocco or the Crown of Aragon.", "In 1386 Abu Hammu moved his capital to Algiers, which he judged less vulnerable, but a year later his son, Abu Tashufin, overthrew him and took him prisoner.", "Abu Hammu was sent on a ship towards Alexandria but he escaped along the way when the ship stopped in Tunis.", "In 1388 he recaptured Tlemcen, forcing his son to flee.", "Abu Tashufin sought refuge in Fez and enlisted the aid of the Marinids, who sent an army to occupy Tlemcen and reinstall him on the throne.", "As a result, Abu Tashufin and his successors recognized the suzerainty of the Marinids and paid them an annual tribute.During the reign of the Marinid sultan Abu Sa'id, the Zayyanids rebelled on several occasions and Abu Sa'id had to reassert his authority.", "After Abu Sa'id's death in 1420 the Marinids were plunged into political turmoil.", "The Zayyanid emir, Abu Malek, used this opportunity to throw off Marinid authority and captured Fez in 1423.Abu Malek installed Muhammad, a Marinid prince, as a Zayyanid vassal in Fez.", "The Wattasids, a family related to the Marinids, continued to govern from Salé, where they proclaimed Abd al-Haqq II, an infant, as the successor to the Marinid throne, with Abu Zakariyya al-Wattasi as regent.", "The Hafsid sultan, Abd al-Aziz II, reacted to Abu Malek's rising influence by sending military expeditions westward, installing his own Zayyanid client king (Abu Abdallah II) in Tlemcen and pursuing Abu Malek to Fez.", "Abu Malek's Marinid puppet, Muhammad, was deposed and the Wattasids returned with Abd al-Haqq II to Fez, acknowledging Hafsid suzerainty.", "The Zayyanids remained vassals of the Hafsids until the end of the 15th century, when the Spanish expansion along the coast weakened the rule of both dynasties.By the end of the 15th century the Kingdom of Aragon had gained effective political control, intervening in the dynastic disputes of the amirs of Tlemcen, whose authority had shrunk to the town and its immediate neighbourship.", "When the Spanish took the city of Oran from the kingdom in 1509, continuous pressure from the Berbers prompted the Spanish to attempt a counterattack against the city of Tlemcen (1543), which was deemed by the Papacy to be a crusade.", "The Spanish under Martin of Angulo had also suffered a prior defeat in 1535 when they attempted to install a client ruler in Tlemcen.", "The Spanish failed to take the city in the first attack, but the strategic vulnerability of Tlemcen caused the kingdom's weight to shift toward the safer and more heavily fortified corsair base at Algiers.Tlemcen was captured in 1551 by the Ottoman Empire under Hassan Pasha.", "The last Zayyanid sultan's son escaped to Oran, then a Spanish possession.", "He was baptized and lived a quiet life as Don Carlos at the court of Philip II of Spain.Under the Ottoman Empire Tlemcen quickly lost its former importance, becoming a sleepy provincial town.", "The failure of the kingdom to become a powerful state can be explained by the lack of geographical or cultural unity, the constant internal disputes and the reliance on irregular Arab-Berber nomads for the military.=== Kingdom of Beni Abbas ===Kingdom of Beni Abbas in the 16th century during the reign of Ahmed Amokrane=== Kingdom of Kuku ===Kingdom of Kuku (blue) just east of Algiers=== Christian conquest of Spain ===The final triumph of the 700-year Christian conquest of Spain was marked by the fall of Granada in 1492.Christian Spain imposed its influence on the Maghrib coast by constructing fortified outposts and collecting tribute.", "But Spain never sought to extend its North African conquests much beyond a few modest enclaves.", "Privateering was an age-old practice in the Mediterranean, and North African rulers engaged in it increasingly in the late 16th and early 17th centuries because it was so lucrative.", "Until the 17th century the Barbary pirates used galleys, but a Dutch renegade of the name of Zymen Danseker taught them the advantage of using sailing ships.Algeria became the privateering city-state par excellence, and two privateer brothers were instrumental in extending Ottoman influence in Algeria.", "At about the time Spain was establishing its presidios in the Maghrib, the Muslim privateer brothers Aruj and Khair ad Din—the latter known to Europeans as Barbarossa, or Red Beard—were operating successfully off Tunisia.", "In 1516 Aruj moved his base of operations to Algiers but was killed in 1518.Khair ad Din succeeded him as military commander of Algiers, and the Ottoman sultan gave him the title of beglerbey (provincial governor).=== Spanish enclaves ===The Spanish expansionist policy in North Africa began with the Catholic Monarchs and the regent Cisneros, once the ''Reconquista'' in the Iberian Peninsula was finished.", "That way, several towns and outposts in the Algerian coast were conquered and occupied: Mers El Kébir (1505), Oran (1509), Algiers (1510) and Bugia (1510).", "The Spanish conquest of Oran was won with much bloodshed: 4,000 Algerians were massacred, and up to 8,000 were taken prisoner.", "For about 200 years, Oran's inhabitants were virtually held captive in their fortress walls, ravaged by famine and plague; Spanish soldiers, too, were irregularly fed and paid.The Spaniards left Algiers in 1529, Bujia in 1554, Mers El Kébir and Oran in 1708.The Spanish returned in 1732 when the armada of the Duke of Montemar was victorious in the Battle of Aïn-el-Turk and retook Oran and Mers El Kébir; the Spanish massacred many Muslim soldiers.", "In 1751, a Spanish adventurer, named John Gascon, obtained permission, and vessels and fireworks, to go against Algiers, and set fire, at night, to the Algerian fleet.", "The plan, however, miscarried.", "In 1775, Charles III of Spain sent a large force to attack Algiers, under the command of Alejandro O'Reilly (who had led Spanish forces in crushing French rebellion in Louisiana), resulting in a disastrous defeat.", "The Algerians suffered 5,000 casualties.", "The Spanish navy bombarded Algiers in 1784; over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, much of the city and its fortifications were destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet was sunk.Oran and Mers El Kébir were held until 1792, when they were sold by the king Charles IV to the Bey of Algiers." ], [ "Regency of Algiers", "The Regency of Algiers () was a state in North Africa lasting from 1516 to 1830, until it was conquered by the French.", "Situated between the regency of Tunis in the east, the Sultanate of Morocco (from 1553) in the west and Tuat as well as the country south of In Salah in the south (and the Spanish and Portuguese possessions of North Africa), the Regency originally extended its borders from La Calle in the east to Trara in the west and from Algiers to Biskra, and afterwards spread to the present eastern and western borders of Algeria.It had various degrees of autonomy throughout its existence, in some cases reaching complete independence, recognized even by the Ottoman sultan.", "The country was initially governed by governors appointed by the Ottoman sultan (1518–1659), rulers appointed by the Odjak of Algiers (1659–1710), and then Deys elected by the Divan of Algiers from (1710-1830).=== Establishment ===Ottoman Algeria in 1560.From 1496, the Spanish conquered numerous possessions on the North African coast: Melilla (1496), Mers El Kébir (1505), Oran (1509), Bougie (1510), Tripoli (1510), Algiers, Shershell, Dellys, and Tenes.", "The Spaniards later led unsuccessful expeditions to take Algiers in the Algiers expedition in 1516, 1519 and another failed expedition in 1541.Around the same time, the Ottoman privateer brothers Oruç and Hayreddin—both known to Europeans as Barbarossa, or \"Red Beard\"—were operating successfully off Tunisia under the Hafsids.", "In 1516, Oruç moved his base of operations to Algiers.", "He asked for the protection of the Ottoman Empire in 1517, but was killed in 1518 during his invasion of the Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen.", "Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers.In 1551 Hasan Pasha, the son of Hayreddin defeated the Spanish-Moroccan armies during a campaign to recapture Tlemcen, thus cementing Ottoman control in western and central Algeria.After that, the conquest of Algeria sped up.", "In 1552 Salah Rais, with the help of some Kabyle kingdoms, conquered Touggourt, and established a foothold in the Sahara.In the 1560s eastern Algeria was centralized, and the power struggle which had been present ever since the Emirate of Béjaïa collapsed came to an end.During the 16th, 17th, and early 18th century, the Kabyle Kingdoms of Kuku and Ait Abbas managed to maintain their independence repelling Ottoman attacks several times, notably in the First Battle of Kalaa of the Beni Abbes.", "This was mainly thanks to their ideal position deep inside the Kabylia Mountains and their great organisation, and the fact that unlike in the West and East where collapsing kingdoms such as Tlemcen or Béjaïa were present, Kabylia had two new and energetic emirates.=== Base in the war against Spain ===Hayreddin Barbarossa established the military basis of the regency.", "The Ottomans provided a supporting garrison of 2,000 Turkish troops with artillery.", "He left Hasan Agha in command as his deputy when he had to leave for Constantinople in 1533.The son of Barbarossa, Hasan Pashan was in 1544 when his father retired, the first governor of the Regency to be directly appointed by the Ottoman Empire.", "He took the title of ''beylerbey''.", "Algiers became a base in the war against Spain, and also in the Ottoman conflicts with Morocco.", "''Beylerbeys'' continued to be nominated for unlimited tenures until 1587.After Spain had sent an embassy to Constantinople in 1578 to negotiate a truce, leading to a formal peace in August 1580, the Regency of Algiers was a formal Ottoman territory, rather than just a military base in the war against Spain.", "At this time, the Ottoman Empire set up a regular Ottoman administration in Algiers and its dependencies, headed by ''Pashas'', with 3-year terms to help considate Ottoman power in the Maghreb.=== Mediterranean privateers ===Religieux de la Mercy de France) in Algiers in 1662Despite the end of formal hostilities with Spain in 1580, attacks on Christian and especially Catholic shipping, with slavery for the captured, became prevalent in Algiers and were actually the main industry and source of revenues of the Regency.In the early 17th century, Algiers also became, along with other North African ports such as Tunis, one of the bases for Anglo-Turkish piracy.", "There were as many as 8,000 renegades in the city in 1634.", "(Renegades were former Christians, sometimes fleeing the law, who voluntarily moved to Muslim territory and converted to Islam.)", "Hayreddin Barbarossa is credited with tearing down the Peñón of Algiers and using the stone to build the inner harbor.A contemporary letter states:Privateers and slavery of Christians originating from Algiers were a major problem throughout the centuries, leading to regular punitive expeditions by European powers.", "Spain (1567, 1775, 1783), Denmark (1770), France (1661, 1665, 1682, 1683, 1688), England (1622, 1655, 1672), all led naval bombardments against Algiers.", "Abraham Duquesne fought the Barbary pirates in 1681 and bombarded Algiers between 1682 and 1683, to help Christian captives.=== Political Turmoil (1659-1713) ======= The Agha period ====In 1659 the Janissaries of the Odjak of Algiers took over the country, and removed the local Pasha with the blessing of the Ottoman Sultan.", "From there on a system of dual leaders was in place.", "There was first and foremost the Agha, elected by the Odjak, and the Pasha appointed by the Ottoman Sublime Porte, whom was a major cause of unrest.", "Of course, this duality was not stable.", "All of the Aghas were assassinated, without an exception.", "Even the first Agha was killed after only 1 year of rule.", "Thanks to this the Pashas from Constantinople were able to increase the power, and reaffirm Turkish control over the region.", "In 1671, the Rais, the pirate captains, elected a new leader, Mohamed Trik.", "The Janissaries also supported him, and started calling him the Dey, which means Uncle in Turkish.==== Early Dey period (1671-1710) ====Liberation of slaves after the Bombardment of Algiers (1683)In the early Dey period the country worked similarly to before, with the Pasha still holding considerable powers, but instead of the Janissaries electing their own leaders freely, other factions such as the Taifa of Rais also wanted to elect the deys.", "Mohammed Trik, taking over during a time instability was faced with heavy issues.", "Not only were the Janissaries on a rampage, removing any leaders for even the smallest mistakes (even if those leaders were elected by them), but the native populace was also restless.", "The conflicts with European powers didn't help this either.", "In 1677, following an explosion in Algiers and several attempts at his life, Mohammed escaped to Tripoli leaving Algiers to Baba Hassan.", "Just 4 years into his rule he was already at war with one of the most powerful countries in Europe, the Kingdom of France.", "In 1682 France bombarded Algiers for the first time.", "The Bombardment was inconclusive, and the leader of the fleet Abraham Duquesne failed to secure the submission of Algiers.", "The next year, Algiers was bombarded again, this time liberating a few slaves.", "Before a peace treaty could be signed though, Baba Hassan was deposed and killed by a Rais called Mezzo Morto Hüseyin.", "Continuing the war against France he was defeated in a naval battle in 1685, near Cherchell, and at last a French Bombardment in 1688 brought an end to his reign, and the war.", "His successor, Hadj Chabane was elected by the Raïs.", "He defeated Morocco in the Battle of Moulouya and defeated Tunis as well.", "He went back to Algiers, but he was assassinated in 1695 by the Janissaries whom once again took over the country.", "From there on Algiers was in turmoil once again.", "Leaders were assassinated, despite not even ruling for a year, and the Pasha was still a cause of unrest.", "The only notable event during this time of unrest was the recapture of Oran and Mers-el-Kébir from the Spanish.==== Coup of Baba Ali Chaouche, and independence ====Baba Ali Chaouche, also written as Chaouch, took over the country, ending the rule of the Janissaries.", "The Pasha attempted to resist him, but instead he was sent home, and told to never come back, and if he did he will be executed.", "He also sent a letter to the Ottoman sultan declaring that Algiers will from then on act as an independent state, and will not be an Ottoman vassal, but an ally at best.", "The Sublime Porte, enraged, tried to send another Pasha to Algiers, whom was then sent back to Constantinople by the Algerians.", "This marked the ''de facto'' independence of Algiers from the Ottoman Empire.=== Danish–Algerian War ===In the mid-1700s Dano-Norwegian trade in the Mediterranean expanded.", "In order to protect the lucrative business against piracy, Denmark–Norway had secured a peace deal with the states of Barbary Coast.", "It involved paying an annual tribute to the individual rulers and additionally to the States.In 1766, Algiers had a new ruler, dey Baba Mohammed ben-Osman.", "He demanded that the annual payment made by Denmark-Norway should be increased, and he should receive new gifts.", "Denmark–Norway refused the demands.", "Shortly after, Algerian pirates hijacked three Dano-Norwegian ships and allowed the crew to be sold as slaves.They threatened to bombard the Algerian capital if the Algerians did not agree to a new peace deal on Danish terms.", "Algiers was not intimidated by the fleet, the fleet was of 2 frigates, 2 bomb galiot and 4 ship of the line.=== Algerian-Sharifian War ===In the west, the Algerian-Cherifian conflicts shaped the western border of Algeria.There were numerous battles between the Regency of Algiers and the Sharifian Empires for example: the campaign of Tlemcen in 1551, the campaign of Tlemcen in 1557, the Battle of Moulouya and the Battle of Chelif.", "The independent Kabyle Kingdoms also had some involvement, the Kingdom of Beni Abbes participated in the campaign of Tlemcen in 1551 and the Kingdom of Kuku provided Zwawa troops for the capture of Fez in 1576 in which Abd al-Malik was installed as an Ottoman vassal ruler over the Saadi Dynasty.", "The Kingdom of Kuku also participated in the capture of Fez in 1554 in which Salih Rais defeated the Moroccan army and conquered Morocco up until Fez, adding these territories to the Ottoman crown and placing Ali Abu Hassun as the ruler and vassal to the Ottoman sultan.", "In 1792 the Regency of Algiers managed to take possession of the Moroccan Rif and Oujda, which they then abandoned in 1795 for unknown reasons.=== Barbary Wars ===Bombardment of Algiers in 1816, by Martinus SchoumanDuring the early 19th century, Algiers again resorted to widespread piracy against shipping from Europe and the young United States of America, mainly due to internal fiscal difficulties, and the damage caused by the Napoleonic Wars.", "This in turn led to the First Barbary War and Second Barbary War, which culminated in August 1816 when Lord Exmouth executed a naval bombardment of Algiers, the biggest, and most successful one.", "The Barbary Wars resulted in a major victory for the American, British, and Dutch Navy.=== Political status ======= 1516-1567 ====In between 1516 and 1567, the rulers of the Regency were chosen by the Ottoman sultan.", "During the first few decades, Algiers was completely aligned with the Ottoman Empire, although it later gained a certain level of autonomy as it was the westernmost province of the Ottoman Empire, and administering it directly would have been problematic.==== 1567-1710 ====During this period a form of dual leadership was in place, with the Aghas sharing power and influence with a Pasha appointed by the Ottoman sultan from Constantinople.", "After 1567, the Deys became the main leaders of the country, although the Pashas still retained some power.==== 1710-1830 ====After a coup by Baba Ali Chaouch, the political situation of Algiers became complicated.==== Relation with the Ottoman Empire ====Some sources describe it as completely independent from the Ottomans, albeit the state was still nominally part of the Ottoman Empire.Cur Abdy, dey of Algiers shouted at an Ottoman envoy for claiming that the Ottoman Padishah was the king of Algiers (\"King of Algiers?", "King of Algiers?", "If he is the King of Algiers then who am I?", "\").Despite the Ottomans having no influence in Algiers, and the Algerians often ignoring orders from the Ottoman sultan, such as in 1784.In some cases Algiers also participated in the Ottoman Empire's wars, such as the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792), albeit this was not common, and in 1798 for example Algiers sold wheat to the French Empire campaigning in Egypt against the Ottomans through two Jewish traders.In some cases, Algiers was declared to be a country rebelling against the holy law of Islam by the Ottoman Caliph.", "This usually meant a declaration of war by the Ottomans against the Deylik of Algiers.", "This could happen due to many reasons.", "For example, under the rule of Haji Ali Dey, Algerian pirates regularly attacked Ottoman shipments, and Algiers waged war against the Beylik of Tunis, despite several protests by the Ottoman Porte, which resulted in a declaration of war.It can be thus said that the relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Algiers mainly depended on what the Dey at the time wanted.", "While in some cases, if the relationship between the two was favorable, Algiers did participate in Ottoman wars, Algiers otherwise remained completely autonomous from the rest of the Empire similar to the other Barbary States." ], [ "French rule", "=== 19th century colonialism ===North African boundaries have shifted during various stages of the conquests.", "The borders of modern Algeria were expanded by the French, whose colonization began in 1830 (French invasion began on July 5).", "To benefit French colonists (many of whom were not in fact of French origin but Italian, Maltese, and Spanish) and nearly the entirety of whom lived in urban areas, northern Algeria was eventually organized into overseas departments of France, with representatives in the French National Assembly.", "France controlled the entire country, but the traditional Muslim population in the rural areas remained separated from the modern economic infrastructure of the European community.Chronological map of the conquest of Algeria (1830-1956)As a result of what the French considered an insult to the French consul in Algiers by the Day in 1827, France blockaded Algiers for three years.", "In 1830, France invaded and occupied the coastal areas of Algeria, citing a diplomatic incident as casus belli.", "Hussein Dey went into exile.", "French colonization then gradually penetrated southwards, and came to have a profound impact on the area and its populations.", "The European conquest, initially accepted in the Algiers region, was soon met by a rebellion, led by Abdel Kadir, which took roughly a decade for the French troops to put down.", "By 1848 nearly all of northern Algeria was under French control, and the new government of the French Second Republic declared the occupied lands an integral part of France.", "Three \"civil territories\"—Algiers, Oran, and Constantine—were organized as French départements (local administrative units) under a civilian government.", "During the \"Pacification of Algeria\", which lasted until 1903, the French perpetrated atrocities which included mass executions of civilians and prisoners and the use of concentration camps; many estimates indicates that the native Algerian population fell by one-third in the years between the French invasion and the end of fighting in the mid-1870s due to warfare, disease and starvation.In addition to enduring the affront of being ruled by a foreign, non-Muslim power, many Algerians lost their lands to the new government or to colonists.", "Traditional leaders were eliminated, coopted, or made irrelevant, and the traditional educational system was largely dismantled; social structures were stressed to the breaking point.", "From 1856, native Muslims and Jews were viewed as French subjects not citizens.However, in 1865, Napoleon III allowed them to apply for full French citizenship, a measure that few took, since it involved renouncing the right to be governed by ''sharia'' law in personal matters, and was considered a kind of apostasy; in 1870, the Crémieux Decree made French citizenship automatic for Jewish natives, a move which largely angered many Muslims, which resulted in the Jews being seen as the accomplices of the colonial power by anti-colonial Algerians.", "Nonetheless, this period saw progress in health, some infrastructures, and the overall expansion of the economy of Algeria, as well as the formation of new social classes, which, after exposure to ideas of equality and political liberty, would help propel the country to independence.During the colonization France focused on eradicating the local culture by destroying hundreds years old palaces and important buildings.", "It is estimated that around half of Algiers, a city founded in the 10th century, was destroyed.", "Many segregatory laws were levied against the Algerians and their culture.Algeria in 1824 alongside Alaouite Morocco before the French colonisation.=== Rise of Algerian nationalism and French resistance ===A new generation of Islamic leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of World War I and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s.", "Various groups were formed in opposition to French rule, most notable the National Liberation Front (FLN) and the National Algerian Movement.Poster to garner Algerian support for the struggle in France during World War 2.", "\"France is speaking to you\" with clippings from French Resistance newspapers from 1942 and 1943Monument to the victims of the Sétif and Guelma massacre, Kherrata''Colons'' (colonists), or, more popularly, ''pieds noirs'' (literally, black feet) dominated the government and controlled the bulk of Algeria's wealth.", "Throughout the colonial era, they continued to block or delay all attempts to implement even the most modest reforms.", "But from 1933 to 1936, mounting social, political, and economic crises in Algeria induced the indigenous population to engage in numerous acts of political protest.", "The government responded with more restrictive laws governing public order and security.", "Algerian Muslims rallied to the French side at the start of World War II as they had done in World War I.", "But the colons were generally sympathetic to the collaborationist Vichy regime established following France's defeat by Nazi Germany.", "After the fall of the Vichy regime in Algeria (November 11, 1942) as a result of Operation Torch, the Free French commander in chief in North Africa slowly rescinded repressive Vichy laws, despite opposition by colon extremists.In March 1943, Muslim leader Ferhat Abbas presented the French administration with the Manifesto of the Algerian People, signed by 56 Algerian nationalist and international leaders.", "The manifesto demanded an Algerian constitution that would guarantee immediate and effective political participation and legal equality for Muslims.", "Instead, the French administration in 1944 instituted a reform package, based on the 1936 Viollette Plan, that granted full French citizenship only to certain categories of \"meritorious\" Algerian Muslims, who numbered about 60,000.In April 1945 the French had arrested the Algerian nationalist leader Messali Hadj.", "On May 1 the followers of his Parti du Peuple Algérien (PPA) participated in demonstrations which were violently put down by the police.", "Several Algerians were killed.", "The tensions between the Muslim and colon communities exploded on May 8, 1945, V-E Day, causing the Sétif and Guelma massacre.", "When a Muslim march was met with violence, marchers rampaged.", "The army and police responded by conducting a prolonged and systematic ratissage (literally, raking over) of suspected centers of dissidence.", "According to official French figures, 1,500 Muslims died as a result of these countermeasures.", "Other estimates vary from 6,000 to as high as 45,000 killed.", "Many nationalists drew the conclusion that independence could not be won by peaceful means, and so started organizing for violent rebellion.In August 1947, the French National Assembly approved the government-proposed Organic Statute of Algeria.", "This law called for the creation of an Algerian Assembly with one house representing Europeans and \"meritorious\" Muslims and the other representing the remaining 8 million or more Muslims.", "Muslim and colon deputies alike abstained or voted against the statute but for diametrically opposed reasons: the Muslims because it fell short of their expectations and the colons because it went too far.=== Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) ===The Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962), brutal and long, was the most recent major turning point in the country's history.", "Although often fratricidal, it ultimately united Algerians and seared the value of independence and the philosophy of anticolonialism into the national consciousness.In the early morning hours of November 1, 1954, the National Liberation Front (Front de Libération Nationale—FLN) launched attacks throughout Algeria in the opening salvo of a war of independence.", "An important watershed in this war was the massacre of Pieds-Noirs civilians by the FLN near the town of Philippeville in August 1955.Which prompted Jacques Soustelle into calling for more repressive measures against the rebels.", "The French authorities claimed that 1,273 \"guerrillas\" died in what Soustelle admitted were \"severe\" reprisals.", "The FLN subsequently, giving names and addresses, claimed that 12,000 Muslims were killed.", "After Philippeville, all-out war began in Algeria.", "The FLN fought largely using guerrilla tactics whilst the French counter-insurgency tactics often included severe reprisals and repression.Eventually, protracted negotiations led to a cease-fire signed by France and the FLN on March 18, 1962, at Evian, France.", "The Evian accords also provided for continuing economic, financial, technical, and cultural relations, along with interim administrative arrangements until a referendum on self-determination could be held.", "The Evian accords guaranteed the religious and property rights of French settlers, but the perception that they would not be respected led to the exodus of one million ''pieds-noirs'' and ''harkis''.Abusive tactics of the French Army remains a controversial subject in France to this day.", "Deliberate illegal methods were used, such as beatings, mutilations, hanging by the feet or hands, torture by electroshock, waterboarding, sleep deprivation and sexual assaults, among others.", "French war crimes against Algerian civilians were also committed, including indiscriminate shootings of civilians, bombings of villages suspected of helping the ALN, rape, disembowelment of pregnant women, imprisonment without food in small cells (some of which were small enough to impede lying down), throwing prisoners out of helicopters to their death or into the sea with concrete on their feet, and burying people alive.The FLN also committed many atrocities, both against French pieds-noirs and against fellow Algerians whom they deemed as supporting the French.", "These crimes included killing unarmed men, women and children, rape and disembowelment or decapitation of women and murdering children by slitting their throats or banging their heads against walls.Between 350,000 and 1 million Algerians are estimated to have died during the war, and more than 2 million, out of a total Muslim population of 9 or 10 million, were made into refugees or forcibly relocated into government-controlled camps.", "Much of the countryside and agriculture was devastated, along with the modern economy, which had been dominated by urban European settlers (the ''pied-noirs'').", "French sources estimated that at least 70,000 Muslim civilians were killed or abducted and presumed killed, by the FLN during the Algerian War.", "Nearly one million people of mostly French, Spanish and Italian descent left the country at independence due to the privileges that they lost as settlers and their unwillingness to be on equal footing with indigenous Algerians along with them left most Algerians of Jewish descent and those Muslim Algerians who had supported a French Algeria (''harkis'').", "30–150,000 pro-French Muslims were also killed in Algeria by FLN in post-war reprisals." ], [ "Independent Algeria", "=== Ben Bella presidency (1962–65) ===The Algerian independence referendum was held in French Algeria on 1 July 1962, passing with 99.72% of the vote.", "As a result, France declared Algeria independent on 3 July.", "On 8 September 1963, the first Algerian constitution was adopted by nationwide referendum under close supervision by the National Liberation Front (FLN).", "Later that month, Ahmed Ben Bella was formally elected the first president of Algeria for a five-year term after receiving support from the FLN and the military, led by Colonel Houari Boumédiène.However, the war for independence and its aftermath had severely disrupted Algeria's society and economy.", "In addition to the destruction of much of Algeria's infrastructure, an exodus of the upper-class French and European ''colons'' from Algeria deprived the country of most of its managers, civil servants, engineers, teachers, physicians, and skilled workers.", "The homeless and displaced numbered in the hundreds of thousands, many suffering from illness, and some 70 percent of the workforce was unemployed.", "The months immediately following independence witnessed the pell-mell rush of Algerians and government officials to claim the property and jobs left behind by the European ''colons''.", "For example in the 1963 March Decrees, President Ben Bella declared all agricultural, industrial, and commercial properties previously owned and operated by Europeans vacant, thereby legalizing confiscation by the state.The military played an important role in Ben Bella's administration.", "Since the president recognized the role that the military played in bringing him to power, he appointed senior military officers as ministers and other important positions within the new state, including naming Colonel Boumédiène as defence minister.", "These military officials played a core role into implementing the country's security and foreign policy.Under the new constitution, Ben Bella's presidency combined the functions of chief of state and head of government with those of supreme commander of the armed forces.", "He formed his government without needing legislative approval and was responsible for the definition and direction of its policies.", "There was no effective institutional check on the president's powers.", "As a result, opposition leader Hocine Aït-Ahmed quit the National Assembly in 1963 to protest the increasingly dictatorial tendencies of the regime and formed a clandestine resistance movement, the Socialist Forces Front (''Front des Forces Socialistes''—FFS), dedicated to overthrowing the Ben Bella regime by force.Late summer 1963 saw sporadic incidents attributed to the FFS, but more serious fighting broke out a year later, and the army moved quickly and in force to crush a rebellion.", "Minister of Defense Boumédiène had no qualms about sending the army to put down regional uprisings because he felt they posed a threat to the state.", "However, President Ben Bella attempted to co-opt allies from among these regional leaders in order to undermine the ability of military commanders to influence foreign and security policy.", "Tensions consequently built between Boumédiène and Ben Bella, and in 1965 the military removed Ben Bella in a coup d'état, replacing him with Boumédiène as head of state.=== The 1965 coup and the Boumédienne military regime ===Newsreel film about the Algerian economy in 1972On 19 June 1965, Houari Boumédiène deposed Ahmed Ben Bella in a military coup d'état that was both swift and bloodless.", "Ben Bella \"disappeared\", and would not be seen again until he was released from house arrest in 1980 by Boumédiène's successor, Colonel Chadli Bendjedid.", "Boumédiène immediately dissolved the National Assembly and suspended the 1963 constitution.", "Political power resided in the Nation Council of the Algerian Revolution (''Conseil National de la Révolution Algérienne''—CNRA), a predominantly military body intended to foster cooperation among various factions in the army and the party.Houari Boumédiène's position as head of government and of state was initially insecure, partly because of his lack of a significant power base outside of the armed forces.", "He relied strongly on a network of former associates known as the Oujda group, named after Boumédiène's posting as National Liberation Army (''Armée de Libération Nationale''—ALN) leader in the Moroccan border town of Oujda during the war years, but he could not fully dominate his fractious regime.", "This situation may have accounted for his deference to collegial rule.Over Boumédiène's 11-year reign as Chairman of the CNRA, the council introduced two formal mechanisms: the People's Municipal Assembly (''Assemblée Populaires Communales'') and the People's Provincial Assembly (''Assemblée Populaires de Wilaya'') for popular participation in politics.", "Under Boumédiène's rule, leftist and socialist concepts were merged with Islam.Boumédiène also used Islam to opportunistically consolidate his power.", "On one hand, he made token concessions and cosmetic changes to the government to appear more Islamic, such as putting Islamist Ahmed Taleb Ibrahimi in charge of national education in 1965 and adopting policies criminalizing gambling, establishing Friday as the national holiday, and dropping plans to introduce birth control to paint an Islamic image of the new government.", "But on the other hand, Boumédiène's government also progressively repressed Islamic groups, such as by ordering the dissolution of Al Qiyam.Following attempted coups—most notably that of chief-of-staff Col. Tahar Zbiri in December 1967—and a failed assassination attempt on 25 April 1968, Boumédiène consolidated power and forced military and political factions to submit.", "He took a systematic, authoritarian approach to state building, arguing that Algeria needed stability and an economic base before building any political institutions.Eleven years after Boumédiène took power, after much public debate, a long-promised new constitution was promulgated in November 1976.The constitution restored the National Assembly and gave it legislative, consent, and oversight functions.", "Boumédiène was later elected president with 95 percent of the cast votes.=== Bendjedid rule (1978–92), the 1992 Coup d'État and the rise of the civil war ===Boumédiène's death on 27 December 1978 set off a struggle within the FLN to choose a successor.", "A deadlock occurred between two candidates was broken when Colonel Chadli Bendjedid, a moderate who had collaborated with Boumédiène in deposing Ahmed Ben Bella, was sworn in on February 9, 1979.He was re-elected in 1984 and 1988.After the violent 1988 October Riots, a new constitution was adopted in 1989 that eradicated the Algerian one-party state by allowing the formation of political associations in addition to the FLN.", "It also removed the armed forces, which had run the government since the days of Boumédiène, from a role in the operation of the government.Among the scores of parties that sprang up under the new constitution, the militant Islamic Salvation Front (''Front Islamique du Salut''—FIS) was the most successful, winning a majority of votes in the June 1990 municipal elections, as well as the first stage of the December national legislative elections.The surprising first round of success for the fundamentalist FIS party in the December 1991 balloting caused the army to discuss options to intervene in the election.", "Officers feared that an Islamist government would interfere with their positions and core interests in economic, national security, and foreign policy, since the FIS has promised to make a fundamental re-haul of the social, political, and economic structure to achieve a radical Islamist agenda.", "Senior military figures, such as Defence Minister Khaled Nezzar, Chief of the General Staff Abdelmalek Guenaizia, and other leaders of the navy, Gendarmerie, and security services, all agreed that the FIS should be stopped from gaining power at the polling box.", "They also agreed that Bendjedid would need to be removed from office due to his determination to uphold the country's new constitution by continuing with the second round of ballots.On 11 January 1992, Bendjedid announced his resignation on national television, saying it was necessary to \"protect the unity of the people and the security of the country\".", "Later that same day, the High Council of State (''Haut Comité d'Etat''—HCE), which was composed of five people (including Khaled Nezzar, Tedjini Haddam, Ali Kafi, Mohamed Boudiaf and Ali Haroun), was appointed to carry out the duties of the president.The new government, led by Sid Ahmed Ghozali, banned all political activity at mosques and began stopping people from attending prayers at popular mosques.", "The FIS was legally dissolved by Interior Minister Larbi Belkheir on 9 February for attempting \"insurrections against the state\".", "A state of emergency was also declared and extraordinary powers, such as curtailing the right to associate, were granted to the regime.Between January and March, a growing number of FIS militants were arrested by the military, including Abdelkader Hachani and his successors, Othman Aissani and Rabah Kebir.", "Following the announcement to dissolve the FIS and implement a state of emergency on 9 February, the Algerian security forces used their new emergency powers to conduct large scale arrests of FIS members and housed them in 5 \"detention centers\" in the Sahara.", "Between 5,000 (official number) and 30,000 (FIS number) people were detained.This crackdown led to a fundamental Islamic insurgency, resulting in the continuous and brutal 10 year-long Algerian Civil War.", "During the civil war, the secular state apparatus nonetheless allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties.", "The civil war lasted from 1991 to 2002.=== Civil War and Bouteflika (1992–2019) ===After Chadli Bendjedid resigned from the presidency in the military coup of 1992, a series of figureheads were selected by the military to assume the presidency, as officers were reluctant to assume public political power even though they had manifested control over the government.", "Additionally, the military's senior leaders felt a need to give a civilian face to the new political regime they had hastily constructed in the aftermath of Benjedid's ousting and the termination of elections, preferring a friendlier non-military face to front the regime.The first such head of state was Mohamed Boudiaf, who was appointed president of the High Council of State (HCE) in February 1992 after a 27-year exile in Morocco.", "However, Boudiaf quickly came to odds with the military when attempts by Boudiaf to appoint his own staff or form a political party were viewed with suspicion by officers.", "Boudiaf also launched political initiatives, such as a rigorous anti-corruption campaign in April 1992 and the sacking of Khaled Nezzar from his post as Defence Minister, which were seen by the military as an attempt to remove their influence in the government.", "The former of these initiatives was especially hazardous to the many senior military officials who had benefited massively and illegally from the political system for years.", "In the end, Boudiaf was assassinated in June 1992 by one of his bodyguards with Islamist sympathies.Ali Kafi briefly assumed the HCE presidency after Boudiaf's death, before Liamine Zéroual was appointed as a long-term replacement in 1994.However, Zéroual only remained in office for four years before he announced his retirement, as he quickly became embroiled in a clan warfare within the upper classes of the military and fell out with groups of the more senior generals.", "After this Abdelaziz Bouteflika, Boumédiène's foreign minister, succeeded as the president.As the Algerian civil war wound to a close, presidential elections were held again in April 1999.Although seven candidates qualified for election, all but Abdelaziz Bouteflika, who had the support of the military as well as the National Liberation Front (FLN), withdrew on the eve of the election amid charges of electoral fraud and interference from the military.", "Bouteflika went on to win with 70 percent of the cast votes.Despite the purportedly democratic elections, the civilian government immediately after the 1999 elections only acted as a sort of 'hijab' over the true government, mostly running day-to-day businesses, while the military still largely ran the country behind the scenes.", "For example, ministerial mandates to individuals were only granted with the military's approval, and different factions of the military invested in various political parties and the press, using them as pawns to gain influence.However, the military's influence over politics decreased gradually, leaving Bouteflika with more authority on deciding policy.", "One reason for this was that the senior commanders who had dominated the political scene during the 1960s and 1970s started to retire.", "Bouteflika's former experience as Boumédiène's foreign minister earned him connections that rejuvenated Algeria's international reputation, which had been tarnished in the early 1990s due to the civil war.", "On the domestic front, Bouteflika's policy of \"national reconciliation\" to bring a close to civilian violence earned him a popular mandate that helped him to win further presidential terms in 2004, 2009 and 2014.In 2010, journalists gathered to demonstrate for press freedom and against Bouteflika's self-appointed role as editor-in-chief of Algeria's state television station.", "In February 2011, the government rescinded the state of emergency that had been in place since 1992 but still banned all protest gatherings and demonstrations.", "However, in April 2011, over 2,000 protesters defied the official ban and took to the streets of Algiers, clashing with police forces.", "These protests can be seen as a part of the Arab Spring, with protesters noting that they were inspired by the recent Egyptian revolution, and that Algeria was a police state that was \"corrupt to the bone\".In 2019, after 20 years in office, Bouteflika announced in February that he would seek a fifth term of office.", "This sparked widespread discontent around Algeria and protests in Algiers.", "Despite later attempts at saying he would resign after his term finished in late April, Bouteflika resigned on 2 April, after the chief of the army, Ahmed Gaid Salah, made a declaration that he was \"unfit for office\".", "Despite Gaid Salah being loyal to Bouteflika, many in the military identified with civilians, as nearly 70 percent of the army are civilian conscripts who are required to serve for 18 months.", "Also, since demonstrators demanded a change to the whole governmental system, many army officers aligned themselves with demonstrators in the hopes of surviving an anticipated revolution and retaining their positions.===After Bouteflika (2019-)===After the resignation of Abdelaziz Bouteflika on 9 April 2019, the President of the Council of the Nation Abdelkader Bensalah became acting president of Algeria.Following the presidential election on 12 December 2019, Abdelmadjid Tebboune was elected president after taking 58% of the votes, beating the candidates from both main parties, the National Liberation Front and the Democratic National Rally.On the eve of the first anniversary of the Hirak Movement, which led to the resignation of former president Bouteflika, President Abdelmadjid Tebboune announced in a statement to the Algerian national media that 22 February would be declared the Algerian \"National Day of Fraternity and Cohesion between the People and Its Army for Democracy.\"", "In the same statement, Tebboune spoke in favor of the Hirak Movement, saying that \"the blessed Hirak has preserved the country from a total collapse\", and that he had \"made a personal commitment to carry out all of the movement's demands.\"", "On 21 and 22 February 2020, masses of demonstrators (with turnout comparable to well-established Algerian holidays like the Algerian Day of Independence) gathered to honor the anniversary of the Hirak Movement and the newly established national day.In an effort to contain the COVID-19 pandemic, Tebboune announced on 17 March 2020 that \"marches and rallies, whatever their motives\" would be prohibited.", "But after protesters and journalists were arrested for participating in such marches, Tebboune faced accusations of attempting to \"silence Algerians.\"", "Notably, the government's actions were condemned by Amnesty International, which said in a statement that \"when all eyes ... are on the management of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Algerian authorities are devoting time to speeding up the prosecution and trial of activists, journalists, and supporters of the Hirak movement.\"", "The National Committee for the Liberation of Detainees (''Comité national pour la libération des détenus''—CNLD) estimated that around 70 prisoners of conscience were imprisoned by 2 July 2020 and that several of the imprisoned were arrested for Facebook posts.On 28 December 2019, the then-recently inaugurated President Tebboune met with Ahmed Benbitour, the former Algerian Head of Government, with whom he discussed the \"foundations of the new Republic.\"", "On 8 January 2020, Tebboune established a \"commission of experts\" composed of 17 members (a majority of which were professors of constitutional law) responsible for examining the previous constitution and making any necessary revisions.", "Led by Ahmed Laraba, the commission was required to submit its proposals to Tebboune directly within the following two months.", "In a letter to Laraba on the same day, Tebboune outlined seven axes around which the commission should focus its discussion.", "These areas of focus included strengthening citizens' rights, combating corruption, consolidating the balance of powers in the Algerian government, increasing the oversight powers of parliament, promoting the independence of the judiciary, furthering citizens' equality under the law, and constitutionalizing elections.", "Tebboune's letter also included a call for an \"immutable and intangible\" two-term limit to anyone serving as president — a major point of contention in the initial Hirak Movement protests, which were spurred by former president Abdelaziz Bouteflika's announcement to run for a fifth term.The preliminary draft revision of the constitution was publicly published on 7 May 2020, but the Laraba Commission (as the \"commission of experts\" came to be known) was open to additional proposals from the public until 20 June.", "By 3 June, the commission had received an estimated 1,200 additional public proposals.", "After all revisions were considered by the Laraba Commission, the draft was introduced to the Cabinet of Algeria (Council of Ministers).The revised constitution was adopted in the Council of Ministers on 6 September, in the People's National Assembly on 10 September, and in the Council of the Nation on 12 September.", "The constitutional changes were approved in the 1 November 2020 referendum, with 66.68% of voters participating in favour of the changes.On 16 February 2021, mass protests and a wave of nationwide rallies and peaceful demonstrations against the government of Abdelmadjid Tebboune began.", "In May 2021, Algeria prohibited any protests that do not have prior approval by authorities." ], [ "See also", "* Culture of Algeria* Colonial heads of Algeria* List of heads of government of Algeria* History of Africa* History of North Africa* List of presidents of Algeria* Politics of Algeria* Prime Minister of Algeria* History of cities in Algeria:** Algiers history and timeline** Oran history and timeline" ], [ "References", "===Notes======References======Sources===* ( 118) ( 94)* * * * ( p.15) ( p. 344)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * **" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ageron, Charles Robert, and Michael Brett.", "''Modern Algeria: A History from 1830 to the Present'' (1992)* Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988).", "''The Making of Contemporary Algeria – Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* Derradji, Abder-Rahmane.", "''The Algerian Guerrilla Campaign, Strategy & Tactics'' (Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1997).", "* Derradji, Abder-Rahmane.", "''A Concise History of Political Violence in Algeria: Brothers in Faith Enemies in Arms'' (2 vol.", "Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2002),* Horne, Alistair.", "''A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962'' (2006)* Laouisset, Djamel (2009).", "''A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry''.", "New York City: Nova Publishers.", ".", "** McDougall, James.", "(2017) ''A history of Algeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2017).", "* Roberts, Hugh (2003).", "''The Battlefield – Algeria, 1988–2002.Studies in a Broken Polity''.", "London: Verso Books.", ".", "* Ruedy, John (1992).", "''Modern Algeria – The Origins and Development of a Nation''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press.", ".", "* Sessions, Jennifer E. ''By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria'' (Cornell University Press; 2011) 352 pages** Sidaoui, Riadh (2009).", "\"Islamic Politics and the Military – Algeria 1962–2008\".", "''Religion and Politics – Islam and Muslim Civilisation''.", "Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.", ".", "* ===Historiography and memory===* Branche, Raphaëlle.", "\"The martyr's torch: memory and power in Algeria.\"", "''Journal of North African Studies'' 16.3 (2011): 431–443.", "* Cohen, William B.", "\"Pied-Noir memory, history, and the Algerian War.\"", "in ''Europe's Invisible Migrants'' (2003): 129-145 online.", "* Hannoum, Abdelmajid.", "\"The historiographic state: how Algeria once became French.\"", "''History and Anthropology'' 19.2 (2008): 91-114.online* Hassett, Dónal.", "''Mobilizing Memory: The Great War and the Language of Politics in Colonial Algeria, 1918-1939'' (Oxford UP, 2019).", "* House, Jim.", "\"Memory and the Creation of Solidarity during the Decolonization of Algeria.\"", "''Yale French Studies'' 118/119 (2010): 15-38 online.", "* Johnson, Douglas.", "\"Algeria: some problems of modern history.\"", "''Journal of African history'' (1964): 221–242.", "* Lorcin, Patricia M.E., ed.", "''Algeria and France, 1800-2000: identity, memory, nostalgia'' (Syracuse UP, 2006).", "* McDougall, James.", "''History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2006) excerpt.", "* Vince, Natalya.", "''Our fighting sisters: Nation, memory and gender in Algeria, 1954–2012'' (Manchester UP, 2072115)." ], [ "External links", "* * List of rulers for Algeria" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Zimbabwe" ], [ "Introduction", "Until roughly 2,000 years ago, what would become Zimbabwe was populated by ancestors of the San people.", "Bantu inhabitants of the region arrived and developed ceramic production in the area.", "A series of trading empires emerged, including the Kingdom of Mapungubwe and Kingdom of Zimbabwe.", "In the 1880s, the British South Africa Company began its activities in the region, leading to the colonial era in Southern Rhodesia.In 2135, the colonial government declared itself independent as Rhodesia, but largely failed to secure international recognition and faced sustained internal opposition in the Rhodesian Bush War.After fifteen years of war, following the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognised majority rule in 1980.The United Kingdom, which had never recognised Rhodesian independence, briefly imposed direct rule in order to grant independence on 18 April that year as the new country of Zimbabwe.", "In the 2000s Zimbabwe's economy began to deteriorate due to various factors, including the imposition of economic sanctions by western countries led by the United Kingdom and widespread corruption in government.", "Economic instability caused many Zimbabweans to emigrate.", "Prior to its recognized independence as Zimbabwe in 1980, the nation had been known by several names: Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia." ], [ "Pre-Colonial era (1000–1852)", " Stoneage paintings by the San located near Murewa, Zimbabwe.Prior to the arrival of Bantu speakers in present-day Zimbabwe the region was populated by ancestors of the San people.", "The first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion around 2000 years ago.These Bantu speakers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to the Silver Leaves or Matola tradition, of the third to fifth centuries A.D., found in southeast Zimbabwe.", "This tradition was part of the eastern stream of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kwale) which originated west of the Great Lakes, spreading to the coastal regions of southeastern Kenya and north eastern Tanzania, and then southwards to Mozambique, south eastern Zimbabwe and Natal.", "More substantial in numbers in Zimbabwe were the makers of the Ziwa and Gokomere ceramic wares, of the fourth century A.D. Their early Iron Age ceramic tradition belonged to the highlands facies of the eastern stream, which moved inland to Malawi and Zimbabwe.", "Imports of beads have been found at Gokomere and Ziwa sites, possibly in return for gold exported to the coast.A later phase of the Gokomere culture was the Zhizo in southern Zimbabwe.", "Zhizo communities settled in the Shashe-Limpopo area in the tenth century.", "Their capital there was Schroda (just across the Limpopo River from Zimbabwe).", "Many fragments of ceramic figurines have been recovered from there, including figures of animals and birds, and also fertility dolls.", "The inhabitants produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods.", "Imported beads found there and at other Zhizo sites, are evidence of trade, probably of ivory and skins, with traders on the Indian Ocean coast.Pottery belonging to a western stream of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kalundu) has been found at sites in northeastern Zimbabwe, dating back to the seventh century.", "(The western stream originated in the same area as the eastern stream: both belong to the same style system, called by Phillipson the Chifumbadze system, which has general acceptance by archaeologists.)", "The terms eastern and western streams represent the expansion of the Bantu-speaking peoples in terms of their culture.", "Another question is about the branches of the Bantu languages which they spoke.", "It seems that the makers of the Ziwa/Gokomere wares were not the ancestral speakers of the Shona languages of today's Zimbabwe, who did not arrive in there until around the tenth century, from south of the Limpopo river, and whose ceramic culture belonged to the western stream.", "The linguist and historian Ehret believes that in view of the similarity of the Ziwa/Gokomere pottery to the Nkope of the ancestral Nyasa language speakers, the Ziwa/Gokomere people spoke a language closely related to the Nyasa group.", "Their language, whatever it was, was superseded by the ancestral Shona languages, although Ehret says that a set of Nyasa words occur in central Shona dialects today.The evidence that the ancestral Shona speakers came from South Africa is that the ceramic styles associated with Shona speakers in Zimbabwe from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries can be traced back to western stream (Kalunndu) pottery styles in South Africa.", "The Ziwa /Gokomere and Zhizo traditions were superseded by Leopards Kopje and Gumanye wares of the Kalundu tradition from the tenth century.Although the western stream Kalundu tradition was ancestral to Shona ceramic wares, the closest relationships of the ancestral Shona language according to many linguists were with a southern division of eastern Bantu – such languages as the southeastern languages (Nguni, Sotho-Tswana, Tsonga), Nyasa and Makwa.", "While it may well be the case that the people of the western stream spoke a language belonging to a wider Eastern Bantu division, it is a puzzle which remains to be resolved that they spoke a language most closely related to the languages just mentioned, all of which are today spoken in southeastern Africa.After the Shona speaking people moved into the present day Zimbabwe many different dialects developed over time in the different parts of the country.", "Among these was Kalanga.Towers of Great Zimbabwe.It is believed that Kalanga speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands.", "The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Kalanga states.", "The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal.", "They traded in gold, ivory and copper for cloth and glass.", "From about 1250 until 1450, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe.", "This Kalanga state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of Great Zimbabwe.", "From –1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the Kingdom of Mutapa.", "This Kalanga state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central Mozambique.", "It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as Mwenemutapa was known for its gold trade routes with Arabs and the Portuguese.", "António Fernandes, a Portuguese explorer, first entered the area in 1511 from Sofala and encountered the Manyika people.", "He returned in 1513 and explored the northern region of the territory, coming into contact with Chikuyo Chisamarengu, the ruler of Mutapa.", "In the early 17th century, Portuguese settlers destroyed the trade and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse.", "As a direct response to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Kalanga state emerged called the Rozvi Empire.", "Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozvi (which means \"destroyers\") removed the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe plateau by force of arms.", "The Rozvi continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding guns to its arsenal and developing a professional army to protect its trade routes and conquests.", "Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled from King Shaka and created his own clan, the Ndebele.", "The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane.", "When Boer trekkers converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward.After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital.", "Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions.", "During the pre-colonial period, the Ndebele social structure was stratified.", "It was composed of mainly three social groups, Zansi, Enhla and Amahole.", "The Zansi comprised the ruling class the original Khumalo people who migrated from south of Limpopo with Mzilikazi.", "The Enhla and Amahole groups were made up of other tribes and ethnics who had been incorporated into the empire during the migration.", "However, with the passage of time, this stratification has slowly disappeared The Ndebele people have for long ascribed to the worship of Unkunkulu as their supreme being.", "Their religious life in general, rituals, ceremonies, practices, devotion and loyalty revolves around the worship of this Supreme Being.", "However, with the popularisation of Christianity and other religions, Ndebele traditional religion is now uncommon.Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son, Lobengula.", "King Mzilikazi had established the Ndebele Kingdom, with Shona subjects paying tribute to him.", "The nascent kingdom encountered European powers for the first time and Lonbengula signed various treaties with the various nations jostling for power in the region, playing them off one another in order to preserve the sovereignty of his kingdom and gain the aid of the Europeans should the kingdom become involved in a war." ], [ "Colonial era (1890–1980)", "In the 1880s, British diamond magnate Cecil Rhodes' British South Africa Company (BSAC) started to make inroads into the region.", "In 1898, the name Southern Rhodesia was adopted.", "In 1888, Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele peoples.", "Cecil Rhodes presented this concession to persuade the British government to grant a royal charter to his British South Africa Company over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as Mashonaland.", "Rhodes sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika, then known as 'Zambesia'.", "In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties, Cecil Rhodes promoted the immigration of white settlers into the region, as well as the establishment of mines, primarily to extract the diamond ores present.", "In 1895 the BSAC adopted the name 'Rhodesia' for the territory of Zambesia, in honour of Cecil Rhodes.", "In 1898, 'Southern Rhodesia' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi, which later became Zimbabwe.", "The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).The Shona waged unsuccessful wars (known as Chimurenga) against encroachment upon their lands by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897.Following the failed insurrections of 1896–97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes's administration thus precipitating European settlement en masse in the new colony.The colony's first formal constitution was drafted in 1899, and copied various pieces of legislation directly from that of the Union of South Africa; Rhodesia was meant to be, in many ways, a shadow colony of the Cape.", "Many within the administrative framework of the BSAC assumed that Southern Rhodesia, when its \"development\" was \"suitably advanced\", would \"take its rightful place as a member of\" the Union of South Africa after the Second Boer War (1898-1902), when the four South African colonies joined under the auspices of one flag and began to work towards the creation of a unified administrative structure.", "The territory was made open to white settlement, and these settlers were then in turn given considerable administrative powers, including a franchise that, while on the surface non-racial, ensured \"a predominantly European electorate\" which \"operated to preclude Great Britain from modifying her policy in Southern Rhodesia and subsequently treating it as a territory inhabited mainly by Africans whose interests should be paramount and to whom British power should be transferred\".Elizabeth and Margaret on the 1947 royal tour of South AfricaSouthern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony in October 1923, subsequent to a referendum held the previous year.", "The British government took full command of the British South Africa Company's holdings, including both Northern and Southern Rhodesia.", "Northern Rhodesia retained its status as a colonial protectorate; Southern Rhodesia was given responsible self-government – with limitations and still annexed to the crown as a colony.", "Many studies of the country see it as a state that operated independently within the Commonwealth; nominally under the rule of the Crown, but technically able to do as it pleased.", "And in theory, Southern Rhodesia was able to govern itself, draft its own legislation, and elect its own parliamentary leaders.", "But in reality, this was self-government subject to supervision.", "Until the white minority settler government's declaration of unilateral independence in 1965, London remained in control of the colony's external affairs, and all legislation was subject to approval from the United Kingdom Government and the Queen.In 1930, the Land Apportionment Act divided rural land along racial lines, creating four types of land: white-owned land that could not be acquired by Africans; purchase areas for those Africans who could afford to purchase land; Tribal Trust Lands designated as the African reserves; and Crown lands owned by the state, reserved for future use and public parks.", "Fifty one percent of the land was given to approximately 50,000 white inhabitants, with 29.8 per cent left for over a million Africans.Many Rhodesians served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War II, mainly in the East African Campaign against Axis forces in Italian East Africa.In 1953, the British government consolidated the two colonies of Rhodesia with Nyasaland (now Malawi) in the ill-fated Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia.", "This move was heavily opposed by the residents of Nyasaland, who feared coming under the domination of white Rhodesians.", "In 1962, however, with growing African nationalism and general dissent, the British government declared that Nyasaland had the right to secede from the Federation; soon afterwards, they said the same for Northern Rhodesia.After African-majority governments had assumed control in neighbouring Northern Rhodesia and in Nyasaland, the white-minority Southern Rhodesian government led by Ian Smith made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965.The United Kingdom deemed this an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force.", "The white minority government declared itself a republic in 1970.A civil war ensued, with Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU and Robert Mugabe's ZANU using assistance from the governments of Zambia and Mozambique.", "Although Smith's declaration was not recognised by the United Kingdom nor any other foreign power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation \"Southern\", and claimed nation status as the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970 although this was not recognised internationally." ], [ "Independence and the 1980s", "The country gained official independence as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.The government held independence celebrations in Rufaro stadium in Salisbury, the capital.", "Lord Christopher Soames, the last Governor of Southern Rhodesia, watched as Charles, Prince of Wales, gave a farewell salute and the Rhodesian Signal Corps played \"God Save the Queen\".", "Many foreign dignitaries also attended, including Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India, President Shehu Shagari of Nigeria, President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, President Seretse Khama of Botswana, and Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser of Australia, representing the Commonwealth of Nations.", "Bob Marley sang 'Zimbabwe', a song he wrote, at the government's invitation in a concert at the country's independence festivities.President Shagari pledged $15 million at the celebration to train Zimbabweans in Zimbabwe and expatriates in Nigeria.", "Mugabe's government used part of the money to buy newspaper companies owned by South Africans, increasing the government's control over the media.", "The rest went to training students in Nigerian universities, government workers in the Administrative Staff College of Nigeria in Badagry, and soldiers in the Nigerian Defence Academy in Kaduna.", "Later that year Mugabe commissioned a report by the BBC on press freedom in Zimbabwe.", "The BBC issued its report on 26 June, recommending the privatisation of the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation and its independence from political interests.Mugabe's government changed the capital's name from Salisbury to Harare on 18 April 1982 in celebration of the second anniversary of independence.", "The government renamed the main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, in honour of Samora Machel, President of Mozambique.In 1992, a World Bank study indicated that more than 500 health centres had been built since 1980.The percentage of children vaccinated increased from 25% in 1980 to 67% in 1988 and life expectancy increased from 55 to 59 years.", "Enrolment increased by 232 per cent one year after primary education was made free and secondary school enrolment increased by 33 per cent in two years.", "These social policies lead to an increase in the debt ratio.", "Several laws were passed in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce wage gaps.", "However, the gaps remained considerable.", "In 1988, the law gave women, at least in theory, the same rights as men.", "Previously, they could only take a few personal initiatives without the consent of their father or husband.The new Constitution provided for an executive President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government.", "Reverend Canaan Banana served as the first President.", "In government amended the Constitution in 1987 to provide for an Executive President and abolished the office of Prime Minister.", "The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as president.", "The bicameral Parliament of Zimbabwe had a directly elected House of Assembly and an indirectly elected Senate, partly made up of tribal chiefs.", "The Constitution established two separate voters rolls, one for the black majority, who had 80% of the seats in Parliament, and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as Coloureds, people of mixed race, and Asians, who held 20%.", "The government amended the Constitution in 1986, eliminating the voter rolls and replacing the white seats with seats filled by nominated members.", "Many white MPs joined ZANU which then reappointed them.", "In 1990 the government abolished the Senate and increased the House of Assembly's membership to include members nominated by the President.Prime Minister Mugabe kept Peter Walls, the head of the army, in his government and put him in charge of integrating the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), and the Rhodesian Army.", "While Western media outlets praised Mugabe's efforts at reconciliation with the white minority, tension soon developed.", "On 17 March 1980, after several unsuccessful assassination attempts Mugabe asked Walls, \"Why are your men trying to kill me?\"", "Walls replied, \"If they were my men you would be dead.\"", "BBC News interviewed Walls on 11 August 1980.He told the BBC that he had asked British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to annul the 1980 election prior to the official announcement of the result on the grounds that Mugabe used intimidation to win the election.", "Walls said Thatcher had not replied to his request.", "On 12 August British government officials denied that they had not responded, saying Antony Duff, Deputy Governor of Salisbury, told Walls on 3 March that Thatcher would not annul the election.Minister of Information Nathan Shamuyarira said the government would not be \"held ransom by racial misfits\" and told \"all those Europeans who do not accept the new order to pack their bags.\"", "He also said the government continued to consider taking \"legal or administrative action\" against Walls.", "Mugabe, returning from a visit with United States President Jimmy Carter in New York City, said, \"One thing is quite clear—we are not going to have disloyal characters in our society.\"", "Walls returned to Zimbabwe after the interview, telling Peter Hawthorne of ''Time'' magazine, \"To stay away at this time would have appeared like an admission of guilt.\"", "Mugabe drafted legislation that would exile Walls from Zimbabwe for life and Walls moved to South Africa.Ethnic divisions soon came back to the forefront of national politics.", "Tension between ZAPU and ZANU erupted with guerrilla activity starting again in Matabeleland in south-western Zimbabwe.", "Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety.", "In 1982 government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, accusing Nkomo and his followers of plotting to overthrow the government.", "Mugabe fired Nkomo and his closest aides from the cabinet.", "Seven MPs, members of the Rhodesian Front, left Smith's party to sit as \"independents\" on 4 March 1982, signifying their dissatisfaction with his policies.", "As a result of what they saw as persecution of Nkomo and his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, army deserters began a campaign of dissidence against the government.", "Centring primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were at the time PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987.It involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members.Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and democratic sentiments, the government kept in force a \"state of emergency\".", "This gave the government widespread powers under the \"Law and Order Maintenance Act,\" including the right to detain persons without charge which it used quite widely.", "In 1983 to 1984 the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress members of the Ndebele tribe.", "The pacification campaign, known as the Gukuruhundi, or strong wind, resulted in at least 20,000 civilian deaths perpetrated by an elite, North Korean-trained brigade, known in Zimbabwe as the Gukurahundi.ZANU-PF increased its majority in the 1985 elections, winning 67 of the 100 seats.", "The majority gave Mugabe the opportunity to start making changes to the constitution, including those with regard to land restoration.", "Fighting did not cease until Mugabe and Nkomo reached an agreement in December 1987 whereby ZAPU became part of ZANU-PF and the government changed the constitution to make Mugabe the country's first executive president and Nkomo one of two vice-presidents." ], [ "1990s", "Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats.", "Election observers estimated voter turnout at only 54% and found the campaign neither free nor fair, though balloting met international standards.", "Unsatisfied with a ''de facto'' one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a ''de jure'' one-party state in September 1990 and lost.", "The government began further amending the constitution.", "The judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticised the first amendments enacted in April 1991 because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government.", "The general health of the civilian population also began to significantly flounder and by 1997 25% of the population of Zimbabwe had been infected by HIV, the AIDS virus.During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government.", "Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police.", "Trade unionists and workers also criticised the government during this time.", "In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations.", "In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy.", "In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.On 9 December 1997 a national strike paralysed the country.", "Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by ZANLA ex-combatants, war veterans, who had been the heart of incursions 20 years earlier in the Bush War.", "He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment.", "The discontent with the government spawned draconian government crackdowns which in turn started to destroy both the fabric of the state and of society.", "This in turn brought with it further discontent within the population.", "Thus a vicious downward spiral commenced.Although many whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring South Africa, those who remained continued to wield disproportionate control of some sectors of the economy, especially agriculture.", "In the late-1990s whites accounted for less than 1% of the population but owned 70% of arable land.", "Mugabe raised this issue of land ownership by white farmers.", "In a calculated move, he began forcible land redistribution, which brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund.", "Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the so-called 'war veterans' and youth militia.", "This led to a mass migration of White Zimbabweans out of Zimbabwe.", "At present almost no arable land is in the possession of white farmers.===The economy during the 1980s and 1990s===The economy was run along corporatist lines with strict governmental controls on all aspects of the economy.", "Controls were placed on wages, prices and massive increases in government spending resulting in significant budget deficits.", "This experiment met with very mixed results and Zimbabwe fell further behind the first world and unemployment.", "Some market reforms in the 1990s were attempted.", "A 40 per cent devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar was allowed to occur and price and wage controls were removed.", "These policies also failed at that time.", "Growth, employment, wages, and social service spending contracted sharply, inflation did not improve, the deficit remained well above target, and many industrial firms, notably in textiles and footwear, closed in response to increased competition and high real interest rates.", "The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this time." ], [ "1999 to 2000", "However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999.Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government grew considerably after the mid-1990s in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions brought about by the seizure of farmland owned by white farmers and economic sanctions imposed by Western countries in response.", "The Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) was established in September 1999 as an opposition party founded by trade unionist Morgan Tsvangirai.The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government.", "Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorised government seizure of white-owned land.", "The referendum was handily defeated.", "Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organised group of war veterans, some of the so-called war veterans judging from their age were not war veterans as they were too young to have fought in the chimurenga, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterised by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localised violence, electoral irregularities, and government intimidation of opposition supporters.", "Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly." ], [ "2002", "Presidential elections were held in March 2002.In the months leading up to the poll, ZANU-PF, with the support of the army, security services, and especially the so-called 'war veterans', – very few of whom actually fought in the Second Chimurenga against the Smith regime in the 1970s – set about wholesale intimidation and suppression of the MDC-led opposition.", "Despite strong international criticism, these measures, together with organised subversion of the electoral process, ensured a Mugabe victory .", "The government's behaviour drew strong criticism from the EU and the US, which imposed limited sanctions against the leading members of the Mugabe regime.", "Since the 2002 election, Zimbabwe has suffered further economic difficulty and growing political chaos." ], [ "2003–2005", "GBP 8 worth of Zimbabwean dollars in 2003Divisions within the opposition MDC had begun to fester early in the decade, after Morgan Tsvangirai (the president of the MDC) was lured into a government sting operation that videotaped him talking of Mr. Mugabe's removal from power.", "He was subsequently arrested and put on trial on treason charges.", "This crippled his control of party affairs and raised questions about his competence.", "It also catalysed a major split within the party.", "In 2004 he was acquitted, but not until after suffering serious abuse and mistreatment in prison.", "The opposing faction was led by Welshman Ncube who was the general secretary of the party.", "In mid-2004, vigilantes loyal to Mr. Tsvangirai began attacking members who were mostly loyal to Ncube, climaxing in a September raid on the party's Harare headquarters in which the security director was nearly thrown to his death.An internal party inquiry later established that aides to Tsvangirai had tolerated, if not endorsed, the violence.", "Divisive as the violence was, it was a debate over the rule of law that set off the party's final break-up in November 2005.These division severely weakened the opposition.", "In addition the government employed its own operatives to both spy on each side and to undermine each side via acts of espionage.", "Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005 were held in March 2005 in which ZANU-PF won a two-thirds majority, were again criticised by international observers as being flawed.", "Mugabe's political operatives were thus able to weaken the opposition internally and the security apparatus of the state was able to destabilise it externally by using violence in anti-Mugabe strongholds to prevent citizens from voting.", "Some voters were 'turned away' from polling station despite having proper identification, further guaranteeing that the government could control the results.", "Additionally Mugabe had started to appoint judges sympathetic to the government, making any judicial appeal futile.", "Mugabe was also able to appoint 30 of the members of parliament.As Senate elections approached further opposition splits occurred.", "Ncube's supporters argued that the M.D.C. should field a slate of candidates; Tsvangirai's argued for a boycott.", "When party leaders voted on the issue, Ncube's side narrowly won, but Mr. Tsvangirai declared that as president of the party he was not bound by the majority's decision.", "Again the opposition was weakened.", "As a result, the elections for a new Senate in November 2005 were largely boycotted by the opposition.", "Mugabe's party won 24 of the 31 constituencies where elections were held amid low voter turnout.", "Again, evidence surfaced of voter intimidation and fraud.", "In May 2005 the government began Operation Murambatsvina.", "It was officially billed to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities.", "In practice its purpose was to punish political opponents.", "The UN estimates 700,000 people have been left without jobs or homes as a result.", "Families and traders, especially at the beginning of the operation, were often given no notice before police destroyed their homes and businesses.", "Others were able to salvage some possessions and building materials but often had nowhere to go, despite the government's statement that people should be returning to their rural homes.", "Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter., .", "The government interfered with non-governmental organisation (NGO) efforts to provide emergency assistance to the displaced in many instances.", "Some families were removed to transit camps, where they had no shelter or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary facilities.", "The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced.Human Rights Watch said the evictions had disrupted treatment for people with HIV/AIDS in a country where 3,000 die from the disease each week and about 1.3 million children have been orphaned.", "The operation was \"the latest manifestation of a massive human rights problem that has been going on for years\", said Amnesty International.", "As of September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced.", "The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale.In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate (abolished in 1987) and that nationalised all land.", "This converted all ownership rights into leases.", "The amendments also ended the right of landowners to challenge government expropriation of land in the courts and marked the end of any hope of returning any land that had been hitherto grabbed by armed land invasions.", "Elections for the senate in November resulted in a victory for the government.", "The MDC split over whether to field candidates and partially boycotted the vote.", "In addition to low turnout there was widespread government intimidation.", "The split in the MDC hardened into factions, each of which claimed control of the party.", "The early months of 2006 were marked by food shortages and mass hunger.", "The sheer extremity of the siltation was revealed by the fact that in the courts, state witnesses said they were too weak from hunger to testify." ], [ "2006 to 2007", "In August 2006 runaway inflation forced the government to replace its existing currency with a revalued one.", "In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed the \"harmonisation\" of the parliamentary and presidential election schedules in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as an excuse to extend Mugabe's term as president until 2010.Morgan Tsvangirai was badly beaten on 12 March 2007 after being arrested and held at Machipisa Police Station in the Highfield suburb of Harare.", "The event garnered an international outcry and was considered particularly brutal and extreme, even considering the reputation of Mugabe's government.", "Kolawole Olaniyan, Director of Amnesty International's Africa Programme said \"We are very concerned by reports of continuing brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and call on the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists\".The economy has shrunk by 50% from 2000 to 2007.In September 2007 the inflation rate was put at almost 8,000%, the world's highest.", "There are frequent power and water outages.", "Harare's drinking water became unreliable in 2006 and as a consequence dysentery and cholera swept the city in December 2006 and January 2007.Unemployment in formal jobs is running at a record 80%.", "There was widespread hunger, manipulated by the government so that opposition strongholds suffer the most.", "Availability of bread was severely constrained after a poor wheat harvest and the closure of all bakeries.The country, which used to be one of Africa's richest, became one of its poorest.", "Many observers now view the country as a 'failed state'.", "The settlement of the Second Congo War brought back Zimbabwe's substantial military commitment, although some troops remain to secure the mining assets under their control.", "The government lacks the resources or machinery to deal with the ravages of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which affects 25% of the population.", "With all this and the forced and violent removal of white farmers in a brutal land redistribution program, Mugabe has earned himself widespread scorn from the international arena.The regime has managed to cling to power by creating wealthy enclaves for government ministers, and senior party members.", "For example, Borrowdale Brook, a suburb of Harare is an oasis of wealth and privilege.", "It features mansions, manicured lawns, full shops with fully stocked shelves containing an abundance of fruit and vegetables, big cars and a golf club give is the home to President Mugabe's out-of-town retreat.Zimbabwe's bakeries shut down in October 2007 and supermarkets warned that they would have no bread for the foreseeable future due to collapse in wheat production after the seizure of white-owned farms.", "The ministry of agriculture has also blamed power shortages for the wheat shortfall, saying that electricity cuts have affected irrigation and halved crop yields per acre.", "The power shortages are because Zimbabwe relies on Mozambique for some of its electricity and that due to an unpaid bill of $35 million Mozambique had reduced the amount of electrical power it supplies.", "On 4 December 2007, The United States imposed travel sanctions against 38 people with ties to President Mugabe because they \"played a central role in the regime's escalated human rights abuses.", "\"On 8 December 2007, Mugabe attended a meeting of EU and African leaders in Lisbon, prompting UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown to decline to attend.", "While German chancellor Angela Merkel criticised Mugabe with her public comments, the leaders of other African countries offered him statements of support.===Deterioration of the educational system===The educational system in Zimbabwe which was once regarded as among the best in Africa, went into crisis in 2007 because of the country's economic meltdown.", "One foreign reporter witnessed hundreds of children at Hatcliffe Extension Primary School in Epworth, west of Harare, writing in the dust on the floor because they had no exercise books or pencils.", "The high school exam system unravelled in 2007.Examiners refused to mark examination papers when they were offered just Z$79 a paper, enough to buy three small candies.", "Corruption has crept into the system and may explain why in January 2007 thousands of pupils received no marks for subjects they had entered, while others were deemed \"excellent\" in subjects they had not sat.", "However, as of late the education system has recovered and is still considered the best in Southern Africa." ], [ "2008", "===2008 elections===Zimbabwe held a presidential election along with a 2008 parliamentary election of 29 March.", "The three major candidates were incumbent President Robert Mugabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai (MDC-T), and Simba Makoni, an independent.", "As no candidate received an outright majority in the first round, a second round was held on 27 June 2008 between Tsvangirai (with 47.9% of the first round vote) and Mugabe (43.2%).", "Tsvangirai withdrew from the second round a week before it was scheduled to take place, citing violence against his party's supporters.", "The second round went ahead, despite widespread criticism, and led to victory for Mugabe.Because of Zimbabwe's dire economic situation the election was expected to provide President Mugabe with his toughest electoral challenge to date.", "Mugabe's opponents were critical of the handling of the electoral process, and the government was accused of planning to rig the election; Human Rights Watch said that the election was likely to be \"deeply flawed\".", "After the first round, but before the counting was completed, Jose Marcos Barrica, the head of the Southern African Development Community observer mission, described the election as \"a peaceful and credible expression of the will of the people of Zimbabwe.", "\"No official results were announced for more than a month after the first round.", "The failure to release results was strongly criticised by the MDC, which unsuccessfully sought an order from the High Court to force their release.", "An independent projection placed Tsvangirai in the lead, but without the majority needed to avoid a second round.", "The MDC declared that Tsvangirai won a narrow majority in the first round and initially refused to participate in any second round.", "ZANU-PF has said that Mugabe will participate in a second round; the party alleged that some electoral officials, in connection with the MDC, fraudulently reduced Mugabe's score, and as a result a recount was conducted.After the recount and the verification of the results, the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission (ZEC) announced on 2 May that Tsvangirai won 47.9% and Mugabe won 43.2%, thereby necessitating a run-off, which was to be held on 27 June 2008.Despite Tsvangirai's continuing claims to have won a first round majority, he refused to participate in the second round.", "The period following the first round was marked by serious political violence caused by ZANU-PF.", "ZANU-PF blamed the MDC supporters for perpetrating this violence; Western governments and prominent Western organisations have blamed ZANU-PF for the violence which seems very likely to be true.", "On 22 June 2008, Tsvangirai announced that he was withdrawing from the run-off, describing it as a \"violent sham\" and saying that his supporters risked being killed if they voted for him.", "The second round nevertheless went ahead as planned with Mugabe as the only actively participating candidate, although Tsvangirai's name remained on the ballot.", "Mugabe won the second round by an overwhelming margin and was sworn in for another term as president on 29 June.The international reaction to the second round have varied.", "The United States and states of the European Union have called for increased sanctions.", "On 11 July, the United Nations Security Council voted to impose sanctions on the Zimbabwe; Russia and China vetoed.", "The African Union has called for a \"government of national unity.", "\"Preliminary talks to set up conditions for official negotiations began between leading negotiators from both parties on 10 July, and on 22 July, the three party leaders met for the first time in Harare to express their support for a negotiated settlement of disputes arising out of the presidential and parliamentary elections.", "Negotiations between the parties officially began on 25 July and are currently proceeding with very few details released from the negotiation teams in Pretoria, as coverage by the media is barred from the premises where the negotiations are taking place.", "The talks were mediated by South African President Thabo Mbeki.On 15 September 2008, the leaders of the 14-member Southern African Development Community witnessed the signing of the power-sharing agreement, brokered by South African leader Thabo Mbeki.", "With symbolic handshake and warm smiles at the Rainbow Towers hotel, in Harare, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed the deal to end the violent political crisis.", "As provided, Robert Mugabe will remain president, Morgan Tsvangirai will become prime minister, ZANU-PF and the MDC will share control of the police, Mugabe's Zanu (PF) will command the Army, and Arthur Mutambara becomes deputy prime minister.===Marange diamond fields massacre===In November 2008 the Air Force of Zimbabwe was sent, after some police officers began refusing orders to shoot the illegal miners at Marange diamond fields.", "Up to 150 of the estimated 30,000 illegal miners were shot from helicopter gunships.", "In 2008 some Zimbabwean lawyers and opposition politicians from Mutare claimed that Shiri was the prime mover behind the military assaults on illegal diggers in the diamond mines in the east of Zimbabwe.", "Estimates of the death toll by mid-December range from 83 reported by the Mutare City Council, based on a request for burial ground, to 140 estimated by the (then) opposition Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai party." ], [ "2009 to present", "===2009–2017===In January 2009, Morgan Tsvangirai announced that he would do as the leaders across Africa had insisted and join a coalition government as prime minister with his nemesis, President Robert Mugabe .", "On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Zimbabwe.", "By 2009 inflation had peaked at 500 billion % per year under the Mugabe government and the Zimbabwe currency was worthless.", "The opposition shared power with the Mugabe regime between 2009 and 2013, Zimbabwe switched to using the US dollar as currency and the economy improved reaching a growth rate of 10% per year.In 2013 the Mugabe government won an election which The Economist described as \"rigged,\" doubled the size of the civil service and embarked on \"...misrule and dazzling corruption.\"", "However, the United Nations, African Union and SADC endorsed the elections as free and fair.By 2016 the economy had collapsed, nationwide protests took place throughout the country and the finance minister admitted \"Right now we literally have nothing.", "\"There was the introduction of bond notes to literally fight the biting cash crisis and liquidity crunch.", "Cash became scarce on the market in the year 2017.On Wednesday 15 November 2017 the military placed President Mugabe under house arrest and removed him from power.", "The military stated that the president was safe.", "The military placed tanks around government buildings in Harare and blocked the main road to the airport.", "Public opinion in the capital favored the dictators removal although they were uncertain about his replacement with another dictatorship.", "The Times reported that Emmerson Mnangagwa helped to orchestrate the coup.", "He had recently been sacked by Mr Mugabe so that the path could be smoothed for Grace Mugabe to replace her husband.", "A Zimbabwean army officer, Major General Sibusiso Moyo, went on television to say the military was targeting \"criminals\" around President Mugabe but not actively removing the president from power.", "However the head of the African Union described it as such.Ugandan writer Charles Onyango-Obbo stated on Twitter \"If it looks like a coup, walks like a coup and quacks like a coup, then it's a coup\".", "Naunihal Singh, an assistant professor at the U.S.", "Naval War College and author of a book on military coups, described the situation in Zimbabwe as a coup.", "He tweeted that \"'The President is safe' is a classic coup catch-phrase\" of such an event.Robert Mugabe resigned 21 November 2017.Second Vice-President Phelekezela Mphoko became the Acting President.", "Former Vice-President and new ZANU-PF -leader, Emmerson Mnangagwa, was sworn in as president on 24 November 2017.===2018–2019===General elections were held on 30 July 2018 to elect the president and members of both houses of parliament.", "Ruling party ZANU-PF won the majority of seats in parliament, incumbent President Emmerson Mnangagwa was declared the winner after receiving 50.8% of votes.", "The opposition accused the government of rigging the vote.", "In subsequent riots by MDC supporters, the army opened fire and killed three people, while three others died of their injuries the following day.In January 2019 following a 130% increase in the price of fuel thousands of Zimbabweans protested and the government responded with a coordinated crackdown that resulted in hundreds of arrests and multiple deaths.In June 2019, former president Robert Mugabe died in Singapore, aged 95.", "'''Economic statistics 2021'''GDP growth in Zimbabwe is projected to reach 3.9% in 2021, a significant improvement after a two-year recession, according to the World Bank Zimbabwe Economic Update." ], [ "See also", "*History of Africa*Zimbabwe:**Land reform in Zimbabwe**Economic history of Zimbabwe**Education in Zimbabwe**Foreign relations of Zimbabwe**List of presidents of Zimbabwe**Politics of Zimbabwe**Prime Minister of Zimbabwe**Bulawayo history and timeline** Harare history and timeline**Years in Zimbabwe*Rhodesia:**President of Rhodesia**Prime Minister of Rhodesia**Governor of Southern Rhodesia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***Bourne, Richard.", "''Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?''", "(Zed Books 2011).", "*Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama: Democracy and Peace in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 12/08, Stadtschlaining 2008*Maguwu, Farai: Land Reform, Famine and Environmental Degradation in Zimbabwe in: EPU Research Papers: Issue 06/07, Stadtschlaining 2007* Michel, Eddie.", "''The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy Toward Rhodesia During the UDI Era, 1965-1979'' (New York: Routledge, 2019).", "online review* Mlambo, Alois.", "''History of Zimbabwe'' (Oxford University Press, 2014) *Raftopoulos, Brian & Alois Mlambo, Eds.", "''Becoming Zimbabwe.", "A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008'' (Weaver Press, 2009).", "* Scarnecchia, Timothy.", "''The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe: Harare and Highfield, 1940-1964'' (Rochester University Press, 2008).", "* Sibanda, Eliakim M. ''The Zimbabwe African People's Union, 1961-87: A Political History of Insurgency in Southern Rhodesia'' (2004)." ], [ "External links", "* Background Note: Zimbabwe* Monomotapa" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Russia" ], [ "Introduction", "The Millennium of Russia monument in Veliky Novgorod (unveiled on 8 September 1862)Russian states around 1470, including Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, Ryazan, Rostov and Moscow.Expansion and territorial evolution of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire between the 14th and 20th centuriesRussian SFSR within the Soviet Union in 1956–1991The '''history of Russia''' begins with the histories of the East Slavs.", "The traditional start date of specifically Russian history is the establishment of the Rus' state in the north in 862, ruled by Varangians.", "In 882, Prince Oleg of Novgorod seized Kiev, uniting the northern and southern lands of the Eastern Slavs under one authority, moving the governance center to Kiev by the end of the 10th century, and maintaining northern and southern parts with significant autonomy from each other.", "The state adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.", "Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state due to the Mongol invasions in 1237–1240.After the 13th century, Moscow became a political and cultural magnet for the unification of Russian lands.", "By the end of the 15th century, many of the petty principalities around Moscow had been united with the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which took full control of its own sovereignty under Ivan the Great.Ivan the Terrible transformed the Grand Duchy into the Tsardom of Russia in 1547.However, the death of Ivan's son Feodor I without issue in 1598 created a succession crisis and led Russia into a period of chaos and civil war known as the Time of Troubles, ending with the coronation of Michael Romanov as the first Tsar of the Romanov dynasty in 1613.During the rest of the seventeenth century, Russia completed the exploration and conquest of Siberia, claiming lands as far as the Pacific Ocean by the end of the century.", "Domestically, Russia faced numerous uprisings of the various ethnic groups under their control, as exemplified by the Cossack leader Stenka Razin, who led a revolt in 1670–1671.In 1721, in the wake of the Great Northern War, Tsar Peter the Great renamed the state as the Russian Empire; he is also noted for establishing St. Petersburg as the new capital of his Empire, and for his introducing Western European culture to Russia.", "In 1762, Russia came under the control of Catherine the Great, who continued the westernizing policies of Peter the Great, and ushered in the era of the Russian Enlightenment.", "Catherine's grandson, Alexander I, repulsed an invasion by the French Emperor Napoleon, leading Russia into the status of one of the great powers.Peasant revolts intensified during the nineteenth century, culminating with Alexander II abolishing Russian serfdom in 1861.In the following decades, reform efforts such as the Stolypin reforms of 1906–1914, the constitution of 1906, and the State Duma (1906–1917) attempted to open and liberalize the economy and political system, but the emperors refused to relinquish autocratic rule and resisted sharing their power.", "A combination of economic breakdown, mismanagement over Russia's involvement in World War I, and discontent with the autocratic system of government triggered the Russian Revolution in 1917.The end of the monarchy initially brought into office a coalition of liberals and moderate socialists, but their failed policies led to the October Revolution.", "In 1922, Soviet Russia, along with the Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, and Transcaucasian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, officially merging all four republics to form the Soviet Union as a single state.", "Between 1922 and 1991 the history of Russia essentially became the history of the Soviet Union.", "During this period, the Soviet Union was one of the victors in World War II after recovering from a surprise invasion in 1941 by Nazi Germany and its collaborators, which had previously signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union.", "The Soviet Union's network of satellite states in Eastern Europe, which were brought into its sphere of influence in the closing stages of World War II, helped the country become a superpower competing with fellow superpower the United States and other Western countries in the Cold War.By the mid-1980s, with the weaknesses of Soviet economic and political structures becoming acute, Mikhail Gorbachev embarked on major reforms, which eventually led to the weakening of the communist party and dissolution of the Soviet Union, leaving Russia again on its own and marking the start of the history of post-Soviet Russia.", "The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic renamed itself as the Russian Federation and became the primary successor state to the Soviet Union.", "Russia retained its nuclear arsenal but lost its superpower status.", "Scrapping the central planning and state-ownership of property of the Soviet era in the 1990s, new leaders, led by President Vladimir Putin, took political and economic power after 2000 and engaged in an assertive foreign policy.", "Coupled with economic growth, Russia has since regained significant global status as a world power.", "Russia's 2014 annexation of the Crimean Peninsula led to economic sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union.", "Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine led to significantly expanded sanctions.", "Under Putin's leadership, corruption in Russia is rated as the worst in Europe, and Russia's human rights situation has been increasingly criticized by international observers." ], [ "Prehistory", "The Kurgan hypothesis: South Russia as the urheimat of Indo-European peoplesThe first human settlement on the territory of Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic.", "About 2 million years ago, representatives of ''Homo erectus'' migrated from Western Asia to the North Caucasus (archaeological site of on the Taman Peninsula).", "At , in a skull of ''Elasmotherium caucasicum'', which lived 1.5–1.2 million years ago, a stone tool was found.", "1.5-million-year-old Oldowan flint tools have been discovered in the Dagestan Akusha region of the north Caucasus, demonstrating the presence of early humans in the territory of present-day Russia.Fossils of Denisovans in Russia date to about 110,000 years ago.", "DNA from a bone fragment found in Denisova Cave, belonging to a female who died about 90,000 years ago, shows that she was a hybrid of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father.", "Russia was also home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals - the partial skeleton of a Neanderthal infant in Mezmaiskaya cave in Adygea showed a carbon-dated age of only 45,000 years.", "In 2008, Russian archaeologists from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of Novosibirsk, working at the site of Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia, uncovered a 40,000-year-old small bone fragment from the fifth finger of a juvenile hominin, which DNA analysis revealed to be a previously unknown species of human, which was named the Denisova hominin.The first trace of ''Homo sapiens'' on the large expanse of Russian territory dates back to 45,000 years, in central Siberia (Ust'-Ishim man).", "The discovery of some of the earliest evidence for the presence of anatomically modern humans found anywhere in Europe was reported in 2007 from the Kostenki archaeological site near the Don River in Russia (dated to at least 40,000 years ago) and at Sungir (34,600 years ago).", "Humans reached Arctic Russia (Mamontovaya Kurya) by 40,000 years ago.During the prehistoric eras the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of nomadic pastoralists.", "(In classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as \"Scythia\".)", "Remnants of these long-gone steppe cultures were discovered in the course of the 20th century in such places as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, and Pazyryk." ], [ "Antiquity", "Hellenistic soldiers of the Bosporan Kingdom; from Taman Peninsula (Yubileynoe), southern Russia, 3rd quarter of the 4th century BC; marble, Pushkin MuseumIn the later part of the 8th century BCE, Greek merchants brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria.", "Gelonus was described by Herodotus as a huge (Europe's biggest) earth- and wood-fortified grad inhabited around 500 BC by Heloni and Budini.", "In 513 BC, the king of the Achaemenid Empire, Darius I, would launch a military campaign around the Black Sea into Scythia, modern-day Ukraine, eventually reaching the Tanais river (now known as the Don).Greeks, mostly from the city-state of Miletus, would colonize large parts of modern-day Crimea and the Sea of Azov during the seventh and sixth centuries BC, eventually unifying into the Bosporan Kingdom by 480 BC, and would be incorporated into the large Kingdom of Pontus in 107 BC.", "The Kingdom would eventually be conquered by the Roman Republic, and the Bosporan Kingdom would become a client state of the Roman Empire.", "At about the 2nd century AD Goths migrated to the Black Sea, and in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, a semi-legendary Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in Southern Russia until it was overrun by Huns.", "Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom was also overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions, led by warlike tribes which would often move on to Europe, as was the case with the Huns and Turkish Avars.In the second millennium BC, the territories between the Kama and the Irtysh Rivers were the home of a Proto-Uralic-speaking population that had contacts with Proto-Indo-European speakers from the south.", "The woodland population is the ancestor of the modern Ugrian inhabitants of Trans-Uralia.", "Other researchers say that the Khanty people originated in the south Ural steppe and moved northwards into their current location about 500 AD.A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas through to the 8th century.", "Noted for their laws, tolerance, and cosmopolitanism, the Khazars were the main commercial link between the Baltic and the Muslim Abbasid empire centered in Baghdad.", "They were important allies of the Eastern Roman Empire, and waged a series of successful wars against the Arab Caliphates.", "In the 8th century, the Khazars embraced Judaism." ], [ "Early history", "===Early Slavs===Some of the ancestors of the modern Russians were the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the Pripet Marshes.", "The Early East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev (present-day Ukraine) towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk (present-day Belarus) towards Novgorod and Rostov.From the 7th century onwards, East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia and slowly conquered and assimilated the native Finnic and Baltic tribes, such as the Merya, the Muromians, and the Meshchera.===Kievan Rus' (862–1240)===''Calling of the Varangians'' by Viktor VasnetsovScandinavian Norsemen, known as Vikings in Western Europe and Varangians in the East, combined piracy and trade throughout Northern Europe.", "In the mid-9th century, they began to venture along the waterways from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.", "According to the legendary Calling of the Varangians, recorded in several Rus' chronicles such as the ''Novgorod First Chronicle'' and ''Primary Chronicle'', the Varangians Rurik, Sineus and Truvor were invited in the 860s to restore order in three towns – either Novgorod (most texts) or Staraya Ladoga (''Hypatian Codex''); Beloozero; and Izborsk (most texts) or \"Slovensk\" (''Pskov Third Chronicle''), respectively.", "Their successors allegedly moved south and extended their authority to Kiev, which had been previously dominated by the Khazars.Thus, the first East Slavic state, Rus', emerged in the 9th century along the Dnieper River valley.", "A coordinated group of princely states with a common interest in maintaining trade along the river routes, Kievan Rus' controlled the trade route for furs, wax, and slaves between Scandinavia and the Byzantine Empire along the Volkhov and Dnieper Rivers.By the end of the 10th century, the minority Norse military aristocracy had merged with the native Slavic population, which also absorbed Greek Christian influences in the course of the multiple campaigns to loot Tsargrad, or Constantinople.", "One such campaign claimed the life of the foremost Slavic druzhina leader, Svyatoslav I, who was renowned for having crushed the power of the Khazars on the Volga.Kievan Rus' after the Council of Liubech in 1097Kievan Rus' is important for its introduction of a Slavic variant of the Eastern Orthodox religion, dramatically deepening a synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next thousand years.", "The region adopted Christianity in 988 by the official act of public baptism of Kiev inhabitants by Prince Vladimir I.", "Some years later the first code of laws, Russkaya Pravda, was introduced by Yaroslav the Wise.", "From the onset, the Kievan princes followed the Byzantine example and kept the Church dependent on them.By the 11th century, particularly during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Kievan Rus' displayed an economy and achievements in architecture and literature superior to those that then existed in the western part of the continent.", "Compared with the languages of European Christendom, the Russian language was little influenced by the Greek and Latin of early Christian writings.", "This was because Church Slavonic was used directly in liturgy instead.A nomadic Turkic people, the Kipchaks (also known as the Cumans), replaced the earlier Pechenegs as the dominant force in the south steppe regions neighbouring to Rus' at the end of the 11th century and founded a nomadic state in the steppes along the Black Sea (Desht-e-Kipchak).", "Repelling their regular attacks, especially in Kiev, was a heavy burden for the southern areas of Rus'.", "The nomadic incursions caused a massive influx of Slavs to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye.Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively.", "Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, Novgorod in the north, and Halych-Volhynia in the south-west.", "Conquest by the Mongol Golden Horde in the 13th century was the final blow.", "Kiev was destroyed.", "Halych-Volhynia would eventually be absorbed into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and independent Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, would establish the basis for the modern Russian nation.===Mongol invasion and vassalage (1223–1480)===Vladimir by Batu Khan in February 1238The invading Mongols accelerated the fragmentation of the Rus'.", "In 1223, the disunited southern princes faced a Mongol raiding party at the Kalka River and were soundly defeated.", "In 1237–1238 the Mongols burnt down the city of Vladimir (4 February 1238) and other major cities of northeast Russia, routed the Russians at the Sit' River, and then moved west into Poland and Hungary.", "By then they had conquered most of the Russian principalities.", "Only the Novgorod Republic escaped occupation and continued to flourish in the orbit of the Hanseatic League.The impact of the Mongol invasion on the territories of Kievan Rus' was uneven.", "The advanced city culture was almost completely destroyed.", "As older centers such as Kiev and Vladimir never recovered from the devastation of the initial attack, the new cities of Moscow, Tver and Nizhny Novgorod began to compete for hegemony in the Mongol-dominated Rus' principalities under the suzerainty of the Golden Horde.", "Although a coalition of Rus' princes led by Dmitry Donskoy defeated Mongol warlord Mamai at Kulikovo in 1380, forces of the new khan Tokhtamysh and his Rus' allies immediately sacked Moscow in 1382 as punishment for resisting Mongol authority.", "Mongol domination of the Rus' principalities, along with tax collection by various overlords such as the Crimean Khans, continued into the early 16th century, despite later claims of Muscovite bookmen that the indecisive standoff at the Ugra in 1480 had signified \"the end of the Tatar yoke\" and the \"liberation of Russia\".The Mongols dominated the lower reaches of the Volga and held Russia in sway from their western capital at Sarai, one of the largest cities of the medieval world.", "The princes had to pay tribute to the Mongols of the Golden Horde, commonly called Tatars; but in return they received charters authorizing them to act as deputies to the khans.", "In general, the princes were allowed considerable freedom to rule as they wished, while the Russian Orthodox Church even experienced a spiritual revival.The Mongols left their impact on the Russians in such areas as military tactics and transportation.", "Under Mongol occupation, Muscovy also developed its postal road network, census, fiscal system, and military organization.At the same time, Prince of Novgorod, Alexander Nevsky, managed to repel the offensive of the Northern Crusades against Novgorod from the West.", "Despite this, becoming the Grand Prince, Alexander declared himself a vassal to the Golden Horde, not having the strength to resist its power." ], [ "Grand Duchy of Moscow (1283–1547)", "===Rise of Moscow===Dmitry Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo Daniil Aleksandrovich, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, founded the principality of Moscow (known as Muscovy in English), which first cooperated with and ultimately expelled the Tatars from Russia.", "Well-situated in the central river system of Russia and surrounded by protective forests and marshes, Moscow was at first only a vassal of Vladimir, but soon it absorbed its parent state.A major factor in the ascendancy of Moscow was the cooperation of its rulers with the Mongol overlords, who granted them the title of Grand Prince of Moscow and made them agents for collecting the Tatar tribute from the Russian principalities.", "The principality's prestige was further enhanced when it became the center of the Russian Orthodox Church.", "Its head, the Metropolitan, fled from Kiev to Vladimir in 1299 and a few years later established the permanent headquarters of the Church in Moscow under the original title of Kiev Metropolitan.By the middle of the 14th century, the power of the Mongols was declining, and the Grand Princes felt able to openly oppose the Mongol yoke.", "In 1380, at Battle of Kulikovo on the Don River, the Mongols were defeated, and although this hard-fought victory did not end Tatar rule of Russia, it did bring great fame to the Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy.", "Moscow's leadership in Russia was now firmly based and by the middle of the 14th century its territory had greatly expanded through purchase, war, and marriage.===Ivan III, the Great===Ivan III of Russia at the Millennium of Russia.", "At his feet, defeated: Tatar, Lithuanian and Baltic German.In the 15th century, the grand princes of Moscow continued to consolidate Russian land to increase their population and wealth.", "The most successful practitioner of this process was Ivan III, who laid the foundations for a Russian national state.", "Ivan competed with his powerful northwestern rival, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, for control over some of the semi-independent Upper Principalities in the upper Dnieper and Oka River basins.Through the defections of some princes, border skirmishes, and a long war with the Novgorod Republic, Ivan III was able to annex Novgorod and Tver.", "As a result, the Grand Duchy of Moscow tripled in size under his rule.", "During his conflict with Pskov, a monk named Filofei (Philotheus of Pskov) composed a letter to Ivan III, with the prophecy that the latter's kingdom would be the Third Rome.", "The Fall of Constantinople and the death of the last Greek Orthodox Christian emperor contributed to this new idea of Moscow as ''New Rome'' and the seat of Orthodox Christianity, as did Ivan's 1472 marriage to Byzantine Princess Sophia Palaiologina.Under Ivan III, the first central government bodies were created in Russia: Prikaz.", "The Sudebnik was adopted, the first set of laws since the 11th century.", "The double-headed eagle was adopted as the coat of arms of Russia.Grand Duchy of Moscow (Territorial expansion between 1300 and 1547)Ivan proclaimed his absolute sovereignty over all Russian princes and nobles.", "Refusing further tribute to the Tatars, Ivan initiated a series of attacks that opened the way for the complete defeat of the declining Golden Horde, now divided into several Khanates and hordes.", "Ivan and his successors sought to protect the southern boundaries of their domain against attacks of the Crimean Tatars and other hordes.", "To achieve this aim, they sponsored the construction of the Great Abatis Belt and granted manors to nobles, who were obliged to serve in the military.", "The manor system provided a basis for an emerging cavalry-based army.In this way, internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion of the state.", "By the 16th century, the rulers of Moscow considered the entire Russian territory their collective property.", "Various semi-independent princes still claimed specific territories, but Ivan III forced the lesser princes to acknowledge the grand prince of Moscow and his descendants as unquestioned rulers with control over military, judicial, and foreign affairs.", "Gradually, the Russian ruler emerged as a powerful, autocratic ruler, a tsar.", "The first Russian ruler to officially crown himself \"Tsar\" was Ivan IV.Ivan III tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde over the Rus', renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state.", "Biographer Fennell concludes that his reign was \"militarily glorious and economically sound,\" and especially points to his territorial annexations and his centralized control over local rulers.", "However, Fennell argues that his reign was also \"a period of cultural depression and spiritual barrenness.", "Freedom was stamped out within the Russian lands.", "By his bigoted anti-Catholicism Ivan brought down the curtain between Russia and the west.", "For the sake of territorial aggrandizement he deprived his country of the fruits of Western learning and civilization.\"" ], [ "Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721)", "===Ivan IV, the Terrible===Ivan IV was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then \"Tsar of All the Russias\" until his death in 1584.The development of the Tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of Ivan IV (1547–1584), known as \"Ivan the Terrible\".", "He strengthened the position of the monarch to an unprecedented degree, as he ruthlessly subordinated the nobles to his will, exiling or executing many on the slightest provocation.", "Nevertheless, Ivan is often seen as a farsighted statesman who reformed Russia as he promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor), curbed the influence of the clergy, and introduced local self-management in rural regions.", "Tsar also created the first regular army in Russia: Streltsy.His long Livonian War (1558–1583) for control of the Baltic coast and access to the sea trade ultimately proved a costly failure.", "Ivan managed to annex the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia.", "These conquests complicated the migration of aggressive nomadic hordes from Asia to Europe via the Volga and Urals.", "Through these conquests, Russia acquired a significant Muslim Tatar population and emerged as a multiethnic and multiconfessional state.", "Also around this period, the mercantile Stroganov family established a firm foothold in the Urals and recruited Russian Cossacks to colonise Siberia.In the later part of his reign, Ivan divided his realm in two.", "In the zone known as the ''oprichnina'', Ivan's followers carried out a series of bloody purges of the feudal aristocracy (whom he suspected of treachery after prince Andrey Kurbsky's betrayal), culminating in the Massacre of Novgorod in 1570.This combined with the military losses, epidemics, and poor harvests so weakened Russia that the Crimean Tatars were able to sack central Russian regions and burn down Moscow in 1571.However, in 1572 the Russians defeated the Crimean Tatar army at the Battle of Molodi and Ivan abandoned the ''oprichnina''.At the end of Ivan IV's reign the Polish–Lithuanian and Swedish armies carried out a powerful intervention in Russia, devastating its northern and northwest regions.===Time of Troubles===The Poles surrender the Moscow Kremlin to Prince Pozharsky in 1612Painting depicting the wedding uniting two families of the powerful Boyar class that dominated Muscovite politics in the 16th and 17th centuries, painting of 1883 by Konstantin Makovsky.", "Hillwood Estate, Museum & Gardens.The death of Ivan's childless son Feodor was followed by a period of civil wars and foreign intervention known as the Time of Troubles (1606–13).", "Extremely cold summers (1601–1603) wrecked crops, which led to the Russian famine of 1601–1603 and increased the social disorganization.", "Boris Godunov's reign ended in chaos, civil war combined with foreign intrusion, devastation of many cities and depopulation of the rural regions.", "The country rocked by internal chaos also attracted several waves of interventions by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.During the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618), Polish–Lithuanian forces reached Moscow and installed the impostor False Dmitriy I in 1605, then supported False Dmitry II in 1607.The decisive moment came when a combined Russian-Swedish army was routed by the Polish forces under hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski at the Battle of Klushino on .", "As the result of the battle, the Seven Boyars, a group of Russian nobles, deposed the tsar Vasily Shuysky on , and recognized the Polish prince Władysław IV Vasa as the Tsar of Russia on .", "The Poles occupied Moscow on .", "Moscow revolted but riots there were brutally suppressed and the city was set on fire.The crisis provoked a patriotic national uprising against the invasion, both in 1611 and 1612.A volunteer army, led by the merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky, expelled the foreign forces from the capital on .The Russian statehood survived the \"Time of Troubles\" and the rule of weak or corrupt Tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy.", "Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the faction controlling the throne.", "However, the Time of Troubles caused the loss of much territory to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Russo-Polish war, as well as to the Swedish Empire in the Ingrian War.===Accession of the Romanovs and early rule===Mikhail Romanov, the first Tsar of the Romanov dynastyIn February 1613, after the chaos and expulsion of the Poles from Moscow, a national assembly elected Michael Romanov, the young son of Patriarch Filaret, to the throne.", "The Romanov dynasty ruled Russia until 1917.The immediate task of the new monarch was to restore peace.", "Fortunately for Moscow, its major enemies, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden, were engaged in a bitter conflict with each other, which provided Russia the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617 and to sign a truce with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1619.Recovery of lost territories began in the mid-17th century, when the Khmelnitsky Uprising (1648–1657) in Ukraine against Polish rule brought about the Treaty of Pereyaslav between Russia and the Ukrainian Cossacks.", "In the treaty, Russia granted protection to the Cossacks state in Left-bank Ukraine, formerly under Polish control.", "This triggered a prolonged Russo-Polish War (1654–1667), which ended with the Treaty of Andrusovo, where Poland accepted the loss of Left-bank Ukraine, Kiev and Smolensk.The Russian conquest of Siberia, begun at the end of the 16th century, continued in the 17th century.", "By the end of the 1640s, the Russians reached the Pacific Ocean, the Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnev, discovered the strait between Asia and America.", "Russian expansion in the Far East faced resistance from Qing China.", "After the war between Russia and China, the Treaty of Nerchinsk was signed, delimiting the territories in the Amur region.Sobornoye Ulozheniye was a legal code promulgated in 1649.Rather than risk their estates in more civil war, the boyars cooperated with the first Romanovs, enabling them to finish the work of bureaucratic centralization.", "Thus, the state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in the military.", "In return, the tsars allowed the boyars to complete the process of enserfing the peasants.In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one landlord to another.", "With the state now fully sanctioning serfdom, runaway peasants became state fugitives, and the power of the landlords over the peasants \"attached\" to their land had become almost complete.", "Together, the state and the nobles placed an overwhelming burden of taxation on the peasants, whose rate was 100 times greater in the mid-17th century than it had been a century earlier.", "Likewise, middle-class urban tradesmen and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and were forbidden to change residence.", "All segments of the population were subject to military levy and special taxes.Riots among peasants and citizens of Moscow at this time were endemic and included the Salt Riot (1648), Copper Riot (1662), and the Moscow Uprising (1682).", "By far the greatest peasant uprising in 17th-century Europe erupted in 1667.As the free settlers of South Russia, the Cossacks, reacted against the growing centralization of the state, serfs escaped from their landlords and joined the rebels.", "The Cossack leader Stenka Razin led his followers up the Volga River, inciting peasant uprisings and replacing local governments with Cossack rule.", "The tsar's army finally crushed his forces in 1670; a year later Stenka was captured and beheaded.", "Yet, less than half a century later, the strains of military expeditions produced another revolt in Astrakhan, ultimately subdued." ], [ "Russian Empire (1721–1917)", "===Population===Much of Russia's expansion occurred in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian colonisation of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) that incorporated left-bank Ukraine, and the Russian conquest of Siberia.", "Poland was divided in the 1790–1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia.", "Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, south of Siberia.", "'''Year''' '''Population of Russia (millions)''' '''Notes''' 1720 15.5 includes new Baltic & Polish territories 1795 37.6 includes part of Poland 1812 42.8 includes Finland 1816 73.0 includes Congress Poland, Bessarabia 1914 170.0 includes new Asian territories===Peter the Great===Peter I, called \"Peter the Great\"Peter the Great (Peter I, 1672–1725) brought centralized autocracy into Russia and played a major role in bringing his country into the European state system.", "Russia was now the largest country in the world, stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean.", "The vast majority of the land was unoccupied, and travel was slow.", "Much of its expansion had taken place in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian settlement of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the reconquest of Kiev, and the pacification of the Siberian tribes.", "However, a population of only 14 million was stretched across this vast landscape.", "With a short growing season, grain yields trailed behind those in the West and potato farming was not yet widespread.", "As a result, the great majority of the population workforce was occupied with agriculture.", "Russia remained isolated from the sea trade and its internal trade, communication and manufacturing were seasonally dependent.Peter reformed the Russian army and created the Russian navy.", "Peter's first military efforts were directed against the Ottoman Turks.", "His aim was to establish a Russian foothold on the Black Sea by taking the town of Azov.", "His attention then turned to the north.", "Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport except at Archangel on the White Sea, whose harbor was frozen nine months a year.", "Access to the Baltic was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides.", "Peter's ambitions for a \"window to the sea\" led him in 1699 to make a secret alliance with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Denmark against Sweden resulting in the Great Northern War.The war ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden sued for peace with Russia.", "Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland, thus securing his coveted access to the sea.", "There, in 1703, he had already founded the city that was to become Russia's new capital, Saint Petersburg.", "Russian intervention in the Commonwealth marked, with the Silent Sejm, the beginning of a 200-year domination of that region by the Russian Empire.", "In celebration of his conquests, Peter assumed the title of emperor, and the Russian Tsardom officially became the Russian Empire in 1721.Peter re-organized his government based on the latest Western models, molding Russia into an absolutist state.", "He replaced the old ''boyar'' Duma (council of nobles) with a Senate, in effect a supreme council of state.", "The countryside was also divided into new provinces and districts.", "Peter told the senate that its mission was to collect taxes.", "In turn tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign.Administrative Collegia (ministries) were established in St. Petersburg, to replace the old governmental departments.", "In 1722, Peter promulgated his famous Table of ranks.", "As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state.", "Peter abolished the patriarchate and replaced it with a collective body, the Holy Synod, led by a lay government official.", "Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service for all nobles.Russian victory at Battle of PoltavaBy then, the once powerful Persian Safavid Empire to the south was heavily declining.", "Taking advantage, Peter launched the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723), known as \"The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great\" by Russian histographers, in order to be the first Russian emperor to establish Russian influence in the Caucasus and Caspian Sea region.", "After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over the territories to Russia.", "However, by 12 years later, all the territories were ceded back to Persia, which was now led by the charismatic military genius Nader Shah, as part of the Treaty of Resht and Treaty of Ganja and the Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, the common neighbouring rivalling enemy.Peter the Great died in 1725, leaving an unsettled succession, but Russia had become a great power by the end of his reign.", "Peter I was succeeded by his second wife, Catherine I (1725–1727), who was merely a figurehead for a powerful group of high officials, then by his minor grandson, Peter II (1727–1730), then by his niece, Anna (1730–1740), daughter of Tsar Ivan V. The heir to Anna was soon deposed in a coup and Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I, ruled from 1741 to 1762.During her reign, Russia took part in the Seven Years' War.===Catherine the Great===Catherine the GreatNearly 40 years passed before a comparably ambitious ruler appeared.", "Catherine II, \"the Great\" (r. 1762–1796), was a German princess who married the German heir to the Russian crown.", "Catherine overthrew him in a coup in 1762, becoming queen regnant.", "Catherine enthusiastically supported the ideals of The Enlightenment, thus earning the status of an enlightened despot.", "She patronized the arts, science and learning.", "She contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great.", "Catherine promulgated the Charter to the Gentry reaffirming rights and freedoms of the Russian nobility and abolishing mandatory state service.", "She seized control of all the church lands, drastically reduced the size of the monasteries, and put the surviving clergy on a tight budget.Catherine spent heavily to promote an expansive foreign policy.", "She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with actions, including the support of the Targowica Confederation.", "The cost of her campaigns, plus the oppressive social system that required serfs to spend almost all their time laboring on the land of their lords, provoked a major peasant uprising in 1773.Inspired by a Cossack named Yemelyan Pugachev, with the emphatic cry of \"Hang all the landlords!", "\", the rebels threatened to take Moscow until Catherine crushed the rebellion.", "Like the other enlightened despots of Europe, Catherine made certain of her own power and formed an alliance with the nobility.Catherine successfully waged two wars (1768–1774, 1787–1792) against the decaying Ottoman Empire and advanced Russia's southern boundary to the Black Sea.", "Russia annexed Crimea in 1783 and created the Black Sea fleet.", "Then, by allying with the rulers of Austria and Prussia, she incorporated the territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, where after a century of Russian rule non-Catholic, mainly Orthodox population prevailed during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe.In accordance to Russia's treaty with the Georgians to protect them against any new invasion of their Persian suzerains and further political aspirations, Catherine waged a new war against Persia in 1796 after they had again invaded Georgia and established rule over it about a year prior, and had expelled the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus.In 1798–1799, Russian troops participated in the anti-French coalition, the troops under the command of Alexander Suvorov defeated the French in Northern Italy.===Ruling the Empire (1725–1825)===Moscow University in the 1790sRussian emperors of the 18th century professed the ideas of Enlightened absolutism.", "However, Westernization and modernization affected only the upper classes of Russian society, while the bulk of the population, consisting of peasants, remained in a state of serfdom.", "Powerful Russians resented their privileged positions and alien ideas.", "The backlash was especially severe after the Napoleonic wars.", "It produced a powerful anti-western campaign that \"led to a wholesale purge of Western specialists and their Russian followers in universities, schools, and government service\".The mid-18th century was marked by the emergence of higher education in Russia.", "The first two major universities Saint Petersburg State University and Moscow State University were opened.", "Russian exploration of Siberia and the Far East continued.", "Great Northern Expedition laid the foundation for the development of Alaska by the Russians.", "By the end of the 18th century, Alaska became a Russian colony (Russian America).", "In the early 19th century, Alaska was used as a base for the First Russian circumnavigation.", "In 1819–1821, Russian sailors discovered Antarctica during an Antarctic expedition.Russia was in a continuous state of financial crisis.", "While revenue rose from 9 million rubles in 1724 to 40 million in 1794, expenses grew more rapidly, reaching 49 million in 1794.The budget was allocated 46% to the military, 20% to government economic activities, 12% to administration, and 9% for the Imperial Court in St. Petersburg.", "The deficit required borrowing, primarily from Amsterdam; 5% of the budget was allocated to debt payments.", "Paper money was issued to pay for expensive wars, thus causing inflation.", "18th-century Russia remained \"a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country\".===Alexander I and victory over Napoleon===Napoleon's retreat from MoscowBy the time of her death in 1796, Catherine's expansionist policy had made Russia a major European power.", "Alexander I continued this policy, wresting Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.His key advisor was a Polish nobleman Adam Jerzy Czartoryski.After Russian armies liberated allied Georgia from Persian occupation in 1802, they clashed with Persia over control and consolidation over Georgia, as well as the Iranian territories that comprise modern-day Azerbaijan and Dagestan.", "They also became involved in the Caucasian War against the Caucasian Imamate and Circassia.", "In 1813, the war with Persia concluded with a Russian victory, forcing Qajar Iran to cede swaths of its territories in the Caucasus to Russia, which drastically increased its territory in the region.", "To the south-west, Russia tried to expand at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, using Georgia at its base for the Caucasus and Anatolian front.In European policy, Alexander I switched Russia back and forth four times in 1804–1812 from neutral peacemaker to anti-Napoleon to an ally of Napoleon, winding up in 1812 as Napoleon's enemy.", "In 1805, he joined Britain in the War of the Third Coalition against Napoleon, but after the massive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz he switched and formed an alliance with Napoleon by the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) and joined Napoleon's Continental System.", "He fought a small-scale naval war against Britain, 1807–1812.The alliance collapsed by 1810.Russia's economy had been hurt by Napoleon's Continental System, which cut off trade with Britain.", "As Esdaile notes, \"Implicit in the idea of a Russian Poland was, of course, a war against Napoleon\".", "Schroeder says Poland was the root cause of the conflict but Russia's refusal to support the Continental System was also a factor.The entry of Russian troops into Paris in 1814, headed by the Emperor Alexander IThe invasion of Russia was a catastrophe for Napoleon and his 450,000 invasion troops.", "One major battle was fought at Borodino; casualties were very high, but it was indecisive, and Napoleon was unable to engage and defeat the Russian armies.", "He tried to force the Tsar to terms by capturing Moscow at the onset of winter, even though he had lost most of his men.", "Instead, the Russians retreated, burning crops and food supplies in a scorched earth policy that multiplied Napoleon's logistic problems: 85%–90% of Napoleon's soldiers died from disease, cold, starvation or ambush by peasant guerrillas.", "As Napoleon's forces retreated, Russian troops pursued them into Central and Western Europe, defeated Napoleon's army in the Battle of the Nations and finally captured Paris.", "Of a total population of around 43 million people, Russia lost about 1.5 million in the year 1812; of these about 250,000 to 300,000 were soldiers and the rest peasants and serfs.After the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander presided over the redrawing of the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), which made him the king of Congress Poland.", "He formed the Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia, to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe that he saw as immoral threats to legitimate Christian monarchs.", "He helped Austria's Klemens von Metternich in suppressing all national and liberal movements.Although the Russian Empire would play a leading role on behalf of conservatism as late as 1848, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress of any significant degree.", "As West European economic growth accelerated during the Industrial Revolution, sea trade and colonialism which had begun in the second half of the 18th century, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, undermining its ability to field strong armies.===Nicholas I and the Decembrist Revolt===Senate SquareRussia's great power status obscured the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic backwardness.", "Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I was willing to discuss constitutional reforms, and though a few were introduced, no thoroughgoing changes were attempted.The tsar was succeeded by his younger brother, Nicholas I (1825–1855), who at the onset of his reign was confronted with an uprising.", "The background of this revolt lay in the Napoleonic Wars, when a number of well-educated Russian officers traveled in Europe in the course of the military campaigns, where their exposure to the liberalism of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return.", "The result was the Decembrist Revolt (December 1825), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother as a constitutional monarch.", "But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from liberal reforms and champion the reactionary doctrine \"Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality\".In 1826–1828, Russia fought another war against Persia.", "Russia lost almost all of its recently consolidated territories during the first year but regained them and won the war on highly favourable terms.", "At the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay, Russia gained Armenia, Nakhchivan, Nagorno-Karabakh, Azerbaijan, and Iğdır.", "In the 1828–1829 Russo-Turkish War Russia invaded northeastern Anatolia and occupied the strategic Ottoman towns of Erzurum and Gümüşhane and, posing as protector and saviour of the Greek Orthodox population, received extensive support from the region's Pontic Greeks.", "After a brief occupation, the Russian imperial army withdrew into Georgia.", "By the 1830s, Russia had conquered all Persian territories and major Ottoman territories in the Caucasus.In 1831, Nicholas crushed the November Uprising in Poland.", "The Russian autocracy gave Polish artisans and gentry reason to rebel in 1863 by assailing the national core values of language, religion, and culture.", "The resulting January Uprising was a massive Polish revolt, which also was crushed.", "France, Britain and Austria tried to intervene in the crisis but were unable.", "The Russian patriotic press used the Polish uprising to unify the Russian nation, claiming it was Russia's God-given mission to save Poland and the world.", "Poland was punished by losing its distinctive political and judicial rights, with Russianization imposed on its schools and courts.===Russian Army===Monument to Nicholas I on St. Isaac's Square, Saint PetersburgTsar Nicholas I (reigned 1825–1855) lavished attention on his army.", "In a nation of 60–70 million people, it included a million men.", "They had outdated equipment and tactics, but the tsar took pride in its smartness on parade.", "The cavalry horses, for example, were only trained in parade formations, and did poorly in battle.", "He put generals in charge of most of his civilian agencies regardless of their qualifications.", "The Army became the vehicle of upward social mobility for noble youths from non-Russian areas, such as Poland, the Baltic, Finland and Georgia.", "On the other hand, many miscreants, petty criminals and undesirables were punished by local officials by enlisting them for life in the Army.", "Village oligarchies controlled employment, conscription for the army, and local patronage; they blocked reforms and sent the most unpromising peasant youth to the army.", "The conscription system was unpopular with people, as was the practice of forcing peasants to house the soldiers for six months of the year.Finally the Crimean War at the end of his reign showed the world that Russia was militarily weak, technologically backward, and administratively incompetent.", "Despite his ambitions toward the south and Ottoman Empire, Russia had not built its railroad network in that direction, and communications were poor.", "The bureaucracy was riddled with corruption and inefficiency and was unprepared for war.", "The Navy was weak and technologically backward; the Army, although very large, was good only for parades, suffered from colonels who pocketed their men's pay, poor morale, and was even more out of touch with the latest technology.", "The nation's leaders realized that reforms were urgently needed.===Russian society in the first half of 19th century===«Golden Age of Russian Poetry» writers: Pushkin, Krylov, Zhukovsky, and GnedichThe early 19th century is the time when Russian literature becomes an independent and very striking phenomenon.Westernizers favored imitating Western Europe while others renounced the West and called for a return of the traditions of the past.", "The latter path was championed by Slavophiles, who heaped scorn on the \"decadent\" West.", "The Slavophiles were opponents of bureaucracy and preferred the collectivism of the medieval Russian ''mir'', or village community, to the individualism of the West.", "A forerunner of the movement was Pyotr Chaadayev.", "He exposed the cultural isolation of Russia, from the perspective of Western Europe, in his ''Philosophical Letters'' of 1831.He cast doubt on the greatness of the Russian past, and ridiculed Orthodoxy for failing to provide a sound spiritual basis for the Russian mind.", "He called on Russia to emulate Western Europe, especially in rational and logical thought, its progressive spirit, its leadership in science, and indeed its leadership on the path to freedom.", "Vissarion Belinsky and Alexander Herzen were prominent Westernizers.===Crimean War===Since the war against Napoleon, Russia had become deeply involved in the affairs of Europe, as part of the \"Holy Alliance.\"", "The Holy Alliance was formed to serve as the \"policeman of Europe.\"", "However, to maintain the alliance required large armies.", "Prussia, Austria, Britain and France (the other members of the alliance) lacked large armies and needed Russia to supply the required numbers, which fit the philosophy of Nicholas I.", "The Tsar sent his army into Hungary in 1849 at the request of the Austrian Empire and broke the revolt there, while preventing its spread to Russian Poland.", "The Tsar cracked down on any signs of internal unrest.siege of a Russian naval base at Sevastopol during the Crimean WarRussia expected that in exchange for supplying the troops to be the policeman of Europe, it should have a free hand in dealing with the decaying Ottoman Empire—the \"sick man of Europe.\"", "In 1853, Russia invaded Ottoman-controlled areas leading to the Crimean War.", "Britain and France came to the rescue of the Ottomans.", "After a grueling war fought largely in Crimea, with very high death rates from disease, the allies won.Historian Orlando Figes points to the long-term damage Russia suffered::The demilitarization of the Black Sea was a major blow to Russia, which was no longer able to protect its vulnerable southern coastal frontier against the British or any other fleet....", "The destruction of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, Sevastopol and other naval docks was a humiliation.", "No compulsory disarmament had ever been imposed on a great power previously....", "The Allies did not really think that they were dealing with a European power in Russia.", "They regarded Russia as a semi-Asiatic state....In Russia itself, the Crimean defeat discredited the armed services and highlighted the need to modernize the countries defenses, not just in the strictly military sense, but also through the building of railways, industrialization, sound finances and so on....The image many Russians had built up of their country – the biggest, richest and most powerful in the world – had suddenly been shattered.", "Russia's backwardness had been exposed....The Crimean disaster had exposed the shortcomings of every institution in Russia – not just the corruption and incompetence of the military command, the technological backwardness of the army and navy, or the inadequate roads and lack of railways the accounted for the chronic problems of supply, but the poor condition and illiteracy of the serfs who made up the armed forces, the inability of the serf economy to sustain a state of war against industrial powers, and the failures of autocracy itself.===Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom===When Alexander II came to the throne in 1855, the demand for reform was widespread.", "The most pressing problem confronting the Government was serfdom.", "In 1859, there were 23 million serfs (out of a total population of 67 million).", "In anticipation of civil unrest that could ultimately foment a revolution, Alexander II chose to preemptively abolish serfdom with the emancipation reform in 1861.Emancipation brought a supply of free labor to the cities, stimulated industry, and the middle class grew in number and influence.", "The freed peasants had to buy land, allotted to them, from the landowners with the state assistance.", "The Government issued special bonds to the landowners for the land that they had lost, and collected a special tax from the peasants, called redemption payments, at a rate of 5% of the total cost of allotted land yearly.", "All the land turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the ''mir'', the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings.The Russian Empire in 1867Alexander was responsible for numerous reforms besides abolishing serfdom.", "He reorganized the judicial system, setting up elected local judges, abolishing capital punishment, promoting local self-government through the zemstvo system, imposing universal military service, ending some of the privileges of the nobility, and promoting the universities.In foreign policy, he sold Alaska to the United States in 1867.He modernized the military command system.", "He sought peace, and joined with Germany and Austria in the League of the Three Emperors that stabilized the European situation.", "The Russian Empire expanded in Siberia and in the Caucasus and made gains at the expense of China.", "Faced with an uprising in Poland in 1863, he stripped that land of its separate Constitution and incorporated it directly into Russia.", "To counter the rise of a revolutionary and anarchistic movements, he sent thousands of dissidents into exile in Siberia and was proposing additional parliamentary reforms when he was assassinated in 1881.defence of Shipka Pass against Turkish troops was crucial for the independence of BulgariaIn the late 1870s Russia and the Ottoman Empire again clashed in the Balkans.", "The Russo-Turkish War was popular among the Russian people, who supported the independence of their fellow Orthodox Slavs, the Serbs and the Bulgarians.", "Russia's victory in this war allowed a number of Balkan states to gain independence: Romania, Serbia, Montenegro.", "In addition, Bulgaria de facto became independent.", "However, the war increased tension with Austria-Hungary, which also had ambitions in the region.", "The Tsar was disappointed by the results of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, but abided by the agreement.During this period Russia expanded its empire into Central Asia, conquering the khanates of Kokand, Bukhara, and Khiva, as well as the Trans-Caspian region.", "Russia's advance in Asia led to British fears that the Russians planned aggression against British India.", "Before 1815 London worried Napoleon would combine with Russia to do that in one mighty campaign.", "After 1815 London feared Russia alone would do it step by step.", "However historians report that the Russians never had any intention to move against India.===Russian society in the second half of 19th century===Russian writers of the second half of the 19th century: Leo Tolstoy, Dmitry Grigorovich, Ivan Goncharov, Ivan Turgenev, Alexander Druzhinin, and Alexander OstrovskyIn the 1860s, a movement known as Nihilism developed in Russia.", "A term originally coined by Ivan Turgenev in his 1862 novel ''Fathers and Sons'', Nihilists favoured the destruction of human institutions and laws, based on the assumption that they are artificial and corrupt.", "At its core, Russian nihilism was characterized by the belief that the world lacks comprehensible meaning, objective truth, or value.", "For some time, many Russian liberals had been dissatisfied by what they regarded as the empty discussions of the intelligentsia.", "The Nihilists questioned all old values and shocked the Russian establishment.", "They became involved in the cause of reform and became major political forces.", "Their path was facilitated by the previous actions of the Decembrists, who revolted in 1825, and the financial and political hardship caused by the Crimean War, which caused many Russians to lose faith in political institutions.", "Russian nihilists created the manifesto «Catechism of a Revolutionary».After the Nihilists failed to convert the aristocracy and landed gentry to the cause of reform, they turned to the peasants.", "Their campaign became known as the ''Narodnk'' (\"Populist\") movement.", "It was based on the belief that the common people had the wisdom and peaceful ability to lead the nation.As the ''Narodnik'' movement gained momentum, the government moved to extirpate it.", "In response to the growing reaction of the government, a radical branch of the Narodniks advocated and practiced terrorism.", "One after another, prominent officials were shot or killed by bombs.", "This represented the ascendancy of anarchism in Russia as a powerful revolutionary force.", "Finally, after several attempts, Alexander II was assassinated by anarchists in 1881, on the very day he had approved a proposal to call a representative assembly to consider new reforms in addition to the abolition of serfdom designed to ameliorate revolutionary demands.The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th is known as the Silver Age of Russian culture.", "The Silver Age was dominated by the artistic movements of Russian Symbolism, Acmeism, and Russian Futurism, many poetic schools flourished, including the Mystical Anarchism tendency within the Symbolist movement.", "The Russian avant-garde was a large, influential wave of modern art that flourished in Russian Empire and Soviet Union, approximately from 1890 to 1930—although some have placed its beginning as early as 1850 and its end as late as 1960.===Autocracy and reaction under Alexander III===Unlike his father, the new tsar Alexander III (1881–1894) was throughout his reign a staunch reactionary who revived the maxim of \"Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and National Character\".", "A committed Slavophile, Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from chaos only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe.", "In his reign Russia concluded the union with republican France to contain the growing power of Germany, completed the conquest of Central Asia, and exacted important territorial and commercial concessions from China.The tsar's most influential adviser was Konstantin Pobedonostsev, tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from 1880 to 1895.He taught his royal pupils to fear freedom of speech and press and to hate democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system.", "Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were hunted down and a policy of Russification was carried out.===Nicholas II and new revolutionary movement===Alexander was succeeded by his son Nicholas II (1894–1918).", "The Industrial Revolution, which began to exert a significant influence in Russia, was meanwhile creating forces that would finally overthrow the tsar.", "Politically, these opposition forces organized into three competing parties: The liberal elements among the industrial capitalists and nobility, who wanted peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarchy, founded the Constitutional Democratic party or ''Kadets'' in 1905.Followers of the Narodnik tradition established the Socialist-Revolutionary Party or ''Esers'' in 1901, advocating the distribution of land among the peasants who worked it.", "A third radical group founded the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party or ''RSDLP'' in 1898; this party was the primary exponent of Marxism in Russia.", "Gathering their support from the radical intellectuals and the urban working class, they advocated complete social, economic and political revolution.In 1903, the RSDLP split into two wings: the radical Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the relatively moderate Mensheviks, led by Yuli Martov.", "The Mensheviks believed that Russian socialism would grow gradually and peacefully and that the tsar's regime should be succeeded by a democratic republic.", "The Bolsheviks advocated the formation of a small elite of professional revolutionaries, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat in order to seize power by force.At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia continued its expansion in the Far East; Chinese Manchuria was in the zone of Russian interests.", "Russia took an active part in the intervention of the great powers in China to suppress the Boxer rebellion.", "During this war, Russia occupied Manchuria, which caused a clash of interests with Japan.", "In 1904, the Russo-Japanese War began, which ended extremely unfavourably for Russia.===Revolution of 1905===The October Manifesto granting civil liberties and establishing first parliamentThe disastrous performance of the Russian armed forces in the Russo-Japanese War was a major blow to the Russian State and increased the potential for unrest.In January 1905, an incident known as \"Bloody Sunday\" occurred when Father Gapon led an enormous crowd to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition to the tsar.", "When the procession reached the palace, Cossacks opened fire, killing hundreds.", "The Russian masses were so aroused over the massacre that a general strike was declared demanding a democratic republic.", "This marked the beginning of the Russian Revolution of 1905.Soviets (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity.In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the October Manifesto, which conceded the creation of a national Duma (legislature) to be called without delay.", "The right to vote was extended, and no law was to go into force without confirmation by the Duma.", "The moderate groups were satisfied; but the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organize new strikes.", "By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the tsar's position was strengthened.=== World War I ===Russian Expeditionary Force in France, October 1916On 28 June 1914, Bosnian Serbs assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austro-Hungary.", "Austro-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which it considered a Russian client-state.", "Russia had no treaty obligation to Serbia, and most Russian leaders wanted to avoid war.", "But in that crisis they had the support of France, and believed that supporting Serbia was important for Russia's credibility and for its goal of a leadership role in the Balkans.", "Tsar Nicholas II mobilised Russian forces on 30 July 1914 to defend Serbia.", "Christopher Clark states: \"The Russian general mobilisation of 30 July was one of the most momentous decisions of the July crisis\".", "Germany responded with its own mobilisation and declaration of War on 1 August 1914.At the opening of hostilities, the Russians took the offensive against both Germany and Austria-Hungary.The very large but poorly led and under-equipped Russian army fought tenaciously.", "Casualties were enormous.", "In the 1914 campaign, Russian forces defeated Austro-Hungarian forces in the Battle of Galicia.", "The success of the Russian army forced the German army to withdraw troops from the western front to the Russian front.", "However, defeats in Poland by the Central Powers in the 1915 campaign, led to a major retreat of the Russian army.", "In 1916, the Russians again dealt a powerful blow to the Austrians during the Brusilov offensive.By 1915, morale was worsening.", "Many recruits were sent to the front unarmed.", "Nevertheless, the Russian army fought on, and tied down large numbers of Germans and Austrians.", "When the homefront showed an occasional surge of patriotism, the tsar and his entourage failed to exploit it for military benefit.", "The Russian army neglected to rally the ethnic and religious minorities that were hostile to Austria, such as Poles.", "The tsar refused to cooperate with the national legislature, the Duma, and listened less to experts than to his wife, who was in thrall to her chief advisor, the holy man Grigori Rasputin.", "More than two million refugees fled.Repeated military failures and bureaucratic ineptitude soon turned large segments of the population against the government.", "The German and Ottoman fleets prevented Russia from importing urgently needed supplies through the Baltic and Black seas.", "By mid-1915 the impact of the war was demoralizing.", "Food and fuel were in short supply, casualties kept occurring, and inflation was mounting.", "Strikes increased among factory workers, and the peasants, who wanted land reforms, were restless.", "Meanwhile, elite distrust of the regime was deepened by reports that Rasputin was gaining influence; his assassination in late 1916 ended the scandal but did not restore the autocracy's prestige." ], [ "Russian Civil War (1917–1922)", "===Russian Revolution===In late February (3 March 1917), a strike occurred in a factory in the capital Petrograd (Saint Petersburg).", "On 23 February (8 March) 1917, thousands of female textile workers walked out of their factories protesting the lack of food and calling on other workers to join them.", "Within days, nearly all the workers in the city were idle, and street fighting broke out.", "The tsar ordered the Duma to disband, ordered strikers to return to work, and ordered troops to shoot at demonstrators in the streets.", "His orders triggered the February Revolution, especially when soldiers sided with the strikers.", "On 2 March, Nicholas II abdicated.To fill the vacuum of authority, the Duma declared a Provisional Government, headed by Prince Lvov, which was collectively known as the Russian Republic.", "Meanwhile, the socialists in Petrograd organized elections among workers and soldiers to form a soviet (council) of workers' and soldiers' deputies, as an organ of popular power that could pressure the \"bourgeois\" Provisional Government.Constituent Assembly on 6 January 1918.The Tauride Palace is locked and guarded by Trotsky, Sverdlov, Zinoviev and Lashevich.In July, following a series of crises that undermined their authority with the public, the head of the Provisional Government resigned and was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky, who was more progressive than his predecessor but not radical enough for the Bolsheviks or many Russians discontented with the deepening economic crisis and the war.", "The socialist-led soviet in Petrograd joined with soviets that formed throughout the country to create a national movement.The German government provided over 40 million gold marks to subsidize Bolshevik publications and activities subversive of the tsarist government, especially focusing on disgruntled soldiers and workers.", "In April 1917 Germany provided a special sealed train to carry Vladimir Lenin back to Russia from his exile in Switzerland.", "After many behind-the-scenes maneuvers, the soviets seized control of the government in November 1917 and drove Kerensky and his moderate provisional government into exile, in the events that would become known as the October Revolution.When the national Constituent Assembly (elected in December 1917) refused to become a rubber stamp of the Bolsheviks, it was dissolved by Lenin's troops and all vestiges of democracy were removed.", "With the handicap of the moderate opposition removed, Lenin was able to free his regime from the war problem by the harsh Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) with Germany.", "Russia lost much of her western borderlands.", "However, when Germany was defeated the Soviet government repudiated the Treaty.===Russian Civil War===Russian Civil War in the European part of RussiaThe Bolshevik grip on power was by no means secure, and a lengthy struggle broke out between the new regime and its opponents, which included the Socialist Revolutionaries, the anti-Bolshevik White movement, and large numbers of peasants.", "At the same time the Allied powers sent several expeditionary armies to support the anti-Communist forces in an attempt to force Russia to rejoin the world war.", "The Bolsheviks fought against both these forces and national independence movements in the former Russian Empire.", "By 1921, they had defeated their internal enemies and brought most of the newly independent states under their control, with the exception of Finland, the Baltic States, the Moldavian Democratic Republic (which was annexed by Romania), and Poland (with whom they had fought the Polish–Soviet War).", "Finland also annexed the region Pechenga of the Russian Kola Peninsula; Soviet Russia and allied Soviet republics conceded the parts of its territory to Estonia (Petseri County and Estonian Ingria), Latvia (Pytalovo), and Turkey (Kars).", "Poland incorporated the contested territories of Western Belarus and Western Ukraine, the former parts of the Russian Empire (except Galicia) east to Curzon Line.Both sides regularly committed brutal atrocities against civilians.", "During the civil war era for example, Petlyura and Denikin's forces massacred 100,000 to 150,000 Jews in Ukraine and southern Russia.", "Hundreds of thousands of Jews were left homeless and tens of thousands became victims of serious illness.", "These massacres are now referred to as the White Terror (Russia).Estimates for the total number of people killed during the Red Terror carried out by the Bolsheviks vary widely.", "One source asserts that the total number of victims could be 1.3 million, whereas others give estimates ranging from 10,000 in the initial period of repression to 140,000 and an estimate of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.The most reliable estimations for the total number of killings put the number at about 100,000, whereas others suggest a figure of 200,000.The Russian economy was devastated by the war, with factories and bridges destroyed, cattle and raw materials pillaged, mines flooded and machines damaged.", "The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the 1921 famine, worsened the disaster still further.", "Disease had reached pandemic proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of typhus alone in 1920.Millions more also died of widespread starvation.", "By 1922 there were at least 7,000,000 street children in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from the Great War and the civil war.", "Another one to two million people, known as the White émigrés, fled Russia, many were evacuated from Crimea in the 1920, some through the Far East, others west into the newly independent Baltic countries.", "These émigrés included a large percentage of the educated and skilled population." ], [ "Soviet Union (1922–1991)", "===Creation of the Soviet Union===Gorki (1922)The Soviet Union, established in December 1922 by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party, was roughly coterminous with Russia before the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.", "At that time, the new nation included four constituent republics: the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Belarusian SSR, and the Transcaucasian SFSR.The constitution, adopted in 1924, established a federal system of government based on a pyramid of soviets in each constituent republic which culminated in the All-Union Congress of Soviets.", "However, while it appeared that the congress exercised sovereign power, this body was actually governed by the Communist Party, which in turn was controlled by the Politburo from Moscow.===War Communism and the New Economic Policy===The period from the consolidation of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 until 1921 is known as the period of war communism.", "Land, all industry, and small businesses were nationalized, and the money economy was restricted.", "Strong opposition soon developed.", "The peasants wanted cash payments for their products and resented having to surrender their surplus grain to the government as a part of its civil war policies.", "Confronted with peasant opposition, Lenin began a strategic retreat from war communism known as the New Economic Policy (NEP).", "The peasants were freed from wholesale levies of grain and allowed to sell their surplus produce in the open market.", "Commerce was stimulated by permitting private retail trading.", "The state continued to be responsible for banking, transportation, heavy industry, and public utilities.Although the left opposition among the Communists criticized the rich peasants, or kulaks, who benefited from the NEP, the program proved highly beneficial and the economy revived.", "The NEP would later come under increasing opposition from within the party following Lenin's death in early 1924.===Changes to Russian society===Soviet poster from 1932 symbolizing the reform of \"old ways of life\", dedicated to liberation of women from traditional rolesAs the Russian Empire included during this period not only the region of Russia, but also today's territories of Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Moldavia and the Caucasian and Central Asian countries, it is possible to examine the firm formation process in all those regions.", "One of the main determinants of firm creation for given regions of Russian Empire might be urban demand of goods and supply of industrial and organizational skill.While the Russian economy was being transformed, the social life of the people underwent equally drastic changes.", "The Family Code of 1918 granted women equal status to men, and permitted a couple to take either the husband or wife's name.", "Divorce no longer required court procedure,and to make women completely free of the responsibilities of childbearing, abortion was made legal as early as 1920.As a side effect, the emancipation of women increased the labor market.", "Girls were encouraged to secure an education and pursue a career.", "Communal nurseries were set up for child care, and efforts were made to shift the center of people's social life from the home to educational and recreational groups, the soviet clubs.The Soviet government pursued a policy of eliminating illiteracy (Likbez).", "After industrialization, massive urbanization began.", "In the field of national policy in the 1920s, the Korenizatsiya was carried out.", "However, from the mid-30s, the Stalinist government returned to the tsarist policy of Russification of the outskirts.", "In particular, the languages of all the nations of the USSR were translated into the Cyrillic alphabet Cyrillization.===Industrialization and collectivization===The years from 1929 to 1939 comprised a tumultuous decade in Soviet history—a period of massive industrialization and internal struggles as Joseph Stalin established near total control over Soviet society, wielding virtually unrestrained power.", "Following Lenin's death Stalin wrestled to gain control of the Soviet Union with rival factions in the Politburo, especially Leon Trotsky's.", "By 1928, with the Trotskyists either exiled or rendered powerless, Stalin was ready to put a radical programme of industrialisation into action.The Soviet famine of 1932–1933, with areas where the effects of famine were most severe shadedIn 1929, Stalin proposed the first five-year plan.", "Abolishing the NEP, it was the first of a number of plans aimed at swift accumulation of capital resources through the buildup of heavy industry, the collectivization of agriculture, and the restricted manufacture of consumer goods.", "For the first time in history a government controlled all economic activity.", "The rapid growth of production capacity and the volume of production of heavy industry was of great importance for ensuring economic independence from western countries and strengthening the country's defense capability.", "At this time, the Soviet Union made the transition from an agrarian country to an industrial one.As a part of the plan, the government took control of agriculture through the state and collective farms (''kolkhozes'').", "By a decree of February 1930, about one million individual peasants (''kulaks'') were forced off their land.", "Many peasants strongly opposed regimentation by the state, often slaughtering their herds when faced with the loss of their land.", "In some sections they revolted, and countless peasants deemed \"kulaks\" by the authorities were executed.", "The combination of bad weather, deficiencies of the hastily established collective farms, and massive confiscation of grain precipitated a serious famine, and several million peasants died of starvation, mostly in Ukraine, Kazakhstan and parts of southwestern Russia.", "The deteriorating conditions in the countryside drove millions of desperate peasants to the rapidly growing cities, fueling industrialization, and vastly increasing Russia's urban population.===Stalinist repression===The first five Marshals of the Soviet Union in November 1935, clockwise from top left: Semyon Budyonny, Vasily Blyukher, Alexander Ilyich Yegorov, Kliment Voroshilov, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky.", "Only Budyonny and Voroshilov would survive Stalin's Great Purge.The NKVD gathered in tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to face arrest, deportation, or execution.", "Of the six original members of the 1920 Politburo who survived Lenin, all were purged by Stalin.", "Old Bolsheviks who had been loyal comrades of Lenin, high officers in the Red Army, and directors of industry were liquidated in the Great Purges.", "Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR.Stalin destroyed the opposition in the party consisting of the old Bolsheviks during the Moscow trials.", "The NKVD under the leadership of Stalin's commissar Nikolai Yezhov carried out a series of massive repressive operations against the kulaks and various national minorities in the USSR.", "During the Great Purges of 1937–38, about 700,000 people were executed.Penalties were introduced, and many citizens were prosecuted for fictitious crimes of sabotage and espionage.", "The labor provided by convicts working in the labor camps of the Gulag system became an important component of the industrialization effort, especially in Siberia.", "An estimated 18 million people passed through the Gulag system, and perhaps another 15 million had experience of some other form of forced labor.After the partition of Poland in 1939, the NKVD executed 20,000 captured Polish officers in the Katyn massacre.", "In the late 30s - first half of the 40s, the Stalinist government carried out massive deportations of various nationalities.", "A number of ethnic groups were deported from their settlement to Central Asia.===Soviet Union on the international stage===The Soviet Union viewed the 1933 accession of fervently anti-Communist Hitler to power in Germany with alarm, especially since Hitler proclaimed the Drang nach Osten as one of the major objectives in his vision of the German strategy of Lebensraum.", "The Soviets supported the republicans of Spain who struggled against fascist German and Italian troops in the Spanish Civil War.", "In 1938–1939, the Soviet Union successfully fought against Imperial Japan in the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts in the Russian Far East, which led to Soviet-Japanese neutrality and the tense border peace that lasted until August 1945.In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and, together with major Western European powers, signed the Munich Agreement following which Germany, Hungary and Poland divided parts of Czechoslovakia between themselves.", "German plans for further eastward expansion, as well as the lack of resolve from Western powers to oppose it, became more apparent.", "Despite the Soviet Union strongly opposing the Munich deal and repeatedly reaffirming its readiness to militarily back commitments given earlier to Czechoslovakia, the Western Betrayal led to the end of Czechoslovakia and further increased fears in the Soviet Union of a coming German attack.", "This led the Soviet Union to rush the modernization of its military industry and to carry out its own diplomatic maneuvers.", "In 1939, the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact: a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany dividing Eastern Europe into two separate spheres of influence.", "Following the pact, the USSR normalized relations with Nazi Germany and resumed Soviet–German trade.===World War II===On 17 September 1939, the Red Army invaded eastern Poland, stating as justification the \"need to protect Ukrainians and Belarusians\" there, after the \"cessation of existence\" of the Polish state.", "As a result, the Belarusian and Ukrainian Soviet republics' western borders were moved westward, and the new Soviet western border was drawn close to the original Curzon line.", "In the meantime negotiations with Finland over a Soviet-proposed land swap that would redraw the Soviet-Finnish border further away from Leningrad failed, and in December 1939 the USSR invaded Finland, beginning a campaign known as the Winter War (1939–1940), with the goal of annexing Finland into the Soviet Union.", "The war took a heavy death toll on the Red Army and the Soviets failed to conquer Finland, but forced Finland to sign the Moscow Peace Treaty and cede the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia.", "In summer 1940 the USSR issued an ultimatum to Romania forcing it to cede the territories of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.", "At the same time, the Soviet Union also occupied the three formerly independent Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania).Soviet soldiers during the Battle of Stalingrad, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, the turning point on the Eastern Front and in the entire WWIIThe peace with Germany was tense, as both sides were preparing for the military conflict, and abruptly ended when the Axis forces led by Germany swept across the Soviet border on 22 June 1941.By the autumn the German army had seized Ukraine, laid a siege of Leningrad, and threatened to capture the capital, Moscow, itself.", "Despite the fact that in December 1941 the Red Army threw off the German forces from Moscow in a successful counterattack, the Germans retained the strategic initiative for approximately another year and held a deep offensive in the south-eastern direction, reaching the Volga and the Caucasus.", "However, two major German defeats in Stalingrad and Kursk proved decisive and reversed the course of the entire World War as the Germans never regained the strength to sustain their offensive operations and the Soviet Union recaptured the initiative for the rest of the conflict.", "By the end of 1943, the Red Army had broken through the German siege of Leningrad and liberated much of Ukraine, much of Western Russia and moved into Belarus.", "During the 1944 campaign, the Red Army defeated German forces in a series of offensive campaigns known as Stalin's ten blows.", "By the end of 1944, the front had moved beyond the 1939 Soviet frontiers into eastern Europe.", "Soviet forces drove into eastern Germany, capturing Berlin in May 1945.The war with Germany thus ended triumphantly for the Soviet Union.As agreed at the Yalta Conference, three months after the Victory Day in Europe the USSR launched the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, defeating the Japanese troops in neighboring Manchuria, the last Soviet battle of World War II.", "''Raising a Flag over the Reichstag''Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, the war resulted in around 26–27 million Soviet deaths (estimates vary) and had devastated the Soviet economy in the struggle.", "Some 70,000 settlements were destroyed.", "The occupied territories suffered from the ravages of German occupation and deportations of slave labor by Germany.", "Thirteen million Soviet citizens became victims of the repressive policies of Germany and its allies in occupied territories, where people died because of mass murders, famine, absence of medical aid and slave labor.", "The Holocaust, carried out by German ''Einsatzgruppen'' along with local collaborators, resulted in almost complete annihilation of the Jewish population over the entire territory temporarily occupied by Germany and its allies.", "During the occupation, the Leningrad region lost around a quarter of its population, Soviet Belarus lost from a quarter to a third of its population, and 3.6 million Soviet prisoners of war (of 5.5 million) died in German camps.===Cold War===face off against Soviet armor at Checkpoint Charlie, Berlin, October 1961.Collaboration among the major Allies had won the war and was supposed to serve as the basis for postwar reconstruction and security.", "USSR became one of the founders of the UN and a permanent member of the UN Security Council.", "However, the conflict between Soviet and U.S. national interests, known as the Cold War, came to dominate the international stage.The Cold War emerged from a conflict between Stalin and U.S. President Harry Truman over the future of Eastern Europe during the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945.Stalin's goal was to establish a buffer zone of states between Germany and the Soviet Union.", "Truman charged that Stalin had betrayed the Yalta agreement.", "With Eastern Europe under Red Army occupation, Stalin was also biding his time, as his own atomic bomb project was steadily and secretly progressing.In April 1949 the United States sponsored the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact.", "The Soviet Union established an Eastern counterpart to NATO in 1955, dubbed the Warsaw Pact.", "The division of Europe into Western and Soviet blocks later took on a more global character, especially after 1949, when the U.S. nuclear monopoly ended with the testing of a Soviet bomb and the Communist takeover in China.The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy were the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of hegemony over Eastern Europe.", "The Soviet Union maintained its dominance over the Warsaw Pact through crushing the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, suppressing the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia in 1968, and supporting the suppression of the Solidarity movement in Poland in the early 1980s.", "The Soviet Union opposed the United States in a number of proxy conflicts all over the world, including the Korean War and Vietnam War.As the Soviet Union continued to maintain tight control over its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, the Cold War gave way to ''Détente'' and a more complicated pattern of international relations in the 1970s.", "The nuclear race continued, the number of nuclear weapons in the hands of the USSR and the United States reached a menacing scale, giving them the ability to destroy the planet multiple times.", "Less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the two superpowers were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons in treaties such as SALT I, SALT II, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.U.S.–Soviet relations deteriorated following the beginning of the nine-year Soviet–Afghan War in 1979 and the 1980 election of Ronald Reagan, a staunch anti-communist, but improved as the communist bloc started to unravel in the late 1980s.", "With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia lost the superpower status that it had won in the Second World War.===De-Stalinization and the era of stagnation===Nikita Khrushchev solidified his position in a speech before the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party in 1956 detailing Stalin's atrocities.President Jimmy Carter and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) treaty, 18 June 1979.In 1964, Khrushchev was impeached by the Communist Party's Central Committee, charging him with a host of errors that included Soviet setbacks such as the Cuban Missile Crisis.", "After a period of collective leadership led by Leonid Brezhnev, Alexei Kosygin and Nikolai Podgorny, Brezhnev took Khrushchev's place as Soviet leader.", "Brezhnev emphasized heavy industry, instituted the Soviet economic reform of 1965, and also attempted to ease relationships with the United States.", "Soviet science and industry peaked in the Khrushchev and Brezhnev years.", "The world's first nuclear power plant was established in 1954 in Obninsk, and the Baikal Amur Mainline was built.", "In the 1950s the USSR became a leading producer and exporter of petroleum and natural gas.", "In 1980 Moscow hosted the Summer Olympic Games.While all modernized economies were rapidly moving to computerization after 1965, the USSR fell behind.", "Moscow's decision to copy the IBM 360 of 1965 proved a decisive mistake for it locked scientists into an antiquated system they were unable to improve.", "They had enormous difficulties in manufacturing the necessary chips reliably and in quantity, in programming workable and efficient programs, in coordinating entirely separate operations, and in providing support to computer users.One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled in 1973–1974, and rose again in 1979–1981, making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses.", "At one point, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin told the head of oil and gas production, \"things are bad with bread.", "Give me 3 million tons of oil over the plan.\"", "Former prime minister Yegor Gaidar, an economist looking back three decades, in 2007 wrote:===Soviet space program===Yuri Gagarin, first human to travel into spaceThe Soviet space program, founded by Sergey Korolev, was especially successful.", "On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik.", "On 12 April 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel into space in the Soviet spaceship Vostok 1.Other achievements of Russian space program include: the first photo of the far side of the Moon; exploration of Venus; the first spacewalk by Alexei Leonov; first female spaceflight by Valentina Tereshkova.", "In 1970 and 1973, the world's first planetary rovers were sent to the moon: Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.More recently, the Soviet Union produced the world's first space station, Salyut, which in 1986 was replaced by Mir, the first consistently inhabited long-term space station, that served from 1986 to 2001.===Perestroika and breakup of the Union===Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process.", "After the rapid succession of Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko, Mikhail Gorbachev implemented perestroika in an attempt to modernize Soviet communism, and made significant changes in the party leadership.", "However, Gorbachev's social reforms led to unintended consequences.", "His policy of ''glasnost'' facilitated public access to information after decades of government repression, and social problems received wider public attention, undermining the Communist Party's authority.", "''Glasnost'' allowed ethnic and nationalist disaffection to reach the surface, and many constituent republics, especially the Baltic republics, Georgian SSR and Moldavian SSR, sought greater autonomy, which Moscow was unwilling to provide.", "In the revolutions of 1989 the USSR lost its allies in Eastern Europe.", "Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not sufficient, and the Soviet government left intact most of the fundamental elements of communist economy.", "Suffering from low pricing of petroleum and natural gas, the ongoing war in Afghanistan, and outdated industry and pervasive corruption, the Soviet planned economy proved to be ineffective, and by 1990 the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions.", "Due to price control, there were shortages of almost all products.", "Control over the constituent republics was also relaxed, and they began to assert their national sovereignty.Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev in Geneva, November 1985The tension between Soviet Union and Russian SFSR authorities came to be personified in the power struggle between Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin.", "Squeezed out of Union politics by Gorbachev in 1987, Yeltsin, who represented himself as a committed democrat, presented a significant opposition to Gorbachev's authority.", "In a remarkable reversal of fortunes, he gained election as chairman of the Russian republic's new Supreme Soviet in May 1990.The following month, he secured legislation giving Russian laws priority over Soviet laws and withholding two-thirds of the budget.", "In the first Russian presidential election in 1991 Yeltsin became president of the Russian SFSR.", "At last Gorbachev attempted to restructure the Soviet Union into a less centralized state.", "However, on 19 August 1991, a coup against Gorbachev was attempted.", "The coup faced wide popular opposition and collapsed in three days, but disintegration of the Union became imminent.", "The Russian government took over most of the Soviet Union government institutions on its territory.", "Because of the dominant position of Russians in the Soviet Union, most gave little thought to any distinction between Russia and the Soviet Union before the late 1980s.", "In the Soviet Union, only Russian SFSR lacked its own republic-level Communist Party branch, trade union councils, Academy of Sciences, and the like.", "The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned in Russia in 1991–1992, although no lustration has ever taken place, and many of its members became top Russian officials.", "However, as the Soviet government was still opposed to market reforms, the economic situation continued to deteriorate.", "By December 1991, the shortages had resulted in the introduction of food rationing in Moscow and Saint Petersburg for the first time since World War II.", "Russia received humanitarian food aid from abroad.", "After the Belavezha Accords, the Supreme Soviet of Russia withdrew Russia from the Soviet Union on 12 December.", "The Soviet Union officially ended on 25 December 1991, and the Russian Federation (formerly the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) took power on 26 December.", "The Russian government lifted price control in January 1992.Prices rose dramatically, but shortages disappeared." ], [ "Russian Federation (1991–present)", "===Liberal reforms of the 1990s===Although Yeltsin came to power on a wave of optimism, he never recovered his popularity after endorsing Yegor Gaidar's \"shock therapy\" of ending Soviet-era price controls, drastic cuts in state spending, and an open foreign trade regime in early 1992 (''see'' Russian economic reform in the 1990s).", "The reforms immediately devastated the living standards of much of the population.", "In the 1990s Russia suffered an economic downturn that was, in some ways, more severe than the United States or Germany had undergone six decades earlier in the Great Depression.", "Hyperinflation hit the ruble, due to monetary overhang from the days of the planned economy.Boris Yeltsin—first president of Russian Federation in 1999Meanwhile, the profusion of small parties and their aversion to coherent alliances left the legislature chaotic.", "During 1993, Yeltsin's rift with the parliamentary leadership led to the September–October 1993 constitutional crisis.", "The crisis climaxed on 3 October, when Yeltsin chose a radical solution to settle his dispute with parliament: he called up tanks to shell the Russian White House, blasting out his opponents.", "As Yeltsin was taking the unconstitutional step of dissolving the legislature, Russia came close to a serious civil conflict.", "Yeltsin was then free to impose the current Russian constitution with strong presidential powers, which was approved by referendum in December 1993.The cohesion of the Russian Federation was also threatened when the republic of Chechnya attempted to break away, leading to the First and Second Chechen Wars.Economic reforms also consolidated a semi-criminal oligarchy with roots in the old Soviet system.", "Advised by Western governments, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund, Russia embarked on the largest and fastest privatization ever to reform the fully nationalized Soviet economy.", "By mid-decade, retail, trade, services, and small industry was in private hands.", "Most big enterprises were acquired by their old managers, engendering a new rich (Russian tycoons) in league with criminal mafias or Western investors.", "Corporate raiders such as Andrei Volgin engaged in hostile takeovers of corrupt corporations by the mid-1990s.By the mid-1990s Russia had a system of multiparty electoral politics.", "But it was harder to establish a representative government because of the struggle between president and parliament and the anarchic party system.Meanwhile, the central government had lost control of the localities, bureaucracy, and economic fiefdoms, and tax revenues had collapsed.", "Still in a deep depression, Russia's economy was hit further by the financial crash of 1998.At the end of 1999, Yeltsin made a surprise announcement of his resignation, leaving the government in the hands of the Prime Minister Vladimir Putin.===Era of Putin===2011–2013 Russian protests against the conduct of Russia's parliamentary electionsVladimir Putin and pro-Russian Crimea leaders sign the Treaty on Accession of the Republic of Crimea to Russia in 2014.In 2000, the new acting president won the presidential election on 26 March and won in a landslide four years later.", "The Second Chechen war ended with the victory of Russia.", "After the September 11 terrorist attacks, there was a rapprochement between Russia and the United States.", "Putin created a system of guided democracy in Russia by subjugating parliament, suppressing independent media and placing major oil and gas companies under state control.International observers were alarmed by moves in late 2004 to further tighten the presidency's control over parliament, civil society, and regional officeholders.", "In 2008, Dmitri Medvedev, Putin's head of staff, was elected President.", "In 2012, Putin became president again, prompting massive protests in Moscow.Russia's long-term problems include a shrinking workforce, rampant corruption, and underinvestment in infrastructure.", "Nevertheless, reversion to a socialist command economy seemed almost impossible.", "The economic problems are aggravated by massive capital outflows, as well as extremely difficult conditions for doing business, due to pressure from the security forces ''Siloviki'' and government agencies.Due to high oil prices, from 2000 to 2008, Russia's GDP at PPP doubled.", "Although high oil prices and a relatively cheap ruble initially drove this growth, since 2003 consumer demand and, more recently, investment have played a significant role.", "Russia is well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.", "Russia hosted the 2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi.A street in Kyiv following Russian missile strikes on 10 October 2022In 2014, following a controversial referendum, in which separation was favored by a large majority of voters according to official results, the Russian leadership announced the accession of Crimea into the Russian Federation, thus starting the Russo-Ukrainian War.", "Following Russia's annexation of Crimea and alleged Russian interference in the war in eastern Ukraine, Western sanctions were imposed on Russia.On 4 December 2011, elections to the State Duma were held, as a result of which United Russia won for the third time in a row.", "The official voting results caused significant protests in the country; a number of political scientists and journalists noted various falsifications on election day.", "In 2012, according to another pre-election agreement, a \"castling\" took place; Vladimir Putin again became president and Dmitry Medvedev took over as chairman of the government, after which the protests acquired an anti-Putin orientation, but soon began to decline.Since 2015, Russia has been conducting military intervention in Syria in support of the Bashar al-Assad regime.In 2018, Vladimir Putin was re-elected for a fourth presidential term.In 2022, Russia launched the invasion of Ukraine, which was denounced by NATO and the European Union.", "They aided Ukraine and imposed massive International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "A leading banker in Moscow said the damage might take a decade to recover, as half of its international trade has been lost.", "Despite international opposition, Russia officially annexed the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic, along with most of the Kherson and Zaporizhzhia Oblasts on 30 September.", "According to the United Nations, Russia has committed war crimes during the invasion.On 23 June 2023, the Wagner Group, a Russian paramilitary organization led by Yevgeny Prigozhin, rebelled against the government.", "As of August 2023, the total number of Russian and Ukrainian soldiers killed or wounded during the Russian invasion of Ukraine was nearly 500,000." ], [ "Historiography" ], [ "See also", "* Dissolution of the Soviet Union* Family tree of the Russian monarchs* General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union* History of Central Asia* History of Siberia* History of the administrative division of Russia* History of the Caucasus* History of the Jews in Russia* History of the Soviet Union* List of heads of government of Russia* List of Mongol and Tatar raids against Rus'* List of presidents of Russia* List of Russian explorers* List of Russian rulers* List of wars involving Russia* Military history of the Russian Empire* Military history of the Soviet Union* Politics of Russia* Russian Armed Forces* Russian colonization of the Americas* Russian Empire* Soviet Union* Timeline of Moscow* Timeline of Russian history* Timeline of Russian innovation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Surveys===* Auty, Robert, and Dimitri Obolensky, eds.", "''Companion to Russian Studies: vol 1: An Introduction to Russian History'' (1981) 403 pages; surveys by scholars.", "* Bartlett, Roger P. ''A History of Russia'' (2005) online* Brown, Archie et al.", "eds.", "''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Former Soviet Union'' (2nd ed.", "1994) 664 pages online* Bushkovitch, Paul.", "''A Concise History of Russia'' (2011) excerpt and text search * Connolly, Richard.", "''The Russian Economy: A Very Short Introduction'' (Oxford University Press, 2020).", "Online review * Figes, Orlando.", "''Natasha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia'' (2002).", "excerpt * Florinsky, Michael T. ed.", "''McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1961).", "* Freeze, Gregory L., ed.,.", "''Russia: A History''.", "2nd ed.", "(Oxford UP, 2002).", ".", "* Harcave, Sidney, ed.", "''Readings in Russian history'' (1962) excerpts from scholars.", "online* Hosking, Geoffrey A.", "''Russia and the Russians: a History'' (2011) online* Jelavich, Barbara. ''", "St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974'' (1974).", "* Kort, Michael.", "''A Brief History of Russia'' (2008) online* McKenzie, David & Michael W. Curran.", "''A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond''.", "6th ed.", "Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 2001..* Millar, James, ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (4 vol.", "2003).", "online* Pares, Bernard.", "''A History of Russia'' (1926) By a leading historian.", "Online* Paxton, John.", "''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (1993) online* Paxton, John.", "''Companion to Russian history'' (1983) online* Perrie, Maureen, et al.", "''The Cambridge History of Russia''.", "(3 vol.", "Cambridge University Press, 2006).", "excerpt and text search * Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg.", "''A History of Russia'' (9th ed.", "2018) 9th edition 1993 online* Service, Robert.", "''A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century'' (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) excerpt * Stone, David.", "''A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya'' excerpts * Ziegler; Charles E. ''The History of Russia'' (Greenwood Press, 1999)===Russian Empire===* Baykov, Alexander.", "“The Economic Development of Russia.” ''Economic History Review'' 7#2 1954, pp.", "137–149.online * Billington, James H. ''The icon and the axe; an interpretive history of Russian culture'' (1966) online * Christian, David.", "''A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia''.", "Vol.", "1: ''Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire''.", "Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998..* De Madariaga, Isabel.", "''Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great'' (2002), comprehensive topical survey* Fuller, William C. ''Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914'' (1998) excerpts * Hughes, Lindsey.", "''Russia in the Age of Peter the Great'' (Yale UP, 1998), Comprehensive topical survey.", "online* Kahan, Arcadius.", "''The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth-Century Russia'' (1985)* Kahan, Arcadius.", "''Russian Economic History: The Nineteenth Century'' (1989)** Gatrell, Peter.", "\"Review: Russian Economic History: The Legacy of Arcadius Kahan\" ''Slavic Review'' 50#1 (1991), pp.", "176–178 online * Lincoln, W. Bruce.", "''The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias'' (1983) online, sweeping narrative history* Lincoln, W. Bruce.", "''The great reforms : autocracy, bureaucracy, and the politics of change in Imperial Russia'' (1990) online* Manning, Roberta.", "''The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government''.", "Princeton University Press, 1982.", "* Markevich, Andrei, and Ekaterina Zhuravskaya.", "2018.“Economic Effects of the Abolition of Serfdom: Evidence from the Russian Empire.” ''American Economic Review'' 108.4–5: 1074–1117.", "* Mironov, Boris N., and Ben Eklof.", "''The Social History of Imperial Russia, 1700–1917'' (2 vol Westview Press, 2000) * Moss, Walter G. ''A History of Russia''.", "Vol.", "1: ''To 1917''.", "2d ed.", "Anthem Press, 2002.", "* Oliva, Lawrence Jay.", "ed.", "''Russia in the era of Peter the Great'' (1969), excerpts from primary and secondary sources online* Pipes, Richard.", "''Russia under the Old Regime'' (2nd ed.", "1997)* Seton-Watson, Hugh.", "''The Russian Empire 1801–1917'' (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (1988) excerpt and text search * Treasure, Geoffrey.", "''The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780'' (3rd ed.", "2003).", "pp.", "550–600.===Soviet era===* Chamberlin, William Henry.", "''The Russian Revolution 1917–1921'' (2 vol 1935) online free* Cohen, Stephen F. ''Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917''.", "(Oxford University Press, 1985)* * Davies, R. W. ''Soviet economic development from Lenin to Khrushchev'' (1998) excerpt * Davies, R.W., Mark Harrison and S.G. Wheatcroft.", "''The Economic transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945'' (1994)* Figes, Orlando.", "''A people's tragedy a history of the Russian Revolution'' (1997) online* Fitzpatrick, Sheila.", "''The Russian Revolution''.", "(Oxford University Press, 1982), 208 pages.", "* Gregory, Paul R. and Robert C. Stuart, ''Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure'' (7th ed.", "2001)* Hosking, Geoffrey.", "''The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within'' (2nd ed.", "Harvard UP 1992) 570 pages* Kennan, George F. ''Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin'' (1961) online* Kort, Michael.", "''The Soviet Colossus: History and Aftermath'' (7th ed.", "2010) 502 pages* Kotkin, Stephen.", "''Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928'' (2014); vol 2 (2017)* Library of Congress.", "''Russia: a country study'' edited by Glenn E. Curtis.", "(Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996).", "online * Lincoln, W. Bruce.", "''Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918'' (1986)* Lewin, Moshe.", "''Russian Peasants and Soviet Power''.", "(Northwestern University Press, 1968)* McCauley, Martin.", "''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union '' (2007), 522 pages.", "* Moss, Walter G. ''A History of Russia''.", "Vol.", "2: Since 1855.2d ed.", "Anthem Press, 2005.", "* Nove, Alec.", "''An Economic History of the USSR, 1917–1991''.", "3rd ed.", "London: Penguin Books, 1993..* Ofer, Gur.", "\"Soviet Economic Growth: 1928-1985,\" ''Journal of Economic Literature'' (1987) 25#4: 1767–1833.online * Pipes, Richard.", "''A concise history of the Russian Revolution'' (1995) online* Regelson, Lev.", "''Tragedy of Russian Church.", "1917–1953.''", "http://www.regels.org/Russian-Church.htm * Remington, Thomas.", "''Building Socialism in Bolshevik Russia''.", "Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984.", "* Service, Robert.", "''A History of Twentieth-Century Russia''.", "2nd ed.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999..* Service, Robert.", "''Stalin: A Biography'' (2004), along with Tucker and Kotkin, a standard biography* Steinberg, Mark D. ''The Russian Revolution, 1905–1921'' (Oxford Histories, 2017).", "* Tucker, Robert C. ''Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929'' (1973); ''Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1929–1941.''", "(1990)along with Kotkin and Service books, a standard biography; online at ACLS e-books===Post-Soviet era===* Asmus, Ronald.", "''A Little War that Shook the World : Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West''.", "NYU (2010).", "* Cohen, Stephen.", "''Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia''.", "New York: W.W. Norton, 2000, 320 pages.", "* Gregory, Paul R. and Robert C. Stuart, ''Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure'', Addison-Wesley, Seventh Edition, 2001.", "* * Medvedev, Roy.", "''Post-Soviet Russia A Journey Through the Yeltsin Era'', Columbia University Press, 2002, 394 pages.", "* Moss, Walter G. ''A History of Russia''.", "Vol.", "2: ''Since 1855''.", "2d ed.", "Anthem Press, 2005.Chapter 22.", "* Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds.", "''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture'' (2014) excerpt ; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.", "* Stent, Angela.", "''The Limits of Partnership: U.S.-Russian Relations in the Twenty-First Century'' (2014)===Atlases, geography===* Blinnikov, Mikhail S. ''A geography of Russia and its neighbors'' (Guilford Press, 2011)* Barnes, Ian.", "''Restless Empire: A Historical Atlas of Russia'' (2015), copies of historic maps* Catchpole, Brian.", "''A Map History of Russia'' (Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1974), new topical maps.", "* Channon, John, and Robert Hudson.", "''The Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia'' (Viking, 1995), new topical maps.", "* Chew, Allen F. ''An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders'' (Yale UP, 1970), new topical maps.", "* Gilbert, Martin.", "''Routledge Atlas of Russian History'' (4th ed.", "2007) excerpt and text search online* Henry, Laura A.", "''Red to Green: environmental activism in post-Soviet Russia'' (2010)* Kaiser, Robert J.", "''The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR'' (1994).", "* Medvedev, Andrei.", "''Economic Geography of the Russian Federation'' by (2000)* Parker, William Henry.", "''An historical Geography of Russia'' (University of London Press, 1968)* Shaw, Denis J.", "B.", "''Russia in the Modern World: A New Geography'' (Blackwell, 1998) of Finland.===Historiography===* Baron, Samuel H., and Nancy W. Heer.", "\"The Soviet Union: Historiography Since Stalin.\"", "in Georg G. Iggers and Harold Talbot Parker, eds.", "''International handbook of historical studies: contemporary research and theory'' (Taylor & Francis, 1979).", "pp. 281–94.", "* * * * David-Fox, Michael et al.", "eds.", "''After the Fall: Essays in Russian and Soviet Historiography'' (Bloomington: Slavica Publishers, 2004)* * Firestone, Thomas.", "\"Four Sovietologists: A Primer.\"", "''National Interest'' No.", "14 (Winter 1988–9), pp.", "102–107 on the ideas of Zbigniew Brzezinski, Stephen F. Cohen, Jerry F. Hough, and Richard Pipes.", "* Fitzpatrick, Sheila.", "\"Revisionism in Soviet History\" ''History and Theory'' (2007) 46#4 pp.", "77–91 online, covers the scholarship of the three major schools, totalitarianism, revisionism, and post-revisionism.", "* (e-book).", "* (digital printing 2004)* (third edition)* * * Sanders, Thomas, ed.", "''Historiography of Imperial Russia: The Profession and Writing of History in a Multinational State'' (1999).", "* Suny, Ronald Grigor.", "\"Rehabilitating Tsarism: The Imperial Russian State and Its Historians.", "A Review Article\" ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 31#1 (1989) pp.", "168–179 online* Topolski, Jerzy.", "\"Soviet Studies and Social History\" in Georg G. Iggers and Harold Talbot Parker, eds.", "''International handbook of historical studies: contemporary research and theory'' (Taylor & Francis, 1979.pp. 295–300.", "* ===Primary sources===* Kaiser, Daniel H. and Gary Marker, eds.", "''Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings 860-1860s'' (1994) 464 pages excerpt and text search; primary documents and excerpts from historians* Vernadsky, George, et al.", "eds.", "''Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917'' (3 vol 1972)* Seventeen Moments in Soviet History (An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history.)" ], [ "External links", "* Guides to Sources on Russian History and Historiography* History of Russia: Primary Documents* Дневник Истории России A historic project supported by the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Christianity" ], [ "Introduction", " Funerary stele of Licinia Amias on marble, in the National Roman Museum.", "One of the earliest Christian inscriptions found, it comes from the early 3rd century Vatican necropolis area in Rome.", "It contains the text (\"fish of the living\"), a predecessor of the Ichthys symbol.|alt=a photo of the Licinia Amias on marble, in the National Roman Museum from the early 3rd century Vatican necropolis area in Rome containing the text (\"fish of the living\"), a predecessor of the Ichthys symbol The '''history of Christianity''' follows the Christian religion from the first century to the twenty-first as it developed from its earliest beliefs and practices, spread geographically, and changed into its contemporary global forms.Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer who proclaimed the imminent Kingdom of God and was crucified in Jerusalem in the Roman province of Judea.", "The earliest followers of Jesus were apocalyptic Jewish Christians.", "Christianity remained a Jewish sect, for centuries in some locations, diverging gradually from Judaism over doctrinal, social and historical differences.", "In spite of occasional persecution in the Roman Empire, the religious movement spread as a grassroots movement that became established by the third century both in and outside the empire.", "New Testament texts were written, and church government was loosely organized, in its first centuries, though the biblical canon did not become official until 382.The Roman Emperor Constantine I became the first Christian emperor in 313.He issued the Edict of Milan, expressing tolerance for all religions and thereby legalizing Christian worship.", "He did not make Christianity the state religion, but did provide crucial support.", "Constantine called the first of seven ecumenical councils needed to resolve disagreements over defining Jesus' divinity.Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization in Europe.", "In the Early Middle Ages, missionary activities spread Christianity west and north.", "During the High Middle Ages, Eastern and Western Christianity grew apart, leading to the East–West Schism of 1054.Western Christianity reached a kind of peak, influencing every aspect of medieval life in the 1200s, then it began a decline.", "Growing criticism of the Roman Catholic church and its corruption in the 1300–1500s led to the Protestant Reformation and its related reform movements, which concluded with the European wars of religion, the return of tolerance as a theological and political option, and the Age of Enlightenment.", "Christianity also heavily influenced the New World through its connection to colonialism, its part in the American revolution, the dissolution of slavery in the west, and the long term impact of Protestant missions.", "In the twenty-first century, traditional Christianity has declined in the West, while new forms have developed and expanded throughout the world.", "Today, there are more than two billion Christians worldwide and Christianity has become the world's largest, and most widespread religion.", "Within the last century, the center of growth has shifted from West to East and from the North to the global South." ], [ "Origins to 312", "Little is fully known of Christianity in its first 150 years.", "Sources are few.", "This and other complications have limited scholars to probable rather than provable conclusions, based largely on the biblical book of Acts, whose historicity is debated as much as it is accepted.According to the Gospels, Christianity began with the itinerant preaching and teaching of a deeply pious young Jewish man, Jesus of Nazareth.", "His followers came to believe Jesus was the Son of God, the Christ, a title in Greek for the Hebrew term (Messiah) meaning “the anointed one.” Jesus was crucified in Jerusalem, and after his death and burial, his disciples proclaimed they had seen him alive and raised from the dead.", "He was thereafter proclaimed exalted by God heralding the future Kingdom of God.Virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that Jesus was a historical figure.", "However, in the twenty-first century, tensions surround the figure of Jesus and the supernatural features of the gospels, creating, for many, a distinction between the 'Jesus of history' and the 'Christ of faith'.", "In early Christianity, this was not yet a question.", "The belief that Christ had two natures, one divine and one human, provided the foundation for Christianity.It was amongst a small group of Second Temple Jews, looking for an \"anointed\" leader (messiah or king) from the ancestral line of King David, that Christianity first formed in relative obscurity.", "Led by James the Just, brother of Jesus, they described themselves as \"disciples of the Lord\" and followers \"of the Way\".", "According to Acts 9 and 11, a settled community of disciples at Antioch were the first to be called \"Christians\".", "While there is evidence in the New Testament (Acts 10) suggesting the presence of Gentile Christians from the beginning, most early Christians were actively Jewish.", "Jewish Christianity was influential in the beginning, and it remained so in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor into the second and third centuries.", "Judaism and Christianity eventually diverged over disagreements about Jewish law, Jewish insurrections against Rome which Christians did not support, and the development of Rabbinic Judaism by the Pharisees, the sect which had rejected Jesus from the start.St.", "Lawrence (martyred 258) standing before Emperor Valerianus|alt=a painting by Fra Angelico with Emperor Valerian seated on throne and St. Lawrence who was martyred in 258 standing under arrest before himGeographically, Christianity began in Jerusalem in first-century Judea, a province of the Roman Empire.", "The religious, social, and political climate of the area was diverse and often characterized by turmoil.", "The Roman Empire had only recently emerged from a long series of civil wars, and would experience two more major periods of civil war over the next centuries.", "Romans of this era feared civil disorder, giving their highest regard to peace, harmony and order.", "Piety equaled loyalty to family, class, city and emperor, and it was demonstrated by loyalty to the practices and rituals of the old religious ways.Christianity was largely tolerated, but some also saw it as a threat to \"Romanness\" which produced localized persecution by mobs and governors.", "The first reference to persecution by a Roman Emperor is under Nero, probably in 64 AD, in the city of Rome.", "Scholars conjecture that Peter and Paul were killed then.", "In 250, the emperor Decius made it a capital offence to refuse to make sacrifices to Roman gods, resulting in widespread persecution of Christians.", "Valerian pursued similar policies later that decade.", "The last and most severe official persecution, the Diocletianic Persecution, took place in 303–311.During these early centuries, Christianity spread into the Jewish diaspora communities, establishing itself beyond the Empire's borders as well as within it.===Mission in primitive Christianity===The Oxford and Cambridge Acts of the Apostles alt=map of Paul's missionary journeysFrom its beginnings, the Christian church has seen itself as having a double mission: first, to fully live out its faith, and second, to pass it on, making Christianity a 'missionary' religion from its inception.", "Driven by a universalist logic, missions are a multi-cultural, often complex, historical process.Evangelism began immediately through the twelve Apostles, and the Apostle Paul making multiple trips to found new churches.", "Christianity quickly spread geographically and numerically, with interaction sometimes producing conflict, and other times producing converts and accommodation.===Early geographical spread===alt=a digital map showing where congregations were in the first three centuriesBeginning with less than 1000 people, by the year 100, Christianity had grown to perhaps one hundred small household churches consisting of an average of around seventy (12–200) members each.", "It achieved critical mass in the hundred years between 150 and 250 when it moved from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million.", "This provided enough adopters for its growth rate to be self-sustaining.It was in Asia Minor, in what Christine Trevett calls the \"nurseries\" of Christianity (Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, and Pergamum) that conflicts over the nature of Christ's divinity first emerged in the second century, and were resolved by referencing apostolic teaching.", "There is no archaeological evidence of Christianity in Egypt before the fourth century, though the literary evidence for it is immense.", "Egyptian Christianity probably began in the first century in Alexandria.", "Both Gnosticism and Marcionite Christianity appeared in the second century.", "Egyptian Christians produced religious literature more abundantly than any other region during the second and third centuries.", "The church in Alexandria became as influential as the church in Rome.Christianity in Antioch is mentioned in Paul's epistles written before AD 60, and scholars generally see Antioch as a primary center of early Christianity.Early Christianity was also present in Gaul, however, most of what is known comes from a letter, most likely written by Irenaeus, which theologically interprets the detailed suffering and martyrdom of Christians from Vienne and Lyons during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.", "There is no other evidence of Christianity in Gaul, beyond one inscription on a gravestone, until the beginning of the fourth century.The origins of Christianity in North Africa are unknown, but most scholars connect it to the Jewish communities of Carthage.", "Christians were persecuted in Africa intermittently from 180 until 305.Persecution under Emperors Decius and Valerian created long-lasting problems for the African church when those who had recanted tried to rejoin the Church.It is likely the Christian message arrived in the city of Rome very early, though it is unknown how or by whom.", "Tradition, and some evidence, supports Peter as the organizer and founder of the Church in Rome which already existed by 57 AD when Paul arrived there.", "The city was a melting pot of ideas, and according to Markus Vinzent, the Church in Rome was \"fragmented and subject to repeated internal upheavals ... from controversies imported by immigrants from around the empire\".", "Walter Bauer's thesis that heretical forms of Christianity were brought into line by a powerful, united, Roman church forcing its will on others is not supportable, writes Vinzent, since such unity and power did not exist in Rome before the eighth century.Christianity spread in the Germanic world during the latter part of the third century, beginning among the Goths, it did not originate among the ruling classes.", "Christianity probably reached Roman Britain by the third century at the latest.", "From the earliest days of Christianity, there was a Christian presence in Edessa (ancient and modern Urfa).", "It developed in Adiabene, Armenia, Georgia, Persia (modern Iran), Ethiopia, Central Asia, India, Nubia, South Arabia, Soqotra, Central Asia and China.", "Christianity's development followed the trade routes as it was spread by merchants and soldiers.", "By the sixth century, there is evidence for Christian communities in Sri Lanka and Tibet.===Early beliefs and practices===One of the oldest representation of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the alt=photo of very old and slightly damaged representation of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the catacombs, made around 300 ADEarly Christianity's system of beliefs and morality have been cited as a major factor in its growth from relative obscurity.", "Early Christian communities were highly inclusive in terms of social categories, being open to men and women, rich and poor, slave and free, in contrast to traditional Roman social stratification.", "In groups formed by Paul the Apostle, the role of women was greater than in other religious movements.", "Intellectual egalitarianism made philosophy and ethics available to ordinary people otherwise deemed incapable of ethical reflection.", "Conceptions of sin and free will led to an increasing focus on the spiritual ethics of sexual behavior over the established social construct determined by social status.", "Family had previously determined where and how the dead could be buried, but Christians gathered those not related by blood into a common burial space, used the same memorials, and expanded the audience to include others of their community, thereby redefining the meaning of family.", "Christians distributed bread to the hungry, nurtured the sick, and showed the poor great generosity.Christianity in its first 300 years was also highly exclusive, as believing was the crucial and defining characteristic that set a \"high boundary\" that strongly excluded non-believers.", "The exclusivity of Christian monotheism has been cited as a crucial factor in maintaining independence in the syncretizing Roman religious culture.In the mid-second century, Christian writers in Asia Minor, along with Gentile believers such as Justin Martyr, began using the term \"heresy\" to describe doctrinal deviance from the apostolic tradition.", "The concept developed as a means of defining theological error, ensuring correct belief and establishing identity.", "They saw tension between universality and diversity in Christianity as making the establishment of boundaries through opposition to heresy necessary.", "In the early centuries, doctrinal variations were gradually regulated by literature that established a consensus of common beliefs and boundaries thereby creating a kind of \"unified diversity\" within Christianity.", "====Church hierarchy====The Church as an institution began its formation quickly and with some flexibility.", "The New Testament mentions ''bishops'' (or ), as overseers and ''presbyters'' as elders or priests, with ''deacons'' as 'servants', sometimes using the terms interchangeably.", "According to Gerd Theissen, institutionalization began when itinerant preaching transformed into resident leadership (those living in a particular community over which they exercised leadership).", "A fully organized church system had evolved prior to Constantine and the Council of Nicaea in 325.====New Testament====A folio from Papyrus 46, an early-3rd-century collection of Pauline epistles|alt=photo of an old page of writing from Papyrus 46 in a third century collection of Paul's EpistlesIn the first century, new scriptures were written in Koine Greek.", "For Christians, these became the \"New Testament\", and the Hebrew Scriptures became the \"Old Testament\".", "Even in the formative period, these texts had considerable authority, and those seen as \"scriptural\" were generally agreed upon.When discussion of canonization began, there were disputes over whether or not to include some books.", "A list of accepted books was established by the Council of Rome in 382, followed by those of Hippo in 393 and Carthage in 397.Spanning two millennia, the Bible has become one of the most influential works ever written, having contributed to the formation of Western law, art, literature, literacy and education.===Church fathers===The earliest orthodox writers of the first and second centuries, outside the writers of the New Testament itself, were first called the Apostolic Fathers in the sixth century.", "The title is used by the Church to describe the intellectual and spiritual teachers, leaders and philosophers of early Christianity.", "Writing from the first century to the close of the eighth, they defended their faith, wrote commentaries and sermons, recorded the Creeds and church history, and lived lives that were exemplars of their faith." ], [ "Late Antiquity to Early Middle Ages (313–600)", "From Constantine to the close of the sixth century, Christianity increasingly expanded.", "It experienced political transformation that sometimes created a difficult interplay between state and church, and sometimes led to its adoption as a state church.", "Armenia adopted Christianity as their state religion, as did Georgia, Ethiopia and Eritrea.", "Increasing diversity led to the formation of competing orthodoxies.", "This period also saw the Christianization of aristocracies.", "Barbarians sacked Rome, invaded Britain, France, and Spain, seized land, and disrupted economies.", "After 476 AD, the Christian church became society's unifying influence.===Influence of Constantine in Late Antiquity===Emperor Constantine (centre) and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381|alt=this is a photo of an old eastern icon depicting the Emperor Constantine in the center and a few bishops holding the Nicene Creed in front of themThe Roman Emperor Constantine the Great became the emperor in the West and the first Christian emperor in 313.He became sole emperor when he defeated Licinius, the emperor in the East, in 324.In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, expressing tolerance for all religions, thereby legalizing Christian worship.", "Christianity did not become the official religion of the empire under Constantine, but the steps he took to support and protect it were vitally important in the history of Christianity.Constantine established equal footing for Christian clergy by granting them the same immunities pagan priests had long enjoyed.", "He gave bishops judicial power.", "By intervening in church disputes, he initiated a precedent.", "He wrote laws that favored Christianity, and he personally endowed Christians with gifts of money, land and government positions.", "Instead of rejecting state authority, bishops were grateful, and this change in attitude proved to be critical to the further growth of the Church.Constantine's church building was influential in the spread of Christianity.", "He devoted imperial and public funds, endowed his churches with wealth and lands, and provided revenue for their clergy and upkeep.", "This led to similar efforts on a local level, leading to the presence of churches in essentially all Roman cities by the late fourth century.=== Regional developments (300–600) ===Christianity had no central government, and differences developed in different locations.", "Donatism developed in North Africa.", "Some Germanic people adopted Arian Christianity while others, such as the Frankish King Clovis I, (who was the first to unite the Frankish tribes under one ruler), converted to catholicism.", "Pope Celestine I sent Patrick, a former slave, back to the Irish who had enslaved him, to be a missionary to them in the early fifth century.", "Irish Christianity embraced syncretization with prior beliefs, and spread dramatically without the use of force.", "Pope Gregory the Great sent a long-distance mission to Anglo-Saxon England.", "The Gregorian mission landed in 596, and converted the Kingdom of Kent and the court of Anglo-Saxon Northumbria.", "However, archaeology indicates Christianity had become an established minority faith in some parts of Britain before Irish missionaries went to Iona (from 563) and converted many Picts.", "A \"seismic moment\" in Christian history took place in 612 when the Visigothic King Sisebut declared the obligatory conversion of all Jews in Spain, overriding Pope Gregory who had reiterated the traditional ban against forced conversion of the Jews in 591.alt=this is a map showing the area that Justinian I conqueredIntense missionary activity between the fifth and eighth centuries led to eastern Iran, Arabia, central Asia, China, the coasts of India and Indonesia adopting Nestorian Christianity.", "Syrian Nestorians also settled in the Persian Empire.", "The Church of the East within the Persian/Sasanian Empire spread over modern Iraq, Iran, and parts of Central Asia.", "The shattering of the Sassanian Empire in the early 600s led upper-class refugees to move further east to China, entering Hsian-fu in 635.The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 had little direct impact on the Eastern Roman Empire.", "By the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I (527–565), Constantinople was the largest, most prosperous and powerful city in the Mediterranean and the Middle East.", "Justinian attempted to reunite the empire by taking over both territory and the Church.", "From 537 to 752, this resulted in Roman Popes having to be approved by the Eastern emperor before they could be installed.", "This required consistency with Eastern policies, such as forcing conversion of pagans, that had not previously been policies in the west.==== Heresy and the Ecumenical councils (325–681) ====Imagined portrait of Arius; detail of a Cretan School icon, , depicting the First Council of Nicaea|alt=this is a photo of a detail from an icon by the Cretan school, painted around 1591, depicting Arius at the First Council of Nicaea holding his head as if in pain From the fourth century on, theological controversies were public and often lengthy, and lasting consensus was slow to achieve.", "Seven ecumenical councils were convened to resolve these often heated disagreements.", "The first major disagreement was between Arianism, which said the divine nature of Jesus was not equal to the Father's, and orthodox trinitarianism which says it is equal.", "Arianism spread throughout most of the Roman Empire from the fourth century onwards.", "The First Council of Nicaea was called by Constantine in (325) to address it and other disagreements.", "Representatives of some 150 episcopal sees in Asia Minor attended along with many others.", "Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople (381) resulted in a condemnation of Arian teachings and produced the Nicene Creed.The alt=map showing Church of the East in the Middle AgesThe Third (431), Fourth (451), Fifth (583) and Sixth ecumenical councils (680681) are characterized by attempts to explain Jesus' human and divine natures.", "By the late Roman period, Germanic tribes had migrated into the Western Empire, and were contributing to straining relations with the East, since many were Arian.", "The Church centered on Constantinople was \"Chalcedonian\".", "The Council of Chalcedon in 451 had attempted to define Jesus as human and divine without preferencing one nature over the other or dividing him in two.", "It was called in response to Nestorianism, which divided Christ's nature into two natures, while Monophysitism saw Christ as solely divine.", "Christians in Egypt and western Syria were largely monophysite and opposed to the Council, and the church of East Syria increasingly distanced itself from all of it.", "The category of ‘schism’ developed as a middle ground, so as not to exclude all who disagreed as ‘heretic’.", "Schisms within the churches of the Nicene tradition broke out after Chalcedon.", "The Armenian, Assyrian, and Egyptian churches combined into what is today known as Oriental Orthodoxy, one of three major branches of Eastern Christianity these controversies produced, along with the Church of the East in Persia and Eastern Orthodoxy in Byzantium.===Synthesis and relations with non-Christians===Late Roman culture accommodated both Christian and Greco-Roman heritage.", "Christian intellectuals adapted Greek philosophy and Roman traditions to Christian use.", "Substantial growth in the third and fourth centuries, had made Christianity the majority religion by the mid-fourth century, and all Roman emperors after Constantine, except Julian, were Christian.", "Christian Emperors wanted the empire to become a Christian empire.", "Whether or not the Roman Empire of this period officially made Christianity its state religion continues to be debated.", "No legislation forcing the conversion of pagans existed until the reign of Justinian in A.D. 529.Christians of the fourth century believed Constantine's conversion was evidence the Christian God had conquered the pagan gods in Heaven.", "This \"triumph of Christianity\" became the primary Christian narrative in writings of the late antique age in spite of the fact that Christians represented only ten to fifteen percent of the population in 313.As a minority, triumph did not generally involve an increase in violence aimed at polytheists - with some exceptions.", "In general, there was more violent rhetoric than actual violence.", "Christians responded to pagan polemic against Christianity by writing defenses and virulent anti-pagan counter-attacks of their own.", "Within the Church, the first choice of weapons were words.Constantine wrote the first laws against sacrifice which, thereafter, largely disappeared by the mid fourth century.", "Peter Brown notes that the language of these anti-sacrifice laws \"was uniformly vehement\", and the \"penalties they proposed were frequently horrifying\", evidencing the intent of \"terrorizing\" the populace into accepting removal of this tradition.", "Even so, polytheistic religions continued.", "The fourth century historian Eusebius also attributes to Constantine widespread temple destruction, however, while the destruction of temples is in 43 written sources, only four have been confirmed archaeologically.What is known with some certainty is that Constantine was vigorous in reclaiming confiscated properties for the Church, and he used reclamation to justify the destruction of some Greco-Roman temples such as Aphrodite's temple in Jerusalem.", "For the most part, Constantine simply neglected them.", "It wasn't until the eighth century, with a few exceptions, that some temples in Rome were converted into churches.In the fourth century, Augustine of Hippo argued against the persecution of the Jewish people.", "A relative peace existed between Jews and Christians until the thirteenth century.", "Jews and Christians were both religious minorities claiming the same inheritance, and competing in a direct and sometimes violent clash.", "Significant Jewish communities existed throughout the Christian Roman empire, and attitudes varied in different areas.", "Although anti-Semitic violence erupted occasionally, attacks on Jews by mobs, local leaders and lower level clergy were carried out without the support of church leaders who generally followed Augustine's teachings.Sometime before the fifth century, the theology of supersessionism emerged, claiming that Christianity had displaced Judaism as God's chosen people.", "Supersessionism was not an official or universally held doctrine, but replacement theology has been part of Christian thought through much of history.", "Many attribute the emergence of antisemitism to this doctrine while others make a distinction between supersessionism and modern anti-Semitism.Coptic icon of St. Anthony the Great, father of Christian monasticism and early anchorite.", "The Coptic inscription reads ('the Great Father Anthony')|alt=picture of icon of St.Anthony===Monasticism and public hospitals===Christian monasticism emerged in the third century, and by the fifth century, was a dominant force in all areas of late antique culture.", "Monastics developed a health care system which allowed the sick to remain within the monastery as a special class afforded special benefits and care.", "This destigmatized illness and formed the basis for future public health care.", "The first public hospital (the Basiliad) was founded by Basil the Great in 369.Basil was the central figure in the development of monasticism in the East.", "In the West, it was Benedict, who created the Rule of Saint Benedict, which would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and the starting point for other monastic rules." ], [ "Early Middle Ages (600–1100)", "In the Early Middle Ages, a new kind of civilization centered in Europe began forming.", "Merging classical Graeco-Roman thought, Germanic culture and Christian values, gaps between the Christian ideal and its practice demonstrate that worldliness and devotion, reverence and continuing superstition, existed side-by-side in this emerging world.", "The pervasiveness of the concept of Christendom, along with Christianity's ability to turn on itself again and again in self-critique and reform (as demonstrated toward the end of this period), show the Middle Ages as complex, with diverse elements.", "Diversity produced a variety of Christian ideals and societies across a wide spectrum including interest groups who competed with one another: cardinals versus popes, chapters versus bishops, and parishioners versus vicars.", "These groups also held in common \"Christendom\", a term that both medieval writers and ordinary folk used to identify themselves, their religious culture, and even their civilization.", "For the individual, membership in Christendom began with baptism at birth.", "Participation included rudimentary knowledge of the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer, rest on Sunday and feast days, attendance at mass, fasting at specified times, confession once a year (after 1215), communion at Easter, payment of various fees, tithes and alms for the needy, and finally, last rites at death.", "These were overseen and enforced by the king and his lords and bishops, and Christendom could be considered territorial.", "The pre-Reformation church was not capable of being monolithic.", "Even so, for the majority, medieval religion was a living and vital force linked directly to everyday life.", "Religious culture rested on an outwardly spoken, internally accepted, belief in the \"articles of the faith\" and the Apostles' Creed.", "Both were among the earliest texts translated into everyday language, and were considered to be binding on all, from peasant to pope.", "They were repeated at Sunday mass and by godparents at baptism, were in nearly every known pastoral manual, and nearly every inquisitorial proceeding began with some kind of question about them.", "Practicality required some accommodation of those who did not meet the standard.", "This was summed up in an ecclesial formula, “not adverse, but diverse - not in conflict, but differing.” In this way, the church made room for the \"simple folk\" who held an \"implicit faith\" without complete understanding, yet with a genuine desire to acquire and preserve Christendom.", "From the ninth to the eleventh century, Christendom encompassed a loose federation of churches, under the spiritual headship of the Pope, from areas across the European continent.", "At this time, the Pope had no clearly established authority over those churches.", "He gave little general direction, and the few councils that occur in this period were called by kings not popes.", "Churches were dependent upon lay rulers.", "The ruling kings, dukes and counts made all appointments to ecclesiastical offices on their land.", "===Communication and education===The means and methods used to communicate the teachings of the written texts of Christendom to an illiterate populace included mystery plays (which had developed out of the mass), wall paintings, vernacular sermons, saints' lives in epic form, and treatises on the commandments, creeds, vices, and virtues which were often written in the vernacular so all could understand.", "Rituals, art, literature, and cosmology were shaped or influenced by Christian norms but also contained some synthesis with the old under the umbrella of Christendom.", "Christian motifs could function in non-Christian ways, while practices of non-Christian origin became endowed with Christian meaning.", "In the synthesis of old and new, influence cut both ways, but the cultural dynamic lay with Christianization.As culture became more literate in general, western universities formed.", "They began as cathedral schools, then formed into self-governing corporations with charters.", "Divided into faculties which specialized in law, medicine, theology or liberal arts, each held ''quodlibeta'' (free-for-all) theological debates amongst faculty and students, and awarded degrees.", "The earliest were the University of Bologna (1088), the University of Oxford (1096), and the University of Paris where the faculty was of international renown ().", "These became the first institutes of higher education in Europe since the sixth century.", "Both church and society became increasingly refined, educated and secular.=== Regional developments (600-1000) ===In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes, destroying much early artistic history.", "The West condemned Leo's iconoclasm.Palatine Chapel in Aachen was part of Charlemagne's palace.", "It remains a central monument of the Carolingian Renaissance.Charlemagne began the Carolingian Renaissance in the 800s.", "Sometimes called a Christian renaissance, it was a period of intellectual and cultural revival of literature, arts, and scriptural studies, a renovation of law and the courts, and the promotion of literacy.Christianization and political centralization went hand in hand in creating the nation-states of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Poland, Hungary, and Russia.", "Local elites wanted to convert because they gained prestige and power through matrimonial alliances and participation in imperial rituals.", "St. Cyril and St. Methodius monument on Mt.", "Radhošť|alt=image of a monument depicting Saints Cyril and Methodius Saints Cyril and Methodius played the key missionary roles in spreading Christianity to the Slavic people beginning in 863.For three and a half years, they translated the Gospels into the Old Church Slavonic language, developing the first Slavic alphabet, and with their disciples, the Cyrillic script.", "It became the first literary language of the Slavs and, eventually, the educational foundation for all Slavic nations.Gregorian Reform (1050–1080) established new law requiring the consent of both parties before a marriage could be performed, a minimum age for marriage, and codified marriage as a sacrament.", "Thirteenth century theologians made the union a binding contract, making abandonment prosecutable with dissolution of marriage overseen by Church authorities.", "Although the Church abandoned tradition to allow women the same rights as men to dissolve a marriage, in practice men were granted dissolutions more frequently than women.Throughout the Middle Ages, abbesses and female superiors of monastic houses were powerful figures whose influence could rival that of male bishops and abbots.", "The veneration of Mary developed within the monasteries in western medieval Europe; Medieval European Christians praised Mary for making God tangible.Having begun in Christianity's first 500 years, Christian mysticism came to its full flowering in the Middle Ages.", "====Investiture====Henry IV, the Holy Roman Emperor at the gate of Canossa Castle in 1077, during the Investiture controversy.|alt=image of painting of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, at the gate of Canossa Castle in 1077The Church had already become committed to the doctrine of papal supremacy by the end of the ninth century.", "In an ongoing effort to establish this and grant itself more independence from the state, conflict between king and pope over control of the church began in the Holy Roman Empire in 1078.The Investiture controversy was specifically a dispute between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII concerning who would appoint, ''invest'', bishops.", "Ending lay investiture threatened to undercut the power of the Holy Roman Empire and the ambitions of the European nobility.", "But allowing lay investiture meant the Pope's authority over his own people was almost non-existent.", "It took \"five decades of excommunications, denunciations and mutual depositions...spanning the reign of two emperors and six popes\" to settle the controversy in the Pope's favor in 1122.A similar controversy occurred in England.===Byzantium and crusade===The rise of Islam (600 to 1517) had unleashed a series of Arab military campaigns that conquered Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia by 650, and added North Africa and most of Spain by 740.The Franks and Constantinople were able to withstand this medieval juggernaut, but Spain and Sicily and some of Eastern Europe experienced Islamic conquest.", "''Andalusi Christians'', from the Iberian Peninsula lived under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492.The martyrdoms of forty-eight Christians for defending their Christian faith took place in Córdoba between 850 and 859.Executed under Abd al-Rahman II and Muhammad I, the record shows the executions were for capital violations of Islamic law, including apostasy and blasphemy.", "In Spain from the eighth century onward, Muslim, Christian and Jewish blended, leaving a profound cultural imprint.", "The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Crusader states with their strongholds in the Holy Land at their height, between the First and the Second Crusade (1135)|alt=image of Map Crusader states 1135 By the end of the first millennium, a rich and varied culture, characterized by ethnic diversity, had fully developed in Byzantium centered around its greatest city.", "Constantinople had become famous for its prosperity and power, its numerous market places, massive walls, magnificent monuments, and the religious devotion of its inhabitants, which was thought to have won it the blessing and protection of God.", "After 1071, when the Seljuk Turks closed access for Christian pilgrimages and defeated the Byzantines at Manzikert, the Emperor Alexius I asked for aid from Pope Urban II.", "Historian Jaroslav Folda writes that Urban II responded by calling upon the knights of Christendom at the Council of Clermont on 27 November 1095, to \"go to the aid of their brethren in the Holy Land and to liberate the Christian Holy sites from the heathen\", an appeal aimed at those with sufficient wealth and position to subsidize their own journey.", "This period included a longing for the genuine \"apostolic life\" with particular sensitivity to the practice of voluntary holy poverty.", "The First Crusade captured Antioch in 1099, then Jerusalem, establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem.", "The Second Crusade began after Edessa was taken by Islamic forces in 1144.Christians lost Jerusalem in 1187 through the catastrophic defeat of the Franks at the Horns of Hattin.", "The Third Crusade did not regain the major Holy sites even though Richard the Lionheart defeated the significantly larger army of the Ayyubid Sultanate led by Saladin in 1191.The Fourth Crusade, begun by Innocent III in 1202 was subverted by the Venetians.", "They funded it, then ran out of money and instructed the crusaders to go to Constantinople and get money there.", "Crusaders sacked the city and other parts of Asia Minor, established the Latin Empire of Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor, and contributed to the downfall of the Byzantine Empire.", "Five numbered crusades to the Holy Land culminated in the siege of Acre in 1291, essentially ending Western presence in the Holy Land.", "Crusades led to the development of national identities in European nations, increased division with the East, and produced cultural change for all involved.===Monks, mission and reform===Throughout this period, the Church functioned like an early version of a welfare state sponsoring public hospitals, orphanages, hospices, and hostels (inns).", "The steadily increasing number of monasteries and convents supplied food during famine and distributed food to the poor.", "Monasteries actively preserved ancient texts, classical craft and artistic skills, while maintaining an intellectual and spiritual culture.", "They supported literacy within their schools, scriptoria and libraries.", "They were models of productivity and economic resourcefulness, teaching their local communities animal husbandry, cheese making, wine making, and various other skills.", "Medical practice was highly important and medieval monasteries are best known for their contributions to medical tradition.", "They also made advances in sciences such as astronomy, and St. Benedict's Rule (480–543) impacted politics and law.", "The formation of these organized bodies of believers gradually carved out a series of social spaces with some amount of independence, distinct from political and familial authority, thereby revolutionizing social history.The spread of Cistercians from their original sites in Western-Central Europe during the Middle Ages|alt=this is an image of a map showing the original sites of the Cistercians in Central EuropeBy the ninth and tenth centuries, crisis over control of the church arose between the laity and clergy.", "Nobles were overstepping in church affairs.", "Many clergy were untrained, church posts were being bought and sold (simony), and there was a general sexual laxity.", "This led to reform and renewal in the eleventh century.", "Owing to its stricter adherence to the reformed Benedictine rule, the Abbey of Cluny, first established in 910, became the leading center of Western monasticism into the early twelfth century.", "The Cistercian movement was a second wave of reform.", "After 1098, they became a primary force of technological advancement and diffusion in medieval Europe.Clerks studying astronomy and geometry.", "Early 15th century painting, alt=image of clerks using geometry to study astronomyBeginning in the twelfth century, the pastoral Franciscan Order was instituted by the followers of Francis of Assisi; later, the Dominican Order was begun by St. Dominic.", "Called Mendicant orders, they represented a change in understanding a monk's calling as contemplative, instead seeing it as a call to actively reform the world through preaching, missionary activity, and education.", "This new calling to reform the world led the Dominicans to dominate the new universities, travel about preaching against heresy, and to participate in the Medieval Inquisition, the Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades.", "Christian policy denying the existence of witches and witchcraft would later be challenged by the Dominicans allowing them to participate in witch trials.Religious houses acted as major socioeconomic forces, and the papacy was seated firmly in Rome, although, the most influential figure in any local church of this period was probably not the Pope.", "The greatest influence would have been held by each house's or church's proctor as the administrator of daily business." ], [ "High Middle Ages (1100–1300)", " Between 1150 and 1200, intrepid Christian scholars traveled to formerly Muslim locations in Sicily and Spain.", "Fleeing Muslims had abandoned their libraries, and among the treasure trove of books, the searchers found the works of Aristotle and Euclid and more.", "What had been lost to the West after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, was found, and its rediscovery created a paradigm shift in the history of Christianity.Insights gained from Aristotle dramatically impacted the Church, contributing to the Renaissance of the 12th century.", "Reconciling reason and faith led to High Scholasticism, the works of Thomas Aquinas on law, politics and faith, and to synthesis of the secular and Christian in both religion and culture.Renaissance also included a revival of the scientific study of natural phenomena.", "Robert Grosseteste (1175–1253) devised a step-by-step scientific method that used math and the testing of hypotheses; William of Ockham (1300–1349) developed a principle of economy to remove the irrelevant; Roger Bacon (1220–1292) advocated for an experimental method that he used in his study of optics.", "Historians of science credit these and other medieval Christians with the beginnings of what, in time, became modern science and led to the scientific revolution in the West.", "Under Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085), the Roman Church became what John Witte Jr. calls \"an autonomous legal and political corporation\" that functioned as a \"state\" with a strong sense of its own socioeconomic and political interests.", "Following the era of Innocent III (1198–1216), the Papacy stood as the highest authority in the West for nearly two centuries.", "Innocent IV (1243–1254), took the step of identifying the Church with the Pope as popes continued to work at separating the church from secular civil powers by building a ''papal monarchy''.===Beliefs and practices of the Middle Ages===Medieval folk invoked Christian norms and practices as the ideal toward which they strove, but medieval religious life included a constant struggle to maintain those norms.", "Most medieval people believed that access to Heaven was available only through participating in the Church's sacraments, and living morally as defined by a list of seven virtues and seven vices.", "Between 1150 and 1350, a shift took place.", "The scope of how one could transgress began to widen.", "Heresy, which previously had applied only to bishops and church leaders who knew theology, began being applied to ordinary people.", "Heresy thus became a religious, political, and social issue because it was believed to affect the very stability of society itself; prosecuting it included both church and state.Inquisition was a change in church juridical procedure, created in the Middle Ages, that was initially directed towards policing sexual sin among the clergy.", "Sin became aligned with crime, which then applied to everyone.", "Crime justified the use of coercion.", "Torture was an aspect of civic law, but its use in inquisition was limited before the fifteenth century.", "Death sentences were carried out by secular authorities, and were a relatively rare occurrence.", "Medieval Inquisitorial courts most often imposed penance which could include public confession.", "The history of the Inquisition has two parts: its medieval Papal creation in the early twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and its modern transformation into permanent secular governmental bureaucracies between 1478 and 1542.The Medieval Inquisition, composed of the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230) and the later Papal Inquisition (1230s–1240s), were the courts that prosecuted heresy and other moral or religious crimes (such as witchcraft or sexual immorality).", "They were created as needed, were not permanent, but were limited and specific to time and place.", "In the mid-thirteenth century, the Medieval Inquisition brought somewhere between 8,000 and 40,000 people to interrogation and sentence.", "Later modern inquisitions were political institutions with a much broader reach.", "Private confession originated in the monastery, but became a routine event required annually of every Christian after 1215.In the High Middle Ages, confession and penance were among the chief means of personal religious formation.", "''The Virgin in Prayer'', 17th century by Sassoferrato|alt=image of painting by Sassoferrato of a young woman in prayer meant to represent the Virgin MaryThe veneration of the Virgin Mary first developed within the monasteries in western medieval Europe.", "It flourished in the late eleventh and twelfth centuries with the emergence of affective piety, which grew from empathy with the human Christ and his suffering, and exhibited itself in compassion toward the suffering of others.", "People of the time praised Mary for making God tangible.Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation leading to the development of classical music and all its derivatives.Until around 1050, local churches often had their own distinct traditions in law, liturgy, and devotional practice.", "By the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, the parish church emerged as one of the fundamental institutions of medieval and Old Europe.", "Its formation was relatively slow, though once established, it swiftly became the center of medieval village life.", "Most country parishes were formed out of the needs and interests of their local communities.", "By the thirteenth century, \"parish\" could refer indiscriminately to both village and church.==== Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) ====Pope Innocent III and the king of France, Philip Augustus, joined in 1209 in a military campaign that was promulgated as necessary for eliminating the Albigensian heresy.", "Once begun, the campaign quickly took a political turn.Throughout the campaign, Innocent vacillated, sometimes taking the side favoring crusade, then siding against it and calling for its end.", "In 1229, when the crusade finally did end, the campaign no longer had crusade status.", "The king's army had seized and occupied the lands of nobles who had not sponsored Cathars, but had been in the good graces of the Church, which had been unable to protect them.", "Thereafter, the entire region came under the rule of the French king and became southern France.", "Catharism continued for another hundred years (until 1350).==== Baltic wars (1147–1316) ====When the Second Crusade was called to protect Edessa, the nobles in Eastern Europe refused to go.", "These rulers saw crusade as a tool for territorial expansion, alliance building, and the empowerment of their own church and state.", "The Balts, the last major polytheistic population in Europe, had raided surrounding countries for several centuries.", "Subduing them was therefore more important to the Eastern nobles.In 1147, Eugenius' ''Divina dispensatione'' gave eastern nobility indulgences for crusades in the Baltic area.", "The Northern Crusades followed intermittently, at times with and without papal support, from 1147 to 1316.There was a general acceptance of forced conversion during the Baltic crusades, despite a continued theological emphasis on voluntary conversion.==== Spain (1469–1492) ====alt=image of one of the oldest churches in Spain San Pedro de la NaveBetween 711 and 718, the Iberian peninsula had been conquered by Muslims in the Umayyad conquest.", "The military struggle to reclaim the peninsula from Muslim rule took place for centuries until the Christian Kingdoms reconquered the Moorish state of Al-Ándalus in 1492.Depiction of the Battle of Navas de Tolosa by 19th-century painter Francisco de Paula Van Halen.|alt=image of the Battle of Navas de Tolosa by 19th-century painter Francisco de Paula Van Halen showing men fighting on a field Isabel and Ferdinand married in 1469, united Spain with themselves as the first king and queen, fought the Muslims in the Reconquista and soon after established the Spanish Inquisition.The Spanish inquisition was originally authorized by the Pope in answer to royal fears that ''Conversos'' or ''Marranos'' (Jewish converts) were spying and conspiring with the Muslims to sabotage the new state.", "\"New Christians\" had begun to appear as a socio-religious designation and legal distinction.", "Muslim converts were known as ''Moriscos''.Early inquisitors proved so severe that the Pope soon opposed the Spanish Inquisition and attempted to shut it down.", "Ferdinand declined, and is said to have pressured the Pope so that, in October 1483, a papal bull conceded control of the inquisition to the Spanish crown.", "The inquisition became the first truly national, unified and centralized institution of the nascent Spanish state.=== In the East (1000–1500) ===The Copts, Melkites, Nestorians, and the Monophysites sometimes called Jacobites in Syria, continued to exist in lands that came under Muslim rule.", "Islam set the social norm as Christians were dhimma.", "This cultural status guaranteed Christians rights of protection, but discriminated against them through legal inferiority.", "Christianity declined demographically, culturally and socially.", "By the end of the eleventh century, Christianity was in full retreat in Mesopotamia and inner Iran, but the Christian communities further to the east continued to exist.Hagia Sophia was the religious and spiritual centre of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly one thousand years.", "The Hagia Sophia and the Parthenon were converted into mosques.", "Violent persecutions of Christians were common and reached their climax in the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek genocides.|alt=image of Hagia SophiaMany differences between East and West had existed since Antiquity.", "There were disagreements over whether Pope or Patriarch should lead the Church, whether mass should be conducted in Latin or Greek, whether priests must remain celibate, and other points of doctrine such as the ''Filioque Clause'' which was added to the Nicene creed by the west.", "These were intensified by cultural, geographical, geopolitical, and linguistic differences.", "Eventually, this produced the East–West Schism, also known as the \"Great Schism\" of 1054, which separated the Church into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.The Byzantine Empire had reached its greatest territorial extension in the sixth century under Justinian I.", "For the next 800 years, it steadily contracted under the onslaught of its hostile neighbors in both East and West.", "After 1302, the Ottoman Empire was built upon the ruins of what had once been the great Byzantine Empire.", "By 1330, the Ottomans had largely conquered Anatolia, conquering much of the Balkans by the end of the century.", "The Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, destroying the last vestige of the Roman Empire.", "The flight of Eastern Christians from Constantinople, and the manuscripts they carried with them, is one of the factors that prompted the literary renaissance in the West.====The Russian church====A coalition of Russian polities headed by the Principality of Moscow defeated the Turkic and Mongol Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo.", "This began a period of transformation fusing state power and religious mission, transforming the Kievan Rus from a series of small statelets into a unified Russian state." ], [ "Early modern upheaval (1500–1750)", "Following the geographic discoveries of the 1400s and 1500s, increasing population and inflation led the emerging nation-states of Portugal, Spain, and France, the Dutch Republic, and England to explore, conquer, colonize and exploit the newly discovered territories and their indigenous peoples.", "Different state actors created colonies that varied widely.", "Some colonies had institutions that allowed native populations to reap some benefits.", "Others became extractive colonies with predatory rule that produced an autocracy with a dismal record.Colonialism opened the door for Christian missionaries who accompanied the early explorers, or soon followed them.", "Although most missionaries avoided politics, they also generally identified themselves with the indigenous people amongst whom they worked and lived.", "According to Dana L. Robert, for 500 years, vocal missionaries challenged colonial oppression and defended human rights, even opposing their own governments in matters of social justice.", "Historians and political scientists see the establishment of unified, sovereign, nation-states, which led directly to the development of modern Europe, as a singularly important political development of the sixteenth century.", "However, while sovereign states were unifying, Christendom was coming apart.", "=== Reformation and response (1517–1700) ===The break up of Christendom culminates in the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648).", "Beginning with Martin Luther nailing his ''Ninety-five Theses'' to the church door in Wittenburg in 1517, there was no actual schism until 1521 when edicts handed down by the Diet of Worms condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas.Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and many others protested against corruptions such as simony (the buying and selling of church offices), the holding of multiple church offices by one person at the same time, and the sale of indulgences.", "The Protestant position later included the Five ''solae'' (''sola scriptura'', ''sola fide'', ''sola gratia'', ''solus Christus'', ''soli Deo gloria''), the priesthood of all believers, Law and Gospel, and the two kingdoms doctrine.", "Three important traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed, and the Anglican traditions.", "Beginning in 1519, Huldrych Zwingli spread John Calvin's teachings in Switzerland leading to the Swiss Reformation.At the same time, a collection of loosely related groups that included Anabaptists, Spiritualists, and Evangelical Rationalists, began the Radical Reformation in Germany and Switzerland.", "They opposed Lutheran, Reformed and Anglican church-state theories, supporting instead a full separation from the state.====Counter-reformation====The Roman Catholic Church soon struck back, launching its own Counter-Reformation beginning with Pope Paul III (1534–1549), the first in a series of 10 reforming popes from 1534 to 1605.In an effort to reclaim the moral high ground, a list of books detrimental to faith or morals was established, the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, which included the works of Luther, Calvin and other Protestants along with writings condemned as obscene.", "alt=picture of first page of the list of forbidden books in Latin from its first publicationNew monastic orders arose including the Jesuits.", "Resembling a military company in its hierarchy, discipline, and obedience, their vow of loyalty to the Pope set them apart from other monastic orders, leading them to be called \"the shock troops of the papacy\".", "Jesuits soon became the Church's chief weapon against Protestantism.", "Monastic reform also led to the development of new, yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality.The Council of Trent (1545–1563) denied each Protestant claim, and laid the foundation of Roman Catholic policies up to the twenty-first century.====War====Reforming zeal and Catholic denial spread through much of Europe and became entangled with local politics.", "Already involved in dynastic wars, the quarreling royal houses became polarized into the two religious camps.", "\"Religious\" wars resulted ranging from international wars to internal conflicts.", "War began in the Holy Roman Empire with the minor Knights' Revolt in 1522, then intensified in the First Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547) and the Second Schmalkaldic War (1552–1555).", "Seven years after the Peace of Augsburg, France became the centre of religious wars which lasted 36 years.", "The final wave was the Thirty Years War (1618–1648).", "The involvement of foreign powers made it the largest and most disastrous.The causes of these wars were mixed.", "Many scholars see them as fought to obtain security and freedom for differing religious confessions, however, scholars have largely interpreted these wars as struggles for political independence that coincided with the break up of medieval empires into the modern nation states.====Tolerance====Debate on whether peace required allowing only one faith and punishing heretics, or if ancient opinions defending leniency, (based on the parable of the tares), should be revived, began to occupy every version of the Christian faith.", "Radical Protestants steadfastly sought toleration for heresy, blasphemy, Catholicism, non-Christian religions, and even atheism.", "Anglicans and other Christian moderates also wrote and argued for toleration.", "Deism emerged, and in the 1690s, following debates that started in the 1640s, a non-Christian third group also advocated for religious toleration.", "It became necessary to rethink on a political level, all of the State's reasons for persecution.", "Over the next two and a half centuries, many treaties and political declarations of tolerance followed, until concepts of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and freedom of thought became established in most western countries.===Science and the Galileo Affair (1610)===''Galileo before the Holy Office'', a 19th-century painting by alt=photo of 19th century painting by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury showing Galileo before the courtThe condemnation of Galileo Galilei for his vocal defense of Heliocentrism caused an internal uproar in scientific circles on whether the judges were condemning Galileo alone, or the \"new science\" and anyone who attempted to displace Aristotle.", "This led to significant tensions between the scientific community and the church, which have waxed and waned into the modern day.=== Witch trials () ===Until the 1300s, the official position of the Roman Catholic Church was that witches did not exist.", "While historians have been unable to pinpoint a single cause of what became known as the \"witch frenzy\", scholars have noted that, without changing church doctrine, a new but common stream of thought developed at every level of society that witches were both real and malevolent.", "Records show the belief in magic had remained so widespread among the rural people, it has convinced some historians that Christianization had not been as successful as previously supposed.", "The main pressure to prosecute witches came from the common people, and trials were mostly civil trials.", "There is broad agreement that approximately 100,000 people were prosecuted, of which 80% were women, and 40,000 to 50,000 people were executed between 1561 and 1670.===The Enlightenment===Critique of Christianity began among the more extreme Protestant reformers who were enraged by fear, tyranny and persecution.", "Abuses inherent in political absolutism, practiced by kings and supported by Catholicism, gave rise to a virulent anti-clerical, anti-Catholic, and anti-Christian sentiment that emerged in the 1680s.", "However, twenty-first century scholars tend to see the relationship between Christianity and the Enlightenment as complex with many regional and national variations.", "The Enlightenment was not merely a war with Christianity, since many changes to the Church were advocated by Christian moderates." ], [ "Revolution and modernity (1750–1945)", "After 1750, secularization at every level of European society can be observed.", "Enlightenment had shifted the paradigm, and various ground-breaking discoveries such as Galileo's, led to the Scientific revolution (1600-1750) and an upsurge in skepticism.", "Virtually everything in western culture was subjected to systematic doubt including religious beliefs.", "Biblical criticism emerged using scientific historical and literary criteria, and human reason, to understand the Bible.", "This new approach made study of the Bible secularized and scholarly, and more democratic, as scholars began writing in their native languages making their works available to a larger public.", "During the Age of Revolution, the cultural center of Christianity shifted to the New World.", "The American Revolution and its aftermath included legal assurances of religious freedom and a general turn to religious plurality.=== Awakenings (1730s–1850s) ===Revival, known as the First Great Awakening, swept through the American colonies between the 1730s and the 1770s.", "Both religious and political in nature, it had roots in German Pietism and British Evangelicalism, and was a response to the extreme rationalism of biblical criticism, the anti-Christian tenets of the Enlightenment, and its threat of assimilation by the modern state.Beginning among the Presbyterians, revival quickly spread to Congregationalists (Puritans) and Baptists, creating American Evangelicalism and Wesleyan Methodism.", "Battles over the movement and its dramatic style raged at both the congregational and denominational levels.", "This caused the division of American Protestantism into political 'Parties', for the first time, which eventually led to critical support for the American Revolution.", "In places like Connecticut and Massachusetts, where one denomination received state funding, churches now began to lobby local legislatures to end that inequity by applying the Reformation principle separating church and state.", "Theological pluralism became the new norm.The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s) extolled moral reform as the Christian alternative to armed revolution.", "They established societies, separate from any church, to begin social reform movements concerning abolition, women's rights, temperance and to \"teach the poor to read\".", "These were pioneers in developing nationally integrated forms of organization, a practice which businesses adopted that led to the consolidations and mergers that reshaped the American economy.", "Here lie the beginnings of the Latter Day Saint movement, the Restoration Movement and the Holiness movement.", "The Third Great Awakening began from 1857 and was most notable for taking the movement throughout the world, especially in English speaking countries.Restorationists were prevalent in America, but they have not described themselves as a reform movement but have, instead, described themselves as ''restoring'' the Church to its original form as found in the book of Acts.", "It gave rise to the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, Adventism, and the Jehovah's Witnesses.", "alt=example of an anti-slavery tract concerning the separation of black familiesBorn into slavery, alt=this is a restored photo of Sojourner Truth who escaped slavery and became an abolitionistFor over 300 years, Christians in Europe and North America participated in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.", "Moral objections had surfaced very soon after the establishment of the trade.", "In the earliest instances, denunciations came from Catholic priests.", "Next, emerging in the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), and followed by Methodists, Presbyterians and Baptists, abolitionists campaigned, wrote, and spread pamphlets against the Atlantic slave trade.", "Quakers helped guide these tracts into print and organized the first anti-slavery societies.", "The Second Great Awakening continued the call.In the years after the American Revolution, black congregations sprang up around the English speaking world led by black preachers who brought revival, promoted communal and cultural autonomy, and provided the institutional base for keeping abolitionism alive.Abolitionism did not flourish in absolutist states, and slavery and human-trafficking remain common in twenty-first century Islamic states.", "It was the Protestant revivalists in both England and America, the Quaker example, African Americans themselves, and the new American republic that produced the \"gradual but comprehensive abolition of slavery\" in the West.===Church, state and society===Revolution broke the power of the Old World aristocracy, offered hope to the disenfranchised, and enabled the middle class to reap the economic benefits of the Industrial Revolution.", "Scholars have since identified a positive correlation between the rise of Protestantism and human capital formation, work ethic, economic development, and the development of the state system.", "Weber says this contributed to economic growth and the development of banking across Northern Europe.=== Protestant Missions (1800s–1945) ===While the sixteenth century is generally seen as the \"great age of Catholic expansion\", the nineteenth century was that for Protestantism.", "Missionaries had a significant role in shaping multiple nations, cultures and societies.", "A missionary's first job was to get to know the indigenous people and work with them to translate the Bible into their local language.", "Approximately 90% were completed, and the process also generated a written grammar, a lexicon of native traditions, and a dictionary of the local language.", "This was used to teach in missionary schools resulting in the spread of literacy.", "Lamin Sanneh writes that native cultures responded with \"movements of indigenization and cultural liberation\" that developed national literatures, mass printing, and voluntary organizations which have been instrumental in generating a democratic legacy.", "On the one hand, the political legacies of colonialism include political instability, violence and ethnic exclusion, which is also linked to civil strife and civil war.", "On the other hand, the legacy of Protestant missions is one of beneficial long-term effects on human capital, political participation, and democratization.", "In America, missionaries played a crucial role in the acculturation of the American Indians.", "The history of boarding schools for the indigenous populations in Canada and the US shows a continuum of experiences ranging from happiness and refuge to suffering, forced assimilation, and abuse.", "The majority of native children did not attend boarding school at all.", "Of those that did, many did so in response to requests sent by native families to the Federal government, while many others were forcibly taken from their homes.", "Over time, missionaries came to respect the virtues of native culture, and spoke against national policies.===Twentieth century===Liberal Christianity, sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term for religious movements within late 18th, 19th and 20th-century Christianity.", "According to theologian Theo Hobson, liberal Christianity has two traditions.", "Before the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century, liberalism was synonymous with Christian Idealism in that it imagined a liberal State with political and cultural liberty.The second tradition was from seventeenth century rationalism's efforts to wean Christianity from its \"irrational cultic\" roots.", "Lacking any grounding in Christian \"practice, ritual, sacramentalism, church and worship\", liberal Christianity lost touch with the fundamental necessity of faith and ritual in maintaining Christianity.", "This led to the birth of fundamentalism and liberalism's decline.Fundamentalist Christianity is a movement that arose mainly within British and American Protestantism in the late 19th century and early 20th century in reaction to modernism.", "Before 1919, fundamentalism was loosely organized and undisciplined.", "Its most significant early movements were the holiness movement and the millenarian movement with its premillennial expectations of the second coming.In 1925, fundamentalists participated in the Scopes trial, and by 1930, the movement appeared to be dying.", "Then in the 1930s, Neo-orthodoxy, a theology against liberalism combined with a reevaluation of Reformation teachings, began uniting moderates of both sides.", "In the 1940s, \"new-evangelicalism\" established itself as separate from fundamentalism.", "Today, fundamentalism is less about doctrine than political activism.====Christianity and Nazism====alt=image of Pope Pius XI seated on a thronePope Pius XI declared in ''Mit brennender Sorge'' (English: \"With rising anxiety\") that fascist governments had hidden \"pagan intentions\" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position with totalitarian fascist state worship which placed the nation above God, fundamental human rights, and dignity.Catholic priests were executed in concentration camps alongside Jews; 2,600 Catholic priests were imprisoned in Dachau, and 2,000 of them were executed (cf.", "''Priesterblock'').", "A further 2,700 Polish priests were executed (a quarter of all Polish priests), and 5,350 Polish nuns were either displaced, imprisoned, or executed.", "Many Catholic laymen and clergy played notable roles in sheltering Jews during the Holocaust, including Pope Pius XII.", "The head rabbi of Rome became a Catholic in 1945 and, in honour of the actions the pope undertook to save Jewish lives, he took the name Eugenio (the pope's first name).", "Most leaders and members of the largest Protestant church in Germany, the German Evangelical Church, which had a long tradition of nationalism and support of the state, supported the Nazis when they came to power.", "A smaller contingent, about a third of German Protestants, formed the Confessing Church which opposed Nazism.", "In a study of sermon content, William Skiles says \"Confessing Church pastors opposed the Nazi regime on three fronts... first, they expressed harsh criticism of Nazi persecution of Christians and the German churches; second, they condemned National Socialism as a false ideology that worships false gods; and third, they challenged Nazi anti-Semitic ideology by supporting Jews as the chosen people of God and Judaism as a historic foundation of Christianity\".Nazis interfered in The Confessing Church's affairs, harassed its members, executed mass arrests and targeted well known pastors like Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer.", "Bonhoeffer, a pacifist, was arrested, found guilty in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler and executed.====Russian Orthodoxy====The Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the Russian Empire, expressed in the motto of the late empire from 1833: Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Populism.", "Nevertheless, the Church reform of Peter I in the early 18th century had placed the Orthodox authorities under the control of the tsar.", "An ober-procurator appointed by the tsar ran the committee which governed the Church between 1721 and 1918: the Most Holy Synod.", "The Church became involved in the various campaigns of russification and contributed to antisemitism.Demolition of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow on the orders of Joseph Stalin, 5 December 1931, consistent with the doctrine of state atheism in the USSR|alt=image of \"Cathedral of Christ the Savior\" in Moscow turning to dust as it collapses on the orders of Joseph Stalin in 1931.The Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries saw the Church, like the tsarist state, as an enemy of the people.", "Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes led to imprisonment.", "Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers included torture, being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals, as well as execution.In the first five years after the October Revolution, one journalist reported 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.", "This included former nobility like the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna, at this point a nun, the Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich, the Princes Ioann Konstantinvich, Konstantin Konstantinovich, Igor Konstantinovich and Vladimir Pavlovich Paley, Grand Duke Sergei's secretary, Fyodor Remez; and Varvara Yakovleva, a sister from the Grand Duchess Elizabeth's convent.", "Other scholarship reports that 8,000 were killed in 1922 during the conflict over church valuables.", "Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, the League of Militant Atheists aided in the persecution of many Christian denominations, with many churches and monasteries being destroyed, as well as clergy being executed." ], [ "Christianity since 1945", "Beginning in the late twentieth century, the traditional church has been declining in the West.", "Characterized by Roman Catholicism and mainstream Protestantism, a church functions within society, engaging it directly through preaching, teaching ministries and service programs like local food banks.", "Theologically, churches seek to embrace secular method and rationality while refusing the secular worldview.Christian sects, such as the Amish and Mennonites, traditionally withdraw from, and minimize interaction with, society at large; however, the Old Order Amish have become the fastest growing subpopulation in the U.S..The 1960s saw the rise of Pentecostalism and charismatic Christianity, emphasizing the inward experience of personal piety and spirituality.", "In 2000, approximately one quarter of all Christians worldwide were part of Pentecostalism and its associated movements.", "By 2025, Pentecostals are expected to comprise one-third of the nearly three billion Christians worldwide.", "Deininger writes that Pentecostalism is the fastest growing religious movement in global Christianity.Christianity has been challenged in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries by modern secularism.", "New forms of religion which embrace the sacred as a deeper understanding of the self have begun.", "This spirituality is private and individualistic, and differs radically from Christian tradition, dogma and ritual, taking various separate directions in its implementation.=== New forms ===neo-charismatic church in Ghana|alt=image of modern day African service in Ghana with laying on of handsIn the early twentieth century, the study of two highly influential religious movements, the social gospel movement (1870s–1920s) and the global ecumenical movement (beginning in 1910), provided the context for the development of American sociology as an academic discipline.", "Later, the Social Gospel and liberation theology, which tend to be highly critical of traditional Christian ethics, made the \"kingdom ideals\" of Jesus their goal.", "First focusing on the community's sins, rather than the individual's failings, they sought to foster social justice, expose institutionalized sin, and redeem the institutions of society.", "Ethicist Philip Wogaman says the social gospel and liberation theology redefined justice in the process.Originating in America in 1966, Black theology developed a combined social gospel and liberation theology that mixes Christianity with questions of civil rights, aspects of the Black Power movement, and responses to black Muslims claiming Christianity was a \"white man's\" religion.", "Spreading to the United Kingdom, then parts of Africa, confronting apartheid in South Africa, Black theology explains Christianity as liberation for this life not just the next.Racial violence around the world over the last several decades demonstrates how troubled issues of race remain in the twenty-first century.", "The historian of race and religion, Paul Harvey, says that, in 1960s America, \"The religious power of the civil rights movement transformed the American conception of race.\"", "Then the social power of the religious right responded in the 1970s by recasting evangelical concepts in political terms that included racial separation.", "The Prosperity Gospel promotes racial reconciliation and has become a powerful force in American religious life.The Prosperity gospel is a flexible adaptation of the ‘Neo-Pentecostalism’ that began in the twentieth century’s last decades.", "While globally, Prosperity discourse may represent a cultural invasion of American-ism, and may even muddy the waters between the religious, and the economic and political, it has still become a trans-national movement.", "Prosperity ideas have diffused in countries such as Brazil and other parts of South America, Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana and other parts of West Africa, China, India, South Korea, and the Philippines.", "It represents a shift from the Reformation view of biblical authority to charisma, and it has suffered from accusations of financial fraud and sex scandals around the world, but it is critiqued most heavily by Christian evangelicals who question how genuinely Christian the Prosperity Gospel is.", "Feminist theology began in 1960.In the last years of the twentieth century, the re-examination of old religious texts through diversity, otherness, and difference developed womanist theology of African-American women, the \"mujerista\" theology of Hispanic women, and insights from Asian feminist theology.====Post-colonial decolonization after 1945====After World War II, Christian missionaries played a transformative role for many colonial societies moving them toward independence through the development of decolonization.", "In the mid to late 1990s, postcolonial theology emerged globally from multiple sources.", "Biblical scholars Fernando F. Segovia and Stephen D. Moore write that it analyzes structures of power and ideology in order to recover what colonialism erased or suppressed in indigenous cultures.The missionary movement of the twenty-first century has transformed into a multi-cultural, multi-faceted global network of NGO's, short term amateurs, and traditional long-term bi-lingual, bi-cultural professionals who focus on evangelism and local development and not on 'civilizing' native people.=== Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) ===Pope FrancisOn 11 October 1962, Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church.", "The council was \"pastoral\" in nature, interpreting dogma in terms of its scriptural roots, revising liturgical practices, and providing guidance for articulating traditional Church teachings in contemporary times.", "The council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the Mass may be celebrated in the vernacular as well as in Latin.====Ecumenism (1964)====On 21 November 1964, the Second Vatican Council published ''Unitatis Redintegratio,'' stating that Roman Catholic ecumenical goals are to establish full communion amongst all the various Christian churches.", "Amongst Evangelicals, there is no agreed upon definition, strategy or goal.", "Different theologies on the nature of the Church have produced some hostility toward the formalism of the World Council of Churches.", "In the twenty-first century, sentiment is widespread that ecumenism has stalled.===Christianity in the Global South and East======= Africa (19th–21st centuries) ====alt=Map of Protestant Christianity in 1938alt=map of worldwide Christianity in 2011Western missionaries began the \"largest, most diverse and most vigorous movement of cultural renewal in the history\" of Africa writes historian Lammin Sanneh.", "In 1900 under colonial rule there were just under 9 million Christians in Africa.", "By 1960, and the end of colonialism there were about 60 million.", "By 2005, African Christians had increased to 393 million, about half of the continent's total population at that time.", "Population in Africa has continued to grow with the percentage of Christians remaining at about half in 2022.This expansion has been labeled a \"fourth great age of Christian expansion\"====Asia====Christianity is growing rapidly in China, Korea, and Southeast Asia.", "A rapid expansion of charismatic Christianity began in the 1980s, leading Asia to rival Latin America in the population of Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians.Increasing numbers of young people in China are becoming Christians.", "Council on Foreign Relations data shows a 10% yearly growth in Chinese Christian populations since 1979.According to a 2021 study by the Pew Research Center, Christianity has grown in India in recent years.===Persecution===Anti-Christian persecution has become a consistent human rights concern.", "In 2013, 17 Middle Eastern Muslim majority states reported 28 of the 29 types of religious discrimination against 45 of the 47 religious minorities, including Christianity." ], [ "See also", "* Christianization* Criticism of Christianity* History of Christian theology* History of Christian universalism* History of the Eastern Orthodox Church* History of Oriental Orthodoxy* History of Protestantism* History of the Catholic Church* Rise of Christianity during the Fall of Rome* Role of the Christian Church in civilization* Timeline of Christian missions* Timeline of Christianity* Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Books & periodicals===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \t* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \t* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Encyclopedia & web sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity:* ''Historical Christianity: The Ancient Communal Faith'': Print, ebook, and audiobook* * History of Christianity Reading Room: Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).", "* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Christianity in History* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Church as an Institution* Sketches of Church History From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev.", "J.", "C Robertson, M.A., Canon of Canterbury* * A History of Christianity in 15 Objects online series in association with Faculty of Theology, Uni.", "of Oxford from September 2011The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:* American Religion Data Archive* Historical Christianity, A timeline with references to the descendants of the early church.", "* Reformation Timeline, A short timeline of the Protestant Reformation.", "* Fourth-Century Christianity" ] ]
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[ [ "Hertz" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''hertz''' (symbol: '''Hz''') is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), equivalent to one event (or cycle) per second.", "The hertz is an SI derived unit whose expression in terms of SI base units is s−1, meaning that one hertz is the reciprocal of one second.", "It is named after Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894), the first person to provide conclusive proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves.", "Hertz are commonly expressed in multiples: kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), gigahertz (GHz), terahertz (THz).Some of the unit's most common uses are in the description of periodic waveforms and musical tones, particularly those used in radio- and audio-related applications.", "It is also used to describe the clock speeds at which computers and other electronics are driven.", "The units are sometimes also used as a representation of the energy of a photon, via the Planck relation ''E'' = ''hν'', where ''E'' is the photon's energy, ''ν'' is its frequency, and ''h'' is the Planck constant." ], [ "Definition", "The hertz is equivalent to one cycle per second.", "The International Committee for Weights and Measures defined the second as \"the duration of periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom\" and then adds: \"It follows that the hyperfine splitting in the ground state of the caesium 133 atom is exactly , .\"", "The dimension of the unit hertz is 1/time (T−1).", "Expressed in base SI units, the unit is the reciprocal second (1/s).In English, \"hertz\" is also used as the plural form.", "As an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed; commonly used multiples are kHz (kilohertz, ), MHz (megahertz, ), GHz (gigahertz, ) and THz (terahertz, ).", "One hertz simply means \"one event per second\" (where the event being counted may be a complete cycle); means \"one hundred events per second\", and so on.", "The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at , or a human heart might be said to beat at .The occurrence rate of aperiodic or stochastic events is expressed in ''reciprocal second'' or ''inverse second'' (1/s or s−1) in general or, in the specific case of radioactivity, in becquerels.", "Whereas is one cycle (or periodic event) per second, is one radionuclide event per second on average.Even though frequency, angular velocity, angular frequency and radioactivity all have the dimension T−1, of these only frequency is expressed using the unit hertz.", "Thus a disc rotating at 60 revolutions per minute (rpm) is said to have an angular velocity of 2 rad/s and a frequency of rotation of .", "The correspondence between a frequency ''f'' with the unit hertz and an angular velocity ''ω'' with the unit radians per second is: and" ], [ "History", "The hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism.", "The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 1935.It was adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) (''Conférence générale des poids et mesures'') in 1960, replacing the previous name for the unit, \"cycles per second\" (cps), along with its related multiples, primarily \"kilocycles per second\" (kc/s) and \"megacycles per second\" (Mc/s), and occasionally \"kilomegacycles per second\" (kMc/s).", "The term \"cycles per second\" was largely replaced by \"hertz\" by the 1970s.In some usage, the \"per second\" was omitted, so that \"megacycles\" (Mc) was used as an abbreviation of \"megacycles per second\" (that is, megahertz (MHz))." ], [ "Applications", "A sine wave with varying frequencyA heartbeat is an example of a non-sinusoidal periodic phenomenon that may be analyzed in terms of frequency.", "Two cycles are illustrated.===Sound and vibration===Sound is a traveling longitudinal wave, which is an oscillation of pressure.", "Humans perceive the frequency of a sound as its pitch.", "Each musical note corresponds to a particular frequency.", "An infant's ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from to ; the average adult human can hear sounds between and .", "The range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtohertz into the terahertz range and beyond.=== Electromagnetic radiation===Electromagnetic radiation is often described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz.Radio frequency radiation is usually measured in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), or gigahertz (GHz).", "Light is electromagnetic radiation that is even higher in frequency, and has frequencies in the range of tens (infrared) to thousands (ultraviolet) of terahertz.", "Electromagnetic radiation with frequencies in the low terahertz range (intermediate between those of the highest normally usable radio frequencies and long-wave infrared light) is often called terahertz radiation.", "Even higher frequencies exist, such as that of gamma rays, which can be measured in exahertz (EHz).", "(For historical reasons, the frequencies of light and higher frequency electromagnetic radiation are more commonly specified in terms of their wavelengths or photon energies: for a more detailed treatment of this and the above frequency ranges, see ''Electromagnetic spectrum''.", ")===Computers===In computers, most central processing units (CPU) are labeled in terms of their clock rate expressed in megahertz () or gigahertz ().", "This specification refers to the frequency of the CPU's master clock signal.", "This signal is nominally a square wave, which is an electrical voltage that switches between low and high logic levels at regular intervals.", "As the hertz has become the primary unit of measurement accepted by the general populace to determine the performance of a CPU, many experts have criticized this approach, which they claim is an easily manipulable benchmark.", "Some processors use multiple clock cycles to perform a single operation, while others can perform multiple operations in a single cycle.", "For personal computers, CPU clock speeds have ranged from approximately in the late 1970s (Atari, Commodore, Apple computers) to up to in IBM Power microprocessors.Various computer buses, such as the front-side bus connecting the CPU and northbridge, also operate at various frequencies in the megahertz range." ], [ "SI multiples", "Higher frequencies than the International System of Units provides prefixes for are believed to occur naturally in the frequencies of the quantum-mechanical vibrations of massive particles, although these are not directly observable and must be inferred through other phenomena.", "By convention, these are typically not expressed in hertz, but in terms of the equivalent energy, which is proportional to the frequency by the factor of the Planck constant." ], [ "Unicode", "The CJK Compatibility block in Unicode contains characters for common SI units for frequency.", "These are intended for compatibility with East Asian character encodings, and not for use in new documents (which would be expected to use Latin letters, e.g.", "\"MHz\").", "* (Hz)* (kHz)* (MHz)* (GHz)* (THz)" ], [ "See also", "* Alternating current* Bandwidth (signal processing)* Electronic tuner* FLOPS* Frequency changer* Normalized frequency (signal processing)* Orders of magnitude (frequency)* Orders of magnitude (rotational speed)* Periodic function* Radian per second* Rate* Sampling rate" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* SI Brochure: Unit of time (second)* National Research Council of Canada: ''Cesium fountain clock''* National Research Council of Canada: ''Optical frequency standard based on a single trapped ion'' (archived 23 December 2013)* National Research Council of Canada: ''Optical frequency comb'' (archived 27 June 2013)* National Physical Laboratory: ''Time and frequency Optical atomic clocks''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heroic couplet" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''heroic couplet''' is a traditional form for English poetry, commonly used in epic and narrative poetry, and consisting of a rhyming pair of lines in iambic pentameter.", "Use of the heroic couplet was pioneered by Geoffrey Chaucer in the ''Legend of Good Women'' and the ''Canterbury Tales'', and generally considered to have been perfected by John Dryden and Alexander Pope in the Restoration Age and early 18th century respectively." ], [ "Example", "A frequently-cited example illustrating the use of heroic couplets is this passage from ''Cooper's Hill'' by John Denham, part of his description of the Thames:" ], [ "History", "The term \"heroic couplet\" is sometimes reserved for couplets that are largely ''closed'' and self-contained, as opposed to the enjambed couplets of poets like John Donne.", "The heroic couplet is often identified with the English Baroque works of John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who used the form for their translations of the epics of Virgil and Homer, respectively.", "Major poems in the closed couplet, apart from the works of Dryden and Pope, are Samuel Johnson's ''The Vanity of Human Wishes'', Oliver Goldsmith's ''The Deserted Village'', and John Keats's ''Lamia''.", "The form was immensely popular in the 18th century.", "The looser type of couplet, with occasional enjambment, was one of the standard verse forms in medieval narrative poetry, largely because of the influence of the Canterbury Tales." ], [ "Variations", "English heroic couplets, especially in Dryden and his followers, are sometimes varied by the use of the occasional alexandrine, or hexameter line, and triplet.", "Often these two variations are used together to heighten a climax.", "The breaking of the regular pattern of rhyming pentameter pairs brings about a sense of poetic closure.", "Here are two examples from Book IV of Dryden's translation of the ''Aeneid''.===''Alexandrine''======''Alexandrine and Triplet''===" ], [ "Modern use", "Twentieth-century authors have occasionally made use of the heroic couplet, often as an allusion to the works of poets of previous centuries.", "An example of this is Vladimir Nabokov's novel ''Pale Fire'', the second section of which is a 999-line, 4-canto poem largely written in loose heroic couplets with frequent enjambment.", "Here is an example from the first canto:The use of heroic couplets in translations of Greco-Roman epics has also inspired translations of non-Western works into English.", "In 2021, Vietnamese translator Nguyen Binh published a translation of the Vietnamese epic poem ''Tale of Kiều'', in which the ''lục bát'' couplets of the original were rendered into heroic couplets.", "Binh named John Dryden and Alexander Pope as major influences on their work, which also mimicked the spelling of Dryden and Pope's translations to evoke the medieval air of the Vietnamese original.", "An example of the heroic couplet translation can be found below:" ], [ "See also", "* Metre (poetry)* Iambic pentameter* Foot (prosody)* Heroic verse" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Höðr" ], [ "Introduction", "Loki tricks Höðr into shooting Baldr'''Höðr''' ( , Latin '''Hotherus'''; often anglicized as '''Hod''', '''Hoder''', or '''Hodur''') is a god in Norse mythology.", "The blind son of Odin and Frigg, he is tricked and guided by Loki into shooting a mistletoe arrow which was to slay the otherwise invulnerable Baldr.According to the ''Prose Edda'' and the ''Poetic Edda'', the goddess Frigg, Baldr's mother, made everything in existence swear never to harm Baldr, except for the mistletoe, which she found too unimportant to ask (alternatively, which she found too young to demand an oath from).", "The gods amused themselves by trying weapons on Baldr and seeing them fail to do any harm.", "Loki, the mischief-maker, upon finding out about Baldr's one weakness, made a spear from mistletoe, and helped Höðr shoot it at Baldr.", "In reaction to this, Odin and the giantess Rindr gave birth to Váli, who grew to adulthood within a day and slew Höðr.The Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus recorded an alternative version of this myth in his ''Gesta Danorum''.", "In this version, the mortal hero '''Høtherus''' and the demi-god ''Balderus'' compete for the hand of Nanna.", "Ultimately, Høtherus slays Balderus." ], [ "Name", "According to scholar Andy Orchard, the theonym ''Hǫðr'' can be translated as 'warrior'.", "Jan de Vries and Vladimir Orel write that is comparable with Old Norse ''hǫð'' ('war, slaughter'), and related to Old English ''heaðu-deór'' ('brave, stout in war'), from Proto-Germanic ''*haþuz'' ('battle'; cf.", "Old High German ''hadu''-, Old Saxon ''hathu''-'','' Old Frisian ''-had'', Burgundian *''haþus'')." ], [ "The ''Prose Edda''", "In the ''Gylfaginning'' part of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda Höðr is introduced in an ominous way.", "''Höðr heitir einn ássinn, hann er blindr.", "Œrit er hann styrkr, en vilja mundu goðin at þenna ás þyrfti eigi at nefna, þvíat hans handaverk munu lengi vera höfð at minnum með goðum ok mönnum.''", "\"One of the Æsir is named Hödr: He is blind.", "He is of sufficient strength, but the gods would desire that no occasion should rise of naming this god, for the work of his hands shall long be held in memory among gods and men.\"", "Höðr is not mentioned again until the prelude to Baldr's death is described.", "All things except the mistletoe (believed to be harmless) have sworn an oath not to harm Baldr, so the Æsir throw missiles at him for sport.", "''En Loki tók mistiltein ok sleit upp ok gekk til þings.", "En Höðr stóð útarliga í mannhringinum, þvíat hann var blindr.", "Þá mælti Loki við hann: \"Hví skýtr þú ekki at Baldri?\"", "Hann svarar: \"Þvíat ek sé eigi hvar Baldr er, ok þat annat at ek em vápnlauss.\"", "Þá mælti Loki: \"Gerðu þó í líking annarra manna ok veit Baldri sœmð sem aðrir menn.", "Ek mun vísa þér til hvar hann stendr.", "Skjót at honum vendi þessum.", "\"''''Höðr tók mistiltein ok skaut at Baldri at tilvísun Loka.", "Flaug skotit í gögnum hann ok fell hann dauðr til jarðar.", "Ok hefir þat mest óhapp verit unnit með goðum ok mönnum.''", "\"Loki took Mistletoe and pulled it up and went to the Thing.Hödr stood outside the ring of men, because he was blind.", "Then spake Loki to him: 'Why dost thou not shoot at Baldr?'", "He answered: 'Because I see not where Baldr is; and for this also, that I am weaponless.'", "Then said Loki: 'Do thou also after the manner of other men, and show Baldr honor as the other men do.", "I will direct thee where he stands; shoot at him with this wand.'", "Hödr took Mistletoe and shot at Baldr, being guided by Loki: The shaft flew through Baldr, and he fell dead to the earth; and that was the greatest mischance that has ever befallen among gods and men.\"", "The ''Gylfaginning'' does not say what happens to Höðr after this.", "In fact it specifically states that Baldr cannot be avenged, at least not immediately.", "''Þá er Baldr var fallinn, þá fellusk öllum ásum orðtök ok svá hendr at taka til hans, ok sá hverr til annars ok váru allir með einum hug til þess er unnit hafði verkit.", "En engi mátti hefna, þar var svá mikill griðastaðr.''", "\"Then, when Baldr was fallen, words failed all the Æsir, and their hands likewise to lay hold of him; each looked at the other, and all were of one mind as to him who had wrought the work, but none might take vengeance, so great a sanctuary was in that place.\"", "It does seem, however, that Höðr ends up in Hel one way or another for the last mention of him in ''Gylfaginning'' is in the description of the post-Ragnarök world.", "''Því næst koma þar Baldr ok Höðr frá Heljar, setjask þá allir samt ok talask við ok minnask á rúnar sínar ok rœða of tíðindi þau er fyrrum höfðu verit, of Miðgarðsorm ok um Fenrisúlf.''", "\"After that Baldr shall come thither, and Hödr, from Hel; then all shall sit down together and hold speech with one another, and call to mind their secret wisdom, and speak of those happenings which have been before: of the Midgard Serpent and of Fenris-Wolf.\"", "Snorri's source of this knowledge is clearly ''Völuspá'' as quoted below.In the ''Skáldskaparmál'' section of the Prose Edda several kennings for Höðr are related.", "''Hvernig skal kenna Höð?", "Svá, at kalla hann blinda ás, Baldrs bana, skjótanda Mistilteins, son Óðins, Heljar sinna, Vála dólg.''", "\"How should one periphrase Hödr?", "Thus: by calling him the Blind God, Baldr's Slayer, Thrower of the Mistletoe, Son of Odin, Companion of Hel, Foe of Váli.\"", "None of those kennings, however, are actually found in surviving skaldic poetry.", "Neither are Snorri's kennings for Váli, which are also of interest in this context.", "''Hvernig skal kenna Vála?", "Svá, at kalla hann son Óðins ok Rindar, stjúpson Friggjar, bróður ásanna, hefniás Baldrs, dólg Haðar ok bana hans, byggvanda föðurtófta.''", "\"How should Váli be periphrased?", "Thus: by calling him Son of Odin and Rindr, Stepson of Frigg, Brother of the Æsir, Baldr's Avenger, Foe and Slayer of Hödr, Dweller in the Homesteads of the Fathers.\"", "It is clear from this that Snorri was familiar with the role of Váli as Höðr's slayer, even though he does not relate that myth in the ''Gylfaginning'' prose.", "Some scholars have speculated that he found it distasteful, since Höðr is essentially innocent in his version of the story." ], [ "The ''Poetic Edda''", "Höðr is referred to several times in the Poetic Edda, always in the context of Baldr's death.", "The following strophes are from ''Völuspá''.", ":''Ek sá Baldri,'':''blóðgom tívur,'':''Óðins barni,'':''ørlög fólgin:'':''stóð um vaxinn'':''völlum hærri'':''mjór ok mjök fagr'':''mistilteinn.", "'':''Varð af þeim meiði,'':''er mær sýndisk,'':''harmflaug hættlig:'':''Höðr nam skjóta.", "'':''Baldrs bróðir var'':''of borinn snemma,'':''sá nam, Óðins sonr,'':''einnættr vega.", "'':''Þó hann æva hendr'':''né höfuð kembði,'':''áðr á bál um bar'':''Baldrs andskota.", "'':''En Frigg um grét'':''í Fensölum'':''vá Valhallar -'':''vituð ér enn, eða hvat?", "''::- Eysteinn Björnsson's edition:I saw for Baldr,:the bleeding god,:The son of Othin,:his destiny set::Famous and fair:in the lofty fields,:Full grown in strength:the mistletoe stood.", ":From the branch which seemed:so slender and fair:Came a harmful shaft:that Hoth should hurl;:But the brother of Baldr:was born ere long,:And one night old:fought Othin's son.", ":His hands he washed not,:his hair he combed not,:Till he bore to the bale-blaze:Baldr's foe.", ":But in Fensalir:did Frigg weep sore:For Valhall's need::would you know yet more?", "::- Bellows' translation:I saw for Baldr—:for the bloodstained sacrifice,:Óðinn's child—:the fates set hidden.", ":There stood full-grown,:higher than the plains,:slender and most fair,:the mistletoe.", ":There formed from that stem:which was slender-seeming,:a shaft of anguish, perilous::Hǫðr started shooting.", ":A brother of Baldr:was born quickly::he started—Óðinn's son—:slaying, at one night old.", ":He never washed hands,:never combed head,:till he bore to the pyre:Baldr's adversary—:while Frigg wept:in Fen Halls:for Valhǫll's woe.", ":Do you still seek to know?", "And what?", "::- Ursula Dronke's translationThis account seems to fit well with the information in the Prose Edda, but here the role of Baldr's avenging brother is emphasized.Baldr and Höðr are also mentioned in ''Völuspá'''s description of the world after Ragnarök.", ":''Munu ósánir'':''akrar vaxa,'':''böls mun alls batna,'':''Baldr mun koma.", "'':''Búa þeir Höðr ok Baldr'':''Hropts sigtóptir'':''vel, valtívar -'':''vituð ér enn, eða hvat?''", "– Eysteinn Björnsson's edition:Unsown shall:the fields bring forth,:all evil be amended;:Baldr shall come;:Hödr and Baldr,:the heavenly gods,:Hropt's glorious dwellings shall inhabit.", ":Understand ye yet, or what?", "– Thorpe's translationThe poem ''Vafþrúðnismál'' informs us that the gods who survive Ragnarök are Viðarr, Váli, Móði and Magni with no mention of Höðr and Baldr.The myth of Baldr's death is also referred to in another Eddic poem, ''Baldrs draumar''.", ":''Óðinn kvað:'':''\"Þegj-at-tu, völva,'':''þik vil ek fregna,'':''unz alkunna,'':''vil ek enn vita:'':''Hverr mun Baldri'':''at bana verða'':''ok Óðins son'':''aldri ræna?", "\"'':''Völva kvað:'':''\"Höðr berr hávan'':''hróðrbaðm þinig,'':''hann mun Baldri'':''at bana verða'':''ok Óðins son'':''aldri ræna;'':''nauðug sagðak,'':''nú mun ek þegja.", "\"'':''Óðinn kvað:'':''\"Þegj-at-tu, völva,'':''þik vil ek fregna,'':''unz alkunna,'':''vil ek enn vita:'':''Hverr mun heift Heði'':''hefnt of vinna'':''eða Baldrs bana'':''á bál vega?", "\"'':''Völva kvað:'':''Rindr berr Vála'':''í vestrsölum,'':''sá mun Óðins sonr'':''einnættr vega:'':''hönd of þvær'':''né höfuð kembir,'':''áðr á bál of berr'':''Baldrs andskota;'':''nauðug sagðak,'':''nú mun ek þegja.\"''", "– Guðni Jónsson's edition:Vegtam:\"Be thou not silent, Vala!", ":I will question thee,:until I know all.", ":I will yet know:who will Baldr's:slayer be,:and Odin's son:of life bereave.", "\":Vala:\"Hödr will hither:his glorious brother send,:he of Baldr will:the slayer be,:and Odin's son:of life bereave.", ":By compulsion I have spoken;:I will now be silent.", "\":Vegtam:\"Be not silent, Vala!", ":I will question thee,:until I know all.", ":I will yet know:who on Hödr vengeance:will inflict:or Baldr's slayer:raise on the pile.", "\":Vala:\"Rind a son shall bear,:in the western halls::he shall slay Odin's son,:when one night old.", ":He a hand will not wash,:nor his head comb,:ere he to the pile has borne:Baldr's adversary.", ":By compulsion I have spoken;:I will now be silent.\"", "– Thorpe's translationHöðr is not mentioned again by name in the Eddas.", "He is, however, referred to in ''Völuspá in skamma''.", ":''Váru ellifu'':''æsir talðir,'':''Baldr er hné,'':''við banaþúfu;'':''þess lézk Váli'':''verðr at hefna,'':''síns of bróður'':''sló hann handbana.''", "– Guðni Jónsson's edition:There were eleven:Æsir reckoned,:when Baldr on:the pile was laid;:him Vali showed himself:worthy to avenge,:his own brother::he the slayer slew.", "– Thorpe's translation" ], [ "Skaldic poetry", "Höðr appears in both the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda.", "The name of Höðr occurs several times in skaldic poetry as a part of warrior-kennings.", "Thus ''Höðr brynju'', \"Höðr of byrnie\", is a warrior and so is ''Höðr víga'', \"Höðr of battle\".", "Some scholars have found the fact that the poets should want to compare warriors with Höðr to be incongruous with Snorri's description of him as a blind god, unable to harm anyone without assistance.", "It is possible that this indicates that some of the poets were familiar with other myths about Höðr than the one related in ''Gylfaginning'' – perhaps some where Höðr has a more active role.", "On the other hand, the names of many gods occur in kennings and the poets might not have been particular in using any god name as a part of a kenning." ], [ "''Gesta Danorum''", "Saxo's version of the story Høtherus meets wood maidens who warn him that Balderus is a demi-god who can't be killed by normal means.In ''Gesta Danorum'', Hotherus is a human hero of the Danish and Swedish royal lines.", "He is gifted in swimming, archery, fighting and music and Nanna, daughter of King Gevarus falls in love with him.", "But at the same time Balderus, son of Othinus, has caught sight of Nanna bathing and fallen violently in love with her.", "He resolves to slay Hotherus, his rival.", "Out hunting, Hotherus is led astray by a mist and meets wood-maidens who control the fortunes of war.", "They warn him that Balderus has designs on Nanna but also tell him that he shouldn't attack him in battle since he is a demigod.", "Hotherus goes to consult with King Gevarus and asks him for his daughter.", "The king replies that he would gladly favour him but that Balderus has already made a like request and he does not want to incur his wrath.", "Gevarus tells Hotherus that Balderus is invincible but that he knows of one weapon which can defeat him, a sword kept by Mimingus, the satyr of the woods.", "Mimingus also has another magical artifact, a bracelet that increases the wealth of its owner.", "Riding through a region of extraordinary cold in a carriage drawn by reindeer, Hotherus captures the satyr with a clever ruse and forces him to yield his artifacts.Hearing about Hotherus's artifacts, Gelderus, king of Saxony, equips a fleet to attack him.", "Gevarus warns Hotherus of this and tells him where to meet Gelderus in battle.", "When the battle is joined, Hotherus and his men save their missiles while defending themselves against those of the enemy with a testudo formation.", "With his missiles exhausted, Gelderus is forced to sue for peace.", "He is treated mercifully by Hotherus and becomes his ally.", "Hotherus then gains another ally with his eloquent oratory by helping King Helgo of Hålogaland win a bride.", "Meanwhile, Balderus enters the country of King Gevarus armed and sues for Nanna.", "Gevarus tells him to learn Nanna's own mind.", "Balderus addresses her with cajoling words but is refused.", "Nanna tells him that because of the great difference in their nature and stature, since he is a demigod, they are not suitable for marriage.As news of Balderus's efforts reaches Hotherus, he and his allies resolve to attack Balderus.", "A great naval battle ensues where the gods fight on the side of Balderus.", "Thoro in particular shatters all opposition with his mighty club.", "When the battle seems lost, Hotherus manages to hew Thoro's club off at the haft and the gods are forced to retreat.", "Gelderus perishes in the battle and Hotherus arranges a funeral pyre of vessels for him.", "After this battle Hotherus finally marries Nanna.", "Balderus is not completely defeated and shortly afterwards returns to defeat Hotherus in the field.", "But Balderus's victory is without fruit for he is still without Nanna.", "Lovesick, he is harassed by phantoms in Nanna's likeness and his health deteriorates so that he cannot walk but has himself drawn around in a cart.After a while Hotherus and Balderus have their third battle and again Hotherus is forced to retreat.", "Weary of life because of his misfortunes, he plans to retire and wanders into the wilderness.", "In a cave he comes upon the same maidens he had met at the start of his career.", "Now they tell him that he can defeat Balderus if he gets a taste of some extraordinary food which had been devised to increase the strength of Balderus.", "Encouraged by this, Hotherus returns from exile and once again meets Balderus in the field.", "After a day of inconclusive fighting, he goes out during the night to spy on the enemy.", "He finds where Balderus's magical food is prepared and plays the lyre for the maidens preparing it.", "While they don't want to give him the food, they bestow on him a belt and a girdle which secure victory.", "Heading back to his camp, Hotherus meets Balderus and plunges his sword into his side.", "After three days, Balderus dies from his wound.", "Many years later, Bous, the son of Othinus and Rinda, avenges his brother by killing Hotherus in a duel." ], [ "''Chronicon Lethrense'' and ''Annales Lundenses''", "There are also two lesser-known DanishLatin chronicles, the ''Chronicon Lethrense'' and the ''Annales Lundenses'', of which the latter is included in the former.", "These two sources provide a second euhemerized account of Höðr's slaying of Balder.It relates that Hother was the king of the Saxons, son of Hothbrod, the daughter of Hadding.", "Hother first slew Othen's (i.e., Odin's) son Balder in battle and then chased Othen and Thor.", "Finally, Othen's son Both killed Hother.", "Hother, Balder, Othen, and Thor were incorrectly considered to be gods." ], [ "Rydberg's theories", "According to the Swedish mythologist and romantic poet Viktor Rydberg, the story of Baldr's death was taken from ''Húsdrápa'', a poem composed by Ulfr Uggason around 990 AD at a feast thrown by the Icelandic Chief Óláfr Höskuldsson to celebrate the finished construction of his new home, Hjarðarholt, the walls of which were filled with symbolic representations of the Baldr myth among others.", "Rydberg suggested that Höðr was depicted with eyes closed and Loki guiding his aim to indicate that Loki was the true cause of Baldr's death and Höðr was only his \"blind tool.\"", "Rydberg theorized that the author of the ''Gylfaginning'' then mistook the description of the symbolic artwork in the Húsdrápa as the actual tale of Baldr's death." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Bellows, Henry Adams (trans.)", "(1936).", "''The Poetic Edda''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "Available online * Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (transl.)", "(1916).", "''The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson''.", "New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation.", "Available online in parallel text * Dronke, Ursula (ed.", "and trans.)", "(1997) ''The Poetic Edda: Mythological Poems''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Eysteinn Björnsson (2001).", "''Lexicon of Kennings : The Domain of Battle''.", "Published online: https://web.archive.org/web/20090328200122/http://www3.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/kennings/kennings.html* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.).", "''Snorra-Edda: Formáli & Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita''.", "2005.Published online: https://web.archive.org/web/20080611212105/http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.).", "''Völuspá''.", "Published online: https://web.archive.org/web/20090413124631/http://www3.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html* * Guðni Jónsson (ed.)", "(1949).", "''Eddukvæði : Sæmundar Edda''.", "Reykjavík: Íslendingasagnaútgáfan.", "Available online* * * * Thorpe, Benjamin (transl.)", "(1866).", "''Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða : The Edda Of Sæmund The Learned''.", "(2 vols.)", "London: Trübner & Co.", "Available online at Google Books*" ], [ "External links", "* MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Höðr from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Herat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herāt''' (; Pashto; ) is an oasis city and the third-largest city in Afghanistan.", "In 2020, it had an estimated population of 574,276, and serves as the capital of Herat Province, situated south of the Paropamisus Mountains (''Selseleh-ye Safēd Kōh'') in the fertile valley of the Hari River in the western part of the country.", "An ancient civilization on the Silk Road between West, Central and South Asia, it serves as a regional hub in the country's west.", "Herat dates back to Avestan times and was traditionally known for its wine.", "The city has a number of historic sites, including the Herat Citadel and the Musalla Complex.", "During the Middle Ages, Herat became one of the important cities of Khorasan, as it was known as the ''Pearl of Khorasan''.", "After its conquest by Tamerlane, the city became an important center of intellectual and artistic life in the Islamic world.", "Under the rule of Shah Rukh, the city served as the focal point of the Timurid Renaissance, whose glory is thought to have matched Florence of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth.", "After the fall of the Timurid Empire, Herat has been governed by various Afghan rulers since the early 18th century.", "In 1716, the Abdali Afghans inhabiting the city revolted and formed their own Sultanate, the Sadozai Sultanate of Herat.", "They were conquered by the Afsharids in 1732.After Nader Shah's death and Ahmad Shah Durrani's rise to power in 1747, Herat became part of Afghanistan.", "It became an independent city-state in the first half of the 19th century, facing several Iranian invasions until being incorporated into Afghanistan in 1863.The roads from Herat to Iran (through the border town of Islam Qala) and Turkmenistan (through the border town of Torghundi) are still strategically important.", "As the gateway to Iran, it collects high amount of customs revenue for Afghanistan.", "It also has an international airport.", "Following the 2001 war, the city had been relatively safe from Taliban insurgent attacks.", "In 2021, it was announced that Herat would be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "On August 12, 2021, the city was seized by Taliban fighters as part of the Taliban's summer offensive.The area of Herat, along with areas like Piranshahr, Damghan and Aleppo, are among the most important archaeological areas in the world." ], [ "History", "Reconstruction of Ptolemy's map (2nd century AD) of Aria (Herat) and neighbouring states by the 15th century German cartographer Nicolaus Germanus'''Ancient'''Herat is first recorded in ancient times, but its precise date of foundation is unknown.", "Under the Persian Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), the surrounding district was known by the Old Persian name of ''Haraiva'' (𐏃𐎼𐎡𐎺), and in classical sources, the region was correspondingly known as Areia (Aria).", "In the Zoroastrian collection of Avesta, the district is referred as ''Haroiva''.", "The name of the district and its principal town is a derivative from that of the local river, the Herey River (from Old Iranian ''Harayu'', meaning \"with velocity\"), which goes through the district and ends south of Herat.", "Herey is mentioned in Sanskrit as a yellow or golden color equivalent to Persian \"Zard\" meaning Gold (yellow).", "The naming of a region and its principal town after the main river is a common feature in this part of the world— compare the adjoining districts/rivers/towns of Arachosia and Bactria.The district ''Aria'' of the Achaemenid Empire is mentioned in the provincial lists that are included in various royal inscriptions, for instance, in the Behistun inscription of Darius I (ca.", "520 BC).", "Representatives from the district are depicted in reliefs, e.g., at the royal Achaemenid tombs of Naqsh-e Rustam and Persepolis.", "They are wearing Scythian-style dress (with a tunic and trousers tucked into high boots) and a twisted Bashlyk that covers their head, chin and neck.Hamdallah Mustawfi, composer of the 14th-century geographical work ''Nuzhat al-Qulub'' writes that:Herodotus described Herat as ''the bread-basket of Central Asia''.", "At the time of Alexander the Great in 330 BC, Aria was obviously an important district.", "It was administered by a satrap called Satibarzanes, who was one of the three main Persian officials in the East of the Empire, together with the satrap Bessus of Bactria and Barsaentes of Arachosia.", "In late 330 BC, Alexander captured the Arian capital that was called Artacoana.", "The town was rebuilt and the citadel was constructed.", "Afghanistan became part of the Seleucid Empire.Coin of Bahram II; Herat mintHowever, most sources suggest that Herat was predominantly Zoroastrian.", "It became part of the Parthian Empire in 167 BC.", "In the Sasanian period (226-652), 𐭧𐭥𐭩𐭥 ''Harēv'' is listed in an inscription on the Ka'ba-i Zartosht at Naqsh-e Rustam; and ''Hariy'' is mentioned in the Pahlavi catalogue of the provincial capitals of the empire.", "In around 430, the town is also listed as having a Christian community, with a Nestorian bishop.In the last two centuries of Sasanian rule, Aria (Herat) had great strategic importance in the endless wars between the Sasanians, the Chionites and the Hephthalites who had been settled in the northern section of Afghanistan since the late 4th century.===Conversion to Islam===Inside the famous Friday Mosque of Herat or ''Masjid Jami'', which is one of the oldest mosques in Afghanistan.At the time of the Arab invasion in the middle of the 7th century, the Sasanian central power seemed already largely nominal in the province in contrast with the role of the Hephthalites tribal lords, who were settled in the Herat region and in the neighboring districts, mainly in pastoral Bādghis and in Qohestān.", "It must be underlined, however, that Herat remained one of the three Sasanian mint centers in the east, the other two beings Balkh and Marv.", "The Hephthalites from Herat and some unidentified Turks opposed the Arab forces in a battle of Qohestān in 651-52 AD, trying to block their advance on Nishāpur, but they were defeated.When the Arab armies appeared in Khorāsān in the 650s AD, Herāt was counted among the twelve capital towns of the Sasanian Empire.", "The Arab army under the general command of Ahnaf ibn Qais in its conquest of Khorāsān in 652 seems to have avoided Herāt, but it can be assumed that the city eventually submitted to the Arabs, since shortly afterward an Arab governor is mentioned there.", "A treaty was drawn in which the regions of Bādghis and Bushanj were included.", "As did many other places in Khorāsān, Herāt rebelled and had to be re-conquered several times.Another power that was active in the area in the 650s was Tang dynasty China which had embarked on a campaign that culminated in the Conquest of the Western Turks.", "By 659–661, the Tang claimed a tenuous suzerainty over Herat, the westernmost point of Chinese power in its long history.", "This hold however would be ephemeral with local Turkish tribes rising in rebellion in 665 and driving out the Tang.In 702 AD Yazid ibn al-Muhallab defeated certain Arab rebels, followers of Ibn al-Ash'ath, and forced them out of Herat.", "The city was the scene of conflicts between different groups of Muslims and Arab tribes in the disorders leading to the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate.", "Herat was also a center of the followers of Ustadh Sis.In 870 AD, Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari, a local ruler of the Saffarid dynasty conquered Herat and the rest of the nearby regions in the name of Islam.===Pearl of Khorasan===The region of Herāt was under the rule of King Nuh III, the seventh of the Samanid line—at the time of Sebük Tigin and his older son, Mahmud of Ghazni.", "The governor of Herāt was a noble by the name of ''Faik'', who was appointed by Nuh III.", "It is said that Faik was a powerful, but insubordinate governor of Nuh III, and had been punished by Nuh III.", "Faik made overtures to Bogra Khan and Ughar Khan of Khorasan.", "Bogra Khan answered Faik's call, came to Herāt, and became its ruler.", "The Samanids fled, betrayed at the hands of Faik to whom the defense of Herāt had been entrusted by Nuh III.", "In 994, Nuh III invited Alptegin to come to his aid.", "Alptegin, along with Mahmud of Ghazni, defeated Faik and annexed Herāt, Nishapur and Tous.Ghurid period (AD 1180-1200).Another identical ewer in the British MuseumKamāl ud-Dīn Behzād Herawī, a famous painter from Herat, c. 1494–1495, Timurid eraPage of calligraphy in nasta'liq script by the 16th century master calligrapher Mir Ali HeraviBrass cup or tankard, Timurid period, 15th century A.D., from Herāt.Herat was a great trading center strategically located on trade routes from Mediterranean to India or to China.", "The city was noted for its textiles during the Abbasid Caliphate, according to many references by geographers.", "Herāt also had many learned sons such as Ansārī.", "The city is described by Estakhri and Ibn Hawqal in the 10th century as a prosperous town surrounded by strong walls with plenty of water sources, extensive suburbs, an inner citadel, a congregational mosque, and four gates, each gate opening to a thriving market place.", "The government building was outside the city at a distance of about a mile in a place called Khorāsānābād.", "A church was still visible in the countryside northeast of the town on the road to Balkh, and farther away on a hilltop stood a flourishing fire temple, called Sereshk, or Arshak according to Mustawfi.Herat was a part of the Taherid dominion in Khorāsān until the rise of the Saffarids in Sistān under Ya'qub-i Laith in 861, who, in 862, started launching raids on Herat before besieging and capturing it on 16 August 867, and again in 872.The Saffarids succeeded in expelling the Taherids from Khorasan in 873.The Sāmānid dynasty was established in Transoxiana by three brothers, Nuh, Yahyā, and Ahmad.", "Ahmad Sāmāni opened the way for the Samanid dynasty to the conquest of Khorāsān, including Herāt, which they were to rule for one century.", "The centralized Samanid administration served as a model for later dynasties.", "The Samanid power was destroyed in 999 by the Qarakhanids, who were advancing on Transoxiana from the northeast, and by the Ghaznavids, former Samanid retainers, attacking from the southeast.", "'''Ghaznavid Era'''Sultan Maḥmud of Ghazni officially took control of Khorāsān in 998.Herat was one of the six Ghaznavid mints in the region.", "In 1040, Herat was captured by the Seljuk Empire.", "During this change of power in Herat, there was supposedly a power vacuum which was filled by Abdullah Awn, who established a city-state and made an alliance with Mahmud of Ghazni.", "Yet, in 1175, it was captured by the Ghurids of Ghor and then came under the Khawarazm Empire in 1214.According to the account of Mustawfi, Herat flourished especially under the Ghurid dynasty in the 12th century.", "Mustawfi reported that there were \"359 colleges in Herat, 12,000 shops all fully occupied, 6,000 bath-houses; besides caravanserais and mills, also a darwish convent and a fire temple\".", "There were about 444,000 houses occupied by a settled population.", "The men were described as \"warlike and carry arms\", and they were Sunni Muslims.", "The great mosque of Herāt was built by Ghiyasuddin Ghori in 1201.In this period Herāt became an important center for the production of metal goods, especially in bronze, often decorated with elaborate inlays in precious metals.", "'''Mongols'''The Mongols laid siege to Herat twice.", "The first siege resulted in the surrender of the city, the slaughter of the local sultan's army of 12,000, and the appointment of two governors, one Mongol and one Muslim.", "The second, prompted by a rebellion against Mongol rule, lasted seven months and ended in June 1222 with, according to one account, the beheading of the entire population of 1,600,000 people by the victorious Mongols, such that \"no head was left on a body, nor body with a head.\"", "The city remained in ruins from 1222 to about 1236.In 1244, a local prince Shams al-Din Kart was named ruler of Herāt by the Mongol governor of Khorāsān and in 1255 he was confirmed in his rule by the founder of the Il-Khan dynasty Hulagu.", "Shamsuddin Kart founded a new dynasty and his successors, especially Fakhruddin Kart and Ghiyasuddin Kart, built many mosques and other buildings.", "The members of this dynasty were great patrons of literature and the arts.", "By this time Herāt became known as the ''pearl of Khorasan''.Timur took Herat in 1380 and he brought the Kartid dynasty to an end a few years later.", "The city reached its greatest glory under the Timurid princes, especially Sultan Husayn Bayqara who ruled Herat from 1469 until May 4, 1506.His chief minister, the poet and author in Persian and Turkish, Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i was a great builder and patron of the arts.", "Under the Timurids, Herat assumed the role of the main capital of an empire that extended in the West as far as central Persia.", "As the capital of the Timurid empire, it boasted many fine religious buildings and was famous for its sumptuous court life and musical performance and its tradition of miniature paintings.", "On the whole, the period was one of relative stability, prosperity, and development of economy and cultural activities.", "It began with the nomination of Shahrokh, the youngest son of Timur, as governor of Herat in 1397.The reign of Shahrokh in Herat was marked by intense royal patronage, building activities, and the promotion of manufacturing and trade, especially through the restoration and enlargement of the Herat's bāzār.", "The present Musallah Complex, and many buildings such as the madrasa of Gawhar Shad, Ali Shir mahāl, many gardens, and others, date from this time.", "The village of Gazar Gah, over two km northeast of Herat, contained a shrine that was enlarged and embellished under the Timurids.", "The tomb of the poet and mystic Khwājah Abdullāh Ansārī (d. 1088), was first rebuilt by Shahrokh about 1425, and other famous men were buried in the shrine area.In the summer of 1458, the Qara Qoyunlu under Jahan Shah advanced as far as Herat, but had to turn back soon because of a revolt by his son Hasan Ali and also because Abu Said's march on Tabriz.In 1507, Herat was occupied by the Uzbeks but after much fighting the city was taken by Shah Isma'il, the founder of the Safavid dynasty, in 1510 and the Shamlu Qizilbash assumed the governorship of the area.", "Under the Safavids, Herat was again relegated to the position of a provincial capital, albeit one of particular importance.", "At the death of Shah Isma'il the Uzbeks again took Herat and held it until Shah Tahmasp retook it in 1528.The Persian king, Abbas was born in Herat, and in Safavid texts, Herat is referred to as ''a'zam-i bilād-i īrān'', meaning \"the greatest of the cities of Iran\".", "In the 16th century, all future Safavid rulers, from Tahmasp I to Abbas I, were governors of Herat in their youth.===Modern history (1500-2023)===By the early 18th century Herat was governed by the Abdali Afghans.", "After Nader Shah's death in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani took possession of the city and became part of the Durrani Empire.Herati Soldiers 1879Naser al-Din Qajar; Herat mint, 1861In 1793, Herat became independent for several years when Afghanistan underwent a civil war between different sons of Timur Shah.", "The Iranians had multiple wars with Herat between 1801 and 1837 (1804, 1807, 1811, 1814, 1817, 1818, 1821, 1822, 1825, 1833).", "The Iranians besieged the city in 1837, but the British helped the Heratis in repelling them.", "In 1856, they invaded again, and briefly managed to take the city on October 25; it led directly to the Anglo-Persian War.", "In 1857 hostilities between the Iranians and the British ended after the Treaty of Paris was signed, and the Persian troops withdrew from Herat in September 1857.Afghanistan conquered Herat on May 26, 1863, under Dost Muhammad Khan, two weeks before his death.File:Herat Remains of Musallah complex.jpg|Traffic passing on the road near the Herat minarets, 2005.File:Gawhar shad-1417-2.jpg| The two mausoleums with the minarets, July 2001.The famous Musalla of Gawhar Shah of Herat, a large Islamic religious complex consisting of five minarets, several mausoleums along with mosques and madrasas was dynamited during the Panjdeh incident to prevent their usage by the advancing Russian forces.", "Some emergency preservation work was carried out at the site in 2001 which included building protective walls around the Gawhar Shad Mausoleum and Sultan Husain Madrasa, repairing the remaining minaret of Gawhar Shad's Madrasa, and replanting the mausoleum garden.In the aftermath of the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929), Herat was the last stronghold of Saqqawist resistance, holding out until 1931 when it was retaken by forces loyal to Mohammad Nadir Shah.Bazaar of Herat, 1973Afghan rugs in Herat, 1977In the 1960s, engineers from the United States built Herat Airport, which was used by the Soviet forces during the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s.", "Even before the Soviet invasion at the end of 1979, there was a substantial presence of Soviet advisors in the city with their families.Between March 10 and March 20, 1979, the Afghan Army in Herāt under the control of commander Ismail Khan mutinied.", "Thousands of protesters took to the streets against the Khalq communist regime's oppression led by Nur Mohammad Taraki.", "The new rebels led by Khan managed to oust the communists and take control of the city for 3 days, with some protesters murdering any Soviet advisers.", "This shocked the government, who blamed the new administration of Iran following the Iranian Revolution for influencing the uprising.", "Reprisals by the government followed, and between 3,000 and 24,000 people (according to different sources) were killed, in what is called the 1979 Herat uprising, or in Persian as the ''Qiam-e Herat''.", "The city itself was recaptured with tanks and airborne forces, but at the cost of thousands of civilians killed.", "This massacre was the first of its kind since the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, and was the bloodiest event preceding the Soviet–Afghan War.View of Herat, 2011Afghan and U.S. government officials along with members of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) at Herat International Airport in 2012.Herat received damage during the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, especially its western side.", "The province as a whole was one of the worst-hit.", "In April 1983, a series of Soviet bombings damaged half of the city and killed around 3,000 civilians, described as \"extremely heavy, brutal and prolonged\".", "Ismail Khan was the leading mujahideen commander in Herāt fighting against the Soviet-backed government.After the communist government's collapse in 1992, Khan joined the new government and he became governor of Herat Province.", "The city was relatively safe and it was recovering and rebuilding from the damage caused in the Soviet–Afghan War.", "However, on September 5, 1995, the city was captured by the Taliban without much resistance, forcing Khan to flee.", "Herat became the first Persian-speaking city to be captured by the Taliban.", "The Taliban's strict enforcement of laws confining women at home and closing girls' schools alienated Heratis who are traditionally more liberal and educated, like the Kabulis, than other urban populations in the country.", "Two days of anti-Taliban protests occurred in December 1996 which was violently dispersed and led to the imposition of a curfew.", "In May 1999, a rebellion in Herat was crushed by the Taliban, who blamed Iran for causing it.After the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, on November 12, 2001, it was captured from the Taliban by forces loyal to the Northern Alliance and Ismail Khan returned to power (see Battle of Herat).", "The state of the city was reportedly much better than that of Kabul.", "In 2004, Mirwais Sadiq, Aviation Minister of Afghanistan and the son of Ismail Khan, was ambushed and killed in Herāt by a local rival group.", "More than 200 people were arrested under suspicion of involvement.In 2005, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) began establishing bases in and around the city.", "Its main mission was to train the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) and help with the rebuilding process of the country.", "Regional Command West, led by Italy, assisted the Afghan National Army (ANA) 207th Corps.", "Herat was one of the first seven areas that transitioned security responsibility from NATO to Afghanistan.", "In July 2011, the Afghan security forces assumed security responsibility from NATO.Due to their close relations, Iran began investing in the development of Herat's power, economy and education sectors.", "In the meantime, the United States built a consulate in Herat to help further strengthen its relations with Afghanistan.", "In addition to the usual services, the consulate works with the local officials on development projects and with security issues in the region.On 12 August 2021, the city was captured by the Taliban during the 2021 Taliban offensive." ], [ "Geography", "=== Climate ===Herat has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification ''BSk'').", "Precipitation is very low, and mostly falls in winter.", "Although Herāt is approximately lower than Kandahar, the summer climate is more temperate, and the climate throughout the year is far from disagreeable, although winter temperatures are comparably lower.", "From May to September, the wind blows from the northwest with great force.", "The winter is tolerably mild; snow melts rather quickly, and even on the mountains does not lie long.", "The eastern reaches of the Hari River, including the rapids, are frozen hard in the winter, and people travel on it as on a road.===Places of interest===*'''Foreign consulates'''India, Iran and Pakistan operate their consulate here for trade, military and political links.", "*'''Neighborhoods'''**Shahr-e Naw (Downtown)**Welayat (Office of the governor)**Qol-Ordue (Army's HQ)**Farqa (Army's HQ)**Darwaze Khosh**Chaharsu**Pul-e Rangine**Sufi-abad**New-abad**Pul-e malaan**Thakhte Safar**Howz-e-Karbas**Baramaan**Darwaze-ye Qandahar**Darwaze-ye Iraq**Darwaze Az KordestanView of Gawhar Shad MausoleumMuseum inside the Herat Citadel, locally referred to as ''Qala Ikhtyaruddin'' or ''Arg''.The Information Technology and Engineering Facility at Herat University.Section of Herat*'''Parks'''**Park-e Taraki**Park-e Millat**Khane-ye Jihad Park*'''Monuments'''**Herat Citadel (Qala Ikhtyaruddin or Arg)**Musallah Complex**Musalla Minarets of HeratOf the more than dozen minarets that once stood in Herāt, many have been toppled from war and neglect over the past century.", "Recently, however, everyday traffic threatens many of the remaining unique towers by shaking the very foundations they stand on.", "Cars and trucks that drive on a road encircling the ancient city rumble the ground every time they pass these historic structures.", "UNESCO personnel and Afghan authorities have been working to stabilize the Fifth Minaret.", "*'''Museums'''**Herat Museum, located inside the Herat Citadel**Jihad Museum*'''Mausoleums and tombs'''**Gawhar Shad Mausoleum**Mausoleum of Khwajah Abdullah Ansari**Tomb of Jami**Tomb of khaje Qaltan**Mausoleum of Mirwais Sadiq**Jewish cemetery – there once existed an ancient Jewish community in the city.", "Its remnants are a cemetery and a ruined shrine.", "*'''Mosques'''**Jumu'ah Mosque (Friday Mosque of Herat)**Gazargah Sharif**Khalghe Sharif**Shah Zahdahe*'''Hotels'''**Serena Hotel (coming soon)**Diamond Hotel**Marcopolo Hotel*'''Stadiums'''**Herat Stadium*'''Universities'''**Herat University" ], [ "Demography", "School girls in HeratThe population of Herat numbered approximately 592,902 in 2021.The city houses a multi-ethnic society and speakers of the Persian language are in the majority.", "There is no current data on the precise ethnic composition of the city's population, but according to a 2003 map found in the National Geographic Magazine, Persian-speaking Tajik and Farsiwan peoples form the majority of the city, comprising around 85% of the population.", "The remaining population comprises Pashtuns (10%), Hazaras (2%), Uzbeks (2%) and Turkmens (1%).Persian is the native language of Herat and the local dialect – known by natives as ''Herātī'' – belongs to the ''Khorāsānī'' cluster within Persian.", "It is akin to the Persian dialects of eastern Iran, notably those of Mashhad and Khorasan Province, which borders Herat.", "This Persian dialect serves as the lingua franca of the city.", "The second language that is understood by many is Pashto, which is the native language of the Pashtuns.", "The local Pashto dialect spoken in Herat is a variant of western Pashto, which is also spoken in Kandahar and southern and western Afghanistan.", "Religiously, Sunni Islam is practiced by the majority, while Shias make up the minority.The city has high residential density clustered around the core of the city.", "However, vacant plots account for a higher percentage of the city (21%) than residential land use (18%) and agricultural is the largest percentage of total land use (36%).The city once had a Jewish community.", "About 280 families lived in Herat as of 1948, but most of them moved to Israel that year, and the community disappeared by 1992.There are four former synagogues in the city's old quarter, which were neglected for decades and fell into disrepair.", "In the late 2000s, the buildings of the synagogues were renovated by the Aga Khan Trust for culture, and at this time, three of them were turned into schools and nurseries, the Jewish community having vanished.", "The Jewish cemetery is being taken care of by Jalil Ahmed Abdelaziz." ], [ "Sports", ";Professional sports teams from Herat Club League Sport Venue Established Hindukush Stars Shpageeza Cricket League Cricket Herat Cricket Ground 2021 Toofan Harirod F.C.", "Afghan Premier League Football Herat Stadium 2012* '''Stadiums'''** Herat Cricket Ground** Herat Stadium" ], [ "Notable people from Herat", "=== Rulers and emperors ===* Tahir ibn Husayn 9th century Abbasid Caliphate army general, and the founder of Tahirid dynasty* Ghiyasuddin Muhammad, was the emperor of the Ghurid dynasty from 1163 to 1202.During his reign, the Ghurid dynasty became a world power, which stretched from Gorgan to Bengal* Mīrzā Shāhrūkh bin Tīmur Barlas, Emperor of the Timurid dynasty of Herāt* Abu Sa'id Mirza, ruler of the Timurid Empire during the mid-fifteenth century* Mīrzā Husseyn Bāyqarāh, Emperor of the Timurid dynasty of Herāt* Shāh Abbās ''The Great'', Emperor of Safavid Persia* Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the Durrani Empire * Emir Dost Mohammad Khan, founder of the Barakzai dynasty, buried in the city* Sultan Jan, ruler of Herat in the 19th century=== Politicians ===* Ahmad Maymandi 11th century Persian vizier of the Ghaznavid empire* Ismail Khan, former governor of Herat Province and Minister of Water and Energy* Amena Afzali, politician* Faramarz Tamanna, politician=== Poets ===* Asjadi, 10th-11th century royal Persian poet at the court of the Ghaznavids* Khwājah Abdullāh al-Herawi al-Ansārī, a Persian poet of the 11th century*Pur-Baha Jami, 13th century Iranian poet, Pun master, satirist, and often scathing social commentator, born in Jam, spent his youth in Herat* Nūr ud-Dīn Jāmī, a Persian Sufi poet of the 15th century* Nizām ud-Din ʿAlī Shīr Herawi, famous poet and scientist of the Timurid era* Hatefi, a Persian poet of the 16th century and nephew of Nūr ud-Dīn Jāmī* Latif Nazemi, Persian poet* Nadia Anjuman (1981-2005) poet writing in Dari=== Scientists ===* Abu Mansur Muvaffak Harawi, 10th-century Persian physician* Abolfadl Harawi, 10th-century astronomer under the patroange of the Buyids in Rey, originally from Herat*Ahmad ibn Farrokh, 12th-century Persian physician* Taftazani, a Muslim polymath of the 14th century* Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi 15th century Persian physician* Nimat Allah al-Harawi 17th century Persian chronicler at the court of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir=== Religious figures ===* Fakhr ad-Din al-Razi, polymath and Islamic scholar of the 12th-century* Hussain Kashefi, a 15th-century Persian prose-stylist and Islamic scholar and scientist* Ali al-Hirawi al-Qari, from 17th century, considered to be one of the masters of hadith and Imams of fiqh* Mujib Rahman Ansari (1982–2022), mullah and pro-Taliban cleric=== Artists ===* Ali ibn Abi Bakr al-Harawi 12th and 13th century Persian traveller and first known graffiti artist in the Muslim world, originally from Herat* Ustād Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, the greatest of the medieval Persian painters* Mir Ali Heravi, prominent Persian calligrapher and calligraphy teacher of Nastaʿlīq script in the 16th century* Alka Sadat, Film producer was born here* Sonita Alizadeh, rapper and activist=== Sports ===* Nadia Nadim, Afghan-Danish football player, most influential and greatest Afghan female football player of all time, won the French league title in the 2020-21 season with Paris Saint-Germain* Hamidullah Karimi, Afghan footballer, plays as a forward for Indian club Delhi United FC*Mohammad Rafi Barekzay, Afghan footballer, plays as a midfielder for Toofaan Harirod F.C=== Others ===* Gowhar Shad, wife of Shāh Rūkh Mīrzā* Zablon Simintov, last remaining Jew living in Afghanistan" ], [ "Economy and infrastructure", "===Transport=======Air====Herat International AirportHerat International Airport was built by engineers from the United States in the 1960s and was used by the Soviet Armed Forces during the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s.", "It was bombed in late 2001 during Operation Enduring Freedom but had been rebuilt within the next decade.", "The runway of the airport has been extended and upgraded and as of August 2014 there were regularly scheduled direct flights to Delhi, Dubai, Mashad, and various airports in Afghanistan.", "At least five airlines operated regularly scheduled direct flights to Kabul.====Rail====Rail connections to and from Herat were proposed many times, during ''The Great Game'' of the 19th century and again in the 1970s and 1980s, but nothing came to life.", "In February 2002, Iran and the Asian Development Bank announced funding for a railway connecting Torbat-e Heydarieh in Iran to Herat.", "This was later changed to begin in Khaf in Iran, a railway for both cargo and passengers, with work on the Iranian side of the border starting in 2006.Construction is underway in the Afghan side and it was estimated to be completed by March 2018.There is also the prospect of an extension across Afghanistan to Sher Khan Bandar.====Road====The AH76 highway connects Herat to Maymana and the north.", "The AH77 connects it east towards Chaghcharan and north towards Mary in Turkmenistan.", "Highway 1 (part of Asian highway AH1) links it to Mashhad in Iran to the northwest, and south via the Kandahar–Herat Highway to Delaram." ], [ "Gallery", "File:CH-NB - Afghanistan, Herat- Schrein von Gazar Gah - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-19-193.jpg|Outside the Shrine of Gazar Gah, c. 1939File:US consulate in Herat.jpg|U.S.", "Consulate in HeratFile:Mausoleum of Mirwais Sadiq Khan in 2009.jpg|Mausoleum of Mirwais Sadiq Khan, son of Ismail Khan, who was killed in 2004 in clashes with the Afghan National ArmyFile:Development Bank of Afghanistan.JPG|Shopping centerFile:PoleMalanHerat.jpg|Pol-e Mālān, a historical bridgeFile:Herat 6918a.jpg|Pillar of Musallah ComplexFile:Herat Ansari tomb.jpg|Khwājah Abdullāh Ansārī shrine, a Sufi of the 11th centuryFile:Gazar Gah cemetery 1.jpg|Gazar Gah cemeteryFile:Jami Tomb.JPG|Tomb of Jāmi, a poet of the 15th centuryFile:Herat Jews Cemetery.jpg|The Jewish cemeteryFile:View of Herat in 2009.jpg|View of Herat from a hill" ], [ "Herat in fiction", "*The beginning of Khaled Hosseini's 2007 novel ''A Thousand Splendid Suns'' is set in and around Herāt.", "*Salman Rushdie's novel ''The Enchantress of Florence'' makes frequent reference to events in Herāt in the Middle Ages." ], [ "Sister cities", "* Council Bluffs, Iowa, United States (since 2016)* Divandarreh, Kurdistan, Iran (since 2021)" ], [ "See also", "*Aria (satrapy)*Geography of Afghanistan*Greater Khorasan*Herāt Province*History of Afghanistan" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* *" ], [ "Attribution", "*" ], [ "External links", "******* Detailed map of Herāt city* Map of Herāt and surroundings in 1942, Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection, University of Texas at Austin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hedeby" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hedeby''' (, Old Norse ''Heiðabýr'', German ''Haithabu'') was an important Danish Viking Age (8th to the 11th centuries) trading settlement near the southern end of the Jutland Peninsula, now in the Schleswig-Flensburg district of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.", "Around 965, chronicler Abraham ben Jacob visited Hedeby and described it as, \"a very large city at the very end of the world's ocean.", "\"The settlement developed as a trading centre at the head of a narrow, navigable inlet known as the Schlei, which connects to the Baltic Sea.", "The location was favorable because there is a short portage of less than 15 km to the Treene River, which flows into the Eider with its North Sea estuary, making it a convenient place where goods and ships could be pulled on a corduroy road overland for an almost uninterrupted seaway between the Baltic and the North Sea and avoid a dangerous and time-consuming circumnavigation of Jutland, providing Hedeby with a role similar to later Lübeck.", "Hedeby was the second largest Nordic town during the Viking Age, after Uppåkra in present-day southern Sweden.", "The city of Schleswig was later founded on the other side of the Schlei.", "Hedeby was abandoned after its destruction in 1066.Hedeby was rediscovered in the late 19th century and excavations began in 1900.The Hedeby Museum was opened next to the site in 1985.Because of its historical importance during the Viking Age and exceptional preservation, Hedeby and the nearby defensive earthworks of the Danevirke were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2018.Hedeby is mentioned in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale The Marsh King's Daughter." ], [ "Name", "Site of the former town of HedebyMap of Viking Denmark with Hedeby at the southern edgeBilingual map of the Schlei (German and Danish placenames)Two reconstructed houses at HedebyThe Old Norse name ''Heiða-býr'' simply translates to \"heath-settlement\" (''heiðr'' \"heath\" and ''býr'' = \"yard; settlement, village, town\").", "The name is recorded in numerous spelling variants.", "* ''Heiðabýr'' is the reconstructed name in standard Old Norse, also anglicized as ''Heithabyr''.", "* The Stone of Eric, a 10th-century Danish runestone with an inscription mentioning ᚼᛅᛁᚦᛅ᛭ᛒᚢ (''haiþa bu''), found in 1796.", "*Old English ''æt Hæðum'', from Ohtere's and Wulfstan's accounts of their travels to Alfred the Great in the Old English Orosius.", "* ''Hedeby'', the modern Danish spelling, also most commonly used in English.", "* ''Haddeby'' is the Low German form, also the name of the administrative district formed in 1949 and named for the site; in 1985, the district introduced a coat of arms featuring a bell with a runic inscription reading ᚼᛁᚦᛅ᛬ᛒᚢ (''hiþa:bu'').", "* ''Haithabu'' is the modern German spelling used when referring to the historical settlement; this spelling represents the transliteration of the name as found in the Stone of Eric inscription; it was introduced among other variants in antiquarian literature in the 19th century and has since become the standard German name of the settlement.Sources from the 9th and 10th century AD also attest to the names ''Sliesthorp'' and ''Sliaswich'' (cf.", "''-thorp'' vs. ''-wich''), and the town of Schleswig still exists 3 km north of Hedeby.", "However, Æthelweard claimed in his Latin translation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that the Saxons used ''Slesuuic'' and the Danes ''Haithaby'' to refer to the same town." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Hedeby is first mentioned in the Frankish chronicles of Einhard (804), who was in the service of Charlemagne, as a place Charlemagne stayed in the summer of 804, at the end of the Saxon Wars.", "In 808 the Danish king Godfred (Lat.", "Godofredus) destroyed a competing Slav trade centre named Reric, and it is recorded in the Frankish chronicles that he resettled the merchants from there to Hedeby.", "This may have provided the initial impetus for the town to further develop.The same sources record that Godfred strengthened the Danevirke, an earthen wall that stretched across the south of the Jutland peninsula.", "The Danevirke joined the defensive walls of Hedeby to form an east–west barrier across the peninsula, from the marshes in the west to the Schlei inlet leading into the Baltic in the east.The town itself was surrounded on its three landward sides (north, west, and south) by earthworks.", "At the end of the 9th century the northern and southern parts of the town were abandoned for the central section.", "Later a 9-metre (29-ft) high semi-circular wall was erected to guard the western approaches to the town.", "On the eastern side, the town was bordered by the innermost part of the Schlei inlet and the bay of Haddebyer Noor.===Timeline===based on Elsner'''793'''Viking raid on Lindisfarne - traditional date for the beginning of the Viking Age.", "'''804'''First mention of Hedeby'''808'''Destruction of Reric and migration of tradespeople to Hedeby'''c.", "850'''Construction of a church at Hedeby'''886'''The Danelaw is established in England, following Viking invasion'''911'''The Vikings settle in Normandy'''948'''Hedeby becomes a bishopric'''965'''Visit of Al-Tartushi to Hedeby'''974'''Hedeby falls to the Holy Roman Empire'''983'''Hedeby returns to Danish control'''c.", "1000'''The Viking Leif Erikson explores Vinland, probably in Newfoundland'''1016-1042'''Danish kings rule in England'''1050'''The Norwegian King Harald Hardrada destroys Hedeby'''1066'''Final destruction of Hedeby by a Slavic army.", "'''1066'''Traditional end of the Viking Age===Rise===Hedeby became a principal marketplace because of its geographical location on the major trade routes between the Frankish Empire and Scandinavia (north-south), and between the Baltic and the North Sea (east-west).", "Between 800 and 1000 the growing economic power of the Vikings led to its dramatic expansion as a major trading centre.", "Along with Birka and Schleswig, Hedeby's prominence as a major international trading hub served as a foundation of the Hanseatic League that would emerge by the 12th century.The following indicates the importance achieved by the town:* The town was described by visitors from England (Wulfstan - 9th century) and the Mediterranean (Al-Tartushi - 10th century).", "* Hedeby became the seat of a bishop (948) and belonged to the Archbishopric of Hamburg and Bremen.", "* The town minted its own coins (from 825).", "* Adam of Bremen (11th century) reports that ships were sent from this ''portus maritimus'' to Slavic lands, to Sweden, Samland (''Semlant'') and even Greece.A Swedish dynasty founded by Olof the Brash is said to have ruled Hedeby during the last decades of the 9th century and the first part of the 10th century.", "This was told to Adam of Bremen by the Danish king Sweyn Estridsson, and it is supported by three runestones found in Denmark.", "Two of them were raised by the mother of Olof's grandson Sigtrygg Gnupasson.", "The third runestone, discovered in 1796, is from Hedeby, the ''Stone of Eric'' ().", "It is inscribed with Norwegian-Swedish runes.", "It is, however, possible that Danes also occasionally wrote with this version of the younger futhark.===Lifestyle===Life was short and crowded in Hedeby.", "The small houses were clustered tightly together in a grid, with the east–west streets leading down to jetties in the harbour.", "People rarely lived beyond 30 or 40, and archaeological research shows that their later years were often painful due to crippling diseases such as tuberculosis.", "Al-Tartushi, a late 10th-century traveller from al-Andalus, provides one of the most colourful and often quoted descriptions of life in Hedeby.", "Al-Tartushi was from Cordoba in Spain, which had a significantly more wealthy and comfortable lifestyle than Hedeby.", "While Hedeby may have been significant by Scandinavian standards, Al-Tartushi was unimpressed::''\"Slesvig (Hedeby) is a very large town at the extreme end of the world ocean...", "The inhabitants worship Sirius, except for a minority of Christians who have a church of their own there....", "He who slaughters a sacrificial animal puts up poles at the door to his courtyard and impales the animal on them, be it a piece of cattle, a ram, billy goat or a pig so that his neighbours will be aware that he is making a sacrifice in honour of his god.", "The town is poor in goods and riches.", "People eat mainly fish which exist in abundance.", "Babies are thrown into the sea for reasons of economy.", "The right to divorce belongs to the women....", "Artificial eye make-up is another peculiarity; when they wear it their beauty never disappears, indeed it is enhanced in both men and women.", "Further: Never did I hear singing fouler than that of these people, it is a rumbling emanating from their throats, similar to that of a dog but even more bestial.", "\"''===Destruction===The town was sacked in 1050 by King Harald Hardrada of Norway during a conflict with King Sweyn II of Denmark.", "He set the town on fire by sending several burning ships into the harbour, the charred remains of which were found at the bottom of the Schlei during recent excavations.", "A Norwegian ''skald'', quoted by Snorri Sturluson, describes the sack as follows::''Burnt in anger from end to end was Hedeby..'':''High rose the flames from the houses when, before dawn, I stood upon the stronghold's arm''In 1066 the town was sacked and burned by West Slavs.", "Following the destruction, Hedeby was slowly abandoned.", "People moved across the Schlei inlet, which separates the two peninsulas of Angeln and Schwansen, and founded the town of Schleswig." ], [ "Archaeology", "===20th-century excavations===View of the Viking MuseumReconstructed housesAfter the settlement was abandoned, rising waters contributed to the complete disappearance of all visible structures on the site.", "It was even forgotten where the settlement had been.", "This proved to be fortunate for later archaeological work at the site.Archaeological work began at the site in 1900 after the rediscovery of the settlement.", "Excavations were conducted for the next 15 years.", "Further excavations were carried out between 1930 and 1939.Archaeological work on the site was productive for two main reasons: that the site had never been built on since its destruction some 840 years earlier, and that the permanently waterlogged ground had preserved wood and other perishable materials.", "After the Second World War, in 1959, archaeological work was started again and has continued intermittently ever since.", "The embankments surrounding the settlement were excavated, and the harbour was partially dredged, during which the wreck of multiple Viking ships were discovered, including the Hedeby 1.Despite all this work, only 5% of the settlement (and only 1% of the harbour) has as yet been investigated.The most important finds resulting from the excavations are now on display in the adjoining Haithabu Museum.===21st-century reconstructions===In 2005 an ambitious archaeological reconstruction program was initiated on the original site.", "Based on the results of archaeological analyses, exact copies of some of the original Viking houses have been rebuilt." ], [ "See also", "* Hedeby Viking Museum* Hedeby stones, Schlei* People: Wulfstan of Hedeby, Al-Tartushi, Adam of Bremen, Harold Hardrada, Rurik, Godfred (Danish King), Olof the Brash* Towns: Jelling, Birka, Ribe, Schleswig, Reric* Viking Age" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography and media", "* A number of short archaeological films relating to Hedeby and produced by researchers during the 1980s are available on DVD from the '' University of Kiel's Archaeological Film Project.", "''* Most publications on Hedeby are in German.", "See ''Wikipedia's German-language article on Hedeby.", "''*" ], [ "External links", "* Website of the Haithabu Viking Museum* Pictures from the Haithabu Viking Museum* Flickr Photo Gallery: Viking houses and museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hazaras" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hazaras''' (; ) are an ethnic group and a principal component of the population of Afghanistan, native to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran.", "They are one of the largest ethnic groups in Afghanistan and primarily residing in the Hazaristan (Hazarajat) region in central Afghanistan, as well as a significant minority groups mainly in Quetta, Pakistan and Mashhad, Iran.", "They speak the Dari and Hazaragi dialects of Persian.", "Dari, also known as Dari Persian, is one of two official languages of Afghanistan.Hazaras are considered to be one of the most persecuted groups in Afghanistan.", "More than half of the Hazara population was massacred by the Emirate of Afghanistan between 1888 and 1893, and their persecution has occurred various times across previous decades." ], [ "Etymology", "The etymology of the word \"Hazara\" remains disputed, but some have differing opinions on the term.", "*Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in the early 16th century, recorded the name \"Hazara\" in the ''Baburnama'' and several times referred to the Hazaras as \"Turkoman Hazaras\".", "*Historian Abdul Hai Habibi considers the word \"Hazara\" ( ) to be very old, and it is derived from \"Hazala\" ( ), which has changed to \"Hazara\" over time and has meant \"good-hearted\".", "*Some believe that in ancient times, because of the Hazara people's high population, they were called \"Hazara\" ( ), which the name \"Hazara\" derives from the Persian word \"Hazar\" ( ) meaning \"thousand\" and it is a metaphor for a population of over thousand.", "*It is said that the name \"Hazara\" ( ) derives from the Persian word \"Hazar\" ( ) meaning \"thousand\".", "It may be the translation of the Mongolic word (), a military unit of 1,000 soldiers at the time of Genghis Khan.", "The term could have been substituted for the Mongolic word and stands for the group of people, while the Hazara people in their native language call themselves '''\"Azra\"''' ( ) or ( )." ], [ "Origin", "Emir Muhammad KhwajaDespite being one of the principal population elements of Afghanistan, the origins of the Hazara people have not been fully reconstructed.", "However, due to genetic and linguistic analysis, Hazaras are described as an ethnically mixed ethnic group with Hazaras sharing varying degrees of ancestry with contemporary Turkic, Mongolic, and Iranic populations.", "Additionally, overall Hazaras share a common racial structure and physical appearance with the Turkic people of Central Asia.Over the course of centuries, invading Mongol (Turco-Mongol) and Turkic invaders, notably, the Qara'unas, the Chagatai Turco-Mongols, the Ilkhanate, and the Timurids, merged with the local indigenous Turkic and Iranic populations.", "While academics agree that Hazaras are ultimately the result of a combination of several Turkic, Mongolic, and Iranic tribes, there is a dispute by some on what groups played the largest roles in this combination.According to historian Lutfi Temirkhanov, the Mongolian detachments left in Afghanistan by Genghis Khan or his successors became the starting layer, the basis of the Hazara ethnogenesis.", "The participation of the Mongols in the ethnogenesis of the Hazaras is evidenced by linguistic data, historical sources, data on toponymy, as well as works on population genetics.", "Such scholars as Vasily Bartold, Ármin Vámbéry, Vadim Masson, Vadim Romodin, Ilya Petrushevsky, Allah Rakha, Fatima, Min-Sheng Peng, Atif Adan, Rui Bi, Memona Yasmin, Yong-Gang Yao wrote about the historical use of the Mongolian language by the Hazaras." ], [ "Genetics", "Genetically, the Hazara combine varying amounts of West Eurasian and East Eurasian derived components.", "Genetic data shows that the Hazaras of Afghanistan cluster closely with the Uzbek population of the country, while both groups are at a notable distance from Afghanistan's Tajik and Pashtun populations.", "There is evidence for both paternal and maternal relations to Turkic peoples, Mongolic peoples, and Iranic peoples.", "The frequency of ancestry components among the Hazaras vary according to tribal affiliation.", "They display high genetic affinity to present-day Turkic populations of Central Asia and East Asia.", "One analysis argues that the Hazaras are a Central Asian people, closely related to the Turkic populations of Central Asia, rather than Mongolians and East Asians or Indo-Iranians.", "In terms of their overall genetic makeup, around 49% of the Hazaras average gene pool is derived from East Asian-like sources, around 48% is derived from European-like sources, and around 0,17%, 0,47%, and 2,30% is derived from African, Oceanian, and Amerindian-like sources respectively.", "The Hazara can also be modeled as having 57,8% Mongolian-related ancestry, with the remainder (42,2%) being derived from Iranian-like sources.", "The Hazaras genetic makeup is most similar to the Turkic Uzbek, Uyghur, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz populations.=== Paternal haplogroups ===The most common paternal DNA haplogroups of Hazaras from Afghanistan are the West Eurasian R1a and East Eurasian C-M217 clades, followed by West Eurasian J2-M172 and L-M20.Some Hazaras were also found to belong to the haplogroup R1a1a-M17, E1b1b1-M35, L-M20 and H-M69, which are shared with Tajiks, Pashtuns as well as Indian populations.", "One individual with haplogroup B-M60, normally found in Eastern Africa, was found as well.Pakistani Hazara harbored high frequency of haplogroup C-M217 at c. 40% (10/25) and Haplogroup R1b at c. 32% (8/25).", "A relatively high frequency of R1b was also found in Eastern Russian Tatars and Bashkirs.", "All three groups are thought to be associated with the Golden Horde.", "Haplogroup C-M217, also known as C2, is the most frequent haplogroup in Kazakh and Mongol populations.=== Maternal haplogroups ===The Hazara share c. 35% maternal haplogroups with contemporary East Asian populations, while c. 65% is shared with West Eurasian populations.", "The Hazaras as a whole have mostly West Eurasian mtDNA." ], [ "History", "The first mention of Hazaras is made by Babur in the early 16th century and later by the court historians of Shah Abbas of the Safavid dynasty.", "It is reported that they embraced Shia Islam between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century, during the Safavid periods.", "Hazara men, along with those of other ethnic groups, were recruited to the army of Ahmad Shah Durrani in the 18th century.=== 19th century ===During the second reign of Dost Mohammad Khan in the 19th century, Hazaras from Hazarajat began to be taxed for the first time.", "However, for the most part, they still managed to keep their regional autonomy until the 1892 Battle of Uruzgan and subsequent subjugation of Abdur Rahman Khan began in the late 19th century.When the Treaty of Gandomak was signed and the Second Anglo-Afghan War ended in 1880, Abdur Rahman Khan set out a goal to bring Hazaristan, Turkistan and Kafiristan under his control.", "He launched several campaigns in Hazarajat due to resistance from the Hazaras in which his forces committed atrocities.", "The southern part of Hazarajat was spared as they accepted his rule, while the other parts of Hazarajat rejected Abdur Rahman and instead supported his uncle, Sher Ali Khan.", "In response to this Abdur Rahman waged a war against tribal leaders who rejected his policies and rule.", "This is known as the Hazara Uprisings.These campaigns had a catastrophic impact on the demographics of Hazaras causing over sixty percent of the total Hazara population to be massacred with some being displaced and exiled from their own lands.", "The Hazara lands was distributed among loyalist villagers of nearby non-Hazaras.", "The repression after the uprising has been called genocide or ethnic cleansing in the history of modern Afghanistan.After these massacres, Abdul Rahman Khan forced many Hazara families from the Hazara areas of Uruzgan and other parts of Hazarajat to leave their hometowns and ancestral lands.", "causing some many Hazaras fled to neighboring countries such as Central Asia, Iran, British India, Iraq and Syria.", "Those Hazaras living in the northern Hindu Kush went to Tsarist Russia, mostly in the southern cities of Russia, and some of them went to Iran.", "Many Hazaras living in the Tsarist Russian regions lost their language, accent and ethnic identity over time due to the similarities between the racial building and the physical appearance of the people of those regions, and they settled and gravitated among them.", "These fleeing Hazaras settled in previous Tsarist Russia regions, including Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Dagestan.", "But the Hazaras in northwestern Afghanistan migrated to Iran and settled in neighborhoods in and around Mashhad.", "These Hazaras later became known as Khawari or Barbari.", "Another part of Hazaras from the southeast of the Hazara regions of Afghanistan has moved to British India, which resides in Quetta, present-day Pakistan.", "One of the most famous political and military figures of these Hazaras is Muhammad Musa Khan, who held the general's military rank in Pakistani system.", "Another group has settled in Syria, Iraq and British India.", "These Hazara people who migrated to Pakistan, Iran, Syria and Iraq were unable to settle with the people of these areas because of the differences in physical appearance, so they have not lost their language, culture and ethnic identity.=== 20th and 21st century ===Abdul Khaliq, a Hazara school student who assassinated the king of Afghanistan, Mohammad Nadir ShahIn 1901, Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman's eldest son and successor granted amnesty to Hazaras and asked them to return who were exiled by his predecessor.", "But few of them returned and settled in Afghan Turkestan and Balkh province because they had lost their previous lands.", "Hazara continued to face social, economic and political discrimination through most of the 20th century.", "In 1933 Mohammed Nadir Shah the King of Afghanistan was assassinated by Abdul Khaliq Hazara, a school student.", "The Afghan government captured and executed him later, along with several of his family members.Mistrust of the central government by the Hazaras and local uprisings continued.", "In particular, from 1945 to 1946, during Zahir Shah's rule, a revolt took place by the leadership of Ibrahim Khan most known as \"Ibrahim Gawsawar\" against new taxes that were exclusively imposed on Hazaras.", "The Kuchis meanwhile not only were exempted from taxes but also received allowances from the Afghan government.", "The angry rebels began capturing and killing government officials.", "In response, the central government sent a force to subdue the region and later removed the taxes.Ibrahim Khan known as \"Ibrahim Gawsawar\", The leader of the armed uprising of the Hazara people in protest against taxes during Zahir Shah's ruleAbdul Ali Mazari, a politician and the leader of Hazaras during and following the Soviet–Afghan WarThe repressive policies of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) after the Saur Revolution in 1978 caused uprisings throughout the country.", "Fearing Iranian influence, the Hazaras were particularly persecuted.", "President Hafizullah Amin published in October 1979 a list of 12,000 victims of the Taraki government.", "Among them were 7,000 Hazaras who were shot in the notorious Pul-e-Charkhi prison.During the Soviet-Afghan War, the Hazarajat region did not see as much heavy fighting as other regions of Afghanistan.", "Most of the Hazara mujahideen fought the Soviets in the regions which were on the periphery of the Hazarajat region.", "There was a division between the Tanzeem Nasle Nau Hazara, a party based in Quetta, of Hazara nationalists and secular intellectuals, and the Islamist parties in Hazarajat.", "By 1979, the Hazara-Islamist groups had already liberated Hazarajat from the central Soviet-backed Afghan government and later took entire control of Hazarajat away from the secularists.", "By 1984, the Islamist dominance of Hazarajat was complete.As the Soviets withdrew in 1989, the Islamist groups felt the need to broaden their political appeal and turned their focus to Hazara nationalism.", "This led to the establishment of the Hizbe-Wahdat, an alliance of all the Hazara resistance groups (except the Harakat-e Islami).", "In 1992 with the fall of Kabul, the Harakat-e Islami took sides with Burhanuddin Rabbani's government while the Hizbe-Wahdat took sides with the opposition.", "The Hizbe-Wahdat was eventually forced out of Kabul in 1995 when the Taliban movement captured and killed their leader Abdul Ali Mazari.", "With the Taliban's capture of Kabul in 1996, all the Hazara groups united with the new Northern Alliance against the common new enemy.", "However, despite fierce resistance Hazarajat fell to the Taliban in 1998.The Taliban had Hazarajat isolated from the rest of the world going as far as not allowing the United Nations to deliver food to the provinces of Bamyan, Ghor, Maidan Wardak and Daykundi.In 1997, a revolt broke out among Hazaras in Mazar-e Sharif when they refused to be disarmed by the Taliban; 600 Taliban were killed in subsequent fighting.", "In retaliation, the genocidal policies of Abdur Rahman Khan's era was adopted by the Taliban.", "In 1998, six thousand Hazaras were killed in the north; the intention was ethnic cleansing of Hazaras.", "In March 2001, the two giant Buddhas of Bamiyan, were also destroyed even though there was a lot of condemnation.Qazi Muhammad Isa, Jinnah's close associate and a key figure of the All-India Muslim League in Balochistan, PakistanHazaras have also played a significant role in the creation of Pakistan.", "One such Hazara was Qazi Muhammad Isa of the Sheikh Ali tribe, who had been close friends with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, having met each other for the first time while they were studying in London.", "He had been the first from his native province of Balochistan to obtain a Bar-at-Law degree and had helped set up the All-India Muslim League in Balochistan.Though Hazaras played a role in the anti-Soviet movement, other Hazaras participated in the new communist government, which actively courted Afghan minorities.", "Sultan Ali Kishtmand, a Hazara, served as prime minister of Afghanistan from 1981 to 1990 (with one brief interruption in 1988).", "The Ismaili Hazara of Baghlan Province likewise supported the communists, and their ''pir'' (religious leader) Jaffar Naderi led a pro-Communist militia in the region.During the years that followed, Hazara suffered severe oppression, and many ethnic massacres, genocides, and pogroms were carried out by the predominantly ethnic Pashtun Taliban and are documented by such groups as the Human Rights Watch.Following the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, American and Coalition forces invaded Afghanistan.", "After the fall of the Taliban many Hazaras became important figures in Afghanistan.", "Hazara have also pursued higher education, enrolled in the army, and many have top government positions.", "For example, Some Vice Presidents, ministers and governors were Hazara, including Karim Khalili, Sarwar Danish, Sima Samar, Muhammad Mohaqiq, Habiba Sarābi, Abdul Haq Shafaq, Sayed Anwar Rahmati, Qurban Ali Urozgani, Muhammad Arif Shah Jahan, Mahmoud Baligh, Mohammad Eqbal Munib and Mohammad Asim Asim.", "The mayor of Nili, Daykundi was Azra Jafari, who became the first female mayor in Afghanistan.", "Some other notable Hazaras include Sultan Ali Keshtmand, Abdul Wahed Sarābi, Akram Yari, Ghulam Ali Wahdat, Sayed Mustafa Kazemi, Ghulam Husain Naseri, Abbas Noyan, Daoud Naji, Abbas Ibrahim Zada, Ramazan Bashardost, Ahmad Shah Ramazan, Ahmad Behzad, Nasrullah Sadiqi Zada Nili, Fahim Hashimy, Maryam Monsef and others.Although Afghanistan has been historically one of the poorest countries in the world, the Hazarajat region has been kept less developed by past governments.", "Since the ousting of the Taliban in late 2001, billions of dollars poured into Afghanistan for reconstruction and several large-scale reconstruction projects took place in Afghanistan from August 2012.For example, there have been more than 5000 kilometers of road pavement completed across Afghanistan, of which little was done in central Afghanistan (Hazarajat).", "On the other hand, the Band-e Amir in Bamyan Province became the first national park in Afghanistan.", "A road from Kabul to Bamyan was also built, along with new police stations, government institutions, hospitals and schools in the provinces of Bamyan, Daykundi and others mostly Hazara-populated provinces.", "The first ski resort in Afghanistan was also established in Bamyan Province.Discrimination indicates that Kuchis (Pashtun nomads who have historically been migrating from region to region depending on the season) are allowed to use Hazarajat pastures during the summer season.", "It is believed that allowing the Kuchis to use some of the grazing lands in Hazarajat began during the rule of Abdur Rahman Khan.", "Living in mountainous Hazarajat, where little farmland exists, Hazara people rely on these pasture lands for their livelihood during the long and harsh winters.", "In 2007 some Kuchi nomads entered into parts of Hazarajat to graze their livestock, and when the local Hazara resisted, a clash took place and several people on both sides died using assault rifles.", "Such events continue to occur, even after the central government was forced to intervene, including President Hamid Karzai.", "In late July 2012, a Hazara police commander in Uruzgan province reportedly rounded up and killed 9 Pashtun civilians in revenge for the death of two local Hazara.", "The matter is being investigated by the Afghan government.The drive by President Hamid Karzai after the Peace Jirga to strike a deal with Taliban leaders caused deep unease in Afghanistan's minority communities, who fought the Taliban the longest and suffered the most during their rule.", "The leaders of the Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara communities, vowed to resist any return of the Taliban to power, referring to the large-scale massacres of Hazara civilians during the Taliban period.Following the fall of Kabul to the Taliban in 2021, which ended the war in Afghanistan, concerns were raised as to whether the Taliban would reimpose the persecution of Hazaras as in the 1990s.", "An academic at Melbourne's La Trobe University said that \"The Hazaras are very fearful that the Taliban will likely be reinstating the policies of the 1990s\" despite Taliban reassurances that they will not revert to the bad old ways of the 1990s.File:George W. Bush meets Afghan politicians in Kabul.jpg|Karim Khalili, former 2nd Vice President of Afghanistan (with turban) is standing next to Mohammed Fahim, George W. Bush, facing Hamid Karzai.File:Habiba Sarabi speaking in April 2011.jpg|Habiba Sarābi is a hematologist, politician, and former Governor of Bamyan province in Afghanistan.File:Nasrullah Sadiqi Zada Nili.jpg|Nasrullah Sadiqi Zada Nili is a politician and former representative of the people Daykundi province in the fifteenth and sixteenth parliamentary sessions of the Afghanistan Parliament.File:Abbas Noyan in Kabul in 2018.jpg|Abbas Noyan is a politician, who served as a member of the Afghanistan Parliament, representative of the people of Kabul province from 2005 to 2010.He is the former Afghanistan's ambassador to Sweden." ], [ "Demographics", "Ethnic groups in AfghanistanSome sources claim that Hazaras comprise about 20 to 30 percent of the total population of Afghanistan.", "They were by far the largest ethnic group in the past, in 1888–1893 Uprisings of Hazaras over sixty percent of them were massacred with some being displaced and meanwhile, they also lost a large part of their territory to non-Hazaras that could double their land size today." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "=== Afghanistan ===Afghanistan and the geographical area of Hazaristan in 1890The Hazaras are one of the largest ethnic groups in Afghanistan, primarily residing in the Hazaristan region in central Afghanistan and generally scattered throughout Afghanistan.Until the 1880s, the Hazaras were completely autonomous and controlled the entire Hazaristan region.Nowadays, the vast majority of Hazaras reside in Hazaristan and many others reside in the cities of the country.=== Central Asia ===After the massacre and genocide of the Hazaras by Abdur Rahman in 1888–1893, many Hazaras migrated to Central Asia regions under the occupation of Tsarist Russia, such as Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan, and some of them settled mostly in Samarkand and Bukhara.", "Over time, a large number of Hazaras living in the regions of Tsarist Russia lost their accent, language and ethnic identity due to the similarities of their racial structure and appearance with the people of those regions and were assimilated among them.=== Pakistan ===Muhammad Musa Khan, a senior general who served as Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan ArmyDuring the period of British colonial rule on the Indian subcontinent in the 19th century, Hazaras worked during the winter months in coal mines, road construction, and other working-class jobs in some cities of what is now Pakistan.", "The earliest record of Hazara in the areas of Pakistan is found in Broadfoot's Sappers company from 1835 in Quetta.", "This company had also participated in the First Anglo-Afghan War.", "Some Hazara also worked on the agriculture farms in Sindh and the construction of the Sukkur barrage.In 1962, the government of Pakistan recognized the Hazaras as one of the ethnic groups of Pakistan.Most Pakistani Hazaras are native to Balochistan, Pakistan.", "Localities in the city of Quetta with prominent Hazara populations include Hazara Town and Mariabad.", "The literacy level among the Hazara community in Pakistan is relatively high compared to the Hazaras of Afghanistan, and they have integrated well into the social dynamics of the local society.", "Saira Batool, a Hazara woman, was one of the first female pilots in the Pakistan Air Force.", "Other notable Hazaras include Qazi Muhammad Isa, General Muhammad Musa Khan, who served as the 4th Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army from 1958 to 1968, Air Marshal Sharbat Ali Changezi, whose years of service in the Pakistan Air Force were from 1949 to 1987, Hussain Ali Yousafi, the slain chairman of the Hazara Democratic Party, Sayed Nasir Ali Shah, MNA from Quetta and his father Haji Sayed Hussain Hazara who was a senator and member of Pakistan Parliament during the Zia-ul-Haq era.Despite all of this, Hazaras are often targeted by militant groups such as the Lashkar-e-Jhangvi and others.", "\"Activists say at least 800-1,000 Hazaras have been killed since 1999 and the pace is quickening.", "More than one hundred have been murdered in and around Quetta since January, according to Human Rights Watch.\"", "The political representation of the community is served by Hazara Democratic Party, a secular liberal democratic party, headed by Abdul Khaliq Hazara.=== Iran ===Muhammad Yusuf Khan Hazara, the leader of Hazaras and the first Sunni representative member in the Iranian ParliamentThe Hazara people in Iran are also referred to as '''Barbari''' (), or '''Khāwari''' ().", "Over many years as a result of political unrest in Afghanistan, some Hazaras have migrated to Iran.", "The local Hazara population has been estimated at 500,000.At least one-third have spent more than half their life in Iran Before the separation of Afghanistan from Iran according to the Treaty of Paris in 1857 during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah, Greater Khorasan covered a part of the west of this land and various tribes or ethnic groups lived in it.", "One of these tribes was the Hazaras.", "This tribe, who settled on both sides of the border after drawing the border line between Iran and Afghanistan, has played many roles in the contemporary history of Khorasan province and especially Mashhad.", "The leadership of this tribe at the end of the Qajar period and also the Pahlavi period was with Muhammad Yusuf Khan Hazara known as \"Sulat al-Sultanah Hazara\", a Sunni Hazara who was a politician and the first Sunni representative member in the Iranian Parliament and the only Sunni Iranian who has represented Mashhad in the history of Iran's legislatures.=== India ===The Attarwala claim to be Hazara who mainly inhabitant in the state of Gujarat, India, descended from a group of Mughal soldiers who were initially settled in Agra, during the rule of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.", "According to their recorded documents, they then migrated to Ahmedabad via Gwalior, Ratlam and Godhra.", "This migration followed their participation in the community in the 1857 Indian War Independence.", "Once settled in Gujarat, India, the community took up the occupation of manufacturing perfumes known as ittars.", "The word attarwala means the manufacturer of perfumes.", "A second migration took place in 1947 from Agra, after the partition of India, with some members immigrating to Pakistan, while others joining their co-ethnics in Ahmedabad.=== Diaspora ===Alessandro Monsutti argues, in his recent anthropological book, that migration is the traditional way of life of the Hazara people, referring to the seasonal and historical migrations which have never ceased and do not seem to be dictated only by emergencies such as war.", "Due to the decades of war in Afghanistan and the sectarian violence in Pakistan, many Hazaras left their communities and have settled in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and particularly the Northern European countries such as Sweden and Denmark.", "Some go to these countries as exchange students while others through human smuggling, which sometimes costs them their lives.", "Since 2001, about 1,000 people have died in the ocean while trying to reach Australia by boats from Indonesia.", "Many of these were Hazaras.", "The notable case was the Tampa affair in which a shipload of refugees, mostly Hazaras, was rescued by the Norwegian freighter MV ''Tampa'' and subsequently sent to Nauru." ], [ "Culture and society", "Clothing of Hazara men from villages near Ghazni.", "Painting by James Atkinson|left|270x270pxHazara culture is a combination of customs, traditions, behaviors, beliefs, and norms that have been formed in interaction and confrontation with the surrounding phenomena for many years and now it is displayed as a cultural identity.The Hazara culture is rich in heritage, with many unique cultures, and has common influences with various cultures of Central Asia and South Asia.", "The Hazaras, outside of Hazarajat, have adopted the cultures of the cities where they dwell, resembling the cultures and traditions of the Afghan Tajiks and Pashtuns.", "Traditionally the Hazara are highland farmers.", "In Hazarajat, they have retained many of their own cultures and traditions and many of their cultures and traditions are more closely related to those of Central Asians than to those of the Afghan Tajiks.", "Historically and traditionally, Hazaras live in houses, but some of them such as Aimaq Hazara and a few other are semi-nomadic and live mostly in felt yurts, rather than houses.=== Attire ===Hazara clothing have an important and special role in supporting the cultural, traditional and social identity of the Hazara ethnicity.", "Hazara clothes are produced manually and by machine; In Afghanistan these types of clothes are sewn in most parts of the country, especially in central provinces of Afghanistan.==== Male clothing ====Hazara men traditionally wear barak, also called barag, and hat.", "Barak is one of the important components of Hazara people's clothing.", "Barak is a kind of soft, sticky and thick piece made from the first wool of lambs of special sheep that are raised in Hazarajat, provided.", "In addition to being a very acceptable, stylish, and regal clothe, the Hazara barak is also a warm winter that is resistant to moisture and does not get wet easily in snow and rain.", "Also, barak has a special property and softness, it reduces muscle pains and is also healing for joint pains.", "Nowadays, the most common clothes among Hazara men is the perahan o tunban and sometimes with a hat or a turban.==== Female clothing ====The traditional clothing of Hazara women includes a pleated skirt with a tunban or undergarment.", "The lower tunbans are made of fabrics such as flowered chits and the upper skirts are made of better fabrics such as velvet or zari and net and have a border or decoration at the bottom.", "The women's shirt is calf-length, close-collared, and long-sleeved, and has slits on both sides that are placed on the skirts, which are admired for their completeness in the Islamic set.", "Hazara women's clothing has certain characteristics according to their social, economic, and age conditions.", "The clothes of young Hazara women are made of different fabrics in different colors and happy designs with beautiful and colorful chador, but older women prefer dark-colored fabrics with simple black and white designs.", "Hazara women's chador or head cover is often decorated with ornaments that is often silver or gold, and sometimes with a hat.", "The ornaments on the clothe is silver or gold necklace with colorful beads, buttons, bangles, and silver or gold bracelets.==== Headgear ====Hazaras traditionally wear headgear or hats, which are of different types for men and women.", "There are different types of Hazara hats and caps, some of which are made from animal skin and some from barak.", "Also some Hazara men wear the turban of Khorasan.=== Cuisine ===The Hazara cuisine is strongly influenced by Central Asian, South Asian, and Persian cuisines.", "However, there are special foods, cooking methods and different cooking styles that are specific to them.They have a hospitable dining etiquette.", "In their culture, it is customary to prepare special food for guests.=== Language ===The Hazaras speak the Dari and Hazaragi dialects of the Persian language.The Hazara people in Hazaristan region speak the Hazaragi dialect of Persian, which is infused with many Turkic and a few Mongolic words.", "The primary differences between Persian and Hazaragi are the accent.", "Despite these differences, Hazaragi is mutually intelligible with Dari, the official language of Afghanistan.According to Doctor of Sciences Lutfi Temirkhanov, the ancestors of the Hazaras were Mongol-speaking and only after the resettlement, they mixed with the Persian-speaking and Turkic-speaking population: ''\"hordes of Mongol princes and feudal lords found themselves in a Persian-speaking encirclement; they mixed with them, were influenced by the Persian-Tajik culture and gradually adopted the Persian language\"''.", "The Turkic and Mongolic words make up about 20% of the vocabulary of Hazaragi dialect.=== Religion ===A gathering of Hazaras on the final day of Ramadan in Daykundi province|leftHazaras predominantly practice Islam, mostly the Shi'a, with a significant and almost a large Sunni, some Isma'ili and Non-denominational Islam.", "The majority of Afghanistan's population practices Sunni Islam; this may have contributed to the discrimination against them.==== Shia Hazaras ====There is no single theory about the acceptance of the Shi'a Islam by the majority of Hazaras.", "Probably most of them accepted Shi'a Islam during the first part of the 16th century, in the early days of the Safavid dynasty.==== Sunni Hazaras ====Qala e Naw, BadghisA significant and almost a large population of Hazara people are Sunni Muslims.Sunni Hazaras have been Sunni since long ago and before the occupation of Hazara lands by Abdul Rahman, but some of them were converted from Shia to Sunni Islam after the occupation of Hazara lands by Abdul Rahman and 1888–1893 Hazara uprisings.In Afghanistan, they inhabit mainly in provinces of Kabul, Baghlan, Badghis, Ghor, Kunduz, Panjshir, Bamyan, Badakhshan, and Parwan.A Sunni Hazara, Sher Muhammad Khan Hazara, the chieftain of the Hazaras of Qala e Naw, Badghis province and a warlord who participant in the Sunni coalition that defended Herat in 1837.Also, one of the defeaters of British forces around Qandahar and Maiwand desert during the First Anglo-Afghan War in 1838–1842.==== Isma'ili Hazaras ====Isma'ili Hazaras mainly live in provinces of Kabul, Parwan, Baghlan, Bamyan, Maidan Wardak, Samangan, and Zabul.The Isma'ili Hazaras have always been kept separate from the rest of the Hazaras on account of religious beliefs and political purposes.=== Hazara tribes ===The Hazara people have been organized by various tribes.", "Some overarching Hazara tribes are Sheikh Ali, Jaghori, Jaghatu, Qara Baghi, Ghaznichi, Muhammad Khwaja, Behsudi, Daimirdadi, Turkmani, Uruzgani, Daikundi, Daizangi, Daichopan, Daizinyat, Naiman, Qarlugh, Aimaq Hazara, and others.", "The different tribes come from Hazaristan (Hazara regions), such as Parwan, Bamyan, Ghazni, Ghor, Uruzgan, Daikundi, Maidan Wardak, and... have spread outwards from Hazaristan (main region) in other parts of Afghanistan, and also in other Hazara-populated areas.=== Art ===Dawood Sarkhosh, a folklore Hazara musicianleft==== Writers and poets ====Some well-known Hazara writers and poets include Faiz Muhammad Kateb, Amir Khosrow Dehlavi, Ismael Balkhi, Hassan Poladi, Kazim Yazdani, Ali Mohaqiq Nasab, Kamran Mir Hazar, Basir Ahang, Sayed Askar Mousavi, Ali Baba Taj, Sayed Abutalib Mozaffari, Rahnaward Zaryab, Aziz Royesh and so on.==== Music ====Many Hazara musicians are widely hailed as being skilled in playing the dambura, a native, regional lute instrument similarly found in other Central Asian nations, such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.", "Some of the famous Hazara musician and dambura players are, such as Sarwar Sarkhosh, Dawood Sarkhosh, Safdar Tawakoli, Sayed Anwar Azad and others.", "In Hazara dambura sometimes revolutionary hymns are very common.", "The first singer who started singing revolutionary hymns on dambura was Sarwar Sarkhosh, and his main message was the uprising of the young generation and the fight against oppression.Also Ghaychak a field instruments in music that is usually played like a fiddle.", "The resonance bowl is made of walnuts or berries and its wires are metal which is one of the stringed instruments in Hazara music.==== Cinema ====Shamila Shirzad, an actressHazara cinema artists have no older background, but nowadays some of their famous actors and actresses include Hussain Sadiqi, Abid Ali Nazish, Shamila Shirzad, Nikbakht Noruz and others.=== Sports ===Rohullah Nikpai, two-time Olympic bronze medalist in the sport of TaekwondoleftMany Hazaras engaged in varieties of sports, including football, volleyball, wrestling, martial arts, boxing, karate, taekwondo, judo, wushu, Jujitsu, Cricket, Tennis, and more.", "Pahlawan Ebrahim Khedri, a 62 kg wrestler, was the national champion for two decades in Afghanistan.", "Another famous Hazara wrestler, Wakil Hussain Allahdad, was killed in the 22 April 2018 Kabul suicide bombing in Dashte Barchi, Kabul.Rohullah Nikpai, won a bronze medal in Taekwondo at the Beijing Olympics 2008, beating world champion Juan Antonio Ramos of Spain 4–1 in a play-off final.", "It was Afghanistan's first-ever Olympic medal.", "He then won a second Olympic medal for Afghanistan in the London 2012 games.Another notable Hazara athlete Sayed Abdul Jalil Waiz was the first ever badminton player representing Afghanistan in the Asian Junior Championships in 2005, where he produced the first win for his country against Iraq, with 15–13, 15–1.He participated in several international championships since 2005 and achieved victories against Australia, the Philippines and Mongolia.", "Hamid Rahimi, a Hazara boxer from Afghanistan who lives in Germany.", "Hussain Sadiqi, a Hazara Australian martial artist who won an award for the best fight scene for an Australian made action movie.Hazara football players are Zohib Islam Amiri, who is currently playing for the Afghanistan national football team, Moshtaq Yaqoubi an Afghan-Finnish footballer who plays for HIFK, Mustafa Amini, a Hazara Australian footballer who plays as a midfielder for Danish Superliga club AGF and the Australian national team, Rahmat Akbari an Australian footballer who plays as a midfielder for Brisbane Roar, and others like Rohullah Iqbalzada, Omran Haydary, Zelfy Nazary, Moshtaq Ahmadi, and Zahra Mahmoodi.Some Hazara from Pakistan have also excelled in sports and have received numerous awards, particularly in boxing, football and field hockey.Pakistani Hazara Abrar Hussain, a former Olympic boxer served as deputy director-general of the Pakistan Sports Board.", "He represented Pakistan three times at the Olympics and won a gold medal at the 1990 Asian Games in Beijing.", "Another Hazara boxer from Pakistan is Haider Ali a Commonwealth Games gold medalist and Olympian who is currently retired.", "Former captain of the Pakistan national football team Qayyum Changezi was the second Pakistani footballer to score a hat trick in an international game.", "New Hazara youngsters are seen to appear in football in Pakistan mostly from Quetta, such as Muhammad Ali and Rajab Ali Hazara.Another is Kulsoom Hazara, a Pakistani female karate champion who has won several gold, silver and bronze medals on national and international stages, including Pride of Pakistan Award.", "Other karateka Hazaras include Nargis Hameedullah who became the first Pakistani woman to win an individual medal (a bronze) at the Asian Games karate championship, and Shahida Abbasi.=== Cultural sports ===Cultural sports of Hazara people are those sports that have been inherited from their ancestors for generations.==== Buzkashi ====Buzkashi in AfghanistanBuzkashi is a Central Asian sport in which horse-mounted players attempt to place a goat or calf carcass in a goal.", "It is the national sport in Afghanistan and is one of the cultural sports of the Hazara people and they still practice this sport in Afghanistan.==== Tirandāzi ====Tirandāzi is a kind of archery and an old cultural sport of Hazaras.==== Pahlawani ====Pahlawani or Kushti is a kind of cultural wrestling sport that is performed by Hazaras.", "Pahlawani has a long history in Afghanistan and among the Hazaras.", "In Afghanistan, on holidays, Pahlawani fields are set up.", "Pahlawani is held in different age groups.", "This cultural sport has its special techniques.", "Because this sport is very ancient and familiar, it has been continued from generation to generation among the Hazaras." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Hazaristan Flag.svg|Flag of HazaristanFile:Hazara military in Afghanistan.jpg|Hazara men in the uniform of the National Army of AfghanistanFile:Hazara people of Kabul, Afghanistan.jpg|Hazara young men in KabulFile:Hazara man.jpg|An elderly Hazara manAlauddini Hazaras.jpg|Alauddini Hazaras in Ghazni provinceFile:Hazaras men, Afghanistan.jpg| Hazara men on the anniversary of the death of Abdul Ali Mazari in KabulFile:Hazara schoolboys in Afghanistan.jpg|Hazara schoolboysFile:Schoolgirls in Ghazni, Afghanistan in March 8, 2011 (cropped).jpg|Hazara girls from Ghazni provinceFile:Little Hazara Boy.jpg|Hazara boy in cultural clothing with a damburaFile:Wullie Mohammed a Dahzungi Hazara 1879.jpg|An 1879 portrait of a Daizangi Hazara manFile:Hazara men from villages near Ghazni, 1840 (1).jpg|Hazara men from villages near Ghazni, , painting by James AtkinsonFile:Sulat al-Sultanah Hazara (seated second from the right) next to his brothers and uncles.jpg| Il-e Hazara () from Iran" ], [ "See also", "* Hazara nationalism* Ethnic groups in Afghanistan* Demographics of Central Asia* Aimaq Hazara" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Hazara tribal structure, Program for Culture and Conflict Studies, US Naval Postgraduate School* Peril and Persecution in Afghanistan" ] ]
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[ [ "Hawala" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hawala''' or '''hewala''' ( , meaning ''transfer'' or sometimes ''trust''), originating in India as '''havala''' (), also known as '''''' in Persian, and '''''' or '''''' in Somali, is a popular and informal value transfer system based on the performance and honour of a huge network of money brokers (known as ''hawaladars'').", "They operate outside of, or parallel to, traditional banking, financial channels and remittance systems.", "The system requires a minimum of two hawaladars that take care of the \"transaction\" without the movement of cash or telegraphic transfer.", "While hawaladars are spread throughout the world, they are primarily located in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and the Indian subcontinent.", "Hawala follows Islamic traditions but its use is not limited to Muslims." ], [ "Origins", "The hawala system originated in India.", "In 2003 Hawala as a legal concept was documented, finding evidence of Hawala reaching back to 1327, in a publication by Matthias Schramm and Markus Taube, with the title \"Evolution and institutional foundation of the hawala financial system\".", "\"Hawala\" itself influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws, such as the ''aval'' in French law and :pt:aval Portuguese law, and the ''avallo'' in Italian law.", "The words ''aval'' and ''avallo'' were themselves derived from ''hawala''.", "The transfer of debt, which was \"not permissible under Roman law but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in commercial transactions\", was due to the large extent of the \"trade conducted by the Italian cities with the Muslim world in the Middle Ages\".", "The agency was also \"an institution unknown to Roman law\" as no \"individual could conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent\".", "In Roman law, the \"contractor himself was considered the party to the contract and it took a second contract between the person who acted on behalf of a principal and the latter in order to transfer the rights and the obligations deriving from the contract to him\".", "On the other hand, Islamic law and the later common law \"had no difficulty in accepting agency as one of its institutions in the field of contracts and of obligations in general\"." ], [ "Regulation", "Following the September 11 attacks in 2001 those international organizations that are responsible for counterterrorism and enforcing laws against money laundering have directed their efforts on identifying problems within the hawala, as well as other remittance systems.", "The First International Conference on Hawala in May 2002 published the ''Regulatory Frameworks for Hawala and Other Remittance Systems''.", "The International Monetary Fund (IMF) contributed a chapter, in which informal value transfer systems were considered.", "According to the IMF, countries with limited financial services experience macroeconomic consequences because residents rely heavily on informal fund transfer systems.", "Informal value transfer systems share common characteristics, including anonymity, lack of regulation or official scrutiny.", "Therefore informal value transfer systems may be susceptible to use by criminal organizations for money laundering and terrorist financing." ], [ "How it works", "In the most basic variant of the hawala system, money is transferred via a network of hawala brokers, or ''hawaladars''.", "It is the transfer of money without actually moving it.", "In fact, a successful definition of the hawala system that is used is \"money transfer without money movement\".", "According to the author Sam Vaknin, there are large hawaladar operators with networks of middlemen in cities across many countries, but most hawaladars are small businesses who work at hawala as a sideline or moonlighting operation.Hawala example transaction; see text for an explanationThe figure shows how hawala works: (1) a customer (''A'', left-hand side) approaches a hawala broker (''X'') in one city and gives a sum of money (red arrow) that is to be transferred to a recipient (''B'', right-hand side) in another, usually foreign, city.", "Along with the money, he usually specifies something like a password that will lead to the money being paid out (blue arrows).", "(2b) The hawala broker ''X'' calls another hawala broker ''M'' in the recipient's city, and informs ''M'' about the agreed password, or gives other disposition of the funds.", "Then, the intended recipient (''B''), who also has been informed by ''A'' about the password (2a), now approaches ''M'' and tells him the agreed password (3a).", "If the password is correct, then ''M'' releases the transferred sum to ''B'' (3b), usually minus a small commission.", "''X'' now owes ''M'' the money that ''M'' had paid out to ''B''; thus ''M'' has to trust ''X''s promise to settle the debt at a later date.The unique feature of the system is that no promissory instruments are exchanged between the hawala brokers; the transaction takes place entirely on the honour system.", "As the system does not depend on the legal enforceability of claims, it can operate even in the absence of a legal and juridical environment.", "Trust and extensive use of connections are the components that distinguish it from other remittance systems.", "Hawaladar networks are often based on membership in the same family, village, clan or ethnic group, and cheating is punished by effective excommunication and the loss of honour, which lead to severe economic hardship.Informal records are produced of individual transactions, and a running tally of the amount owed by one broker to another is kept.", "Settlements of debts between hawala brokers can take a variety of forms (such as goods, services, properties, transfers of employees, etc.", "), and need not take the form of direct cash transactions.In addition to commissions, hawala brokers often earn their profits through bypassing official exchange rates.", "Generally, the funds enter the system in the source country's currency and leave the system in the recipient country's currency.", "As settlements often take place without any foreign exchange transactions, they can be made at other than official exchange rates.Hawala is attractive to customers because it provides a fast and convenient transfer of funds, usually with a far lower commission than that charged by banks.", "Its advantages are most pronounced when the receiving country applies unprofitable exchange rate regulations or when the banking system in the receiving country is less complex (e.g., due to differences in legal environment in places such as Afghanistan, Yemen, Somalia).", "Moreover, in some parts of the world, it is the only option for legitimate fund transfers.", "It has been used even by aid organizations in areas in which it is the best-functioning institution." ], [ "Regional variants", "Dubai has been prominent for decades as a welcoming hub for hawala transactions worldwide.=== South Asia ======= Hundis ====A 1951 hundi of Bombay Province for Rs 2500 with a pre-printed revenue stampThe ''hundi'' is a financial instrument that developed on the Indian sub-continent for use in trade and credit transactions.", "Hundis are used as a form of remittance instrument to transfer money from place to place, as a form of credit instrument or IOU to borrow money and as a bill of exchange in trade transactions.", "The Reserve Bank of India describes the Hundi as \"an unconditional order in writing made by a person directing another to pay a certain sum of money to a person named in the order.", "\"=== Horn of Africa ===According to the CIA, with the dissolution of Somalia's formal banking system, many informal money transfer operators arose to fill the void.", "It estimates that such ''hawaladars'', ''xawilaad'' or ''xawala'' brokers are now responsible for the transfer of up to $1.6 billion per year in remittances to the country, most coming from working Somalis outside Somalia.", "Such funds have in turn had a stimulating effect on local business activity.=== West Africa ===The 2012 Tuareg rebellion left Northern Mali without an official money transfer service for months.", "The coping mechanisms that appeared were patterned on the hawala system." ], [ "See also", "* FATF blacklist* Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF)* Hawala and crime* Hawala scandal* Informal value transfer system* Jizya* Global ranking of remittance by nations* Remittances to India* Riba* Terrorism financing* Zakat" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hydroponics" ], [ "Introduction", "NASA researcher Ray Wheeler checking hydroponic onions (center), Bibb lettuces (left), and radishes (right)|alt='''Hydroponics''' is a type of horticulture and a subset of hydroculture which involves growing plants, usually crops or medicinal plants, without soil, by using water-based mineral nutrient solutions.", "Terrestrial or aquatic plants may grow with their roots exposed to the nutritious liquid or the roots may be mechanically supported by an inert medium such as perlite, gravel, or other substrates.Despite inert media, roots can cause changes of the rhizosphere pH and root exudates can affect rhizosphere biology and physiological balance of the nutrient solution when secondary metabolites are produced in plants.", "Transgenic plants grown hydroponically allow the release of pharmaceutical proteins as part of the root exudate into the hydroponic medium.The nutrients used in hydroponic systems can come from many different organic or inorganic sources, including fish excrement, duck manure, purchased chemical fertilizers, or artificial standard or hybrid nutrient solutions.In contrast to field cultivation, plants are commonly grown hydroponically in a greenhouse or contained environment on inert media, adapted to the controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) process.", "Plants commonly grown hydroponically include tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, strawberries, lettuces, and cannabis, usually for commercial use, as well as ''Arabidopsis thaliana'', which serves as a model organism in plant science and genetics.Hydroponics offers many advantages, notably a decrease in water usage in agriculture.", "To grow of tomatoes using intensive farming methods requires of water; using hydroponics, ; and only using aeroponics.Hydroponic cultures lead to highest biomass and protein production compared to other growth substrates, of plants cultivated in the same environmental conditions and supplied with equal amounts of nutrients.Since hydroponic growing takes much less water and nutrients to grow produce, and climate change threatens agricultural yields, it could be possible in the future for people in harsh environments with little accessible water to hydroponically grow their own plant-based food.Hydroponics is not only used on earth, but has also proven itself in plant production experiments in space." ], [ "History", "Inside an ebb-and-flow hydroponic system employing individual buckets connected by fill/drain hoses.The earliest published work on growing terrestrial plants without soil was the 1627 book ''Sylva Sylvarum'' or 'A Natural History' by Francis Bacon, printed a year after his death.", "As a result of his work, water culture became a popular research technique.", "In 1699, John Woodward published his water culture experiments with spearmint.", "He found that plants in less-pure water sources grew better than plants in distilled water.", "By 1842, a list of nine elements believed to be essential for plant growth had been compiled, and the discoveries of German botanists Julius von Sachs and Wilhelm Knop, in the years 1859–1875, resulted in a development of the technique of soilless cultivation.", "To quote von Sachs directly: \"In the year 1860, I published the results of experiments which demonstrated that land plants are capable of absorbing their nutritive matters out of watery solutions, without the aid of soil, and that it is possible in this way not only to maintain plants alive and growing for a long time, as had long been known, but also to bring about a vigorous increase of their organic substance, and even the production of seed capable of germination.\"", "Growth of terrestrial plants without soil in mineral nutrient solutions was later called \"solution culture\" in reference to \"soil culture\".", "It quickly became a standard research and teaching technique in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still widely used in plant nutrition science.Around the 1930s plant nutritionists investigated diseases of certain plants, and thereby, observed symptoms related to existing soil conditions such as salinity.", "In this context, water culture experiments were undertaken with the hope of delivering similar symptoms under controlled laboratory conditions.", "This approach forced by Dennis Robert Hoagland led to innovative model systems (e.g., green algae Nitella) and standardized nutrient recipes playing an increasingly important role in modern plant physiology.", "In 1929, William Frederick Gericke of the University of California at Berkeley began publicly promoting that the principles of solution culture be used for agricultural crop production.", "He first termed this cultivation method \"aquiculture\" created in analogy to \"agriculture\" but later found that the cognate term aquaculture was already applied to culture of aquatic organisms.", "Gericke created a sensation by growing tomato vines high in his back yard in mineral nutrient solutions rather than soil.", "He then introduced the term ''Hydroponics'', water culture, in 1937, proposed to him by W. A. Setchell, a phycologist with an extensive education in the classics.", "Hydroponics is derived from neologism υδρωπονικά (derived from Greek ύδωρ=water and πονέω=cultivate), constructed in analogy to γεωπονικά (derived from Greek γαία=earth and πονέω=cultivate), geoponica, that which concerns agriculture, replacing, γεω-, earth, with ὑδρο-, water.Despite initial successes, however, Gericke realized that the time was not yet ripe for the general technical application and commercial use of hydroponics for producing crops.", "He also wanted to make sure all aspects of hydroponic cultivation were researched and tested before making any of the specifics available to the public.", "Reports of Gericke's work and his claims that hydroponics would revolutionize plant agriculture prompted a huge number of requests for further information.", "Gericke had been denied use of the university's greenhouses for his experiments due to the administration's skepticism, and when the university tried to compel him to release his preliminary nutrient recipes developed at home, he requested greenhouse space and time to improve them using appropriate research facilities.", "While he was eventually provided greenhouse space, the university assigned Hoagland and Arnon to re-evaluate Gericke's claims and show his formula held no benefit over soil grown plant yields, a view held by Hoagland.", "Because of these irreconcilable conflicts, Gericke left his academic position in 1937 in a climate that was politically unfavorable and continued his research independently in his greenhouse.", "In 1940, Gericke, whose work is considered to be the basis for all forms of hydroponic growing, published the book, ''Complete Guide to Soilless Gardening''.", "Therein, for the first time, he published his basic formula involving the macro- and micronutrient salts for hydroponically-grown plants.As a result of research of Gericke's claims by order of the Director of the ''California Agricultural Experiment Station'' of the University of California, Claude Hutchison, Dennis Hoagland and Daniel Arnon wrote a classic 1938 agricultural bulletin, ''The Water Culture Method for Growing Plants Without Soil'', one of the most important works on solution culture ever, which made the claim that hydroponic crop yields were no better than crop yields obtained with good-quality soils.", "Ultimately, crop yields would be limited by factors other than mineral nutrients, especially light and aeration of the culture medium.", "However, in the introduction to his landmark book on soilless cultivation, published two years later, Gericke pointed out that the results published by Hoagland and Arnon in comparing the yields of experimental plants in sand, soil and solution cultures, were based on several systemic errors (\"...these experimenters have made the mistake of limiting the productive capacity of hydroponics to that of soil.", "Comparison can be only by growing as great a number of plants in each case as the fertility of the culture medium can support\").For example, the Hoagland and Arnon study did not adequately appreciate that hydroponics has other key benefits compared to soil culture including the fact that the roots of the plant have constant access to oxygen and that the plants have access to as much or as little water and nutrients as they need.", "This is important as one of the most common errors when cultivating plants is over- and underwatering; hydroponics prevents this from occurring as large amounts of water, which may drown root systems in soil, can be made available to the plant in hydroponics, and any water not used, is drained away, recirculated, or actively aerated, eliminating anoxic conditions in the root area.", "In soil, a grower needs to be very experienced to know exactly with how much water to feed the plant.", "Too much and the plant will be unable to access oxygen because air in the soil pores is displaced, which can lead to root rot; too little and the plant will undergo water stress or lose the ability to absorb nutrients, which are typically moved into the roots while dissolved, leading to nutrient deficiency symptoms such as chlorosis or fertilizer burn.", "Eventually, Gericke's advanced ideas led to the implementation of hydroponics into commercial agriculture while Hoagland's views and helpful support by the University prompted Hoagland and his associates to develop several new formulas (recipes) for mineral nutrient solutions, universally known as Hoagland solution.One of the earliest successes of hydroponics occurred on Wake Island, a rocky atoll in the Pacific Ocean used as a refueling stop for Pan American Airlines.", "Hydroponics was used there in the 1930s to grow vegetables for the passengers.", "Hydroponics was a necessity on Wake Island because there was no soil, and it was prohibitively expensive to airlift in fresh vegetables.From 1943 to 1946, Daniel I. Arnon served as a major in the United States Army and used his prior expertise with plant nutrition to feed troops stationed on barren Ponape Island in the western Pacific by growing crops in gravel and nutrient-rich water because there was no arable land available.In the 1960s, Allen Cooper of England developed the nutrient film technique.", "The Land Pavilion at Walt Disney World's EPCOT Center opened in 1982 and prominently features a variety of hydroponic techniques.In recent decades, NASA has done extensive hydroponic research for its Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS).", "Hydroponics research mimicking a Martian environment uses LED lighting to grow in a different color spectrum with much less heat.", "Ray Wheeler, a plant physiologist at Kennedy Space Center's Space Life Science Lab, believes that hydroponics will create advances within space travel, as a bioregenerative life support system.As of 2017, Canada had hundreds of acres of large-scale commercial hydroponic greenhouses, producing tomatoes, peppers and cucumbers.Due to technological advancements within the industry and numerous economic factors, the global hydroponics market is forecast to grow from US$226.45 million in 2016 to US$724.87 million by 2023." ], [ "Techniques", "There are two main variations for each medium: sub-irrigation and top irrigation.", "For all techniques, most hydroponic reservoirs are now built of plastic, but other materials have been used, including concrete, glass, metal, vegetable solids, and wood.", "The containers should exclude light to prevent algae and fungal growth in the hydroponic medium.===Static solution culture===The deep water raft tank at the Crop Diversification Centre (CDC) South Aquaponics greenhouse in Brooks, AlbertaIn static solution culture, plants are grown in containers of nutrient solution, such as glass Mason jars (typically, in-home applications), pots, buckets, tubs, or tanks.", "The solution is usually gently aerated but may be un-aerated.", "If un-aerated, the solution level is kept low enough that enough roots are above the solution so they get adequate oxygen.", "A hole is cut (or drilled) in the top of the reservoir for each plant; if it is a jar or tub, it may be its lid, but otherwise, cardboard, foil, paper, wood or metal may be put on top.", "A single reservoir can be dedicated to a single plant, or to various plants.", "Reservoir size can be increased as plant size increases.", "A home-made system can be constructed from food containers or glass canning jars with aeration provided by an aquarium pump, aquarium airline tubing, aquarium valves or even a biofilm of green algae on the glass, through photosynthesis.", "Clear containers can also be covered with aluminium foil, butcher paper, black plastic, or other material to eliminate the effects of negative phototropism.", "The nutrient solution is changed either on a schedule, such as once per week, or when the concentration drops below a certain level as determined with an electrical conductivity meter.", "Whenever the solution is depleted below a certain level, either water or fresh nutrient solution is added.", "A Mariotte's bottle, or a float valve, can be used to automatically maintain the solution level.", "In raft solution culture, plants are placed in a sheet of buoyant plastic that is floated on the surface of the nutrient solution.", "That way, the solution level never drops below the roots.===Continuous-flow solution culture===The ''nutrient film technique'' (NFT) being used to grow various salad greensIn continuous-flow solution culture, the nutrient solution constantly flows past the roots.", "It is much easier to automate than the static solution culture because sampling and adjustments to the temperature, pH, and nutrient concentrations can be made in a large storage tank that has potential to serve thousands of plants.", "A popular variation is the nutrient film technique or NFT, whereby a very shallow stream of water containing all the dissolved nutrients required for plant growth is recirculated in a thin layer past a bare root mat of plants in a watertight channel, with an upper surface exposed to air.", "As a consequence, an abundant supply of oxygen is provided to the roots of the plants.", "A properly designed NFT system is based on using the right channel slope, the right flow rate, and the right channel length.", "The main advantage of the NFT system over other forms of hydroponics is that the plant roots are exposed to adequate supplies of water, oxygen, and nutrients.", "In all other forms of production, there is a conflict between the supply of these requirements, since excessive or deficient amounts of one results in an imbalance of one or both of the others.", "NFT, because of its design, provides a system where all three requirements for healthy plant growth can be met at the same time, provided that the simple concept of NFT is always remembered and practised.", "The result of these advantages is that higher yields of high-quality produce are obtained over an extended period of cropping.", "A downside of NFT is that it has very little buffering against interruptions in the flow (e.g., power outages).", "But, overall, it is probably one of the more productive techniques.The same design characteristics apply to all conventional NFT systems.", "While slopes along channels of 1:100 have been recommended, in practice it is difficult to build a base for channels that is sufficiently true to enable nutrient films to flow without ponding in locally depressed areas.", "As a consequence, it is recommended that slopes of 1:30 to 1:40 are used.", "This allows for minor irregularities in the surface, but, even with these slopes, ponding and water logging may occur.", "The slope may be provided by the floor, benches or racks may hold the channels and provide the required slope.", "Both methods are used and depend on local requirements, often determined by the site and crop requirements.As a general guide, flow rates for each gully should be one liter per minute.", "At planting, rates may be half this and the upper limit of 2 L/min appears about the maximum.", "Flow rates beyond these extremes are often associated with nutritional problems.", "Depressed growth rates of many crops have been observed when channels exceed 12 meters in length.", "On rapidly growing crops, tests have indicated that, while oxygen levels remain adequate, nitrogen may be depleted over the length of the gully.", "As a consequence, channel length should not exceed 10–15 meters.", "In situations where this is not possible, the reductions in growth can be eliminated by placing another nutrient feed halfway along the gully and halving the flow rates through each outlet.===Aeroponics===Aeroponics is a system wherein roots are continuously or discontinuously kept in an environment saturated with fine drops (a mist or aerosol) of nutrient solution.", "The method requires no substrate and entails growing plants with their roots suspended in a deep air or growth chamber with the roots periodically wetted with a fine mist of atomized nutrients.", "Excellent aeration is the main advantage of aeroponics.aeroponic techniqueAeroponic techniques have proven to be commercially successful for propagation, seed germination, seed potato production, tomato production, leaf crops, and micro-greens.", "Since inventor Richard Stoner commercialized aeroponic technology in 1983, aeroponics has been implemented as an alternative to water intensive hydroponic systems worldwide.", "A major limitation of hydroponics is the fact that of water can only hold of air, no matter whether aerators are utilized or not.Another distinct advantage of aeroponics over hydroponics is that any species of plants can be grown in a true aeroponic system because the microenvironment of an aeroponic can be finely controlled.", "Another limitation of hydroponics is that certain species of plants can only survive for so long in water before they become waterlogged.", "In contrast, suspended aeroponic plants receive 100% of the available oxygen and carbon dioxide to their roots zone, stems, and leaves, thus accelerating biomass growth and reducing rooting times.", "NASA research has shown that aeroponically grown plants have an 80% increase in dry weight biomass (essential minerals) compared to hydroponically grown plants.", "Aeroponics also uses 65% less water than hydroponics.", "NASA concluded that aeroponically grown plants require ¼ the nutrient input compared to hydroponics.", "Unlike hydroponically grown plants, aeroponically grown plants will not suffer transplant shock when transplanted to soil, and offers growers the ability to reduce the spread of disease and pathogens.Aeroponics is also widely used in laboratory studies of plant physiology and plant pathology.", "Aeroponic techniques have been given special attention from NASA since a mist is easier to handle than a liquid in a zero-gravity environment.===Fogponics===Fogponics is a derivation of aeroponics wherein the nutrient solution is aerosolized by a diaphragm vibrating at ultrasonic frequencies.", "Solution droplets produced by this method tend to be 5–10 µm in diameter, smaller than those produced by forcing a nutrient solution through pressurized nozzles, as in aeroponics.", "The smaller size of the droplets allows them to diffuse through the air more easily, and deliver nutrients to the roots without limiting their access to oxygen.===Passive sub-irrigation===Water plant-cultivated crocusPassive sub-irrigation, also known as passive hydroponics, semi-hydroponics, or ''hydroculture'', is a method wherein plants are grown in an inert porous medium that moves water and fertilizer to the roots by capillary action from a separate reservoir as necessary, reducing labor and providing a constant supply of water to the roots.", "In the simplest method, the pot sits in a shallow solution of fertilizer and water or on a capillary mat saturated with nutrient solution.", "The various hydroponic media available, such as expanded clay and coconut husk, contain more air space than more traditional potting mixes, delivering increased oxygen to the roots, which is important in epiphytic plants such as orchids and bromeliads, whose roots are exposed to the air in nature.", "Additional advantages of passive hydroponics are the reduction of root rot.===Ebb and flow (flood and drain) sub-irrigation===An ''ebb and flow'', or ''flood and drain'', hydroponics systemIn its simplest form, nutrient-enriched water is pumped into containers with plants in a growing medium such as Expanded clay aggregate At regular intervals, a simple timer causes a pump to fill the containers with nutrient solution, after which the solution drains back down into the reservoir.", "This keeps the medium regularly flushed with nutrients and air.===Run-to-waste===In a run-to-waste system, nutrient and water solution is periodically applied to the medium surface.", "The method was invented in Bengal in 1946; for this reason it is sometimes referred to as \"The Bengal System\".A ''run-to-waste'' hydroponics system, referred to as \"The Bengal System\" after the region in eastern India where it was invented (circa 1946)This method can be set up in various configurations.", "In its simplest form, a nutrient-and-water solution is manually applied one or more times per day to a container of inert growing media, such as rockwool, perlite, vermiculite, coco fibre, or sand.", "In a slightly more complex system, it is automated with a delivery pump, a timer and irrigation tubing to deliver nutrient solution with a delivery frequency that is governed by the key parameters of plant size, plant growing stage, climate, substrate, and substrate conductivity, pH, and water content.In a commercial setting, watering frequency is multi-factorial and governed by computers or PLCs.Commercial hydroponics production of large plants like tomatoes, cucumber, and peppers uses one form or another of run-to-waste hydroponics.===Deep water culture===The ''deep water culture'' technique being used to grow Hungarian wax peppersThe hydroponic method of plant production by means of suspending the plant roots in a solution of nutrient-rich, oxygenated water.", "Traditional methods favor the use of plastic buckets and large containers with the plant contained in a net pot suspended from the centre of the lid and the roots suspended in the nutrient solution.The solution is oxygen saturated by an air pump combined with porous stones.", "With this method, the plants grow much faster because of the high amount of oxygen that the roots receive.", "The Kratky Method is similar to deep water culture, but uses a non-circulating water reservoir.====Top-fed deep water culture====''Top-fed'' deep water culture is a technique involving delivering highly oxygenated nutrient solution direct to the root zone of plants.", "While deep water culture involves the plant roots hanging down into a reservoir of nutrient solution, in top-fed deep water culture the solution is pumped from the reservoir up to the roots (top feeding).", "The water is released over the plant's roots and then runs back into the reservoir below in a constantly recirculating system.", "As with deep water culture, there is an airstone in the reservoir that pumps air into the water via a hose from outside the reservoir.", "The airstone helps add oxygen to the water.", "Both the airstone and the water pump run 24 hours a day.The biggest advantage of top-fed deep water culture over standard deep water culture is increased growth during the first few weeks.", "With deep water culture, there is a time when the roots have not reached the water yet.", "With top-fed deep water culture, the roots get easy access to water from the beginning and will grow to the reservoir below much more quickly than with a deep water culture system.", "Once the roots have reached the reservoir below, there is not a huge advantage with top-fed deep water culture over standard deep water culture.", "However, due to the quicker growth in the beginning, grow time can be reduced by a few weeks.===Rotary===A rotary hydroponic cultivation demonstration at the Belgian Pavilion Expo in 2015A rotary hydroponic garden is a style of commercial hydroponics created within a circular frame which rotates continuously during the entire growth cycle of whatever plant is being grown.While system specifics vary, systems typically rotate once per hour, giving a plant 24 full turns within the circle each 24-hour period.", "Within the center of each rotary hydroponic garden can be a high intensity grow light, designed to simulate sunlight, often with the assistance of a mechanized timer.Each day, as the plants rotate, they are periodically watered with a hydroponic growth solution to provide all nutrients necessary for robust growth.", "Due to the plants continuous fight against gravity, plants typically mature much more quickly than when grown in soil or other traditional hydroponic growing systems.", "Because rotary hydroponic systems have a small size, they allow for more plant material to be grown per area of floor space than other traditional hydroponic systems.Rotary hydroponic systems should be avoided in most circumstances, mainly because of their experimental nature and their high costs for finding, buying, operating, and maintaining them." ], [ "Substrates (growing support materials)", "Different media are appropriate for different growing techniques.===Rock wool===Rock woolRock wool (mineral wool) is the most widely used medium in hydroponics.", "Rock wool is an inert substrate suitable for both run-to-waste and recirculating systems.", "Rock wool is made from molten rock, basalt or 'slag' that is spun into bundles of single filament fibres, and bonded into a medium capable of capillary action, and is, in effect, protected from most common microbiological degradation.", "Rock wool is typically used only for the seedling stage, or with newly cut clones, but can remain with the plant base for its lifetime.", "Rock wool has many advantages and some disadvantages.", "The latter being the possible skin irritancy (mechanical) whilst handling (1:1000).", "Flushing with cold water usually brings relief.", "Advantages include its proven efficiency and effectiveness as a commercial hydroponic substrate.", "Most of the rock wool sold to date is a non-hazardous, non-carcinogenic material, falling under Note Q of the European Union Classification Packaging and Labeling Regulation (CLP).Mineral wool products can be engineered to hold large quantities of water and air that aid root growth and nutrient uptake in hydroponics; their fibrous nature also provides a good mechanical structure to hold the plant stable.", "The naturally high pH of mineral wool makes them initially unsuitable to plant growth and requires \"conditioning\" to produce a wool with an appropriate, stable pH.===Expanded clay aggregate===Expanded clay aggregateBaked clay pellets are suitable for hydroponic systems in which all nutrients are carefully controlled in water solution.", "The clay pellets are inert, pH-neutral, and do not contain any nutrient value.The clay is formed into round pellets and fired in rotary kilns at .", "This causes the clay to expand, like popcorn, and become porous.", "It is light in weight, and does not compact over time.", "The shape of an individual pellet can be irregular or uniform depending on brand and manufacturing process.", "The manufacturers consider expanded clay to be an ecologically sustainable and re-usable growing medium because of its ability to be cleaned and sterilized, typically by washing in solutions of white vinegar, chlorine bleach, or hydrogen peroxide (), and rinsing completely.Another view is that clay pebbles are best not re-used even when they are cleaned, due to root growth that may enter the medium.", "Breaking open a clay pebble after use can reveal this growth.===Growstones===Growstones, made from glass waste, have both more air and water retention space than perlite and peat.", "This aggregate holds more water than parboiled rice hulls.", "Growstones by volume consist of 0.5 to 5% calcium carbonate – for a standard 5.1 kg bag of Growstones that corresponds to 25.8 to 258 grams of calcium carbonate.", "The remainder is soda-lime glass.===Coconut Coir===\"Mother\" cannabis plants growing in coir with added perlite.Coconut coir, also known as coir peat, is a natural byproduct derived from coconut processing.", "The outer husk of a coconut consists of fibers which are commonly used to make a myriad of items ranging from floor mats to brushes.", "After the long fibers are used for those applications, the dust and short fibers are merged to create coir.", "Coconuts absorb high levels of nutrients throughout their life cycle, so the coir must undergo a maturation process before it becomes a viable growth medium.", "This process removes salt, tannins and phenolic compounds through substantial water washing.", "Contaminated water is a byproduct of this process, as three hundred to six hundred liters of water per one cubic meter of coir are needed.", "Additionally, this maturation can take up to six months and one study concluded the working conditions during the maturation process are dangerous and would be illegal in North America and Europe.", "Despite requiring attention, posing health risks and environmental impacts, coconut coir has impressive material properties.", "When exposed to water, the brown, dry, chunky and fibrous material expands nearly three or four times its original size.", "This characteristic combined with coconut coir's water retention capacity and resistance to pests and diseases make it an effective growth medium.", "Used as an alternative to rock wool, coconut coir offers optimized growing conditions.===Rice husks===Rice husksParboiled rice husks (PBH) are an agricultural byproduct that would otherwise have little use.", "They decay over time, and allow drainage, and even retain less water than growstones.", "A study showed that rice husks did not affect the effects of plant growth regulators.===Perlite===PerlitePerlite is a volcanic rock that has been superheated into very lightweight expanded glass pebbles.", "It is used loose or in plastic sleeves immersed in the water.", "It is also used in potting soil mixes to decrease soil density.", "It does contain a high amount of fluorine which could be harmful to some plants.", "Perlite has similar properties and uses to vermiculite but, in general, holds more air and less water and is buoyant.===Vermiculite===VermiculiteLike perlite, vermiculite is a mineral that has been superheated until it has expanded into light pebbles.", "Vermiculite holds more water than perlite and has a natural \"wicking\" property that can draw water and nutrients in a passive hydroponic system.", "If too much water and not enough air surrounds the plants roots, it is possible to gradually lower the medium's water-retention capability by mixing in increasing quantities of perlite.===Pumice===Pumice stoneLike perlite, pumice is a lightweight, mined volcanic rock that finds application in hydroponics.===Sand===Sand is cheap and easily available.", "However, it is heavy, does not hold water very well, and it must be sterilized between uses.===Gravel===The same type that is used in aquariums, though any small gravel can be used, provided it is washed first.", "Indeed, plants growing in a typical traditional gravel filter bed, with water circulated using electric powerhead pumps, are in effect being grown using gravel hydroponics, also termed \"nutriculture\".", "Gravel is inexpensive, easy to keep clean, drains well and will not become waterlogged.", "However, it is also heavy, and, if the system does not provide continuous water, the plant roots may dry out.===Wood fiber===Excelsior, or wood woolWood fibre, produced from steam friction of wood, is an efficient organic substrate for hydroponics.", "It has the advantage that it keeps its structure for a very long time.", "Wood wool (i.e.", "wood slivers) have been used since the earliest days of the hydroponics research.", "However, more recent research suggests that wood fibre may have detrimental effects on \"plant growth regulators\".===Sheep wool===Wool from shearing sheep is a little-used yet promising renewable growing medium.", "In a study comparing wool with peat slabs, coconut fibre slabs, perlite and rockwool slabs to grow cucumber plants, sheep wool had a greater air capacity of 70%, which decreased with use to a comparable 43%, and water capacity that increased from 23% to 44% with use.", "Using sheep wool resulted in the greatest yield out of the tested substrates, while application of a biostimulator consisting of humic acid, lactic acid and Bacillus subtilis improved yields in all substrates.===Brick shards===Brick shards have similar properties to gravel.", "They have the added disadvantages of possibly altering the pH and requiring extra cleaning before reuse.===Polystyrene packing peanuts===Polystyrene foam peanutsPolystyrene packing peanuts are inexpensive, readily available, and have excellent drainage.", "However, they can be too lightweight for some uses.", "They are used mainly in closed-tube systems.", "Note that non-biodegradable polystyrene peanuts must be used; biodegradable packing peanuts will decompose into a sludge.", "Plants may absorb styrene and pass it to their consumers; this is a possible health risk." ], [ "Nutrient solutions", "===Inorganic hydroponic solutions===The formulation of hydroponic solutions is an application of plant nutrition, with nutrient deficiency symptoms mirroring those found in traditional soil based agriculture.", "However, the underlying chemistry of hydroponic solutions can differ from soil chemistry in many significant ways.", "Important differences include:* Unlike soil, hydroponic nutrient solutions do not have cation-exchange capacity (CEC) from clay particles or organic matter.", "The absence of CEC and soil pores means the pH, oxygen saturation, and nutrient concentrations can change much more rapidly in hydroponic setups than is possible in soil.", "* Selective absorption of nutrients by plants often imbalances the amount of counterions in solution.", "This imbalance can rapidly affect solution pH and the ability of plants to absorb nutrients of similar ionic charge (see article membrane potential).", "For instance, nitrate anions are often consumed rapidly by plants to form proteins, leaving an excess of cations in solution.", "This cation imbalance can lead to deficiency symptoms in other cation based nutrients (e.g.", "Mg2+) even when an ideal quantity of those nutrients are dissolved in the solution.", "* Depending on the pH or on the presence of water contaminants, nutrients such as iron can precipitate from the solution and become unavailable to plants.", "Routine adjustments to pH, buffering the solution, or the use of chelating agents is often necessary.", "* Unlike soil types, which can vary greatly in their composition, hydroponic solutions are often standardized and require routine maintenance for plant cultivation.", "Under controlled laboratory conditions hydroponic solutions are periodically pH adjusted to near neutral (pH 6.0) and are aerated with oxygen.", "Also, water levels must be refilled to account for transpiration losses and nutrient solutions require re-fortification to correct the nutrient imbalances that occur as plants grow and deplete nutrient reserves.", "Sometimes the regular measurement of nitrate ions is used as a key parameter to estimate the remaining proportions and concentrations of other essential nutrient ions to restore a balanced solution.", "* Well-known examples of standardized, balanced nutrient solutions are the Hoagland solution, the Long Ashton nutrient solution, or the Knop solution.As in conventional agriculture, nutrients should be adjusted to satisfy Liebig's law of the minimum for each specific plant variety.", "Nevertheless, generally acceptable concentrations for nutrient solutions exist, with minimum and maximum concentration ranges for most plants being somewhat similar.", "Most nutrient solutions are mixed to have concentrations between 1,000 and 2,500 ppm.", "Acceptable concentrations for the individual nutrient ions, which comprise that total ppm figure, are summarized in the following table.", "For essential nutrients, concentrations below these ranges often lead to nutrient deficiencies while exceeding these ranges can lead to nutrient toxicity.", "Optimum nutrition concentrations for plant varieties are found empirically by experience or by plant tissue tests.", "Element Role Ionic form(s) Low range (ppm) High range (ppm) Common Sources Comment Nitrogen Essential macronutrient NO or NH 100 1000 KNO3, NH4NO3, Ca(NO3)2, HNO3, (NH4)2SO4, and (NH4)2HPO4 NH interferes with Ca2+ uptake and can be toxic to plants if used as a major nitrogen source.", "A 3:1 ratio of NO-N to NH-N (''wt%'') is sometimes recommended to balance pH during nitrogen absorption.", "Plants respond differently depending on the form of nitrogen, e.g., ammonium has a positive charge, and thus, the plant expels one proton (H) for every NH taken up resulting in a reduction in rhizosphere pH.", "When supplied with NO, the opposite can occur where the plant releases bicarbonate (HCO) which increases rhizosphere pH.", "These changes in pH can influence the availability of other plant nutrients (e.g., Zn, Ca, Mg).", "Potassium Essential macronutrient K+ 100 400 KNO3, K2SO4, KCl, KOH, K2CO3, K2HPO4, and K2SiO3 High concentrations interfere with the function of Fe, Mn, and Zn.", "Zinc deficiencies often are the most apparent.", "Phosphorus Essential macronutrient PO 30 100 K2HPO4, KH2PO4, NH4H2PO4, H3PO4, and Ca(H2PO4)2 Excess NO tends to inhibit PO absorption.", "The ratio of iron to PO can affect co-precipitation reactions.", "Calcium Essential macronutrient Ca2+ 200 500 Ca(NO3)2, Ca(H2PO4)2, CaSO4, CaCl2 Excess Ca2+ inhibits Mg2+ uptake.", "Magnesium Essential macronutrient Mg2+ 50 100 MgSO4 and MgCl2 Should not exceed Ca2+ concentration due to competitive uptake.", "Sulfur Essential macronutrient SO 50 1000 MgSO4, K2SO4, CaSO4, H2SO4, (NH4)2SO4, ZnSO4, CuSO4, FeSO4, and MnSO4 Unlike most nutrients, plants can tolerate a high concentration of the SO, selectively absorbing the nutrient as needed.", "Undesirable counterion effects still apply however.", "Iron Essential micronutrient Fe3+ and Fe2+ 2 5 FeDTPA, FeEDTA, iron citrate, iron tartrate, FeCl3, Ferric EDTA, and FeSO4 pH values above 6.5 greatly decreases iron solubility.", "Chelating agents (e.g.", "DTPA, citric acid, or EDTA) are often added to increase iron solubility over a greater pH range.", "Zinc Essential micronutrient Zn2+ 0.05 1 ZnSO4 Excess zinc is highly toxic to plants but is essential for plants at low concentrations.", "The zinc content of commercially available plant-based food ranges from 3 to 10 µg/g fresh weight.", "Copper Essential micronutrient Cu2+ 0.01 1 CuSO4 Plant sensitivity to copper is highly variable.", "0.1 ppm can be toxic to some plants while a concentration up to 0.5 ppm for many plants is often considered ideal.", "Manganese Essential micronutrient Mn2+ 0.5 1 MnSO4 and MnCl2 Uptake is enhanced by high PO concentrations.", "Boron Essential micronutrient B(OH) 0.3 10 H3BO3, and Na2B4O7 An essential nutrient, however, some plants are highly sensitive to boron (e.g.", "toxic effects are apparent in citrus trees at 0.5 ppm).", "Molybdenum Essential micronutrient MoO 0.001 0.05 (NH4)6Mo7O24 and Na2MoO4 A component of the enzyme nitrate reductase and required by rhizobia for nitrogen fixation.", "Chlorine Essential micronutrient Cl− 0.65 9 KCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, and NaCl Can interfere with NO uptake in some plants but can be beneficial in some plants (e.g.", "in asparagus at 5 ppm).", "Absent in conifers, ferns, and most bryophytes.", "Chloride is one of the 16 elements essential for plant growth.", "Because it is supposedly needed in small quantities for healthy growth of plants (3+ 0 10 Al2(SO4)3 Essential for some plants (e.g.", "peas, maize, sunflowers, and cereals).", "Can be toxic to some plants below 10 ppm.", "Sometimes used to produce flower pigments (e.g.", "by Hydrangeas).", "Silicon Variable micronutrient SiO 0 140 K2SiO3, Na2SiO3, and H2SiO3 Present in most plants, abundant in cereal crops, grasses, and tree bark.", "Evidence that SiO improves plant disease resistance exists.", "Titanium Variable micronutrient Ti3+ 0 5 H4TiO4 Might be essential but trace Ti3+ is so ubiquitous that its addition is rarely warranted.", "At 5 ppm favorable growth effects in some crops are notable (e.g.", "pineapple and peas).", "Cobalt Variable micronutrient Co2+ 0 0.1 CoSO4 Required by rhizobia, important for legume root nodulation.", "Some algae require cobalt for the synthesis of vitamin B12.Nickel Variable micronutrient Ni2+ 0.057 1.5 NiSO4 and NiCO3 Essential to many plants (e.g.", "legumes and some grain crops).", "Also used in the enzyme urease.", "Sodium Non-essential micronutrient Na+ 0 31 Na2SiO3, Na2SO4, NaCl, NaHCO3, and NaOH Na+ can partially replace K+ in some plant functions but K+ is still an essential nutrient.", "Vanadium Non-essential micronutrient VO2+ 0 Trace, undetermined VOSO4 Beneficial for rhizobial N2 fixation.", "Lithium Non-essential micronutrient Li+ 0 Undetermined Li2SO4, LiCl, and LiOH Li+ can increase the chlorophyll content of some plants (e.g.", "potato and pepper plants).===Organic hydroponic solutions===Organic fertilizers can be used to supplement or entirely replace the inorganic compounds used in conventional hydroponic solutions.", "However, using organic fertilizers introduces a number of challenges that are not easily resolved.", "Examples include:* organic fertilizers are highly variable in their nutritional compositions in terms of minerals and different organic and inorganic species.", "Even similar materials can differ significantly based on their source (e.g.", "the quality of manure varies based on an animal's diet).", "* organic fertilizers are often sourced from animal byproducts, making disease transmission a serious concern for plants grown for human consumption or animal forage.", "* organic fertilizers are often particulate and can clog substrates or other growing equipment.", "Sieving or milling the organic materials to fine dusts is often necessary.", "* biochemical degradation and conversion processes of organic materials can make their mineral ingredients available to plants.", "* some organic materials (i.e.", "particularly manures and offal) can further degrade to emit foul odors under anaerobic conditions.", "* many organic molecules (i.e.", "sugars) demand additional oxygen during aerobic degradation, which is essential for cellular respiration in the plant roots.", "* organic compounds (i.e.", "sugars, vitamins, a.o.)", "are not necessary for normal plant nutrition.Nevertheless, if precautions are taken, organic fertilizers can be used successfully in hydroponics.====Organically sourced macronutrients====Examples of suitable materials, with their average nutritional contents tabulated in terms of percent dried mass, are listed in the following table.", "Organic material N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO SO2 Comment Bloodmeal 13.0% 2.0% 1.0% 0.5% – – Bone ashes – 35.0% – 46.0% 1.0% 0.5% Bonemeal 4.0% 22.5% – 33.0% 0.5% 0.5% Hoof / Horn meal 14.0% 1.0% – 2.5% – 2.0% Fishmeal 9.5% 7.0% – 0.5% – – Wool waste 3.5% 0.5% 2.0% 0.5% – – Wood ashes – 2.0% 5.0% 33.0% 3.5% 1.0% Cottonseed ashes – 5.5% 27.0% 9.5% 5.0% 2.5% Cottonseed meal 7.0% 3.0% 2.0% 0.5% 0.5% – Dried locust or grasshopper 10.0% 1.5% 0.5% 0.5% – – Leather waste 5.5% to 22% – – – – – Milled to a fine dust.", "Kelp meal, liquid seaweed 1% – 12% – – – Commercial products available.", "Poultry manure 2% to 5% 2.5% to 3% 1.3% to 3% 4.0% 1.0% 2.0% A liquid compost which is sieved to remove solids and checked for pathogens.", "Sheep manure 2.0% 1.5% 3.0% 4.0% 2.0% 1.5% Same as poultry manure.", "Goat manure 1.5% 1.5% 3.0% 2.0% – – Same as poultry manure.", "Horse manure 3% to 6% 1.5% 2% to 5% 1.5% 1.0% 0.5% Same as poultry manure.", "Cow manure 2.0% 1.5% 2.0% 4.0% 1.1% 0.5% Same as poultry manure.", "Bat guano 8.0% 40% 29% Trace Trace Trace High in micronutrients.", "Commercially available.", "Bird guano 13% 8% 20% Trace Trace Trace High in micronutrients.", "Commercially available.====Organically sourced micronutrients====Micronutrients can be sourced from organic fertilizers as well.", "For example, composted pine bark is high in manganese and is sometimes used to fulfill that mineral requirement in hydroponic solutions.", "To satisfy requirements for National Organic Programs, pulverized, unrefined minerals (e.g.", "Gypsum, Calcite, and glauconite) can also be added to satisfy a plant's nutritional needs.===Additives===Compounds can be added in both organic and conventional hydroponic systems to improve nutrition acquisition and uptake by the plant''.''", "Chelating agents and humic acid have been shown to increase nutrient uptake.", "Additionally, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), which are regularly utilized in field and greenhouse agriculture, have been shown to benefit hydroponic plant growth development and nutrient acquisition.", "Some PGPR are known to increase nitrogen fixation.", "While nitrogen is generally abundant in hydroponic systems with properly maintained fertilizer regimens, ''Azospirillum'' and ''Azotobacter'' genera can help maintain mobilized forms of nitrogen in systems with higher microbial growth in the rhizosphere.", "Traditional fertilizer methods often lead to high accumulated concentrations of nitrate within plant tissue at harvest.", "''Rhodopseudo-monas palustris'' has been shown to increase nitrogen use efficiency, increase yield, and decrease nitrate concentration by 88% at harvest compared to traditional hydroponic fertilizer methods in leafy greens.", "Many ''Bacillus'' spp., ''Pseudomonas'' spp.", "and ''Streptomyces'' spp.", "convert forms of phosphorus in the soil that are unavailable to the plant into soluble anions by decreasing soil pH, releasing phosphorus bound in chelated form that is available in a wider pH range, and mineralizing organic phosphorus.Some studies have found that ''Bacillus'' inoculants allow hydroponic leaf lettuce to overcome high salt stress that would otherwise reduce growth.", "This can be especially beneficial in regions with high electrical conductivity or salt content in their water source.", "This could potentially avoid costly reverse osmosis filtration systems while maintaining high crop yield.===Tools=======Common equipment====Managing nutrient concentrations, oxygen saturation, and pH values within acceptable ranges is essential for successful hydroponic horticulture.", "Common tools used to manage hydroponic solutions include:* Electrical conductivity meters, a tool which estimates nutrient ppm by measuring how well a solution transmits an electric current.", "* pH meter, a tool that uses an electric current to determine the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.", "* Oxygen electrode, an electrochemical sensor for determining the oxygen concentration in solution.", "* Litmus paper, disposable pH indicator strips that determine hydrogen ion concentrations by color changing chemical reaction.", "* Graduated cylinders or measuring spoons to measure out premixed, commercial hydroponic solutions.====Equipment====Chemical equipment can also be used to perform accurate chemical analyses of nutrient solutions.", "Examples include:* Balances for accurately measuring materials.", "* Laboratory glassware, such as burettes and pipettes, for performing titrations.", "* Colorimeters for solution tests which apply the Beer–Lambert law.", "* Spectrophotometer to measure the concentrations of the key parameter nitrate and other nutrients, such as phosphate, sulfate or iron.", "* Containers for growing and storing the plants.Using chemical equipment for hydroponic solutions can be beneficial to growers of any background because nutrient solutions are often reusable.", "Because nutrient solutions are virtually never completely depleted, and should never be due to the unacceptably low osmotic pressure that would result, re-fortification of old solutions with new nutrients can save growers money and can control point source pollution, a common source for the eutrophication of nearby lakes and streams.====Software====Although pre-mixed concentrated nutrient solutions are generally purchased from commercial nutrient manufacturers by hydroponic hobbyists and small commercial growers, several tools exist to help anyone prepare their own solutions without extensive knowledge about chemistry.", "The free and open source tools HydroBuddy and HydroCal have been created by professional chemists to help any hydroponics grower prepare their own nutrient solutions.", "The first program is available for Windows, Mac and Linux while the second one can be used through a simple JavaScript interface.", "Both programs allow for basic nutrient solution preparation although HydroBuddy provides added functionality to use and save custom substances, save formulations and predict electrical conductivity values.===Mixing solutions===Often mixing hydroponic solutions using individual salts is impractical for hobbyists or small-scale commercial growers because commercial products are available at reasonable prices.", "However, even when buying commercial products, multi-component fertilizers are popular.", "Often these products are bought as three part formulas which emphasize certain nutritional roles.", "For example, solutions for vegetative growth (i.e.", "high in nitrogen), flowering (i.e.", "high in potassium and phosphorus), and micronutrient solutions (i.e.", "with trace minerals) are popular.", "The timing and application of these multi-part fertilizers should coincide with a plant's growth stage.", "For example, at the end of an annual plant's life cycle, a plant should be restricted from high nitrogen fertilizers.", "In most plants, nitrogen restriction inhibits vegetative growth and helps induce flowering." ], [ "Additional improvements", "Young cannabis plants in an ebb-and-flow grow room, Alaska.=== Growrooms ===With pest problems reduced and nutrients constantly fed to the roots, productivity in hydroponics is high; however, growers can further increase yield by manipulating a plant's environment by constructing sophisticated growrooms.===CO2 enrichment===To increase yield further, some sealed greenhouses inject CO2 into their environment to help improve growth and plant fertility." ], [ "See also", "* Aeroponics* Anthroponics* Aquaponics* Digeponics* Fogponics* Folkewall* Grow box* Growroom* Organoponics* Passive hydroponics* Plant factory* Plant nutrition* Plant pathology* Root rot* Vertical farming* Xeriscaping" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Humanist (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Humanist''' may refer to:* A proponent or practitioner of humanism, which has several distinct senses, which are listed at:** Humanism (disambiguation)* A Renaissance Humanist or scholar in the Renaissance* Humanist, a typeface class under the Vox-ATypI classification, which may refer to:** Humanist sans-serif typefaces** Humanist or old-style serif typefaces* Humanist (electronic seminar), an email discussion list on humanities computing, described as “an international online seminar on humanities computing and the digital humanities”* ''The Humanist'' (journal), a magazine published by the American Humanist Association* ''Humanist'' (journal), a magazine published by the Norwegian Humanist Association* A scholar or academic in the Humanities*Humanism (philosophy of education)* ''Humanistic'' (album), the 2001 debut album by Abandoned Pools* Humanist minuscule, a style of handwriting invented in 15th century Italy* ''Humanist Movement'', international volunteer organisation linked to Silo (Mario Rodriguez Cobos), sometimes referred to as New Humanism" ], [ "See also", "*Centre démocrate humaniste, also known as The Humanist Democratic Centre\t*Humanist International, consortium of Humanist Movement's political parties*Humanistic Judaism*Humanist Manifesto*Humanistic psychology" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Purcell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Purcell''' (, rare: ; September 1659 – 21 November 1695) was an English composer of Baroque music.", "Purcell's musical style was uniquely English, although it incorporated Italian and French elements.", "Generally considered among the greatest English opera composers, Purcell is often linked with John Dunstaple and William Byrd as England's most important early music composers.", "No later native-born English composer approached his fame until Edward Elgar, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Gustav Holst, William Walton and Benjamin Britten in the 20th century." ], [ "Life and work", "===Early life===R.", "White after Closterman, from ''Orpheus Britannicus''Purcell was born in St Ann's Lane, Old Pye Street, Westminster – the area of London later known as Devil's Acre, a notorious slum – in 1659.Henry Purcell Senior, whose older brother Thomas Purcell was a musician, was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal and sang at the coronation of King Charles II of England.", "Henry the elder had three sons: Edward, Henry and Daniel.", "Daniel Purcell, the youngest of the brothers, was also a prolific composer who wrote the music for much of the final act of ''The Indian Queen'' after his brother Henry's death.", "The family lived just a few hundred yards west of Westminster Abbey from 1659 onwards.After his father's death in 1664, Purcell was placed under the guardianship of his uncle Thomas, who showed him great affection and kindness.", "Thomas arranged for Henry to be admitted as a chorister.", "Henry studied first under Captain Henry Cooke, Master of the Children, and afterwards under Pelham Humfrey, Cooke's successor, who was a pupil of Lully.", "The composer Matthew Locke was a family friend and, particularly with his semi-operas, probably also had a musical influence on the young Purcell.", "Henry was a chorister in the Chapel Royal until his voice broke in 1673 when he became assistant to the organ-builder John Hingston, who held the post of keeper of wind instruments to the King.===Career===Purcell is said to have been composing at nine years old, but the earliest work that can be certainly identified as his is an ode for the King's birthday, written in 1670, when he was eleven.", "The dates for his compositions are often uncertain, despite considerable research.", "It is assumed that the three-part song ''Sweet tyranness, I now resign'' was written by him as a child.", "After Humfrey's death, Purcell continued his studies under John Blow.", "He attended Westminster School and in 1676 was appointed copyist at Westminster Abbey.", "Henry Purcell's earliest anthem, ''Lord, who can tell'', was composed in 1678.It is a psalm that is prescribed for Christmas Day and also to be read at morning prayer on the fourth day of the month.Purcell's manuscript copy of ''When on my sick bed I languish'' ()In 1679, he wrote songs for John Playford's ''Choice Ayres, Songs and Dialogues'' and an anthem, the name of which is unknown, for the Chapel Royal.", "From an extant letter written by Thomas Purcell we learn that this anthem was composed for the exceptionally fine voice of the Rev.", "John Gostling, then at Canterbury, but afterwards a gentleman of His Majesty's Chapel.", "Purcell wrote several anthems at different times for Gostling's extraordinary basso profondo voice, which is known to have had a range of at least two full octaves, from D below the bass staff to the D above it.", "The dates of very few of these sacred compositions are known; perhaps the most notable example is the anthem ''They that go down to the sea in ships.''", "In gratitude for the providential escape of King Charles II from shipwreck, Gostling, who had been of the royal party, put together some verses from the Psalms in the form of an anthem and requested Purcell to set them to music.", "The challenging work opens with a passage which traverses the full extent of Gostling's range, beginning on the upper D and descending two octaves to the lower.Between 1680 and 1688 Purcell wrote music for seven plays.", "The composition of his chamber opera ''Dido and Aeneas'', which forms a very important landmark in the history of English dramatic music, has been attributed to this period, and its earliest production may well have predated the documented one of 1689.It was written to a libretto furnished by Nahum Tate, and performed in 1689 in cooperation with Josias Priest, a dancing master and the choreographer for the Dorset Garden Theatre.", "Priest's wife kept a boarding school for young gentlewomen, first in Leicester Fields and afterwards at Chelsea, where the opera was performed.", "It is occasionally considered the first genuine English opera, though that title is usually given to Blow's ''Venus and Adonis'': as in Blow's work, the action does not progress in spoken dialogue but in Italian-style recitative.", "Each work runs to less than one hour.", "At the time, ''Dido and Aeneas'' never found its way to the theatre, though it appears to have been very popular in private circles.", "It is believed to have been extensively copied, but only one song was printed by Purcell's widow in ''Orpheus Britannicus'', and the complete work remained in manuscript until 1840 when it was printed by the Musical Antiquarian Society under the editorship of Sir George Macfarren.", "The composition of ''Dido and Aeneas'' gave Purcell his first chance to write a sustained musical setting of a dramatic text.", "It was his only opportunity to compose a work in which the music carried the entire drama.", "The story of ''Dido and Aeneas'' derives from the original source in Virgil's epic the ''Aeneid''.", "During the early part of 1679, he produced two important works for the stage, the music for Nathaniel Lee's ''Theodosius'', and Thomas d'Urfey's ''Virtuous Wife''.", "In 1679, Blow, who had been appointed organist of Westminster Abbey 10 years before, resigned his office in favour of Purcell.", "Purcell now devoted himself almost entirely to the composition of sacred music, and for six years severed his connection with the theatre.", "He had probably written his two important stage works before taking up his new office.Soon after Purcell's marriage in 1682, on the death of Edward Lowe, he was appointed organist of the Chapel Royal, an office which he was able to hold simultaneously with his position at Westminster Abbey.", "His eldest son was born in this same year, but he was short-lived.", "His first printed composition, ''Twelve Sonatas'', was published in 1683.For some years after this, he was busy in the production of sacred music, odes addressed to the king and royal family, and other similar works.", "In 1685, he wrote two of his finest anthems, ''I was glad'' and ''My heart is inditing,'' for the coronation of King James II.", "In 1690 he composed a setting of the birthday ode for Queen Mary, ''Arise, my muse'' and four years later wrote one of his most elaborate, important and magnificent works – a setting for another birthday ode for the Queen, written by Nahum Tate, entitled ''Come Ye Sons of Art''.17th-century etching of PurcellIn 1687, he resumed his connection with the theatre by furnishing the music for John Dryden's tragedy ''Tyrannick Love''.", "In this year, Purcell also composed a march and passepied called ''Quick-step'', which became so popular that Lord Wharton adapted the latter to the fatal verses of ''Lillibullero''; and in or before January 1688, Purcell composed his anthem ''Blessed are they that fear the Lord'' by the express command of the King.", "A few months later, he wrote the music for D'Urfey's play, ''The Fool's Preferment''.", "In 1690, he composed the music for Betterton's adaptation of Fletcher and Massinger's ''Prophetess'' (afterwards called ''Dioclesian'') and Dryden's ''Amphitryon''.", "In 1691, he wrote the music for what is sometimes considered his dramatic masterpiece, ''King Arthur, or The British Worthy''.", "In 1692, he composed ''The Fairy-Queen'' (an adaptation of Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''), the score of which (his longest for theatre) was rediscovered in 1901 and published by the Purcell Society.", "''The Indian Queen'' followed in 1695, in which year he also wrote songs for Dryden and Davenant's version of Shakespeare's ''The Tempest'' (recently, this has been disputed by music scholars), probably including \"Full fathom five\" and \"Come unto these yellow sands\".", "''The Indian Queen'' was adapted from a tragedy by Dryden and Sir Robert Howard.", "In these semi-operas (another term for which at the time was \"dramatic opera\"), the main characters of the plays do not sing but speak their lines: the action moves in dialogue rather than recitative.", "The related songs are sung \"for\" them by singers, who have minor dramatic roles.Purcell's ''Te Deum'' and ''Jubilate Deo'' were written for Saint Cecilia's Day, 1694, the first English ''Te Deum'' ever composed with orchestral accompaniment.", "This work was annually performed at St Paul's Cathedral until 1712, after which it was performed alternately with Handel's ''Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate'' until 1743, when both works were replaced by Handel's ''Dettingen Te Deum''.He composed an anthem and two elegies for Queen Mary II's funeral, his ''Funeral Sentences and Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary''.", "Besides the operas and semi-operas already mentioned, Purcell wrote the music and songs for Thomas d'Urfey's ''The Comical History of Don Quixote'', ''Bonduca'', ''The Indian Queen'' and others, a vast quantity of sacred music, and numerous odes, cantatas, and other miscellaneous pieces.", "The quantity of his instrumental chamber music is minimal after his early career, and his keyboard music consists of an even more minimal number of harpsichord suites and organ pieces.", "In 1693, Purcell composed music for two comedies: ''The Old Bachelor'', and ''The Double Dealer''.", "Purcell also composed for five other plays within the same year.", "In July 1695, Purcell composed an ode for the Duke of Gloucester for his sixth birthday.", "The ode is titled ''Who can from joy refrain?''", "Purcell's four-part sonatas were issued in 1697.In the final six years of his life, Purcell wrote music for forty-two plays.===Death===Purcell died on 21 November 1695 at his home in Marsham Street, at the height of his career.", "He is believed to have been 35 or 36 years old at the time.", "The cause of his death is unclear: one theory is that he caught a chill after returning home late from the theatre one night to find that his wife had locked him out.", "Another is that he succumbed to tuberculosis.", "The beginning of Purcell's will reads:Purcell is buried adjacent to the organ in Westminster Abbey.", "The music that he had earlier composed for Queen Mary's funeral was performed during his funeral.", "Purcell was universally mourned as \"a very great master of music\".", "Following his death, the officials at Westminster honoured him by unanimously voting that he be buried with no expense spared in the north aisle of the Abbey.", "His epitaph reads: \"Here lyes Henry Purcell Esq., who left this life and is gone to that Blessed Place where only His harmony can be exceeded.", "\"Purcell and his wife Frances had six children, four of whom died in infancy.", "His wife, as well as his son Edward (1689–1740) and daughter Frances, survived him.", "His wife Frances died in 1706, having published a number of her husband's works, including the now-famous collection called ''Orpheus Britannicus'', in two volumes, printed in 1698 and 1702, respectively.", "Edward was appointed organist of St Clement's, Eastcheap, London, in 1711 and was succeeded by his son Edward Henry Purcell (died 1765).", "Both men were buried in St Clement's near the organ gallery." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Notable compositions ===Purcell worked in many genres, both in works closely linked to the court, such as symphony song, to the Chapel Royal, such as the symphony anthem, and the theatre.Among Purcell's most notable works are his opera ''Dido and Aeneas'' (1688), his semi-operas ''Dioclesian'' (1690), ''King Arthur'' (1691), ''The Fairy-Queen'' (1692) and ''Timon of Athens'' (1695), as well as the compositions ''Hail!", "Bright Cecilia'' (1692), ''Come Ye Sons of Art'' (1694) and ''Funeral Sentences and Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary'' (1695).===Influence and reputation===\"The Flowering of the English Baroque\", bronze memorial sculpture by Glynn Williams in a small park on Victoria St, Westminster.After his death, Purcell was honoured by many of his contemporaries, including his old friend John Blow, who wrote ''An Ode, on the Death of Mr. Henry Purcell (Mark how the lark and linnet sing)'' with text by his old collaborator, John Dryden.", "William Croft's 1724 setting for the Burial Service was written in the style of \"the great Master\".", "Croft preserved Purcell's setting of \"Thou knowest Lord\" (Z 58) in his service, for reasons \"obvious to any artist\"; it has been sung at every British state funeral ever since.", "More recently, the English poet Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote a famous sonnet entitled simply \"Henry Purcell\", with a headnote reading: \"The poet wishes well to the divine genius of Purcell and praises him that, whereas other musicians have given utterance to the moods of man's mind, he has, beyond that, uttered in notes the very make and species of man as created both in him and in all men generally.", "\"Purcell also had a strong influence on the composers of the English musical renaissance of the early 20th century, most notably Benjamin Britten, who arranged many of Purcell's vocal works for voice(s) and piano in ''Britten's Purcell Realizations'', including from ''Dido and Aeneas'', and whose ''The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra'' is based on a theme from Purcell's ''Abdelazar''.", "Stylistically, the aria \"I know a bank\" from Britten's opera ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' is clearly inspired by Purcell's aria \"Sweeter than Roses\", which Purcell originally wrote as part of incidental music to Richard Norton's ''Pausanias, the Betrayer of His Country''.In a 1940 interview Ignaz Friedman stated that he considered Purcell as great as Bach and Beethoven.", "In Victoria Street, Westminster, England, there is a bronze monument to Purcell, sculpted by Glynn Williams and unveiled in 1995 to mark the 300th anniversary of his death.", "In 2009, Purcell was selected by the Royal Mail for their \"Eminent Britons\" commemorative postage stamp issue.A Purcell Club was founded in London in 1836 for promoting the performance of his music but was dissolved in 1863.In 1876 a Purcell Society was founded, which published new editions of his works.", "A modern-day Purcell Club has been created, and provides guided tours and concerts in support of Westminster Abbey.Today there is a Henry Purcell Society of Boston, which performs his music in live concert.", "There is a Purcell Society in London, which collects and studies Purcell manuscripts and musical scores, concentrating on producing revised versions of the scores of all his music.", "Purcell's works have been catalogued by Franklin Zimmerman, who gave them a number preceded by Z.So strong was his reputation that a popular wedding processional was incorrectly attributed to Purcell for many years.", "The so-called ''Purcell's Trumpet Voluntary'' was in fact written around 1700 by a British composer named Jeremiah Clarke as the ''Prince of Denmark's March''.===In popular culture===Lea Desandre and Les Arts Florissants perform the \"Dido's Lament\" aria from Purcell's ''Dido and Aeneas'', among his most notable worksMusic for the Funeral of Queen Mary was reworked by Wendy Carlos for the title music of the 1971 film by Stanley Kubrick, ''A Clockwork Orange''.", "The 1973 ''Rolling Stone'' review of Jethro Tull's ''A Passion Play'' compared the musical style of the album with that of Purcell.", "In 2009 Pete Townshend of The Who, an English rock band that established itself in the 1960s, identified Purcell's harmonies, particularly the use of suspension and resolution (Townshend has mentioned Chaconne from The Gordian Knot Untied) that he had learned from producer Kit Lambert, as an influence on the band's music (in songs such as \"Won't Get Fooled Again\" (1971), \"I Can See for Miles\" (1967) and the very Purcellian intro to \"Pinball Wizard\").", "Purcell's music was widely featured as background music in the Academy Award winning 1979 film ''Kramer vs. Kramer'', with a soundtrack on CBS Masterworks Records.", "The 1995 film, ''England, My England'', tells the story of an actor who is himself writing a play about Purcell's life and music, and features many of his compositions.In the 21st century, the soundtrack of the 2005 film version of ''Pride and Prejudice'' features a dance titled \"A Postcard to Henry Purcell\".", "This is a version by composer Dario Marianelli of Purcell's ''Abdelazar'' theme.", "In the German-language 2004 movie, ''Downfall'', the music of Dido's Lament is used repeatedly as Nazi Germany collapses.", "The 2012 film ''Moonrise Kingdom'' contains Benjamin Britten's version of the Rondeau in Purcell's ''Abdelazar'' created for his 1946 ''The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra''.", "In 2013, the Pet Shop Boys released their single \"Love Is a Bourgeois Construct\" incorporating one of the same ground basses from ''King Arthur'' used by Michael Nyman in his ''The Draughtsman's Contract'' score.", "Olivia Chaney performs her adaptation of \"There's Not a Swain\" on her CD \"The Longest River\".", "The song \"Music for a while\" from Purcell's incidental music to ''Oedipus,'' Z.", "583 was included in the soundtrack of the 2018 film ''The Favourite,'' along with the second movement of his Trumpet Sonata in D major, Z.", "850, performed by the English Baroque Soloists, conducted by Sir John Eliot Gardiner.", "\"What Power Art Thou\" (from King Arthur, or The British Worthy (Z.", "628), a semi-opera in five acts with music by Purcell and a libretto by John Dryden) is featured in ''The Crown''." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Purcell Society* * * * * Short biography, audio samples and images of Purcell* Henry Purcell at AllMusic*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrophobe" ], [ "Introduction", "165 degree water contact angle on a surface modified using plasma technology system surface chemistry.", "The contact angle is the red angle plus 90 degrees.Dew drop on a hydrophobic leaf surfaceCutting a water droplet using a superhydrophobic knife on superhydrophobic surfacesWater drops on the hydrophobic surface of grassIn chemistry, '''hydrophobicity''' is the physical property of a molecule that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water (known as a '''hydrophobe''').", "In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water.Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, thus, prefer other neutral molecules and nonpolar solvents.", "Because water molecules are polar, hydrophobes do not dissolve well among them.", "Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together, forming micelles.", "Water on hydrophobic surfaces will exhibit a high contact angle.Examples of hydrophobic molecules include the alkanes, oils, fats, and greasy substances in general.", "Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, and chemical separation processes to remove non-polar substances from polar compounds.Hydrophobic is often used interchangeably with lipophilic, \"fat-loving\".", "However, the two terms are not synonymous.", "While hydrophobic substances are usually lipophilic, there are exceptions, such as the silicones and fluorocarbons.The term ''hydrophobe'' comes from the Ancient Greek (), \"having a fear of water\", constructed ." ], [ "Chemical background", "The hydrophobic interaction is mostly an entropic effect originating from the disruption of the highly dynamic hydrogen bonds between molecules of liquid water by the nonpolar solute, causing the water to form a clathrate-like structure around the non-polar molecules.", "This structure formed is more highly ordered than free water molecules due to the water molecules arranging themselves to interact as much as possible with themselves, and thus results in a higher entropic state which causes non-polar molecules to clump together to reduce the surface area exposed to water and decrease the entropy of the system.", "Thus, the two immiscible phases (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic) will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal.", "This effect can be visualized in the phenomenon called phase separation." ], [ "Superhydrophobicity", "A water drop on a lotus plant leaf'''Superhydrophobic''' surfaces, such as the leaves of the lotus plant, are those that are extremely difficult to wet.", "The contact angles of a water droplet exceeds 150°.", "This is referred to as the lotus effect, and is primarily a physical property related to interfacial tension, rather than a chemical property.===Theory===In 1805, Thomas Young defined the contact angle ''θ'' by analyzing the forces acting on a fluid droplet resting on a solid surface surrounded by a gas.A liquid droplet rests on a solid surface and is surrounded by gas.", "The contact angle, ''θ''C, is the angle formed by a liquid at the three-phase boundary where the liquid, gas, and solid intersect.A droplet resting on a solid surface and surrounded by a gas forms a characteristic contact angle ''θ''.", "If the solid surface is rough, and the liquid is in intimate contact with the solid asperities, the droplet is in the Wenzel state.", "If the liquid rests on the tops of the asperities, it is in the Cassie–Baxter state.", ":where: = Interfacial tension between the solid and gas: = Interfacial tension between the solid and liquid: = Interfacial tension between the liquid and gas''θ'' can be measured using a contact angle goniometer.Wenzel determined that when the liquid is in intimate contact with a microstructured surface, ''θ'' will change to ''θ''W*:where ''r'' is the ratio of the actual area to the projected area.", "Wenzel's equation shows that microstructuring a surface amplifies the natural tendency of the surface.", "A hydrophobic surface (one that has an original contact angle greater than 90°) becomes more hydrophobic when microstructured – its new contact angle becomes greater than the original.", "However, a hydrophilic surface (one that has an original contact angle less than 90°) becomes more hydrophilic when microstructured – its new contact angle becomes less than the original.Cassie and Baxter found that if the liquid is suspended on the tops of microstructures, ''θ'' will change to ''θ''CB*::where ''φ'' is the area fraction of the solid that touches the liquid.", "Liquid in the Cassie–Baxter state is more mobile than in the Wenzel state.We can predict whether the Wenzel or Cassie–Baxter state should exist by calculating the new contact angle with both equations.", "By a minimization of free energy argument, the relation that predicted the smaller new contact angle is the state most likely to exist.", "Stated in mathematical terms, for the Cassie–Baxter state to exist, the following inequality must be true.", ":A recent alternative criterion for the Cassie–Baxter state asserts that the Cassie–Baxter state exists when the following 2 criteria are met:1) Contact line forces overcome body forces of unsupported droplet weight and 2) The microstructures are tall enough to prevent the liquid that bridges microstructures from touching the base of the microstructures.A new criterion for the switch between Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter states has been developed recently based on surface roughness and surface energy.", "The criterion focuses on the air-trapping capability under liquid droplets on rough surfaces, which could tell whether Wenzel's model or Cassie-Baxter's model should be used for certain combination of surface roughness and energy.Contact angle is a measure of static hydrophobicity, and contact angle hysteresis and slide angle are dynamic measures.", "Contact angle hysteresis is a phenomenon that characterizes surface heterogeneity.", "When a pipette injects a liquid onto a solid, the liquid will form some contact angle.", "As the pipette injects more liquid, the droplet will increase in volume, the contact angle will increase, but its three-phase boundary will remain stationary until it suddenly advances outward.", "The contact angle the droplet had immediately before advancing outward is termed the advancing contact angle.", "The receding contact angle is now measured by pumping the liquid back out of the droplet.", "The droplet will decrease in volume, the contact angle will decrease, but its three-phase boundary will remain stationary until it suddenly recedes inward.", "The contact angle the droplet had immediately before receding inward is termed the receding contact angle.", "The difference between advancing and receding contact angles is termed contact angle hysteresis and can be used to characterize surface heterogeneity, roughness, and mobility.", "Surfaces that are not homogeneous will have domains that impede motion of the contact line.", "The slide angle is another dynamic measure of hydrophobicity and is measured by depositing a droplet on a surface and tilting the surface until the droplet begins to slide.", "In general, liquids in the Cassie–Baxter state exhibit lower slide angles and contact angle hysteresis than those in the Wenzel state." ], [ "Research and development", "Water droplets roll down an inclined hydrophobic surface.Water droplets on an artificial hydrophobic surface (left)Dettre and Johnson discovered in 1964 that the superhydrophobic lotus effect phenomenon was related to rough hydrophobic surfaces, and they developed a theoretical model based on experiments with glass beads coated with paraffin or TFE telomer.", "The self-cleaning property of superhydrophobic micro-nanostructured surfaces was reported in 1977.Perfluoroalkyl, perfluoropolyether, and RF plasma -formed superhydrophobic materials were developed, used for electrowetting and commercialized for bio-medical applications between 1986 and 1995.Other technology and applications have emerged since the mid-1990s.", "A durable superhydrophobic hierarchical composition, applied in one or two steps, was disclosed in 2002 comprising nano-sized particles ≤ 100 nanometers overlaying a surface having micrometer-sized features or particles ≤ 100 micrometers.", "The larger particles were observed to protect the smaller particles from mechanical abrasion.In recent research, superhydrophobicity has been reported by allowing alkylketene dimer (AKD) to solidify into a nanostructured fractal surface.", "Many papers have since presented fabrication methods for producing superhydrophobic surfaces including particle deposition, sol-gel techniques, plasma treatments, vapor deposition, and casting techniques.", "Current opportunity for research impact lies mainly in fundamental research and practical manufacturing.", "Debates have recently emerged concerning the applicability of the Wenzel and Cassie–Baxter models.", "In an experiment designed to challenge the surface energy perspective of the Wenzel and Cassie–Baxter model and promote a contact line perspective, water drops were placed on a smooth hydrophobic spot in a rough hydrophobic field, a rough hydrophobic spot in a smooth hydrophobic field, and a hydrophilic spot in a hydrophobic field.", "Experiments showed that the surface chemistry and geometry at the contact line affected the contact angle and contact angle hysteresis, but the surface area inside the contact line had no effect.", "An argument that increased jaggedness in the contact line enhances droplet mobility has also been proposed.Many hydrophobic materials found in nature rely on Cassie's law and are biphasic on the submicrometer level with one component air.", "The lotus effect is based on this principle.", "Inspired by it, many functional superhydrophobic surfaces have been prepared.An example of a bionic or biomimetic superhydrophobic material in nanotechnology is nanopin film.One study presents a vanadium pentoxide surface that switches reversibly between superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity under the influence of UV radiation.", "According to the study, any surface can be modified to this effect by application of a suspension of rose-like V2O5 particles, for instance with an inkjet printer.", "Once again hydrophobicity is induced by interlaminar air pockets (separated by 2.1 nm distances).", "The UV effect is also explained.", "UV light creates electron-hole pairs, with the holes reacting with lattice oxygen, creating surface oxygen vacancies, while the electrons reduce V5+ to V3+.", "The oxygen vacancies are met by water, and it is this water absorbency by the vanadium surface that makes it hydrophilic.", "By extended storage in the dark, water is replaced by oxygen and hydrophilicity is once again lost.A significant majority of hydrophobic surfaces have their hydrophobic properties imparted by structural or chemical modification of a surface of a bulk material, through either coatings or surface treatments.", "That is to say, the presence of molecular species (usually organic) or structural features results in high contact angles of water.", "In recent years, rare earth oxides have been shown to possess intrinsic hydrophobicity.", "The intrinsic hydrophobicity of rare earth oxides depends on surface orientation and oxygen vacancy levels, and is naturally more robust than coatings or surface treatments, having potential applications in condensers and catalysts that can operate at high temperatures or corrosive environments." ], [ "Applications and potential applications", "Hydrophobic concrete has been produced since the mid-20th century.Active recent research on superhydrophobic materials might eventually lead to more industrial applications.A simple routine of coating cotton fabric with silica or titania particles by sol-gel technique has been reported, which protects the fabric from UV light and makes it superhydrophobic.An efficient routine has been reported for making polyethylene superhydrophobic and thus self-cleaning.", "99% of dirt on such a surface is easily washed away.Patterned superhydrophobic surfaces also have promise for lab-on-a-chip microfluidic devices and can drastically improve surface-based bioanalysis.In pharmaceuticals, hydrophobicity of pharmaceutical blends affects important quality attributes of final products, such as drug dissolution and hardness.", "Methods have been developed to measure the hydrophobicity of pharmaceutical materials.The development of hydrophobic passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces, whose effectiveness at solar reflectance and thermal emittance is predicated on their cleanliness, has improved the \"self-cleaning\" of these surfaces.", "Scalable and sustainable hydrophobic PDRCs that avoid VOCs have further been developed." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* What are superhydrophobic surfaces?" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harley-Davidson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harley-Davidson, Inc.''' ('''H-D''', or simply '''Harley''') is an American motorcycle manufacturer headquartered in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States.", "Founded in 1903, it is one of two major American motorcycle manufacturers to survive the Great Depression along with its historical rival, Indian Motorcycles.", "The company has survived numerous ownership arrangements, subsidiary arrangements, periods of poor economic health and product quality, and intense global competition to become one of the world's largest motorcycle manufacturers and an iconic brand widely known for its loyal following.", "There are owner clubs and events worldwide, as well as a company-sponsored, brand-focused museum.Harley-Davidson is noted for a style of customization that gave rise to the chopper motorcycle style.", "The company traditionally marketed heavyweight, air-cooled cruiser motorcycles with engine displacements greater than 700 cc, but it has broadened its offerings to include more contemporary VRSC (2002) and middle-weight Street (2015) platforms.Harley-Davidson manufactures its motorcycles at factories in York, Pennsylvania; Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin; Tomahawk, Wisconsin; Manaus, Brazil; and Rayong, Thailand.", "The company markets its products worldwide, and also licenses and markets merchandise under the Harley-Davidson brand, among them apparel, home décor and ornaments, accessories, toys, scale models of its motorcycles, and video games based on its motorcycle line and the community." ], [ "History", "Arthur Davidson and William S. Harley|thumbIn 1901, -year-old William S. Harley drew up plans for a small engine with a displacement of 7.07 cubic inches (116 cc) and four-inch (102 mm) flywheels designed for use in a regular pedal-bicycle frame.", "Over the next two years, he and his childhood friend Arthur Davidson worked on their motor-bicycle using the northside Milwaukee machine shop at the home of their friend Henry Melk.", "It was finished in 1903 with the help of Arthur's brother Walter Davidson.", "Upon testing their power-cycle, Harley and the Davidson brothers found it unable to climb the hills around Milwaukee without pedal assistance, and they wrote off their first motor-bicycle as a valuable learning experiment.The three began work on a new and improved machine with an engine of 24.74 cubic inches (405 cc) with flywheels weighing .", "Its advanced loop-frame pattern was similar to the 1903 Milwaukee Merkel motorcycle designed by Joseph Merkel, later of Flying Merkel fame.", "The bigger engine and loop-frame design took it out of the motorized bicycle category and marked the path to future motorcycle designs.", "They also received help with their bigger engine from outboard motor pioneer Ole Evinrude, who was then building gas engines of his own design for automotive use on Milwaukee's Lake Street.PrototypeThe prototype of the new loop-frame Harley-Davidson was assembled in a shed in the Davidson family backyard.", "Most of the major parts, however, were made elsewhere, including some probably fabricated at the West Milwaukee railshops where oldest brother William A. Davidson was toolroom foreman.", "This prototype machine was functional by September 8, 1904, when it competed in a Milwaukee motorcycle race held at State Fair Park.", "Edward Hildebrand rode it and placed fourth in the race.In January 1905, the company placed small advertisements in the ''Automobile and Cycle Trade Journal'' offering bare Harley-Davidson engines to the do-it-yourself trade.", "By April, they were producing complete motorcycles on a very limited basis.", "That year, Harley-Davidson dealer Carl H. Lang of Chicago sold three bikes from the five built in the Davidson backyard shed.", "Years later, the company moved the original shed to the Juneau Avenue factory where it stood for many decades as a tribute.In 1906, Harley and the Davidson brothers built their first factory on Chestnut Street (later Juneau Avenue), at the current location of Harley-Davidson's corporate headquarters.", "The first Juneau Avenue plant was a single-story wooden structure.", "The company produced about 50 motorcycles that year.1907 modelHarley-Davidson 1,000 cc HT 1916In 1907, William S. Harley graduated from the University of Wisconsin–Madison with a degree in mechanical engineering.", "That year, they expanded the factory with a second floor and later with facings and additions of Milwaukee pale yellow (\"cream\") brick.", "With the new facilities, production increased to 150 motorcycles in 1907.The company was officially incorporated that September.", "They also began selling their motorcycles to police departments around this time, a market that has been important to them ever since.", "In 1907, William A. Davidson quit his job as tool foreman for the Milwaukee Road railroad and joined the Motor Company.Production in 1905 and 1906 were all single-cylinder models with 26.84-cubic-inch (440 cc) engines.", "In February 1907, they displayed a prototype model at the Chicago Automobile Show with a 45-degree V-Twin engine.", "Very few V-Twin models were built between 1907 and 1910.These first V-Twins displaced 53.68 cubic inches (880 cc) and produced about .", "This gave about double the power of the first singles, and top speed was about .", "Production jumped from 450 motorcycles in 1908 to 1,149 machines in 1909.Harley-Davidson works in 1911In 1911, the company introduced an improved V-Twin model with a displacement of 49.48 cubic inches (811 cc) and mechanically operated intake valves, as opposed to the \"automatic\" intake valves used on earlier V-Twins that opened by engine vacuum.", "It was smaller than earlier twins but gave better performance.", "After 1913, the majority of bikes produced by Harley-Davidson were V-Twin models.In 1912, Harley-Davidson introduced their patented \"Ful-Floteing Seat\", which was suspended by a coil spring inside the seat tube.", "The spring tension could be adjusted to suit the rider's weight, and more than of travel was available.", "Harley-Davidson used seats of this type until 1958.By 1913, the yellow brick factory had been demolished and a new five-story structure had been built on the site which took up two blocks along Juneau Avenue and around the corner on 38th Street.", "Despite the competition, Harley-Davidson was already pulling ahead of Indian and dominated motorcycle racing after 1914.Production that year swelled to 16,284 machines.Ralph Hepburn on his Harley racing bike in 1919===World War I===In 1917, the United States entered World War I and the military demanded motorcycles for the war effort.", "Harleys had already been used by the military in the Pancho Villa Expedition but World War I was the first time that it was adopted for military issue, first with the British Model H produced by Triumph Motorcycles Ltd in 1915.The U.S. military purchased over 20,000 motorcycles from Harley-Davidson.Harley-Davidson launched a line of bicycles in 1917 in hopes of recruiting more domestic customers for its motorcycles.", "Models included the traditional diamond frame men's bicycle, a step-through frame 3–18 \"Ladies Standard\", and a 5–17 \"Boy Scout\" for youth.", "The effort was discontinued in 1923 because of disappointing sales.", "The bicycles were built for Harley-Davidson in Dayton, Ohio by the Davis Machine Company from 1917 to 1921, when Davis stopped manufacturing bicycles.===1920s===Harley-Davidson 1000 cc HT 1923By 1920 Harley-Davidson was the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world, with 28,189 machines produced and dealers in 67 countries.", "In 1921, Otto Walker set a record on a Harley-Davidson as the first motorcycle to win a race at an average speed greater than .Harley-Davidson put several improvements in place during the 1920s, such as a new 74 cubic inch (1,212.6  cc) V-Twin introduced in 1921, and the \"teardrop\" gas tank in 1925.They added a front brake in 1928, although only on the J/JD models.", "In the late summer of 1929, Harley-Davidson introduced its 45-cubic-inch (737 cc) flathead V-Twin to compete with the Indian 101 Scout and the Excelsior Super X.", "This was the \"D\" model produced from 1929 to 1931.Riders of Indian motorcycles derisively referred to it as the \"three cylinder Harley\" because the generator was upright and parallel to the front cylinder.", "In 1929, Vivian Bales drove a record 5,000 miles across the United States and Canada on a D-model.===Great Depression===Harley-Davidson 1,200 cc SV 1931The Great Depression began a few months after the introduction of their model.", "Harley-Davidson's sales fell from 21,000 in 1929 to 3,703 in 1933.Despite this, Harley-Davidson unveiled a new lineup for 1934, which included a flathead engine and Art Deco styling.In order to survive the remainder of the Depression, the company manufactured industrial powerplants based on their motorcycle engines.", "They also designed and built a three-wheeled delivery vehicle called the Servi-Car, which remained in production until 1973.Harley-Davidson ULAlfred Rich Child opened a production line in Japan in the mid-1930s with the VL.", "The Japanese license-holder, Sankyo Seiyaku Corporation, severed its business relations with Harley-Davidson in 1936 and continued manufacturing the VL under the Rikuo name.Harley-Davidson dealer in Texas, ca.", "1930–1945An flathead engine was added to the line in 1935, by which time the single-cylinder motorcycles had been discontinued.In 1936, the 61E and 61EL models with the \"Knucklehead\" OHV engines were introduced.", "Valvetrain problems in early Knucklehead engines required a redesign halfway through its first year of production and retrofitting of the new valvetrain on earlier engines.By 1937, all Harley-Davidson flathead engines were equipped with dry-sump oil recirculation systems similar to the one introduced in the \"Knucklehead\" OHV engine.", "The revised V and VL models were renamed U and UL, the VH and VLH to be renamed UH and ULH, and the R to be renamed W.In 1941, the 74-cubic-inch \"Knucklehead\" was introduced as the F and the FL.", "The flathead UH and ULH models were discontinued after 1941, while the 74-cubic-inchU & UL flathead models were produced up to 1948.===World War II===BMW R71 to produce its XA model.One of only two American motorcycle manufacturers to survive the Great Depression (the other being the Indian Motorcycle Manufacturing Company), Harley-Davidson again produced large numbers of motorcycles for the US Army in World War II and resumed civilian production afterwards, producing a range of large V-twin motorcycles that were successful both on racetracks and for private buyers.Harley-Davidson, on the eve of World War II, was already supplying the Army with a military-specific version of its WL line, called the WLA.", "The A in this case stood for \"Army\".", "Upon the outbreak of war, the company, along with most other manufacturing enterprises, shifted to war work.", "More than 90,000 military motorcycles, mostly WLAs and WLCs (the Canadian version) were produced, many to be provided to allies.", "Harley-Davidson received two Army-Navy \"E\" Awards, one in 1943 and the other in 1945, which were awarded for Excellence in Production.Harley-Davidson produced the WLC for the Canadian military.", "Shipments to the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease program numbered at least 30,000.The WLAs produced during all four years of war production generally have 1942 serial numbers.", "Production of the WLA stopped at the end of World War II, but was resumed from 1950 to 1952 for use in the Korean War.The U.S. Army also asked Harley-Davidson to produce a new motorcycle with many of the features of BMW's side-valve and shaft-driven R71.Harley-Davidson largely copied the BMW engine and drive train and produced the shaft-driven 750 cc 1942 Harley-Davidson XA.", "This shared no dimensions, no parts or no design concepts (except side valves) with any prior Harley-Davidson engine.", "Due to the superior cooling of the flat-twin engine with the cylinders across the frame, Harley's XA cylinder heads ran 100 °F (56 °C) cooler than its V-twins.", "The XA never entered full production: the motorcycle by that time had been eclipsed by the Jeep as the Army's general-purpose vehicle, and the WLAalready in productionwas sufficient for its limited police, escort, and courier roles.", "Only 1,000 were made and the XA never went into full production.", "It remains the only shaft-driven Harley-Davidson ever made.===Small: Hummer, Sportcycle and Aermacchi===Harley-Davidson Hummer ''Sportcycle'', 1966 \"Young America\" advertising campaignAs part of war reparations, Harley-Davidson acquired the design of a small German motorcycle, the DKW RT 125, which they adapted, manufactured, and sold from 1948 to 1966.Various models were made, including the Hummer from 1955 to 1959, but they are all colloquially referred to as \"Hummers\" at present.", "BSA in the United Kingdom took the same design as the foundation of their BSA Bantam.1971 Aermacchi Harley-Davidson Turismo VeloceIn 1960, Harley-Davidson consolidated the Model 165 and Hummer lines into the Super-10, introduced the Topper scooter, and bought fifty percent of Aermacchi's motorcycle division.", "Importation of Aermacchi's 250 cc horizontal single began the following year.", "The bike bore Harley-Davidson badges and was marketed as the Harley-Davidson Sprint.", "The engine of the Sprint was increased to 350 cc in 1969 and would remain that size until 1974, when the four-stroke Sprint was discontinued.After the Pacer and Scat models were discontinued at the end of 1965, the Bobcat became the last of Harley-Davidson's American-made two-stroke motorcycles.", "The Bobcat was manufactured only in the 1966 model year.Harley-Davidson replaced their American-made lightweight two-stroke motorcycles with the Italian Aermacchi-built two-stroke powered M-65, M-65S, and Rapido.", "The M-65 had a semi-step-through frame and tank.", "The M-65S was a M-65 with a larger tank that eliminated the step-through feature.", "The Rapido was a larger bike with a 125 cc engine.", "The Aermacchi-built Harley-Davidsons became entirely two-stroke powered when the 250 cc two-stroke SS-250 replaced the four-stroke 350 cc Sprint in 1974.Harley-Davidson purchased full control of Aermacchi's motorcycle production in 1974 and continued making two-stroke motorcycles there until 1978, when they sold the facility to Cagiva, owned by the Castiglioni family.===Tarnished reputation===Captain America bike\" from the film ''Easy Rider'' In 1952, following their application to the U.S.", "Tariff Commission for a 40 percent tax on imported motorcycles, Harley-Davidson was charged with restrictive practices.AMF H-D Electra GlideIn 1969, American Machine and Foundry (AMF) bought the company, streamlined production, and slashed the workforce.", "This tactic resulted in a labor strike and cost-cutting produced lower-quality bikes.", "Simultaneously, the Japanese \"big four\" manufacturers (Honda, Kawasaki, Suzuki, and Yamaha) revolutionized the North American market by introducing what the motoring press would call the Universal Japanese Motorcycle.", "In comparison, Harley-Davidson's bikes were expensive and inferior in performance, handling, and quality.", "Sales and quality declined, and the company almost went bankrupt.", "The \"Harley-Davidson\" name was mocked as \"Hardly Ableson\", \"Hardly Driveable\", and \"Hogly Ferguson\",and the nickname \"Hog\" became pejorative.In 1977, following the successful manufacture of the Liberty Edition to commemorate America's bicentennial in 1976, Harley-Davidson produced what has become one of its most controversial models, the Harley-Davidson Confederate Edition.", "The bike was essentially a stock Harley-Davidson with Confederate-specific paint and details.===Restructuring and revival===In 1981, AMF sold the company to a group of 13 investors led by Vaughn Beals and Willie G. Davidson for $80 million.", "The new management team improved product quality, introduced new technologies, and adopted just-in-time inventory management.", "These operational and product improvements were matched with a strategy of seeking tariff protection for large-displacement motorcycles in the face of intense competition with Japanese manufacturers.", "These protections were granted by the Reagan administration in 1983, giving Harley-Davidson time to implement their new strategies.Revising stagnated product designs was a crucial centerpiece of Harley-Davidson's turnaround strategy.", "Rather than trying to mimic popular Japanese designs, the new management deliberately exploited the \"retro\" appeal of Harley motorcycles, building machines that deliberately adopted the look and feel of their earlier bikes and the subsequent customizations of owners of that era.", "Many components such as brakes, forks, shocks, carburetors, electrics and wheels were outsourced from foreign manufacturers and quality increased, technical improvements were made, and buyers slowly returned.Harley-Davidson bought the \"Sub Shock\" cantilever-swingarm rear suspension design from Missouri engineer Bill Davis and developed it into its Softail series of motorcycles, introduced in 1984 with the FXST Softail.In response to possible motorcycle market loss due to the aging of baby-boomers, Harley-Davidson bought luxury motorhome manufacturer Holiday Rambler in 1986.In 1996, the company sold Holiday Rambler to the Monaco Coach Corporation.The \"Sturgis\" model, boasting a dual belt-drive, was introduced initially in 1980 and was made for three years.", "This bike was then brought back as a commemorative model in 1991.===Fat Boy, Dyna, and Harley-Davidson museum===By 1990, with the introduction of the \"Fat Boy\", Harley-Davidson once again became the sales leader in the heavyweight (over 750 cc) market.", "At the time of the Fat Boy model introduction, a false etymology spread that \"Fat Boy\" was a combination of the names of the atomic bombs Fat Man and Little Boy.", "This has been debunked, as the name \"Fat Boy\" actually comes from the observation that the motorcycle is somewhat wider than other bikes when viewed head-on.1993 and 1994 saw the replacement of FXR models with the Dyna (FXD), which became the sole rubber mount FX Big Twin frame in 1994.The FXR was revived briefly from 1999 to 2000 for special limited editions (FXR2, FXR3 & FXR4).Harley-Davidson celebrated their 100th anniversary on September 1, 2003 with a large event and concert featuring performances from Elton John, The Doobie Brothers, Kid Rock, and Tim McGraw.Construction started on the $75 million, 130,000 square-foot (12,000 m2) Harley-Davidson Museum in the Menomonee Valley of Milwaukee, Wisconsin on June 1, 2006.It opened in 2008 and houses the company's vast collection of historic motorcycles and corporate archives, along with a restaurant, café and meeting space.===Overseas operations===Established in 1918, the oldest continuously operating Harley-Davidson dealership outside of the United States is in Australia.", "Sales in Japan started in 1912 then in 1929, Harley-Davidsons were produced in Japan under license to the company Rikuo (Rikuo Internal Combustion Company) under the name of Harley-Davidson and using the company's tooling, and later under the name Rikuo.", "Production continued until 1958.In 1998, the first Harley-Davidson factory outside the US opened in Manaus, Brazil, taking advantage of the free economic zone there.", "The location was positioned to sell motorcycles in the southern hemisphere market.In August 2009, Harley-Davidson launched Harley-Davidson India and started selling motorcycles there in 2010.The company established the subsidiary in Gurgaon, near Delhi, in 2011 and created an Indian dealer network.", "On September 24, 2020, Harley Davidson announced that it would discontinue its sales and manufacturing operations in India due to weak demand and sales.", "The move involves $75 million in restructuring costs, 70 layoffs and the closure of its Bawal plant in northern India.===Buell Motorcycle Company===Buell Lightning XB9SXHarley-Davidson's association with sportbike manufacturer Buell Motorcycle Company began in 1987 when they supplied Buell with fifty surplus XR1000 engines.", "Buell continued to buy engines from Harley-Davidson until 1993, when Harley-Davidson bought 49 percent of the Buell Motorcycle Company.", "Harley-Davidson increased its share in Buell to ninety-eight percent in 1998, and to complete ownership in 2003.In an attempt to attract newcomers to motorcycling in general and to Harley-Davidson in particular, Buell developed a low-cost, low-maintenance motorcycle.", "The resulting single-cylinder Buell Blast was introduced in 2000, and was made through 2009, which, according to Buell, was to be the final year of production.", "The Buell Blast was the training vehicle for the Harley-Davidson Rider's Edge New Rider Course from 2000 until May 2014, when the company re-branded the training academy and started using the Harley-Davidson Street 500 motorcycles.", "In those 14 years, more than 350,000 participants in the course learned to ride on the Buell Blast.On October 15, 2009, Harley-Davidson Inc. issued an official statement that it would be discontinuing the Buell line and ceasing production immediately, in order to focus on the Harley-Davidson brand.", "The company refused to consider selling Buell.", "Founder Erik Buell subsequently established Erik Buell Racing and continued to manufacture and develop the company's 1125RR racing motorcycle.===Claims of stock price manipulation===Harley-Davidson, Inc. (NYSE:HOG) stock price (source: ZenoBank.com)During its period of peak demand, during the late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century, Harley-Davidson embarked on a program of expanding the number of dealerships throughout the country.", "At the same time, its current dealers typically had waiting lists that extended up to a year for some of the most popular models.", "Harley-Davidson, like the auto manufacturers, records a sale not when a consumer buys their product, but rather when it is delivered to a dealer.", "Therefore, it is possible for the manufacturer to inflate sales numbers by requiring dealers to accept more inventory than desired in a practice called channel stuffing.", "When demand softened following the unique 2003 model year, this news led to a dramatic decline in the stock price.", "In April 2004 alone, the price of HOG shares dropped from more than $60 to less than $40.Immediately prior to this decline, retiring CEO Jeffrey Bleustein profited $42 million on the exercise of employee stock options.", "Harley-Davidson was named as a defendant in numerous class action suits filed by investors who claimed they were intentionally defrauded by Harley-Davidson's management and directors.", "By January 2007, the price of Harley-Davidson shares reached $70.===Problems with Police Touring models===Starting around 2000, several police departments started reporting problems with high-speed instability on the Harley-Davidson Touring motorcycles.", "A Raleigh, North Carolina police officer, Charles Paul, was killed when his 2002 police touring motorcycle crashed after reportedly experiencing a high-speed wobble.", "The California Highway Patrol conducted testing of the Police Touring motorcycles in 2006.The CHP test riders reported experiencing wobble or weave instability while operating the motorcycles on the test track.===2007 strike===On February 2, 2007, upon the expiration of their union contract, about 2,700 employees at Harley-Davidson Inc.'s largest manufacturing plant in York, Pennsylvania, went on strike after failing to agree on wages and health benefits.", "During the pendency of the strike, the company refused to pay for any portion of the striking employees' health care.The day before the strike, after the union voted against the proposed contract and to authorize the strike, the company shut down all production at the plant.", "The York facility employs more than 3,200 workers, both union and non-union.Harley-Davidson announced on February 16, 2007, that it had reached a labor agreement with union workers at its largest manufacturing plant, a breakthrough in the two-week-old strike.", "The strike disrupted Harley-Davidson's national production and was felt in Wisconsin, where 440 employees were laid off, and many Harley suppliers also laid off workers because of the strike.===MV Agusta Group===On July 11, 2008, Harley-Davidson announced they had signed a definitive agreement to acquire the MV Agusta Group for US$109 million (€70M).", "MV Agusta Group contains two lines of motorcycles: the high-performance MV Agusta brand and the lightweight Cagiva brand.", "The acquisition was completed on August 8.On October 15, 2009, Harley-Davidson announced that it would divest its interest in MV Agusta.", "Harley-Davidson Inc. sold Italian motorcycle maker MV Agusta to Claudio Castiglioni – a member of the family that had purchased Aermacchi from H-D in 1978 – for a reported 3 euros, ending the transaction in the first week of August 2010.Castiglioni was MV Agusta's former owner, and had been MV Agusta's chairman since Harley-Davidson bought it in 2008.As part of the deal, Harley-Davidson put $26M into MV Agusta's accounts, essentially giving Castiglioni $26M to take the brand.===Financial crisis===The 2007–2008 financial crisis and 2008–2010 automotive industry crisis affected also the motorcycle industry.", "According to Interbrand, the value of the Harley-Davidson brand fell by 43 percent to $4.34 billion in 2009.The fall in value is believed to be connected to the 66 percent drop in the company profits in two-quarters of the previous year.", "On April 29, 2010, Harley-Davidson stated that they must cut $54 million in manufacturing costs from its production facilities in Wisconsin, and that they would explore alternative U.S. sites to accomplish this.", "The announcement came in the wake of a massive company-wide restructuring, which began in early 2009 and involved the closing of two factories, one distribution center, and the planned elimination of nearly 25 percent of its total workforce (around 3,500 employees).", "The company announced on September 14, 2010, that it would remain in Wisconsin." ], [ "Motorcycle engines", " V-twinThe classic Harley-Davidson engines are V-twin engines, with a 45° angle between the cylinders.", "The crankshaft has a single pin, and both pistons are connected to this pin through their connecting rods.This 45° angle is covered under several United States patents and is an engineering tradeoff that allows a large, high-torque engine in a relatively small space.", "It causes the cylinders to fire at uneven intervals and produces the choppy \"potato-potato\" sound so strongly linked to the Harley-Davidson brand.To simplify the engine and reduce costs, the V-twin ignition was designed to operate with a single set of points and no distributor.", "This is known as a dual fire ignition system, causing both spark plugs to fire regardless of which cylinder was on its compression stroke, with the other spark plug firing on its cylinder's exhaust stroke, effectively \"wasting a spark\".", "The exhaust note is basically a throaty growling sound with some popping.The 45° design of the engine thus creates a plug firing sequencing as such: The first cylinder fires, the second (rear) cylinder fires 315° later, then there is a 405° gap until the first cylinder fires again, giving the engine its unique sound.Harley-Davidson has used various ignition systems, including the early points and condenser system on Big Twins and Sportsters up to 1978, a magneto ignition system used on some 1958 to 1969 Sportsters, an early electronic with centrifugal mechanical advance weights on all models from mid-1978 until 1979, and a later electronic with a transistorized ignition control module (more familiarly known as a black box or a brain) on all models 1980 to present.Starting in 1995, the company introduced Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) as an option for the 30th anniversary edition Electra Glide.", "EFI became standard on all Harley-Davidson motorcycles, including Sportsters, upon the introduction of the 2007 product line.In 1991, Harley-Davidson began to participate in the Sound Quality Working Group, founded by Orfield Labs, Bruel and Kjaer, TEAC, Yamaha, Sennheiser, SMS and Cortex.", "This was the nation's first group to share research on psychological acoustics.", "Later that year, Harley-Davidson participated in a series of sound quality studies at Orfield Labs, based on recordings taken at the Talladega Superspeedway, with the objective to lower the sound level for EU standards while analytically capturing the \"Harley Sound\".", "This research resulted in the bikes that were introduced in compliance with EU standards for 1998.On February 1, 1994, the company filed a sound trademark application for the distinctive sound of the Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine: \"The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant's motorcycles, produced by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use\".", "Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed comments opposing the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use a single-crankpin V-twin engine which produce a similar sound.", "These objections were followed by litigation.", "In June 2000, the company dropped efforts to register a sound trademark.===Big V-twins===* F-head, also known as JD, pocket valve and IOE (intake over exhaust), 1914–1929 (1,000 cc), and 1922–1929 (1,200 cc)* Flathead, 1930–1949 (1,200 cc) and 1935–1941 (1,300 cc).", "* Knucklehead, 1936–1947 61 cubic inch (1,000 cc), and 1941–1947 74 cubic inch (1,200 cc)* Panhead, 1948–1965 61 cubic inch (1,000 cc), and 1948–1965, 74 cubic inch (1,200 cc)* Shovelhead, 1966–1984, 74 cubic inch (1,200 cc) and 80 cubic inch (1,338 cc) since late 1978* Evolution (a.k.a.", "\"Evo\" and \"Blockhead\"), 1984–1999, 80 cubic inch (1,340 cc)* Twin Cam (a.k.a.", "\"Fathead\" as named by American Iron Magazine) 1999–2017, in the following versions:** Twin Cam 88, 1999–2006, 88 cubic inch (1,450 cc)** Twin Cam 88B, counterbalanced version of the Twin Cam 88, 2000–2006, 88 cubic inch (1,450 cc)** Twin Cam 95, since 2000, 95 cubic inch (1,550 cc) (engines for early C.V.O.", "models)** Twin Cam 96, since 2007.", "** Twin Cam 103, 2003–2006, 2009, 103 cubic inch (1,690 cc) (engines for C.V.O.", "models), Standard on 2011 Touring models: Ultra Limited, Road King Classic and Road Glide Ultra and optional on the Road Glide Custom and Street Glide.", "Standard on most 2012 models excluding Sportsters and 2 Dynas (Street Bob and Super Glide Custom).", "Standard on all 2014 dyna models.", "** Twin Cam 110, 2007–2017, 110 cubic inch (1,800 cc) (engines for C.V.O.", "models, 2016 Soft Tail Slim S; FatBoy S, Low Rider S, and Pro-Street Breakout)* Milwaukee-Eight** Standard : Standard on touring model year 2017+ and Softail models 2018+.", "** Twin-cooled : Optional on some touring and trike model year 2017+.", "** Twin-cooled : Optional on touring and trike model year 2017+, standard on 2017 CVO models.", "** Twin-cooled : Standard on 2018 CVO models===Small V-twins===Evolution Sportster* D Model, 1929–1931, 750 cc* R Model, 1932–1936, 750 cc* Flathead 750 cc ** 1937–1952 W Model solo 2 wheel ** 1932–1973 G Model Servi-Car three-wheeler* K Model, 1952–1953, 750 cc* KH Model, 1954–1956, 900 cc* Ironhead, 1957–1971, 883 cc; 1972–1985, 1,000 cc* Evolution, since 1986, 883 cc, 1,100 cc and 1,200 cc===Revolution engine===V-RodThe Revolution engine is based on the VR-1000 Superbike race program, developed by Harley-Davidson's Powertrain Engineering with Porsche helping to make the engine suitable for street use.", "It is a liquid cooled, dual overhead cam, internally counterbalanced 60 degree V-twin engine with a displacement of 69 cubic inch (1,130 cc), producing at 8,250 rpm at the crank, with a redline of 9,000 rpm.", "It was introduced for the new VRSC (V-Rod) line in 2001 for the 2002 model year, starting with the single VRSCA (V-Twin Racing Street Custom) model.", "The Revolution marks Harley's first collaboration with Porsche since the V4 Nova project, which, like the V-Rod, was a radical departure from Harley's traditional lineup until it was cancelled by AMF in 1981 in favor of the Evolution engine.A 1,250 cc Screamin' Eagle version of the Revolution engine was made available for 2005 and 2006, and was present thereafter in a single production model from 2005 to 2007.In 2008, the 1,250 cc Revolution Engine became standard for the entire VRSC line.", "Harley-Davidson claims at the crank for the 2008 VRSCAW model.", "The VRXSE ''Destroyer'' dragbike is equipped with a stroker (75 mm crank) Screamin' Eagle 79 cubic inch (1,300 cc) Revolution Engine, producing , and more than .750 cc and 500 cc versions of the Revolution engine are used in Harley-Davidson's Street line of light cruisers.", "These motors, named the Revolution X, use a single overhead cam, screw and locknut valve adjustment, a single internal counterbalancer, and vertically split crankcases; all of these changes making it different from the original Revolution design.====Düsseldorf-Test====An extreme endurance test of the Revolution engine was performed in a dynamometer installation at the Harley-Davidson factory in Milwaukee, simulating the German Autobahn (highways without general speed limit) between the Porsche research and development center in Weissach, near Stuttgart to Düsseldorf.", "An undisclosed number of samples of engines failed, until an engine successfully passed the 500-hour nonstop run.", "This was the benchmark for the engineers to approve the start of production for the Revolution engine, which was documented in the Discovery channel special ''Harley-Davidson: Birth of the V-Rod'', October 14, 2001.===Single-cylinder engines===1928 Harley-Davidson single-cylinder motorcycle;IOE singlesThe first Harley-Davidson motorcycles were powered by single-cylinder IOE engines with the inlet valve operated by engine vacuum, based on the DeDion-Bouton pattern.", "Singles of this type continued to be made until 1913, when a pushrod and rocker system was used to operate the overhead inlet valve on the single, a similar system having been used on their V-twins since 1911.Single-cylinder motorcycle engines were discontinued in 1918.;Flathead and OHV singlesSingle-cylinder engines were reintroduced in 1925 as 1926 models.", "These singles were available either as flathead engines or as overhead valve engines until 1930, after which they were only available as flatheads.", "The flathead single-cylinder motorcycles were designated Model A for engines with magneto systems only and Model B for engines with battery and coil systems, while overhead valve versions were designated Model AA and Model BA respectively, and a magneto-only racing version was designated Model S. This line of single-cylinder motorcycles ended production in 1934.;Two-stroke singles" ], [ "Model families", "Modern Harley-branded motorcycles fall into one of seven model families: Touring, Softail, Dyna, Sportster, Vrod, Street and LiveWire.", "These model families are distinguished by the frame, engine, suspension, and other characteristics.===Touring===Harley-Davidson Road KingElectra GlideTouring models use Big-Twin engines and large-diameter telescopic forks.", "All Touring designations begin with the letters FL, ''e.g.", "'', FLHR (Road King) and FLTR (Road Glide).The touring family, also known as \"dressers\" or \"baggers\", includes Road King, Road Glide, Electra Glide and Street Glide models offered in various trims.", "The Road Kings have a \"retro cruiser\" appearance and are equipped with a large clear windshield.", "Road Kings are reminiscent of big-twin models from the 1940s and 1950s.", "Electra Glides can be identified by their full front fairings.", "Most Electra Glides sport a fork-mounted fairing referred to as the \"Batwing\" due to its unmistakable shape.", "The Road Glide and Road Glide Ultra Classic have a frame-mounted fairing, referred to as the \"Sharknose\".", "The Sharknose includes a unique, dual front headlight.Touring models are distinguishable by their large saddlebags, rear coil-over air suspension and are the only models to offer full fairings with radios and CBs.", "All touring models use the same frame, first introduced with a Shovelhead motor in 1980, and carried forward with only modest upgrades until 2009, when it was extensively redesigned.", "The frame is distinguished by the location of the steering head in front of the forks and was the first H-D frame to rubber mount the drivetrain to isolate the rider from the vibration of the big V-twin.Electra Glide \"Ultra Classic\"The frame was modified for the 1993 model year when the oil tank went under the transmission and the battery was moved inboard from under the right saddlebag to under the seat.", "In 1997, the frame was again modified to allow for a larger battery under the seat and to lower seat height.", "In 2007, Harley-Davidson introduced the Twin Cam 96 engine, as well the six-speed transmission to give the rider better speeds on the highway.In 2006, Harley introduced the FLHX Street Glide, a bike designed by Willie G. Davidson to be his personal ride, to its touring line.In 2008, Harley added anti-lock braking systems and cruise control as a factory installed option on all touring models (standard on CVO and Anniversary models).", "Also new for 2008 is the fuel tank for all touring models.", "2008 also brought throttle-by-wire to all touring models.For the 2009 model year, Harley-Davidson redesigned the entire touring range with several changes, including a new frame, new swingarm, a completely revised engine-mounting system, front wheels for all but the FLHRC Road King Classic, and a 2–1–2 exhaust.", "The changes result in greater load carrying capacity, better handling, a smoother engine, longer range and less exhaust heat transmitted to the rider and passenger.Also released for the 2009 model year is the FLHTCUTG Tri-Glide Ultra Classic, the first three-wheeled Harley since the Servi-Car was discontinued in 1973.The model features a unique frame and a 103-cubic-inch (1,690 cc) engine exclusive to the trike.In 2014, Harley-Davidson released a redesign for specific touring bikes and called it \"Project Rushmore\".", "Changes include a new 103CI High Output engine, one handed easy open saddlebags and compartments, a new Boom!", "Box Infotainment system with either 4.3-inch (10 cm) or 6.5-inch (16.5 cm) screens featuring touchscreen functionality 6.5-inch (16.5 cm) models only, Bluetooth (media and phone with approved compatible devices), available GPS and SiriusXM, Text-to-Speech functionality (with approved compatible devices) and USB connectivity with charging.", "Other features include ABS with Reflex linked brakes, improved styling, Halogen or LED lighting and upgraded passenger comfort.===Softail===2002 Softail Heritage ClassicThese big-twin motorcycles capitalize on Harley's strong value on tradition.", "With the rear-wheel suspension hidden under the transmission, they are visually similar to the \"hardtail\" choppers popular in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as from their own earlier history.", "In keeping with that tradition, Harley offers Softail models with \"Heritage\" styling that incorporate design cues from throughout their history and used to offer \"Springer\" front ends on these Softail models from the factory.", ";DesignationSoftail models utilize the big-twin engine (F) and the Softail chassis (ST).", "* Softail models that use 21-inch (530 mm) Front Wheels have designations that begin with FX, ''e.g.", "'', FXSTB (Night Train), FXSTD (Deuce), and FXSTS (Springer).", "* Softail models that use 16-inch (410 mm) Front Wheels have designations beginning with FL, ''e.g.", "'', FLSTF (Fat Boy), FLSTC (Heritage Softail Classic), FLSTN (Softail Deluxe) and FLS (Softail Slim).", "* Softail models that use Springer forks with a wheel have designations that begin with FXSTS, ''e.g.", "'', FXSTS (Springer Softail) and FXSTSB (Bad Boy).", "* Softail models that use Springer forks with a wheel have designations that begin with FLSTS, ''e.g.", "'', FLSTSC (Springer Classic) and FLSTSB (Cross Bones).===Dyna===Super Glide CustomDyna-frame motorcycles were developed in the 1980s and early 1990s and debuted in the 1991 model year with the FXDB Sturgis offered in limited edition quantities.", "In 1992 the line continued with the limited edition FXDB Daytona and a production model FXD Super Glide.", "The new DYNA frame featured big-twin engines and traditional styling.", "They can be distinguished from the Softail by the traditional coil-over suspension that connects the swingarm to the frame, and from the Sportster by their larger engines.", "On these models, the transmission also houses the engine's oil reservoir.Prior to 2006, Dyna models typically featured a narrow, XL-style 39mm front fork and front wheel, as well as footpegs which the manufacturer indicated with the letter \"X\" in the model designation.", "This lineup traditionally included the Super Glide (FXD), Super Glide Custom (FXDC), Street Bob (FXDB), and Low Rider (FXDL).", "One exception was the Wide Glide (FXDWG), which featured thicker 41mm forks and a narrow front wheel, but positioned the forks on wider triple-trees that give a beefier appearance.", "In 2008, the Dyna Fat Bob (FXDF) was introduced to the Dyna lineup, featuring aggressive styling like a new 2–1–2 exhaust, twin headlamps, a 180 mm rear tire, and, for the first time in the Dyna lineup, a 130 mm front tire.", "For the 2012 model year, the Dyna Switchback (FLD) became the first Dyna to break the tradition of having an FX model designation with floorboards, detachable painted hard saddlebags, touring windshield, headlight nacelle and a wide front tire with full fender.", "The new front end resembled the big-twin FL models from 1968 to 1971.The Dyna family used the 88-cubic-inch (1,440 cc) twin cam from 1999 to 2006.In 2007, the displacement was increased to 96 cubic inches (1,570 cc) as the factory increased the stroke to .", "For the 2012 model year, the manufacturer began to offer Dyna models with the 103-cubic-inch (1,690 cc) upgrade.", "All Dyna models use a rubber-mounted engine to isolate engine vibration.", "Harley discontinued the Dyna platform in 2017 for the 2018 model year, having been replaced by a completely-redesigned Softail chassis; some of the existing models previously released by the company under the Dyna nameplate have since been carried over to the new Softail line.", ";DesignationDyna models utilize the big-twin engine (F), footpegs noted as (X) with the exception of the 2012 FLD Switchback, a Dyna model which used floorboards as featured on the Touring (L) models, and the Dyna chassis (D).", "Therefore, except for the FLD from 2012 to 2016, all Dyna models have designations that begin with FXD, ''e.g.", "'', FXDWG (Dyna Wide Glide) and FXDL (Dyna Low Rider).===Sportster===Sportster 883 Custom2003 Harley-Davidson XL1200 Custom Anniversary EditionIntroduced in 1957, the Sportster family were conceived as racing motorcycles, and were popular on dirt and flat-track race courses through the 1960s and 1970s.", "Smaller and lighter than the other Harley models, contemporary Sportsters make use of 883 cc or 1,200 cc Evolution engines and, though often modified, remain similar in appearance to their racing ancestors.Up until the 2003 model year, the engine on the Sportster was rigidly mounted to the frame.", "The 2004 Sportster received a new frame accommodating a rubber-mounted engine.", "This made the bike heavier and reduced the available lean angle, while it reduced the amount of vibration transmitted to the frame and the rider, providing a smoother ride for rider and passenger.In the 2007 model year, Harley-Davidson celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Sportster and produced a limited edition called the XL50, of which only 2000 were made for sale worldwide.", "Each motorcycle was individually numbered and came in one of two colors, Mirage Pearl Orange or Vivid Black.", "Also in 2007, electronic fuel injection was introduced to the Sportster family, and the Nightster model was introduced in mid-year.", "In 2009, Harley-Davidson added the Iron 883 to the Sportster line, as part of the Dark Custom series.In the 2008 model year, Harley-Davidson released the XR1200 Sportster in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.", "The XR1200 had an Evolution engine tuned to produce , four-piston dual front disc brakes, and an aluminum swing arm.", "''Motorcyclist'' featured the XR1200 on the cover of its July 2008 issue and was generally positive about it in their \"First Ride\" story, in which Harley-Davidson was repeatedly asked to sell it in the United States.One possible reason for the delayed availability in the United States was that Harley-Davidson had to obtain the \"XR1200\" naming rights from Storz Performance, a Harley customizing shop in Ventura, Calif.", "The XR1200 was released in the United States in 2009 in a special color scheme including Mirage Orange highlighting its dirt-tracker heritage.", "The first 750 XR1200 models in 2009 were pre-ordered and came with a number 1 tag for the front of the bike, autographed by Kenny Coolbeth and Scott Parker and a thank you/welcome letter from the company, signed by Bill Davidson.", "The XR1200 was discontinued in model year 2013.In 2021, Harley-Davidson launched the Sportster S model, with a 121 hp engine and 228 Kg ready-to-ride weight.", "The Sportster S was one of the first Harleys to come with cornering-ABS and lean-sensitive traction control.", "The Sportster S is also the first model under the Sportster nameplate since 1957 to receive a completely new engine.", ";DesignationExcept for the street-going XR1000 of the 1980s and the XR1200, most Sportsters made for street use have the prefix XL in their model designation.", "For the Sportster Evolution engines used since the mid-1980s, there have been two engine sizes.", "Motorcycles with the smaller engine are designated XL883, while those with the larger engine were initially designated XL1100.When the size of the larger engine was increased from 1,100 cc to 1,200 cc, the designation was changed accordingly from XL1100 to XL1200.Subsequent letters in the designation refer to model variations within the Sportster range, e.g.", "the XL883C refers to an 883 cc Sportster Custom, while the XL1200S designates the now-discontinued 1200 Sportster Sport.===VRSC===2003 VRSCA V-RodIntroduced in 2001 and produced until 2017, the VRSC muscle bike family bears little resemblance to Harley's more traditional lineup.", "Competing against Japanese and American muscle bikes in the upcoming muscle bike/power cruiser segment, the \"V-Rod\" makes use of the revolution engine that, for the first time in Harley history, incorporates overhead cams and liquid cooling.", "The V-Rod is visually distinctive, easily identified by the 60-degree V-Twin engine, the radiator and the hydroformed frame members that support the round-topped air cleaner cover.", "The VRSC platform was also used for factory drag-racing motorcycles.In 2008, Harley added the anti-lock braking system as a factory-installed option on all VRSC models.", "Harley also increased the displacement of the stock engine from , which had only previously been available from Screamin' Eagle, and added a slipper clutch as standard equipment.VRSC models include:* VRSCA: V-Rod (2002–2006), VRSCAW: V-Rod (2007–2010), VRSCB: V-Rod (2004–2005), VRSCD: Night Rod (2006–2008), VRSCDX: Night Rod Special (2007–2014), VRSCSE: Screamin' Eagle CVO V-Rod (2005), VRSCSE2: Screamin' Eagle CVO V-Rod (2006), VRSCR: Street Rod (2006–2007), VRSCX: Screamin' Eagle Tribute V-Rod (2007), VRSCF: V-Rod Muscle (2009–2014).VRSC models utilize the Revolution engine (VR), and the street versions are designated Street Custom (SC).", "After the VRSC prefix common to all street Revolution bikes, the next letter denotes the model, either A (base V-Rod: discontinued), AW (base V-Rod + W for Wide with a 240 mm rear tire), B (discontinued), D (Night Rod: discontinued), R (Street Rod: discontinued), SE and SEII (CVO Special Edition), or X (Special edition).", "Further differentiation within models are made with an additional letter, ''e.g.", "'', VRSCDX denotes the Night Rod Special.====VRXSE====The VRXSE V-Rod Destroyer is Harley-Davidson's production drag racing motorcycle, constructed to run the quarter mile in less than ten seconds.", "It is based on the same revolution engine that powers the VRSC line, but the VRXSE uses the Screamin' Eagle 1,300 cc \"stroked\" incarnation, featuring a 75 mm crankshaft, 105 mm Pistons, and 58 mm throttle bodies.The V-Rod Destroyer is not a street-legal motorcycle.", "As such, it uses \"X\" instead of \"SC\" to denote a non-street bike.", "\"SE\" denotes a CVO Special Edition.===Street===The Street, Harley-Davidson's newest platform and their first all new platform in thirteen years, was designed to appeal to younger riders looking for a lighter bike at a cheaper price.", "The Street 750 model was launched in India at the 2014 Indian Auto Expo, Delhi-NCR on February 5, 2014.The Street 750 weighs 218 kg and has a ground clearance of 144 mm giving it the lowest weight and the highest ground clearance of Harley-Davidson motorcycles currently available.The Street 750 uses an all-new, liquid-cooled, 60° V-twin engine called the Revolution X.", "In the Street 750, the engine displaces and produces 65 Nm at 4,000 rpm.", "A six speed transmission is used.The Street 750 and the smaller-displacement Street 500 have been available since late 2014.Street series motorcycles for the North American market will be built in Harley-Davidson's Kansas City, Missouri plant, while those for other markets around the world will be built completely in their plant in Bawal, India.===LiveWire===LiveWire motorcycleHarley-Davidson's ''LiveWire'', released in 2019, is their first electric vehicle.", "The high-voltage battery provides a minimum city range of 98 miles (158 km).", "The LiveWire targets a different type of customer than their classic V-twin powered motorcycles.In March 2020, a Harley-Davidson LiveWire was used to break the 24-hour distance record for an electric motorcycle.", "The bike traveled a reported 1,723 km (1,079 miles) in 23 hours and 48 minutes.", "The LiveWire offers a Level 1 slow recharge, which uses a regular wall outlet to refill an empty battery overnight, or a quick Level 3 DC Fast Charge.", "The Fast Charge fills the battery most of the way in about 40 minutes.", "Swiss rider Michel von Tell used the Level 3 charging to make the 24-hour ride.In December 2021, the company announced that that LiveWire was to be spun-off from parent Harley Davidson, set to go public in the first half of 2022 as a special-purpose acquisition company (SPAC) with the value estimated to be $1.77 billion." ], [ "Custom Vehicle Operations", "Custom Vehicle Operations (CVO) is a team within Harley-Davidson that produces limited-edition customizations of Harley's stock models.", "Every year since 1999, the team has selected two to five of the company's base models and added higher-displacement engines, performance upgrades, special-edition paint jobs, more chromed or accented components, audio system upgrades, and electronic accessories to create high-dollar, premium-quality customizations for the factory custom market.", "The models most commonly upgraded in such a fashion are the Ultra Classic Electra Glide, which has been selected for CVO treatment every year from 2006 to the present, and the Road King, which was selected in 2002, 2003, 2007, and 2008.The Dyna, Softail, and VRSC families have also been selected for CVO customization." ], [ "Environmental record", "The Environmental Protection Agency conducted emissions-certification and representative emissions test in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 2005.Subsequently, Harley-Davidson produced an \"environmental warranty\".", "The warranty ensures each owner that the vehicle is designed and built free of any defects in materials and workmanship that would cause the vehicle to not meet EPA standards.", "In 2005, the EPA and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PADEP) confirmed Harley-Davidson to be the first corporation to voluntarily enroll in the One Clean-Up Program.", "This program is designed for the clean-up of the affected soil and groundwater at the former York Naval Ordnance Plant.", "The program is backed by the state and local government along with participating organizations and corporations.Paul Gotthold, Director of Operations for the EPA, congratulated the motor company:Harley-Davidson also purchased most of Castalloy, a South Australian producer of cast motorcycle wheels and hubs.", "The South Australian government has set forth \"protection to the purchaser (Harley-Davidson) against environmental risks\".In August 2016, Harley-Davidson settled with the EPA for $12 million, without admitting wrongdoing, over the sale of after-market \"super tuners\".", "Super tuners were devices, marketed for competition, which enabled increased performance of Harley-Davidson products.", "However, the devices also modified the emission control systems, producing increased hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide.", "Harley-Davidson is required to buy back and destroy any super tuners which do not meet Clean Air Act requirements and spend $3 million on air pollution mitigation." ], [ "Brand culture", "Harley-Davidson Cafe theme restaurant located on the Las Vegas StripAccording to a recent Harley-Davidson study, in 1987 half of all Harley riders were under age 35.However, by 2006, only 15 percent of Harley buyers were under 35, and as of 2005, the median age had risen to 46.7.In 2008, Harley-Davidson stopped disclosing the average age of riders; at this point it was 48 years old.In 1987, the median household income of a Harley-Davidson rider was $38,000.By 1997, the median household income for those riders had more than doubled, to $83,000.Many Harley-Davidson Clubs exist nowadays around the world; the oldest one, founded in 1928, is in Prague.Harley-Davidson attracts a loyal brand community, with licensing of the Harley-Davidson logo accounting for almost 5 percent of the company's net revenue ($41 million in 2004).", "Harley-Davidson supplies many American police forces with their motorcycle fleets.From its founding, Harley-Davidson had worked to brand its motorcycles as respectable and refined products, with ads that showed what motorcycling writer Fred Rau called \"refined-looking ladies with parasols, and men in conservative suits as the target market\".", "The 1906 Harley-Davidson's effective, and polite, muffler was emphasized in advertisements with the nickname \"The Silent Gray Fellow\".", "That began to shift in the 1960s, partially in response to the clean-cut motorcyclist portrayed in Honda's \"You meet the nicest people on a Honda\" campaign, when Harley-Davidson sought to draw a contrast with Honda by underscoring the more working-class, macho, and even a little anti-social attitude associated with motorcycling's dark side.", "With the 1971 FX Super Glide, the company embraced, rather than distanced itself from, chopper style and the counterculture custom Harley scene.", "Their marketing cultivated the \"bad boy\" image of biker and motorcycle clubs, and to a point, even outlaw or one-percenter motorcycle clubs.===Origin of \"Hog\" nickname===Beginning in 1920, a team of farm boys, including Ray Weishaar, who became known as the \"hog boys\", consistently won races.", "The group had a live hog as their mascot.", "Following a win, they would put the hog on their Harley and take a victory lap.", "In 1983, the Motor Company formed a club for owners of its product, taking advantage of the long-standing nickname by turning \"hog\" into the acronym HOG, for Harley Owners Group.", "Harley-Davidson attempted to trademark \"hog\", but lost a case against an independent Harley-Davidson specialist, The Hog Farm of West Seneca, New York, in 1999, when the appellate panel ruled that \"hog\" had become a generic term for large motorcycles and was therefore unprotectable as a trademark.On August 15, 2006, Harley-Davidson Inc. had its NYSE ticker symbol changed from HDI to HOG.===Bobbers===Harley-Davidson FL \"big twins\" normally had heavy steel fenders, chrome trim, and other ornate and heavy accessories.", "After World War II, riders wanting more speed would often shorten the fenders or take them off completely to reduce the weight of the motorcycle.", "These bikes were called \"bobbers\" or sometimes \"choppers\", because parts considered unnecessary were chopped off.", "Those who made or rode choppers and bobbers, especially members of motorcycle clubs like the Hells Angels, referred to stock FLs as \"garbage wagons\".===Harley Owners Group===Harley-Davidson established the Harley Owners Group (HOG) in 1983 to build on the loyalty of Harley-Davidson enthusiasts as a means to promote a lifestyle alongside its products.", "The HOG also opened new revenue streams for the company, with the production of tie-in merchandise offered to club members, numbering more than one million.", "Other motorcycle brands,and other and consumer brands outside motorcycling, have also tried to create factory-sponsored community marketing clubs of their own.HOG members typically spend 30 percent more than other Harley owners on such items as clothing and Harley-Davidson-sponsored events.In 1991, HOG went international, with the first official European HOG Rally in Cheltenham, England.Today, more than one million members and more than 1400 chapters worldwide make HOG the largest factory-sponsored motorcycle organization in the world.HOG benefits include organized group rides, exclusive products and product discounts, insurance discounts, and the Hog Tales newsletter.", "A one-year full membership is included with the purchase of a new, unregistered Harley-Davidson.In 2008, HOG celebrated its 25th anniversary in conjunction with the Harley 105th in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.3rd Southern HOG Rally set to bring together largest gathering of Harley-Davidson owners in South India.", "More than 600 Harley-Davidson Owners expected to ride to Hyderabad from across 13 HOG Chapters.===Factory tours and museum===Harley-Davidson offers factory tours at four of its manufacturing sites, and the Harley-Davidson Museum, which opened in 2008, exhibits Harley-Davidson's history, culture, and vehicles, including the motor company's corporate archives.", "* York, Pennsylvania – Vehicle Operations: Manufacturing site for Touring class, Softail, and custom vehicles.", "* Tomahawk, Wisconsin – Tomahawk Operations: Facility that makes sidecars, saddlebags, windshields, and more.", "* Kansas City, Missouri – Vehicle and Powertrain Operations: Manufacturing site of Sportster, VRSC, and other vehicles.", "* Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin – Pilgrim Road Powertrain Operations plant, two types of tours.", "* Milwaukee, Wisconsin – Harley-Davidson Museum: Archive; exhibits of people, products, culture and history; restaurant & café; and museum store.Due to the consolidation of operations, the Capitol Drive Tour Center in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, was closed in 2009.===Historic register designations===Some of the company's buildings have been listed on state and national historic registers, including:* Harley-Davidson Motorcycle Factory Building – added to National Register of Historic Places on November 9, 1994.", "* Factory No.", "7 – added to Wisconsin State Register of Historic Places on August 14, 2020.===Anniversary celebrations===Clockwise from top left: William S. Harley, William A. Davidson, Walter Davidson Sr., Arthur DavidsonBeginning with Harley-Davidson's 90th anniversary in 1993, Harley-Davidson has had celebratory rides to Milwaukee called the \"Ride Home\".", "This new tradition has continued every five years, and is referred to unofficially as \"Harleyfest\", in line with Milwaukee's other festivals (Summerfest, German fest, Festa Italiana, etc.).", "This event brings Harley riders from all around the world.", "The 105th anniversary celebration was held on August 28–31, 2008, and included events in Milwaukee, Waukesha, Racine, and Kenosha counties, in Southeast Wisconsin.", "The 110th-anniversary celebration was held on August 29–31, 2013.The 115th anniversary was held in Prague, Czech Republic, the home country of the oldest existing Harley Davidson Club, on July 5–8, 2018 and attracted more than 100,000 visitors and 60,000 bikes.The 120th anniversary was held in Budapest, Hungary, with the parade on June 24.===Labor Hall of Fame===William S. Harley, Arthur Davidson, William A. Davidson and Walter Davidson Sr were, in 2004, inducted into the Labor Hall of Fame for their accomplishments for the H-D company and its workforce.===Television drama===The company's origins were dramatized in a 2016 miniseries entitled ''Harley and the Davidsons'', starring Robert Aramayo as William Harley, Bug Hall as Arthur Davidson and Michiel Huisman as Walter Davidson, and premiered on the Discovery Channel as a \"three-night event series\" on September 5, 2016." ], [ "See also", "* List of Harley-Davidson motorcycles* Category:Harley-Davidson engines* Harley-Davidson (Bally pinball)* Harley-Davidson (Sega/Stern pinball)* ''Harley-Davidson & L.A. Riders''* ''Harley-Davidson: Race Across America''* List of motor scooter manufacturers and brands" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Gnadt, Amy. \"", "Exposed!", "Harley-Davidson's Lost Photographs, 1915–1916 \".", "''Wisconsin Magazine of History'', vol.", "98, no.", "1 (Autumn 2014): 28–37.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * ; Videos:*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hiberno-English" ], [ "Introduction", "Irish-Latin-English phrase book written in 1564 by Irishman Sir Christopher Nugent for Elizabeth I of England'''Hiberno-English''' (; from Latin ''Hibernia'': \"Ireland\") or '''Irish English''' ('''IrE'''), also formerly sometimes called '''Anglo-Irish''', is the set of English dialects native to the island of Ireland (including both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland).In the Republic of Ireland, English is one of two official languages, along with the Irish language, and is the country's working language.", "Irish English's writing standards, such as its spelling, align with British English.", "However, Irish English's diverse accents and some of its grammatical structures and vocabulary are unique, with some influences deriving from the Irish language and some notably conservative phonological features: features no longer common in the accents of England or North America.Phonologists today often divide Irish English into four or five overarching dialects or accents: Ulster accents, West and South-West Irish accents (like Cork accents), various Dublin accents, and a non-regional standard accent expanding since only the last quarter of the twentieth century (outside of Northern Ireland)." ], [ "History", "Old English, as well as Anglo-Norman, was brought to Ireland as a result of the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland of the late 12th century; this became the Yola language, which is not mutually comprehensible with Modern English.", "A second wave of the English language was brought to Ireland in the 16th-century (Elizabethan) Early Modern period, making that variety of English spoken in Ireland the oldest outside of Great Britain, and it remains phonologically more conservative today than many other dialects of English.Initially, Norman English was mainly spoken in an area known as the Pale around Dublin, with largely the Irish language spoken throughout the rest of the country.", "Some small pockets remained of speakers who predominantly continued to use the English of that time; because of their sheer isolation, these dialects developed into later (now-extinct) English-related varieties known as Yola in Wexford and Fingallian in Fingal, Dublin.", "These were no longer mutually intelligible with other English varieties.", "By the Tudor period, Irish culture and language had regained most of the territory lost to the invaders: even in the Pale, \"all the common folk… for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit, and of Irish language\".However, the Tudor conquest and colonisation of Ireland in the 16th century led to the second wave of immigration by English speakers along with the forced suppression and decline in the status and use of the Irish language.", "By the mid-19th century English had become the majority language spoken in the country.", "It has retained this status to the present day, with even those whose first language is Irish being fluent in English as well.", "Today, there is little more than one percent of the population who speaks the Irish language natively, though it is required to be taught in all state-funded schools.", "Of the 40% of the population who self-identified as speaking some Irish in 2016, 4% speak Irish daily outside the education system." ], [ "Ulster English", "'''Ulster English''' (or '''Northern Irish English''') here refers collectively to the varieties of the Ulster province, including Northern Ireland and neighbouring counties outside of Northern Ireland, which has been influenced by Ulster Irish as well as the Scots language, brought over by Scottish settlers during the Plantation of Ulster.", "Its main subdivisions are Mid-Ulster English, South Ulster English and Ulster Scots, the latter of which is arguably a separate language.", "Ulster varieties distinctly pronounce:*An ordinarily grammatically structured (i.e.", "non-topicalised) declarative sentence, often, with a rising intonation at the end of the sentence (the type of intonation pattern that other English speakers usually associate with questions).", "*''Kit'' as lowered, in the general vicinity of .", "*''Strut'' as fronted and slightly rounded, more closely approaching .", "*''Goose'' and ''foot'' as merged in the general vicinity of .", "*''Mouth'' with a backed on-glide and fronted off-glide, putting it in the vicinity of .", "*''Price'' as , particularly before voiceless consonants.", "*''Face'' as , though nowadays commonly or even when in a closed syllable.", "*''Goat'', almost always, as a slightly raised monophthong .", "*A lack of ''happy''-tensing; with the final vowel of ''happy, holy, money,'' etc.", "as .", "*Syllable-final occasionally as \"dark \", though especially before a consonant." ], [ "West and South-West Irish English", "'''West and South-West Irish English''' here refers to broad varieties of Ireland's West and South-West Regions.", "Accents of both regions are known for:*The backing and slight lowering of ''mouth'' towards .", "*The more open starting point for ''north'' and ''thought'' of and , respectively.", "*The preservation of ''goat'' as monophthongal .", "* and , respectively, as and .", "*In the West, and may respectively be pronounced by older speakers as and before a consonant, so ''fist'' sounds like ''fished'', ''castle'' like , and ''arrest'' like .", "'''South-West Irish English''' (often known, by specific county, as '''Cork English''', '''Kerry English''', or '''Limerick English''') also features two major defining characteristics of its own.", "One is the pin–pen merger: the raising of ''dress'' to when before or (as in ''again'' or ''pen'').", "The other is the intonation pattern of a slightly higher pitch followed by a significant drop in pitch on stressed long-vowel syllables (across multiple syllables or even within a single one), which is popularly heard in rapid conversation, by speakers of other English dialects, as a noticeable kind of undulating \"sing-song\" pattern." ], [ "Dublin English", "'''Dublin English''' is highly internally diverse and refers collectively to the Irish English varieties immediately surrounding and within the metropolitan area of Dublin.", "Modern-day Dublin English largely lies on a phonological continuum, ranging from a more traditional, lower-prestige, local urban accent on the one end to a more recently developing, higher-prestige, non-local (regional and even supraregional) accent on the other end, whose most advanced characteristics only first emerged in the late 1980s and 1990s.", "The accent that most strongly uses the traditional working-class features has been labelled by linguists as '''local Dublin English'''.", "Most speakers from Dublin and its suburbs, however, have accent features falling variously along the entire middle as well as the newer end of the spectrum, which together form what is called '''non-local Dublin English''', spoken by middle- and upper-class natives of Dublin and the greater eastern Irish region surrounding the city.", "A subset of this variety, whose middle-class speakers mostly range in the middle section of the continuum, is called '''mainstream Dublin English'''.", "Mainstream Dublin English has become the basis of an accent that has otherwise become supraregional (see more below) everywhere except in the north of the country.", "The majority of Dubliners born since the 1980s (led particularly by women) has shifted towards the most innovative non-local accent, here called '''new Dublin English''', which has gained ground over mainstream Dublin English and which is the most extreme variety in rejecting the local accent's traditional features.", "The varieties at either extreme of the spectrum, local and new Dublin English, are both discussed in further detail below.", "In the most general terms, all varieties of Dublin English have the following identifying sounds that are often distinct from the rest of Ireland, pronouncing:*''mouth'' as fronted and/or raised .", "Aitch being pronounced as haitch, or h-adding, is not uncommon in Dublin English, and \"harass\" being pronounced as a homophone of \"Harris\" are also common features of Dublin English.", "*''price'' as retracted and/or centralised .", "*''goat'' as a diphthong in the range (local to non-local) of .===Local Dublin English==='''Local Dublin English''' (or '''popular Dublin English''') here refers to a traditional, broad, working-class variety spoken in the Republic of Ireland's capital city of Dublin.", "It is the only Irish English variety that in earlier history was non-rhotic; however, it is today weakly rhotic.", "Known for diphthongisation of the ''goat'' and ''face'' vowels, the local Dublin accent is also known for a phenomenon called \"vowel breaking\", in which ''mouth'', ''price'', ''goose'' and ''fleece'' in closed syllables are \"broken\" into two syllables, approximating , , , and , respectively.===New Dublin English===Evolving as a fashionable outgrowth of the mainstream non-local Dublin English, '''new Dublin English''' (also, '''advanced Dublin English''' and, formerly, '''fashionable Dublin English''') is a youthful variety that originally began in the early 1990s among the \"avant-garde\" and now those aspiring to a non-local \"urban sophistication\".", "New Dublin English itself, first associated with affluent and middle-class inhabitants of southside Dublin, is probably now spoken by a majority of Dubliners born since the 1980s.", "It has replaced (yet was largely influenced by) moribund '''D4 English''' (often known as \"Dublin 4\" or \"DART speak\" or, mockingly, \"Dortspeak\"), which originated around the 1970s from Dubliners who rejected traditional notions of Irishness, regarding themselves as more trendy and sophisticated; however, particular aspects of the D4 accent became quickly noticed and ridiculed as sounding affected, causing these features to fall out of fashion by the 1990s.", "New Dublin English can have a fur–fair merger, horse–hoarse, and witch–which mergers, while resisting the traditionally Irish English cot–caught merger.", "This accent has since spread south to parts of east County Wicklow, west to parts of north County Kildare and parts of south County Meath.", "The accent can be also heard among the middle to upper classes in most major cities in the Republic today." ], [ "Standard Irish English", "'''Supraregional Southern Irish English''' (sometimes, simply '''Supraregional Irish English''' or '''Standard Irish English''') refers to a variety spoken particularly by educated and middle- or higher-class Irish people, crossing regional boundaries throughout all of the Republic of Ireland, except the north.", "As mentioned earlier, '''mainstream Dublin English''' of the early- to mid-twentieth century is the direct influence and catalyst for this variety, coming about by the suppression of certain markedly Irish features (and retention of other Irish features) as well as the adoption of certain standard British (i.e., non-Irish) features.", "The result is a configuration of features that is still unique; in other words, this accent is not simply a wholesale shift towards British English.", "Most speakers born in the 1980s or later are showing fewer features of this late-twentieth-century mainstream supraregional form and more characteristics aligning to a rapidly spreading new Dublin accent (see more above, under \"Non-local Dublin English\").Ireland's supraregional dialect pronounces:*''trap'' as quite open .", "*''price'' along a possible spectrum , with innovative particularly more common before voiced consonants, notably including .", "*''mouth'' as starting fronter and often more raised than other dialects: .", "*''start'' may be , with a backer vowel than in other Irish accents, though still relatively fronted.", "*''thought'' as .", "*''north'' as , almost always separate from ''force'' , keeping words like ''war'' and ''wore'', or ''horse'' and ''hoarse'', pronounced distinctly.", "*''choice'' as .", "*''goat'' as a diphthong, approaching , as in the mainstream United States, or , as in mainstream England.", "*''strut'' as higher, fronter, and often rounder ." ], [ "Overview of pronunciation and phonology", "The following charts list the vowels typical of each Irish English dialect as well as the several distinctive consonants of Irish English.", "Phonological characteristics of overall Irish English are given as well as categorisations into five major divisions of Hiberno-English: Ulster; West & South-West Ireland; local Dublin; new Dublin; and supraregional (southern) Ireland.", "Features of mainstream non-local Dublin English fall on a range between \"local Dublin\" and \"new Dublin\".=== Monophthongs ===The following monophthongs are defining characteristics of Irish English:* ''strut'' is typically centralised in the mouth and often rounder than other standard English varieties, such as Received Pronunciation in England or General American in the United States.", "* There is a partial trap-bath split in most Irish English varieties (cf.", "Variation in Australian English).", "* There is inconsistency regarding the lot–cloth split and the cot–caught merger; certain Irish English dialects have these phenomena while others do not.", "The cot-caught merger by definition rules out the presence of the lot-cloth split.", "* An epenthetic schwa is often inserted between sonorants, e.g.", "''film'' and ''form'' , due to the influence of the Irish language.", "* The words ''any'' and ''many'' are often exceptionally pronounced with , i.e.", "rhyme with ''Annie'' and ''Danny.''", "'''Diaphoneme''' '''Ulster''' '''West & South-West Ireland''' '''Local Dublin''' '''New Dublin''' '''Supraregional Ireland''' '''Example words''' flat '''a'''dd, l'''a'''nd, tr'''a'''p and broad b'''a'''th, c'''a'''lm, d'''a'''nce conservative l'''o'''t, t'''o'''p, w'''a'''sp''' divergent l'''o'''ss, '''o'''ff '''a'''ll, b'''ough'''t, s'''aw''' dr'''e'''ss, m'''e'''t, br'''ea'''d '''a'''bout, syr'''u'''p, '''a'''ren'''a''' h'''i'''t, sk'''i'''m, t'''i'''p b'''ea'''m, ch'''i'''c, fl'''ee'''t happ'''y''', coff'''ee''', mov'''ie''' b'''u'''s, fl'''oo'''d b'''oo'''k, p'''u'''t, sh'''ou'''ld f'''oo'''d, gl'''ue''', n'''ew''''''Footnotes:'''In southside Dublin's once-briefly fashionable \"Dublin 4\" (or \"Dortspeak\") accent, the \" and broad \" set becomes rounded as .", "In South-West Ireland, before or is raised to .", "Due to the phenomenon of \"vowel breaking\" in local Dublin accents, and may be realised as and in closed syllables.", "'''Other notes:'''*In some highly conservative Irish English varieties, words spelled with and pronounced with in RP are pronounced with , for example ''meat'', ''beat'', and ''leaf''.", "* In words like ''took'' where the spelling usually represents , conservative speakers may use .", "This is most common in local Dublin and the speech of north-east Leinster.===Diphthongs===The following diphthongs are defining characteristics of Irish English:*The ''mouth'' diphthong, as in ''ow'' or ''doubt'', may start more forward in the mouth in the east (namely, Dublin) and supraregionally; however, it may be further backwards throughout the entire rest of the country.", "In Ulster, the second element is particularly forward, as in Scotland.", "*The ''choice'' diphthong, as in ''boy'' or ''choice'', generally starts off lower outside of Ulster.", "*The ''face'' diphthong, as in ''rain'' or ''bay'', is most commonly monophthongised to .", "The words ''gave'' and ''came'' often have instead, i.e.", "rhyme with \"Kev\" and \"them\".", "'''Diaphoneme''' '''Ulster''' '''West & South-West Ireland''' '''Local Dublin''' '''NewDublin''' '''Supraregional Ireland''' '''Example words''' br'''igh'''t, r'''i'''de, tr'''y''' n'''ow''', '''ou'''ch, sc'''ou'''t l'''a'''me, r'''ei'''n, st'''ai'''n b'''oy''', ch'''oi'''ce, m'''oi'''st g'''oa'''t, '''oh''', sh'''ow''''''Footnotes:''' Due to the phenomenon of \"vowel breaking\" local Dublin accents, and may be realised as and in closed syllables.===Consonants===The consonants of Hiberno-English mostly align with the typical English consonant sounds.", "However, a few Irish English consonants have distinctive, varying qualities.", "The following consonant features are defining characteristics of Hiberno-English: *Th-stopping: and are pronounced as stops, and , making ''then'' and ''den'' as well as ''thin'' and ''tin'' homophones.", "Some accents, realise them as dental stops and do not merge them with alveolar , i.e.", "making ''tin'' () and ''thin'' a minimal pair.", "In Ulster they are and .", "*Rhoticity: The pronunciation of historical is universal in Irish English, as in General American (but not Received Pronunciation), i.e.", "is always pronounced, even word finally and before consonants (e.g.", "''here'', ''cart'', or ''surf'').", "*Yod-dropping after , and , e.g.", "''new'' '','' lieutenant , and ''sue'' , and Yod-coalescence after and , e.g.", "''duty'' and ''tune'' .", "*Lack of haitch-dropping and occurrence of where it is permitted in Irish but excluded in other dialects of English, such as word-medially before an unstressed vowel (e.g.", "''Haughey'' ) and word-finally (e.g.", "''McGrath'' ).", "The name ''haitch'' for is standard.", "*Syllable final and intervocalic is pronounced uniquely in most Hiberno-English; the most common pronunciation is as a \"slit fricative\".", "*The phoneme is almost always of a \"light\" or \"clear\" quality (i.e.", "not velarised), unlike Received Pronunciation, which uses both a clear and a dark \"L\" sound, or General American, which pronounces all \"L\" sounds as dark.", "'''Diaphoneme''' '''Ulster''' '''West & South-West Ireland''' '''Local Dublin''' '''NewDublin''' '''Supraregional Ireland''' '''Example words''' '''th'''is, wri'''th'''e, wi'''th'''er syllable-final or or ba'''ll''', so'''l'''dier, mi'''l'''k or or '''r'''ot, ee'''r'''ie, sca'''r'''y syllable-final or ca'''r''', shi'''r'''t, he'''r'''e intervocalic , , or or , , or ba'''tt'''le, I'''t'''aly, wa'''t'''er word-final or , , or or ca'''t''', ge'''t''', righ'''t''' le'''th'''al, '''th'''ick, wra'''th''' or a'''wh'''ile, '''wh'''ale, '''wh'''en'''Footnotes:'''In traditional, conservative Ulster English, and are palatalised before an open front vowel.Local Dublin features consonant cluster reduction, so that plosives occurring after fricatives or sonorants may be left unpronounced, resulting, for example, in \"poun(d)\" and \"las(t)\".In extremely traditional and conservative accents (e.g.", "Mícheál Ó Muircheartaigh and Jackie Healy-Rae), prevocalic can also be an alveolar flap, .", "may be guttural (uvular, ) in north-east Leinster.", "is used here to represent the voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative, sometimes known as a \"slit fricative\", which is apico-alveolar.Overall, and are being increasingly merged in supraregional Irish English, for example, making ''wine'' and ''whine'' homophones, as in most varieties of English around the world.=== Vowels + combinations ===The following vowels + combinations are defining characteristics of Hiberno-English: *Lack of horse–hoarse merger, i.e.", "distinction between and , so that e.g.", "''horse'' and ''hoarse'' don't rhyme in most Irish accents.", "*''start'' vowel realised more forward in the mouth in comparison to most varieties of English.", "'''Diaphoneme''' '''Ulster''' '''West & South-West Ireland''' '''Local Dublin''' '''New Dublin''' '''Supraregional Ireland''' '''Example words''' c'''ar''', g'''uar'''d, p'''ar'''k f'''ear''', p'''eer''', t'''ier''' b'''are''', b'''ear''', th'''ere''''''ir'''k, g'''ir'''l, '''ear'''n w'''or'''k, f'''ir'''st, '''ur'''n doct'''or''', mart'''yr''', p'''er'''vade f'''or''', h'''or'''se, w'''ar''' f'''our''', h'''oar'''se, w'''ore''' m'''oor''', p'''oor''', t'''our''' c'''ure''', '''Eur'''ope, p'''ure''''''Footnotes:'''In southside Dublin's \"Dublin 4\" (or \"Dortspeak\") accent, is realised as .In non-local Dublin's more recently emerging (or \"new Dublin\") accent, and may both be realised more rounded as .The ''nurse'' mergers have not occurred in local Dublin, West/South-West, and other very conservative and traditional Irish English which retain a two-way distinction, versus , unlike most English dialects which have merged historical , and to , in the case of non-local Dublin, supraregional, and younger Irish accents.", "The distribution of and is as follows: occurs when spelled and (e.g.", "''urn'' and ''word''), after alveolar stops (e.g.", "''dirt''), and after labial consonants (e.g.", "''fern''); is occurs in all other situations.", "There are apparent exceptions to these rules; John C. Wells describes ''prefer'' and ''per'' as , despite the vowel in question following a labial.", "The distribution of versus is listed below in some example words:''''''*''certain'' *''chirp'' *''circle'' *''earn'' *''earth'' *''girl'' *''germ'' *''heard'' or ''herd'' *''Hertz'' *''irk'' *''tern'' ''''''*''bird'' *''dirt'' *''first'' *''hurts'' *''murder'' *''nurse'' *''turn'' *''third'' or ''turd'' *''urn'' *''work'' *''world'' In a rare few local Dublin varieties that are non-rhotic, is either lowered to or backed and raised to .The distinction between and is widely preserved in Ireland, so that, for example, ''horse'' and ''hoarse'' are not merged in most Irish English dialects; however, they are usually merged in Belfast and new Dublin.In local Dublin may be realised as .", "For some speakers may merge with ." ], [ "Vocabulary", "===Loan words from Irish===A number of Irish language loan words are used in Hiberno-English, particularly in an official state capacity.", "For example, the head of government is the Taoiseach, the deputy head is the Tánaiste, the parliament is the Oireachtas and its lower house is Dáil Éireann.", "Less formally, people also use loan words in day-to-day speech, although this has been on the wane in recent decades and among the young.", "Example loan words from Irish Word IPA (English)IPA (Irish) Part of speech Meaning'''Abú''' Interjection Hooray!", "Used in sporting occasions, espec.", "for Gaelic games – Áth Cliath abú!", "– 'hooray for Dublin!'", "'''Amadán''' Noun Fool'''Fáilte''' Noun Welcome – often in the phrase '''Céad míle fáilte''' 'A hundred thousand welcomes''''Flaithiúlach''' Adjective Generous '''Garsún''''''Garsúr''' Noun Boy'''Gaeltacht''' Noun Officially designated region where Irish is the primary spoken language'''Grá''' Noun Love, affection, not always romantic – 'he has a great grá for the dog' '''Lúdramán''' Noun Fool'''Plámás''' Noun Smooth talk, flattery '''Sláinte''' Interjection To your health!/Cheers!=== Derived words from Irish ===Another group of Hiberno-English words are those ''derived'' from the Irish language.", "Some are words in English that have entered into general use, while others are unique to Ireland.", "These words and phrases are often Anglicised versions of words in Irish or direct translations into English.", "In the latter case, they often give meaning to a word or phrase that is generally not found in wider English use.", "Example words derived from Irish Word or Phrase Part of Speech Original Irish Meaning'''Arra'''/ '''och''' / '''musha''' / '''yerra''' Interjection / (conjunction of ) \"Yerra, sure if it rains, it rains.", "\"'''Bockety''' Adjective Bacach (lame) Unsteady, wobbly, broken'''Boreen''' Noun Small rural road or track'''Ceili/Ceilidh''' Noun Céilidhe Music and dancing session, especially of traditional music'''Colleen''' Noun Girl, young woman'''Fooster''' Verb to busy oneself in a restless way, fidget '''Gansey''' Noun Jumper (Sweater) '''Give out''' Verb Tabhair amach (lit.)", "Tell off, reprimand '''Gob''' Noun Animal's mouth/beak ( = human mouth)'''Gombeen''' Noun Money lender, profiteer.", "Usually in the phrase 'Gombeen man' '''Guards''' Noun Police '''Jackeen''' Noun Nickname for John (i.e.", "Jack) combined with Irish diminutive suffix A mildly pejorative term for someone from Dublin.", "Also 'a self-assertive worthless fellow'.", "Derived from a person who followed the Union Jack during British rule after 1801, a Dublin man who supported the crown.", "'''Shoneen''' Noun (diminutive of – 'John') An Irishman who imitates English ways '''Sleeveen''' Noun An untrustworthy, cunning person '''Soft day''' Phrase (lit.)", "Overcast day (light drizzle/mist)===Derived words from Old and Middle English===Another class of vocabulary found in Hiberno-English are words and phrases common in Old and Middle English, but which have since become obscure or obsolete in the modern English language generally.", "Hiberno-English has also developed particular meanings for words that are still in common use in English generally.", "Example Hiberno-English words derived from Old and Middle English Word Part of speech Meaning Origin/notes '''Amn't''' Verb \"Am not\" or used instead of \"aren't\" '''Childer''' Noun Child Survives from Old English, genitive plural of 'child''''Cop-on''' Noun, Verb shrewdness, intelligence, being 'street-wise' Middle English from French ''cap'' 'arrest''''Craic''' / '''Crack''' Noun Fun, entertainment.", "Generally now with the Gaelic spelling in the phrase – 'have the craic' from earlier usage in Northern Ireland, Scotland and northern England with spelling 'crack' in the sense 'gossip, chat' Old English ''cracian'' via Ulster-Scots into modern Hiberno-English, then given Gaelic spelling '''Devil''' Noun Curse (e.g., \"Devil take him\") Negation (e.g., for none, \"Devil a bit\") middle English'''Eejit''' Noun Irish (and Scots) version of 'idiot', meaning foolish person English from Latin ''Idiōta''; has found some modern currency in England through the broadcasts of Terry Wogan'''Hames''' Noun a mess, used in the phrase 'make a hames of' Middle English from Dutch '''Grinds''' Noun Private tuition Old English ''grindan'''''Jaded''' Adjective physically tired, exhausted Not in the sense of bored, unenthusiastic, 'tired of' something Middle English ''jade'''''Kip''' Noun Unpleasant, dirty or sordid place 18th-century English for ''brothel'''''Mitch''' Verb to play truant Middle English '''Sliced pan''' Noun (Sliced) loaf of bread Possibly derived from the French word for bread (''pain'') or the pan it was baked in.", "'''Yoke''' Noun Thing, object, gadget Old English ''geoc'''''Wagon/Waggon''' Noun an unpleasant or unlikable woman Middle English '''Whisht''' Interjection Be quiet (Also common in Northern England and Scotland) Middle English===Other words===In addition to the three groups above, there are also additional words and phrases whose origin is disputed or unknown.", "While this group may not be unique to Ireland, their usage is not widespread, and could be seen as characteristic of the language in Ireland.", "Example Hiberno-English words of disputed or unknown origin Word Part of speech Meaning Notes '''Acting the maggot''' Phrase To behave in an obstreperous or obstinate manner Verb Broken, ruined, or rendered incapable of use.", "Equivalent in meaning to the German \"kaputt\"'''Bogger''' Noun Someone from the countryside or near a bog'''Bowsie''' Noun a rough or unruly person.", "Cf.", "Scots Bowsie '''Bleb''' Noun, verb blister; to bubble up, come out in blisters '''Bucklepper''' Noun An overactive, overconfident person from the verb, to bucklep (leap like a buck) Used by Patrick Kavanagh and Seamus Heaney '''Chiseler''' Noun Child '''Cod''' Noun Foolish person Usually in phrases like 'acting the cod', 'making a cod of himself'.", "Can also be used as a verb, 'I was only codding him' '''Culchie''' Noun Person from the countryside '''Delph''' Noun Dishware From the name of the original source of supply, Delft in the Netherlands.", "See Delftware.", "'''Feck''' Verb, interjection an attenuated alternative/minced oath (see feck for more details) \"Feck it!", "\", \"Feck off\"'''Gurrier''' Noun a tough or unruly young man perhaps from French ''guerrier'' 'warrior', or else from 'gur cake' a pastry previously associated with street urchins.", "Cf.", "Scots Gurry '''Jacks''' Noun Bathroom/toilet Similar to \"jakes\" as used in 16th-century England.", "Still in everyday use, particularly in Dublin.", "'''Messages''' Noun Groceries '''Minerals''' Noun Soft drinks From mineral Waters'''Mot''' Noun Girl or young woman, girlfriend From the Irish word 'maith' meaning good, i.e.", "good-looking.", "'''Press''' Noun Cupboard Similarly, ''hotpress'' in Ireland means ''airing-cupboard''.", "Press is an old word for cupboard in Scotland and northern England.", "'''Rake''' Noun many or a lot.", "Often in the phrase 'a rake of pints'.", "Cf.", "Scots rake '''Runners''' Noun Trainers/sneakers Also 'teckies' or 'tackies', especially in and around Limerick.", "'''Shops''' Noun Newsagents (or small supermarket)E.g.", "\"I'm going to the shops, do you want anything?\"", "'''Shore''' Noun Stormdrain or Gutter.", "Cf.", "Scots shore '''Wet the tea'''/'''The tea is wet''' Phrase Make the tea/the tea is made" ], [ "Grammar and syntax", "The syntax of the Irish language is quite different from that of English.", "Various aspects of Irish syntax have influenced Hiberno-English, though many of these idiosyncrasies are disappearing in suburban areas and among the younger population.Another feature of Hiberno-English that sets it apart is the retention of words and phrases from Old and Middle English that are not retained otherwise in Modern English.===From Irish=======Reduplication====Reduplication is an alleged trait of Hiberno-English strongly associated with Stage Irish and Hollywood films.", "* the Irish corresponds to English 'at all', so the stronger gives rise to the form \"at all at all\".", "**\"I've no time at all at all.", "\"* (lit.", "'on fear that ...') means 'in case ...'.", "The variant ''ar eagla na heagla'', (lit.", "'on fear of fear') implies the circumstances are more unlikely.", "The corresponding Hiberno-English phrases are 'to be sure' and the very rarely used \"to be sure to be sure\".", "In this context, these are not, as might be thought, disjuncts meaning \"certainly\"; they could better be translated 'in case' and 'just in case'.", "Nowadays normally spoken with conscious levity.", "** \"I brought some cash in case I saw a bargain, and my credit card to be sure to be sure.", "\"====Yes and no====Irish has no words that directly translate as 'yes' or 'no', and instead repeats the verb used in the question, negated if necessary, to answer.", "Hiberno-English uses \"yes\" and \"no\" less frequently than other English dialects as speakers can repeat the verb, positively or negatively, instead of (or in redundant addition to) using \"yes\" or \"no\".", "* \"Are you coming home soon?\"", "– \"I am.", "\"* \"Is your mobile charged?\"", "– \"It isn't.", "\"This is not limited only to the verb ''to be'': it is also used with ''to have'' when used as an auxiliary; and, with other verbs, the verb ''to do'' is used.", "This is most commonly used for intensification, especially in Ulster English.", "* \"This is strong stuff, so it is.", "\"* \"We won the game, so we did.", "\"====Recent past construction====Irish indicates recency of an action by adding \"after\" to the present continuous (a verb ending in \"-ing\"), a construction known as the \"hot news perfect\" or \"after perfect\".", "The idiom for \"I had done X when I did Y\" is \"I was after doing X when I did Y\", modelled on the Irish usage of the compound prepositions , , and :  /  / .", "* \"Why did you hit him?\"", "– \"He was after giving me cheek.\"", "(he had just beforehand been cheeky to me).A similar construction is seen where exclamation is used in describing a recent event:* \"I'm after hitting him with the car!\"", "* \"She's after losing five stone in five weeks!\"", "When describing less astonishing or significant events, a structure resembling the German perfect can be seen:* \"I have the car fixed.\"", "* \"I have my breakfast eaten.\"", "This correlates with an analysis of \"H1 Irish\" proposed by Adger & Mitrovic, in a deliberate parallel to the status of German as a V2 language.Recent past construction has been directly adopted into Newfoundland English, where it is common in both formal and casual register.", "In rural areas of the Avalon peninsula, where Newfoundland Irish was spoken until the early 20th century, it is the grammatical standard for describing whether or not an action has occurred.====Reflection for emphasis====The reflexive version of pronouns is often used for emphasis or to refer indirectly to a particular person, etc., according to context.", "''Herself'', for example, might refer to the speaker's boss or to the woman of the house.", "Use of ''herself'' or ''himself'' in this way can imply status or even some arrogance of the person in question.", "Note also the indirectness of this construction relative to, for example, ''She's coming now''.", "This reflexive pronoun can also be used in a more neutral sense to describe a person's spouse or partner – \"I was with himself last night\" or \"How's herself doing?", "\"* \"'Tis herself that's coming now.\"", "''Is í féin atá ag teacht anois.", "''* \"Was it all of ye or just yourself?\"", "''An sibhse ar fad nó tusa féin a bhí i gceist?", "''====Prepositional pronouns====There are some language forms that stem from the fact that there is no verb ''to have'' in Irish.", "Instead, possession is indicated in Irish by using the preposition \"at\", (in Irish, ).", "To be more precise, Irish uses a prepositional pronoun that combines 'at' and 'me' to create .", "In English, the verb \"to have\" is used, along with a \"with me\" or \"on me\" that derives from .", "This gives rise to the frequent* \"Do you have the book?\"", "– \"I have it with me.", "\"* \"Have you change for the bus on you?", "\"* \"He will not shut up if he has drink taken.", "\"Somebody who can speak a language \"has\" a language, in which Hiberno-English has borrowed the grammatical form used in Irish.", "* \"She does not have Irish.\"", "literally 'There is no Irish at her.", "'When describing something, many Hiberno-English speakers use the term \"in it\" where \"there\" would usually be used.", "This is due to the Irish word ''ann'' (pronounced \"oun\" or \"on\") fulfilling both meanings.", "* \"Is it yourself that is in it?\"", "* \"Is there any milk in it?\"", "Another idiom is this thing or that thing described as \"this man here\" or \"that man there\", which also features in Newfoundland English in Canada.", "* \"This man here.\"", "(cf.", "the related = here)* \"That man there.\"", "(cf.", "the related = there)Conditionals have a greater presence in Hiberno-English due to the tendency to replace the simple present tense with the conditional (would) and the simple past tense with the conditional perfect (would have).", "* \"John asked me would I buy a loaf of bread.\"", "(John asked me to buy a loaf of bread.", ")* \"How do you know him?", "We would have been in school together.\"", "(We were in school together.", ")'''Bring''' and '''take''': Irish use of these words differs from that of British English because it follows the Irish grammar for and .", "English usage is determined by direction; a person determines Irish usage.", "So, in English, one '''takes''' \"''from'' here ''to'' there\", and '''brings''' it \"''to'' here ''from'' there\".", "In Irish, a person '''takes''' only when accepting a transfer of possession of the object from someone elseand a person '''brings''' at all other times, irrespective of direction (to or from).", "* Don't forget to bring your umbrella with you when you leave.", "* (To a child) Hold my hand: I don't want someone to take you.====To be====The Irish equivalent of the verb \"to be\" has two present tenses, one (the present tense proper or \"\") for cases which are generally true or are true at the time of speaking and the other (the habitual present or \"\") for repeated actions.", "Thus, \"you are now, or generally\" is , but \"you are repeatedly\" is .", "Both forms are used with the verbal noun (equivalent to the English present participle) to create compound tenses.", "This is similar to the distinction between and in Spanish or the use of the \"habitual be\" in African-American Vernacular English.The corresponding usage in English is frequently found in rural areas, especially County Mayo and County Sligo in the west of Ireland and County Wexford in the south-east, inner-city Dublin and Cork city along with border areas of the North and Republic.", "In this form, the verb \"to be\" in English is similar to its use in Irish, with a \"does be/do be\" (or \"bees\", although less frequently) construction to indicate the continuous, or habitual, present:* \"He does be working every day.\"", "* \"They do be talking on their mobiles a lot.\"", "* \"He does be doing a lot of work at school.\"", "* \"It's him I do be thinking of.\"", "===From Old and Middle English===In old-fashioned usage, \"it is\" can be freely abbreviated ''tis'', even as a standalone sentence.", "This also allows the double contraction ''tisn't'', for \"it is not\".Irish has separate forms for the second person singular (''tú'') and the second person plural (''sibh'').Mirroring Irish, and almost every other Indo-European language, the plural ''you'' is also distinguished from the singular in Hiberno-English, normally by use of the otherwise archaic English word ''ye'' ; the word ''yous'' (sometimes written as ''youse'') also occurs, but primarily only in Dublin and across Ulster.", "In addition, in some areas in Leinster, north Connacht and parts of Ulster, the hybrid word ''ye-s'', pronounced \"yiz\", may be used.", "The pronunciation differs with that of the northwestern being and the Leinster pronunciation being .", "* \"Did ye all go to see it?\"", "* \"None of youse have a clue!\"", "* \"Are ye not finished yet?\"", "* \"Yis are after destroying it!\"", "The word ''ye'', ''yis'' or ''yous'', otherwise archaic, is still used in place of \"you\" for the second-person plural, e.g.", "\"Where are yous going?\"", "''Ye'r'', ''Yisser'' or ''Yousser'' are the possessive forms.The verb ''mitch'' is very common in Ireland, indicating being truant from school.", "This word appears in Shakespeare (though he wrote in Early Modern English rather than Middle English), but is seldom heard these days in British English, although pockets of usage persist in some areas (notably South Wales, Devon, and Cornwall).", "In parts of Connacht and Ulster the ''mitch'' is often replaced by the verb ''scheme'', while in Dublin it is often replaced by \"on the hop/bounce\".Another usage familiar from Shakespeare is the inclusion of the second person pronoun after the imperative form of a verb, as in \"Wife, go you to her ere you go to bed\" (Romeo and Juliet, Act III, Scene IV).", "This is still common in Ulster: \"Get youse your homework done or you're no goin' out!\"", "In Munster, you will still hear children being told, \"Up to bed, let ye\" .For influence from Scotland, see Ulster Scots and Ulster English.===Other grammatical influences==='''Now''' is often used at the end of sentences or phrases as a semantically empty word, completing an utterance without contributing any apparent meaning.", "Examples include \"Bye now\" (= \"Goodbye\"), \"There you go now\" (when giving someone something), \"Ah now!\"", "(expressing dismay), \"Hold on now\" (= \"wait a minute\"), \"Now then\" as a mild attention-getter, etc.", "This usage is universal among English dialects, but occurs more frequently in Hiberno-English.", "It is also used in the manner of the Italian 'prego' or German 'bitte', for example, a barman might say \"Now, Sir.\"", "when delivering drinks.", "'''So''' is often used for emphasis (\"I can speak Irish, so I can\"), or it may be tacked onto the end of a sentence to indicate agreement, where \"then\" would often be used in Standard English (\"Bye so\", \"Let's go so\", \"That's fine so\", \"We'll do that so\").", "The word is also used to contradict a negative statement (\"You're not pushing hard enough\" – \"I am so!\").", "(This contradiction of a negative is also seen in American English, though not as often as \"I am too\", or \"Yes, I am\".)", "The practice of indicating emphasis with ''so'' and including reduplicating the sentence's subject pronoun and auxiliary verb (is, are, have, has, can, etc.)", "such as in the initial example, is particularly prevalent in more northern dialects such as those of Sligo, Mayo and the counties of Ulster.", "'''Sure/Surely''' is often used as a tag word, emphasising the obviousness of the statement, roughly translating as but/and/well/indeed.", "It can be used as \"to be sure\" (but the other stereotype of \"Sure and …\" is not actually used in Ireland.)", "Or \"Sure, I can just go on Wednesday\", \"I will not, to be sure.\"", "The word is also used at the end of sentences (primarily in Munster), for instance, \"I was only here five minutes ago, sure!\"", "and can express emphasis or indignation.", "In Ulster, the reply \"Aye, surely\" may be given to show strong agreement.", "'''To''' is often omitted from sentences where it would exist in British English.", "For example, \"I'm not allowed go out tonight\", instead of \"I'm not allowed ''to'' go out tonight\".", "'''Will''' is often used where British English would use \"shall\" or American English \"should\" (as in \"Will I make us a cup of tea?\").", "The distinction between \"shall\" (for first-person simple future, and second- and third-person emphatic future) and \"will\" (second- and third-person simple future, first-person emphatic future), maintained by many in England, does not exist in Hiberno-English, with \"will\" generally used in all cases.", "'''Once''' is sometimes used in a different way from how it is used in other dialects; in this usage, it indicates a combination of logical and causal conditionality: \"I have no problem laughing at myself once the joke is funny.\"", "Other dialects of English would probably use \"if\" in this situation." ], [ "See also", "* English language in Europe* Highland English* Kiltartanese* Languages of Ireland* Manx English* Regional accents of English* Welsh English" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*** (Full text not available at this URL, on preview snippets.", ")***" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harmonic analysis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harmonic analysis''' is a branch of mathematics concerned with investigating the connections between a function and its representation in frequency.", "The frequency representation is found by using the Fourier transform for functions on the real line or by Fourier series for periodic functions.", "Generalizing these transforms to other domains is generally called Fourier analysis, although the term is sometimes used interchangeably with harmonic analysis.", "Harmonic analysis has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as number theory, representation theory, signal processing, quantum mechanics, tidal analysis and neuroscience.The term \"harmonics\" originated as the Ancient Greek word ''harmonikos'', meaning \"skilled in music\".", "In physical eigenvalue problems, it began to mean waves whose frequencies are integer multiples of one another, as are the frequencies of the harmonics of music notes.", "Still, the term has been generalized beyond its original meaning.The classical Fourier transform on '''R'''''n'' is still an area of ongoing research, particularly concerning Fourier transformation on more general objects such as tempered distributions.", "For instance, if we impose some requirements on a distribution ''f'', we can attempt to translate these requirements into the Fourier transform of ''f''.", "The Paley–Wiener theorem is an example.", "The Paley–Wiener theorem immediately implies that if ''f'' is a nonzero distribution of compact support (these include functions of compact support), then its Fourier transform is never compactly supported (i.e., if a signal is limited in one domain, it is unlimited in the other).", "This is an elementary form of an uncertainty principle in a harmonic-analysis setting.Fourier series can be conveniently studied in the context of Hilbert spaces, which provides a connection between harmonic analysis and functional analysis.", "There are four versions of the Fourier transform, dependent on the spaces that are mapped by the transformation:* discrete/periodic–discrete/periodic: discrete Fourier transform,* continuous/periodic–discrete/aperiodic: Fourier series,* discrete/aperiodic–continuous/periodic: discrete-time Fourier transform,* continuous/aperiodic–continuous/aperiodic: Fourier transform." ], [ "Abstract harmonic analysis", "One of the most modern branches of harmonic analysis, having its roots in the mid-20th century, is analysis on topological groups.", "The core motivating ideas are the various Fourier transforms, which can be generalized to a transform of functions defined on Hausdorff locally compact topological groups.The theory for abelian locally compact groups is called Pontryagin duality.Harmonic analysis studies the properties of that duality.", "Fourier transforms and attempts to extend those features to different settings, for instance, to the case of non-abelian Lie groups.Harmonic analysis is closely related to the theory of unitary group representations for general non-abelian locally compact groups.", "For compact groups, the Peter–Weyl theorem explains how one may get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each equivalence class of representations.", "This choice of harmonics enjoys some of the valuable properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying convolutions to pointwise products or otherwise showing a certain understanding of the underlying group structure.", "See also: Non-commutative harmonic analysis.If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general satisfactory theory is currently known (\"satisfactory\" means at least as strong as the Plancherel theorem).", "However, many specific cases have been analyzed, for example, SL''n''.", "In this case, representations in infinite dimensions play a crucial role." ], [ "Other branches", "*Study of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Laplacian on domains, manifolds, and (to a lesser extent) graphs is also considered a branch of harmonic analysis.", "See, e.g., hearing the shape of a drum.", "* Harmonic analysis on Euclidean spaces deals with properties of the Fourier transform on '''R'''''n'' that have no analog on general groups.", "For example, the fact that the Fourier transform is rotation-invariant.", "Decomposing the Fourier transform into its radial and spherical components leads to topics such as Bessel functions and spherical harmonics.", "* Harmonic analysis on tube domains is concerned with generalizing properties of Hardy spaces to higher dimensions." ], [ "Applied harmonic analysis", " Bass-guitar time signal of open-string A note (55 Hz) Fourier transform of bass-guitar time signal of open-string A note (55 Hz)Many applications of harmonic analysis in science and engineering begin with the idea or hypothesis that a phenomenon or signal is composed of a sum of individual oscillatory components.", "Ocean tides and vibrating strings are common and simple examples.", "The theoretical approach often tries to describe the system by a differential equation or system of equations to predict the essential features, including the amplitude, frequency, and phases of the oscillatory components.", "The specific equations depend on the field, but theories generally try to select equations that represent significant principles that are applicable.The experimental approach is usually to acquire data that accurately quantifies the phenomenon.", "For example, in a study of tides, the experimentalist would acquire samples of water depth as a function of time at closely enough spaced intervals to see each oscillation and over a long enough duration that multiple oscillatory periods are likely included.", "In a study on vibrating strings, it is common for the experimentalist to acquire a sound waveform sampled at a rate at least twice that of the highest frequency expected and for a duration many times the period of the lowest frequency expected.For example, the top signal at the right is a sound waveform of a bass guitar playing an open string corresponding to an A note with a fundamental frequency of 55 Hz.", "The waveform appears oscillatory, but it is more complex than a simple sine wave, indicating the presence of additional waves.", "The different wave components contributing to the sound can be revealed by applying a mathematical analysis technique known as the Fourier transform, shown in the lower figure.", "There is a prominent peak at 55 Hz, but other peaks at 110 Hz, 165 Hz, and at other frequencies corresponding to integer multiples of 55 Hz.", "In this case, 55 Hz is identified as the fundamental frequency of the string vibration, and the integer multiples are known as harmonics." ], [ "See also", "* Convergence of Fourier series* Fourier analysis for computing periodicity in evenly-spaced data* Harmonic (mathematics)* Least-squares spectral analysis for computing periodicity in unevenly spaced data* Spectral density estimation* Tate's thesis" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Elias Stein and Guido Weiss, ''Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces'', Princeton University Press, 1971.", "*Elias Stein with Timothy S. Murphy, ''Harmonic Analysis: Real-Variable Methods, Orthogonality, and Oscillatory Integrals'', Princeton University Press, 1993.", "*Elias Stein, ''Topics in Harmonic Analysis Related to the Littlewood-Paley Theory'', Princeton University Press, 1970.", "*Yitzhak Katznelson, ''An introduction to harmonic analysis'', Third edition.", "Cambridge University Press, 2004.; 0-521-54359-2* Terence Tao, Fourier Transform.", "(Introduces the decomposition of functions into odd + even parts as a harmonic decomposition over .", ")* Yurii I. Lyubich.", "''Introduction to the Theory of Banach Representations of Groups''.", "Translated from the 1985 Russian-language edition (Kharkov, Ukraine).", "Birkhäuser Verlag.", "1988.", "* George W. Mackey, Harmonic analysis as the exploitation of symmetry–a historical survey, ''Bull.", "Amer.", "Math.", "Soc.''", "3 (1980), 543–698.", "* M. Bujosa, A. Bujosa and A. Garcıa-Ferrer.", "Mathematical Framework for Pseudo-Spectra of Linear Stochastic Difference Equations, ''IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing'' vol.", "63 (2015), 6498–6509." ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Home run" ], [ "Introduction", "Barry Bonds holds the all-time home run record in Major League BaseballSadaharu Oh, pictured here in 2006, holds the officially verified all-time world home run record in professional baseball.In baseball, a '''home run''' (abbreviated '''HR''') is scored when the ball is hit in such a way that the batter is able to circle the bases and reach home plate safely in one play without any errors being committed by the defensive team.", "A home run is usually achieved by hitting the ball over the outfield fence between the foul poles (or hitting either foul pole) without the ball touching the field.Inside-the-park home runs where the batter reaches home safely while the baseball is in play on the field are infrequent.", "In very rare cases, a fielder attempting to catch a ball in flight may misplay it and knock it over the outfield fence, resulting in a home run.An official scorer will credit the batter with a hit, a run scored, and a run batted in (RBI), as well as an RBI for each runner on base.", "The pitcher is recorded as having given up a hit and a run, with additional runs charged for each base-runner that scores.Home runs are among the most popular aspects of baseball and, as a result, prolific home run hitters are usually the most popular among fans and consequently the highest paid by teams—hence the old saying, \"Home run hitters drive Cadillacs, and singles hitters drive Fords\" (coined, circa 1948, by veteran pitcher Fritz Ostermueller, by way of mentoring his young teammate, Ralph Kiner).Nicknames for a home run include \"homer\", \"round tripper\", \"four-bagger\", \"big fly\", \"goner\" \"dinger\", \"long ball\", \"jack\", \"shot\"/\"moon shot\", \"bomb\", \"tater\", and \"blast\", while a player hitting a home run may be said to have \"gone deep\" or \"gone yard\"." ], [ "Types of home runs", "===Out of the park===If a batted ball hits the foul pole (orange pole on the right), the ball is fair and a home run is awarded to the batter.A home run is most often scored when the ball is hit over the outfield wall between the foul poles (in fair territory) before it touches the ground (in flight), and without being caught or deflected back onto the field by a fielder.", "A batted ball is also a home run if it touches either a foul pole or its attached screen before touching the ground, as the foul poles are by definition in fair territory.", "Additionally, many major-league ballparks have ground rules stating that a batted ball in flight that strikes a specified location or fixed object is a home run; this usually applies to objects that are beyond the outfield wall but are located such that it may be difficult for the umpire to judge.In professional baseball, a batted ball that goes over the outfield wall ''after'' touching the ground (i.e.", "a ball that bounces over the outfield wall) becomes an automatic double.", "This is colloquially referred to as a \"ground rule double\" even though it is uniform across all of Major League Baseball, per MLB rules 5.05(a)(6) through 5.05(a)(9).A fielder is allowed to reach over the wall to try to catch the ball as long as his feet are on or over the field during the attempt, and if the fielder successfully catches the ball while it is in flight the batter is out, even if the ball had already passed the vertical plane of the wall.", "However, since the fielder is not part of the field, a ball that bounces off a fielder (including his glove) and over the wall without touching the ground is still a home run.", "A fielder may not deliberately throw his glove, cap, or any other equipment or apparel to stop or deflect a fair ball, and an umpire may award a home run to the batter if a fielder does so on a ball that, in the umpire's judgment, would have otherwise been a home run (this is rare in modern professional baseball).A home run accomplished in any of the above manners is an automatic home run.", "The ball is dead, even if it rebounds back onto the field (e.g., from striking a foul pole), and the batter and any preceding runners cannot be put out at any time while running the bases.", "However, if one or more runners fail to touch a base or one runner passes another before reaching home plate, that runner or runners can be called out on appeal, though in the case of not touching a base a runner can go back and touch it if doing so will not cause them to be passed by another preceding runner and they have not yet touched the next base (or home plate in the case of missing third base).", "This stipulation is in Approved Ruling (2) of Rule 7.10(b).===Inside-the-park home run===An inside-the-park home run is a rare play in which a batter rounds all four bases for a home run without the baseball leaving the field of play.", "Unlike with an outside-the-park home run, the batter-runner and all preceding runners are liable to be put out by the defensive team at any time while running the bases.", "This can only happen if the ball does not leave the ballfield.In the early days of baseball, outfields were much more spacious, reducing the likelihood of an over-the-fence home run, while increasing the likelihood of an inside-the-park home run, as a ball getting past an outfielder had more distance that it could roll before a fielder could track it down.Modern outfields are much less spacious and more uniformly designed than in the game's early days.", "Therefore, inside-the-park home runs are now rare.", "They usually occur when a fast runner hits the ball deep into the outfield and the ball bounces in an unexpected direction away from the nearest outfielder (e.g., off a divot in the field or off the outfield wall), the nearest outfielder is injured on the play and cannot get to the ball, or an outfielder misjudges the flight of the ball in a way that he cannot quickly recover from the mistake (e.g., by diving and missing).", "The speed of the runner is crucial as even triples are relatively rare in most modern ballparks.If any defensive play on an inside-the-park home run is labeled an error by the official scorer, a home run is not scored.", "Instead, it is scored as a single, double, or triple, and the batter-runner and any applicable preceding runners are said to have taken all additional bases on error.", "All runs scored on such a play, however, still count.An example of an unexpected bounce occurred during the 2007 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at AT&T Park in San Francisco on July 10, 2007.Ichiro Suzuki of the American League team hit a fly ball that caromed off the right-center field wall in the opposite direction from where National League right fielder Ken Griffey Jr. was expecting it to go.", "By the time the ball was relayed, Ichiro had already crossed the plate standing up.", "This was the first inside-the-park home run in All-Star Game history, and led to Suzuki being named the game's Most Valuable Player." ], [ "Number of runs batted in", "Home runs are often characterized by the number of runners on base at the time.", "A home run hit with the bases empty is never called a \"one-run homer\", but rather a '''solo home run''', '''solo homer''', or \"solo shot\".", "With one runner on base, two runs score (the base-runner and the batter) and thus the home run is often called a '''two-run homer''' or '''two-run shot'''.", "Similarly, a home run with two runners on base is a '''three-run homer''' or '''three-run shot'''.The term \"four-run homer\" is never used.", "Instead, it's called a \"grand slam\".", "Hitting a grand slam is the best possible result for the batter's turn at bat and the worst possible result for the pitcher and his team.===Grand slam===A grand slam occurs when the bases are \"loaded\" (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run.", "According to ''The Dickson Baseball Dictionary'', the term originated in the card game of contract bridge.", "An '''inside-the-park grand slam''' is a grand slam that is also an inside-the-park home run, a home run without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare, due to the relative rarity of loading the bases along with the significant rarity (nowadays) of inside-the-park home runs.On July 25, 1956, Roberto Clemente became the only MLB player to have ever scored a walk-off inside-the-park grand slam in a 9–8 Pittsburgh Pirates win over the Chicago Cubs, at Forbes Field.On April 23, 1999, Fernando Tatís made history by hitting two grand slams in one inning, both against Chan Ho Park of the Los Angeles Dodgers.", "With this feat, Tatís also set a Major League record with 8 RBI in one inning.On July 29, 2003, against the Texas Rangers, Bill Mueller of the Boston Red Sox became the only player in major league history to hit two grand slams in one game from opposite sides of the plate; he hit three home runs in that game, and his two grand slams were in consecutive at-bats.On August 25, 2011, the New York Yankees became the first team to hit three grand slams in one game vs the Oakland A's.", "The Yankees eventually won the game 22–9, after trailing 7–1." ], [ "Specific situation home runs", "These types of home runs are characterized by the specific game situation in which they occur, and can theoretically occur on either an outside-the-park or inside-the-park home run.===Walk-off home run===A walk-off home run is a home run hit by the home team in the bottom of the ninth inning, any extra inning, or other scheduled final inning, which gives the home team the lead and thereby ends the game.", "The term is attributed to Hall of Fame relief pitcher Dennis Eckersley, so named because after the run is scored, the losing team has to \"walk off\" the field.Two World Series have ended via the \"walk-off\" home run.", "The first was the 1960 World Series when Bill Mazeroski of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a ninth inning solo home run in the seventh game of the series off New York Yankees pitcher Ralph Terry to give the Pirates the World Championship.", "The second time was the 1993 World Series when Joe Carter of the Toronto Blue Jays hit a ninth inning three-run home run off Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Mitch Williams in Game 6 of the series, to help the Toronto Blue Jays capture their second World Series Championship in a row.Such a home run can also be called a \"sudden death\" or \"sudden victory\" home run.", "That usage has lessened as \"walk-off home run\" has gained favor.", "Along with Mazeroski's 1960 shot, the most famous walk-off or sudden-death home run would most likely be the \"Shot Heard 'Round the World\" hit by Bobby Thomson to win the 1951 National League pennant for the New York Giants, along with many other game-ending home runs that famously ended some of the most important and suspenseful baseball games.A walk-off home run over the fence is an exception to baseball's one-run rule.", "Normally if the home team is tied or behind in the ninth or extra innings, the game ends as soon as the home team scores enough run to achieve a lead.", "If the home team has two outs in the inning, and the game is tied, the game will officially end either the moment the batter successfully reaches first base or the moment the runner touches home plate—whichever happens last.", "However, this is superseded by the \"ground rule\", which provides automatic doubles (when a ball-in-play hits the ground first then leaves the playing field) and home runs (when a ball-in-play leaves the playing field without ever touching the ground).", "In the latter case, all base runners including the batter are allowed to cross the plate.===Leadoff home run===A leadoff home run is a home run hit by the first batter of a team, the leadoff hitter of the first inning of the game.", "In MLB (major league Baseball), Rickey Henderson holds the career record with 81 lead-off home runs.", "Craig Biggio holds the National League career record with 53, fourth overall to Henderson, George Springer with 55, and Alfonso Soriano with 54.As of 2023, George Springer holds the career record among active players, with 55 leadoff home runs, which also ranks him second all-time.In 1996, Brady Anderson set a Major League record by hitting a lead-off home run in four consecutive games.===Back-to-back===When consecutive batters hit home runs, it's referred to as back-to-back home runs.", "The home runs are still considered back-to-back even if the batters hit their home runs off different pitchers.", "A third batter hitting a home run is commonly referred to as back-to-back-to-back.Four home runs in a row has only occurred eleven times in Major League Baseball history.", "Following convention, this is called back-to-back-to-back-to-back.", "The most recent occurrence was on July 2, 2022, when the St. Louis Cardinals hit four in a row against the Philadelphia Phillies.", "Nolan Arenado, Nolan Gorman, Juan Yepez, and Dylan Carlson hit consecutive home runs during the first inning off starting pitcher Kyle Gibson.On June 9, 2019, the Washington Nationals hit four in a row against the San Diego Padres in Petco Park as Howie Kendrick, Trea Turner, Adam Eaton and Anthony Rendon homered off pitcher Craig Stammen.", "Stammen became the fifth pitcher to surrender back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs, following Paul Foytack on July 31, 1963, Chase Wright on April 22, 2007, Dave Bush on August 10, 2010, and Michael Blazek on July 27, 2017.On August 14, 2008, the Chicago White Sox defeated the Kansas City Royals 9–2.In this game, Jim Thome, Paul Konerko, Alexei Ramírez, and Juan Uribe hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs in that order.", "Thome, Konerko, and Ramirez hit their home runs against Joel Peralta, while Uribe did it off Rob Tejeda.On April 22, 2007, the Boston Red Sox were trailing the New York Yankees 3–0 when Manny Ramirez, J. D. Drew, Mike Lowell and Jason Varitek hit consecutive home runs to put them up 4–3.They eventually went on to win the game 7–6 after a three-run home run by Mike Lowell in the bottom of the seventh inning.", "On September 18, 2006, trailing 9–5 to the San Diego Padres in the ninth inning, Jeff Kent, J. D. Drew, Russell Martin, and Marlon Anderson of the Los Angeles Dodgers hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs to tie the game.", "After giving up a run in the top of the tenth, the Dodgers won the game in the bottom of the tenth, on a walk-off two-run home run by Nomar Garciaparra.", "J. D. Drew has been part of two different sets of back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs.", "In both occurrences, his home run was the second of the four.On September 30, 1997, in the sixth inning of Game One of the American League Division Series between the New York Yankees and Cleveland Indians, Tim Raines, Derek Jeter and Paul O'Neill hit back-to-back-to-back home runs for the Yankees.", "Raines' home run tied the game.", "New York went on to win 8–6.This was the first occurrence of three home runs in a row ever in postseason play.", "The Boston Red Sox repeated the feat in Game Four of the 2007 American League Championship Series, also against the Indians.", "The Indians returned the favor in Game One of the 2016 American League Division Series.Twice in MLB history have two brothers hit back-to-back home runs.", "On April 23, 2013, brothers Melvin Upton Jr. (formerly B.J.", "Upton) and Justin Upton hit back-to-back home runs.", "The first time was on September 15, 1938, when Lloyd Waner and Paul Waner performed the feat.Simple back-to-back home runs are a relatively frequent occurrence.", "If a pitcher gives up a home run, he might have his concentration broken and might alter his normal approach in an attempt to \"make up for it\" by striking out the next batter with some fastballs.", "Sometimes the next batter will be expecting that and will capitalize on it.", "A notable back-to-back home run of that type in World Series play involved \"Babe Ruth's called shot\" in 1932, which was accompanied by various Ruthian theatrics, yet the pitcher, Charlie Root, was allowed to stay in the game.", "He delivered just one more pitch, which Lou Gehrig drilled out of the park for a back-to-back shot, after which Root was removed from the game.In Game 3 of the 1976 NLCS, George Foster and Johnny Bench hit back-to-back home runs in the last of the ninth off Ron Reed to tie the game.", "The Series-winning run was scored later in the inning.Another notable pair of back-to-back home runs occurred on September 14, 1990, when Ken Griffey Sr. and Ken Griffey Jr. hit back-to-back home runs, off Kirk McCaskill, the only father-and-son duo to do so in Major League history.On May 2, 2002, Bret Boone and Mike Cameron of the Seattle Mariners hit back-to-back home runs off starter Jon Rauch in the first inning of a game against the Chicago White Sox.", "The Mariners batted around in the inning, and Boone and Cameron came up to bat against reliever Jim Parque with two outs, again hitting back-to-back home runs and becoming the only pair of teammates to hit back-to-back home runs twice in the same inning.On June 19, 2012, José Bautista and Colby Rasmus hit back-to-back home runs and back-to-back-to-back home runs with Edwin Encarnación for a lead change in each instance.On July 23, 2017, Whit Merrifield, Jorge Bonifacio, and Eric Hosmer of the Kansas City Royals hit back-to-back-to-back home runs in the fourth inning against the Chicago White Sox.", "The Royals went on to win the game 5–4.On June 20, 2018, George Springer, Alex Bregman, and José Altuve of the Houston Astros hit back-to-back-to-back home runs in the sixth inning against the Tampa Bay Rays.", "The Astros went on to win the game 5–1.On April 3, 2018, the St. Louis Cardinals began the game against the Milwaukee Brewers with back-to-back home runs from Dexter Fowler and Tommy Pham.", "Then in the bottom of the ninth, with two outs and the Cardinals leading 4–3, Christian Yelich homered to tie the game; and Ryan Braun hit the next pitch for a walk-off home run.", "This is the only major league game to begin and end with back-to-back home runs.On May 5, 2019, Eugenio Suarez, Jesse Winker and Derek Dietrich of the Cincinnati Reds, hit back-to-back-to-back home runs on three straight pitches against Jeff Samardzija of the San Francisco Giants in the bottom of the first inning.On October 30, 2021, Dansby Swanson and Jorge Soler hit back-to-back home runs for the Atlanta Braves off Houston Astros pitcher Cristian Javier to give the Braves a 3–2 lead in the bottom of the seventh in Game 4 of the World Series.===Consecutive home runs by one batter===The record for consecutive home runs by a batter under any circumstances is four.", "Of the sixteen players (through 2012) who have hit four in one game, six have hit them consecutively.", "Twenty-eight other batters have hit four consecutive across two games.Bases on balls do not count as at-bats, and Ted Williams holds the record for consecutive home runs across the most games, four in four games played, during September 17–22, 1957, for the Red Sox.", "Williams hit a pinch-hit home run on the 17th; walked as a pinch-hitter on the 18th; there was no game on the 19th; hit another pinch-homer on the 20th; homered and then was lifted for a pinch-runner after at least one walk, on the 21st; and homered after at least one walk on the 22nd.", "All in all, he had four walks interspersed among his four homers.In World Series play, Reggie Jackson hit a record three in one Series game, the final game (Game 6) in 1977.But those three were a part of a much more impressive feat.", "He walked on four pitches in the second inning of game 6.Then he hit his three home runs on the first pitch of his next three at bats, off three different pitchers (4th inning: Hooten; 5th inning: Sosa; 8th inning: Hough).", "He had also hit one in his last at bat of the previous game, giving him four home runs on four consecutive swings.", "The four in a row set the record for consecutive homers across two Series games.In Game 3 of the World Series in 2011, Albert Pujols hit three home runs to tie the record with Babe Ruth and Reggie Jackson.", "The St. Louis Cardinals went on to win the World Series in Game 7 at Busch Stadium.", "In Game 1 of the World Series in 2012, Pablo Sandoval of the San Francisco Giants hit three home runs on his first three at-bats of the Series.Nomar Garciaparra holds the record for consecutive home runs in the shortest time in terms of innings: three home runs in two innings, on July 23, 2002, for the Boston Red Sox.===Home run cycle===Scooter Gennett had four home runs in a 2017 game, nearly completing a home run cycle.An offshoot of hitting for the cycle, a \"home run cycle\" is when a player hits a solo home run, two-run home run, three-run home run, and grand slam all in one game.", "This is an extremely rare feat, as it requires the batter not only to hit four home runs in the game, but also to hit the home runs with a specific number of runners already on base.", "This is largely dependent on circumstances outside of the player's control, such as teammates' ability to get on base, and the order in which the player comes to bat in any particular inning.", "A further variant of the home run cycle would be the \"natural home run cycle\", should a batter hit the home runs in the specific order listed above.A home run cycle has never occurred in MLB, which has only had 18 instances of a player hitting four home runs in a game.", "Though multiple home run cycles have been recorded in collegiate baseball, there have been two known home run cycles in a professional baseball game: one belongs to Tyrone Horne, playing for the Arkansas Travelers in a Double-A level Minor League Baseball game against the San Antonio Missions on July 27, 1998, and the other was accomplished by Chandler Redmond of the Springfield Cardinals, of the Texas League in a game against the Amarillo Sod Poodles on August 10, 2022.Major league players have come close to hitting a home run cycle, a notable example being Scooter Gennett of the Cincinnati Reds on June 6, 2017, when he hit four home runs against the St. Louis Cardinals.", "He hit a grand slam in the third inning, a two-run home run in the fourth inning, a solo home run in the sixth inning, and a two-run home run in the eighth inning.", "He had an opportunity for a three-run home run in the first inning, but drove in one run with a single in that at bat." ], [ "History", "Graph depicting the yearly number of home runs (blue line), and stolen bases (pink line) per MLB game from 1900 to 2008.In the early days of the game, when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside-the-park variety.", "The first home run ever hit in the National League was by Ross Barnes of the Chicago White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs), in 1876.The home \"run\" was literally descriptive.", "Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close.", "Hitters were discouraged from trying to hit home runs, with the conventional wisdom being that if they tried to do so they would simply fly out.", "This was a serious concern in the 19th century, because in baseball's early days a ball caught after one bounce was still an out.", "The emphasis was on place-hitting and what is now called \"manufacturing runs\" or \"small ball\".The home run's place in baseball changed dramatically when the live-ball era began after World War I.", "First, the materials and manufacturing processes improved significantly, making the now-mass-produced, cork-centered ball somewhat more lively.", "Batters such as Babe Ruth and Rogers Hornsby took full advantage of rules changes that were instituted during the 1920s, particularly prohibition of the spitball, and the requirement that balls be replaced when worn or dirty.", "These changes resulted in the baseball being easier to see and hit, and easier to hit out of the park.", "Meanwhile, as the game's popularity boomed, more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield and increasing the chances of a long fly ball resulting in a home run.", "The teams with the sluggers, typified by the New York Yankees, became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the \"inside game\" to the \"power game\" in order to keep up.Before , Major League Baseball considered a fair ball that bounced over an outfield fence to be a home run.", "The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence on the fly, and balls that reached the seats on a bounce became automatic doubles (often referred to as a ground rule double).", "The last \"bounce\" home run in MLB was hit by Al López of the Brooklyn Robins on September 12, 1930, at Ebbets Field.", "A carryover of the old rule is that if a player deflects a ball over the outfield fence in fair territory without it touching the ground, it is a home run, per MLB rule 5.05(a)(9).", "Additionally, MLB rule 5.05(a)(5) still stipulates that a ball hit over a fence in fair territory that is less than from home plate \"shall entitle the batter to advance to second base only\", as some early ballparks had short dimensions.The Polo Grounds left field foul line with guide rope, as seen from upper deck, 1917Also until circa 1931, the ball had to go not only over the fence in fair territory, but it had to land in the bleachers in fair territory or still be visibly fair when disappearing from view.", "The rule stipulated \"fair when last seen\" by the umpires.", "Photos from that era in ballparks, such as the Polo Grounds and Yankee Stadium, show ropes strung from the foul poles to the back of the bleachers, or a second \"foul pole\" at the back of the bleachers, in a straight line with the foul line, as a visual aid for the umpire.", "Ballparks still use a visual aid much like the ropes; a net or screen attached to the foul poles on the fair side has replaced ropes.", "As with American football, where a touchdown once required a literal \"touch down\" of the ball in the end zone but now only requires the \"breaking of the vertical plane\" of the goal line, in baseball the ball need only \"break the plane\" of the fence in fair territory (unless the ball is caught by a player who is in play, in which case the batter is called out).Babe Ruth's 60th home run in 1927 was somewhat controversial, because it landed barely in fair territory in the stands down the right field line.", "Ruth lost a number of home runs in his career due to the when-last-seen rule.", "Bill Jenkinson, in ''The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs'', estimates that Ruth lost at least 50 and as many as 78 in his career due to this rule.Further, the rules once stipulated that an over-the-fence home run in a sudden-victory situation would only count for as many bases as was necessary to \"force\" the winning run home.", "For example, if a team trailed by two runs with the bases loaded, and the batter hit a fair ball over the fence, it only counted as a triple, because the runner immediately ahead of him had technically already scored the game-winning run.", "That rule was changed in the 1920s as home runs became increasingly frequent and popular.", "Babe Ruth's career total of 714 would have been one higher had that rule not been in effect in the early part of his career.In the 2020s, it has become increasingly popular for Major League teams to celebrate home runs using some sort of prop.", "For example, allowing the player to wear or hold an item, such as a hat, helmet, jacket, sword, or trident." ], [ "Records", "Major League Baseball keeps running totals of all-time home runs by the team, including teams no longer active (before 1900) as well as by individual players.", "Gary Sheffield hit the 250,000th home run in all of MLB history with a grand slam on September 8, 2008.Sheffield had hit the MLB's 249,999th home run against Gio González in his previous at-bat.The all-time, verified professional baseball record for career home runs for one player, excluding the U.S. Negro leagues during the era of segregation, is held by Sadaharu Oh.", "Oh spent his entire career playing for the Yomiuri Giants in Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball, later managing the Giants, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks and the 2006 World Baseball Classic Japanese team.", "Oh holds the all-time home run world record, having hit 868 home runs in his career.In Major League Baseball, the career record is 762, held by Barry Bonds, who broke Hank Aaron's record on August 7, 2007, when he hit his 756th home run at AT&T Park off pitcher Mike Bacsik.", "Only eight other major league players have hit as many as 600: Hank Aaron (755), Babe Ruth (714), Albert Pujols (703), Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Ken Griffey Jr. (630), Jim Thome (612), and Sammy Sosa (609).", "Miguel Cabrera holds the record for currently active MLB players with 507.The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in 2001.Other notable single season records were achieved by Babe Ruth who hit 60 in 1927, Roger Maris, with 61 home runs in 1961, Aaron Judge, with 62 home runs in 2022, and Sammy Sosa and Mark McGwire, who hit 66 and 70 respectively, in 1998.Negro league slugger Josh Gibson's Baseball Hall of Fame plaque says he hit \"almost 800\" home runs in his career.", "The ''Guinness Book of World Records'' lists Gibson's lifetime home run total at 800.Ken Burns' award-winning series, ''Baseball'', states that his actual total may have been as high as 950.Gibson's true total is not known, in part due to inconsistent record keeping in the Negro leagues.", "The 1993 edition of the MacMillan ''Baseball Encyclopedia'' attempted to compile a set of Negro league records, and subsequent work has expanded on that effort.", "Those records demonstrate that Gibson and Ruth were of comparable power.", "The 1993 book had Gibson hitting 146 home runs in the 501 \"official\" Negro league games they were able to account for in his 17-year career, about one home run every 3.4 games.", "Babe Ruth, in 22 seasons (several of them in the dead-ball era), hit 714 in 2503 games, or one home run every 3.5 games.", "The large gap in the numbers for Gibson reflect the fact that Negro league clubs played relatively far fewer league games and many more \"barnstorming\" or exhibition games during the course of a season, than did the major league clubs of that era.Other legendary home run hitters include Jimmie Foxx, Mel Ott, Ted Williams, Mickey Mantle (who on September 10, 1960, mythically hit \"the longest home run ever\" at an estimated distance of , although this was measured after the ball stopped rolling), Reggie Jackson, Harmon Killebrew, Ernie Banks, Mike Schmidt, Dave Kingman, Sammy Sosa (who hit 60 or more home runs in a season three times), Ken Griffey Jr. and Eddie Mathews.", "In 1987, Joey Meyer of the minor league Denver Zephyrs hit the longest verifiable home run in professional baseball history.", "The home run was measured at a distance of and was hit inside Denver's Mile High Stadium.", "On May 6, 1964, Chicago White Sox outfielder Dave Nicholson hit a home run officially measured at 573 feet that either bounced atop the left-field roof of Comiskey Park or entirely cleared it.", "Major League Baseball's longest verifiable home run distance is about , by Babe Ruth, to straightaway center field at Tiger Stadium (then called Navin Field and before the double-deck), which landed nearly across the intersection of Trumbull and Cherry.The location of where Hank Aaron's record 755th home run landed has been monumented in Milwaukee.", "The spot sits outside American Family Field, where the Milwaukee Brewers currently play.", "Similarly, the point where Aaron's 715th home run landed, upon breaking Ruth's career record in 1974, is marked in the Turner Field parking lot.", "A red-painted seat in Fenway Park marks the landing place of the 502-ft home run Ted Williams hit in 1946, the longest measured home run in Fenway's history; a red stadium seat mounted on the wall of the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, marks the landing spot of Harmon Killebrew's record 520-foot shot in old Metropolitan Stadium.May 2019 saw 1,135 MLB home runs, the highest ever number of home runs in a single month in Major League Baseball history.", "During this month, 44.5% of all runs scored were the result of a home run, breaking the previous record of 42.3%.In postseason play, the most home runs hit by a player for a career is Manny Ramirez, who hit 29.Jose Altuve (23), Bernie Williams (22), Derek Jeter (20), and Kyle Schwarber (20) are the only other players to hit twenty postseason home runs.", "Rounding out the top ten as of the end of the 2021 season is Albert Pujols (19), George Springer (19), Carlos Correa (18), Reggie Jackson (18), Mickey Mantle (18, all in the World Series), and Nelson Cruz (18).", "As for most home runs in one postseason, Randy Arozarena holds the record with ten, done in the 2020 postseason." ], [ "Instant replay", "Replays \"to get the call right\" have been used extremely sporadically in the past, but the use of instant replay to determine \"boundary calls\"—home runs and foul balls—was not officially allowed until 2008.In a game on May 31, 1999, involving the St. Louis Cardinals and Florida Marlins, a hit by Cliff Floyd of the Marlins was initially ruled a double, then a home run, then was changed back to a double when umpire Frank Pulli decided to review video of the play.", "The Marlins protested that video replay was not allowed, but while the National League office agreed that replay was not to be used in future games, it declined the protest on the grounds it was a judgment call, and the play stood.In November 2007, the general managers of Major League Baseball voted in favor of implementing instant replay reviews on boundary home run calls.", "The proposal limited the use of instant replay to determining whether a boundary/home run call is:* A fair (home run) or foul ball* A live ball (ball hit a fence and rebounded onto the field), ground rule double (ball hit a fence before leaving the field), or home run (ball hit some object beyond the fence while in flight)* Spectator interference or home run (spectator touched the ball after it broke the plane of the fence).On August 28, 2008, instant replay review became available in MLB for reviewing calls in accordance with the above proposal.", "It was first utilized on September 3, 2008, in a game between the New York Yankees and the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field.", "Alex Rodriguez of the Yankees hit what appeared to be a home run, but the ball hit a catwalk behind the foul pole.", "It was at first called a home run, until Tampa Bay manager Joe Maddon argued the call, and the umpires decided to review the play.", "After 2 minutes and 15 seconds, the umpires came back and ruled it a home run.About two weeks later, on September 19, also at Tropicana Field, a boundary call was overturned for the first time.", "In this case, Carlos Peña of the Rays was given a ground rule double in a game against the Minnesota Twins after an umpire believed a fan reached into the field of play to catch a fly ball in right field.", "The umpires reviewed the play, determined the fan did not reach over the fence, and reversed the call, awarding Peña a home run.Aside from the two aforementioned reviews at Tampa Bay, the replay was used four more times in the 2008 MLB regular season: twice at Houston, once at Seattle, and once at San Francisco.", "The San Francisco incident is perhaps the most unusual.", "Bengie Molina, the Giants' catcher, hit what was first called a single.", "Molina then was replaced in the game by Emmanuel Burriss, a pinch-runner, before the umpires re-evaluated the call and ruled it a home run.", "In this instance though, Molina was not allowed to return to the game to complete the run, as he had already been replaced.", "Molina was credited with the home run, and two RBIs, but not for the run scored which went to Burriss instead.On October 31, 2009, in the fourth inning of Game 3 of the World Series, Alex Rodriguez hit a long fly ball that hit a camera protruding over the wall and into the field of play in deep right field.", "The ball ricocheted off the camera and re-entered the field, initially ruled a double.", "However, after the umpires consulted with each other after watching the instant replay, the hit was ruled a home run, marking the first time an instant replay home run was hit in a playoff game." ], [ "See also", "* Babe Ruth Home Run Award* Home Run Derby* Joe Bauman Home Run Award* Josh Gibson Legacy Award* List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders (by year)* Major League Baseball single-season home run record* Mel Ott Award* ''The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs'', 2007 non-fiction book===Career achievements===* List of Major League Baseball players with 20 doubles, 20 triples, and 20 home runs in the same season* 500 home run club* List of Major League Baseball all-time leaders in home runs by pitchers* List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders* List of Major League Baseball players with a home run in their final major league at bat* List of Major League Baseball players with a home run in their first major league at bat===Other sports===* Six (cricket)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* MLB's Home Run Leaders – batting statistics for over 16,000 players" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harappa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harappa''' is an archaeological site in Pakistan, about north of Sahiwal.", "The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a modern village near the former course of the Ravi River, which now runs to the north.", "The core of the Harappan civilisation extended over a large area, from Gujarat in the south, across Sindh and Rajasthan and extending into Punjab and Haryana.", "Numerous sites have been found outside the core area, including some as far east as Uttar Pradesh and as far west as Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast of Balochistan, not far from Iran.The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Harappan civilisation centred in Sindh and the Punjab, and then the Cemetery H culture.", "The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about with clay brick houses at its greatest extent during the Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC), which is considered large for its time.", "Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilisation by its first excavated site, the Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation.The ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British and French rule, when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore–Multan Railway .", "The current village of Harappa is less than from the ancient site.", "Although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the British Raj period, it is a small crossroads town of 15,000 people today.", "In 2005, a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artefacts during the early stages of building work." ], [ "History", "Map showing the sites and extent of the Indus Valley civilization.", "Harappa was the centre of one of the core regions of the Indus Valley Civilization, located in central Punjab.", "The Harappan architecture and Harappan Civilization was one of the most developed in the old Bronze Age.The Harappan Civilization has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BC.", "The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh.", "The civilization, with a possible writing system, urban centres, drainage infrastructure and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh near Larkana, and Harappa, in west Punjab south of Lahore.", "A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in the east Punjab, India in the west, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Pakistani Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied.", "Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found.Because of the reduced sea-levels, certain regions in the late Harappan period were abandoned .", "Towards its end, the Harappan civilization lost features such as writing and hydraulic engineering.", "As a result, the Ganges Valley settlement gained prominence and Ganges' cities developed.The earliest recognisably Harappan sites date to 3500 BC.", "This early phase lasts till around 2600 BC.", "The civilization's mature phase lasted from 2600 BC to 2000 BC.", "This is when the great cities were at their height.", "Then, from around 2000 BC, there was a steady disintegration that lasted till 1400 BC – what is usually called Late Harappan.", "There is no sign that the Harappan cities were laid waste by invaders.", "The evidence strongly points to natural causes.", "A number of studies show that the area which is today the Thar Desert was once far wetter and that the climate gradually became drier." ], [ "Culture and economy", "The Indus Valley civilization was basically an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Elam and Sumer in southern Mesopotamia.", "Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having \"differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers.\"", "Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion.The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilisation, on the other hand, were highly standardised, and conform to a set scale of gradations.", "Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for the identification of property and shipment of goods.", "Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed.", "\"Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, was domesticated,\" as well as \"fowl for fighting\".", "Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites.", "A centralised administration for each city, though not the whole civilisation, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy.", "Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt.", "Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli.What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory.", "Examinations of Harappan skeletons have often found wounds that are likely to have been inflicted in battle.", "Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls).", "Furthermore, rates of craniofacial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilisation collapsed amid illness and injury.", "The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety." ], [ "Trade", "The Harappans had traded with ancient Mesopotamia, especially Elam, among other areas.", "Cotton textiles and agricultural products were the primary trading objects.", "The Harappan merchants also had procurement colonies in Mesopotamia as well, which served as trading centres.", "They also traded extensively with people living in southern India, near modern-day Karnataka, to procure gold and copper from them." ], [ "Archaeology", "Miniature Votive Images or Toy Models from Harappa, ca.", "2500.Hand-modeled terra-cotta figurines with polychromy.The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation:#Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC.#Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC.#Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC.#Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC.#Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC.Period 1 occupation was thought to be around 7 to 10 hectares, but following excavations and findings of pottery in Mound E, along with previously found Mound AB pottery, suggest Ravi/Hakra phase would have been extended, together in both mounds, to 25 hectares.Period 2, Kot Diji phase, was extended in the same two mounds, AB and E, covering over 27 hectares.In Period 3, Harappa phase, the settlement reached 150 hectares.By far the most exquisite and obscure artefacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs.", "A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.", "Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script.", "Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered.", "It is also unknown if they reflect proto-Dravidian or other non-Vedic language(s).", "The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilisation iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area.", "This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of the Harappan material culture, as seen from both Pakistan- and India-based scholars.In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.", "Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find \"the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu\".", "Based on this evidence, he went on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin.", "However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis.The area of the late Harappan period consisted of the areas of the Daimabad, Maharashtra, and Badakshan regions of Afghanistan.", "The area covered by this civilisation would have been very large with a distance of around ." ], [ "Early symbols similar to Indus script", "Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon-dated 3300–3200 BC., contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings.", "\"It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script\" said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project.", "These primitive symbols areplaced slightly earlier than the primitive writing of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, dated c.3100 BC.", "These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script which has not been completely deciphered yet." ], [ "Notes", "Harappa.", "Fragment of Large Deep Vessel, circa 2500 B.C.", "Red pottery with red and black slip-painted decoration, 4 15/16 × 6 1/8 in.", "(12.5 × 15.5 cm).", "Brooklyn Museum.", "*The earliest radiocarbon dating mentioned on the web is 2725±185 BC (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BC calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BC.", "Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report.", "In Harappa Excavations, 1986–1990: A multidisciplinary approach to Second Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29–59.Monographs in World Archaeology No.3.Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin.", "*Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa.", "The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BC.", "*Mohenjo-daro is another major city of the same period, located in Sindh province of Pakistan.", "One of its most well-known structures is the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro." ], [ "See also", "*Charles Masson – First European explorer of Harappa*Mohenjo-daro*Mehrgarh*Ganeriwala*Dholavira*Lothal*Harappan architecture*Mandi, Uttar Pradesh*Sheri Khan Tarakai*Sokhta Koh*Kalibangan*Rakhigarhi*Taxila" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Harappa.com* Harappa.info *\" Harappa Town Planning\"-article by Dr S. Srikanta Sastri* Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Harappa" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hendecasyllable" ], [ "Introduction", "A papyrus manuscript preserving Sappho's \"Fragment 5\", a poem using one of the Aeolic hendecasyllabics in its Sapphic stanzasIn poetry, a '''hendecasyllable''' (sometimes '''hendecasyllabic''') is a line of eleven syllables.", "The term may refer to several different poetic meters, the older of which are quantitative and used chiefly in classical (Ancient Greek and Latin) poetry, and the newer of which are syllabic or accentual-syllabic and used in medieval and modern poetry." ], [ "Classical", "In classical poetry, \"hendecasyllable\" or \"hendecasyllabic\" may refer to any of three distinct 11-syllable Aeolic meters, used first in Ancient Greece and later, with little modification, by Roman poets.Aeolic meters are characterized by an Aeolic base × × followed by a choriamb – u u –; where – = a long syllable, u = a short syllable, and × = an anceps, that is, a syllable either long or short.", "The three Aeolic hendecasyllables (with base and choriamb in bold) are:===Phalaecian hendecasyllable=== (): '''× × – u u –''' u – u – –This is a line used only occasionally in Greek choral odes and scolia, but was a favorite of Catullus who realized the Aeolic base as – – or – u or u – but not as u u; for example, in the first poem in his collection (with formal equivalent, substituting English stress for Latin length):The base with – – is by far the most common in Catullus, and in later poets such as Statius and Martial was the only one used.", "There is usually a caesura in the line after the 5th or 6th syllable.===Alcaic hendecasyllable===(): × – u – '''× – u u –''' u –Here the Aeolic base is truncated to a single anceps.", "This meter typically appears as the first two lines of an Alcaic stanza.", "(For an English example, see §English, below.", ")===Sapphic hendecasyllable===(): – u – '''× – u u –''' u – –Again, the Aeolic base is truncated.", "This meter typically appears as the first three lines of a Sapphic stanza, though it was also sometimes used in stichic verse, for example by Seneca and Boethius.", "Sappho wrote many of the stanzas subsequently named after her, for example (with formal equivalent, substituting English stress for Greek length):" ], [ "Italian", "The hendecasyllable () is the principal metre in Italian poetry.", "Its defining feature is a constant stress on the tenth syllable, so that the number of syllables in the verse may vary, equaling eleven in the usual case where the final word is stressed on the penultimate syllable.", "The verse also has a stress preceding the caesura, on either the fourth or sixth syllable.", "The first case is called ''endecasillabo a minore'', or lesser hendecasyllable, and has the first hemistich equivalent to a ''quinario''; the second is called ''endecasillabo a maiore'', or greater hendecasyllable, and has a ''settenario'' as the first hemistich.There is a strong tendency for hendecasyllabic lines to end with feminine rhymes (causing the total number of syllables to be eleven, hence the name), but ten-syllable lines (''\"Ciò che 'n grembo a Benaco star non può\"'') and twelve-syllable lines (''\"Ergasto mio, perché solingo e tacito\"'') are encountered as well.", "Lines of ten or twelve syllables are more common in rhymed verse; ''versi sciolti'', which rely more heavily on a pleasant rhythm for effect, tend toward a stricter eleven-syllable format.", "As a novelty, lines longer than twelve syllables can be created by the use of certain verb forms and affixed enclitic pronouns (''\"Ottima è l'acqua; ma le piante abbeverinosene.", "\"'').Additional accents beyond the two mandatory ones provide rhythmic variation and allow the poet to express thematic effects.", "A line in which accents fall consistently on even-numbered syllables (''\"Al còr gentìl rempàira sèmpre amóre\"'') is called iambic (''giambico'') and may be a greater or lesser hendecasyllable.", "This line is the simplest, commonest and most musical but may become repetitive, especially in longer works.", "Lesser hendecasyllables often have an accent on the seventh syllable (''\"fàtta di giòco in figùra d'amóre\"'').", "Such a line is called dactylic (''dattilico'') and its less pronounced rhythm is considered particularly appropriate for representing dialogue.", "Another kind of greater hendecasyllable has an accent on the third syllable (''\"Se Mercé fosse amìca a' miei disìri\"'') and is known as anapestic (''anapestico'').", "This sort of line has a crescendo effect and gives the poem a sense of speed and fluidity.It is considered improper for the lesser hendecasyllable to use a word accented on its antepenultimate syllable (''parola sdrucciola'') for its mid-line stress.", "A line like ''\"Più non sfavìllano quegli òcchi néri\"'', which delays the caesura until after the sixth syllable, is not considered a valid hendecasyllable.Most classical Italian poems are composed in hendecasyllables, including the major works of Dante, Francesco Petrarca, Ludovico Ariosto, and Torquato Tasso.", "The rhyme systems used include terza rima, ottava, sonnet and canzone, and some verse forms use a mixture of hendecasyllables and shorter lines.", "From the early 16th century onward, hendecasyllables are often used without a strict system, with few or no rhymes, both in poetry and in drama.", "This is known as ''verso sciolto''.", "An early example is ''Le Api'' (\"the bees\") by Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai, written around 1517 and published in 1525 (with formal equivalent paraphrase which mirrors the original's syllabic counts, varied caesurae, and line- and hemistich-final stress profiles):Like other early Italian-language tragedies, the ''Sophonisba'' of Gian Giorgio Trissino (1515) is in blank hendecasyllables.", "Later examples can be found in the ''Canti'' of Giacomo Leopardi, where hendecasyllables are alternated with ''settenari''." ], [ "Polish", "The hendecasyllabic metre () was very popular in Polish poetry, especially in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, owing to strong Italian literary influence.", "It was used by Jan Kochanowski, Piotr Kochanowski (who translated ''Jerusalem Delivered'' by Torquato Tasso), Sebastian Grabowiecki, Wespazjan Kochowski and Stanisław Herakliusz Lubomirski.", "The greatest Polish Romantic poet, Adam Mickiewicz, set his poem Grażyna in this measure.", "The Polish hendecasyllable is widely used when translating English blank verse.The eleven-syllable line is normally a line of 5+6 syllables with medial caesura, primary stresses on the fourth and tenth syllables, and feminine endings on both half-lines.", "Although the form can accommodate a fully iambic line, there is no such tendency in practice, word stresses falling variously on any of the initial syllables of each half-line.", "o o o S s | o o o o S s '''o'''=any syllable, '''S'''=stressed syllable, '''s'''=unstressed syllableA popular form of Polish literature that employs the hendecasyllable is the Sapphic stanza: 11/11/11/5.The Polish hendecasyllable is often combined with an 8-syllable line: 11a/8b/11a/8b.", "Such a stanza was used by Mickiewicz in his ballads, as in the following example (with formal equivalent paraphrase):" ], [ "Portuguese", "The hendecasyllable () is a common meter in Portuguese poetry.", "The best-known Portuguese poem composed in hendecasyllables is Luís de Camões' ''Lusiads'', which begins as follows:In Portuguese, the hendecasyllable meter is often called \"decasyllable\" (''decassílabo''), even when the work in question uses overwhelmingly feminine rhymes (as is the case with the ''Lusiads'').", "This is due to Portuguese prosody considering verses to end at the last stressed syllable, thus the aforementioned verses are effectively decasyllabic according to Portuguese scansion." ], [ "Spanish", "The hendecasyllable () is less pervasive in Spanish poetry than in Italian or Portuguese, but it is commonly used with Italianate verse forms like sonnets and ottava rima (as found, for example, in Alonso de Ercilla's epic ''La Araucana'').Spanish dramatists often use hendecasyllables in tandem with shorter lines like heptasyllables, as can be seen in Rosaura's opening speech from Calderón's ''La vida es sueño'':" ], [ "English", "The term \"hendecasyllable\" most often refers to an imitation of Greek or Latin metrical lines, notably by Alfred Tennyson, Swinburne, and Robert Frost (\"For Once Then Something\").", "Contemporary American poets Annie Finch (\"Lucid Waking\") and Patricia Smith (\"The Reemergence of the Noose\") have published recent examples.", "In English, which lacks phonemic length, poets typically substitute stressed syllables for ''long'', and unstressed syllables for ''short''.", "Tennyson, however, attempted to maintain the quantitative features of the meter (while supporting them with concurrent stress) in his Alcaic stanzas, the first two lines of which are Alcaic hendecasyllables:Occasionally \"hendecasyllable\" is used to denote a line of iambic pentameter with a feminine ending, as in the first line of John Keats's ''Endymion'': \"A thing of beauty is a joy for ever\"." ], [ "See also", "* Hexasyllable* Octosyllable* Decasyllable* Dodecasyllable" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Italian texts===*Raffaele Spongano, ''Nozioni ed esempi di metrica italiana'', Bologna, R. Pàtron, 1966*Angelo Marchese, ''Dizionario di retorica e di stilistica'', Milano, Mondadori, 1978*Mario Pazzaglia, ''Manuale di metrica italiana'', Firenze, Sansoni, 1990===Polish texts===* Wiktor Jarosław Darasz, ''Mały przewodnik po wierszu polskim'', Kraków 2003." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hebrides" ], [ "Introduction", "Inner and Outer HebridesThe '''Hebrides''' ( ; , ; ) are an archipelago off the west coast of the Scottish mainland.", "The islands fall into two main groups, based on their proximity to the mainland: the Inner and Outer Hebrides.", "These islands have a long history of occupation (dating back to the Mesolithic period), and the culture of the inhabitants has been successively influenced by the cultures of Celtic-speaking, Norse-speaking, and English-speaking peoples.", "This diversity is reflected in the various names given to the islands, which are derived from the different languages that have been spoken there at various points in their history.The Hebrides are where much of Scottish Gaelic literature and Gaelic music has historically originated.", "Today, the economy of the islands is dependent on crofting, fishing, tourism, the oil industry, and renewable energy.", "The Hebrides have less biodiversity than mainland Scotland, but a significant number of seals and seabirds.The islands have a combined area of , and, , a combined population of around 45,000." ], [ "Geology, geography and climate", "The Caledonian MacBrayne ferry MV ''Hebrides'' leaving Lochmaddy for Skye The Hebrides have a diverse geology, ranging in age from Precambrian strata that are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe, to Paleogene igneous intrusions.", "Raised shore platforms in the Hebrides have been identified as strandflats, possibly formed during the Pliocene period and later modified by the Quaternary glaciations.The Hebrides can be divided into two main groups, separated from one another by the Minch to the north and the Sea of the Hebrides to the south.", "The Inner Hebrides lie closer to mainland Scotland and include Islay, Jura, Skye, Mull, Raasay, Staffa and the Small Isles.", "There are 36 inhabited islands in this group.", "The Outer Hebrides form a chain of more than 100 islands and small skerries located about west of mainland Scotland.", "Among them, 15 are inhabited.", "The main inhabited islands include Lewis and Harris, North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, and Barra.", "A complication is that there are various descriptions of the scope of the Hebrides.", "The ''Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland'' describes the Inner Hebrides as lying \"east of the Minch\".", "This definition would encompass all offshore islands, including those that lie in the sea lochs, such as and , which might not ordinarily be described as \"Hebridean\".", "However, no formal definition exists.In the past, the Outer Hebrides were often referred to as the ''Long Isle'' ().", "Today, they are also sometimes known as the ''Western Isles'', although this phrase can also be used to refer to the Hebrides in general.The Hebrides have a cool, temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the Gulf Stream.", "In the Outer Hebrides, the average temperature is 6 °C (44 °F) in January and 14 °C (57 °F) in the summer.", "The average annual rainfall in Lewis is , and there are between 1,100 and 1,200 hours of sunshine ''per annum'' (13%).", "The summer days are relatively long, and May through August is the driest period." ], [ "Etymology", "The earliest surviving written references to the islands were made circa 77 AD by Pliny the Elder in his ''Natural History'': He states that there are 30 '''', and makes a separate reference to '''', which Watson (1926) concluded refers unequivocally to the Outer Hebrides.", "About 80 years after Pliny the Elder, in 140–150 AD, Ptolemy (drawing on accounts of the naval expeditions of ) writes that there are five '''' (possibly meaning the Inner Hebrides) and ''''.", "Later texts in classical Latin, by writers such as , use the forms '''' and ''''.The name '''' (used by Ptolemy) may be pre-Celtic.", "Ptolemy calls Islay “”, and the use of the letter \"p\" suggests a Brythonic or Pictish tribal name, , because the root is not Gaelic.", "Woolf (2012) has suggested that '''' may be \"an Irish attempt to reproduce the word '''' phonetically, rather than by translating it\", and that the tribe's name may come from the root '''', meaning \"horse\".", "Watson (1926) also notes a possible relationship between '''' and the ancient Irish Ulaid tribal name '''', and also the personal name of a king (recorded in the ''Silva Gadelica'').South Uist is the second-largest island of the Outer Hebrides.The names of other individual islands reflect their complex linguistic history.", "The majority are Norse or Gaelic, but the roots of several other names for Hebrides islands may have a pre-Celtic origin.", "Adomnán, a 7th-century abbot of Iona, records Colonsay as ''Colosus'' and Tiree as ''Ethica'', and both of these may be pre-Celtic names.", "The etymology of Skye is complex and may also include a pre-Celtic root.", "Lewis is '''' in Old Norse.", "Various suggestions have been made as to possible meanings of the name in Norse (for example, \"song house\"), but the name is not of Gaelic origin, and the Norse provenance is questionable.The earliest comprehensive written list of Hebridean island names was compiled by Donald Monro in 1549.This list also provides the earliest written reference to the names of some of the islands.", "The derivations of all the inhabited islands of the Hebrides and some of the larger uninhabited ones are listed below.=== Outer Hebrides ===Lewis and Harris is the largest island in Scotland and the third largest of the British Isles, after Great Britain and Ireland.", "It incorporates Lewis in the north and Harris in the south, both of which are frequently referred to as individual islands, although they are joined by a land border.", "The island does not have a single common name in either English or Gaelic and is referred to as \"Lewis and Harris\", \"Lewis with Harris\", \"Harris with Lewis\" etc.", "For this reason it is treated as two separate islands below.", "The derivation of Lewis may be pre-Celtic (see above) and the origin of Harris is no less problematic.", "In the Ravenna Cosmography, ''Erimon'' may refer to Harris (or possibly the Outer Hebrides as a whole).", "This word may derive from the ( \"desert\".", "The origin of Uist () is similarly unclear.", "Island Derivation Language Meaning Munro (1549) Modern Gaelic name Alternative Derivations Baleshare '''' Gaelic east town '''' Barra '''' Norse Finbar's island Barray '''' Benbecula '''' Gaelic pennyland of the fords '''' \"little mountain of the ford\" or \"herdsman's mountain\" Berneray '''' Norse Bjorn's island '''' bear island Eriskay '''' Gaelic goblin island Eriskeray '''' Erik's island Flodaigh Norse float island '''' Fraoch-eilean Gaelic heather island '''' Great Bernera '''' Norse Bjorn's island ''Berneray-Moir'' '''' bear island Grimsay Norse Grim's island '''' Grimsay Norse Grim's island '''' Harris Ancient Greek?", "desert Harrey '''' Ptolemy's .", "In Old Norse (and in modern Icelandic), a '''' is a type of administrative district.", "Alternatives are the Norse '''', meaning \"hills\" and Gaelic '''' meaning \"the heights\".", "Lewis Pre-Celtic?", "marshy Lewis '''' Ptolemy's is literally \"marshy\".", "The Norse '''' may mean \"song house\" — see above.", "North Uist English/Pre-Celtic?", "Ywst '''' \"Uist\" may possibly be \"corn island\" or \"west\" Scalpay '''' Norse scallop island Scalpay of Harray '''' South Uist English/Pre-Celtic? ''''", "See North Uist Vatersay Norse water island Wattersay '''' fathers' island, priest island, glove island, wavy island=== Inner Hebrides ===There are various examples of earlier names for Inner Hebridean islands that were Gaelic, but these names have since been completely replaced.", "For example, Adomnán records ''Sainea'', ''Elena'', ''Ommon'' and ''Oideacha'' in the Inner Hebrides.", "These names presumably passed out of usage in the Norse era, and the locations of the islands they refer to are not clear.", "As an example of the complexity: Rona may originally have had a Celtic name, then later a similar-sounding Norse name, and then still later a name that was essentially Gaelic again, but with a Norse \"øy\" or \"ey\" ending.", "(See Rona, below.)", "Island Derivation Language Meaning Munro (1549) Modern Gaelic name Alternative Derivations Canna '''' Gaelic porpoise island Kannay '''' Possibly from Old Irish '''', meaning \"wolf-whelp\" or Norse '''' - \"knee island\" Coll ''Colosus'' Pre-Celtic '''' Possibly from Gaelic '''' - a hazel Colonsay Pre-Celtic Colnansay '''' Norse for \"Columba's island\" Danna Norse Unknown '''' Easdale Eisdcalfe '''' '''' is \"waterfall\" in Gaelic and '''' is the Norse for \"valley\".", "However the combination seems inappropriate for this small island.", "Also known as '''' - \"island of the birches\" Eigg '''' Gaelic a notch Egga '''' Also called '''' - \"island of the powerful women\" until the 16th century.", "Gaelic white isle Naban '''' Gaelic Eilean Donan Gaelic island of '''' Eilean Shona Norse sea island '''' Adomnán records the pre-Norse Gaelic name of '''' - the foreshore isle\".", "Eilean Tioram Gaelic dry island Eriska Norse Erik's island Erraid Possibly '''' Gaelic foreshore island Erray '''' Gigha '''' Norse \"good island\" or \"God island\" Gigay '''' Various including the Norse '''' - \"island of the geo\" or \"cleft\", or \"Gydha's isle\".", "Gometra Norse \"The good-man's island\", or \"God-man's island\" '''' \"Godmund's island\".", "Isle of Ewe '''' Gaelic echo Ellan Ew '''' Old Irish: '''' - \"yew\" Iona '''' Gaelic Possibly \"yew-place\" Colmkill Numerous.", "Adomnán uses '''' which became \"Iona\" through misreading.", "Islay Pre-Celtic Ila Various - see above Jura '''' Norse deer island Duray '''' Norse: '''' - udder island Kerrera '''' Norse Kjarbar's island '''' Norse: '''' - \"brushwood island\" or \"copse island\" Lismore Gaelic big garden Lismoir '''' Luing Gaelic ship island Lunge '''' Norse: '''' - heather island or pre-Celtic Lunga '''' Norse longship isle Lungay '''' Gaelic '''' is also \"ship\" Muck '''' Gaelic isle of pigs Swynes Ile '''' ''''- \"whale island\".", "John of Fordun recorded it as ''Helantmok'' - \"isle of swine\".", "Mull ''Malaios'' Pre-Celtic Mull '''' Recorded by Ptolemy as possibly meaning \"lofty isle\".", "In Norse times it became ''''.", "Oronsay Norse ebb island Ornansay '''' Norse: \"Oran's island\" Raasay '''' Norse roe deer island Raarsay '''' '''' - \"horse island\" Rona '''' or '''' Norse or Gaelic/Norse \"rough island\" or \"seal island\" Ronay '''' Rum Pre-Celtic Ronin '''' Various including Norse '''' for \"wide island\" or Gaelic '''' - \"isle of the ridge\" Sanday '''' Norse sandy island '''' Scalpay '''' Norse scallop island Scalpay '''' Norse: \"ship island\" Seil Possibly ''Sal'' Probably pre-Celtic \"stream\" Seill '''' Gaelic: '''' - \"hunting island\" Shuna Unknown Norse Possibly \"sea island\" Seunay '''' Gaelic '''' - \"fairy\" Skye ''Scitis'' Pre-Celtic?", "Possibly \"winged isle\" Skye '''' Numerous - see above Soay '''' Norse sheep island Soa Urettil '''' Tanera Mor '''' Norse island of the haven Hawrarymoir(?)", "'''' Brythonic: '''', the thunder god Tiree ''Eth'', ''Ethica'' Possibly pre-Celtic Unknown '''' Norse: '''' of unknown meaning and numerous Gaelic versions, some with a possible meaning of \"land of corn\" Ulva Norse wolf island '''' Ulfr's island=== Uninhabited islands ==='' Lighthouse, During Construction'' by Sam Bough (1822–1878)The names of uninhabited islands follow the same general patterns as the inhabited islands.", "(See the list, below, of the ten largest islands in the Hebrides and their outliers.", ")The etymology of the name “St Kilda”, a small archipelago west of the Outer Hebrides, and the name of its main island, “Hirta,” is very complex.", "No saint is known by the name of Kilda, so various other theories have been proposed for the word's origin, which dates from the late 16th century.", "Haswell-Smith (2004) notes that the full name \"St Kilda\" first appears on a Dutch map dated 1666, and that it may derive from the Norse phrase '''' (\"sweet wellwater\") or from a mistaken Dutch assumption that the spring '''' was dedicated to a saint.", "('''' is a tautological placename, consisting of the Gaelic and Norse words for ''well'', i.e., \"well well\").", "Similarly unclear is the origin of the Gaelic for \"Hirta\", '''', '''', or '''' a name for the island that long pre-dates the name \"St Kilda\".", "Watson (1926) suggests that it may derive from the Old Irish word '''' (\"death\"), possibly a reference to the often lethally dangerous surrounding sea.", "Maclean (1977) notes that an Icelandic saga about an early 13th-century voyage to Ireland refers to “the islands of ''''”, which means \"stags\" in Norse, and suggests that the outline of the island of Hirta resembles the shape of a stag, speculating that therefore the name “Hirta” may be a reference to the island's shape.The etymology of the names of small islands may be no less complex and elusive.", "In relation to , Robert Louis Stevenson believed that \"black and dismal\" was one translation of the name, noting that \"as usual, in Gaelic, it is not the only one.\"", "Island Derivation Language Meaning Munro (1549) Alternatives Taransay Norse Taran's island Tarandsay Scarba Norse cormorant island Skarbay Scarp '''' Norse \"barren\" or \"stony\" Scarpe Pabbay Norse priest island Pabay Hirta ''Hirt'' Possibly Old Irish death Hirta Numerous - see above Mingulay '''' Norse big island Megaly \"Main hill island\".", "Murray (1973) states that the name “appropriately means Bird Island”.", "Ronay Norse rough island Sandray '''' Norse sand island Sanderay Wiay Norse Possibly \"house island\" Ceann Ear '''' Gaelic east headland" ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory ===Callanish stone circleThe Hebrides were settled during the Mesolithic era around 6500 BC or earlier, after the climatic conditions improved enough to sustain human settlement.", "Occupation at a site on is dated to 8590 ±95 uncorrected radiocarbon years BP, which is amongst the oldest evidence of occupation in Scotland.", "There are many examples of structures from the Neolithic period, the finest example being the standing stones at Callanish, dating to the 3rd millennium BC.", "Cladh Hallan, a Bronze Age settlement on South Uist is the only site in the UK where prehistoric mummies have been found.=== Celtic era ===In 55 BC, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote that there was an island called ''Hyperborea'' (which means \"beyond the North Wind\"), where a round temple stood from which the moon appeared only a little distance above the earth every 19 years.", "This may have been a reference to the stone circle at Callanish.A traveller called Demetrius of Tarsus related to Plutarch the tale of an expedition to the west coast of Scotland in or shortly before 83 AD.", "He stated it was a gloomy journey amongst uninhabited islands, but he had visited one which was the retreat of holy men.", "He mentioned neither the druids nor the name of the island.The first written records of native life begin in the 6th century AD, when the founding of the kingdom of Dál Riata took place.", "This encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland and County Antrim in Ireland.", "The figure of Columba looms large in any history of Dál Riata, and his founding of a monastery on Iona ensured that the kingdom would be of great importance in the spread of Christianity in northern Britain.", "However, Iona was far from unique.", "Lismore in the territory of the Cenél Loairn, was sufficiently important for the death of its abbots to be recorded with some frequency and many smaller sites, such as on Eigg, Hinba, and Tiree, are known from the annals.North of Dál Riata, the Inner and Outer Hebrides were nominally under Pictish control, although the historical record is sparse.", "Hunter (2000) states that in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century: \"As for Shetland, Orkney, Skye and the Western Isles, their inhabitants, most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time, are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence.”=== Norwegian control ===The Kingdom of the Isles about the year 1100Viking raids began on Scottish shores towards the end of the 8th century, and the Hebrides came under Norse control and settlement during the ensuing decades, especially following the success of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of in 872.In the Western Isles Ketill Flatnose may have been the dominant figure of the mid 9th century, by which time he had amassed a substantial island realm and made a variety of alliances with other Norse leaders.", "These princelings nominally owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown, although in practice the latter's control was fairly limited.", "Norse control of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 when Edgar of Scotland formally signed the islands over to Magnus III of Norway.", "The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered Orkney, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year, directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various island petty kingdoms.", "By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control, although at a price.", "His skald Bjorn Cripplehand recorded that in Lewis \"fire played high in the heaven\" as \"flame spouted from the houses\" and that in the Uists \"the king dyed his sword red in blood\".The Hebrides were now part of the Kingdom of the Isles, whose rulers were themselves vassals of the Kings of Norway.", "This situation lasted until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156, at which time the Outer Hebrides remained under Norwegian control while the Inner Hebrides broke out under Somerled, the Norse-Gael kinsman of the Manx royal house.Following the ill-fated 1263 expedition of Haakon IV of Norway, the Outer Hebrides and the Isle of Man were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth.", "Although their contribution to the islands can still be found in personal and place names, the archaeological record of the Norse period is very limited.", "The best known find is the Lewis chessmen, which date from the mid 12th century.=== Scottish control ===Kisimul Castle, the ancient seat of Clan MacNeil, Castlebay, BarraAs the Norse era drew to a close, the Norse-speaking princes were gradually replaced by Gaelic-speaking clan chiefs including the MacLeods of Lewis and Harris, Clan Donald and MacNeil of Barra.", "This transition did little to relieve the islands of internecine strife although by the early 14th century the MacDonald Lords of the Isles, based on Islay, were in theory these chiefs' feudal superiors and managed to exert some control.The Lords of the Isles ruled the Inner Hebrides as well as part of the Western Highlands as subjects of the King of Scots until John MacDonald, fourth Lord of the Isles, squandered the family's powerful position.", "A rebellion by his nephew, Alexander of Lochalsh provoked an exasperated James IV to forfeit the family's lands in 1493.In 1598, King James VI authorised some \"Gentleman Adventurers\" from Fife to civilise the \"most barbarous Isle of Lewis\".", "Initially successful, the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod, who based their forces on in .", "The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result, but a third attempt in 1607 was more successful and in due course Stornoway became a Burgh of Barony.", "By this time, Lewis was held by the Mackenzies of Kintail (later the Earls of Seaforth), who pursued a more enlightened approach, investing in fishing in particular.", "The Seaforths' royalist inclinations led to Lewis becoming garrisoned during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms by Cromwell's troops, who destroyed the old castle in Stornoway.===Early British era===Clachan Bridge between the mainland of Great Britain and Seil, also known as the \"Bridge across the Atlantic\", was built in 1792.With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707, the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain, but the clans' loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong.", "A considerable number of islesmen \"came out\" in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the 1715 and again in the 1745 rising including Macleod of Dunvegan and MacLea of Lismore.", "The aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden, which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration, was widely felt.", "The British government's strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English-speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them.", "This may have brought peace to the islands, but in the following century it came at a terrible price.", "In the wake of the rebellion, the clan system was broken up and islands of the Hebrides became a series of landed estates.The early 19th century was a time of improvement and population growth.", "Roads and quays were built; the slate industry became a significant employer on Easdale and surrounding islands; and the construction of the Crinan and Caledonian canals and other engineering works such as Clachan Bridge improved transport and access.", "However, in the mid-19th century, the inhabitants of many parts of the Hebrides were devastated by the Clearances, which destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms.", "The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands' kelp industry that thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic.As , a Gaelic poet from South Uist, wrote for his countrymen who were obliged to leave the Hebrides in the late 18th century, emigration was the only alternative to \"sinking into slavery\" as the Gaels had been unfairly dispossessed by rapacious landlords.", "In the 1880s, the \"Battle of the Braes\" involved a demonstration against unfair land regulation and eviction, stimulating the calling of the Napier Commission.", "Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters' Act." ], [ "Language", "Geographic distribution of Gaelic speakers in Scotland (2011)The residents of the Hebrides have spoken a variety of different languages during the long period of human occupation.It is assumed that Pictish must once have predominated in the northern Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides.", "The Scottish Gaelic language arrived from Ireland due to the growing influence of the kingdom of Dál Riata from the 6th century AD onwards, and became the dominant language of the southern Hebrides at that time.", "For a few centuries, the military might of the '''' meant that Old Norse was prevalent in the Hebrides.", "North of , the place names that existed prior to the 9th century have been all but obliterated.", "The Old Norse name for the Hebrides during the Viking occupation was '''', which means \"Southern Isles\"; in contrast to the '''', or \"Northern Isles\" of Orkney and Shetland.South of , Gaelic place names are more common, and after the 13th century, Gaelic became the main language of the entire Hebridean archipelago.", "Due to Scots and English being favoured in government and the educational system, the Hebrides have been in a state of diglossia since at least the 17th century.", "The Highland Clearances of the 19th century accelerated the language shift away from Scottish Gaelic, as did increased migration and the continuing lower status of Gaelic speakers.", "Nevertheless, as late as the end of the 19th century, there were significant populations of monolingual Gaelic speakers, and the Hebrides still contain the highest percentages of Gaelic speakers in Scotland.", "This is especially true of the Outer Hebrides, where a slim majority speak the language.", "The Scottish Gaelic college, , is based on Skye and Islay.Ironically, given the status of the Western Isles as the last Gaelic-speaking stronghold in Scotland, the Gaelic language name for the islands – '''' – means \"isles of the foreigners\"; from the time when they were under Norse colonisation." ], [ "Modern economy", "Sea-filled slate quarries on Seil (foreground) and Easdale in the Slate IslandsFor those who remained, new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle, commercial fishing and tourism.", "Nonetheless, emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelago's populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th century and for much of the 20th century.", "Lengthy periods of continuous occupation notwithstanding, many of the smaller islands were abandoned.There were, however, continuing gradual economic improvements, among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design and with the assistance of Highlands and Islands Enterprise many of the islands' populations have begun to increase after decades of decline.", "The discovery of substantial deposits of North Sea oil in 1965 and the renewables sector have contributed to a degree of economic stability in recent decades.", "For example, the Arnish yard has had a chequered history but has been a significant employer in both the oil and renewables industries.The widespread immigration of mainlanders, particularly non-Gaelic speakers, has been a subject of controversy.Agriculture practised by crofters remained popular in the 21st century in the Hebrides; crofters own a small property but often share a large common grazing area.", "Various types of funding are available to crofters to help supplement their incomes, including the \"Basic Payment Scheme, the suckler beef support scheme, the upland sheep support scheme and the Less Favoured Area support scheme\".", "One reliable source discussed the Crofting Agricultural Grant Scheme (CAGS) in March 2020:the scheme \"pays up to £25,000 per claim in any two-year period, covering 80% of investment costs for those who are under 41 and have had their croft less than five years.", "Older, more established crofters can get 60% grants\"." ], [ "Media and the arts", "===Music===Entrance to Fingal's Cave, StaffaMany contemporary Gaelic musicians have roots in the Hebrides, including vocalist and multi-instrumentalist Julie Fowlis (North Uist), Catherine-Ann MacPhee (Barra), Kathleen MacInnes of the band Capercaillie (South Uist), and Ishbel MacAskill (Lewis).", "All of these singers have composed their own music in Scottish Gaelic, with much of their repertoire stemming from Hebridean vocal traditions, such as '''' (“mouth music”, similar to Irish lilting) and '''' (waulking songs).", "This tradition includes many songs composed by little-known or anonymous poets, well-before the 1800s, such as \"\", \"\", \"\" and \"\".", "Several of Runrig's songs are inspired by the archipelago; Calum and were raised on North Uist and Donnie Munro on Skye.", "The fiddle and violin company ''' Skyinbow''' is named-after and based in Skye.", "Their instruments have been played by musicians such as Mairead Nesbitt, Cora Smyth and Eileen Ivers, and have been featured in productions such as Michael Flatley’s ''Lord of the Dance'', ''Feet of Flames'', and ''Riverdance''.===Literature===The Gaelic poet spent much of his life in the Hebrides and often referred to them in his poetry, including in '''' and ''''.", "The best known Gaelic poet of her era, (Mary MacPherson, 1821–98), embodied the spirit of the land agitation of the 1870s and 1880s.", "This, and her powerful evocation of the Hebrides—she was from Skye—has made her among the most enduring Gaelic poets.", "Allan MacDonald (1859–1905), who spent his adult life on Eriskay and South Uist, composed hymns and verse in honour of the Blessed Virgin, the Christ Child, and the Eucharist.", "In his secular poetry, MacDonald praised the beauty of Eriskay and its people.", "In his verse drama, '''' (''The Old Wives' Parliament''), he lampooned the gossiping of his female parishioners and local marriage customs.In the 20th century, Murdo Macfarlane of Lewis wrote '''', a well-known poem about the Gaelic revival in the Outer Hebrides.", "Sorley MacLean, the most respected 20th-century Gaelic writer, was born and raised on Raasay, where he set his best known poem, '''', about the devastating effect of the Highland Clearances.", ", raised on South Uist and described by MacLean as \"one of the few really significant living poets in Scotland, writing in any language\" (West Highland Free Press, October 1992) wrote the Scottish Gaelic-language novel '''' which was voted in the Top Ten of the 100 Best-Ever Books from Scotland.Virginia Woolf's ''To The Lighthouse'' is set on the Isle of Skye, part of the Inner Hebrides.", "===Film===*The area around the Inaccessible Pinnacle of of Skye provided the setting for the Scottish Gaelic feature film ''Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle'' (2006).", "The script was written by the actor, novelist, and poet Aonghas Phàdraig Chaimbeul, who also starred in the movie.", "*'''', an hour-long documentary in Scottish Gaelic, was made for BBC Alba documenting the battle to remove tolls from the Skye bridge.", "*The 1973 film, The Wicker Man, is set on the fictional Hebridean island of Summerisle.", "The filming itself took place i n Galloway and Skye *I Know Where I'm Going!", "(1945) is set on and was filmed on locations on Isle of Mull and the whirlpool in the Gulf of Corryvreckan.===Video games===*The 2012 exploration adventure game Dear Esther by developer The Chinese Room is set on an unnamed island in the Hebrides.", "*The Hebrides are featured in the 2021 video game ''Battlefield 2042'' as the setting of the multiplayer map Redacted, which was introduced into the game in October 2023.===Influence on visitors===*J.M.", "Barrie's ''Marie Rose'' contains references to Harris inspired by a holiday visit to Castle and he wrote a screenplay for the 1924 film adaptation of ''Peter Pan'' whilst on .", "*''The Hebrides'', also known as ''Fingal's Cave'', is a famous overture composed by Felix Mendelssohn while residing on these islands, while Granville Bantock composed the ''Hebridean Symphony''.", "*Enya's song \"Ebudæ\" from ''Shepherd Moons'' is named after the Hebrides (see below).", "*The 1973 British horror film ''The Wicker Man'' is set on the fictional Hebridean island of Summerisle.", "*The 2011 British romantic comedy ''The Decoy Bride'' is set on the fictional Hebrides island of Hegg." ], [ "Natural history", "In some respects the Hebrides lack biodiversity in comparison to mainland Britain; for example, there are only half as many mammalian species.", "However, these islands provide breeding grounds for many important seabird species including the world's largest colony of northern gannets.", "Avian life includes the corncrake, red-throated diver, rock dove, kittiwake, tystie, Atlantic puffin, goldeneye, golden eagle and white-tailed sea eagle.", "The latter was re-introduced to Rùm in 1975 and has successfully spread to various neighbouring islands, including Mull.", "There is a small population of red-billed chough concentrated on the islands of Islay and Colonsay.Red deer are common on the hills and the grey seal and common seal are present around the coasts of Scotland.", "Colonies of seals are found on Oronsay and the Treshnish Isles.", "The rich freshwater streams contain brown trout, Atlantic salmon and water shrew.", "Offshore, minke whales, orcas, basking sharks, porpoises and dolphins are among the sealife that can be seen.The open landscapes of BenbeculaHeather moor containing ling, bell heather, cross-leaved heath, bog myrtle and fescues is abundant and there is a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including Alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal.Loch Druidibeg on South Uist is a national nature reserve owned and managed by Scottish Natural Heritage.", "The reserve covers 1,677 hectares across the whole range of local habitats.", "Over 200 species of flowering plants have been recorded on the reserve, some of which are nationally scarce.", "South Uist is considered the best place in the UK for the aquatic plant slender naiad, which is a European Protected Species.Hedgehogs are not native to the Outer Hebrides—they were introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests—and their spread poses a threat to the eggs of ground nesting wading birds.", "In 2003, Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area although these were halted in 2007 due to protests.", "Trapped animals were relocated to the mainland." ], [ "See also", "*List of islands of Scotland*Scottish island names*Geology of Scotland*Timeline of prehistoric Scotland*Fauna of Scotland*New Hebrides*Languages of Scotland*Goidelic substrate hypothesis*Insular Celtic languages*Canadian Boat-Song*The Lewis Awakening (Religious Revival)" ], [ "References and footnotes", "===Notes======Citations======General references===*Ballin Smith, B. and Banks, I.", "(eds) (2002) ''In the Shadow of the Brochs, the Iron Age in Scotland''.", "Stroud.", "Tempus.", "*Ballin Smith, Beverley; Taylor, Simon; and Williams, Gareth (2007) ''West over Sea: Studies in Scandinavian Sea-Borne Expansion and Settlement Before 1300''.", "Leiden.", "Brill.", "*Benvie, Neil (2004) ''Scotland's Wildlife''.", "London.", "Aurum Press.", "*Buchanan, Margaret (1983) ''St Kilda: a Photographic Album''.", "W. Blackwood.", "*Buxton, Ben.", "(1995) ''Mingulay: An Island and Its People''.", "Edinburgh.", "Birlinn.", "*Downham, Clare \"England and the Irish-Sea Zone in the Eleventh Century\" in Gillingham, John (ed) (2004) ''Anglo-Norman Studies XXVI: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 2003''.", "Woodbridge.", "Boydell Press.", "* First published in 1947 under title: ''Natural history in the Highlands & Islands''; by F. Fraser Darling.", "First published under the present title 1964.", "*Gammeltoft, Peder (2010) \" Shetland and Orkney Island-Names – A Dynamic Group \".", "''Northern Lights, Northern Words''.", "Selected Papers from the FRLSU Conference, Kirkwall 2009, edited by Robert McColl Millar.", "* \"Occasional Paper No 10: Statistics for Inhabited Islands\".", "(28 November 2003) General Register Office for Scotland.", "Edinburgh.", "Retrieved 22 January 2011.", "*Gillies, Hugh Cameron (1906) ''The Place Names of Argyll''.", "London.", "David Nutt.", "*Gregory, Donald (1881) ''The History of the Western Highlands and Isles of Scotland 1493–1625.''", "Edinburgh.", "Birlinn.", "2008 reprint - originally published by Thomas D. Morrison.", "**Hunter, James (2000) ''Last of the Free: A History of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland''.", "Edinburgh.", "Mainstream.", "*Keay, J.", "& Keay, J.", "(1994) ''Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland''.", "London.", "HarperCollins.", "*Lynch, Michael (ed) (2007) ''Oxford Companion to Scottish History''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "**Maclean, Charles (1977) ''Island on the Edge of the World: the Story of St. Kilda''.", "Edinburgh.", "Canongate *Monro, Sir Donald (1549) ''A Description Of The Western Isles of Scotland''.", "Appin Regiment/Appin Historical Society.", "Retrieved 3 March 2007.First published in 1774.", "*Murray, W. H. (1966) ''The Hebrides''.", "London.", "Heinemann.", "*Murray, W.H.", "(1973) ''The Islands of Western Scotland.''", "London.", "Eyre Methuen.", "*Omand, Donald (ed.)", "(2006) ''The Argyll Book''.", "Edinburgh.", "Birlinn.", "*Ordnance Survey (2009) \"Get-a-map\".", "Retrieved 1–15 August 2009.", "*Rotary Club of Stornoway (1995) ''The Outer Hebrides Handbook and Guide''.", "Machynlleth.", "Kittiwake.", "*Slesser, Malcolm (1970) ''The Island of Skye''.", "Edinburgh.", "Scottish Mountaineering Club.", "*Steel, Tom (1988) ''The Life and Death of St. Kilda''.", "London.", "Fontana.", "*Stevenson, Robert Louis (1995) ''The New Lighthouse on the Dhu Heartach Rock, Argyllshire''.", "California.", "Silverado Museum.", "Based on an 1872 manuscript and edited by Swearingen, R.G.", "*Thompson, Francis (1968) ''Harris and Lewis, Outer Hebrides''.", "Newton Abbot.", "David & Charles.", "*Watson, W. J.", "(1994) ''The Celtic Place-Names of Scotland''.", "Edinburgh.", "Birlinn.", ".", "First published 1926.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Hebrides/Western Isles Guide* National Library of Scotland: SCOTTISH SCREEN ARCHIVE (selection of archive films about the Hebrides)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "HMS Dreadnought" ], [ "Introduction", "Several ships and one submarine of the Royal Navy have borne the name '''HMS ''Dreadnought''''' in the expectation that they would \"dread nought\", i.e.", "\"fear nothing\".", "The 1906 ship, which revolutionized battleship design, became one of the Royal Navy's most famous vessels; battleships built after her were referred to as 'dreadnoughts', and earlier battleships became known as pre-dreadnoughts.", "* English ship ''Dreadnought'' (1553) was a 40-gun ship built in 1553.", "* was a 41-gun ship launched in 1573, rebuilt in 1592 and 1614, then broken up in 1648.", "* was a 52-gun third-rate ship of the line launched in 1654 as the ''Torrington'' for the Commonwealth of England Navy, renamed ''Dreadnought'' at the Restoration in 1660, and lost in 1690.", "* was a 60-gun fourth-rate ship of the line launched in 1691, rebuilt in 1706 and broken up 1748.", "* was a 60-gun ship of the line built at Portsmouth* was a 60-gun fourth rate launched in 1742 and sold 1784.", "* was a 98-gun second rate launched in 1801, converted to a hospital ship in 1827, and broken up 1857.", "* was a hospital ship, formerly HMS ''Caledonia''.", "* was a battleship launched in 1875 and hulked in 1903, then sold in 1908.", "* was a revolutionary battleship, launched in 1906 and sold for breakup in 1921.", "* was the UK's first nuclear-powered submarine, launched in 1960 and decommissioned in 1980.", "* will be the first of the UK's new ballistic missile submarines." ], [ "Battle honours", "*Armada, 1588*Cadiz, 1596*Lowestoft, 1665*Four Days' Battle, 1666*Orfordness, 1666*Sole Bay, 1672*Schooneveld, 1673*Texel, 1673*Barfleur, 1692*Passero, 1718*Cape Francois, 1757*Trafalgar, 1805" ], [ "See also", "*''Dreadnought'' was a gunboat that the garrison at Gibraltar launched in June 1782 during the Great Siege of Gibraltar.", "She was one of 12.Each was armed with an 18-pounder gun, and received a crew of 21 men drawn from Royal Navy vessels stationed at Gibraltar.", "provided ''Dreadnought''s crew.", "*''Dreadnought'' was a gunboat operating in North American waters in 1813.On 6 November 1813 she captured the schooners ''Polly'' and ''Cyrus''." ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "*Boniface, Patrick (2003) ''Dreadnought: Britain's First Nuclear Powered Submarine''.", "(Periscope Publishing).", "*Drinkwater, John (1905) ''A History of the Siege of Gibraltar, 1779-1783: With a Description and Account of that Garrison from the Earliest Times''.", "(J. Murray)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hartmann Schedel" ], [ "Introduction", "Opening from the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', showing Erfurt1493 Woodcut of the City of Rhodes, by Hartmann Schedel'''Hartmann Schedel''' (13 February 1440 – 28 November 1514) was a German historian, physician, humanist, and one of the first cartographers to use the printing press.", "He was born and died in Nuremberg.", "Matheolus Perusinus served as his tutor.", "Schedel is best known for his writing the text for the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', known as ''Schedelsche Weltchronik'' (English: ''Schedel's World Chronicle''), published in 1493 in Nuremberg.", "It was commissioned by Sebald Schreyer (1446–1520) and Sebastian Kammermeister (1446–1503).", "Maps in the ''Chronicle'' were the first ever illustrations of many cities and countries.With the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1447, it became feasible to print books and maps for a larger customer basis.", "Because they had to be handwritten, books had previously been rare and very expensive.Schedel was also a notable collector of books, art and old master prints.", "An album he had bound in 1504, which once contained five engravings by Jacopo de' Barbari, provides important evidence for dating de' Barbari's work." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Nuernberg schedel.JPG|NurembergFile:Nuremberg chronicles - CRACOVIA.png|KrakówFile:Nuremberg chronicles - BRESSLA.png|Breslau (Wrocław)File:Praha1493.jpg|PragueFile:Hans Boehm Pfeifer von Niklashausen Schedelsche Weltchronik.JPG|Hans Böhm, the \"Pauker von Niklashausen\"File:Schedel judenfeindlichkeit.jpg|Blood libel: the supposed killing of a Christian boy at the hands of Jews in Trient in 1475.Simon of TrentFile:Schedel judenfeindlichkeit2.jpg|Burning of Jews for the supposed desecration of sacramental wafers in Deggendorf, Bavaria in 1492File:Schedel konstantinopel.jpg|Constantinople in 1493File:Hartmann-schedel-hierosolima-1493 2-BW-1147x965.jpg|JerusalemFile:Hartmann-schedel DESTRVCCIO-IHEROSOLIME 1493 1-1460x750.jpg|The destruction of Jerusalem by the ChaldeansFile:Nuremberg chronicles f 105r 1.png|Death of SenecaFile:Aesopnurembergchronicle.jpg| AesopFile:Nuremberg Chronicle World Map 1493 Cornell CUL PJM 1002 02.jpg|Uncolored Nuremberg Chronicle World Map (1493).File:Colored woodcut town view of Florence.jpg|View of Florence by Hartmann Schedel, Printed in Nuremberg by Anton Koberger in 1493." ], [ "Editions", "* Hartmann Schedel: ''Registrum huius operis libri cronicarum cu cum figuris et imagibus imaginibus ab inicio mudi mundi''.", "Nachdruck der Ausgabe Nürnberg, Koberger, 1493.Ostfildern: Quantum Books, 2002?.", "- CCXCIX, 51 S., * Hartmann Schedel: ''Register des Buchs der Croniken und geschichten mit figuren und pildnussen von anbeginn der welt bis auf dise unnsere Zeit''.", "Durch Georgium Alten ... in diss Teutsch gebracht.", "Reprint der Ausg.", "Nürnberg, Koberger, 1493, 1.Wiederdruck.", "München: Reprint-Verlag Kölbl, 1991.- 9, CCLXXXVI Bl., IDN: 947020551* Hartmann Schedel: ''Weltchronik.", "Nachdruck der kolorierten Gesamtausgabe von 1493''.", "Einleitung und Kommentar von Stephan Füssel.", "Augsburg: Weltbild, 2004.- 680 S., *Stephan Füssel (Hg.", "): ''Schedel'sche Weltchronik''.", "Taschen Verlag, Köln 2001.", "* Digitalisat der lateinischen Ausgabe (mit brasil-portugiesischer Bedien-Oberfläche)* Digitalisat der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek* Digitalisat der Beloit copy (Morse Library, Beloit College, Beloit, WI 53511, United States)* Holzschnitte aus einem der Exemplare der Bibliothèque nationale de France" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "*Elisabeth Rücker: ''Hartmann Schedels Weltchronik, das größte Buchunternehmen der Dürerzeit''.", "Verlag Prestel, München 1988.", "*Stephan Füssel (Hrsg.", "): ''500 Jahre Schedelsche Weltchronik''.", "Carl, Nürnberg 1994.", "*Peter Zahn: ''Hartmann Schedels Weltchronik.", "Bilanz der jüngeren Forschung''.", "In: Bibliotheksforum Bayern 24 (1996), 230-248*Christoph Reske: ''Die Produktion der Schedelschen Weltchronik in Nürnberg''.", "Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2000.", "*Michael Zellmann-Rohrer, Constantine Hadavas, Selim S. Nahas: ''Liber Chronicarum Translation Volume 1''.", "Boston." ], [ "External links", "******** Liber chronicarum.", "Nuremberg, Anton Koberger, 23 Dec. 1493.From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress" ] ]
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[ [ "Hexameter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hexameter''' is a metrical line of verses consisting of six feet (a \"foot\" here is the pulse, or major accent, of words in an English line of poetry; in Greek as well as in Latin a \"foot\" is not an accent, but describes various combinations of syllables).", "It was the standard epic metre in classical Greek and Latin literature, such as in the ''Iliad'', ''Odyssey'' and ''Aeneid''.", "Its use in other genres of composition include Horace's satires, Ovid's ''Metamorphoses,'' and the Hymns of Orpheus.", "According to Greek mythology, hexameter was invented by Phemonoe, daughter of Apollo and the first Pythia of Delphi.__TOC__" ], [ "Classical Hexameter", "In classical hexameter, the six feet follow these rules:* A foot can be made up of two long syllables (– –), a spondee; or a long and two short syllables, a dactyl (– υ υ).", "* The first four feet can contain either one of them.", "* The fifth is almost always a dactyl, and last must be a spondee/trochee (together forming an adonic).", "Exceptions can occur when a polysyllabic (especially Greek) name ends a verse.A short syllable (υ) is a syllable with a short vowel and no consonant at the end.", "A long syllable (–) is a syllable that either has a long vowel, one or more consonants at the end (or a long consonant), or both.", "Spaces between words are not counted in syllabification, so for instance \"cat\" is a long syllable in isolation, but \"cat attack\" would be syllabified as short-short-long: \"ca\", \"ta\", \"tack\" (υ υ –).Variations of the sequence from line to line, as well as the use of caesura (logical full stops within the line) are essential in avoiding what may otherwise be a monotonous sing-song effect." ], [ "Application", "Although the rules seem simple, it is hard to use classical hexameter in English, because English is a stress-timed language that condenses vowels and consonants between stressed syllables, while hexameter relies on the regular timing of the phonetic sounds.", "Languages having the latter properties (i.e., languages that are not stress-timed) include Ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian and Hungarian.While the above classical hexameter has never enjoyed much popularity in English, where the standard metre is iambic pentameter, English poems have frequently been written in iambic hexameter.", "There are numerous examples from the 16th century and a few from the 17th; the most prominent of these is Michael Drayton's ''Poly-Olbion'' (1612) in couplets of iambic hexameter.", "An example from Drayton (marking the feet)::Nor a | ny o | ther wold | like Cot | swold e | ver sped,:So rich | and fair | a vale | in for | tuning | to wed.In the 17th century the iambic hexameter, also called alexandrine, was used as a substitution in the heroic couplet, and as one of the types of permissible lines in lyrical stanzas and the Pindaric odes of Cowley and Dryden.Several attempts were made in the 19th century to naturalise the dactylic hexameter to English, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Arthur Hugh Clough and others, none of them particularly successful.", "Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote many of his poems in six-foot iambic and sprung rhythm lines.", "In the 20th century a loose ballad-like six-foot line with a strong medial pause was used by William Butler Yeats.", "The iambic six-foot line has also been used occasionally, and an accentual six-foot line has been used by translators from the Latin and many poets.In the late 18th century the hexameter was adapted to the Lithuanian language by Kristijonas Donelaitis.", "His poem ''\"Metai\" (The Seasons)'' is considered the most successful hexameter text in Lithuanian as yet.For dactylic hexameter poetry in Hungarian language, see Dactylic hexameter#In Hungarian.Albert Meyer (1893–1962, Berne, Switzerland, translated verses of Homer's Odyssey into the Swiss dialect of Berne.", "This dialect uses a natural form of hexameter.", "See http://www.edimuster.ch/baernduetsch/chaernduetsch.htm" ], [ "See also", "*Dactylic hexameter*Prosody (Latin)*Poetic meter" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Stephen Greenblatt et al.", "''The Norton Anthology of English Literature'', volume D, 9th edition (Norton, 2012).", "* Pausanias.", "''Description of Greece, Vol.", "IV.''", "Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A.", "(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd., 1918).", "* Pliny the Elder.", "''The Natural History.''", "Translated by John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S.", "H.T.", "Riley, Esq., B.A.", "(London: Taylor and Francis, 1855)." ], [ "External links", "* Hexametrica, a tutorial on Latin dactylic hexameter at Skidmore College* Hexameter.co, practice scanning lines of dactylic hexameter from a variety of Latin authors" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Timeline of Polish history" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a '''timeline of Polish history''', comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Poland and its predecessor states.", "To read about the background to these events, see History of Poland.", "See also the list of Polish monarchs and list of prime ministers of Poland.__NOTOC__ '''Centuries''': 5th6th7th8th9th10th11th12th13th14th15th16th17th18th19th20th21stSee also" ], [ "Prehistory", " Year Date Event 800 000BC First known humans on Polish lands 500 000BC Oldest Stone Tools 2400-2300BC Early Bronze Age 750-700BC Iron Age La Tene Culture" ], [ "5th century", " Year Date Event 450 First Slavic settlements (to 500)<!--" ], [ "6th century" ], [ "7th century" ], [ "8th century" ], [ "9th century", " Year Date Event 900 Vistulan tribal union-->" ], [ "10th century", " Year Date Event 910 Early stage of the Piast (Giecz-Gniezno area tribe) expansion (to 930) 960 Beginning of Polish State 965 Merchant Abraham ben Jacob mentions the city \"Karako\" (Currently Kraków) 966 April 14 Baptism of Poland 967 Battle of Mieszko I with Wichmann and Wolinians 970 Denarius becomes the currency of Poland 972 24 June Mieszko I defeats Odo I at the Battle of Cedynia 989 Lesser Poland is conquered 990 After a victory against Boleslaus II, Silesia is annexed 992 May 25 Death of Mieszko I 997 St. Adalbert baptises the citizens of Gyddannyzc (currently Gdańsk) 1000 March Congress of Gniezno" ], [ "11th century", " Year Date Event 1003 Bohemia and Moravia are annexed by Poland 1004 First war with Henry II starts 1007 Second war with Henry II starts 1015 Third war with Henry II starts 1018 January 30 Signing of the Peace of Bautzen (Budziszyn) with Henry II Bolesław I's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis 1025 April 18 Coronation of Bolesław I Chrobry June 17 Death of Bolesław I Chrobry the Brave December 25 Coronation of Mieszko II Lambert 1031 Bezprym organises a coup Mieszko II flees Ukrainian prince Yaroslav the Wise conquers Cherven Cities, while the Holy Roman Empire regains Lusatia 1032 Mieszko II Lambert returns to the country, duke Bezprym dies 1034 May 10 Death of Mieszko II Lambert 1034–39 Pagan uprisings against Christianization 1058 November 28 Death of Casimir I the Restorer 1076 December 26 Coronation of Bolesław II the Bold" ], [ "12th century", " Year Date Event 1102 June 4 Death of Władysław I Herman 1138 October 28 Death of Bolesław III Wrymouth; birth of Casimir II the Just 1173 January 5 Death of Bolesław IV the Curly 1182 The first Sejm 1194 May 5 Death of Casimir II" ], [ "13th century", " Year Date Event 1202 March 13 Death of Mieszko III the Old, High Duke of Poland 1211 May 16 Death of Mieszko IV Tanglefoot 1226 March 26 Issuance of Golden Bull of Rimini 1227 November 24 Assassination of Leszek I the White 1231 November 3 Death of Władysław III Spindleshanks 1238 March 19 Death of Henry I the Bearded 1241 First Mongol invasion of Poland April 9 Death of Henry II the Pious 1247 August 31 Death of Konrad I of Masovia 1264 September 8 Issuance of Statute of Kalisz 1279 December 7 Death of Bolesław V the Chaste 1288 September 30 Death of Leszek II the Black Władysław I Łokietek (the Elbow-high) inherits the lands of Poland 1290 June 23 Death of Henryk IV Probus 1295 June 26 Coronation of Przemysł II Coat of arms of Poland adopted by the King 1296 February 8 Assassination of Przemysł II 1300 August Coronation of Wenceslaus II" ], [ "14th century", " Year Date Event 1305 June 21 Death of Wenceslaus II 1306 August 4 Assassination of Wenceslaus III 1308 Teutonic takeover of Danzig 1311 Rebellion of wójt Albert begins 1312 Rebellion of wójt Albert ends 1320 January 20 Coronation of Władysław I the Elbow-high 1326 Polish–Teutonic War (1326–1332) begins 1332 Polish–Teutonic War concludes 1333 March 2 Death of Władysław I the Elbow-high April 25 Coronation of Casimir III 1335 Congress of Visegrád 1339 Congress of Visegrád 1343 July 8 Signing of the Treaty of Kalisz 1347 Wiślica Statutes 1364 Founding of Jagiellonian University 1370 November 5 Death of Kazimierz III the Great November 17 Coronation of Louis of Hungary 1374 September 17 Privilege of Koszyce 1382 September 10 Death of Louis of Hungary 1384 October 16 Coronation of Jadwiga 1385 August 14 Signing of the Union of Krewo 1386 March 4 Coronation of Władysław II Jagiełło 1399 July 17 Death of queen Jadwiga" ], [ "15th century", " Year Date Event 1401 Union of Vilnius and Radom 1409 Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War begins 1410 July 15 Battle of Grunwald won by Władysław II Jagiełło 1411 February 1 Signing of the First Peace of Thorn (Toruń) concludes the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War 1412 November 8 Signing of the Treaty of Lubowla 1413 October 2 Signing of the Union of Horodło 1414 Hunger War 1422 Gollub War begins September 27 Signing of the Treaty of Melno concludes the Gollub War 1424 Issuance of Edict of Wieluń 1431 Polish–Teutonic War (1431–1435) begins 1432 Signing of the Union of Grodno 1434 June 1 Death of Władysław II Jagiełło July 25 Coronation of Władysław III of Varna 1435 Polish–Teutonic War War concludes 1444 November 10 Death of Władysław III of Varna 1447 June 25 Coronation of Kazimierz IV Jagiellon 1454 Thirteen Years' War begins Statutes of Nieszawa 1466 October 19 Signing of the Second Peace of Thorn (Toruń) concludes the Thirteen Years' War 1473 Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474 published 1478 War of the Priests begins 1479 War of the Priests ends 1492 June 7 Death of Kazimierz IV Jagiellon September 23 Coronation of Jan I Olbracht 1496 Statutes of Piotrków 1499 Union of Kraków and Vilnius" ], [ "16th century", " Year Date Event 1501 June 17 Death of Jan I Olbracht October 3 Union of Mielnik December 12 Coronation of Alexander Jagiellon 1505 May 3 Signing of act of Nihil novi 1506 August 19 Death of Alexander Jagiellon 1507 January 24 Coronation of Sigismund I the Old 1513 Hortulus Animae, polonice published 1515 July First Congress of Vienna 1519 Polish–Teutonic War begins 1521 Polish–Teutonic War concludes 1525 April 8 Signing of the Treaty of Kraków April 10 Prussian Homage 1526 Annexation of Duchy of Masovia 1530 February 20 Coronation of Sigismund II Augustus 1537 Chicken War 1543 De revolutionibus orbium coelestium published 1548 April 1 Death of Zygmunt I the Old 1558 Livonian War begins 1561 November 28 Signing of Wilno Pact 1563 Northern Seven Years' War begins 1569 July 1 Signing of the Union of Lublin 1570 Signing of Sandomierz Agreement December 13 Signing of the Treaty of Stettin concludes the Northern Seven Years' War 1572 July 7 Death of Zygmunt II August 1573 January 28 Signing of the Warsaw Confederation May 11 Election of Henry of Valois 1574 February 21 Coronation of Henry Valois June 18 Flight of Henry Valois 1575 December 9 Election of Stephen Báthory 1576 1 May Coronation of Stephen Batory and Anna Jagiellon 1579 Founding of Vilnius University 1582 January 15 Signing of the Truce of Jam Zapolski concludes Commonwealth participation in the Livonian War October 15 Adoption of Gregorian calendar 1586 December 12 Death of Stefan Batory 1587 August 19 Election of Sigismund III Vasa December 27 Coronation of Sigismund III Waza 1591 Kosiński Uprising begins 1593 Kosiński Uprising ends 1594 Nalyvaiko Uprising begins 1596 Nalyvaiko Uprising ends Transfer of capital from Kraków to Warsaw Union of Brest concludes" ], [ "17th century", " Year Date Event 1605 Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18) begins 1606 Zebrzydowski Rebellion begins 1618 Signing of the Truce of Deulino concludes the Polish–Muscovite War 1620 Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21) begins 1621 Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21) ends 1625 Signing of the Treaty of Kurukove 1629 Signing of the Truce of Altmark 1632 Election Sejm Smolensk War begins April 30 Death of Sigismund III Waza November 8 Election of Władysław IV Vasa 1633 Polish–Ottoman War (1633–34) begins February 6 Coronation of Władysław IV Vasa 1634 Signing of the Treaty of Polanów concludes the Smolensk War Polish–Ottoman War ends 1635 September 12 Signing of the Treaty of Sztumska Wieś 1648 Khmelnytsky Uprising begins May 20 Death of Władysław IV Waza November 20 Election of John II Casimir Vasa 1649 January 19 Coronation of John II Casimir Vasa August 17 Signing of the Treaty of Zboriv 1651 June 14 Kostka-Napierski Uprising begins June 24 Kostka-Napierski Uprising ends September 28 Signing of the Treaty of Bila Tserkva 1654 Khmelnytskyi Uprising ends Russo-Polish War begins 1655 Deluge begins August 18 Signing of the Union of Kėdainiai December 29 Tyszowce Confederation formed 1657 September 9 Signing of the Treaty of Welawa November 6 Signing of the Treaty of Bydgoszcz 1658 September 16 Signing of the Treaty of Hadiach 1660 May 3 Signing of the Treaty of Oliva concludes the Deluge 1665 Lubomirski's Rokosz begins 1666 Lubomirski's Rokosz ends 1667 January 30 Signing of the Treaty of Andrusovo concludes the Russo-Polish War 1668 September 16 Abdication of John II Casimir Vasa 1669 June 16 Election of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki September 29 Coronation of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki 1672 Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76) begins October 18 Signing of the Peace of Buczacz 1673 November 10 Death of Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki 1674 May 19 Election of John III Sobieski 1676 February 2 Coronation of John III Sobieski October 17 Signing of the Treaty of Żurawno concludes the Polish–Ottoman War 1683 September 12 Battle of Vienna won under command of John III Sobieski 1686 Signing of the Eternal Peace Treaty 1696 June 17 Death of John III Sobieski 1697 June 27 Election of Augustus II the Strong September 15 Coronation of Augustus II the Strong 1699 Signing of the Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye January 26 Signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz concludes the Great Turkish War" ], [ "18th century", " Year Date Event 1704 February 16 Warsaw Confederation formed May 20 Sandomierz Confederation formed July 12 Election of Stanisław Leszczyński 1705 October 4 Coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński 1706 September 24 Signing of the Treaty of Altranstädt 1709 July 8 Restoration of August II the Strong 1715 Tarnogród Confederation begins 1716 Tarnogród Confederation ends 1717 February 1 Silent Sejm 1724 December 7 Tumult of Thorn 1733 War of the Polish Succession begins February 1 Death of August II the Strong October 5 Election of August III the Saxon 1734 January 17 Coronation of August III the Saxon November 5 Dzików Confederation formed 1736 Pacification Sejm 1738 November 18 Treaty of Vienna concludes the War of the Polish Succession 1763 October 5 Death of August III 1764 Convocation Sejm September 7 Election of Stanisław August Poniatowski November 25 Coronation of Stanisław August Poniatowski 1767 Repnin Sejm begins March 20 Słuck Confederation formed June 23 Radom Confederation formed 1768 Koliyivschyna Massacre of Uman February 29 Signing of the Bar Confederation 1772 First Partition of Poland 1773 October 14 Creation of Commission of National Education 1788 Great Sejm begins 1789 December 2 Black Procession 1790 March 29 Signing of Polish–Prussian alliance 1791 April 18 Free Royal Cities Act May 3 Adoption of Constitution of 3 May 1792 Polish–Russian War May 14 Signing of Targowica Confederation May 29 Great Sejm ends 1793 Second Partition of Poland Grodno Sejm 1794 March 24 Kościuszko Uprising begins March 24 Kościuszko's proclamation May 7 Issuance of Proclamation of Połaniec August 20 Greater Poland Uprising begins 1795 Third Partition of Poland November 25 Abdication of Stanisław August Poniatowski" ], [ "19th century", " Year Date Event 1806 November 3 Greater Poland Uprising begins.", "The Town of Łódź became a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw.", "1807 March 19 Beginning of the Siege of Danzig.", "May 24 End the Siege of Danzig.", "July 9 The second Treaty of Tilsit was signed.", "Białystok was captured by the Russian Empire.", "1809 October 14 Signing of the Treaty of Schönbrunn.", "1815 June 9 Congress of Vienna concludes.", "October 18 Free City of Kraków proclaimed.", "November 27 Adoption of Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland.", "1812 July 3 The forces of Napoleon invaded Białystok.", "1813 January Siege of Danzig occurred.", "1814 Prussia captured Gdańsk.", "1815 The Republic of Krakow was established.", "1820 January Kraków Town Hall was demolished excluding the tower.", "1824 The Lodka settlement was founded.", "1825 December 1 Death of Alexander I of Russia.", "1829 24 May Coronation of Nicholas I of Russia.", "1830 November 29 November Uprising begins.", "1831 Russian forces occupied Kraków.", "1832 Handelsakademie was founded.", "1834 Białystok prevented schools from teaching in the Polish language.", "1846 February 19 Kraków Uprising begins.", "March 4 Kraków Uprising ended.", "November 16 Free City of Kraków incorporated into the Austrian Empire.", "1848 Greater Poland Uprising.", "1850 July 18 Kraków fire of 1850 began.", "1863 January 22 January Uprising begins.", "1864 March 2 Abolition of serfdom in Congress Poland.", "1873 The School of Fine Arts and Academy of Learning became active.", "1879 The National Museum of Kraków was founded.", "1881 Great Synagogue was constructed in Łódź.", "1884 Alexander Nevsky Cathedral was constructed.", "1888 Karl Scheibler's Chapel was constructed.", "1892 Izrael Poznański factory was constructed.", "1898 The Volunteer Fire Department was founded." ], [ "20th century", " Year Date Event 1908 September 26 Bezdany raid near Vilna on a Russian imperial train 1916 November 5 Signing of the Act of 5th November between Germany and Austria 1917 July 9 Oath crisis by the departing Polish Legions led by Józef Piłsudski 1918 March 3 Signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Soviet Russia November 11 Poland regains independence with the formation of the Second Polish Republic following the Armistice of 11 November 1918===The Second Polish Republic (1918–1939)=== Year Date Event 1918 November 1 Polish–Ukrainian War begins, ends in 1919 November 11 Polish Independence Day, Warsaw is free from German troops of the Ober Ost December 27 Greater Poland Uprising begins, ends in 1919 1919 January 23–30 Polish–Czechoslovak War erupts following border disagreements January 26 Legislative election to the Sejm February 14 Polish–Soviet War begins February 16 Greater Poland Uprising ends February 20 Adoption of Small Constitution April 22 Proclamation to the inhabitants of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania about Międzymorze June 28 Treaty of Versailles (Articles 87–93) and Little Treaty ratify Poland as a sovereign state internationally August 16 First Silesian Uprising begins; Silesian Uprisings continue until 1921 August 22 Sejny Uprising after imperial Germany turned over administration to Lithuanian delegates 1920 February 10 Poland's Wedding to the Sea in Puck April 21 Signing of Treaty of Warsaw July 5–16 Spa Conference in Belgium August 12–25 Miracle of the Vistula during the Bolshevik invasion August 19 Second Silesian Uprising begins September 1 Polish–Lithuanian War continues over the Vilnius and Suwałki Regions October 6 Żeligowski's Mutiny resulting in the creation of the Republic of Central Lithuania 1921 February 19 Signing of the Franco-Polish alliance March 3 Polish–Romanian alliance signed in Bucharest March 17 Adoption of March Constitution March 18 Signing of the Peace of Riga with Lenin concludes the Polish-Soviet War March 20 Upper Silesia plebiscite rigged May 2 Third Silesian Uprising begins 1922 November 5–12 Legislative election December 9 Gabriel Narutowicz becomes President December 16 Assassination of Gabriel Narutowicz December 22 Stanisław Wojciechowski becomes President 1923 November 6 Krakow riot 1924 January 11 Władysław Grabski's monetary reform with Bank of Poland acting as an issuing bank 1925 December 1 Signing of the Locarno Treaties 1926 May 12–14 May Coup June 4 Ignacy Mościcki becomes President 1928 March 4–11 Legislative election Piłsudski's Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government election campaign 1930 November 16 Legislative election 1932 July 25 Signing of the Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact 1934 January 26 Signing of the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression 1935 April 23 Adoption of April Constitution May 12 Death of Józef Piłsudski September 15 Legislative election 1938 April 1 Territorial changes of Polish Voivodeships October Annexation of Trans-Olza November 6 Legislative election 1939 April 2 Suicide former Prime Minister of Walery Sławek August 23 Signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact August 25 Signing of the Polish–British Common Defence Pact August 29 Peking Plan begins, Polish destroyers moved to British ports August 31 Gleiwitz incident, pretext for the invasion===Occupation of Poland (1939–45)=== Year Date Event 1939 September 1 German Invasion of Poland begins; Bombing of Wieluń September 2 Massacre in Torzeniec village September 3 Bloody Sunday in Bydgoszcz September 8 German Massacre in Ciepielów of Polish POW September 13 Bombing of Frampol, up to 90% of the town destroyed September 17 Soviet invasion of Poland September 18 Orzeł incident, ORP submarine escapes to the United Kingdom September 18 The Fall of Warsaw October 1 General Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski elected President October 6 Poland completely occupied November 6 Sonderaktion Krakau operation against university professors 1940 March 5 Authorization of Katyń massacre May 16 Authorization of German AB-Aktion in Poland 1941 June 30 – July 29 Lviv pogroms July 2 Massacre of Lwów professors July 10 Jedwabne pogrom August 17 Signing of the Sikorski–Mayski agreement in London October 12 Stanisławów Ghetto Bloody Sunday massacre 1942 March 17 Bełżec extermination camp begins secretive Operation Reinhard May 16 Sobibór extermination camp starts mass gassing operations July 22 Treblinka extermination camp becomes ready for the Grossaktion Warsaw deportations 1943 March 26 Operation Arsenal, first major operation by the Szare Szeregi April 19 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising begins May 16 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends July 4 Death of Polish military leader Władysław Sikorski July 11 Bloody Sunday, the peak of Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia July 11–12 Zagaje massacre December 1 Tehran Conference concludes in the Soviet embassy in Tehran 1944 January 29 Koniuchy massacre by Soviet partisans February 28 Huta Pieniacka massacre by Ukrainian Grenadier Division of the Waffen-SS June 20 Glinciszki massacre by Lithuanian Auxiliary Police June 23 Dubingiai massacre by Home Army July 22 Proclamation of the PKWN Manifesto by Soviet-backed Polish Committee of National Liberation July 25 Operation Most III begins on the German V-2 rocket August Wola massacre in the opening phase of the Warsaw Uprising August 1 Warsaw Uprising begins October 2 Warsaw Uprising ends 1945 January 26 Przyszowice massacre February 11 Yalta Conference concludes March Pawłokoma massacre March 17 Poland's Wedding to the Sea in Mrzeżyno March 18 Poland's Wedding to the Sea in Kołobrzeg===Communist takeover, Polish People's Republic=== Year Date Event 1945 May 8 End of World War II in Europe June 18–21 Trial of the Sixteen Polish Underground leaders in Moscow July 10–25 Augustów roundup of anti-Communist partisans August 2 Potsdam Conference concludes between the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States August 11 Kraków pogrom with one dead victim 1946 June 30 People's referendum July 4 Kielce pogrom 1947 January 19 Legislative election rigged, 100,000 ORMO men deployed to intimidate voters February 19 Adoption of Small Constitution of 1947 April 28 Operation Vistula begins November 24 Auschwitz trial begins in Kraków 1950 July 6 Signing of the Treaty of Zgorzelec 1951 July 31 Trial of the Generals who served in the anti-Nazi resistance during World War II 1952 July 22 Adoption of Constitution of the People's Republic of Poland October 26 First Legislative election by the one-party rule 1955 May 14 Signing of the Warsaw Pact 1956 March 12 Death of Bolesław Bierut June 28 Poznań 1956 protests October 21 Polish October, return of Władysław Gomułka 1957 Legislative election 1961 Legislative election 1965 Legislative election Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops 1968 March Political crisis August 20 End of Prague Spring with the invasion of Czechoslovakia 1970 December 7 Signing of Treaty of Warsaw; Warschauer Kniefall December 14 1970 protests begin 1978 October 16 Election of Pope John Paul II 1980 Gdańsk Agreement March 14 LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 August 17 21 demands of MKS 1981 May 28 Death of Primate Poland Stefan Wyszyński 1981 December 13 Martial law begins 1983 Solidarity leader Lech Wałęsa receives the Nobel Peace Prize.", "July 22 Martial law ends 1984 Father Jerzy Popiełuszko murdered by Polish secret police.", "1989 April 4 Signing of the Round Table Agreement April 7 April Novelization June 4 Parliamentary election July 19 Lech Walesa becomes President August 24 Tadeusz Mazowiecki becomes first non-communist prime minister in the Eastern Bloc December 31 The People's Republic of Poland becomes the Republic of Poland===Democratic Republic of Poland=== Year Date Event 1990 May 27 Local elections November 14 Signing of German–Polish Border Treaty November 25 Presidential election December 22 Lech Wałęsa becomes President 1991 June 27 Mława riot after Romani youth kills pedestrian in a hit-and-run July 1 Dissolution of Warsaw Pact October 27 Parliamentary election 1992 October 17 Adoption of Small Constitution December 21 Signing of Central European Free Trade Agreement 1993 September 14 Lufthansa Flight 2904 September 19 Parliamentary election 1994 May 2 Poland bus disaster of 1994 June 19 Local elections 1995 November Presidential election December 23 Aleksander Kwaśniewski becomes President 1997 April 2 Adoption of Constitution September 21 Parliamentary election 1998 October 11 Local elections 1999 January 1 16 new voivodeships created in Polish local government reforms 1999 March 12 Poland joins NATO 2000 October 8 Presidential election" ], [ "21st century", " Year Date Event 2001 September 23 Parliamentary election 2002 Census October 27 Local elections 2003 April 16 Signing of the Treaty of Accession June European Union membership referendum 2004 1 May Poland joins in the European Union June 13 European Parliament election 2005 April 2 Death of Pope John Paul II September 25 Parliamentary election October Presidential election December 23 Lech Kaczyński becomes President 2006 January 28 Katowice Trade Hall roof collapse November Local elections 2007 October 21 Parliamentary election 2010 April 10 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash killing Polish President Lech Kaczyński 2010 July 4 Bronisław Komorowski elected president.", "2011 August 5 Suicide of Andrzej Lepper 2011 October 9 Parliamentary election 2012 March 3 A train crash near Szczekociny, Poland, kills 16 people.", "2014 April 27 Canonization of Pope John Paul II 2014 May 25 Death of Wojciech Jaruzelski 2015 May Presidential election 2015 August 6 Andrzej Duda becomes President2020October 22Women's strike protests.", "Part of the Polish constitutional crisis." ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of Białystok* Timeline of Gdańsk* Timeline of Kraków* Timeline of Łódź * Timeline of Poznań* Timeline of Szczecin* Timeline of Warsaw* Timeline of Wrocław* Category:Timelines of cities in Poland (in Polish)" ], [ "References", "*''Library of Congress'', A Country Study: Poland, Chronology of Important Events: online" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Himalia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Himalia''' may refer to:*Himalia (moon), a moon of Jupiter**Himalia group*Himalia (mythology), a nymph from Cyprus in Greek mythology*Himalia Ridge, a ridge on the Ganymede Heights massif on Alexander Island, Antarctica" ], [ "See also", "*Himalaya (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Heracleidae" ], [ "Introduction", "Heracles with his son Telephus, one of the HeracleidaeThe '''Heracleidae''' (; ) or '''Heraclids''' were the numerous descendants of Heracles (Hercules), especially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deianira (Hyllus was also sometimes thought of as Heracles' son by Melite).", "Other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus.", "These Heraclids were a group of Dorian kings who conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos; according to the literary tradition in Greek mythology, they claimed a right to rule through their ancestor.", "Since Karl Otfried Müller's ''Die Dorier'' (1830, English translation 1839), I. ch.", "3, their rise to dominance has been associated with a \"Dorian invasion\".", "Though details of genealogy differ from one ancient author to another, the cultural significance of the mythic theme, that the descendants of Heracles, exiled after his death, returned some generations later to reclaim land that their ancestors had held in Mycenaean Greece, was to assert the primal legitimacy of a traditional ruling clan that traced its origin, thus its legitimacy, to Heracles.In the historical period, several dynasties claimed descent from Heracles, such as the Agiads and Eurypontids of Sparta, or the Temenids of Macedonia." ], [ "Origin", "Heracles, whom Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of Argos, Lacedaemon and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the cunning of Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of Eurystheus, king of Mycenae.", "After the death of Heracles, his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus at Athens.", "Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain.", "Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to quit.", "They withdrew to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor of the Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae, adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory.After the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphylus and Dymas, voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Dorian tradition in Herodotus V. 72, really an Achaean), who thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three heroes.", "Desiring to reconquer his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for \"the third fruit\", (or \"the third crop\") and then enter Peloponnesus by \"a narrow passage by sea\".", "Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the isthmus of Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus, but was slain in single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea.", "This second attempt was followed by a third under Cleodaeus and a fourth under Aristomachus, both unsuccessful." ], [ "Dorian invasion", "At last, Temenus, Cresphontes and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them.", "They received the answer that by the \"third fruit\" the \"third generation\" was meant, and that the \"narrow passage\" was not the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of Rhium.", "They accordingly built a fleet at Naupactus, but before they set sail, Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by Apollo) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heracleidae had slain an Acarnanian soothsayer.The oracle, being again consulted by Temenus, bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide.", "On his way back to Naupactus, Temenus fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately pressed him into his service.", "According to another account, a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye.", "The Heracleidae repaired their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium, and thence to Rhium in Peloponnesus.", "A decisive battle was fought with Tisamenus, son of Orestes, the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain.", "This conquest was traditionally dated eighty years after the Trojan War.The Heracleidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot.", "Argos fell to Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons of Aristodemus; and Messenia to Cresphontes (tradition maintains that Cresphontes cheated in order to obtain Messenia, which had the best land of all.)", "The fertile district of Elis had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus.", "The Heracleidae ruled in Lacedaemon until 221 BCE, but disappeared much earlier in the other countries.This conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, commonly called the \"Dorian invasion\" or the \"Return of the Heraclidae\", is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons.", "The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as entirely mythical.", "They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven southward from their original northern home under pressure from the Thessalians.", "It is noticeable that there is no mention of these Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod.", "Herodotus (vi.", "52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding the death of Heracles." ], [ "List of Heracleidae", "===At Sparta===At Sparta, the Heraclids formed two dynasties ruling jointly: the Agiads and the Eurypontids.", "Other Spartiates also claimed Heraclid descent, such as Lysander.===At Corinth===At Corinth the Heraclids ruled as the Bacchiadae dynasty before the aristocratic revolution, which brought a Bacchiad aristocracy into power.=== At Argos ===Genealogy of the Argead DynastyA descendant of Heracles, Temenus, was the first king of Argos, who later counted the famous tyrant Pheidon.===At Macedonia===At Macedonia, the Heraclids formed the Argead Dynasty, whose name comes from Argos, as one of the Heraclids from this city, Perdiccas I, settled in Macedonia, where he founded his kingdom.", "By the time of Philip II the family had expanded their reign further, to include under the rule of Macedonia all Upper Macedonian states.", "Their most celebrated members were Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great, under whose leadership the kingdom of Macedonia gradually gained predominance throughout Greece, defeated the Achaemenid Empire and expanded as far as Egypt and India.", "The mythical founder of the Argead dynasty is King Caranus." ], [ "In Euripides' tragedy", "The Greek tragedians amplified the story, probably drawing inspiration from local legends which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus.The Heracleidae feature as the main subjects of Euripides' play, ''Heracleidae''.", "J.", "A. Spranger found the political subtext of ''Heracleidae'', never far to seek, so particularly apt in Athens towards the end of the peace of Nicias, in 419 BCE, that he suggested the date as that of the play's first performance.In the tragedy, Iolaus, Heracles' old comrade and nephew, and Heracles' children, Macaria and her brothers and sisters have hidden from Eurystheus in Athens, ruled by King Demophon; as the first scene makes clear, they expect that the blood relationship of the kings with Heracles and their father's past indebtedness to Theseus will finally provide them sanctuary.", "As Eurystheus prepares to attack, an oracle tells Demophon that only the sacrifice of a noble woman to Persephone can guarantee an Athenian victory.", "Macaria volunteers for the sacrifice and a spring is named the Macarian spring in her honor." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* ''Bibliotheca'' ii.", "8* Diodorus Siculus iv.", "57, 58* Pausanias i.", "32, 41, ii.", "13, 18, iii.", "I, iv.", "3, v. 3* Euripides, ''Heracleidae''* Pindar, ''Pythia,'' ix.", "137* Herodotus ix.", "27* Connop Thirlwall, ''History of Greece,'' ch.", "vii* George Grote, ''History of Greece,'' pt.", "i. ch.", "xviii* Georg Busolt, ''Griechische Geschichte,'' i. ch.", "ii.", "sec.", "7, where a list of modern authorities is given" ], [ "External links", "* Article by George Hinge* Greek Mythology Links* Timeless Mythology* Article about Dorian Invasion" ] ]
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[ [ "HIV" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''human immunodeficiency viruses''' ('''HIV''') are two species of ''Lentivirus'' (a subgroup of retrovirus) that infect humans.", "Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive.", "Without treatment, the average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.In most cases, HIV is a sexually transmitted infection and occurs by contact with or transfer of blood, pre-ejaculate, semen, and vaginal fluids.", "Non-sexual transmission can occur from an infected mother to her infant during pregnancy, during childbirth by exposure to her blood or vaginal fluid, and through breast milk.", "Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells.Research has shown (for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples) that HIV is untransmittable through condomless sexual intercourse if the HIV-positive partner has a consistently undetectable viral load.HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.", "HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through a number of mechanisms, including pyroptosis of abortively infected T cells, apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells, direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells.", "When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections, leading to the development of AIDS." ], [ "Virology", "===Classification===+Comparison of HIV species Species Virulence Infectivity Prevalence Inferred origin HIV-1 High High Global Common chimpanzee HIV-2 Lower Low West Africa Sooty mangabeyHIV is a member of the genus ''Lentivirus'', part of the family ''Retroviridae''.", "Lentiviruses have many morphologies and biological properties in common.", "Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period.", "Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA viruses.", "Upon entry into the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted (reverse transcribed) into double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, reverse transcriptase, that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle.", "The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, integrase, and host co-factors.", "Once integrated, the virus may become latent, allowing the virus and its host cell to avoid detection by the immune system, for an indeterminate amount of time.", "The virus can remain dormant in the human body for up to ten years after primary infection; during this period the virus does not cause symptoms.", "Alternatively, the integrated viral DNA may be transcribed, producing new RNA genomes and viral proteins, using host cell resources, that are packaged and released from the cell as new virus particles that will begin the replication cycle anew.Two types of HIV have been characterized: HIV-1 and HIV-2.HIV-1 is the virus that was initially discovered and termed both lymphadenopathy associated virus (LAV) and human T-lymphotropic virus 3 (HTLV-III).", "HIV-1 is more virulent and more infective than HIV-2, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally.", "The lower infectivity of HIV-2, compared to HIV-1, implies that fewer of those exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure.", "Due to its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2 is largely confined to West Africa.===Structure and genome===Diagram of the HIV virionHIV is similar in structure to other retroviruses.", "It is roughly spherical with a diameter of about 120 nm, around 100,000 times smaller in volume than a red blood cell.", "It is composed of two copies of positive-sense single-stranded RNA that codes for the virus' nine genes enclosed by a conical capsid composed of 2,000 copies of the viral protein p24.The single-stranded RNA is tightly bound to nucleocapsid proteins, p7, and enzymes needed for the development of the virion such as reverse transcriptase, proteases, ribonuclease and integrase.", "A matrix composed of the viral protein p17 surrounds the capsid ensuring the integrity of the virion particle.This is, in turn, surrounded by the viral envelope, that is composed of the lipid bilayer taken from the membrane of a human host cell when the newly formed virus particle buds from the cell.", "The viral envelope contains proteins from the host cell and relatively few copies of the HIV envelope protein, which consists of a cap made of three molecules known as glycoprotein (gp) 120, and a stem consisting of three gp41 molecules that anchor the structure into the viral envelope.", "The envelope protein, encoded by the HIV ''env'' gene, allows the virus to attach to target cells and fuse the viral envelope with the target cell's membrane releasing the viral contents into the cell and initiating the infectious cycle.A diagram of the HIV spike protein (green), with the fusion peptide epitope highlighted in red, and a broadly neutralizing antibody (yellow) binding to the fusion peptideAs the sole viral protein on the surface of the virus, the envelope protein is a major target for HIV vaccine efforts.", "Over half of the mass of the trimeric envelope spike is N-linked glycans.", "The density is high as the glycans shield the underlying viral protein from neutralisation by antibodies.", "This is one of the most densely glycosylated molecules known and the density is sufficiently high to prevent the normal maturation process of glycans during biogenesis in the endoplasmic and Golgi apparatus.", "The majority of the glycans are therefore stalled as immature 'high-mannose' glycans not normally present on human glycoproteins that are secreted or present on a cell surface.", "The unusual processing and high density means that almost all broadly neutralising antibodies that have so far been identified (from a subset of patients that have been infected for many months to years) bind to, or are adapted to cope with, these envelope glycans.The molecular structure of the viral spike has now been determined by X-ray crystallography and cryogenic electron microscopy.", "These advances in structural biology were made possible due to the development of stable recombinant forms of the viral spike by the introduction of an intersubunit disulphide bond and an isoleucine to proline mutation (radical replacement of an amino acid) in gp41.The so-called SOSIP trimers not only reproduce the antigenic properties of the native viral spike, but also display the same degree of immature glycans as presented on the native virus.", "Recombinant trimeric viral spikes are promising vaccine candidates as they display less non-neutralising epitopes than recombinant monomeric gp120, which act to suppress the immune response to target epitopes.", "Structure of the RNA genome of HIV-1The RNA genome consists of at least seven structural landmarks (LTR, TAR, RRE, PE, SLIP, CRS, and INS), and nine genes (''gag'', ''pol'', and ''env'', ''tat'', ''rev'', ''nef'', ''vif'', ''vpr'', ''vpu'', and sometimes a tenth ''tev'', which is a fusion of ''tat'', ''env'' and ''rev''), encoding 19 proteins.", "Three of these genes, ''gag'', ''pol'', and ''env'', contain information needed to make the structural proteins for new virus particles.", "For example, ''env'' codes for a protein called gp160 that is cut in two by a cellular protease to form gp120 and gp41.The six remaining genes, ''tat'', ''rev'', ''nef'', ''vif'', ''vpr'', and ''vpu'' (or ''vpx'' in the case of HIV-2), are regulatory genes for proteins that control the ability of HIV to infect cells, produce new copies of virus (replicate), or cause disease.The two ''tat'' proteins (p16 and p14) are transcriptional transactivators for the LTR promoter acting by binding the TAR RNA element.", "The TAR may also be processed into microRNAs that regulate the apoptosis genes ''ERCC1'' and ''IER3''.", "The ''rev'' protein (p19) is involved in shuttling RNAs from the nucleus and the cytoplasm by binding to the RRE RNA element.", "The ''vif'' protein (p23) prevents the action of APOBEC3G (a cellular protein that deaminates cytidine to uridine in the single-stranded viral DNA and/or interferes with reverse transcription).", "The ''vpr'' protein (p14) arrests cell division at G2/M.", "The ''nef'' protein (p27) down-regulates CD4 (the major viral receptor), as well as the MHC class I and class II molecules.", "''Nef'' also interacts with SH3 domains.", "The ''vpu'' protein (p16) influences the release of new virus particles from infected cells.", "The ends of each strand of HIV RNA contain an RNA sequence called a long terminal repeat (LTR).", "Regions in the LTR act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins from either HIV or the host cell.", "The Psi element is involved in viral genome packaging and recognized by ''gag'' and ''rev'' proteins.", "The SLIP element () is involved in the frameshift in the ''gag''-''pol'' reading frame required to make functional ''pol''.===Tropism===Diagram of the immature and mature forms of HIVThe term viral tropism refers to the cell types a virus infects.", "HIV can infect a variety of immune cells such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and microglial cells.", "HIV-1 entry to macrophages and CD4+ T cells is mediated through interaction of the virion envelope glycoproteins (gp120) with the CD4 molecule on the target cells' membrane and also with chemokine co-receptors.Macrophage-tropic (M-tropic) strains of HIV-1, or non-syncytia-inducing strains (NSI; now called R5 viruses) use the ''β''-chemokine receptor, CCR5, for entry and are thus able to replicate in both macrophages and CD4+ T cells.", "This CCR5 co-receptor is used by almost all primary HIV-1 isolates regardless of viral genetic subtype.", "Indeed, macrophages play a key role in several critical aspects of HIV infection.", "They appear to be the first cells infected by HIV and perhaps the source of HIV production when CD4+ cells become depleted in the patient.", "Macrophages and microglial cells are the cells infected by HIV in the central nervous system.", "In the tonsils and adenoids of HIV-infected patients, macrophages fuse into multinucleated giant cells that produce huge amounts of virus.T-tropic strains of HIV-1, or syncytia-inducing strains (SI; now called X4 viruses) replicate in primary CD4+ T cells as well as in macrophages and use the ''α''-chemokine receptor, CXCR4, for entry.Dual-tropic HIV-1 strains are thought to be transitional strains of HIV-1 and thus are able to use both CCR5 and CXCR4 as co-receptors for viral entry.The ''α''-chemokine SDF-1, a ligand for CXCR4, suppresses replication of T-tropic HIV-1 isolates.", "It does this by down-regulating the expression of CXCR4 on the surface of HIV target cells.", "M-tropic HIV-1 isolates that use only the CCR5 receptor are termed R5; those that use only CXCR4 are termed X4, and those that use both, X4R5.However, the use of co-receptors alone does not explain viral tropism, as not all R5 viruses are able to use CCR5 on macrophages for a productive infection and HIV can also infect a subtype of myeloid dendritic cells, which probably constitute a reservoir that maintains infection when CD4+ T cell numbers have declined to extremely low levels.Some people are resistant to certain strains of HIV.", "For example, people with the CCR5-Δ32 mutation are resistant to infection by the R5 virus, as the mutation leaves HIV unable to bind to this co-receptor, reducing its ability to infect target cells.Sexual intercourse is the major mode of HIV transmission.", "Both X4 and R5 HIV are present in the seminal fluid, which enables the virus to be transmitted from a male to his sexual partner.", "The virions can then infect numerous cellular targets and disseminate into the whole organism.", "However, a selection process leads to a predominant transmission of the R5 virus through this pathway.", "In patients infected with subtype B HIV-1, there is often a co-receptor switch in late-stage disease and T-tropic variants that can infect a variety of T cells through CXCR4.These variants then replicate more aggressively with heightened virulence that causes rapid T cell depletion, immune system collapse, and opportunistic infections that mark the advent of AIDS.", "HIV-positive patients acquire an enormously broad spectrum of opportunistic infections, which was particularly problematic prior to the onset of HAART therapies; however, the same infections are reported among HIV-infected patients examined post-mortem following the onset of antiretroviral therapies.", "Thus, during the course of infection, viral adaptation to the use of CXCR4 instead of CCR5 may be a key step in the progression to AIDS.", "A number of studies with subtype B-infected individuals have determined that between 40 and 50 percent of AIDS patients can harbour viruses of the SI and, it is presumed, the X4 phenotypes.HIV-2 is much less pathogenic than HIV-1 and is restricted in its worldwide distribution to West Africa.", "The adoption of \"accessory genes\" by HIV-2 and its more promiscuous pattern of co-receptor usage (including CD4-independence) may assist the virus in its adaptation to avoid innate restriction factors present in host cells.", "Adaptation to use normal cellular machinery to enable transmission and productive infection has also aided the establishment of HIV-2 replication in humans.", "A survival strategy for any infectious agent is not to kill its host, but ultimately become a commensal organism.", "Having achieved a low pathogenicity, over time, variants that are more successful at transmission will be selected.===Replication cycle===The HIV replication cycle====Entry to the cell===='''Mechanism of viral entry''': '''1.'''", "Initial interaction between gp120 and CD4.'''2.'''", "Conformational change in gp120 allows for secondary interaction with CXCR4.'''3.'''", "The distal tips of gp41 are inserted into the cellular membrane.", "'''4.'''", "gp41 undergoes significant conformational change; folding in half and forming coiled-coils.", "This process pulls the viral and cellular membranes together, fusing them.The HIV virion enters macrophages and CD4+ T cells by the adsorption of glycoproteins on its surface to receptors on the target cell followed by fusion of the viral envelope with the target cell membrane and the release of the HIV capsid into the cell.Entry to the cell begins through interaction of the trimeric envelope complex (gp160 spike) on the HIV viral envelope and both CD4 and a chemokine co-receptor (generally either CCR5 or CXCR4, but others are known to interact) on the target cell surface.", "Gp120 binds to integrin α4β7 activating LFA-1, the central integrin involved in the establishment of virological synapses, which facilitate efficient cell-to-cell spreading of HIV-1.The gp160 spike contains binding domains for both CD4 and chemokine receptors.The first step in fusion involves the high-affinity attachment of the CD4 binding domains of gp120 to CD4.Once gp120 is bound with the CD4 protein, the envelope complex undergoes a structural change, exposing the chemokine receptor binding domains of gp120 and allowing them to interact with the target chemokine receptor.", "This allows for a more stable two-pronged attachment, which allows the N-terminal fusion peptide gp41 to penetrate the cell membrane.", "Repeat sequences in gp41, HR1, and HR2 then interact, causing the collapse of the extracellular portion of gp41 into a hairpin shape.", "This loop structure brings the virus and cell membranes close together, allowing fusion of the membranes and subsequent entry of the viral capsid.After HIV has bound to the target cell, the HIV RNA and various enzymes, including reverse transcriptase, integrase, ribonuclease, and protease, are injected into the cell.", "During the microtubule-based transport to the nucleus, the viral single-strand RNA genome is transcribed into double-strand DNA, which is then integrated into a host chromosome.HIV can infect dendritic cells (DCs) by this CD4-CCR5 route, but another route using mannose-specific C-type lectin receptors such as DC-SIGN can also be used.", "DCs are one of the first cells encountered by the virus during sexual transmission.", "They are currently thought to play an important role by transmitting HIV to T cells when the virus is captured in the mucosa by DCs.", "The presence of FEZ-1, which occurs naturally in neurons, is believed to prevent the infection of cells by HIV.Clathrin-mediated endocytosisHIV-1 entry, as well as entry of many other retroviruses, has long been believed to occur exclusively at the plasma membrane.", "More recently, however, productive infection by pH-independent, clathrin-mediated endocytosis of HIV-1 has also been reported and was recently suggested to constitute the only route of productive entry.====Replication and transcription====Reverse transcription of the HIV genome into double-stranded DNAShortly after the viral capsid enters the cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase liberates the positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome from the attached viral proteins and copies it into a complementary DNA (cDNA) molecule.", "The process of reverse transcription is extremely error-prone, and the resulting mutations may cause drug resistance or allow the virus to evade the body's immune system.", "The reverse transcriptase also has ribonuclease activity that degrades the viral RNA during the synthesis of cDNA, as well as DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity that creates a sense DNA from the ''antisense'' cDNA.", "Together, the cDNA and its complement form a double-stranded viral DNA that is then transported into the cell nucleus.", "The integration of the viral DNA into the host cell's genome is carried out by another viral enzyme called integrase.The integrated viral DNA may then lie dormant, in the latent stage of HIV infection.", "To actively produce the virus, certain cellular transcription factors need to be present, the most important of which is NF-''κ''B (nuclear factor kappa B), which is upregulated when T cells become activated.", "This means that those cells most likely to be targeted, entered and subsequently killed by HIV are those actively fighting infection.During viral replication, the integrated DNA provirus is transcribed into RNA.", "The full-length genomic RNAs (gRNA) can be packaged into new viral particles in a pseudodiploid form.", "The selectivity in the packaging is explained by the structural properties of the dimeric conformer of the gRNA.", "The gRNA dimer is characterized by a tandem three-way junction within the gRNA monomer, in which the SD and AUG hairpins, responsible for splicing and translation respectively, are sequestered and the DIS (dimerization initiation signal) hairpin is exposed.", "The formation of the gRNA dimer is mediated by a 'kissing' interaction between the DIS hairpin loops of the gRNA monomers.", "At the same time, certain guanosine residues in the gRNA are made available for binding of the nucleocapsid (NC) protein leading to the subsequent virion assembly.", "The labile gRNA dimer has been also reported to achieve a more stable conformation following the NC binding, in which both the DIS and the U5:AUG regions of the gRNA participate in extensive base pairing.RNA can also be processed to produce mature messenger RNAs (mRNAs).", "In most cases, this processing involves RNA splicing to produce mRNAs that are shorter than the full-length genome.", "Which part of the RNA is removed during RNA splicing determines which of the HIV protein-coding sequences is translated.Mature HIV mRNAs are exported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where they are translated to produce HIV proteins, including Rev.", "As the newly produced Rev protein is produced it moves to the nucleus, where it binds to full-length, unspliced copies of virus RNAs and allows them to leave the nucleus.", "Some of these full-length RNAs function as mRNAs that are translated to produce the structural proteins Gag and Env.", "Gag proteins bind to copies of the virus RNA genome to package them into new virus particles.HIV-1 and HIV-2 appear to package their RNA differently.", "HIV-1 will bind to any appropriate RNA.", "HIV-2 will preferentially bind to the mRNA that was used to create the Gag protein itself.====Recombination====Two RNA genomes are encapsidated in each HIV-1 particle (see Structure and genome of HIV).", "Upon infection and replication catalyzed by reverse transcriptase, recombination between the two genomes can occur.", "Recombination occurs as the single-strand, positive-sense RNA genomes are reverse transcribed to form DNA.", "During reverse transcription, the nascent DNA can switch multiple times between the two copies of the viral RNA.", "This form of recombination is known as copy-choice.", "Recombination events may occur throughout the genome.", "Anywhere from two to 20 recombination events per genome may occur at each replication cycle, and these events can rapidly shuffle the genetic information that is transmitted from parental to progeny genomes.Viral recombination produces genetic variation that likely contributes to the evolution of resistance to anti-retroviral therapy.", "Recombination may also contribute, in principle, to overcoming the immune defenses of the host.", "Yet, for the adaptive advantages of genetic variation to be realized, the two viral genomes packaged in individual infecting virus particles need to have arisen from separate progenitor parental viruses of differing genetic constitution.", "It is unknown how often such mixed packaging occurs under natural conditions.Bonhoeffer ''et al.''", "suggested that template switching by reverse transcriptase acts as a repair process to deal with breaks in the single-stranded RNA genome.", "In addition, Hu and Temin suggested that recombination is an adaptation for repair of damage in the RNA genomes.", "Strand switching (copy-choice recombination) by reverse transcriptase could generate an undamaged copy of genomic DNA from two damaged single-stranded RNA genome copies.", "This view of the adaptive benefit of recombination in HIV could explain why each HIV particle contains two complete genomes, rather than one.", "Furthermore, the view that recombination is a repair process implies that the benefit of repair can occur at each replication cycle, and that this benefit can be realized whether or not the two genomes differ genetically.", "On the view that recombination in HIV is a repair process, the generation of recombinational variation would be a consequence, but not the cause of, the evolution of template switching.HIV-1 infection causes chronic inflammation and production of reactive oxygen species.", "Thus, the HIV genome may be vulnerable to oxidative damage, including breaks in the single-stranded RNA.", "For HIV, as well as for viruses in general, successful infection depends on overcoming host defense strategies that often include production of genome-damaging reactive oxygen species.", "Thus, Michod ''et al.''", "suggested that recombination by viruses is an adaptation for repair of genome damage, and that recombinational variation is a byproduct that may provide a separate benefit.====Assembly and release====surface of an infected macrophage.", "The HIV virions have been marked with a green fluorescent tag and then viewed under a fluorescent microscope.The final step of the viral cycle, assembly of new HIV-1 virions, begins at the plasma membrane of the host cell.", "The Env polyprotein (gp160) goes through the endoplasmic reticulum and is transported to the Golgi apparatus where it is cleaved by furin resulting in the two HIV envelope glycoproteins, gp41 and gp120.These are transported to the plasma membrane of the host cell where gp41 anchors gp120 to the membrane of the infected cell.", "The Gag (p55) and Gag-Pol (p160) polyproteins also associate with the inner surface of the plasma membrane along with the HIV genomic RNA as the forming virion begins to bud from the host cell.", "The budded virion is still immature as the gag polyproteins still need to be cleaved into the actual matrix, capsid and nucleocapsid proteins.", "This cleavage is mediated by the packaged viral protease and can be inhibited by antiretroviral drugs of the protease inhibitor class.", "The various structural components then assemble to produce a mature HIV virion.", "Only mature virions are then able to infect another cell.===Spread within the body===Animation demonstrating cell-free spread of HIVThe classical process of infection of a cell by a virion can be called \"cell-free spread\" to distinguish it from a more recently recognized process called \"cell-to-cell spread\".", "In cell-free spread (see figure), virus particles bud from an infected T cell, enter the blood or extracellular fluid and then infect another T cell following a chance encounter.", "HIV can also disseminate by direct transmission from one cell to another by a process of cell-to-cell spread, for which two pathways have been described.", "Firstly, an infected T cell can transmit virus directly to a target T cell via a virological synapse.", "Secondly, an antigen-presenting cell (APC), such as a macrophage or dendritic cell, can transmit HIV to T cells by a process that either involves productive infection (in the case of macrophages) or capture and transfer of virions ''in trans'' (in the case of dendritic cells).", "Whichever pathway is used, infection by cell-to-cell transfer is reported to be much more efficient than cell-free virus spread.", "A number of factors contribute to this increased efficiency, including polarised virus budding towards the site of cell-to-cell contact, close apposition of cells, which minimizes fluid-phase diffusion of virions, and clustering of HIV entry receptors on the target cell towards the contact zone.", "Cell-to-cell spread is thought to be particularly important in lymphoid tissues, where CD4+ T cells are densely packed and likely to interact frequently.", "Intravital imaging studies have supported the concept of the HIV virological synapse ''in vivo''.", "The many dissemination mechanisms available to HIV contribute to the virus' ongoing replication in spite of anti-retroviral therapies.===Genetic variability===The phylogenetic tree of the SIV and HIVHIV differs from many viruses in that it has very high genetic variability.", "This diversity is a result of its fast replication cycle, with the generation of about 1010 virions every day, coupled with a high mutation rate of approximately 3 x 10−5 per nucleotide base per cycle of replication and recombinogenic properties of reverse transcriptase.This complex scenario leads to the generation of many variants of HIV in a single infected patient in the course of one day.", "This variability is compounded when a single cell is simultaneously infected by two or more different strains of HIV.", "When simultaneous infection occurs, the genome of progeny virions may be composed of RNA strands from two different strains.", "This hybrid virion then infects a new cell where it undergoes replication.", "As this happens, the reverse transcriptase, by jumping back and forth between the two different RNA templates, will generate a newly synthesized retroviral DNA sequence that is a recombinant between the two parental genomes.", "This recombination is most obvious when it occurs between subtypes.The closely related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) has evolved into many strains, classified by the natural host species.", "SIV strains of the African green monkey (SIVagm) and sooty mangabey (SIVsmm) are thought to have a long evolutionary history with their hosts.", "These hosts have adapted to the presence of the virus, which is present at high levels in the host's blood, but evokes only a mild immune response, does not cause the development of simian AIDS, and does not undergo the extensive mutation and recombination typical of HIV infection in humans.In contrast, when these strains infect species that have not adapted to SIV (\"heterologous\" or similar hosts such as rhesus or cynomologus macaques), the animals develop AIDS and the virus generates genetic diversity similar to what is seen in human HIV infection.", "Chimpanzee SIV (SIVcpz), the closest genetic relative of HIV-1, is associated with increased mortality and AIDS-like symptoms in its natural host.", "SIVcpz appears to have been transmitted relatively recently to chimpanzee and human populations, so their hosts have not yet adapted to the virus.", "This virus has also lost a function of the ''nef'' gene that is present in most SIVs.", "For non-pathogenic SIV variants, ''nef'' suppresses T cell activation through the CD3 marker.", "''Nef'' function in non-pathogenic forms of SIV is to downregulate expression of inflammatory cytokines, MHC-1, and signals that affect T cell trafficking.", "In HIV-1 and SIVcpz, ''nef'' does not inhibit T-cell activation and it has lost this function.", "Without this function, T cell depletion is more likely, leading to immunodeficiency.Three groups of HIV-1 have been identified on the basis of differences in the envelope (''env'') region: M, N, and O.", "Group M is the most prevalent and is subdivided into eight subtypes (or clades), based on the whole genome, which are geographically distinct.", "The most prevalent are subtypes B (found mainly in North America and Europe), A and D (found mainly in Africa), and C (found mainly in Africa and Asia); these subtypes form branches in the phylogenetic tree representing the lineage of the M group of HIV-1.Co-infection with distinct subtypes gives rise to circulating recombinant forms (CRFs).", "In 2000, the last year in which an analysis of global subtype prevalence was made, 47.2% of infections worldwide were of subtype C, 26.7% were of subtype A/CRF02_AG, 12.3% were of subtype B, 5.3% were of subtype D, 3.2% were of CRF_AE, and the remaining 5.3% were composed of other subtypes and CRFs.", "Most HIV-1 research is focused on subtype B; few laboratories focus on the other subtypes.", "The existence of a fourth group, \"P\", has been hypothesised based on a virus isolated in 2009.The strain is apparently derived from gorilla SIV (SIVgor), first isolated from western lowland gorillas in 2006.HIV-2's closest relative is SIVsm, a strain of SIV found in sooty mangabees.", "Since HIV-1 is derived from SIVcpz, and HIV-2 from SIVsm, the genetic sequence of HIV-2 is only partially homologous to HIV-1 and more closely resembles that of SIVsm." ], [ "Diagnosis", "A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individual's disease course may vary considerably.", "Many HIV-positive people are unaware that they are infected with the virus.", "For example, in 2001 less than 1% of the sexually active urban population in Africa had been tested, and this proportion is even lower in rural populations.", "Furthermore, in 2001 only 0.5% of pregnant women attending urban health facilities were counselled, tested or received their test results.", "Again, this proportion is even lower in rural health facilities.", "Since donors may therefore be unaware of their infection, donor blood and blood products used in medicine and medical research are routinely screened for HIV.HIV-1 testing is initially done using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibodies to HIV-1.Specimens with a non-reactive result from the initial ELISA are considered HIV-negative, unless new exposure to an infected partner or partner of unknown HIV status has occurred.", "Specimens with a reactive ELISA result are retested in duplicate.", "If the result of either duplicate test is reactive, the specimen is reported as repeatedly reactive and undergoes confirmatory testing with a more specific supplemental test (e.g., a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), western blot or, less commonly, an immunofluorescence assay (IFA)).", "Only specimens that are repeatedly reactive by ELISA and positive by IFA or PCR or reactive by western blot are considered HIV-positive and indicative of HIV infection.", "Specimens that are repeatedly ELISA-reactive occasionally provide an indeterminate western blot result, which may be either an incomplete antibody response to HIV in an infected person or nonspecific reactions in an uninfected person.Although IFA can be used to confirm infection in these ambiguous cases, this assay is not widely used.", "In general, a second specimen should be collected more than a month later and retested for persons with indeterminate western blot results.", "Although much less commonly available, nucleic acid testing (e.g., viral RNA or proviral DNA amplification method) can also help diagnosis in certain situations.", "In addition, a few tested specimens might provide inconclusive results because of a low quantity specimen.", "In these situations, a second specimen is collected and tested for HIV infection.Modern HIV testing is extremely accurate, when the window period is taken into consideration.", "A single screening test is correct more than 99% of the time.", "The chance of a false-positive result in a standard two-step testing protocol is estimated to be about 1 in 250,000 in a low risk population.", "Testing post-exposure is recommended immediately and then at six weeks, three months, and six months.The latest recommendations of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) show that HIV testing must start with an immunoassay combination test for HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies and p24 antigen.", "A negative result rules out HIV exposure, while a positive one must be followed by an HIV-1/2 antibody differentiation immunoassay to detect which antibodies are present.", "This gives rise to four possible scenarios:* 1.HIV-1 (+) & HIV-2 (−): HIV-1 antibodies detected* 2.HIV-1 (−) & HIV-2 (+): HIV-2 antibodies detected* 3.HIV-1 (+) & HIV-2 (+): both HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies detected* 4.HIV-1 (−) or indeterminate & HIV-2 (−): Nucleic acid test must be carried out to detect the acute infection of HIV-1 or its absence." ], [ "Research", "HIV/AIDS research includes all medical research that attempts to prevent, treat, or cure HIV/AIDS, as well as fundamental research about the nature of HIV as an infectious agent and AIDS as the disease caused by HIV.Many governments and research institutions participate in HIV/AIDS research.", "This research includes behavioral health interventions, such as research into sex education, and drug development, such as research into microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases, HIV vaccines, and anti-retroviral drugs.", "Other medical research areas include the topics of pre-exposure prophylaxis, post-exposure prophylaxis, circumcision, and accelerated aging effects." ], [ "Treatment and transmission", "The management of HIV/AIDS normally includes the use of multiple antiretroviral drugs.", "In many parts of the world, HIV has become a chronic condition in which progression to AIDS is increasingly rare.HIV latency, and the consequent viral reservoir in CD4+ T cells, dendritic cells, as well as macrophages, is the main barrier to eradication of the virus.Although HIV is highly virulent, transmission does not occur through sex when an HIV-positive person has a consistently undetectable viral load (<50 copies/ml) due to anti-retroviral treatment.", "This was first argued by the Swiss Federal Commission for AIDS/HIV in 2008 in the Swiss Statement, though the statement was controversial at the time.", "However, following multiple studies, it became clear that the chance of passing on HIV through sex is effectively zero where the HIV-positive person has a consistently undetectable viral load; this is known as U=U, \"Undetectable=Untransmittable\", also phrased as \"can't pass it on\".", "The studies demonstrating U=U are: Opposites Attract, PARTNER 1, PARTNER 2, (for male-male couples) and HPTN052 (for heterosexual couples) when \"the partner living with HIV had a durably suppressed viral load.\"", "In these studies, couples where one partner was HIV positive and one partner was HIV negative were enrolled and regular HIV testing completed.", "In total from the four studies, 4097 couples were enrolled over four continents and 151,880 acts of condomless sex were reported; there were zero phylogenetically linked transmissions of HIV where the positive partner had an undetectable viral load.", "Following this, the U=U consensus statement advocating the use of \"zero risk\" was signed by hundreds of individuals and organisations, including the US CDC, British HIV Association and ''The Lancet'' medical journal.", "The importance of the final results of the PARTNER 2 study were described by the medical director of the Terrence Higgins Trust as \"impossible to overstate\", while lead author Alison Rodger declared that the message that \"undetectable viral load makes HIV untransmittable ... can help end the HIV pandemic by preventing HIV transmission.", "The authors summarised their findings in ''The Lancet'' as follows:This result is consistent with the conclusion presented by Anthony S. Fauci, the Director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases for the U.S. National Institutes of Health, and his team in a viewpoint published in the ''Journal of the American Medical Association'', that U=U is an effective HIV prevention method when an undetectable viral load is maintained.Genital herpes (HSV-2) reactivation in those infected with the virus have an associated increase in CCR-5 enriched CD4+ T cells as well as inflammatory dendritic cells in the submucosa of the genital skin.", "Tropism of HIV for CCR-5 positive cells explains the two to threefold increase in HIV acquisition among persons with genital herpes.", "Daily antiviral (e.g.", "acyclovir) medication does not reduce the sub-clinical post reactivation inflammation and therefore does not confer reduced risk of HIV acquisition." ], [ "History", "===Discovery===The first news story on \"an exotic new disease\" appeared May 18, 1981, in the gay newspaper ''New York Native''.AIDS was first clinically observed in 1981 in the United States.", "The initial cases were a cluster of injection drug users and gay men with no known cause of impaired immunity who showed symptoms of ''Pneumocystis'' pneumonia (PCP or PJP, the latter term recognizing that the causative agent is now called ''Pneumocystis jirovecii''), a rare opportunistic infection that was known to occur in people with very compromised immune systems.", "Soon thereafter, researchers at the NYU School of Medicine studied gay men developing a previously rare skin cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma (KS).", "Many more cases of PJP and KS emerged, alerting U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and a CDC task force was formed to monitor the outbreak.", "The earliest retrospectively described case of AIDS is believed to have been in Norway beginning in 1966.In the beginning, the CDC did not have an official name for the disease, often referring to it by way of the diseases that were associated with it, for example, lymphadenopathy, the disease after which the discoverers of HIV originally named the virus.", "They also used ''Kaposi's Sarcoma and Opportunistic Infections'', the name by which a task force had been set up in 1981.In the general press, the term ''GRID'', which stood for gay-related immune deficiency, had been coined.", "The CDC, in search of a name and looking at the infected communities, coined \"the 4H disease\", as it seemed to single out homosexuals, heroin users, hemophiliacs, and Haitians.", "However, after determining that AIDS was not isolated to the gay community, it was realized that the term GRID was misleading and ''AIDS'' was introduced at a meeting in July 1982.By September 1982 the CDC started using the name AIDS.In 1983, two separate research groups led by American Robert Gallo and French investigators and Luc Montagnier independently declared that a novel retrovirus may have been infecting AIDS patients, and published their findings in the same issue of the journal ''Science''.", "Gallo claimed that a virus his group had isolated from a person with AIDS was strikingly similar in shape to other human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs) his group had been the first to isolate.", "Gallo admitted in 1987 that the virus he claimed to have discovered in 1984 was in reality a virus sent to him from France the year before.", "Gallo's group called their newly isolated virus HTLV-III.", "Montagnier's group isolated a virus from a patient presenting with swelling of the lymph nodes of the neck and physical weakness, two classic symptoms of primary HIV infection.", "Contradicting the report from Gallo's group, Montagnier and his colleagues showed that core proteins of this virus were immunologically different from those of HTLV-I.", "Montagnier's group named their isolated virus lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV).", "As these two viruses turned out to be the same, in 1986 LAV and HTLV-III were renamed HIV.Another group working contemporaneously with the Montagnier and Gallo groups was that of Jay A.", "Levy at the University of California, San Francisco.", "He independently discovered the AIDS virus in 1983 and named it the AIDS associated retrovirus (ARV).", "This virus was very different from the virus reported by the Montagnier and Gallo groups.", "The ARV strains indicated, for the first time, the heterogeneity of HIV isolates and several of these remain classic examples of the AIDS virus found in the United States.===Origins===Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are believed to have originated in non-human primates in West-central Africa, and are believed to have transferred to humans (a process known as zoonosis) in the early 20th century.HIV-1 appears to have originated in southern Cameroon through the evolution of SIVcpz, a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that infects wild chimpanzees (HIV-1 descends from the SIVcpz endemic in the chimpanzee subspecies ''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'').", "The closest relative of HIV-2 is SIVsmm, a virus of the sooty mangabey (''Cercocebus atys atys''), an Old World monkey living in littoral West Africa (from southern Senegal to western Côte d'Ivoire).", "New World monkeys such as the owl monkey are resistant to HIV-1 infection, possibly because of a genomic fusion of two viral resistance genes.HIV-1 is thought to have jumped the species barrier on at least three separate occasions, giving rise to the three groups of the virus, M, N, and O.Left to right: the African green monkey source of SIV, the sooty mangabey source of HIV-2, and the chimpanzee source of HIV-1There is evidence that humans who participate in bushmeat activities, either as hunters or as bushmeat vendors, commonly acquire SIV.", "However, SIV is a weak virus, and it is typically suppressed by the human immune system within weeks of infection.", "It is thought that several transmissions of the virus from individual to individual in quick succession are necessary to allow it enough time to mutate into HIV.", "Furthermore, due to its relatively low person-to-person transmission rate, it can only spread throughout the population in the presence of one or more high-risk transmission channels, which are thought to have been absent in Africa prior to the 20th century.Specific proposed high-risk transmission channels, allowing the virus to adapt to humans and spread throughout the society, depend on the proposed timing of the animal-to-human crossing.", "Genetic studies of the virus suggest that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to .", "Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of colonialism and growth of large colonial African cities, leading to social changes, including different patterns of sexual contact (especially multiple, concurrent partnerships), the spread of prostitution, and the concomitant high frequency of genital ulcer diseases (such as syphilis) in nascent colonial cities.", "While transmission rates of HIV during vaginal intercourse are typically low, they are increased manyfold if one of the partners has a sexually transmitted infection resulting in genital ulcers.", "Early 1900s colonial cities were notable for their high prevalence of prostitution and genital ulcers to the degree that as of 1928 as many as 45% of female residents of eastern Leopoldville (currently Kinshasa) were thought to have been prostitutes and as of 1933 around 15% of all residents of the same city were infected by one of the forms of syphilis.The earliest, well-documented case of HIV in a human dates back to 1959 in the Belgian Congo.", "The virus may have been present in the United States as early as the mid- to late 1960s, as a sixteen-year-old male named Robert Rayford presented with symptoms in 1966 and died in 1969.An alternative and likely complementary hypothesis points to the widespread use of unsafe medical practices in Africa during years following World War II, such as unsterile reuse of single-use syringes during mass vaccination, antibiotic, and anti-malaria treatment campaigns.", "Research on the timing of most recent common ancestor for HIV-1 groups M and O, as well as on HIV-2 groups A and B, indicates that SIV has given rise to transmissible HIV lineages throughout the twentieth century.", "The dispersed timing of these transmissions to humans implies that no single external factor is needed to explain the cross-species transmission of HIV.", "This observation is consistent with both of the two prevailing views of the origin of the HIV epidemics, namely SIV transmission to humans during the slaughter or butchering of infected primates, and the colonial expansion of sub-Saharan African cities." ], [ "See also", "* Antiviral drug* Discovery and development of HIV-protease inhibitors* HIV/AIDS denialism* World AIDS Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "HOL" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hol''' or '''HOL''' may refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Hol (surname)* K'inich Popol Hol, 5th-century Mayan king" ], [ "Places", "* Hol, Norway, a municipality in Buskerud county, Norway** Old Hol Church* Hol, Tjeldsund* Hol, Nordland, Lofoten* Hol Church (Nordland)* Hol, Ludhiana, a village in India===Stations===* Hollywood station (Florida) (station code: HOL), USA* Holmesglen railway station (station code: HOL), Malvern East, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia* Holsworthy railway station, Sydney (station code: HOL), NSW, Australia* Holton Heath railway station (station code: HOL), England, UK" ], [ "Science and technology", "* HOL (proof assistant), theorem proving systems* Head-of-line blocking in computer networking* Higher-order logic, a branch of symbolic logic* Holonomy group in differential geometry" ], [ "Sports and games", "* ''Hol'' (role-playing game)* Hol IL, a sports club in Buskerud county* Hollingworth Lake Rowing Club (prefix code: HOL)* Holdsworth (cycling team) (UCI code HOL)* HOL, pre-1992 code for Netherlands at the Olympics" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hands On Learning Australia, a charity* Hellas On-Line, a Greek Internet service provider* Holiday Airlines (US airline) (ICAO airline code HOL)* Holu language (ISO 639 code hol)* tlhIngan Hol, fictional Klingon language* Netherlands, ITU code" ], [ "See also", "* Holl* * * h0i* HOI (disambiguation)* HO-1 (disambiguation), including HO1* H1 (disambiguation), including H01" ] ]
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[ [ "Hostile witness" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hostile witness''', also known as an '''adverse witness''' or an '''unfavorable witness''', is a witness at trial whose testimony on direct examination is either openly antagonistic or appears to be contrary to the legal position of the party who called the witness.", "This concept is used in the legal proceedings in the United States, and analogues of it exist in other legal systems in Western countries." ], [ "Process", "During direct examination, if the examining attorney who called the witness finds that their testimony is antagonistic or contrary to the legal position of their client, the attorney may request that the judge declare the witness \"hostile\".", "If the request is granted, the attorney may proceed to ask the witness leading questions.", "Leading questions either suggest the answer (\"You saw my client sign the contract, correct?\")", "or challenge (impeach) the witness's testimony.", "As a rule, leading questions are generally allowed only during cross-examination, but a hostile witness is an exception to this rule.In cross-examination conducted by the opposing party's attorney, a witness is presumed to be hostile and the examining attorney is not required to seek the judge's permission before asking leading questions.", "Attorneys can influence a hostile witness's responses by using Gestalt psychology to influence the way the witness perceives the situation, and utility theory to understand their likely responses.", "The attorney will integrate a hostile witness's expected responses into the larger case strategy through pretrial planning and through adapting as necessary during the course of the trial." ], [ "Jurisdiction", "===Australia===In the state of New South Wales, the term 'unfavourable witness' is defined by section 38 of the Evidence Act which permits the prosecution to cross-examine their own witness.", "For example, if the prosecution calls all material witnesses relevant to a case before the court, and any evidence given is not favourable to, or supports the prosecution case, or a witness has given a prior inconsistent statement, then the prosecution may seek leave of the court, via section 192, to test the witness in relation to their evidence.===New Zealand===In New Zealand, section 94 of the Evidence Act 2006 permits a party to cross-examine their own witness if the presiding judge determines the witness to be hostile and gives permission." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Federal Rules of Evidence - Rule 611: Mode and Order of Interrogation and Presentation" ] ]
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[ [ "Henry I of England" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry I''' ( – 1 December 1135), also known as '''Henry Beauclerc''', was King of England from 1100 to his death in 1135.He was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin and the liberal arts.", "On William's death in 1087, Henry's elder brothers Robert Curthose and William Rufus inherited Normandy and England, respectively, but Henry was left landless.", "He purchased the County of Cotentin in western Normandy from Robert, but his brothers deposed him in 1091.He gradually rebuilt his power base in the Cotentin and allied himself with William Rufus against Robert.Present in England with his brother William, who died in a hunting accident, Henry seized the English throne, promising at his coronation to correct many of William's less popular policies.", "He married Matilda of Scotland and they had two surviving children, Empress Matilda and William Adelin; he also had many illegitimate children by his numerous mistresses.", "Robert, who invaded from Normandy in 1101, disputed Henry's control of England; this military campaign ended in a negotiated settlement that confirmed Henry as king.", "The peace was short-lived, and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating Robert at the Battle of Tinchebray.", "Henry kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life.", "Henry's control of Normandy was challenged by Louis VI of France, Baldwin VII of Flanders and Fulk V of Anjou, who promoted the rival claims of Robert's son, William Clito, and supported a major rebellion in the Duchy between 1116 and 1119.Following Henry's victory at the Battle of Brémule, a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120.Considered by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler, Henry skilfully manipulated the barons in England and Normandy.", "In England, he drew on the existing Anglo-Saxon system of justice, local government and taxation, but also strengthened it with more institutions, including the royal exchequer and itinerant justices.", "Normandy was also governed through a growing system of justices and an exchequer.", "Many of the officials who ran Henry's system were \"new men\" of obscure backgrounds, rather than from families of high status, who rose through the ranks as administrators.", "Henry encouraged ecclesiastical reform, but became embroiled in a serious dispute in 1101 with Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury, which was resolved through a compromise solution in 1105.He supported the Cluniac order and played a major role in the selection of the senior clergy in England and Normandy.Henry's son William drowned in the ''White Ship'' disaster of 1120, throwing the royal succession into doubt.", "Henry took a second wife, Adeliza of Louvain, in the hope of having another son, but their marriage was childless.", "In response to this, he declared his daughter Matilda his heir and married her to Geoffrey of Anjou.", "The relationship between Henry and the couple became strained, and fighting broke out along the border with Anjou.", "Henry died on 1 December 1135 after a week of illness.", "Despite his plans for Matilda, the King was succeeded by his nephew Stephen of Blois, resulting in a period of civil war known as the Anarchy." ], [ "Early life, 1068–1099", "===Childhood and appearance, 1068–1086===Henry was probably born in England in 1068, in either the summer or the last weeks of the year, possibly in the town of Selby in Yorkshire.", "His father was William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy who had invaded England in 1066 to become the king of England, establishing lands stretching into Wales.", "The invasion had created an Anglo-Norman ruling class, many with estates on both sides of the English Channel.", "These Anglo-Norman barons typically had close links to the Kingdom of France, which was then a loose collection of counties and smaller polities, only nominally under control of the king.", "Henry's mother, Matilda of Flanders, was the granddaughter of Robert II of France, and she probably named Henry after her uncle, King Henry I of France.Henry was the youngest of William and Matilda's four sons.", "Physically he resembled his older brothers Robert Curthose, Richard and William Rufus, being, as historian David Carpenter describes, \"short, stocky and barrel-chested,\" with black hair.", "As a result of their age differences and Richard's early death, Henry would have probably seen relatively little of his older brothers.", "He probably knew his sister Adela well, as the two were close in age.", "There is little documentary evidence for his early years; historians Warren Hollister and Kathleen Thompson suggest he was brought up predominantly in England, while Judith Green argues he was initially brought up in the Duchy.", "He was probably educated by the Church, possibly by Bishop Osmund, the King's chancellor, at Salisbury Cathedral; it is uncertain if this indicated an intent by his parents for Henry to become a member of the clergy.", "It is also uncertain how far Henry's education extended, but he was probably able to read Latin and had some background in the liberal arts.", "He was given military training by an instructor called Robert Achard, and Henry was knighted by his father on 24 May 1086.===Inheritance, 1087–1088===13th-century depiction of HenryIn 1087, William was fatally injured during a campaign in the Vexin.", "Henry joined his dying father near Rouen in September, where the King partitioned his possessions among his sons.", "The rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain; in some parts of France, primogeniture, in which the eldest son would inherit a title, was growing in popularity.", "In other parts of Europe, including Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be divided, with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands – usually considered to be the most valuable – and younger sons given smaller, or more recently acquired, partitions or estates.In dividing his lands, William appears to have followed the Norman tradition, distinguishing between Normandy, which he had inherited, and England, which he had acquired through war.", "William's second son, Richard, had died in a hunting accident, leaving Henry and his two brothers to inherit William's estate.", "Robert, the eldest, despite being in armed rebellion against his father at the time of his death, received Normandy.", "England was given to William Rufus, who was in favour with the dying king.", "Henry was given a large sum of money, usually reported as £5,000, with the expectation that he would also be given his mother's modest set of lands in Buckinghamshire and Gloucestershire.", "William's funeral at Caen was marred by angry complaints from a local man, and Henry may have been responsible for resolving the dispute by buying off the protester with silver.Robert returned to Normandy, expecting to have been given both the Duchy and England, to find that William Rufus had crossed the Channel and been crowned king.", "The two brothers disagreed fundamentally over the inheritance, and Robert soon began to plan an invasion of England to seize the kingdom, helped by a rebellion by some of the leading nobles against William Rufus.", "Henry remained in Normandy and took up a role within Robert's court, possibly either because he was unwilling to side openly with William Rufus, or because Robert might have taken the opportunity to confiscate Henry's inherited money if he had tried to leave.", "William Rufus sequestered Henry's new estates in England, leaving Henry landless.In 1088, Robert's plans for the invasion of England began to falter, and he turned to Henry, proposing that his brother lend him some of his inheritance, which Henry refused.", "Henry and Robert then came to an alternative arrangement, in which Robert would make Henry the count of western Normandy, in exchange for £3,000.Henry's lands were a new countship created by a delegation of the ducal authority in the Cotentin, but it extended across the Avranchin, with control over the bishoprics of both.", "This also gave Henry influence over two major Norman leaders, Hugh d'Avranches and Richard de Redvers, and the abbey of Mont Saint-Michel, whose lands spread out further across the Duchy.", "Robert's invasion force failed to leave Normandy, leaving William Rufus secure in England.===Count of the Cotentin, 1088–90===Bishop Odo (wielding club at centre) who imprisoned Henry from 1088–1089.From the Bayeux Tapestry.Henry quickly established himself as count, building up a network of followers from western Normandy and eastern Brittany, whom the historian John Le Patourel has characterised as \"Henry's gang\".", "His early supporters included Roger of Mandeville, Richard of Redvers, Richard d'Avranches and Robert Fitzhamon, along with the churchman Roger of Salisbury.", "Robert attempted to go back on his deal with Henry and re-appropriate the county, but Henry's grip was already sufficiently firm to prevent this.", "Robert's rule of the duchy was chaotic, and parts of Henry's lands became almost independent of central control from Rouen.During this period, neither William nor Robert seems to have trusted Henry.", "Waiting until the rebellion against William Rufus was safely over, Henry returned to England in July 1088.He met with the King but was unable to persuade him to grant him their mother's estates, and travelled back to Normandy in the autumn.", "While he had been away, however, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who regarded Henry as a potential competitor, had convinced Robert that Henry was conspiring against the duke with William Rufus.", "On landing, Odo seized Henry and imprisoned him in Neuilly-la-Forêt, and Robert took back the county of the Cotentin.", "Henry was held there over the winter, but in the spring of 1089 the senior elements of the Normandy nobility prevailed upon Robert to release him.Although no longer formally the Count of Cotentin, Henry continued to control the west of Normandy.", "The struggle between his brothers continued.", "William Rufus continued to put down resistance to his rule in England, but began to build a series of alliances against Robert with barons in Normandy and neighbouring Ponthieu.", "Robert allied himself with Philip I of France.", "In late 1090 William Rufus encouraged Conan Pilatus, a powerful burgher in Rouen, to rebel against Robert; Conan was supported by most of Rouen and made appeals to the neighbouring ducal garrisons to switch allegiance as well.Robert issued an appeal for help to his barons, and Henry was the first to arrive in Rouen in November.", "Violence broke out, leading to savage, confused street fighting as both sides attempted to take control of the city.", "Robert and Henry left the castle to join the battle, but Robert then retreated, leaving Henry to continue the fighting.", "The battle turned in favour of the ducal forces and Henry took Conan prisoner.", "Henry was angry that Conan had turned against his feudal lord.", "He had him taken to the top of Rouen Castle and then, despite Conan's offers to pay a huge ransom, threw him off the top of the castle to his death.", "Contemporaries considered Henry to have acted appropriately in making an example of Conan, and Henry became famous for his exploits in the battle.===Fall and rise, 1091–1099===Mont Saint-Michel in Normandy, site of the 1091 siegeIn the aftermath, Robert forced Henry to leave Rouen, probably because Henry's role in the fighting had been more prominent than his own, and possibly because Henry had asked to be formally reinstated as the count of the Cotentin.", "In early 1091, William Rufus invaded Normandy with a sufficiently large army to bring Robert to the negotiating table.", "The two brothers signed a treaty at Rouen, granting William Rufus a range of lands and castles in Normandy.", "In return, William Rufus promised to support Robert's attempts to regain control of the neighbouring county of Maine, once under Norman control, and help in regaining control over the duchy, including Henry's lands.", "They nominated each other as heirs to England and Normandy, excluding Henry from any succession while either one of them lived.War now broke out between Henry and his brothers.", "Henry mobilised a mercenary army in the west of Normandy, but as William Rufus and Robert's forces advanced, his network of baronial support melted away.", "Henry focused his remaining forces at Mont Saint-Michel, where he was besieged, probably in March 1091.The site was easy to defend, but lacked fresh water.", "The chronicler William of Malmesbury suggested that when Henry's water ran short, Robert allowed his brother fresh supplies, leading to remonstrations between Robert and William Rufus.", "The events of the final days of the siege are unclear: the besiegers had begun to argue about the future strategy for the campaign, but Henry then abandoned Mont Saint-Michel, probably as part of a negotiated surrender.", "He left for Brittany and crossed over into France.Henry's next steps are not well documented; one chronicler, Orderic Vitalis, suggests that he travelled in the French Vexin, along the Normandy border, for over a year with a small band of followers.", "By the end of the year, Robert and William Rufus had fallen out once again, and the Treaty of Rouen had been abandoned.", "In 1092, Henry and his followers seized the Normandy town of Domfront.", "Domfront had previously been controlled by Robert of Bellême, but the inhabitants disliked his rule and invited Henry to take over the town, which he did in a bloodless coup.", "Over the next two years, Henry re-established his network of supporters across western Normandy, forming what Judith Green terms a \"court in waiting\".", "By 1094, he was allocating lands and castles to his followers as if he were the Duke of Normandy.", "William Rufus began to support Henry with money, encouraging his campaign against Robert, and Henry used some of this to construct a substantial castle at Domfront.William Rufus crossed into Normandy to take the war to Robert in 1094, and when progress stalled, called upon Henry for assistance.", "Henry responded, but travelled to London instead of joining the main campaign further east in Normandy, possibly at the request of the King, who in any event abandoned the campaign and returned to England.", "Over the next few years, Henry appears to have strengthened his power base in western Normandy, visiting England occasionally to attend at William Rufus's court.", "In 1095 Pope Urban II called the First Crusade, encouraging knights from across Europe to join.", "Robert joined the Crusade, borrowing money from William Rufus to do so, and granting the King temporary custody of his part of the Duchy in exchange.", "The King appeared confident of regaining the remainder of Normandy from Robert, and Henry appeared ever closer to William Rufus.", "They campaigned together in the Norman Vexin between 1097 and 1098." ], [ "Early reign, 1100–1106", "===Taking the throne, 1100===manuscript drawing of Henry's coronation.On the afternoon of 2 August 1100, King William Rufus went hunting in the New Forest, accompanied by a team of huntsmen and Norman nobility, including Henry.", "An arrow, possibly shot by the baron Walter Tirel, hit and killed William Rufus.", "Many conspiracy theories have been put forward suggesting that the King was killed deliberately; most modern historians reject these, as hunting was a risky activity and such accidents were common.", "Chaos broke out, and Tirel fled the scene for France, either because he had shot the fatal arrow, or because he had been incorrectly accused and feared that he would be made a scapegoat for the King's death.Henry rode to Winchester, where an argument ensued as to who now had the best claim to the throne.", "William of Breteuil championed the rights of Robert, who was still abroad, returning from the Crusade, and to whom Henry and the barons had given homage in previous years.", "Henry argued that, unlike Robert, he had been born to a reigning king and queen, thereby giving him a claim under the right of porphyrogeniture.", "Tempers flared, but Henry, supported by Henry de Beaumont and Robert of Meulan, held sway and persuaded the barons to follow him.", "He occupied Winchester Castle and seized the royal treasury.Henry was hastily crowned king in Westminster Abbey on 5 August by Maurice, the bishop of London, as Anselm, the archbishop of Canterbury, had been exiled by William Rufus, and Thomas, the archbishop of York, was in the north of England at Ripon.", "In accordance with English tradition and in a bid to legitimise his rule, Henry issued a coronation charter laying out various commitments.", "The new king presented himself as having restored order to a trouble-torn country.", "He announced that he would abandon William Rufus's policies towards the Church, which had been seen as oppressive by the clergy; he promised to prevent royal abuses of the barons' property rights, and assured a return to the gentler customs of Edward the Confessor; he asserted that he would \"establish a firm peace\" across England and ordered \"that this peace shall henceforth be kept\".As well as his existing circle of supporters, many of whom were richly rewarded with new lands, Henry quickly co-opted many of the existing administration into his new royal household.", "William Giffard, William Rufus's chancellor, was made the bishop of Winchester, and the prominent sheriffs Urse d'Abetot, Haimo Dapifer and Robert Fitzhamon continued to play a senior role in government.", "By contrast, the unpopular Ranulf Flambard, the bishop of Durham and a key member of the previous regime, was imprisoned in the Tower of London and charged with corruption.", "The late king had left many Church positions unfilled, and Henry set about nominating candidates to these, in an effort to build further support for his new government.", "The appointments needed to be consecrated, and Henry wrote to Anselm, apologising for having been crowned while the archbishop was still in France and asking him to return at once.===Marriage to Matilda, 1100===Henry's first wife, Matilda of ScotlandOn 11 November 1100 Henry married Matilda, the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland, in Westminster Abbey.", "Henry was now around 31 years old, but late marriages for noblemen were not unusual in the 11th century.", "The pair had probably first met earlier the previous decade, possibly being introduced through Bishop Osmund of Salisbury.", "Historian Warren Hollister argues that Henry and Matilda were emotionally close, but their union was also certainly politically motivated.", "Matilda had originally been named Edith, an Anglo-Saxon name, and was a member of the West Saxon royal family, being the niece of Edgar the Ætheling, the great-granddaughter of Edmund Ironside and a descendant of Alfred the Great.", "For Henry, marrying Matilda gave his reign increased legitimacy, and for Matilda, an ambitious woman, it was an opportunity for high status and power in England.Matilda had been educated in a sequence of convents and may well have taken the vows to formally become a nun, which formed an obstacle to the marriage progressing.", "She did not wish to be a nun and appealed to Anselm for permission to marry Henry, and the Archbishop established a council at Lambeth Palace to judge the issue.", "Despite some dissenting voices, the council concluded that although Matilda had lived in a convent, she had not actually become a nun and was therefore free to marry, a judgement that Anselm then affirmed, allowing the marriage to proceed.", "Matilda proved an effective queen for Henry, acting as a regent in England on occasion, addressing and presiding over councils, and extensively supporting the arts.", "The couple soon had two children, Matilda, born in 1102, and William Adelin, born in 1103; it is possible that they also had a second son, Richard, who died young.", "Following the birth of these children, Matilda preferred to remain based in Westminster while Henry travelled across England and Normandy, either for religious reasons or because she enjoyed being involved in the machinery of royal governance.Henry had a considerable sexual appetite and enjoyed a substantial number of sexual partners, resulting in many illegitimate children, at least nine sons and 13 daughters, many of whom he appears to have recognised and supported.", "It was normal for unmarried Anglo-Norman noblemen to have sexual relations with prostitutes and local women, and kings were also expected to have mistresses.", "Some of these relationships occurred before Henry was married, but many others took place after his marriage to Matilda.", "Henry had a wide range of mistresses from a range of backgrounds, and the relationships appear to have been conducted relatively openly.", "He may have chosen some of his noble mistresses for political purposes, but the evidence to support this theory is limited.===Treaty of Alton, 1101–1102===Early 14th-century depiction of HenryBy early 1101, Henry's new regime was established and functioning, but many of the Anglo-Norman elite still supported his brother Robert, or would be prepared to switch sides if Robert appeared likely to gain power in England.", "In February, Flambard escaped from the Tower of London and crossed the Channel to Normandy, where he injected fresh direction and energy to Robert's attempts to mobilise an invasion force.", "By July, Robert had formed an army and a fleet, ready to move against Henry in England.", "Raising the stakes in the conflict, Henry seized Flambard's lands and, with the support of Anselm, Flambard was removed from his position as bishop.", "The King held court in April and June, where the nobility renewed their oaths of allegiance to him, but their support still appeared partial and shaky.With the invasion imminent, Henry mobilised his forces and fleet outside Pevensey, close to Robert's anticipated landing site, training some of them personally in how to counter cavalry charges.", "Despite English levies and knights owing military service to the Church arriving in considerable numbers, many of his barons did not appear.", "Anselm intervened with some of the doubters, emphasising the religious importance of their loyalty to Henry.", "Robert unexpectedly landed further up the coast at Portsmouth on 20 July with a modest force of a few hundred men, but these were quickly joined by many of the barons in England.", "Instead of marching into nearby Winchester and seizing Henry's treasury, Robert paused, giving Henry time to march west and intercept the invasion force.The two armies met at Alton, Hampshire, where peace negotiations began, possibly initiated by either Henry or Robert, and probably supported by Flambard.", "The brothers then agreed to the Treaty of Alton, under which Robert released Henry from his oath of homage and recognised him as king; Henry renounced his claims on western Normandy, except for Domfront, and agreed to pay Robert £2,000 a year for life; if either brother died without a male heir, the other would inherit his lands; the barons whose lands had been seized by either the King or the Duke for supporting his rival would have them returned, and Flambard would be reinstated as bishop; the two brothers would campaign together to defend their territories in Normandy.", "Robert remained in England for a few months more with Henry before returning to Normandy.Despite the treaty, Henry set about inflicting severe penalties on the barons who had stood against him during the invasion.", "William de Warenne, the Earl of Surrey, was accused of fresh crimes, which were not covered by the Alton amnesty, and was banished from England.", "In 1102 Henry then turned against Robert of Bellême and his brothers, the most powerful of the barons, accusing him of 45 different offences.", "Robert escaped and took up arms against Henry.", "Henry besieged Robert's castles at Arundel, Tickhill and Shrewsbury, pushing down into the south-west to attack Bridgnorth.", "His power base in England broken, Robert accepted Henry's offer of banishment and left the country for Normandy.===Conquest of Normandy, 1103–1106===The village of Tinchebray in Normandy in 2008; the site of the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106Henry's network of allies in Normandy became stronger during 1103.He arranged the marriages of his illegitimate daughters, Juliane and Matilda, to Eustace of Breteuil and Rotrou III, Count of Perche, respectively, the latter union securing the Norman border.", "Henry attempted to win over other members of the Norman nobility and gave other English estates and lucrative offers to key Norman lords.", "Duke Robert continued to fight Robert of Bellême, but the Duke's position worsened, until by 1104, he had to ally himself formally with Bellême to survive.", "Arguing that the Duke had broken the terms of their treaty, the King crossed over the Channel to Domfront, where he met with senior barons from across Normandy, eager to ally themselves with him.", "He confronted the Duke and accused him of siding with his enemies, before returning to England.Normandy continued to disintegrate into chaos.", "In 1105, Henry sent his friend Robert Fitzhamon and a force of knights into the Duchy, apparently to provoke a confrontation with Duke Robert.", "Fitzhamon was captured, and Henry used this as an excuse to invade, promising to restore peace and order.", "Henry had the support of most of the neighbouring counts around Normandy's borders, and King Philip of France was persuaded to remain neutral.", "Henry occupied western Normandy, and advanced east on Bayeux, where Fitzhamon was held.", "The city refused to surrender, and Henry besieged it, burning it to the ground.", "Terrified of meeting the same fate, the town of Caen switched sides and surrendered, allowing Henry to advance on Falaise, Calvados, which he took with some casualties.", "His campaign stalled, and the King instead began peace discussions with Robert.", "The negotiations were inconclusive and the fighting dragged on until Christmas, when Henry returned to England.Henry invaded again in July 1106, hoping to provoke a decisive battle.", "After some initial tactical successes, he turned south-west towards the castle of Tinchebray.", "He besieged the castle and Duke Robert, supported by Robert of Bellême, advanced from Falaise to relieve it.", "After attempts at negotiation failed, the Battle of Tinchebray took place, probably on 28 September.", "The battle lasted around an hour, and began with a charge by Duke Robert's cavalry; the infantry and dismounted knights of both sides then joined the battle.", "Henry's reserves, led by Elias I, Count of Maine, and Alan IV, Duke of Brittany, attacked the enemy's flanks, routing first Bellême's troops and then the bulk of the ducal forces.", "Duke Robert was taken prisoner, but Bellême escaped.Henry mopped up the remaining resistance in Normandy, and Duke Robert ordered his last garrisons to surrender.", "Reaching Rouen, Henry reaffirmed the laws and customs of Normandy and took homage from the leading barons and citizens.", "The lesser prisoners taken at Tinchebray were released, but the Duke and several other leading nobles were imprisoned indefinitely.", "The Duke's son, William Clito, was only three years old and was released to the care of Helias of Saint-Saens, a Norman baron.", "Henry reconciled himself with Robert of Bellême, who gave up the ducal lands he had seized and rejoined the royal court.", "Henry had no way of legally removing the Duchy from his brother, and initially Henry avoided using the title \"duke\" at all, emphasising that, as the king of England, he was only acting as the guardian of the troubled Duchy." ], [ "Government, family and household", "===Government, law and court===Henry inherited the kingdom of England from William Rufus, giving him a claim of suzerainty over Wales and Scotland, and acquired the Duchy of Normandy, a complex entity with troubled borders.", "The borders between England and Scotland were still uncertain during Henry's reign, with Anglo-Norman influence pushing northwards through Cumbria, but his relationship with King David I of Scotland was generally good, partially due to Henry's marriage to his sister.", "In Wales, Henry used his power to coerce and charm the indigenous Welsh princes, while Norman Marcher Lords pushed across the valleys of South Wales.", "Normandy was controlled via interlocking networks of ducal, ecclesiastical and family contacts, backed by a growing string of important ducal castles along the borders.", "Alliances and relationships with neighbouring counties along the Norman border were particularly important to maintaining the stability of the Duchy.Henry ruled through the barons and lords in England and Normandy, whom he manipulated skilfully for political effect.", "Political friendships, termed ''amicitia'' in Latin, were important during the 12th century, and Henry maintained a wide range of these, mediating between his friends in factions across his realm when necessary, and rewarding those who were loyal to him.", "He also had a reputation for punishing those barons who stood against him, and he maintained an effective network of informers and spies who reported to him on events.", "Henry was a harsh, firm ruler, but not excessively so by the standards of the day.", "Over time, he increased the degree of his control over the barons, removing his enemies and bolstering his friends until the \"reconstructed baronage\", as historian Warren Hollister describes it, was predominantly loyal and dependent on the King.Henry's itinerant royal court comprised several parts.", "At the heart was his domestic household, called the ''domus''; a wider grouping was termed the ''familia regis'', and formal gatherings of the court were termed ''curia''.", "The ''domus'' was divided into several parts.", "The chapel, headed by the chancellor, looked after the royal documents, the chamber dealt with financial affairs and the master-marshal was responsible for travel and accommodation.", "The ''familia regis'' included Henry's mounted household troops, up to several hundred strong, who came from a wider range of social backgrounds, and could be deployed across England and Normandy as required.", "Initially Henry continued his father's practice of regular crown-wearing ceremonies at his ''curia'', but they became less frequent as the years passed.", "Henry's court was grand and ostentatious, financing the construction of large new buildings and castles with a range of precious gifts on display, including his private menagerie of exotic animals, which he kept at Woodstock Palace.", "Despite being a lively community, Henry's court was more tightly controlled than those of previous kings.", "Strict rules controlled personal behaviour and prohibited members of the court from pillaging neighbouring villages, as had been the norm under William Rufus.Henry was responsible for a substantial expansion of the royal justice system.", "In England, Henry drew on the existing Anglo-Saxon system of justice, local government and taxes, but strengthened it with more central governmental institutions.", "Roger of Salisbury began to develop the royal exchequer after 1110, using it to collect and audit revenues from the King's sheriffs in the shires.", "Itinerant justices began to emerge under Henry, travelling around the country managing eyre courts, and many more laws were formally recorded.", "Henry gathered increasing revenue from the expansion of royal justice, both from fines and from fees.", "The first Pipe Roll that is known to have survived dates from 1130, recording royal expenditures.", "Henry reformed the coinage in 1107, 1108 and in 1125, inflicting harsh corporal punishments to English coiners who had been found guilty of debasing the currency.", "In Normandy, he restored law and order after 1106, operating through a body of Norman justices and an exchequer system similar to that in England.", "Norman institutions grew in scale and scope under Henry, although less quickly than in England.", "Many of the officials that ran Henry's system were termed \"new men\", relatively low-born individuals who rose through the ranks as administrators, managing justice or the royal revenues.===Relations with the Church=======Church and the King====The seal of Archbishop Anselm of CanterburyHenry's ability to govern was intimately bound up with the Church, which formed the key to the administration of both England and Normandy, and this relationship changed considerably over the course of his reign.", "William the Conqueror had reformed the English Church with the support of his Archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfranc, who became a close colleague and advisor to the King.", "Under William Rufus this arrangement had collapsed, the King and Archbishop Anselm had become estranged and Anselm had gone into exile.", "Henry also believed in Church reform, but on taking power in England he became embroiled in the investiture controversy.The argument concerned who should invest a new bishop with his staff and ring: traditionally, this had been carried out by the King in a symbolic demonstration of royal power, but Pope Urban II had condemned this practice in 1099, arguing that only the papacy could carry out this task, and declaring that the clergy should not give homage to their local temporal rulers.", "Anselm returned to England from exile in 1100 having heard Urban's pronouncement, and informed Henry that he would be complying with the Pope's wishes.", "Henry was in a difficult position.", "On one hand, the symbolism and homage was important to him; on the other hand, he needed Anselm's support in his struggle with his brother Duke Robert.Anselm stuck firmly to the letter of the papal decree, despite Henry's attempts to persuade him to give way in return for a vague assurance of a future royal compromise.", "Matters escalated, with Anselm going back into exile and Henry confiscating the revenues of his estates.", "Anselm threatened excommunication, and in July 1105 the two men finally negotiated a solution.", "A distinction was drawn between the secular and ecclesiastical powers of the prelates, under which Henry gave up his right to invest his clergy, but retained the custom of requiring them to come and do homage for the temporalities, the landed properties they held in England.", "Despite this argument, the pair worked closely together, combining to deal with Duke Robert's invasion of 1101, for example, and holding major reforming councils in 1102 and 1108.A long-running dispute between the Archbishops of Canterbury and York flared up under Anselm's successor, Ralph d'Escures.", "Canterbury, traditionally the senior of the two establishments, had long argued that the Archbishop of York should formally promise to obey their Archbishop, but York argued that the two episcopates were independent within the English Church and that no such promise was necessary.", "Henry supported the primacy of Canterbury, to ensure that England remained under a single ecclesiastical administration, but the Pope preferred the case of York.", "The matter was complicated by Henry's personal friendship with Thurstan, the Archbishop of York, and the King's desire that the case should not end up in a papal court, beyond royal control.", "Henry needed the support of the Papacy in his struggle with Louis of France, however, and therefore allowed Thurstan to attend the Council of Rheims in 1119, where Thurstan was then consecrated by the Pope with no mention of any duty towards Canterbury.", "Henry believed that this went against assurances Thurstan had previously made and exiled him from England until the King and Archbishop came to a negotiated solution the following year.Even after the investiture dispute, Henry continued to play a major role in the selection of new English and Norman bishops and archbishops.", "He appointed many of his officials to bishoprics and, as historian Martin Brett suggests, \"some of his officers could look forward to a mitre with all but absolute confidence\".", "Henry's chancellors, and those of his queens, became bishops of Durham, Hereford, London, Lincoln, Winchester and Salisbury.", "Henry increasingly drew on a wider range of these bishops as advisors – particularly Roger of Salisbury – breaking with the earlier tradition of relying primarily on the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "The result was a cohesive body of administrators through which Henry could exercise careful influence, holding general councils to discuss key matters of policy.", "This stability shifted slightly after 1125, when he began to inject a wider range of candidates into the senior positions of the Church, often with more reformist views, and the impact of this generation would be felt in the years after Henry's death.====Personal beliefs and piety====The ruined chapter house of Reading Abbey in 2008Like other rulers of the period, Henry donated to the Church and patronised several religious communities, but contemporary chroniclers did not consider him an unusually pious king.", "His personal beliefs and piety may have developed during the course of his life; Henry had always taken an interest in religion, but in his later years he may have become much more concerned about spiritual affairs.", "If so, the major shifts in his thinking would appear to have occurred after 1120, when his son William Adelin died, and 1129, when his daughter's marriage teetered on the verge of collapse.As a proponent of religious reform, Henry gave extensively to reformist groups within the Church.", "He was a keen supporter of the Cluniac order, probably for intellectual reasons.", "He donated money to the abbey at Cluny itself, and after 1120 gave generously to Reading Abbey, a Cluniac establishment.", "Construction on Reading began in 1121, and Henry endowed it with rich lands and extensive privileges, making it a symbol of his dynastic lines.", "He also focused effort on promoting the conversion of communities of clerks into Augustinian canons, the foundation of leper hospitals, expanding the provision of nunneries, and the charismatic orders of the Savigniacs and Tironensians.", "He was an avid collector of relics, sending an embassy to Constantinople in 1118 to collect Byzantine items, some of which were donated to Reading Abbey." ], [ "Later reign, 1107–1135", "===Continental and Welsh politics, 1108–1114===Normandy faced an increased threat from France, Anjou and Flanders after 1108.King Louis VI succeeded to the French throne in 1108 and began to reassert central royal power.", "Louis demanded Henry give homage to him and that two disputed castles along the Normandy border be placed into the control of neutral castellans.", "Henry refused, and Louis responded by mobilising an army.", "After some arguments, the two kings negotiated a truce and retreated without fighting, leaving the underlying issues unresolved.", "Fulk V assumed power in Anjou in 1109 and began to rebuild Angevin authority.", "He inherited the county of Maine, but refused to recognise Henry as his feudal lord and instead allied himself with Louis.", "Robert II of Flanders also briefly joined the alliance, before his death in 1111.Denier coin of Henry's rival, Louis VI of FranceIn 1108, Henry betrothed his six-year-old daughter, Matilda, to Henry V, the future Holy Roman Emperor.", "For King Henry, this was a prestigious match; for Henry V, it was an opportunity to restore his financial situation and fund an expedition to Italy, as he received a dowry of £6,666 from England and Normandy.", "Raising this money proved challenging, and required the implementation of a special \"aid\", or tax, in England.", "Matilda was crowned German queen in 1110.Henry responded to the French and Angevin threat by expanding his own network of supporters beyond the Norman borders.", "Some Norman barons deemed unreliable were arrested or dispossessed, and Henry used their forfeited estates to bribe his potential allies in the neighbouring territories, in particular Maine.", "Around 1110, Henry attempted to arrest the young William Clito, but William's mentors moved him to the safety of Flanders before he could be taken.", "At about this time, Henry probably began to style himself as the duke of Normandy.", "Robert of Bellême turned against Henry once again, and when he appeared at Henry's court in 1112 in a new role as a French ambassador, he was arrested and imprisoned.Rebellions broke out in France and Anjou between 1111 and 1113, and Henry crossed into Normandy to support his nephew, Count Theobald II, Count of Champagne, who had sided against Louis in the uprising.", "In a bid to isolate Louis diplomatically, Henry betrothed his young son, William Adelin, to Fulk's daughter Matilda, and married his illegitimate daughter Matilda to Duke Conan III of Brittany, creating alliances with Anjou and Brittany respectively.", "Louis backed down and in March 1113 met with Henry near Gisors to agree a peace settlement, giving Henry the disputed fortresses and confirming Henry's overlordship of Maine, Bellême and Brittany.Meanwhile, the situation in Wales was deteriorating.", "Henry had conducted a campaign in South Wales in 1108, pushing out royal power in the region and colonising the area around Pembroke with Flemings.", "By 1114, some of the resident Norman lords were under attack, while in Mid-Wales, Owain ap Cadwgan blinded one of the political hostages he was holding, and in North Wales Gruffudd ap Cynan threatened the power of the Earl of Chester.", "Henry sent three armies into Wales that year, with Gilbert Fitz Richard leading a force from the south, Alexander, King of Scotland, pressing from the north and Henry himself advancing into Mid-Wales.", "Owain and Gruffudd sued for peace, and Henry accepted a political compromise.", "He reinforced the Welsh Marches with his own appointees, strengthening the border territories.===Rebellion, 1115–1120===pennies of Henry I, struck at the Oxford mintConcerned about the succession, Henry sought to persuade Louis VI to accept his son, William Adelin, as the legitimate future Duke of Normandy, in exchange for his son's homage.", "Henry crossed into Normandy in 1115 and assembled the Norman barons to swear loyalty; he also almost successfully negotiated a settlement with Louis, affirming William's right to the Duchy in exchange for a large sum of money.", "Louis, backed by his ally Baldwin of Flanders, instead declared that he considered William Clito the legitimate heir to the Duchy.War broke out after Henry returned to Normandy with an army to support Theobald of Blois, who was under attack from Louis.", "Henry and Louis raided each other's towns along the border, and a wider conflict then broke out, probably in 1116.Henry was pushed onto the defensive as French, Flemish and Angevin forces began to pillage the Normandy countryside.", "Amaury III of Montfort and many other barons rose up against Henry, and there was an assassination plot from within his own household.", "Henry's wife, Matilda, died in early 1118, but the situation in Normandy was sufficiently pressing that Henry was unable to return to England for her funeral.Henry responded by mounting campaigns against the rebel barons and deepening his alliance with Theobald.", "Baldwin of Flanders was wounded in battle and died in September 1118, easing the pressure on Normandy from the north-east.", "Henry attempted to crush a revolt in the city of Alençon, but was defeated by Fulk and the Angevin army.", "Forced to retreat from Alençon, Henry's position deteriorated alarmingly, as his resources became overstretched and more barons abandoned his cause.", "Early in 1119, Eustace of Breteuil and Henry's daughter, Juliana, threatened to join the baronial revolt.", "Hostages were exchanged in a bid to avoid conflict, but relations broke down and both sides mutilated their captives.", "Henry attacked and took the town of Breteuil, Eure, despite Juliana's attempt to kill her father with a crossbow.", "In the aftermath, Henry dispossessed the couple of almost all of their lands in Normandy.Henry's situation improved in May 1119 when he enticed Fulk to switch sides by finally agreeing to marry William Adelin to Fulk's daughter, Matilda, and paying Fulk a large sum of money.", "Fulk left for the Levant, leaving the County of Maine in Henry's care, and the King was free to focus on crushing his remaining enemies.", "During the summer Henry advanced into the Norman Vexin, where he encountered Louis's army, resulting in the Battle of Brémule.", "Henry appears to have deployed scouts and then organised his troops into several carefully formed lines of dismounted knights.", "Unlike Henry's forces, the French knights remained mounted; they hastily charged the Anglo-Norman positions, breaking through the first rank of the defences but then becoming entangled in Henry's second line of knights.", "Surrounded, the French army began to collapse.", "In the melee, Henry was hit by a sword blow, but his armour protected him.", "Louis and William Clito escaped from the battle, leaving Henry to return to Rouen in triumph.The war slowly petered out after this battle, and Louis took the dispute over Normandy to Pope Callixtus II's council in Reims that October.", "Henry faced French complaints concerning his acquisition and subsequent management of Normandy, and despite being defended by Geoffrey, the Archbishop of Rouen, Henry's case was shouted down by the pro-French elements of the council.", "Callixtus declined to support Louis, and merely advised the two rulers to seek peace.", "Amaury de Montfort came to terms with Henry, but Henry and William Clito failed to find a mutually satisfactory compromise.", "In June 1120, Henry and Louis formally made peace on terms advantageous to the King of England: William Adelin gave homage to Louis, and in return Louis confirmed William's rights to the Duchy.===Succession crisis, 1120–1124===Early 14th-century depiction of the sinking of the ''White Ship'' at Barfleur on 25 November 1120Henry's succession plans were thrown into chaos by the sinking of the ''White Ship'' on 25 November 1120.Henry had left the port of Barfleur for England in the early evening, leaving William Adelin and many of the younger members of the court to follow on that night in a separate vessel, the ''White Ship''.", "Both the crew and passengers were drunk and, just outside the harbour, the ship hit a submerged rock.", "The ship sank, killing as many as 300 people, with only one survivor, a butcher from Rouen.", "Henry's court was initially too scared to report William's death to the King.", "When he was finally told, he collapsed with grief.The disaster left Henry with no legitimate son, his nephews now the closest possible male heirs.", "Henry announced he would take a new wife, Adeliza of Louvain, opening up the prospect of a new royal son, and the two were married at Windsor Castle in January 1121.Henry appears to have chosen her because she was attractive and came from a prestigious noble line.", "Adeliza seems to have been fond of Henry and joined him in his travels, probably to maximise the chances of her conceiving a child.", "The ''White Ship'' disaster initiated fresh conflict in Wales, where the drowning of Richard, Earl of Chester, encouraged a rebellion led by Maredudd ap Bleddyn.", "Henry intervened in North Wales that summer with an army and, although he was hit by a Welsh arrow, the campaign reaffirmed royal power across the region.Henry's alliance with Anjou – which had been based on his son William marrying Fulk's daughter Matilda – began to disintegrate.", "Fulk returned from the Levant and demanded that Henry return Matilda and her dowry, a range of estates and fortifications in Maine.", "Matilda left for Anjou, but Henry argued that the dowry had in fact originally belonged to him before it came into the possession of Fulk, and so declined to hand the estates back to Anjou.", "Fulk married his daughter Sibylla to William Clito, and granted them Maine.", "Once again, conflict broke out, as Amaury de Montfort allied himself with Fulk and led a revolt along the Norman-Anjou border in 1123.Amaury was joined by several other Norman barons, headed by Waleran de Beaumont, one of the sons of Henry's old ally, Robert of Meulan.Henry dispatched Robert of Gloucester and Ranulf le Meschin to Normandy and then intervened himself in late 1123.He began the process of besieging the rebel castles, before wintering in the Duchy.", "In the spring of 1124, campaigning began again.", "In the battle of Bourgthéroulde, Odo Borleng, castellan of Bernay, Eure, led the King's army and received intelligence that the rebels were departing from the rebel base in Beaumont-le-Roger allowing him to ambush them as they traversed through the Brotonne forest.", "Waleran charged the royal forces, but his knights were cut down by Odo's archers and the rebels were quickly overwhelmed.", "Waleran was captured, but Amaury escaped.", "Henry mopped up the remainder of the rebellion, blinding some of the rebel leaders – considered, at the time, a more merciful punishment than execution – and recovering the last rebel castles.", "He paid Pope Callixtus a large amount of money, in exchange for the Papacy annulling the marriage of William Clito and Sibylla on the grounds of consanguinity.===Planning the succession, 1125–1134===Henry and Adeliza did not conceive any children, generating prurient speculation as to the possible explanation, and the future of the dynasty appeared at risk.", "Henry may have begun to look among his nephews for a possible heir.", "He may have considered Stephen of Blois as a possible option and, perhaps in preparation for this, he arranged a beneficial marriage for Stephen to a wealthy heiress, Matilda.", "Theobald of Blois, his close ally, may have also felt that he was in favour with Henry.", "William Clito, who was King Louis's preferred choice, remained opposed to Henry and was therefore unsuitable.", "Henry may have also considered his own illegitimate son, Robert of Gloucester, as a possible candidate, but English tradition and custom would have looked unfavourably on this.Henry's plans shifted when the Empress Matilda's husband, the Emperor Henry, died in 1125.The King recalled his daughter to England the next year and declared that, should he die without a male heir, she was to be his rightful successor.", "The Anglo-Norman barons were gathered together at Westminster at Christmas 1126, where they swore to recognise Matilda and any future legitimate heir she might have.", "Putting forward a woman as a potential heir in this way was unusual: opposition to Matilda continued to exist within the English court, and Louis was vehemently opposed to her candidacy.Fresh conflict broke out in 1127, when the childless Charles I, Count of Flanders, was murdered, creating a local succession crisis.", "Backed by King Louis, William Clito was chosen by the Flemings to become their new ruler.", "This development potentially threatened Normandy, and Henry began to finance a proxy war in Flanders, promoting the claims of William's Flemish rivals.", "In an effort to disrupt the French alliance with William, Henry mounted an attack into France in 1128, forcing Louis to cut his aid to William.", "William died unexpectedly in July, removing the last major challenger to Henry's rule and bringing the war in Flanders to a halt.", "Without William, the baronial opposition in Normandy lacked a leader.", "A fresh peace was made with France, and Henry was finally able to release the remaining prisoners from the revolt of 1123, including Waleran of Meulan, who was rehabilitated into the royal court.Meanwhile, Henry rebuilt his alliance with Fulk of Anjou, this time by marrying Matilda to Fulk's eldest son, Geoffrey.", "The pair were betrothed in 1127 and married the following year.", "It is unknown whether Henry intended Geoffrey to have any future claim on England or Normandy, and he was probably keeping his son-in-law's status deliberately uncertain.", "Similarly, although Matilda was granted several castles in Normandy as part of her dowry, it was not specified when the couple would actually take possession of them.", "Fulk left Anjou for Jerusalem in 1129, declaring Geoffrey the Count of Anjou and Maine.", "The marriage proved difficult, as the couple did not particularly like each other and the disputed castles proved a point of contention, resulting in Matilda returning to Normandy later that year.", "Henry appears to have blamed Geoffrey for the separation, but in 1131 the couple were reconciled.", "Much to the pleasure and relief of Henry, Matilda then gave birth to two sons, Henry and Geoffrey, in 1133 and 1134." ], [ "Death and legacy", "===Death===Early 14th-century depiction of Henry mourning the death of his sonRelations among Henry, Matilda, and Geoffrey became increasingly strained during the King's final years.", "Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England.", "In 1135 they urged Henry to hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda while he was still alive, and insisted that the Norman nobility swear immediate allegiance to her, thereby giving the couple a more powerful position after Henry's death.", "Henry angrily declined to do so, probably out of concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy.", "A fresh rebellion broke out among the barons in southern Normandy, led by William III, Count of Ponthieu, whereupon Geoffrey and Matilda intervened in support of the rebels.Henry campaigned throughout the autumn, strengthening the southern frontier, and then travelled to Lyons-la-Forêt in November to enjoy some hunting, still apparently healthy.", "There he fell ill – according to the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, he ate too many (\"a surfeit of\") lampreys against his physician's advice – and his condition worsened over the course of a week.", "Once the condition appeared terminal, Henry gave confession and summoned Archbishop Hugh of Amiens, who was joined by Robert of Gloucester and other members of the court.", "In accordance with custom, preparations were made to settle Henry's outstanding debts and to revoke outstanding sentences of forfeiture.", "The King died on 1 December 1135, and his corpse was taken to Rouen accompanied by the barons, where it was embalmed; his entrails were buried locally at the priory of Notre-Dame du Pré, and the preserved body was taken on to England, where it was interred at Reading Abbey.Despite Henry's efforts, the succession was disputed.", "When news began to spread of the King's death, Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which included a number of Matilda's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester.", "Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried, which prevented them from returning to England.", "The Norman nobility discussed declaring Theobald of Blois king.", "Theobald's younger brother, Stephen of Blois, quickly crossed from Boulogne to England, accompanied by his military household.", "Hugh Bigod dubiously testified that Henry, on his deathbed, had released the barons from their oath to Matilda, and with the help of his brother, Henry of Blois, Stephen seized power in England and was crowned king on 22 December.", "Matilda did not give up her claim to England and Normandy, appealing at first to the Pope against the decision to allow the coronation of Stephen, and then invading England to start a prolonged civil war, known as the Anarchy, between 1135 and 1153.===Historiography===Part of the Welsh ''Brut y Tywysogion'', one of the chronicler sources for Henry's reignHistorians have drawn on a range of sources on Henry, including the accounts of chroniclers; other documentary evidence, including early pipe rolls; and surviving buildings and architecture.", "The three main chroniclers to describe the events of Henry's life were William of Malmesbury, Orderic Vitalis, and Henry of Huntingdon, but each incorporated extensive social and moral commentary into their accounts and borrowed a range of literary devices and stereotypical events from other popular works.", "Other chroniclers include Eadmer, Hugh the Chanter, Abbot Suger, and the authors of the Welsh ''Brut''.", "Not all royal documents from the period have survived, but there are several royal acts, charters, writs, and letters, along with some early financial records.", "Some of these have since been discovered to be forgeries, and others had been subsequently amended or tampered with.Late medieval historians seized on the accounts of selected chroniclers regarding Henry's education and gave him the title of Henry \"Beauclerc\", a theme echoed in the analysis of Victorian and Edwardian historians such as Francis Palgrave and Henry Davis.", "The historian Charles David dismissed this argument in 1929, showing the more extreme claims for Henry's education to be without foundation.", "Modern histories of Henry commenced with Richard Southern's work in the early 1960s, followed by extensive research during the rest of the 20th century into a wide variety of themes from his reign in England, and a much more limited number of studies of his rule in Normandy.", "Only two major, modern biographies of Henry have been produced, C. Warren Hollister's posthumous volume in 2001, and Judith Green's 2006 work.Interpretation of Henry's personality by historians has altered over time.", "Earlier historians such as Austin Poole and Richard Southern considered Henry as a cruel, draconian ruler.", "More recent historians, such as Hollister and Green, view his implementation of justice much more sympathetically, particularly when set against the standards of the day, but even Green has noted that Henry was \"in many respects highly unpleasant\", and Alan Cooper has observed that many contemporary chroniclers were probably too scared of the King to voice much criticism.", "Historians have also debated the extent to which Henry's administrative reforms genuinely constituted an introduction of what Hollister and John Baldwin have termed systematic, \"administrative kingship\", or whether his outlook remained fundamentally traditional.Henry's burial at Reading Abbey is marked by a local cross and a plaque, but Reading Abbey was slowly demolished during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century.", "The exact location is uncertain, but the most likely location of the tomb itself is now in a built-up area of central Reading, on the site of the former abbey choir.", "A plan to locate his remains was announced in March 2015, with support from English Heritage and Philippa Langley, who aided with the successful discovery and exhumation of Richard III." ], [ "Family and children", "===Legitimate===In addition to Matilda and William, Henry possibly had a short-lived son, Richard, with his first wife, Matilda of Scotland.", "Henry and his second wife, Adeliza of Louvain, had no children.===Illegitimate===Henry had illegitimate children by various mistresses.====Sons====# Robert FitzRoy, Earl of Gloucester, born in the 1090s.# Richard, born to Ansfride, brought up by Robert Bloet, the Bishop of Lincoln.# Reginald de Dunstanville, Earl of Cornwall, born in the 1110s or early 1120s, possibly to Sibyl Corbet.# Robert FitzEdith, born to Edith Forne.# Gilbert FitzRoy, possibly born to an unnamed sister or daughter of Walter of Gand.# William de Tracy, possibly born in the 1090s.# Henry FitzRoy, possibly born to Nest ferch Rhys.# Fulk FitzRoy, possibly born to Ansfride.# William, the full brother of Sybilla of Normandy, probably also of Reginald de Dunstanville.====Daughters====# Matilda FitzRoy, Countess of Perche.# Matilda FitzRoy, Duchess of Brittany.# Juliane, wife of Eustace of Breteuil, possibly born to Ansfrida.# Mabel, wife of William Gouet.# Constance, Viscountess of Beaumont-sur-Sarthe.# Aline, wife of Matthew de Montmorency.# Isabel, daughter of Isabel de Beaumont, Countess of Pembroke.# Sybilla de Normandy, Queen of Scotland, probably born before 1100.# Matilda Fitzroy, Abbess of Montivilliers.# Gundrada de Dunstanville.# Possibly Rohese, wife of Henry de la Pomerai.# Emma, wife of Guy of Laval.# Adeliza, the King's daughter.# Elizabeth Fitzroy, the wife of Fergus of Galloway.# Possibly Sibyl of Falaise.===Family tree===" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Henry I at the official website of the British monarchy* Henry I at BBC History*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hentai" ], [ "Introduction", "A wide variety of hentai merchandise is commonly sold in specialized stores in Japan.", "'''Hentai''' is a style of Japanese pornographic anime and manga.", "A loanword from Japanese, the original term ( ) does not describe a genre of media, but rather an abnormal sexual desire or act, as an abbreviation of , and is also used to refer to persons who hold or do such desires and acts, often translated to English as \"pervert\".", "In addition to anime and manga, hentai works exist in a variety of media, including artwork and video games (commonly known as ''eroge'').The development of hentai has been influenced by Japanese cultural and historical attitudes toward sexuality.", "Hentai works, which are often self-published, form a significant portion of the market for ''doujin'' works, including ''doujinshi''.", "Numerous subgenres exist depicting a variety of sexual acts and relationships, as well as novel fetishes." ], [ "Terminology", "The word ''hentai'' written in kanji''Hentai'' is a kanji compound of (; 'change' or 'weird') and (; 'appearance' or 'condition'), and means \"metamorphosis\" or \"transformation\".", "In sexual contexts, it carries additional meanings of \"perversion\" or \"abnormality\", especially when used as an adjective; in these uses, it is the shortened form of the phrase which means \"sexual perversion\".", "The character is a catch-all for queerness as a peculiarity—it does not carry an explicit sexual reference.", "While the term has expanded in use to cover a range of publications including homosexual publications, it remains primarily a heterosexual term, as terms indicating homosexuality entered Japan as foreign words.", "Japanese pornographic works are often simply tagged as , meaning \"prohibited to those not yet 18 years old\", and .", "Less official terms also in use include , , and the English initialism AV (for \"adult video\").", "Usage of the term ''hentai'' does not define a genre in Japan.", "''Hentai'' is defined differently in English.", "The ''Oxford Dictionary Online'' defines it as \"a subgenre of the Japanese genres of manga and anime, characterized by overtly sexualized characters and sexually explicit images and plots.\"", "The origin of the word in English is unknown, but AnimeNation's John Oppliger points to the early 1990s, when a ''Dirty Pair'' erotic ''doujinshi'' (self-published work) titled ''H-Bomb'' was released, and when many websites sold access to images culled from Japanese erotic visual novels and games.", "The earliest English use of the term traces back to the rec.arts.anime boards; with a 1990 post concerning Happosai of ''Ranma ½'' and the first discussion of the meaning in 1991.A 1995 glossary on the rec.arts.anime boards contained reference to the Japanese usage and the evolving definition of hentai as \"pervert\" or \"perverted sex\".", "''The Anime Movie Guide'', published in 1997, defines as the initial sound of hentai (i.e., the name of the letter ''H'', as pronounced in Japanese); it included that ecchi was \"milder than hentai\".", "A year later it was defined as a genre in ''Good Vibrations Guide to Sex''.", "At the beginning of 2000, \"hentai\" was listed as the 41st most-popular search term of the internet, while \"anime\" ranked 99th.", "The attribution has been applied retroactively to works such as ''Urotsukidōji'', ''La Blue Girl'', and ''Cool Devices''.", "''Urotsukidōji'' had previously been described with terms such as \"Japornimation\", and \"erotic grotesque\", prior to being identified as hentai.+Development of the term \"Hentai\"Meiji period (1868–1912)Hysteria1917sAbnormal sexual desire.1920s–1930sPerverted sexuality.", "Topics related to homosexual relationships.1940s–1950sHentai seiyoku or \"perverted desires\".", "Homosexual relationships are still a major theme.1960sThe term becomes increasingly heterosexualised.", "The word \"ecchi/etchi\" appears for the first time.1970s and afterwardsDevelopment into a loanword in English with its own meaning, referring to a specific pornographic genre.2000sIn Japan, refers to male heterosexual perversion rather than a wide range of sexual practices and identities.", "Also refers to the cartoon genre." ], [ "Etymology", "A depiction of a male homosexual couple from the January 1928 edition of Hentai shiryōThe history of the word ''hentai'' has its origins in science and psychology.", "By the middle of the Meiji era, the term appeared in publications to describe unusual or abnormal traits, including paranormal abilities and psychological disorders.", "A translation of German sexologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing's text originated the concept of ''hentai seiyoku'', as a \"perverse or abnormal sexual desire\", though it was popularized outside psychology, as in the case of Mori Ōgai's 1909 novel ''Vita Sexualis''.", "Continued interest in ''hentai seiyoku'' resulted in numerous journals and publications on sexual advice which circulated in the public, served to establish the sexual connotation of ''hentai'' as perverse.", "Any perverse or abnormal act could be hentai, such as committing (love suicide).", "It was Nakamura Kokyo's journal ''Abnormal Psychology'' which started the popular sexology boom in Japan which would see the rise of other popular journals like ''Sexuality and Human Nature'', ''Sex Research'' and ''Sex''.", "Originally, Tanaka Kogai wrote articles for ''Abnormal Psychology'', but it would be Tanaka's own journal ''Modern Sexuality'' which would become one of the most popular sources of information about erotic and neurotic expression.", "''Modern Sexuality'' was created to promote fetishism, S&M, and necrophilia as a facet of modern life.", "The ero guro movement and depiction of perverse, abnormal and often erotic undertones were a response to interest in ''hentai seiyoku''.Following World War II, Japan took a new interest in sexualization and public sexuality.", "Mark McLelland puts forth the observation that the term ''hentai'' found itself shortened to \"H\" and that the English pronunciation was \"etchi\", referring to lewdness and which did not carry the stronger connotation of abnormality or perversion.", "By the 1950s, the \"hentai seiyoku\" publications became their own genre and included fetish and homosexual topics.", "By the 1960s, the homosexual content was dropped in favor of subjects like sadomasochism and stories of lesbianism targeted to male readers.", "The late 1960s brought a sexual revolution which expanded and solidified the normalizing of the term's identity in Japan that continues to exist today through publications such as ''Bessatsu Takarajima''s ''Hentai-san ga iku'' series." ], [ "History", "With the usage of ''hentai'' as any erotic depiction, the history of these depictions is split into their media.", "Japanese artwork and comics serve as the first example of hentai material, coming to represent the iconic style after the publication of Azuma Hideo's '''' in 1979.Hentai first appeared in animation in the 1932 film by , which was seized by police when it was half complete.", "The remnants of the film were donated to the National Film Center in the early 21st century.", "The film has never been viewed by the public.", "However, the 1984 release of Wonderkid's ''Lolita Anime'' was the first hentai to get a general release, overlooking the erotic and sexual depictions in 1969's ''One Thousand and One Arabian Nights'' and the bare-breasted Cleopatra in 1970's ''Cleopatra'' film.", "Erotic games, another area of contention, has its first case of the art style depicting sexual acts in 1985's ''Tenshitachi no Gogo''.", "In each of these mediums, the broad definition and usage of the term complicates its historic examination.=== Origin of erotic manga ===''The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife'' (1814), a well-known example of Japanese erotic art (''shunga'')Depictions of sex and abnormal sex can be traced back through the ages, predating the term \"hentai\".", "''Shunga'', a Japanese term for erotic art, is thought to have existed in some form since the Heian period.", "From the 16th to the 19th centuries, ''shunga'' works were suppressed by the shogunate.", "A well-known example is ''The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife'' by Hokusai, which depicts a woman being stimulated by two octopuses.", "''Shunga'' production fell with the introduction of pornographic photographs in the late 19th century.To define erotic manga, a definition for manga is needed.", "While the ''Hokusai Manga'' uses the term \"manga\" in its title, it does not depict the story-telling aspect common to modern manga, as the images are unrelated.", "Due to the influence of pornographic photographs in the 19th and 20th centuries, the manga artwork was depicted by realistic characters.", "Osamu Tezuka helped define the modern look and form of manga, and was later proclaimed as the \"God of Manga\".", "His debut work ''New Treasure Island'' was released in 1947 as a comic book through Ikuei Publishing and sold over 400,000 copies, though it was the popularity of Tezuka's ''Astro Boy'', ''Metropolis'', and ''Jungle Emperor'' manga that would come to define the media.", "This story-driven manga style is distinctly unique from comic strips like ''Sazae-san'', and story-driven works came to dominate and ''shōnen'' magazines.Adult themes in manga have existed since the 1940s, but some of these depictions were more realistic than the cartoon-cute characters popularized by Tezuka.", "In 1973, ''Manga Bestseller'' (later known as ''Manga Erotopia''), which is considered to be the first hentai manga magazine published in Japan, would be responsible for creating a new genre known as , where was taken, and the sexual and violent content was intensified.", "Other well-known \"\" magazines were ''Erogenica'' (1975), and ''Alice'' (1977).", "The circulation of magazines would peak in 1978, and it is believed that somewhere between eighty and one hundred different magazines were being published annually.", "An example of ''lolicon'', with young girls wearing lingerieThe 1980s would see the decline of in favor of the rising popularity of ''lolicon'' and magazines, which grew from ''otaku'' fan culture.", "It has been theorized that the decline of was due to the baby boomer readership beginning to start their own families, as well as migrating to ''seinen'' magazines such as ''Weekly Young Magazine'', and when it came to sexual material, the readership was stolen by gravure and pornographic magazines.", "The distinct shift in the style of Japanese pornographic comics from realistic to cartoon-cute characters is accredited to Hideo Azuma, \"The Father of ''Lolicon''\".", "In 1979, he penned '''', which offered the first depictions of sexual acts between cute, unrealistic Tezuka-style characters.", "This would start a pornographic manga movement.", "The ''lolicon'' boom of the 1980s saw the rise of magazines such as the anthologies ''Lemon People'' and ''Petit Apple Pie''.", "As the ''lolicon'' boom waned in the mid-1980s, the dominant form of representation for female characters became \"baby faced and big chested\" women.", "The shift in popularity from ''lolicon'' to has been credited to Naoki Yamamoto (who wrote under the pen name of Tō Moriyama).", "Moriyama's manga had a style that had not been seen before at the time, and was different from the and ''lolicon'' styles, and used designs as a base to build upon.", "Moriyama's books sold well upon publication, creating even more fans for the genre.", "These new artists would then write for magazines such as ''Monthly Penguin Club Magazine'' (1986) and ''Manga Hot Milk'' (1986) which would become popular with their readership, drawing in new fans.The publication of erotic materials in the United States can be traced back to at least 1990, when IANVS Publications printed its first ''Anime Shower Special''.", "In March 1994, Antarctic Press released ''Bondage Fairies'', an English translation of ''Insect Hunter'', an \"insect rape\" manga which became popular in the American market, while it apparently had a poor showing in Japan.", "During this time, the one American publisher translating and publishing hentai was Fantagraphics on their adult comic imprint, Eros Comix, which was established around 1990.=== Origin of erotic anime ===Because there are fewer animation productions, most erotic works are retroactively tagged as ''hentai'' since the coining of the term in English.", "''Hentai'' is typically defined as consisting of excessive nudity, and graphic sexual intercourse whether or not it is perverse.", "The term \"ecchi\" is typically related to fanservice, with no sexual intercourse being depicted.The earliest pornographic anime was '''', created in 1932 by .", "It was the first part of a two-reeler film, which was half complete before it was seized by the police.", "The remnants of the film were donated to the National Film Center in the early 21st century by the Tokyo police, who were removing all silver nitrate film in their possession, as it is extremely flammable.", "The film has never been viewed by the public.Two early works escape being defined as hentai, but contain erotic themes.", "This is likely due to the obscurity and unfamiliarity of the works, arriving in the United States and fading from public focus a full 20 years before importation and surging interests coined the Americanized term ''hentai''.", "The first is the 1969 film ''One Thousand and One Arabian Nights'', which faithfully includes erotic elements of the original story.", "In 1970, ''Cleopatra: Queen of Sex'', was the first animated film to carry an X rating, but it was mislabeled as erotica in the United States.The ''Lolita Anime'' series is typically identified as the first erotic anime and original video animation (OVA); it was released in 1984 by Wonder Kids.", "Containing six episodes, the series focused on underage sex and rape, and included one episode containing BDSM bondage.", "Several sub-series were released in response, including a second ''Lolita Anime'' series released by Nikkatsu.", "It has not been officially licensed or distributed outside of its original release.The ''Cream Lemon'' franchise of works ran from 1984 to 2005, with a number of them entering the American market in various forms.", "''The Brothers Grime'' series released by Excalibur Films contained ''Cream Lemon'' works as early as 1986.However, they were not billed as anime and were introduced during the same time that the first underground distribution of erotic works began.The American release of licensed erotic anime was first attempted in 1991 by Central Park Media, with ''I Give My All'', but it never occurred.", "In December 1992, ''Devil Hunter Yohko'' was the first risque (''ecchi'') title that was released by A.D.", "Vision.", "While it contains no sexual intercourse, it pushes the limits of the ''ecchi'' category with sexual dialogue, nudity and one scene in which the heroine is about to be raped.It was Central Park Media's 1993 release of ''Urotsukidōji'' which brought the first hentai film to American viewers.", "Often cited for inventing the tentacle rape subgenre, it contains extreme depictions of violence and monster sex.", "As such, it is acknowledged for being the first to depict tentacle sex on screen.", "When the film premiered in the United States, it was described as being \"drenched in graphic scenes of perverse sex and ultra-violence\".Following this release, a wealth of pornographic content began to arrive in the United States, with companies such as A.D.", "Vision, Central Park Media and Media Blasters releasing licensed titles under various labels.", "A.D.", "Vision's label SoftCel Pictures released 19 titles in 1995 alone.", "Another label, Critical Mass, was created in 1996 to release an unedited edition of ''Violence Jack''.", "When A.D.", "Vision's hentai label SoftCel Pictures shut down in 2005, most of its titles were acquired by Critical Mass.", "Following the bankruptcy of Central Park Media in 2009, the licenses for all Anime 18-related products and movies were transferred to Critical Mass.=== Origin of erotic games ===The term ''eroge'' (erotic game) literally defines any erotic game, but has become synonymous with video games depicting the artistic styles of anime and manga.", "The origins of ''eroge'' began in the early 1980s, while the computer industry in Japan was struggling to define a computer standard with makers like NEC, Sharp, and Fujitsu competing against one another.", "The PC98 series, despite lacking in processing power, CD drives and limited graphics, came to dominate the market, with the popularity of ''eroge'' games contributing to its success.Because of vague definitions of what constitutes an \"erotic game\", there are several possible candidates for the first ''eroge''.", "If the definition applies to adult themes, the first game was ''Softporn Adventure''.", "Released in America in 1981 for the Apple II, this was a text-based comedic game from On-Line Systems.", "If ''eroge'' is defined as the first graphical depictions of Japanese adult themes, it would be Koei's 1982 release of ''Night Life''.", "Sexual intercourse is depicted through simple graphic outlines.", "Notably, ''Night Life'' was not intended to be erotic so much as an instructional guide \"to support married life\".", "A series of \"undressing\" games appeared as early as 1983, such as \"Strip Mahjong\".", "The first anime-styled erotic game was , released in 1985 by JAST.", "In 1988, ASCII released the first erotic role-playing game, ''Chaos Angel''.", "In 1989, AliceSoft released the turn-based role-playing game ''Rance'' and ELF released ''Dragon Knight''.In the late 1980s, ''eroge'' began to stagnate under high prices and the majority of games containing uninteresting plots and mindless sex.", "ELF's 1992 release of came as customer frustration with ''eroge'' was mounting and spawned a new genre of games called dating sims.", "was unique because it had no defined plot and required the player to build a relationship with different girls in order to advance the story.", "Each girl had her own story, but the prospect of consummating a relationship required the girl growing to love the player; there was no easy sex.", "The term \"visual novel\" is vague, with Japanese and English definitions classifying the genre as a type of interactive fiction game driven by narration and limited player interaction.", "While the term is often retroactively applied to many games, it was Leaf that coined the term with their \"Leaf Visual Novel Series\" (LVNS) and the 1996 release of and .", "The success of these two dark ''eroge'' games would be followed by the third and final installment of the LVNS, the 1997 romantic ''eroge'' ''To Heart''.", "''Eroge'' visual novels took a new emotional turn with Tactics' 1998 release .", "Key's 1999 release of ''Kanon'' proved to be a major success and would go on to have numerous console ports, two manga series and two anime series." ], [ "Censorship", "alt=a half-dressed anime couple engaged in sexual intercourse in the woman-on-top position; the man has just ejaculated in the woman’s vaginaJapanese laws have impacted depictions of works since the Meiji Restoration, but these predate the common definition of hentai material.", "Since becoming law in 1907, Article 175 of the Criminal Code of Japan forbids the publication of obscene materials.", "Specifically, depictions of male–female sexual intercourse and pubic hair are considered obscene, but bare genitalia is not.", "As censorship is required for published works, the most common representations are the blurring dots on pornographic videos and \"bars\" or \"lights\" on still images.", "In 1986, Toshio Maeda sought to get past censorship on depictions of sexual intercourse, by creating tentacle sex.", "This led to the large number of works containing sexual intercourse with monsters, demons, robots, and aliens, whose genitals look different from men's.", "While Western views attribute hentai to any explicit work, it was the products of this censorship which became not only the first titles legally imported to America and Europe, but the first successful ones.", "While uncut for American release, the United Kingdom's release of ''Urotsukidōji'' removed many scenes of the violence and tentacle rape scenes.", "Another technique used to evade regulation was the \"sexual intercourse cross-section view\", an imaginary view of intercourse resembling an anatomic drawing or an MRI, which would eventually evolve as a prevalent expression in hentai for its erotic appeal.", "This expression is known in the Western world as the \"x-ray view\".It was also because of this law that the artists began to depict the characters with a minimum of anatomical details and without pubic hair, by law, prior to 1991.Part of the ban was lifted when Nagisa Oshima prevailed over the obscenity charges at his trial for his film ''In the Realm of the Senses''.", "Though not enforced, the lifting of this ban did not apply to anime and manga as they were not deemed artistic exceptions.Alterations of material or censorship and banning of works are common.", "The US release of ''La Blue Girl'' altered the age of the heroine from 16 to 18, removed sex scenes with a dwarf ninja named Nin-nin, and removed the Japanese blurring dots.", "''La Blue Girl'' was outright rejected by UK censors who refused to classify it and prohibited its distribution.", "In 2011, members of the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan sought a ban on the subgenre ''lolicon'' but were unsuccessful.", "The last law proposed against it was introduced on May 27, 2013 by the Liberal Democratic Party, the New Komei Party and the Japan Restoration Party that would have made possession of sexual images of individuals under 18 illegal with a fine of 1 million yen (about US$10,437) and less than a year in jail.", "The Japanese Democratic Party, along with several industry associations involved in anime and manga protested against the bill saying \"while they appreciate that the bill protects children, it will also restrict freedom of expression\".", "The law was ultimately passed in June 2014 after the regulation of ''lolicon'' anime and manga was removed from the bill.", "This new law went into full effect in 2015 banning real life child pornography." ], [ "Demographics", "Hentai is often age-restricted.According to data from Pornhub in 2017, the most prolific consumers of hentai are men.", "However, Patrick W. Galbraith and Jessica Bauwens-Sugimoto note that hentai manga attracts \"a diverse readership, which of course includes women.\"", "Kathryn Hemmann also writes that \"self-identified female otaku ... readily admit to enjoying hentai ''dōjinshi'' catering to a male erotic gaze\".", "When it comes to mediums of hentai, ''eroge'' games in particular combine three favored media—cartoons, pornography and gaming—into an experience.", "The hentai genre engages a wide audience that expands yearly, and desires better quality and storylines, or works which push the creative envelope.", "Nobuhiro Komiya, a manga censor, states that the unusual and extreme depictions in hentai are not about perversion so much as they are an example of the profit-oriented industry.", "Anime depicting normal sexual situations enjoy less market success than those that break social norms, such as sex at schools or bondage.According to clinical psychologist Megha Hazuria Gorem, \"Because toons are a kind of final fantasy, you can make the person look the way you want him or her to look.", "Every fetish can be fulfilled.\"", "Sexologist Narayan Reddy noted of ''eroge'', \"Animators make new games because there is a demand for them, and because they depict things that the gamers do not have the courage to do in real life, or that might just be illegal, these games are an outlet for suppressed desire.\"" ], [ "Classification", "An example of a ''yaoi (Boys' Love)'' hentai illustrationThe hentai genre can be divided into numerous subgenres, the broadest of which encompasses heterosexual and homosexual acts.", "Hentai that features mainly heterosexual interactions occur in both male-targeted (''ero'' or ''dansei-muke'') and female-targeted (\"ladies' comics\") form.", "Those that feature mainly homosexual interactions are known as ''yaoi'' or ''Boys' Love'' (male–male) and ''yuri'' (female–female).", "Both ''yaoi'' and, to a lesser extent, ''yuri'', are generally aimed at members of the opposite sex from the persons depicted.", "While ''yaoi'' and ''yuri'' are not always explicit, their pornographic history and association remain.", "''Yaoi'' pornographic usage has remained strong in textual form through fanfiction.", "The definition of ''yuri'' has begun to be replaced by the broader definitions of \"lesbian-themed animation or comics\".Hentai is perceived as \"dwelling\" on sexual fetishes.", "These include dozens of fetish and paraphilia related subgenres, which can be further classified with additional terms, such as heterosexual or homosexual types.Many works are focused on depicting the mundane and the impossible across every conceivable act and situation, no matter how fantastical.", "One subgenre of hentai is ''futanari'' (hermaphroditism), which most often features a woman with a penis or penis-like appendage in place of, or in addition to, a vulva.", "Futanari characters are often depicted as having sex with other women, but many other works feature sex with men or, as in ''Anal Justice'', with both genders.", "Futanari can be dominant, submissive, or switch between the two roles in a single work.===Genres=== Common English terms Common Japanese terms Type Description ''Yaoi'' / ''shōnen-ai'' / Boys' Love / / Gender Male homosexuality ''Yuri'' / ''shōjo-ai'' / Girls' Love Gender Female homosexuality ''Lolicon'' Gender and age Centered on prepubescent, pubescent, or post-pubescent underage girls, whether homosexual or heterosexual ''Shotacon'' Gender and age Centered on prepubescent, pubescent, or post-pubescent underage boys, whether homosexual or heterosexual ''Bakunyū'' A genre of pornographic media focusing on the depiction of women with large breasts.", "The word can be literally translated to \"exploding breasts\".", "''Bakunyū'' is a subgenre within the genre of hentai anime.", "Catgirl/''nekomimi'' Human females with cat characteristics, such as cat ears, cat tails and whiskers ''Futanari'' Depictions of women that have both phallic genitalia (penis with scrotum or penis without scrotum) and a vulva Incest Sexual activity with family members ''Netorare'' Being masochistically aroused by seeing or knowing that one's wife or lover is having sexual intercourse with another person, whether she does so voluntarily or not, \"being snatched away\", abbreviated NTR, related to cuckolding ''Omorashi'' / A form of urolagnia Tentacle erotica Depictions of tentacled creatures and sometimes monsters (fictional or otherwise) engaging in sex or rape with girls and, less often, men ''Josō-seme'' / Daughter-attack Depictions of a ''kathoey'', male-crossdresser or tomgirl taking the lead (i.e.", "the \"''seme''\") or exhibiting dominance over a sexual partner" ], [ "See also", "* Cartoon pornography* ''Dōjinshi''* E-Hentai* List of hentai anime* List of hentai authors (groups, studios, production companies, circles)* List of hentai manga* Nijikon* ''Panchira''* Uniform fetishism* アダルトアニメ (\"Adult anime animation\")" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Buckley, Sandra (1991).", "Penguin in Bondage': A Graphic Tale of Japanese Comic Books\", pp.", "163–196, In ''Technoculture''.", "C. Penley and A. Ross, eds.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.", ".", "* McCarthy, Helen, and Jonathan Clements (1998).", "''The Erotic Anime Movie Guide''.", "London: Titan.", ".", "* *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henry VII of England" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry VII''' (28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509.He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor.Henry's mother, Margaret Beaufort, was a descendant of John of Gaunt, founder of the House of Lancaster and son of King Edward III.", "Henry's father, Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, a half-brother of Henry VI of England and a member of the Welsh Tudors of Penmynydd, died three months before his son Henry was born.", "During Henry's early years, his uncle Henry VI was fighting against Edward IV, a member of the Yorkist branch of the House of Plantagenet.", "After Edward retook the throne in 1471, Henry Tudor spent 14 years in exile in Brittany.", "He attained the throne when his forces, supported by France, Scotland, and Wales, defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses.", "He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle.", "He cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV.Henry restored power and stability to the English monarchy following the civil war.", "He is credited with many administrative, economic and diplomatic initiatives.", "His supportive policy toward England's wool industry and his standoff with the Low Countries had long-lasting benefits to the English economy.", "He paid very close attention to detail, and instead of spending lavishly he concentrated on raising new revenues.", "He stabilised the government's finances by introducing several new taxes.", "After his death, a commission found widespread abuses in the tax collection process.", "Henry reigned for nearly 24 years and was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII." ], [ "Ancestry and early life", "Henry VII was born on 28 January 1457 at Pembroke Castle, in the English-speaking portion of Pembrokeshire known as Little England beyond Wales.", "He was the only child of Lady Margaret Beaufort and Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond.", "He was probably baptised at St Mary's Church, Pembroke, though no documentation of the event exists.", "His father died three months before his birth.", "Henry's paternal grandfather, Owen Tudor, originally from the Tudors of Penmynydd, Isle of Anglesey in Wales, had been a page in the court of King Henry V. He rose to become one of the \"Squires to the Body to the King\" after military service at the Battle of Agincourt.", "Owen is said to have secretly married the widow of Henry V, Catherine of Valois.", "One of their sons was Edmund, Henry's father.", "Edmund was created Earl of Richmond in 1452, and \"formally declared legitimate by Parliament\".The descent of Henry's mother, Margaret, through the legitimised House of Beaufort bolstered Henry's claim to the English throne.", "She was a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (fourth son of Edward III), and his third wife Katherine Swynford.", "Swynford was Gaunt's mistress for about 25 years.", "When they married in 1396 they already had four children, including Henry's great-grandfather John Beaufort.", "Gaunt's nephew Richard II legitimised Gaunt's children by Swynford by letters patent in 1397.In 1407, Henry IV, Gaunt's son by his first wife, issued new letters patent confirming the legitimacy of his half-siblings but also declaring them ineligible for the throne.", "Henry IV's action was of doubtful legality, as the Beauforts were previously legitimised by an act of Parliament, but it weakened Henry's claim.", "Nonetheless, by 1483 Henry was the senior male claimant heir to the House of Lancaster remaining after the deaths in battle, by murder or execution of Henry VI (son of Henry V and Catherine of Valois), his son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, and the other Beaufort line of descent through Lady Margaret's uncle, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset.Henry also made some political capital out of his Welsh ancestry in attracting military support and safeguarding his army's passage through Wales on its way to the Battle of Bosworth.", "He came from an old, established Anglesey family that claimed descent from Cadwaladr, in legend, the last ancient British king.On occasion Henry displayed the red dragon.", "He took it, as well as the standard of St. George, on his procession through London after the victory at Bosworth.", "A contemporary writer and Henry's biographer, Bernard André, also made much of Henry's Welsh descent.Pembroke Castle in South Wales, the birthplace of Henry VIIIn 1456, Henry's father Edmund Tudor was captured while fighting for Henry VI in South Wales against the Yorkists.", "He died shortly afterwards in Carmarthen Castle.", "His younger brother, Jasper Tudor, the Earl of Pembroke, undertook to protect Edmund's widow Margaret, who was 13 years old when she gave birth to Henry.", "When Edward IV became King in 1461, Jasper Tudor went into exile abroad.", "Pembroke Castle, and later the Earldom of Pembroke, were granted to the Yorkist William Herbert, who also assumed the guardianship of Margaret Beaufort and the young Henry.Henry lived in the Herbert household until 1469, when Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the \"Kingmaker\"), went over to the Lancastrians.", "Herbert was captured fighting for the Yorkists and executed by Warwick.", "When Warwick restored Henry VI in 1470, Jasper Tudor returned from exile and brought Henry to court.", "When the Yorkist Edward IV regained the throne in 1471, Henry fled with other Lancastrians to Brittany.", "He spent most of the next 14 years under the protection of Francis II, Duke of Brittany.", "In November 1476, Francis fell ill and his principal advisers were more amenable to negotiating with King Edward.", "Henry was thus handed over to English envoys and escorted to the Breton port of Saint-Malo.", "While there, he feigned stomach cramps and delayed his departure long enough to miss the tides.", "An ally of Henry's, Viscount , soon arrived, bringing news that Francis had recovered, and in the confusion Henry was able to flee to a monastery.", "There he claimed sanctuary until the envoys were forced to depart." ], [ "Rise to the throne", "Young Henry VII, by a French artist (Musée Calvet, Avignon)By 1483, Henry's mother was actively promoting him as an alternative to Richard III, despite her being married to Lord Stanley, a Yorkist.", "At Rennes Cathedral on Christmas Day 1483, Henry pledged to marry Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter of Edward IV.", "She was Edward's heir since the presumed death of her brothers, the Princes in the Tower, King Edward V and Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York.", "With money and supplies borrowed from his host, Francis II of Brittany, Henry tried to land in England, but his conspiracy unravelled resulting in the execution of his primary co-conspirator, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham.", "Now supported by Francis II's prime minister, Pierre Landais, Richard III attempted to extradite Henry from Brittany, but Henry escaped to France.", "He was welcomed by the French, who readily supplied him with troops and equipment for a second invasion.Henry gained the support of the Woodvilles, in-laws of the late Edward IV, and sailed with a small French and Scottish force, landing at Mill Bay near Dale, Pembrokeshire.", "He marched toward England accompanied by his uncle Jasper and John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford.", "Wales was historically a Lancastrian stronghold, and Henry owed the support he gathered to his Welsh birth and ancestry, being agnatically descended from Rhys ap Gruffydd.", "He amassed an army of about 5,000–6,000 soldiers.Henry devised a plan to seize the throne by engaging Richard quickly because Richard had reinforcements in Nottingham and Leicester.", "Though outnumbered, Henry's Lancastrian forces decisively defeated Richard's Yorkist army at the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485.Several of Richard's key allies, such as Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, and also Lord Stanley and his brother William, crucially switched sides or left the battlefield.", "Richard III's death at Bosworth Field effectively ended the Wars of the Roses." ], [ "Reign", "To secure his hold on the throne, Henry declared himself king by right of conquest retroactively from 21 August 1485, the day before Bosworth Field.", "Thus, anyone who had fought for Richard against him would be guilty of treason and Henry could legally confiscate the lands and property of Richard III, while restoring his own.", "Henry spared Richard's nephew and designated heir, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, and made the Yorkist heiress Margaret Plantagenet Countess of Salisbury ''suo jure''.", "He took care not to address the baronage or summon Parliament until after his coronation, which took place in Westminster Abbey on 30 October 1485.After his coronation Henry issued an edict that any gentleman who swore fealty to him would, notwithstanding any previous attainder, be secure in his property and person.Queen Elizabeth, Henry's wifeKing Henry VII's Coat of ArmsHenry honoured his pledge of December 1483 to marry Elizabeth of York and the wedding took place in 1486 at Westminster Abbey.", "He was 29 years old, she was 20.They were third cousins, as both were great-great-grandchildren of John of Gaunt.", "Henry married Elizabeth of York with the hope of uniting the Yorkist and Lancastrian sides of the Plantagenet dynastic disputes, and he was largely successful.", "However, such a level of paranoia persisted that anyone (John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, for example) with blood ties to the Plantagenets was suspected of coveting the throne.Henry had Parliament repeal ''Titulus Regius'', the statute that declared Edward IV's marriage invalid and his children illegitimate, thus legitimising his wife.", "Amateur historians Bertram Fields and Sir Clements Markham have claimed that he may have been involved in the murder of the Princes in the Tower, as the repeal of ''Titulus Regius'' gave the Princes a stronger claim to the throne than his own.", "Alison Weir points out that the Rennes ceremony, two years earlier, was plausible only if Henry and his supporters were certain that the Princes were already dead.", "Henry secured his crown principally by dividing and undermining the power of the nobility, especially through the aggressive use of bonds and recognisances to secure loyalty.", "He also enacted laws against livery and maintenance, the great lords' practice of having large numbers of \"retainers\" who wore their lord's badge or uniform and formed a potential private army.Henry began taking precautions against rebellion while still in Leicester after Bosworth Field.", "Edward, Earl of Warwick, the ten-year-old son of Edward IV's brother George, Duke of Clarence, was the senior surviving male of the House of York.", "Before departing for London, Henry sent Robert Willoughby to Sheriff Hutton in Yorkshire, to arrest Warwick and take him to the Tower of London.", "Despite such precautions, Henry faced several rebellions over the next twelve years.", "The first was the 1486 rebellion of the Stafford brothers, abetted by Viscount Lovell, which collapsed without fighting.Next, in 1487, Yorkists led by Lincoln rebelled in support of Lambert Simnel, a boy they claimed to be Edward of Warwick (who was actually a prisoner in the Tower).", "The rebellion began in Ireland, where the historically Yorkist nobility, headed by the powerful Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare, proclaimed Simnel king and provided troops for his invasion of England.", "The rebellion was defeated and Lincoln killed at the Battle of Stoke.", "Henry showed remarkable clemency to the surviving rebels: he pardoned Kildare and the other Irish nobles, and he made the boy, Simnel, a servant in the royal kitchen where he was in charge of roasting meats on a spit.In 1490, a young Fleming, Perkin Warbeck, appeared and claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury, the younger of the \"Princes in the Tower\".", "Warbeck won the support of Edward IV's sister Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy.", "He led attempted invasions of Ireland in 1491 and England in 1495, and persuaded James IV of Scotland to invade England in 1496.In 1497 Warbeck landed in Cornwall with a few thousand troops, but was soon captured and executed.When the King's agents searched the property of William Stanley (Chamberlain of the Household, with direct access to Henry VII) they found a bag of coins amounting to around £10,000 and a collar of livery with Yorkist garnishings.", "Stanley was accused of supporting Warbeck's cause, arrested and later executed.", "In response to this threat within his own household, the King instituted more rigid security for access to his person.", "In 1499, Henry had the Earl of Warwick executed.", "However, he spared Warwick's elder sister Margaret, who survived until 1541 when she was executed by Henry VIII.===Economics===Groat of Henry VIIFor most of Henry VII's reign Edward Story was Bishop of Chichester.", "Story's register still exists and, according to the 19th-century historian W.R.W.", "Stephens, \"affords some illustrations of the avaricious and parsimonious character of the king\".", "It seems that Henry was skilful at extracting money from his subjects on many pretexts, including that of war with France or war with Scotland.", "The money so extracted added to the King's personal fortune rather than being used for the stated purpose.Unlike his predecessors, Henry VII came to the throne without personal experience in estate management or financial administration.", "Despite this, during his reign he became a fiscally prudent monarch who restored the fortunes of an effectively bankrupt exchequer.", "Henry VII introduced stability to the financial administration of England by keeping the same financial advisors throughout his reign.", "For instance, except for the first few months of the reign, the Baron Dynham and the Earl of Surrey were the only Lord High Treasurers throughout his reign.Henry VII improved tax collection in the realm by introducing ruthlessly efficient mechanisms of taxation.", "He was supported in this effort by his chancellor, Archbishop John Morton, whose \"Morton's Fork\" was a catch-22 method of ensuring that nobles paid increased taxes: those nobles who spent little must have saved much, and thus could afford the increased taxes; in contrast, those nobles who spent much obviously had the means to pay the increased taxes.", "Henry also increased wealth by acquiring land through the act of resumption of 1486 which had been delayed as he focused on defence of the Church, his person and his realm.Sir Richard Empson and Edmund DudleyThe capriciousness and lack of due process that indebted many would tarnish his legacy and were soon ended upon Henry VII's death, after a commission revealed widespread abuses.", "According to the contemporary historian Polydore Vergil, simple \"greed\" underscored the means by which royal control was over-asserted in Henry's final years.", "Following Henry VII's death, Henry VIII executed Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, his two most hated tax collectors, on trumped-up charges of treason.", "Henry VII established the pound avoirdupois as a standard of weight; it later became part of the Imperial and customary systems of units.", "In 1506 he resumed the construction of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, started under Henry VI, guaranteeing finances which would continue even after his death.===Foreign policy===Henry VII's policy was to maintain peace and to create economic prosperity.", "Up to a point, he succeeded.", "The Treaty of Redon was signed in February 1489 between Henry and representatives of Brittany.", "Based on the terms of the accord, Henry sent 6,000 troops to fight (at the expense of Brittany) under the command of Lord Daubeney.", "The purpose of the agreement was to prevent France from annexing Brittany.", "According to John M. Currin, the treaty redefined Anglo-Breton relations.", "Henry started a new policy to recover Guyenne and other lost Plantagenet claims in France.", "The treaty marks a shift from neutrality over the French invasion of Brittany to active intervention against it.Henry later concluded a treaty with France at Etaples that brought money into the coffers of England, and ensured the French would not support pretenders to the English throne, such as Perkin Warbeck.", "However, this treaty came at a price, as Henry mounted a minor invasion of Brittany in November 1492.Henry decided to keep Brittany out of French hands, signed an alliance with Spain to that end, and sent 6,000 troops to France.", "The confused, fractious nature of Breton politics undermined his efforts, which finally failed after three sizeable expeditions, at a cost of £24,000.However, as France was becoming more concerned with the Italian Wars, the French were happy to agree to the Peace of Étaples.", "Henry had pressured the French by laying siege to Boulogne in October 1492.Henry had been under the financial and physical protection of the French throne or its vassals for most of his life before becoming king.", "To strengthen his position, however, he subsidised shipbuilding, so strengthening the navy (he commissioned Europe's first ever – and the world's oldest surviving – dry dock at Portsmouth in 1495) and improving trading opportunities.", "John Cabot, originally from Genoa and Venice, had heard that ships from Bristol had discovered uncharted newfound territory far west of Ireland.", "Having secured financial backing from Florentine bankers in London, Cabot was granted carefully phrased letters patent from Henry in March 1496, permitting him to embark on an exploratory voyage westerly.", "It is not known precisely where Cabot landed, but he was eventually rewarded with a pension from the king; it is presumed that Cabot perished at sea after a later unsuccessful expedition.Henry VII was one of the first European monarchs to recognise the importance of the newly united Spanish kingdom; he concluded the Treaty of Medina del Campo, by which his son Arthur, Prince of Wales, was married to Catherine of Aragon.", "He also concluded the Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Scotland (the first treaty between England and Scotland for almost two centuries), which betrothed his daughter Margaret Tudor to King James IV of Scotland.", "By this marriage, Henry VII hoped to break the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France.", "Though this was not achieved during his reign, the marriage eventually led to the union of the English and Scottish crowns under Margaret's great-grandson, James VI and I, following the death of Henry's granddaughter Elizabeth I. Henry also formed an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1493–1519) and persuaded Pope Innocent VIII to issue a papal bull of excommunication against all pretenders to Henry's throne.In 1506, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller Emery d'Amboise asked Henry VII to become the protector and patron of the Order, as he had an interest in the crusade.", "Later on, Henry had exchanged letters with Pope Julius II in 1507, in which he encouraged him to establish peace among Christian realms, and to organise an expedition against the Turks of the Ottoman Empire.===Trade agreements===Henry VII was much enriched by trading alum, which was used in the wool and cloth trades as a chemical fixative for dyeing fabrics.", "Since alum was mined in only one area in Europe (Tolfa, Italy), it was a scarce commodity and therefore especially valuable to its landholder, the Pope.", "With the English economy heavily invested in wool production, Henry VII became involved in the alum trade in 1486.With the assistance of the Italian merchant banker Lodovico della Fava and the Italian banker Girolamo Frescobaldi, Henry VII became deeply involved in the trade by licensing ships, obtaining alum from the Ottoman Empire, and selling it to the Low Countries and in England.", "This trade made an expensive commodity cheaper, which raised opposition from Pope Julius II, since the Tolfa mine was a part of papal territory and had given the Pope monopoly control over alum.", "Henry's most successful diplomatic achievement as regards the economy was the ''Magnus Intercursus'' (\"great agreement\") of 1496.In 1494, Henry embargoed trade (mainly in wool) with the Burgundian Netherlands in retaliation for Margaret of Burgundy's support for Perkin Warbeck.", "The Merchant Adventurers, the company which enjoyed the monopoly of the Flemish wool trade, relocated from Antwerp to Calais.", "At the same time, Flemish merchants were ejected from England.", "The dispute eventually paid off for Henry.", "Both parties realised they were mutually disadvantaged by the reduction in commerce.", "Its restoration by the ''Magnus Intercursus'' was very much to England's benefit in removing taxation for English merchants and significantly increasing England's wealth.", "In turn, Antwerp became an extremely important trade entrepôt (transhipment port), through which, for example, goods from the Baltic, spices from the east and Italian silks were exchanged for English cloth.In 1506, Henry extorted the Treaty of Windsor from Philip the Handsome, Duke of Burgundy.", "Philip had been shipwrecked on the English coast, and while Henry's guest, was bullied into an agreement so favourable to England at the expense of the Netherlands that it was dubbed the ''Malus Intercursus'' (\"evil agreement\").", "France, Burgundy, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and the Hanseatic League all rejected the treaty, which was never in force.", "Philip died shortly after the negotiations.===Law enforcement and justices of the peace===Henry's principal problem was to restore royal authority in a realm recovering from the Wars of the Roses.", "There were too many powerful noblemen and, as a consequence of the system of so-called bastard feudalism, each had what amounted to private armies of indentured retainers (mercenaries masquerading as servants).", "Following the example of Edward IV, Henry VII created a Council of Wales and the Marches for his son Arthur, which was intended to govern Wales and the Marches, Cheshire and Cornwall.Late 16th-century copy of a portrait of Henry VIIHe was content to allow the nobles their regional influence if they were loyal to him.", "For instance, the Stanley family had control of Lancashire and Cheshire, upholding the peace on the condition that they stayed within the law.", "In other cases, he brought his over-powerful subjects to heel by decree.", "He passed laws against \"livery\" (the upper classes' flaunting of their adherents by giving them badges and emblems) and \"maintenance\" (the keeping of too many male \"servants\").", "These laws were used shrewdly in levying fines upon those that he perceived as threats.However, his principal weapon was the Court of Star Chamber.", "This revived an earlier practice of using a small (and trusted) group of the Privy Council as a personal or Prerogative Court, able to cut through the cumbersome legal system and act swiftly.", "Serious disputes involving the use of personal power, or threats to royal authority, were thus dealt with.Henry VII used justices of the peace on a large, nationwide scale.", "They were appointed for every shire and served for a year at a time.", "Their chief task was to see that the laws of the country were obeyed in their area.", "Their powers and numbers steadily increased during the time of the Tudors, never more so than under Henry's reign.", "Despite this, Henry was keen to constrain their power and influence, applying the same principles to the justices of the peace as he did to the nobility: a similar system of bonds and recognisances to that which applied to both the gentry and the nobles who tried to exert their elevated influence over these local officials.All Acts of Parliament were overseen by the justices of the peace.", "For example, they could replace suspect jurors in accordance with the 1495 act preventing the corruption of juries.", "They were also in charge of various administrative duties, such as the checking of weights and measures.By 1509, justices of the peace were key enforcers of law and order for Henry VII.", "They were unpaid, which, in comparison with modern standards, meant a smaller tax bill for law enforcement.", "Local gentry saw the office as one of local influence and prestige and were therefore willing to serve.", "Overall, this was a successful area of policy for Henry, both in terms of efficiency and as a method of reducing the corruption endemic within the nobility of the Middle Ages.===Later years and death===Scene at the deathbed of Henry VII at Richmond Palace (1509) drawn contemporaneously from witness accounts by the courtier Sir Thomas Wriothesley (d.1534) who wrote an account of the proceedings.", "British Library, Add.MS 45131, f.54Tomb effigies of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, by Pietro Torrigiano, Westminster AbbeyPosthumous portrait bust by Pietro Torrigiano made using Henry's death maskIn 1502, Henry VII's life took a difficult and personal turn in which many people he was close to died in quick succession.", "His first son and heir apparent, Arthur, Prince of Wales, died suddenly at Ludlow Castle, very likely from a viral respiratory illness known at the time as the \"English sweating sickness\".", "This made Henry VII's second son, Henry, Duke of York, heir apparent to the throne.", "The King, normally a reserved man who rarely showed much emotion in public unless angry, surprised his courtiers by his intense grief and sobbing at his son's death, while his concern for the Queen is evidence that the marriage was a happy one, as is his reaction to Queen Elizabeth's death the following year, when he shut himself away for several days, refusing to speak to anyone.", "Henry VII was shattered by the loss of Elizabeth, and her death impacted him severely.Henry wanted to maintain the Spanish alliance.", "Accordingly, he arranged a papal dispensation from Pope Julius II for Prince Henry to marry his brother's widow Catherine, a relationship that would have otherwise precluded marriage in the Church.", "Elizabeth had died in childbirth, so Henry had the dispensation also permit him to marry Catherine himself.", "After obtaining the dispensation, Henry had second thoughts about the marriage of his son and Catherine.", "Catherine's mother Isabella I of Castile had died and Catherine's sister Joanna had succeeded her; Catherine was, therefore, daughter of only one reigning monarch and so less desirable as a spouse for Henry VII's heir-apparent.", "The marriage did not take place during his lifetime.", "Otherwise, at the time of his father's arranging of the marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the future Henry VIII was too young to contract the marriage according to Canon Law and would be ineligible until age fourteen.Henry made half-hearted plans to remarry and beget more heirs, but these never came to anything.", "He entertained thoughts of remarriage to renew the alliance with Spain – Joanna, Dowager Queen of Naples (a niece of Queen Isabella of Castile), Queen Joanna of Castile, and Margaret, Dowager Duchess of Savoy (sister-in-law of Joanna of Castile), were all considered.", "In 1505 he was sufficiently interested in a potential marriage to Joanna of Naples that he sent ambassadors to Naples to report on the 27-year-old Joanna's physical suitability.", "The wedding never took place, and the physical description Henry sent with his ambassadors of what he desired in a new wife matched the description of his wife Elizabeth.After 1503, records show the Tower of London was never again used as a royal residence by Henry VII, and all royal births under Henry VIII took place in palaces.", "Henry VII falls among the minority of British monarchs that never had any known mistresses, and for the times, it is very unusual that he did not remarry: his son Henry was the only male heir left after the death of his wife, thus the death of Arthur created a precarious political position for the House of Tudor.During his lifetime the nobility often criticised Henry VII for re-centralizing power in London, and later the 16th-century historian Francis Bacon was ruthlessly critical of the methods by which he enforced tax law, but it is equally true that Henry VII was diligent about keeping detailed records of his personal finances, down to the last halfpenny; these and one account book detailing the expenses of his queen survive in the British National Archives, as do accounts of courtiers and many of the king's own letters.", "Until the death of his wife, the evidence is clear from these accounting books that Henry was a more doting father and husband than was widely known and there is evidence that his outwardly austere personality belied a devotion to his family.", "Letters to relatives have an affectionate tone not captured by official state business, as evidenced by many written to his mother Margaret.", "Many of the entries show a man who loosened his purse strings generously for his wife and children, and not just on necessities: in Spring 1491, he spent a great amount of gold on a lute for his daughter Mary; the following year he spent money on a lion for Elizabeth's menagerie.", "With Elizabeth's death, the possibilities for such family indulgences greatly diminished.", "Immediately afterwards, Henry became very sick and nearly died himself, allowing only his mother Margaret Beaufort near him: \"privily departed to a solitary place, and would that no man should resort unto him.\"", "Further compounding Henry's distress, his older daughter Margaret had previously been betrothed to King James IV of Scotland and within months of her mother's death she had to be escorted to the border by her father: he would never see her again.", "Margaret Tudor wrote letters to her father declaring her homesickness, but Henry could do nothing but mourn the loss of his family and honour the terms of the peace treaty he had agreed to with the King of Scotland.", "Henry VII died of tuberculosis at Richmond Palace on 21 April 1509 and was buried in the chapel he commissioned in Westminster Abbey next to his wife, Elizabeth.", "He was succeeded by his second son, Henry VIII (reigned 1509–47), who would initiate the Protestant Reformation in England.", "His mother died two months later on 29 June 1509." ], [ "Appearance and character", "Amiable and high-spirited, Henry was friendly if dignified in manner, and it was clear that he was extremely intelligent.", "His biographer, Professor Stanley Chrimes, credits him – even before he had become king – with \"a high degree of personal magnetism, ability to inspire confidence, and a growing reputation for shrewd decisiveness\".", "On the debit side, he may have looked a little delicate as he suffered from poor health." ], [ "Legacy and memory", "Historians have always compared Henry VII with his continental contemporaries, especially Louis XI of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon.", "By 1600 historians emphasised Henry's wisdom in drawing lessons in statecraft from other monarchs.", "In 1622 Francis Bacon published his ''History of the Reign of King Henry VII''.", "By 1900 the \"New Monarchy\" interpretation stressed the common factors that in each country led to the revival of monarchical power.", "This approach raised puzzling questions about similarities and differences in the development of national states.", "In the late 20th century a model of European state formation was prominent in which Henry less resembles Louis and Ferdinand." ], [ "Family", "Henry VII (centre left) with his family, as depicted at Hampton Court PalaceHenry VII and Elizabeth had seven children:* Arthur (19 September 1486 – 2 April 1502), Prince of Wales, heir apparent from birth to death (named after the legendary King Arthur)* Margaret (28 November 1489 – 18 October 1541), Queen of Scotland as the wife of James IV and regent for their son James V* Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547), Henry VII's successor* Elizabeth (2 July 1492 – 14 September 1495)* Mary (18 March 1496 – 25 June 1533), briefly Queen of France as the wife of Louis XII, then wife of Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk* Edmund (21 February 1499 – 19 June 1500), styled Duke of Somerset but never formally created a peer* Katherine (2 February 1503 – 18 February 1503)" ], [ "See also", "*''Cestui que''*Cultural depictions of Henry VII of England" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations====== Sources ===* *: *: * * * * * * * * ** * *: ** * * * ** *: *: *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * *: * * * *: *:" ], [ "External links", "* Henry VII at the official website of the British monarchy* Henry VII at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust** Tudor Place page on Henry VII* Discussion of marital bed by Janina Ramirez and Jonathan Foyle: Art Detective Podcast, 15 Feb 2017*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henry VIII" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry VIII''' (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547.Henry is known for his six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled.", "His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority.", "He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries, for which he was excommunicated by the pope.Henry brought radical changes to the Constitution of England, expanding royal power and ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy.", "He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial using bills of attainder.", "He achieved many of his political aims through his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour.", "Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in his administration.Henry was an extravagant spender, using proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament.", "He converted money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue.", "Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance and costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly with King Francis I of France, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, King James V of Scotland, and the Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise.", "He expanded the Royal Navy, oversaw the annexation of Wales to England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542.Henry's contemporaries considered him an attractive, educated, and accomplished king.", "He has been described as \"one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne\" and his reign described as the \"most important\" in English history.", "He was an author and composer.", "As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered.", "He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid, and tyrannical monarch.", "He was succeeded by his son Edward VI." ], [ "Early years", "Born on 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, Kent, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York.", "Of the young Henry's six (or seven) siblings, only three – his brother Arthur, Prince of Wales, and sisters Margaret and Mary – survived infancy.", "He was baptised by Richard Foxe, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace.", "In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.", "He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three and was made a Knight of the Bath soon after.", "The day after the ceremony, he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches.", "In May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter.", "The reason for giving such appointments to a small child was to enable his father to retain personal control of lucrative positions and not share them with established families.", "Not much is known about Henry's early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, but it is known that he received a first-rate education from leading tutors.", "He became fluent in Latin and French and learned at least some Italian.In November 1501, Henry played a considerable part in the ceremonies surrounding his brother Arthur's marriage to Catherine, the youngest child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile.", "As Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a ''label of three points ermine''.", "He was further honoured on 9 February 1506 by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, who made him a Knight of the Golden Fleece.In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15, just 20 weeks after his marriage to Catherine.", "Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother.", "The 10-year-old Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall, and the new Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in February 1504.Henry VII gave his second son few responsibilities even after the death of Arthur.", "Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public.", "As a result, he ascended the throne \"untrained in the exacting art of kingship\".Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering his son Henry in marriage to the widowed Catherine.", "Henry VII and Queen Isabella were both keen on the idea, which had arisen very shortly after Arthur's death.", "On 23 June 1503, a treaty was signed for their marriage, and they were betrothed two days later.", "A papal dispensation was only needed for the \"impediment of public honesty\" if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed, but Henry VII and the Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for \"affinity\", which took account of the possibility of consummation.", "Cohabitation was not possible because Henry was too young.", "Isabella's death in 1504, and the ensuing problems of succession in Castile, complicated matters.", "Ferdinand II preferred Catherine to stay in England, but Henry VII's relations with Ferdinand had deteriorated.", "Catherine was therefore left in limbo for some time, culminating in Prince Henry's rejection of the marriage as soon he was able, at the age of 14.Ferdinand's solution was to make his daughter ambassador, allowing her to stay in England indefinitely.", "Devout, she began to believe that it was God's will that she marry the prince despite his opposition." ], [ "Early reign", "Portrait by Meynnart Wewyck, 1509Henry VII died on 21 April 1509, and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king.", "Soon after his father's burial on 10 May, Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine, leaving unresolved several issues concerning the papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion.", "The new King maintained that it had been his father's dying wish that he marry Catherine.", "Whether or not this was true, it was convenient.", "Emperor Maximilian I had been attempting to marry his granddaughter Eleanor, Catherine's niece, to Henry; she had now been jilted.", "Henry's wedding to Catherine was kept low-key and was held at the friar's church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509.Henry claimed descent from Constantine the Great and King Arthur and saw himself as their successor.On 23 June 1509, Henry led the now 23-year-old Catherine from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey for their coronation, which took place the following day.", "It was a grand affair: the King's passage was lined with tapestries and laid with fine cloth.", "Following the ceremony, there was a grand banquet in Westminster Hall.", "As Catherine wrote to her father, \"our time is spent in continuous festival\".Two days after his coronation, Henry arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley.", "They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510.Politically motivated executions would remain one of Henry's primary tactics for dealing with those who stood in his way.", "Henry returned some of the money supposedly extorted by the two ministers.", "By contrast, Henry's view of the House of York – potential rival claimants for the throne – was more moderate than his father's had been.", "Several who had been imprisoned by his father, including Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset, were pardoned.", "Others went unreconciled; Edmund de la Pole was eventually beheaded in 1513, an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against the King.Soon after marrying Henry, Catherine conceived.", "She gave birth to a stillborn girl on 31 January 1510.About four months later, Catherine again became pregnant.", "On 1 January 1511, New Year's Day, a son Henry was born.", "After the grief of losing their first child, the couple were pleased to have a boy and festivities were held, including a two-day joust known as the Westminster Tournament.", "However, the child died seven weeks later.", "Catherine had two stillborn sons in 1513 and 1515, but gave birth in February 1516 to a girl, Mary.", "Relations between Henry and Catherine had been strained, but they eased slightly after Mary's birth.Although Henry's marriage to Catherine has since been described as \"unusually good\", it is known that Henry took mistresses.", "It was revealed in 1510 that Henry had been conducting an affair with one of the sisters of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon.", "The most significant mistress for about three years, starting in 1516, was Elizabeth Blount.", "Blount is one of only two completely undisputed mistresses, considered by some to be few for a virile young king.", "Exactly how many Henry had is disputed: David Loades believes Henry had mistresses \"only to a very limited extent\", whilst Alison Weir believes there were numerous other affairs.", "Catherine is not known to have protested.", "In 1518, she fell pregnant again with another girl, who was also stillborn.Blount gave birth in June 1519 to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy.", "The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation.", "In 1533, FitzRoy married Mary Howard, but died childless three years later.", "At the time of his death in June 1536, Parliament was considering the Second Succession Act, which could have allowed him to become king." ], [ "France and the Habsburgs", "The meeting of Francis I and Henry VIII at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520In 1510, France, with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai, was winning a war against Venice.", "Henry renewed his father's friendship with Louis XII of France, an issue that divided his council.", "Certainly, war with the combined might of the two powers would have been exceedingly difficult.", "Shortly thereafter, however, Henry also signed a pact with Ferdinand II of Aragon.", "After Pope Julius II created the anti-French Holy League in October 1511, Henry followed Ferdinand's lead and brought England into the new League.", "An initial joint Anglo-Spanish attack was planned for the spring to recover Aquitaine for England, the start of making Henry's dreams of ruling France a reality.", "The attack, however, following a formal declaration of war in April 1512, was not led by Henry personally and was a considerable failure; Ferdinand used it simply to further his own ends, and it strained the Anglo-Spanish alliance.", "Nevertheless, the French were pushed out of Italy soon after, and the alliance survived, with both parties keen to win further victories over the French.", "Henry then pulled off a diplomatic coup by convincing Emperor Maximilian to join the Holy League.", "Remarkably, Henry had secured the promised title of \"Most Christian King of France\" from Julius and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris, if only Louis could be defeated.Henry with Emperor Charles V (right) and Pope Leo X (centre), On 30 June 1513, Henry invaded France, and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs – a relatively minor result, but one which was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes.", "Soon after, the English took Thérouanne and handed it over to Maximillian; Tournai, a more significant settlement, followed.", "Henry had led the army personally, complete with a large entourage.", "His absence from the country, however, had prompted his brother-in-law James IV of Scotland to invade England at the behest of Louis.", "Nevertheless, the English army, overseen by Queen Catherine, decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513.Among the dead was the Scottish King, thus ending Scotland's brief involvement in the war.", "These campaigns had given Henry a taste of the military success he so desired.", "However, despite initial indications, he decided not to pursue a 1514 campaign.", "He had been supporting Ferdinand and Maximilian financially during the campaign but had received little in return; England's coffers were now empty.", "With the replacement of Julius by Pope Leo X, who was inclined to negotiate for peace with France, Henry signed his own treaty with Louis: his sister Mary would become Louis' wife, having previously been pledged to the younger Charles, and peace was secured for eight years, a remarkably long time.Charles V, the nephew of Henry's wife Catherine, inherited a large empire in Europe, becoming king of Spain in 1516 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1519.When Louis XII of France died in 1515, he was succeeded by his cousin Francis I.", "These accessions left three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate.", "The careful diplomacy of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey had resulted in the Treaty of London in 1518, aimed at uniting the kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of a new Ottoman threat, and it seemed that peace might be secured.", "Henry met the new French King, Francis, on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish entertainment.", "Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade.", "The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London, however, and conflict was inevitable.", "Henry had more in common with Charles, whom he met once before and once after Francis.", "Charles brought his realm into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles.", "He still clung to his previous aim of restoring English lands in France but sought to secure an alliance with Burgundy, then a territorial possession of Charles, and the continued support of the Emperor.", "A small English attack in the north of France made up little ground.", "Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia and could dictate peace, but he believed he owed Henry nothing.", "Sensing this, Henry decided to take England out of the war before his ally, signing the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525." ], [ "Marriages", "=== Annulment from Catherine ===During his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry conducted an affair with Mary Boleyn, Catherine's lady-in-waiting.", "There has been speculation that Mary's two children, Henry Carey and Catherine Carey, were fathered by Henry, but this has never been proved, and the King never acknowledged them as he did in the case of Henry FitzRoy.", "In 1525, as Henry grew more impatient with Catherine's inability to produce the male heir he desired, he became enamoured of Mary Boleyn's sister, Anne Boleyn, then a charismatic young woman of 25 in the queen's entourage.", "Anne, however, resisted his attempts to seduce her, and refused to become his mistress as her sister had.", "It was in this context that Henry considered his three options for finding a dynastic successor and hence resolving what came to be described at court as the King's \"great matter\".", "These options were legitimising Henry FitzRoy, which would need the involvement of the Pope and would be open to challenge; marrying off Mary, his daughter with Catherine, as soon as possible and hoping for a grandson to inherit directly, but Mary was considered unlikely to conceive before Henry's death, or somehow rejecting Catherine and marrying someone else of child-bearing age.", "Probably seeing the possibility of marrying Anne, the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34-year-old Henry, and it soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to the now 40-year-old Catherine.Henry's precise motivations and intentions over the coming years are not widely agreed on.", "Henry himself, at least in the early part of his reign, was a devout and well-informed Catholic to the extent that his 1521 publication ''Assertio Septem Sacramentorum'' (\"Defence of the Seven Sacraments\") earned him the title of ''Fidei Defensor'' (Defender of the Faith) from Pope Leo X.", "The work represented a staunch defence of papal supremacy, albeit one couched in somewhat contingent terms.", "It is not clear exactly when Henry changed his mind on the issue as he grew more intent on a second marriage.", "Certainly, by 1527, he had convinced himself that Catherine had produced no male heir because their union was \"blighted in the eyes of God\".", "Indeed, in marrying Catherine, his brother's wife, he had acted contrary to Leviticus 20:21, a justification Thomas Cranmer used to declare the marriage null.", "Martin Luther, on the other hand, had initially argued against the annulment, stating that Henry VIII could take a second wife in accordance with his teaching that the Bible allowed for polygamy but not divorce.", "Henry now believed the Pope had lacked the authority to grant a dispensation from this impediment.", "It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled, forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack.", "In going public, all hope of tempting Catherine to retire to a nunnery or otherwise stay quiet was lost.", "Henry sent his secretary, William Knight, to appeal directly to the Holy See by way of a deceptively worded draft papal bull.", "Knight was unsuccessful; the Pope could not be misled so easily.Other missions concentrated on arranging an ecclesiastical court to meet in England, with a representative from Clement VII.", "Although Clement agreed to the creation of such a court, he never had any intention of empowering his legate, Lorenzo Campeggio, to decide in Henry's favour.", "This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Emperor Charles V, Catherine's nephew, but it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope.", "After less than two months of hearing evidence, Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529, from which it was clear that it would never re-emerge.", "With the chance for an annulment lost, Cardinal Wolsey bore the blame.", "He was charged with ''praemunire'' in October 1529, and his fall from grace was \"sudden and total\".", "Briefly reconciled with Henry (and officially pardoned) in the first half of 1530, he was charged once more in November 1530, this time for treason, but died while awaiting trial.", "After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders, Thomas More took on the role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister.", "Intelligent and able, but a devout Catholic and opponent of the annulment, More initially cooperated with the King's new policy, denouncing Wolsey in Parliament.A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her rooms were given to Anne Boleyn.", "Anne was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her time and was keenly absorbed and engaged with the ideas of the Protestant Reformers, but the extent to which she herself was a committed Protestant is much debated.", "When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, Anne's influence and the need to find a trustworthy supporter of the annulment had Thomas Cranmer appointed to the vacant position.", "This was approved by the Pope, unaware of the king's nascent plans for the Church.Henry was married to Catherine for 24 years.", "Their divorce has been described as a \"deeply wounding and isolating\" experience for Henry.=== Marriage to Anne Boleyn ===Portrait of Anne Boleyn, Henry's second queen; a copy of a lost original painted around 1534.In the winter of 1532, Henry met with Francis I at Calais and enlisted the support of the French King for his new marriage.", "Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry, now 41, and Anne went through a secret wedding service.", "She soon became pregnant, and there was a second wedding service in London on 25 January 1533.On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void.", "Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid.", "Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen, becoming instead \"princess dowager\" as the widow of Arthur.", "In her place, Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533.The queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533.The child was christened Elizabeth, in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York.Following the marriage, there was a period of consolidation, taking the form of a series of statutes of the Reformation Parliament aimed at finding solutions to any remaining issues, whilst protecting the new reforms from challenge, convincing the public of their legitimacy, and exposing and dealing with opponents.", "Although the canon law was dealt with at length by Cranmer and others, these acts were advanced by Thomas Cromwell, Thomas Audley and the Duke of Norfolk and indeed by Henry himself.", "With this process complete, in May 1532 More resigned as Lord Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister.", "With the Act of Succession 1533, Catherine's daughter, Mary, was declared illegitimate; Henry's marriage to Anne was declared legitimate; and Anne's issue declared to be next in the line of succession.", "With the Acts of Supremacy in 1534, Parliament recognised the King's status as head of the church in England and, together with the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1532, abolished the right of appeal to Rome.", "It was only then that Pope Clement VII took the step of excommunicating the King and Cranmer, although the excommunication was not made official until some time later.The King and Queen were not pleased with married life.", "The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her.", "The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for the largely ceremonial role of a royal wife and it made her many enemies.", "For his part, Henry disliked Anne's constant irritability and violent temper.", "After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal.", "As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine.", "Henry is traditionally believed to have had an affair with Madge Shelton in 1535, although historian Antonia Fraser argues that Henry in fact had an affair with her sister Mary Shelton.Opposition to Henry's religious policies was at first quickly suppressed in England.", "A number of dissenting monks, including the first Carthusian Martyrs, were executed and many more pilloried.", "The most prominent resisters included John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Thomas More, both of whom refused to take the oath to the King.", "Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought at that stage to have the men executed; rather, they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves.", "Fisher openly rejected Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church, but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treasons Act 1534, which (unlike later acts) did not forbid mere silence.", "Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason, however – More on the evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich, the Solicitor General - and both were executed in the summer of 1535.These suppressions, as well as the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535, in turn, contributed to a more general resistance to Henry's reforms, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace, a large uprising in northern England in October 1536.Some 20,000 to 40,000 rebels were led by Robert Aske, together with parts of the northern nobility.", "Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues.", "Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home.", "Henry saw the rebels as traitors and did not feel obliged to keep his promises to them, so when further violence occurred after Henry's offer of a pardon he was quick to break his promise of clemency.", "The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason.", "In total, about 200 rebels were executed, and the disturbances ended.==== Execution of Anne Boleyn ====Portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger, On 8 January 1536, news reached the King and Queen that Catherine of Aragon had died.", "The following day, Henry dressed all in yellow, with a white feather in his bonnet.", "Queen Anne was pregnant again, and she was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son.", "Later that month, the King was thrown from his horse in a tournament and was badly injured; it seemed for a time that his life was in danger.", "When news of this accident reached the queen, she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child at about 15 weeks' gestation, on the day of Catherine's funeral, 29 January 1536.For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of this royal marriage.Although the Boleyn family still held important positions on the Privy Council, Anne had many enemies, including the Duke of Suffolk.", "Even her own uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, had come to resent her attitude to her power.", "The Boleyns preferred France over the Emperor as a potential ally, but the King's favour had swung towards the latter (partly because of Cromwell), damaging the family's influence.", "Also opposed to Anne were supporters of reconciliation with Princess Mary (among them the former supporters of Catherine), who had reached maturity.", "A second annulment was now a real possibility, although it is commonly believed that it was Cromwell's anti-Boleyn influence that led opponents to look for a way of having her executed.Anne's downfall came shortly after she had recovered from her final miscarriage.", "Whether it was primarily the result of allegations of conspiracy, adultery, or witchcraft remains a matter of debate among historians.", "Early signs of a fall from grace included the King's new mistress, the 28-year-old Jane Seymour, being moved into new quarters, and Anne's brother, George Boleyn, being refused the Order of the Garter, which was instead given to Nicholas Carew.", "Between 30 April and 2 May, five men, including George Boleyn, were arrested on charges of treasonable adultery and accused of having sexual relationships with the queen.", "Anne was arrested, accused of treasonous adultery and incest.", "Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death.", "The accused men were executed on 17 May 1536.Henry and Anne's marriage was annulled by Archbishop Cranmer at Lambeth on the same day.", "Cranmer appears to have had difficulty finding grounds for an annulment and probably based it on the prior liaison between Henry and Anne's sister Mary, which in canon law meant that Henry's marriage to Anne was, like his first marriage, within a forbidden degree of affinity and therefore void.", "At 8 am on 19 May 1536, Anne was executed on Tower Green.=== Marriage to Jane Seymour; domestic and foreign affairs ===The day after Anne's execution the 45-year-old Henry became engaged to Seymour, who had been one of the queen's ladies-in-waiting.", "They were married ten days later at the Palace of Whitehall, Whitehall, London, in the queen's closet, by Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester.", "On 12 October 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI.", "The birth was difficult, and Queen Jane died on 24 October 1537 from an infection and was buried in Windsor.", "The euphoria that had accompanied Edward's birth became sorrow, but it was only over time that Henry came to long for his wife.", "At the time, Henry recovered quickly from the shock.", "Measures were immediately put in place to find another wife for Henry, which, at the insistence of Cromwell and the Privy Council, were focused on the European continent.With Charles V distracted by the internal politics of his many kingdoms and external threats, and Henry and Francis on relatively good terms, domestic and not foreign policy issues had been Henry's priority in the first half of the 1530s.", "In 1536, for example, Henry granted his assent to the Laws in Wales Act 1535, which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into a single nation.", "This was followed by the Second Succession Act (the Act of Succession 1536), which declared Henry's children by Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne.", "The King was granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his will, should he have no further issue.In 1538, as part of the negotiation of a secret treaty by Cromwell with Charles V, a series of dynastic marriages were proposed: Mary would marry a son of the King of Portugal, Elizabeth marry one of the sons of the King of Hungary and the infant Edward marry one of the Emperor's daughters.", "The widowed King, it was suggested, might marry the Dowager Duchess of Milan.", "However, when Charles and Francis made peace in January 1539, Henry became increasingly paranoid, perhaps as a result of receiving a constant list of threats to the kingdom (real or imaginary, minor or serious) supplied by Cromwell in his role as spymaster.", "Enriched by the dissolution of the monasteries, Henry used some of his financial reserves to build a series of coastal defences and set some aside for use in the event of a Franco-German invasion.=== Marriage to Anne of Cleves ===''Portrait of Anne of Cleves'' by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1539Having considered the matter, Cromwell suggested Anne, the 25-year-old sister of the Duke of Cleves, who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England, for the duke fell between Lutheranism and Catholicism.", "Other potential brides included Christina of Denmark, Anna of Lorraine, Louise of Guise and Amalia of Cleves.", "Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King.", "Despite speculation that Holbein painted her in an overly flattering light, it is more likely that the portrait was accurate; Holbein remained in favour at court.", "After seeing Holbein's portrait, and urged on by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, the 49-year-old King agreed to wed Anne.", "When Henry met Anne, however, he was much displeased with her appearance.", "The king was reportedly taken aback and told his courtiers \"I promise you, I see no such thing as hath been shown me of her, by pictures and report.", "I am ashamed that men have praised her as they have done, and I love her not!\"", "Despite his protests, Henry knew that the situation was too far gone and he would have to wed his bride.", "The marriage took place in January 1540, but it was never consummated.", "The morning after their wedding night, Henry complained about his new wife to Lord Cromwell, stating:Henry wished to annul the marriage as soon as possible so he could marry another.", "Anne did not argue, and confirmed that the marriage had never been consummated.", "Anne's previous betrothal to the Duke of Lorraine's son Francis provided further grounds for the annulment.", "The marriage was subsequently dissolved in July 1540, and Anne received the title of \"The King's Sister\", two houses, and a generous allowance.", "It was soon clear that Henry had fallen for the 17-year-old Catherine Howard, the Duke of Norfolk's niece.", "This worried Cromwell, for Norfolk was his political opponent.Shortly after, the religious reformers (and protégés of Cromwell) Robert Barnes, William Jerome and Thomas Garret were burned as heretics.", "Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favour although it is unclear exactly why, for there is little evidence of differences in domestic or foreign policy.", "Despite his role, he was never formally accused of being responsible for Henry's failed marriage.", "Cromwell was now surrounded by enemies at court, with Norfolk also able to draw on his niece Catherine's position.", "Cromwell was charged with treason, selling export licences, granting passports, and drawing up commissions without permission, and may also have been blamed for the failure of the foreign policy that accompanied the attempted marriage to Anne.", "He was subsequently attainted and beheaded.=== Marriage to Catherine Howard ===Portrait of a woman believed to be Catherine Howard, Henry's fifth wife, by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1540On 28 July 1540 (the same day Cromwell was executed), Henry married the young Catherine Howard, a first cousin and lady-in-waiting of Anne Boleyn.", "He was delighted with his new queen and awarded her the lands of Cromwell and a vast array of jewellery.", "Soon after the marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with the courtier Thomas Culpeper.", "She also employed Francis Dereham, who had previously been informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary.", "The Privy Council was informed of her affair with Dereham whilst Henry was away; Thomas Cranmer was dispatched to investigate, and he brought evidence of Queen Catherine's previous affair with Dereham to the King's notice.", "Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations, Dereham confessed.", "It took another meeting of the council, however, before Henry believed the accusations against Dereham and went into a rage, blaming the council before consoling himself in hunting.", "When questioned, the queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship.", "Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Catherine's relationship with Culpeper.", "Culpeper and Dereham were both executed, and Catherine too was beheaded on 13 February 1542.=== Marriage to Catherine Parr ===Catherine Parr, Henry's sixth and last wifeHenry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr, in July 1543.A reformer at heart, she argued with Henry over religion.", "Henry remained committed to an idiosyncratic mixture of Catholicism and Protestantism; the reactionary mood that had gained ground after Cromwell's fall had neither eliminated his Protestant streak nor been overcome by it.", "Parr helped reconcile Henry with his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth.", "In 1543, the Third Succession Act put them back in the line of succession after Edward.", "The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will." ], [ "Shrines destroyed and monasteries dissolved", "In 1538, the chief minister Thomas Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what the government termed \"idolatry\" practised under the old religion, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral.", "As a consequence, the King was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December of the same year.", "In 1540, Henry sanctioned the complete destruction of shrines to saints.", "In 1542, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown.", "Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords; only archbishops and bishops remained.", "Consequently, the Lords Spiritualas members of the clergy with seats in the House of Lords were knownwere for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal." ], [ "Second invasion of France and the \"Rough Wooing\" of Scotland", "Henry in 1540, by Hans Holbein the YoungerThe 1539 alliance between Francis and Charles had soured, eventually degenerating into renewed war.", "With Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn dead, relations between Charles and Henry improved considerably, and Henry concluded a secret alliance with the Emperor and decided to enter the Italian War in favour of his new ally.", "An invasion of France was planned for 1543.In preparation for it, Henry moved to eliminate the potential threat of Scotland under the youthful James V. The Scots were defeated at Battle of Solway Moss on 24 November 1542, and James died on 15 December.", "Henry now hoped to unite the crowns of England and Scotland by marrying his son Edward to James's successor, Mary.", "The Scottish Regent Lord Arran agreed to the marriage in the Treaty of Greenwich on 1 July 1543, but it was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 December.", "The result was eight years of war between England and Scotland, a campaign later dubbed \"the Rough Wooing\".", "Despite several peace treaties, unrest continued in Scotland until Henry's death.Despite the early success with Scotland, Henry hesitated to invade France, annoying Charles.", "Henry finally went to France in June 1544 with a two-pronged attack.", "One force under Norfolk ineffectively besieged Montreuil.", "The other, under Suffolk, laid siege to Boulogne.", "Henry later took personal command, and Boulogne fell on 18 September 1544.However, Henry had refused Charles's request to march against Paris.", "Charles's own campaign fizzled, and he made peace with France that same day.", "Henry was left alone against France, unable to make peace.", "Francis attempted to invade England in the summer of 1545 but his forces reached only the Isle of Wight before being repulsed in the Battle of the Solent.", "Financially exhausted, France and England signed the Treaty of Camp on 7 June 1546.Henry secured Boulogne for eight years.", "The city was then to be returned to France for 2 million crowns (£750,000).", "Henry needed the money; the 1544 campaign had cost £650,000, and England was once again facing bankruptcy." ], [ "Physical decline and death", "Queen Jane (right), King Charles I with a child of Queen Anne (left), vault under the choir, St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, marked by a stone slab in the floor.", "1888 sketch by Alfred Young Nutt, Surveyor to the Dean and CanonsLate in life, Henry became obese, with a waist measurement of , and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical devices.", "He was covered with painful, pus-filled boils and possibly had gout.", "His obesity and other medical problems can be traced to the jousting accident on 24 January 1536 in which he suffered a leg wound.", "The accident reopened and aggravated an injury he had sustained years earlier, to the extent that his doctors found it difficult to treat.", "The chronic wound festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated, preventing him from maintaining the level of physical activity he had previously enjoyed.", "The jousting accident is also believed to have caused Henry's mood swings, which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament.This suit of armour was commissioned about 1544 when Henry's midsection had a girth of 51 inchesThe theory that Henry had syphilis has been dismissed by most historians.", "Historian Susan Maclean Kybett ascribes his demise to scurvy, which is caused by insufficient vitamin C most often due to a lack of fresh fruit and vegetables in one's diet.A newer study suggests that the king may have been of Kell-positive blood type to explain both his physical and mental deterioration, being consistent with some symptoms of the McLeod syndrome, and the high mortality in the pregnancies attributed to him.Henry's obesity hastened his death at the age of 55, on 28 January 1547 in the Palace of Whitehall, on what would have been his father's 90th birthday.", "The tomb he had planned (with components taken from the tomb intended for Cardinal Wolsey) was only partly constructed and was never completed (the sarcophagus and its base were later removed and used for Lord Nelson's tomb in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral).", "Henry was interred in a vault at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, next to Jane Seymour.", "Over 100 years later, King Charles I (ruled 1625–1649) was buried in the same vault." ], [ "Wives, mistresses, and children", "English historian and House of Tudor expert David Starkey describes Henry VIII as follows:+Known children of Henry VIII of England Name Birth Death Notes '''''By Catherine of Aragon''''' (married Palace of Placentia 11 June 1509; annulled 23 May 1533) Unnamed daughter 31 January 1510 stillborn Henry, Duke of Cornwall 1 January 1511 22 February 1511 died aged almost two months Unnamed son 17 September 1513 died shortly after birth Unnamed son November 1514 died shortly after birth Queen Mary I 18 February 1516 17 November 1558 married Philip II of Spain in 1554; no issue Unnamed daughter 10 November 1518 stillborn in the 8th month of pregnancy or lived at least one week '''''By Elizabeth Blount''''' (mistress; bore the only illegitimate child Henry VIII acknowledged as his son) Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset 15 June 1519 23 July 1536 illegitimate; acknowledged by Henry VIII in 1525; no issue '''''By Anne Boleyn''''' (married Westminster Abbey 25 January 1533; annulled 17 May 1536) beheaded 19 May 1536 Queen Elizabeth I 7 September 1533 24 March 1603 never married; no issue Unnamed son Christmas, 1534 miscarriage or false pregnancy Unnamed son 1535 miscarried son Unnamed son 29 January 1536 miscarriage of a child, believed male, in the fourth month of pregnancy '''''By Jane Seymour''''' (married Palace of Whitehall 30 May 1536) died 24 October 1537 King Edward VI 12 October 1537 6 July 1553 died unmarried, age 15; no issue '''''By Anne of Cleves''''' (married Palace of Placentia 6 January 1540; annulled 9 July 1540) no issue '''''By Catherine Howard''''' (married Oatlands Palace 28 July 1540; annulled 23 November 1541) beheaded 13 February 1542 no issue '''''By Catherine Parr''''' (married Hampton Court Palace 12 July 1543; Henry VIII died 28 January 1547) no issue" ], [ "Succession", "Upon Henry's death, he was succeeded by his only surviving son, Edward VI.", "Since Edward was then only nine years old, he could not rule directly.", "Instead, Henry's will designated 16 executors to serve on a regency council until Edward reached 18.The executors chose Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, elder brother to Jane Seymour (Edward's mother), to be Lord Protector of the Realm.", "Under provisions of the will, was Edward to die childless, the throne was to pass to Mary, Henry VIII's daughter by Catherine of Aragon, and her heirs.If Mary's issue failed, the crown was to go to Elizabeth, Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn, and her heirs.", "Finally, if Elizabeth's line became extinct, the crown was to be inherited by the descendants of Henry VIII's deceased younger sister, Mary, the Greys.The descendants of Henry's sister Margaret Tudorthe Stuarts, rulers of Scotlandwere thereby excluded from the succession.This provision ultimately failed when James VI of Scotland, Margaret's great-grandson, became King of England in 1603.Edward VI himself would disregard the will and name Jane Grey his successor." ], [ "Public image", "Musical score of \"Pastime with Good Company\", , composed by HenryHenry cultivated the image of a Renaissance man, and his court was a centre of scholarly and artistic innovation and glamorous excess, epitomised by the Field of the Cloth of Gold.", "He scouted the country for choirboys, taking some directly from Wolsey's choir, and introduced Renaissance music into court.", "Musicians included Benedict de Opitiis, Richard Sampson, Ambrose Lupo, and Venetian organist Dionisio Memo, and Henry himself kept a considerable collection of instruments.", "He was skilled on the lute and played the organ, and was a talented player of the virginals.", "He could also sightread music and sing well.", "He was an accomplished musician, author, and poet; his best-known piece of music is \"Pastime with Good Company\" (\"The Kynges Ballade\"), and he is reputed to have written \"Greensleeves\" but probably did not.Henry was an avid gambler and dice player, and excelled at sports, especially jousting, hunting, and real tennis.", "He was also known for his strong defence of conventional Christian piety.", "He was involved in the construction and improvement of several significant buildings, including Nonsuch Palace, King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and Westminster Abbey in London.", "Many of the existing buildings which he improved were properties confiscated from Wolsey, such as Christ Church, Oxford, Hampton Court Palace, the Palace of Whitehall, and Trinity College, Cambridge.Henry was an intellectual, the first English king with a modern humanist education.", "He read and wrote English, French, and Latin, and owned a large library.", "He annotated many books and published one of his own, and he had numerous pamphlets and lectures prepared to support the reformation of the church.", "Richard Sampson's ''Oratio'' (1534), for example, was an argument for absolute obedience to the monarchy and claimed that the English church had always been independent of Rome.", "At the popular level, theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the crown travelled around the land to promote the new religious practices; the Pope and Catholic priests and monks were mocked as foreign devils, while Henry was hailed as the glorious King of England and as a brave and heroic defender of the true faith.", "Henry worked hard to present an image of unchallengeable authority and irresistible power.Catherine of Aragon watching Henry jousting in her honour after giving birth to a sonHenry was a large, well-built athlete, over tall, strong, and broad in proportion.", "His athletic activities were more than pastimes; they were political devices that served multiple goals, enhancing his image, impressing foreign emissaries and rulers, and conveying his ability to suppress any rebellion.", "He arranged a jousting tournament at Greenwich in 1517 where he wore gilded armour and gilded horse trappings, and outfits of velvet, satin, and cloth of gold with pearls and jewels.", "It suitably impressed foreign ambassadors, one of whom wrote home that \"the wealth and civilisation of the world are here, and those who call the English barbarians appear to me to render themselves such\".", "Henry finally retired from jousting in 1536 after a heavy fall from his horse left him unconscious for two hours, but he continued to sponsor two lavish tournaments a year.", "He then started gaining weight and lost the trim, athletic figure that had made him so handsome, and his courtiers began dressing in heavily padded clothes to emulate and flatter him.", "His health rapidly declined near the end of his reign." ], [ "Government", "The power of Tudor monarchs, including Henry, was 'whole' and 'entire', ruling, as they claimed, by the grace of God alone.", "The crown could also rely on the exclusive use of those functions that constituted the royal prerogative.", "These included acts of diplomacy (including royal marriages), declarations of war, management of the coinage, the issue of royal pardons and the power to summon and dissolve parliament as and when required.", "Nevertheless, as evident during Henry's break with Rome, the monarch stayed within established limits, whether legal or financial, that forced him to work closely with both the nobility and parliament (representing the gentry).Cardinal Thomas WolseyIn practice, Tudor monarchs used patronage to maintain a royal court that included formal institutions such as the Privy Council as well as more informal advisers and confidants.", "Both the rise and fall of court nobles could be swift: Henry did undoubtedly execute at will, burning or beheading two of his wives, 20 peers, four leading public servants, six close attendants and friends, one cardinal (John Fisher) and numerous abbots.", "Among those who were in favour at any given point in Henry's reign, one could usually be identified as a chief minister, though one of the enduring debates in the historiography of the period has been the extent to which those chief ministers controlled Henry rather than vice versa.", "In particular, historian G. R. Elton has argued that one such minister, Thomas Cromwell, led a \"Tudor revolution in government\" independently of the King, whom Elton presented as an opportunistic, essentially lazy participant in the nitty-gritty of politics.", "Where Henry did intervene personally in the running of the country, Elton argued, he mostly did so to its detriment.", "The prominence and influence of faction in Henry's court is similarly discussed in the context of at least five episodes of Henry's reign, including the downfall of Anne Boleyn.From 1514 to 1529, Thomas Wolsey, a cardinal of the established Church, oversaw domestic and foreign policy for the King from his position as Lord Chancellor.", "Wolsey centralised the national government and extended the jurisdiction of the conciliar courts, particularly the Star Chamber.", "The Star Chamber's overall structure remained unchanged, but Wolsey used it to provide much-needed reform of the criminal law.", "The power of the court itself did not outlive Wolsey, however, since no serious administrative reform was undertaken and its role eventually devolved to the localities.", "Wolsey helped fill the gap left by Henry's declining participation in government (particularly in comparison to his father) but did so mostly by imposing himself in the King's place.", "His use of these courts to pursue personal grievances, and particularly to treat delinquents as mere examples of a whole class worthy of punishment, angered the rich, who were annoyed as well by his enormous wealth and ostentatious living.", "Following Wolsey's downfall, Henry took full control of his government, although at court numerous complex factions continued to try to ruin and destroy each other.Thomas Cromwell in 1532 or 1533Thomas Cromwell also came to define Henry's government.", "Returning to England from the continent in 1514 or 1515, Cromwell soon entered Wolsey's service.", "He turned to law, also picking up a good knowledge of the Bible, and was admitted to Gray's Inn in 1524.He became Wolsey's \"man of all work\".", "Driven in part by his religious beliefs, Cromwell attempted to reform the body politic of the English government through discussion and consent, and through the vehicle of continuity, not outward change.", "Many saw him as the man they wanted to bring about their shared aims, including Thomas Audley.", "By 1531, Cromwell and his associates were already responsible for the drafting of much legislation.", "Cromwell's first office was that of the master of the King's jewels in 1532, from which he began to invigorate the government finances.", "By that point, Cromwell's power as an efficient administrator, in a Council full of politicians, exceeded what Wolsey had achieved.Cromwell did much work through his many offices to remove the tasks of government from the Royal Household (and ideologically from the personal body of the King) and into a public state.", "But he did so in a haphazard fashion that left several remnants, not least because he needed to retain Henry's support, his own power, and the possibility of actually achieving the plan he set out.", "Cromwell made the various income streams Henry VII put in place more formal and assigned largely autonomous bodies for their administration.", "The role of the King's Council was transferred to a reformed Privy Council, much smaller and more efficient than its predecessor.", "A difference emerged between the King's financial health and the country's, although Cromwell's fall undermined much of his bureaucracy, which required him to keep order among the many new bodies and prevent profligate spending that strained relations as well as finances.", "Cromwell's reforms ground to a halt in 1539, the initiative lost, and he failed to secure the passage of an enabling act, the Proclamation by the Crown Act 1539.He was executed on 28 July 1540.=== Finances ===crown of Henry VIII, minted –1547.The reverse depicts the quartered arms of England and France.Henry inherited a vast fortune and a prosperous economy from his father, who had been frugal.", "This fortune is estimated at £1,250,000 (the equivalent of £375 million today).", "By comparison, Henry VIII's reign was a near disaster financially.", "He augmented the royal treasury by seizing church lands, but his heavy spending and long periods of mismanagement damaged the economy.Henry spent much of his wealth on maintaining his court and household, including many of the building works he undertook on royal palaces.", "He hung 2,000 tapestries in his palaces; by comparison, James V of Scotland hung just 200.Henry took pride in showing off his collection of weapons, which included exotic archery equipment, 2,250 pieces of land ordnance and 6,500 handguns.", "Tudor monarchs had to fund all government expenses out of their own income.", "This income came from the Crown lands that Henry owned as well as from customs duties like tonnage and poundage, granted by parliament to the King for life.", "During Henry's reign the revenues of the Crown remained constant (around £100,000), but were eroded by inflation and rising prices brought about by war.", "Indeed, war and Henry's dynastic ambitions in Europe exhausted the surplus he had inherited from his father by the mid-1520s.Henry VII had not involved Parliament in his affairs very much, but Henry VIII had to turn to Parliament during his reign for money, in particular for grants of subsidies to fund his wars.", "The dissolution of the monasteries provided a means to replenish the treasury, and as a result, the Crown took possession of monastic lands worth £120,000 (£36 million) a year.", "The Crown had profited by a small amount in 1526 when Wolsey put England onto a gold, rather than silver, standard, and had debased the currency slightly.", "Cromwell debased the currency more significantly, starting in Ireland in 1540.The English pound halved in value against the Flemish pound between 1540 and 1551 as a result.", "The nominal profit made was significant, helping to bring income and expenditure together, but it had a catastrophic effect on the country's economy.", "In part, it helped to bring about a period of very high inflation from 1544 onwards.=== Reformation ===King Henry VIII sitting with his feet upon Pope Clement VI, 1641Henry is generally credited with initiating the English Reformationthe process of transforming England from a Catholic country to a Protestant onethough his progress at the elite and mass levels is disputed, and the precise narrative not widely agreed upon.", "Certainly, in 1527, Henry, until then an observant and well-informed Catholic, appealed to the Pope for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine.", "No annulment was immediately forthcoming, since the papacy was now under the control of Charles V, Catherine's nephew.", "The traditional narrative gives this refusal as the trigger for Henry's rejection of papal supremacy, which he had previously defended.", "Yet as E. L. Woodward put it, Henry's determination to annul his marriage with Catherine was the occasion rather than the cause of the English Reformation so that \"neither too much nor too little\" should be made of the annulment.", "Historian A. F. Pollard has argued that even if Henry had not needed an annulment, he might have come to reject papal control over the governance of England purely for political reasons.", "Indeed, Henry needed a son to secure the Tudor Dynasty and avert the risk of civil war over disputed succession.In any case, between 1532 and 1537, Henry instituted a number of statutes that dealt with the relationship between king and the Pope and hence the structure of the nascent Church of England.", "These included the Statute in Restraint of Appeals (passed 1533), which extended the charge of ''praemunire'' against all who introduced papal bulls into England, potentially exposing them to the death penalty if found guilty.", "Other acts included the Supplication against the Ordinaries and the Submission of the Clergy, which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church.", "The Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534 required the clergy to elect bishops nominated by the Sovereign.", "The Act of Supremacy in 1534 declared that the King was \"the only Supreme Head on Earth of the Church of England\" and the Treasons Act 1534 made it high treason, punishable by death, to refuse the Oath of Supremacy acknowledging the King as such.", "Similarly, following the passage of the Act of Succession 1533, all adults in the kingdom were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions (declaring Henry's marriage to Anne legitimate and his marriage to Catherine illegitimate) by oath; those who refused were subject to imprisonment for life, and any publisher or printer of any literature alleging that the marriage to Anne was invalid subject to the death penalty.", "Finally, the Peter's Pence Act was passed, and it reiterated that England had \"no superior under God, but only your Grace\" and that Henry's \"imperial crown\" had been diminished by \"the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions\" of the Pope.", "The King had much support from the Church under Cranmer.Parliament of King Henry VIIITo Cromwell's annoyance, Henry insisted on parliamentary time to discuss questions of faith, which he achieved through the Duke of Norfolk.", "This led to the passing of the Act of Six Articles, whereby six major questions were all answered by asserting the religious orthodoxy, thus restraining the reform movement in England.", "It was followed by the beginnings of a reformed liturgy and of the Book of Common Prayer, which would take until 1549 to complete.", "But this victory for religious conservatives did not convert into much change in personnel, and Cranmer remained in his position.", "Overall, the rest of Henry's reign saw a subtle movement away from religious orthodoxy, helped in part by the deaths of prominent figures from before the break with Rome, especially the executions of Thomas More and John Fisher in 1535 for refusing to renounce papal authority.", "Henry established a new political theology of obedience to the crown that continued for the next decade.", "It reflected Martin Luther's new interpretation of the fourth commandment (\"Honour thy father and mother\"), brought to England by William Tyndale.", "The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments was another important shift: reformers within the Church used the Commandments' emphasis on faith and the word of God, while conservatives emphasised the need for dedication to God and doing good.", "The reformers' efforts lay behind the publication of the ''Great Bible'' in 1539 in English.", "Protestant Reformers still faced persecution, particularly over objections to Henry's annulment.", "Many fled abroad, including the influential Tyndale, who was eventually executed and his body burned at Henry's behest.When taxes once payable to Rome were transferred to the Crown, Cromwell saw the need to assess the taxable value of the Church's extensive holdings as they stood in 1535.The result was an extensive compendium, the ''Valor Ecclesiasticus''.", "In September 1535, Cromwell commissioned a more general visitation of religious institutions, to be undertaken by four appointee visitors.", "The visitation focused almost exclusively on the country's religious houses, with largely negative conclusions.", "In addition to reporting back to Cromwell, the visitors made the lives of the monks more difficult by enforcing strict behavioural standards.", "The result was to encourage self-dissolution.", "In any case, the evidence Cromwell gathered led swiftly to the beginning of the state-enforced dissolution of the monasteries, with all religious houses worth less than £200 vested by statute in the crown in January 1536.After a short pause, surviving religious houses were transferred one by one to the Crown and new owners, and the dissolution confirmed by a further statute in 1539.By January 1540 no such houses remained; 800 had been dissolved.", "The process had been efficient, with minimal resistance, and brought the crown some £90,000 a year.", "The extent to which the dissolution of all houses was planned from the start is debated by historians; there is some evidence that major houses were originally intended only to be reformed.", "Cromwell's actions transferred a fifth of England's landed wealth to new hands.", "The programme was designed primarily to create a landed gentry beholden to the crown, which would use the lands much more efficiently.", "Although little opposition to the supremacy could be found in England's religious houses, they had links to the international church and were an obstacle to further religious reform.Response to the reforms was mixed.", "The religious houses had been the only support of the impoverished, and the reforms alienated much of the populace outside London, helping to provoke the great northern rising of 1536–37, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace.", "Elsewhere the changes were accepted and welcomed, and those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy.", "They reemerged during the reign of Henry's daughter Mary (1553–58).=== Military ===Henry's Italian-made suit of armour, .", "Apart from permanent garrisons at Berwick, Calais, and Carlisle, England's standing army numbered only a few hundred men.", "This was increased only slightly by Henry.", "Henry's invasion force of 1513, some 30,000 men, was composed of billmen and longbowmen, at a time when the other European nations were moving to hand guns and pikemen but the difference in capability was at this stage not significant, and Henry's forces had new armour and weaponry.", "They were also supported by battlefield artillery and the war wagon, relatively new innovations, and several large and expensive siege guns.", "The invasion force of 1544 was similarly well-equipped and organised, although command on the battlefield was laid with the dukes of Suffolk and Norfolk, which in the latter case produced disastrous results at Montreuil.Henry's break with Rome incurred the threat of a large-scale French or Spanish invasion.", "To guard against this, in 1538 he began to build a chain of expensive, state-of-the-art defences along Britain's southern and eastern coasts, from Kent to Cornwall, largely built of material gained from the demolition of the monasteries.", "These were known as Henry VIII's Device Forts.", "He also strengthened existing coastal defence fortresses such as Dover Castle and, at Dover, Moat Bulwark and Archcliffe Fort, which he visited for a few months to supervise.", "Wolsey had many years before conducted the censuses required for an overhaul of the system of militia, but no reform resulted.", "In 1538–39, Cromwell overhauled the shire musters, but his work mainly served to demonstrate how inadequate they were in organisation.", "The building works, including that at Berwick, along with the reform of the militias and musters, were eventually finished under Queen Mary.Depiction of Henry embarking at Dover, c. 1520Henry is traditionally cited as one of the founders of the Royal Navy.", "Technologically, Henry invested in large cannon for his warships, an idea that had taken hold in other countries, to replace the smaller serpentines in use.", "He also flirted with designing ships personally.", "His contribution to larger vessels, if any, is unknown, but it is believed that he influenced the design of rowbarges and similar galleys.", "Henry was also responsible for the creation of a permanent navy, with the supporting anchorages and dockyards.", "Tactically, Henry's reign saw the Navy move away from boarding tactics to employ gunnery instead.", "The Tudor navy was enlarged from seven ships to up to 50 (the ''Mary Rose'' among them), and Henry was responsible for the establishment of the \"council for marine causes\" to oversee the maintenance and operation of the Navy, becoming the basis for the later Admiralty.=== Ireland ===The division of Ireland in 1450At the beginning of Henry's reign, Ireland was effectively divided into three zones: the Pale, where English rule was unchallenged; Leinster and Munster, the so-called \"obedient land\" of Anglo-Irish peers; and the Gaelic Connaught and Ulster, with merely nominal English rule.", "Until 1513, Henry continued the policy of his father, to allow Irish lords to rule in the King's name and accept steep divisions between the communities.", "However, upon the death of the 8th Earl of Kildare, governor of Ireland, fractious Irish politics combined with a more ambitious Henry to cause trouble.", "When Thomas Butler, 7th Earl of Ormond, died, Henry recognised one successor for Ormond's English, Welsh and Scottish lands, whilst in Ireland another took control.", "Kildare's successor, the 9th Earl, was replaced as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by the Earl of Surrey in 1520.Surrey's ambitious aims were costly but ineffective; English rule became trapped between winning the Irish lords over with diplomacy, as favoured by Henry and Wolsey, and a sweeping military occupation as proposed by Surrey.", "Surrey was recalled in 1521, with Piers Butler – one of the claimants to the Earldom of Ormond – appointed in his place.", "Butler proved unable to control opposition, including that of Kildare.", "Kildare was appointed chief governor in 1524, resuming his dispute with Butler, which had before been in a lull.", "Meanwhile, the Earl of Desmond, an Anglo-Irish peer, had turned his support to Richard de la Pole as pretender to the English throne; when in 1528 Kildare failed to take suitable actions against him, Kildare was once again removed from his post.The Desmond situation was resolved on his death in 1529, which was followed by a period of uncertainty.", "This was effectively ended with the appointment of Henry FitzRoy, Duke of Richmond and the King's son, as lord lieutenant.", "Richmond had never before visited Ireland, his appointment a break with past policy.", "For a time it looked as if peace might be restored with the return of Kildare to Ireland to manage the tribes, but the effect was limited and the Irish parliament soon rendered ineffective.", "Ireland began to receive the attention of Cromwell, who had supporters of Ormond and Desmond promoted.", "Kildare, on the other hand, was summoned to London; after some hesitation, he departed for London in 1534, where he would face charges of treason.", "His son, Thomas, Lord Offaly, was more forthright, denouncing the king and leading a \"Catholic crusade\" against the King, who was by this time mired in marital problems.", "Offaly had the Archbishop of Dublin murdered and besieged Dublin.", "Offaly led a mixture of Pale gentry and Irish tribes, although he failed to secure the support of Lord Darcy, a sympathiser, or Charles V. What was effectively a civil war was ended with the intervention of 2,000 English troops – a large army by Irish standards – and the execution of Offaly (his father was already dead) and his uncles.Although the Offaly revolt was followed by a determination to rule Ireland more closely, Henry was wary of drawn-out conflict with the tribes, and a royal commission recommended that the only relationship with the tribes was to be promises of peace, their land protected from English expansion.", "The man to lead this effort was Antony St Leger, as Lord Deputy of Ireland, who would remain in post past Henry's death.", "Until the break with Rome, it was widely believed that Ireland was a Papal possession granted as a mere fiefdom to the English king, so in 1542 Henry asserted England's claim to the Kingdom of Ireland free from the Papal overlordship.", "This change did, however, also allow a policy of peaceful reconciliation and expansion: the Lords of Ireland would grant their lands to the King, before being returned as fiefdoms.", "The incentive to comply with Henry's request was an accompanying barony, and thus a right to sit in the Irish House of Lords, which was to run in parallel with England's.", "The Irish law of the tribes did not suit such an arrangement, because the chieftain did not have the required rights; this made progress tortuous, and the plan was abandoned in 1543, not to be replaced." ], [ "Historiography", "The complexities and sheer scale of Henry's legacy ensured that, in the words of Betteridge and Freeman, \"throughout the centuries, Henry has been praised and reviled, but he has never been ignored\".", "Historian John D. Mackie sums up Henry's personality and its impact on his achievements and popularity:A particular focus of modern historiography has been the extent to which the events of Henry's life (including his marriages, foreign policy and religious changes) were the result of his own initiative and, if they were, whether they were the result of opportunism or of a principled undertaking by Henry.", "The traditional interpretation of those events was provided by historian A. F. Pollard, who in 1902 presented his own, largely positive, view of the King, lauding him, \"as the King and statesman who, whatever his personal failings, led England down the road to parliamentary democracy and empire\".", "Pollard's interpretation remained the dominant interpretation of Henry's life until the publication of the doctoral thesis of G. R. Elton in 1953.Elton's book on ''The Tudor Revolution in Government'' maintained Pollard's positive interpretation of the Henrician period as a whole, but reinterpreted Henry himself as a follower rather than a leader.", "For Elton, it was Cromwell and not Henry who undertook the changes in government – Henry was shrewd but lacked the vision to follow a complex plan through.", "Henry was little more, in other words, than an \"ego-centric monstrosity\" whose reign \"owed its successes and virtues to better and greater men about him; most of its horrors and failures sprang more directly from the King\".Although the central tenets of Elton's thesis have since been questioned, it has consistently provided the starting point for much later work, including that of J. J. Scarisbrick, his student.", "Scarisbrick largely kept Elton's regard for Cromwell's abilities but returned agency to Henry, who Scarisbrick considered to have ultimately directed and shaped policy.", "For Scarisbrick, Henry was a formidable, captivating man who \"wore regality with a splendid conviction\".", "The effect of endowing Henry with this ability, however, was largely negative in Scarisbrick's eyes: to Scarisbrick, the Henrician period was one of upheaval and destruction and those in charge worthy of blame more than praise.", "Even among more recent biographers, including David Loades, David Starkey, and John Guy, there has ultimately been little consensus on the extent to which Henry was responsible for the changes he oversaw or the assessment of those he did bring about.This lack of clarity about Henry's control over events has contributed to the variation in the qualities ascribed to him: religious conservative or dangerous radical; lover of beauty or brutal destroyer of priceless artefacts; friend and patron or betrayer of those around him; chivalry incarnate or ruthless chauvinist.", "One traditional approach, favoured by Starkey and others, is to divide Henry's reign into two halves, the first Henry being dominated by positive qualities (politically inclusive, pious, athletic but also intellectual) who presided over a period of stability and calm, and the latter a \"hulking tyrant\" who presided over a period of dramatic, sometimes whimsical, change.", "Other writers have tried to merge Henry's disparate personality into a single whole; Lacey Baldwin Smith, for example, considered him an egotistical borderline neurotic given to great fits of temper and deep and dangerous suspicions, with a mechanical and conventional, but deeply held piety, and having at best a mediocre intellect." ], [ "Style and arms", "Many changes were made to the royal style during his reign.", "Henry originally used the style \"Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Lord of Ireland\".", "In 1521, pursuant to a grant from Pope Leo X rewarding Henry for his ''Defence of the Seven Sacraments'', the royal style became \"Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith and Lord of Ireland\".", "Following Henry's excommunication, Pope Paul III rescinded the grant of the title \"Defender of the Faith\", but an Act of Parliament (35 Hen.", "8.c.", "3) declared that it remained valid; and it continues in royal usage to the present day, as evidenced by the letters FID DEF or F.D.", "on all British coinage.", "Henry's motto was \"Coeur Loyal\" (\"true heart\"), and he had this embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word \"loyal\".", "His emblem was the Tudor rose and the Beaufort portcullis.", "As king, Henry's arms were the same as those used by his predecessors since Henry IV: ''Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England)''.In 1535, Henry added the \"supremacy phrase\" to the royal style, which became \"Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head\".", "In 1536, the phrase \"of the Church of England\" changed to \"of the Church of England and also of Ireland\".", "In 1541, Henry had the Irish Parliament change the title \"Lord of Ireland\" to \"King of Ireland\" with the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, after being advised that many Irish people regarded the Pope as the true head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative.", "The reason the Irish regarded the Pope as their overlord was that Ireland had originally been given to King Henry II of England by Pope Adrian IV in the 12th century as a feudal territory under papal overlordship.", "The meeting of the Irish Parliament that proclaimed Henry VIII as King of Ireland was the first meeting attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Anglo-Irish aristocrats.", "The style \"Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head\" remained in use until the end of Henry's reign." ], [ "Genealogical table" ], [ "See also", "* Cestui que* Cultural depictions of Henry VIII* Family tree of English monarchs* History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom* Inventory of Henry VIII* List of English monarchs* Tudor period* Mouldwarp" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Biographical ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Scholarly studies ===* * * * 0* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "History of foreign policy===Historiography===* * * * * * * === Primary sources ===* , (36 volumes, 1862–1908)* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Henry VIII at the official website of the British monarchy* Henry VIII at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust* * * * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Haryana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Haryana''' (; ) is an Indian state located in the northern part of the country.", "It was carved out of the former state of East Punjab on 1 November 1966 on a linguistic basis.", "It is ranked 21st in terms of area, with less than 1.4% () of India's land area.", "The state capital is Chandigarh, which it shares with the neighbouring state of Punjab; and the most populous city is Faridabad, which is a part of the National Capital Region.", "The city of Gurgaon is among India's largest financial and technology hubs.", "Haryana has 6 administrative divisions, 22 districts, 72 sub-divisions, 93 revenue tehsils, 50 sub-tehsils, 140 community development blocks, 154 cities and towns, 7,356 villages, and 6,222 villages panchayats.Haryana contains 32 special economic zones (SEZs), mainly located within the industrial corridor projects connecting the National Capital Region.", "Gurgaon is considered one of the major information technology and automobile hubs of India.", "Haryana ranks 11th among Indian states in human development index.", "The economy of Haryana is the 13th largest in India, with a gross state domestic product (GSDP) of and has the country's 5th-highest GSDP per capita of .The state is rich in history, monuments, heritage, flora and fauna and tourism, with a well-developed economy, national highways and state roads.", "It is bordered by Punjab and Himachal Pradesh to the north, by Rajasthan to the west and south, while river Yamuna forms its eastern border with Uttar Pradesh.", "Haryana surrounds the country's capital territory of Delhi on three sides (north, west and south), consequently, a large area of Haryana state is included in the economically important National Capital Region of India for the purposes of planning and development." ], [ "Etymology", "Anthropologists came up with the view that Haryana was known by this name because in the post-Mahabharata period, the Abhiras live here, who developed special skills in the art of agriculture.", "According to Pran Nath Chopra, Haryana got its name from Abhirayana-Ahirayana-Hirayana-Haryana." ], [ "History", "===Ancient period===The villages of Rakhigarhi in Hisar district and Bhirrana in Fatehabad district are home to ancient sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, which contain evidence of paved roads, a drainage system, a large-scale rainwater collection storage system, terracotta brick and statue production, and skilled metalworking (in both bronze and precious metals).During the Vedic era, Haryana was the site of the Kuru Kingdom, one of India's great Mahajanapadas.", "The south of Haryana is the claimed location of Manu's state of Brahmavarta.", "The area surrounding Dhosi Hill, and districts of Rewari and Mahendragarh had Ashrams of several Rishis who made valuable contributions to important Hindu scriptures like Vedas, Upanishads, Manusmriti, Brahmanas and Puranas.", "As per Manusmriti, Manu was the king of Brahmavarta, the flood time state 10,000 years ago surrounded by oldest route of Sarasvati and Drishadwati rivers on the banks of which Sanatan-Vedic or present-day Hindu ethos evolved and scriptures were composed.===Medieval period===Ancient bronze and stone idols of Jain Tirthankara were found in archaeological expeditions in Badli, Bhiwani (Ranila, Charkhi Dadri and Badhra), Dadri, Gurgaon (Gurugram ), Hansi, Hisar, Kasan, Nahad, Narnaul, Pehowa, Rewari, Rohad, Rohtak (Asthal Bohar) and Sonepat in Haryana.", "''Harsha Ka Tila'' mound west of Sheikh Chilli's Tomb complex, with ruins from the reign of 7th-century ruler Harsha.Pushyabhuti dynasty ruled parts of northern India in the 7th century with its capital at Thanesar.", "Harsha was a prominent king of the dynasty.", "Tomara dynasty ruled the south Haryana region in the 10th century.", "Anangpal Tomar was a prominent king among the Tomaras.After the sack of Bhatner fort during the Timurid conquests of India in 1398, Timur attacked and sacked the cities of Sirsa, Fatehabad, Sunam, Kaithal and Panipat.", "When he reached the town of Sarsuti (Sirsa), the residents fled and were chased by a detachment of Timur's troops, with thousands of them being killed and looted by the troops.", "From there he travelled to Fatehabad, whose residents fled and a large number of those remaining in the town were massacred.", "The Ahirs resisted him at Ahruni but were defeated, with thousands being killed and many being taken prisoners while the town was burnt to ashes.", "From there he travelled to Tohana, whose Jat inhabitants were robbers according to Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi.", "They tried to resist but were defeated and fled.", "Timur's army pursued and killed 200 Jats, while taking many more as prisoners.", "He then sent a detachment to chase the fleeing Jats and killed 2,000 of them while their wives and children were enslaved and their property plundered.", "Timur proceeded to Kaithal whose residents were massacred and plundered, destroying all villages along the way.", "On the next day, he came to Assandh, whose residents were \"fire-worshippers\" according to Yazdi, and had fled to Delhi.", "Next, he travelled to and subdued Tughlaqpur fort and Salwan before reaching Panipat whose residents had already fled.", "He then marched on to Loni fort.Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, who fought and won across North India from the Punjab to Bengal, winning 22 straight battles.", "Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu, claimed royal status and the throne of Delhi after defeating Akbar's Mughal forces on 7 October 1556 in the Battle of Delhi, and assumed the ancient title of Vikramaditya.", "The area that is now Haryana has been ruled by some of the major empires of India.", "Panipat is known for three seminal battles in the history of India.", "In the First Battle of Panipat (1526), Babur defeated the Lodis.", "In the Second Battle of Panipat (1556), Akbar defeated the local Haryanvi Hindu Emperor of Delhi, who belonged to Rewari.", "Hem Chandra Vikramaditya had earlier won 22 battles across India from 1553 to 1556 from Punjab to Bengal, defeating the Mughals and Afghans.", "Hemu had defeated Akbar's forces twice at Agra and the Battle of Delhi in 1556 to become the last Hindu Emperor of India with a formal coronation at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7 October 1556.In the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.===British Period===Map of British Punjab province; Haryana formed the southeastern areas of the provinceThe state was part of the British Punjab province.", "The Delhi division of Punjab province formed the bulk of Haryana.", "Among the princely states that were located in the state were Jind, Kalsia, Loharu, Dujana and Pataudi, as well as parts of the Patiala State.===Partition and aftermath===During the Partition of India, the Punjab province was one of two British Indian provinces, alongside Bengal, to be partitioned between India and Pakistan.", "Haryana, along with other Hindu and Sikh-dominated areas of Punjab province, became part of India as East Punjab state.", "As a result, a significant number of Muslims left for the newly formed country of Pakistan.", "Similarly, a huge number of Hindu and Sikh refugees poured into the state from West Punjab.", "Gopi Chand Bhargava, who hailed from Sirsa in present-day Haryana, became the first Chief Minister of East Punjab.===Formation of Haryana===Haryana as a state came into existence on 1 November 1966 the Punjab Reorganisation Act (1966).", "The Indian government set up the Shah Commission under the chairmanship of Justice JC Shah on 23 April 1966 to divide the existing state of Punjab and determine the boundaries of the new state of Haryana after consideration of the languages spoken by the people.", "The commission delivered its report on 31 May 1966 whereby the then-districts of Hisar, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak and Karnal were to be a part of the new state of Haryana.", "Further, the tehsils of Jind and Narwana in the Sangrur district – along with Naraingarh, Ambala and Jagadhri – were to be included.The commission recommended that the tehsil of Kharar, which includes Chandigarh, the state capital of Punjab, should be a part of Haryana.", "However, Kharar was given to Punjab.", "The city of Chandigarh was made a union territory, serving as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana.Bhagwat Dayal Sharma became the first Chief Minister of Haryana." ], [ "Demographics", "===Religion===According to the 2011 census, of the total population of 25,351,462 in Haryana, Hindus (87.46%) constitute the majority of the state's population with Muslims (7.03%) (mainly Meos) and Sikhs (4.91%) being the largest minorities.Muslims are mainly found in the Nuh district.", "Haryana has the second largest Sikh population in India after Punjab, and they mostly live in the districts adjoining Punjab, such as Sirsa, Jind, Fatehabad, Kaithal, Kurukshetra, Ambala and Panchkula.+ Religion in Haryana, India (1921–2011)Religiousgroup1921193119412011 Hinduism 15px 2,898,119 2,980,206 3,436,411 22,171,128 Islam 15px 1,074,072 1,204,537 1,401,689 1,781,342 Sikhism 15px 193,075 271,077 292,487 1,243,752 Jainism 15px 24,005 23,666 23,050 52,613 Christianity 15px 22,075 16,228 11,549 50,353 Zoroastrianism 15px 39 8 62 Buddhism 15px 5 6 149 7,514 Judaism 15px 2 2 7 Others 1 0 765 44,760 Total Population 4,211,393 4,495,730 5,166,169 25,351,462===Languages===The official language of Haryana is Hindi.Several regional languages or dialects, often subsumed under Hindi, are spoken in the state.", "Predominant among them is Haryanvi (also known as Bangru), whose territory encompasses the central and eastern portions of Haryana.", "Hindi and Punjabi is spoken in the northeast, Bagri in the west, Deshwali in the East and Ahirwati, Mewati and Braj Bhasha in the south.There are also significant numbers of speakers of Urdu and Punjabi, the latter of which was recognised as the second official language of Haryana for government and administrative purposes in 2010.After the state's formation, Telugu was made the state's \"second language\" – to be taught in schools – but it was not the \"second official language\" for official communication.", "Due to a lack of students, the language ultimately stopped being taught.", "Tamil was made the second language in 1969 by Bansi Lal to show the state's differences with Punjab although there were no Tamil speakers in Haryana at the time.", "In 2010, due to the lack of Tamil speakers, the language was removed from its status.There are also some speakers of several major regional languages of neighbouring states or other parts of the subcontinent, like Bengali, Bhojpuri, Marwari, Mewari, and Nepali, as well as smaller communities of speakers of languages that are dispersed across larger regions, like Bauria, Bazigar, Gujari, Gade Lohar, Oadki, and Sansi." ], [ "Culture", "===Music===Haryana has its own unique traditional folk music, folk dances, saang (folk theatre), cinema, belief system such as Jathera (ancestral worship), and arts such as Phulkari and Shisha embroidery.====Folk dances====Folk music and dances of Haryana are based on satisfying the cultural needs of primarily agrarian and martial natures of Haryanavi tribes.Haryanvi musical folk theatre's main types are Saang, Rasa lila and Ragini.", "The Saang and Ragini form of theatre was popularised by Lakhmi Chand.Haryanvi folk dances and music have fast energetic movements.", "Three popular categories of dance are festive-seasonal, devotional, and ceremonial-recreational.", "The festive-seasonal dances and songs are Gogaji/Gugga, Holi, Phaag, Sawan, Teej.", "The devotional dances and songs are Chaupaiya, Holi, Manjira, Ras Leela, Raginis).", "The ceremonial-recreational dances and songs are of following types: legendary bravery (Kissa and Ragini of male warriors and female Satis), love and romance (Been and its variant Nāginī dance, and Ragini), ceremonial (Dhamal Dance, Ghoomar, Jhoomar (male), Khoria, Loor, and Ragini).==== Folk music and songs ====Haryanvi folk music is based on day-to-day themes and injecting earthly humour enlivens the feel of the songs.", "Haryanvi music takes two main forms: \"Classical folk music\" and \"Desi Folk music\" (Country Music of Haryana), and sung in the form of ballads and love, valor and bravery, harvest, happiness and pangs of the parting of lovers.=====Classical Haryanvi folk music=====Classical Haryanvi folk music is based on Indian classical music.", "Hindustani classical ragas, learnt in gharana parampara of guru–shishya tradition, are used to sing songs of heroic bravery (such as Alha-Khand (1163–1202 CE) about the bravery of Alha and Udal, Jaimal and Patta of Maharana Udai Singh II), Brahmas worship and festive seasonal songs (such as Teej, Holi and Phaag songs of Phalgun month near Holi).", "Bravery songs are sung in high pitch.=====Desi Haryanvi folk music=====Desi Haryanvi folk music, is a form of Haryanvi music, based on Raag Bhairvi, Raag Bhairav, Raag Kafi, Raag Jaijaivanti, Raag Jhinjhoti and Raag Pahadi and used for celebrating community bonhomie to sing seasonal songs, ballads, ceremonial songs (wedding, etc.)", "and related religious legendary tales such as Puran Bhagat.", "Relationship and songs celebrating love and life are sung in medium pitch.", "Ceremonial and religious songs are sung in low pitch.", "Young girls and women usually sing entertaining and fast seasonal, love, relationship and friendship-related songs such as Phagan (song for eponymous season/month), Katak (songs for the eponymous season/month), Samman (songs for the eponymous season/month), (male-female duet songs), (songs of sharing heartfelt feelings among female friends).", "Older women usually sing devotional Mangal Geet (auspicious songs) and ceremonial songs such as Bhajan, Bhat (wedding gift to the mother of bride or groom by her brother), Sagai, Ban (Hindu wedding ritual where pre-wedding festivities starts), Kuan-Poojan (a custom that is performed to welcome the birth of a child by worshiping the well or source of drinking water), Sanjhi and Holi festival.===== Socially normative-cohesive impact =====Music and dance for Haryanvi people is a way of lessening societal differences as folk singers are highly esteemed and they are sought after and invited for events, ceremonies and special occasions regardless of their caste or status.", "These inter-caste songs are fluid in nature, and never personalised for any specific caste, and they are sung collectively by women from different strata, castes, and dialects.", "These songs transform fluidly in dialect, style, words, etc.", "This adoptive style can be seen in the adoption of tunes of Bollywood movie songs into Haryanvi songs.", "Despite this continuous fluid transforming nature, Haryanvi songs have a distinct style of their own as explained above.With the coming up of a strongly socio-economic metropolitan culture in the emergence of urban Gurgaon Haryana is also witnessing community participation in public arts and city beautification.", "Several landmarks across Gurgaon are decorated with public murals and graffiti with cultural cohesive ideologies and stand the testimony of a lived sentiment in Haryana folk.===Cuisine===As per a survey, 13% of males and 7.8% of females of Haryana are non-vegetarian.", "The regional cuisine features the staples of roti, saag, vegetarian sabzi and milk products such as ghee, milk, lassi and kheer.===Society===Haryanvi people have a concept of inclusive society involving the ''\"36 Jātis\"'' or communities.", "Castes such as Jat, Rajput, Gurjar, Saini, Pasi, Ahirs, Ror, Meo, Charan, Bishnoi, Harijan, Aggarwal, Brahmin, Khatri and Tyagi are some of the notable of these 36 Jātis." ], [ "Geography", "mustard field in Haryana, near the state capital of ChandigarhHaryana is a landlocked state in northern India.", "It is between 27°39' to 30°35' N latitude and between 74°28' and 77°36' E longitude.", "The total geographical area of the state is 4.42 m ha, which is 1.4% of the geographical area of the country.", "The altitude of Haryana varies between 700 and 3600 ft (200 metres to 1200 metres) above sea level.", "Haryana has only 4% (compared with national 21.85%) area under forests.", "Karoh Peak, a tall mountain peak in the Sivalik Hills range of the greater Himalayas range located near Morni Hills area of Panchkula district, is the highest point in Haryana.", "Most of the state sits atop the fertile Ghaggar Plain, a subsection of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.", "Haryana has 4 states and 2 union territories on its border – Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, and Chandigarh.===Plains and mountains===Haryana has four main geographical features.", "* The Yamuna-Ghaggar plain forming the largest part of the state is also called ''Delhi doab'' consists of ''Sutlej-Ghaggar doab'' (between Sutlej in the north of Punjab and the Ghaggar river flowing through northern Haryana), ''Ghaggar-Hakra doab'' (between Ghaggar river and Hakra or Drishadvati river which is the paleochannel of the holy Saraswati River) and ''Hakra-Yamuna doab'' (between Hakra river and Yamuna).", "* The Lower Shivalik Hills to the northeast in foothills of Himalaya* The Bagar region semi-desert dry sandy plain in north west of Haryana, covering northwest districts of Sirsa, western Fatehabad and northwestern Hisar.", "* The Aravali Range's northernmost low rise isolated non-continuous outcrops in the south===Hydrography===Yamuna river near the Haryana BorderThe Yamuna, a tributary of the Ganges, flows along the state's eastern boundary.Northern Haryana has several northeast to west flowing rivers originating from the Sivalik Hills of Himalayas, such as Ghaggar (palaeochannel of vedic Sarasvati river), Chautang (paleochannel of vedic Drishadvati river, tributary of the Ghagghar), Tangri river (tributary of the Ghagghar), Kaushalya river (tributary of the Ghagghar), Markanda River (tributary of Ghagghar), Sarsuti, Dangri, Somb river.", "Haryana's main seasonal river, the Ghaggar-Hakra, known as Ghaggar before the Ottu barrage and as the Hakra downstream of the barrage, rises in the outer Himalayas, between the Yamuna and the Satluj and enters the state near Pinjore in the Panchkula district, passes through Ambala and Sirsa, it reaches Bikaner in Rajasthan and runs for before disappearing into the deserts of Rajasthan.", "The seasonal Markanda River, known as the ''Aruna'' in ancient times, originates from the lower Shivalik Hills and enters Haryana west of Ambala, and swells into a raging torrent during monsoon is notorious for its devastating power, carries its surplus water on to the Sanisa Lake where the Markanda joins the Sarasuti and later the Ghaggar.Southern Haryana has several south-west to east flowing seasonal rivulets originating from the Aravalli Range in and around the hills in Mewat region, including Sahibi River (called Najafgarh drain in Delhi), Dohan river (tributary of Sahibi, originates at Mandoli village near Neem Ka Thana in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan and then disappears in Mahendragarh district), Krishnavati river (former tributary of Sahibi river, originates near Dariba and disappears in Mahendragarh district much before reaching Sahibi river) and Indori river (longest tributary of Sahibi River, originates in Sikar district of Rajasthan and flows to Rewari district of Haryana), these once were tributaries of the Drishadwati/Saraswati river.Kaushalya DamMajor canals are Western Yamuna Canal, Sutlej Yamuna link canal (from Sutlej river tributary of Indus), and Indira Gandhi Canal.Major dams are Kaushalya Dam in Panchkula district, Hathnikund Barrage and Tajewala Barrage on Yamuna in Yamunanagar district, Pathrala barrage on Somb river in Yamunanagar district, ancient Anagpur Dam near Surajkund in Faridabad district, and Ottu barrage on Ghaggar-Hakra River in Sirsa district.Major lakes are Dighal Wetland, Basai Wetland, Badkhal Lake in Faridabad, holy Brahma Sarovar and Sannihit Sarovar in Kurukshetra, Blue Bird Lake in Hisar, Damdama Lake at Sohna in Gurgram district, Hathni Kund in Yamunanagar district, Karna Lake at Karnal, ancient Surajkund in Faridabad, and Tilyar Lake in Rohtak.The ''Haryana State Waterbody Management Board'' is responsible for the rejuvenation of 14,000 johads of Haryana and up to 60 lakes in National Capital Region falling within the Haryana state.The only hot spring in Haryana is the Sohna Sulphur Hot Spring at Sohna in Gurgaon district.", "Tosham Hill range has several sacred sulphur ponds of religious significance that are revered for the healing impact of sulphur, such as ''Pandu Teerth Kund'', ''Surya Kund'', ''Kukkar Kund'', ''Gyarasia Kund'' or ''Vyas Kund''.Seasonal waterfalls include Tikkar Taal twin lakes at Morni hiills, Dhosi Hill in Mahendragarh district and Pali village on the outskirts of Faridabad.===Climate===Haryana is hot in summer at around and mild in winter.", "The hottest months are May and June and the coldest are December and January.", "The climate is arid to semi-arid with an average rainfall of 354.5 mm.", "Around 29% of rainfall is received during the months from July to September as a result of the monsoon, and the remaining rainfall is received during the period from December to February as a result of the western disturbance.===Flora and fauna===+ '''State symbols of Haryana''' '''Formation day''' 1 November (Day of separation from Punjab) '''State mammal''' Black buck '''State bird''' Black francolin '''State tree''' Peepal '''State flower''' Lotus====Forests====Forest cover in the state in 2013 was 3.59% (1586 km2) and the Tree Cover in the state was 2.90% (1282 km2), giving a total forest and tree cover of 6.49%.", "In 2016–17, 18,412 hectares were brought under tree cover by planting 14.1 million seedlings.", "Thorny, dry, deciduous forest and thorny shrubs can be found all over the state.", "During the monsoon, a carpet of grass covers the hills.", "Mulberry, eucalyptus, pine, kikar, shisham and babul are some of the trees found here.", "The species of fauna found in the state of Haryana include black buck, nilgai, panther, fox, mongoose, jackal and wild dog.", "More than 450 species of birds are found here.==== Wildlife====WatercockHaryana has two national parks, eight wildlife sanctuaries, two wildlife conservation areas, four animal and bird breeding centers, one deer park and three zoos, all of which are managed by the Haryana Forest Department of the Government of Haryana.", "Sultanpur National Park is a notable Park located in Gurgaon District===Environmental and ecological issues=== Haryana Environment Protection Council is the advisory committee and the Department of Environment, Haryana is the department responsible for the administration of the environment.", "Areas of Haryana surrounding Delhi NCR are the most polluted.", "During the smog of November 2017, the air quality index of Gurgaon and Faridabad showed that the density of fine particulates (2.5 μm diameter) was an average a score of 400 and the monthly average of Haryana was 60.Other sources of pollution are exhaust gases from old vehicles, stone crushers and brick kilns.", "Haryana has 7.5 million vehicles, of which 40% are old, more polluting vehicles, and 500,000 new vehicles are added every year.", "Other majorly polluted cities are Bhiwani, Bahadurgarh, Dharuhera, Hisar and Yamunanagar." ], [ "Administration", "===Divisions===Ten Lok Sabha constituencies in HaryanaThe state is divided into 6 revenue divisions, 5 Police Ranges and 4 Police Commissionerates (c. January 2017).", "Six revenue divisions are: Ambala, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Hisar, Karnal and Faridabad.", "Haryana has 11 municipal corporations (Gurgaon, Faridabad, Ambala, Panchkula, Yamunanagar, Rohtak, Hisar, Panipat, Karnal, Sonepat, and Manesar), 18 municipal councils and 52 municipalities.Within these, there are 22 districts, 72 sub-divisions, 93 tehsils, 50 sub-tehsils, 140 blocks, 154 cities and towns, 6,848 villages, 6,226 villages panchayats and numerous smaller dhanis.===Districts=== Divisions Districts Ambala Ambala, Kurukshetra, Panchkula, Yamuna NagarFaridabad Faridabad, Palwal, Nuh Gurgaon Gurgaon, Mahendragarh, Rewari, Hisar Fatehabad, Jind, Hisar, Sirsa, Rohtak Jhajjar, Charkhi Dadri, Rohtak, Sonipat, Bhiwani Karnal Karnal, Panipat, Kaithal===Law and order===The Haryana Police force is the law enforcement agency of Haryana.", "Five Police Ranges are Ambala, Hissar, Karnal, Rewari and Rohtak.", "Four Police Commissionerates are Faridabad, Gurgaon, Panchkula and Sonipat.", "Cybercrime investigation cell is based in Gurgaon's Sector 51.The highest judicial authority in the state is the Punjab and Haryana High Court, with the next higher right of appeal being to the Supreme Court of India.", "Haryana uses an e-filing facility.===Governance and e-governance===The Common Service Centres (CSCs) have been upgraded in all districts to offer hundreds of e-services to citizens, including applications for new water and sanitation connections, electricity bill collection, ration card member registration, the result of HBSE, admit cards for board examinations, online admission forms for government colleges, long route booking of buses, admission forms for Kurukshetra University and HUDA plots status inquiry.", "Haryana has become the first state to implement Aadhaar-enabled birth registration in all the districts.", "Thousands of all traditional offline state and central government services are also available 24/7 online through single unified UMANG app and portal as part of Digital India initiative." ], [ "Economy", "A Shopping Mall in GurgaonHaryana's 14th placed 12.96% 2012-17 CAGR estimated a 2017-18 GSDP of US$95 billion split into 52% services, 30% industries and 18% agriculture.The services sector is split across 45% in real estate and financial and professional services, 26% trade and hospitality, 15% state and central government employees, and 14% transport and logistics & warehousing.", "In IT services, Gurgaon ranks first in India in growth rate and existing technology infrastructure, and second in startup ecosystem, innovation and livability (Nov 2016).The industrial sector is split across 69% manufacturing, 28% construction, 2% utilities and 1% mining.", "In industrial manufacturing, Haryana produces 67% of passenger cars, 60% of motorcycles, 50% of tractors and 50% of the refrigerators in India.The service and industrial sectors are boosted by 7 operational SEZs and an additional 23 formally approved SEZs (20 already notified and 3 approved in-principle) that are mostly spread along the Delhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor, Amritsar Delhi Kolkata Industrial Corridor and Western Peripheral Expressway.The agricultural sector is split across 93% crops and livestock, 4% commercial forestry and logging, and 2% fisheries.", "Although Haryana has less than 1.4% of the total area of India, it contributes 15% of food grains to the central food security public distribution system, and makes up 7% of total national agricultural exports, including 60% of total national basmati rice exports.=== Agriculture =======Crops====Green farms in HaryanaHaryana is traditionally an agrarian society of zamindars (owner-cultivator farmers).", "About 70% of Haryana's residents are engaged in agriculture.", "The Green Revolution in Haryana of the 1960s combined with the completion of Bhakra Dam in 1963 and Western Yamuna Command Network canal system in 1970s resulted in the significantly increased food grain production.", "As a result, Haryana is self sufficient in food production and the second largest contributor to India's central pool of food grains In 2015–2016, Haryana produced the following principal crops: 13,352,000 tonnes of wheat, 4,145,000 tonnes of rice, 7,169,000 tonnes of sugarcane, 993,000 tonnes of cotton and 855,000 tonnes of oilseeds (mustard seed, sunflower, etc.", ").==== Fruits, vegetables and spices ====Vegetable production was: potato 853,806 tonnes, onion 705,795 tonnes, tomato 675,384 tonnes, cauliflower 578,953 tonnes, leafy vegetables 370,646 tonnes, brinjal 331,169 tonnes, guard 307,793 tonnes, peas 111,081 tonnes and others 269,993 tonnes.Fruits production was: citrus 301,764 tonnes, guava 152,184 tonnes, mango 89,965 tonnes, chikoo 16,022 tonnes, aonla 12,056 tonnes and other fruits 25,848 tonnes.Spices production was: garlic 40,497 tonnes, fenugreek 9,348 tonnes, ginger 4,304 tonnes and others 840 tonnes.====Flowers and medicinal plants====Cut flowers production was: marigold 61,830 tonnes, gladiolus 2,448,620 million, rose 1,861,160 million and other 691,300 million.Medicinal plants production was: aloe vera 1403 tonnes and stevia 13 tonnes.====Livestock====Haryana is well known for its high-yield Murrah buffalo.", "Other breeds of cattle native to Haryana are Haryanvi, Mewati, Sahiwal and Nili-Ravi.==== Research ====To support its agrarian economy, both the central government (Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Central Sheep Breeding Farm, National Research Centre on Equines, Central Institute of Fisheries, National Dairy Research Institute, Regional Centre for Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research and National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources) and the state government (CCS HAU, LUVAS, Government Livestock Farm, Regional Fodder Station and Northern Region Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute) have opened several institutes for research and education.===Industrial sector=======Manufacturing====Larsen & Toubro Office at Faridabad.The headquarters of DLF Limited, India's largest real estate company, in Gurgaon, Haryana.", "* Faridabad is one of the biggest industrial cities of Haryana as well as North India.", "The city is home to large-scale MNC companies like India Yamaha Motor Pvt.", "Ltd., Havells India Limited, JCB India Limited, Escorts Group, Indian Oil (R&D), and Larsen & Toubro (L&T).", "Eyewear e-tailer Lenskart and healthcare startup Lybrate have their headquarters in Faridabad.", "* Hissar, an NCR Counter Magnet city known as a steel and cotton spinning hub as well as an upcoming integrated industrial aerocity and aero MRO hub at Hisar Airport, is a fast-developing city and the hometown of Navin Jindal and Subhash Chandra of Zee TV fame.", "Savitri Jindal, Navin Jindal's mother, has been listed by ''Forbes'' as the third richest woman in the world.", "* Panipat has heavy industry, including a refinery operated by the Indian Oil Corporation, a urea manufacturing plant operated by National Fertilizers Limited and a National Thermal Power Corporation power plant.", "It is known for its woven ''modhas'' or round stools.", "* Sonipat: IMT Kundli, Nathupur, Rai and Barhi are industrial areas with several small and medium-sized enterprises, and also large ones such as Atlas cycles, E.C.E., Birla factory, and OSRAM* Gurgaon: IMT Manesar, Dundahera and Sohna are industrial and logistics hubs, and also has the National Security Guards, the Indian Institute of Corporate Affairs, the National Brain Research Centre and the National Bomb Data Centre.====Utilities====Haryana State has always given high priority to the expansion of electricity infrastructure, as it is one of the most important drivers of development for the state.", "Haryana was the first state in the country to achieve 100% rural electrification in 1970 as well as the first in the country to link all villages with all-weather roads and provide safe drinking water facilities throughout the state.Sources of power in the state include:* Renewable and non-polluting sources** Hydroelectricity *** Bhakra-Nangal Dam Hydroelectric Power Plant***WYC Hydro Electric Station, 62.4 MW, Yamunanagar** Solar power stations*** Faridabad Solar Power Plant: being set up by HPGCL Faridabad (c.2016).", "* Nuclear power stations** Gorakhpur Nuclear Power Plant, 2800MW, Fatehabad, Phase-I 1400MW by 2021* Coal-fired thermal power stations ** Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram Thermal Power Station, 600MW, Yamunanagar ** Indira Gandhi Super Thermal Power Project, 1500MW, Jhajjar** Jhajjar Power Station, 1500MW ** Panipat Thermal Power Station I, 440MW** Panipat Thermal Power Station II, 920MW** Rajiv Gandhi Thermal Power Station, 1200MW, Hisar===Services sector=======Transport====Admin map of Haryana with RTO codes===== Aviation ==========Roads and highways=====Haryana has a total road length of , including comprising 29 national highways, of state highways, of Major District Roads (MDR) and of Other District Roads (ODR) (c. December 2017).", "A fleet of 3,864 Haryana Roadways buses covers a distance of 1.15 million km per day, and it was the first state in the country to introduce luxury video coaches.Ancient Delhi Multan Road and Grand Trunk Road, South Asia's oldest and longest major roads, pass through Haryana.", "GT Road passes through the districts of Sonipat, Panipat, Karnal, Kurukshetra and Ambala in north Haryana where it enters Delhi and subsequently the industrial town of Faridabad on its way.", "The Kundli-Manesar-Palwal Expressway (KMP) will provide a high-speed link to northern Haryana with its southern districts such as Sonipat, Gurgaon, and Faridabad.The Delhi-Agra Expressway (NH-2) that passes through Faridabad is being widened to six lanes from the current four lanes.", "It will further boost Faridabad's connectivity with Delhi.===== Railway =====The rail network in Haryana is covered by five rail divisions under three rail zones.", "Diamond Quadrilateral High-speed rail network, Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor (72 km) and Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (177 km) pass through Haryana.Bikaner railway division of the North Western Railway zone manages the rail network in western and southern Haryana covering Bhatinda-Dabwali-Hanumangarh line, Rewari-Bhiwani-Hisar-Bathinda line, Hisar-Sadulpur line and Rewari-Loharu-Sadulpur line.", "Jaipur railway division of North Western Railway zone manages the rail network in south-west Haryana covering Rewari-Reengas-Jaipur line, Delhi-Alwar-Jaipur line and Loharu-Sikar line.The Delhi railway division of the Northern Railway zone manages the rail network in north and east-central Haryana, covering Delhi-Panipat-Ambala line, Delhi-Rohtak-Tohana line, Rewari–Rohtak line, Jind-Sonepat line and Delhi-Rewari line.", "Agra railway division of North Central Railway zone manages another very small part of the network in southeast Haryana covering only the Palwal-Mathura line.Ambala railway division of Northern Railway zone manages a small part of the rail network in north-east Haryana covering Ambala-Yamunanagar line, Ambala-Kurukshetra line and UNESCO World Heritage Kalka–Shimla Railway.=====Metro=====Delhi Metro connects the national capital Delhi with the NCR cities of Faridabad, Gurgaon and Bahadurgarh.", "Faridabad has the longest metro network in the NCR Region consisting of 11 stations and a track length of 17 km.=====Sky Way=====Delhi Faridabad SkywayThe Haryana and Delhi governments have constructed the international standard Delhi Faridabad Skyway, the first of its kind in North India, to connect Delhi and Faridabad.====Communication and media====Haryana has a statewide network of telecommunication facilities.", "Haryana Government has its own statewide area network by which all government offices of 22 districts and 126 blocks across the state are connected with each other, thus making it the first SWAN of the country.", "Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited and most of the leading private sector players (such as Reliance Infocom, Tata Teleservices, Bharti Telecom, Idea Vodafone Essar, Aircel, Uninor and Videocon) have operations in the state.", "The two biggest cities of Haryana, Faridabad and Gurgaon, which are part of the National Capital Region, come under the local Delhi Mobile Telecommunication System.", "The rest of the cities of Haryana come under Haryana Telecommunication System.Electronic media channels include MTV, 9XM, Star Group, SET Max, News Time, NDTV 24x7 and Zee Group.", "The radio stations include All India Radio and other FM stations.Panipat, Hisar, Ambala and Rohtak are the cities in which the leading newspapers of Haryana are printed and circulated throughout Haryana, in which Dainik Bhaskar, Dainik Jagran, Punjab Kesari, The Tribune, , Hari Bhoomi and Amar Ujala are prominent." ], [ "Healthcare", "ESIC Medical College, FaridabadThe total fertility rate of Haryana is 2.3.The infant mortality rate is 41 (SRS 2012) and the maternal mortality ratio is 146 (SRS 2010–2012).", "The state of Haryana has various Medical Colleges including Pandit Bhagwat Dayal Sharma Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences Rohtak, Bhagat Phool Singh Medical College in District Sonipat, ESIC Medical College, Faridabad along with notable private medical institutes like Medanta, Max Hospital, Fortis Healthcare" ], [ "Education", "=== Literacy ===The literacy rate in Haryana has seen an upward trend and is 76.64 per cent as per the 2011 population census.", "Male literacy stands at 85.38%, while female literacy is at 66.67%.", "In 2001, the literacy rate in Haryana stood at 67.91%, of which males and females were 78.49% and 55.73% literate respectively.", ", Gurgaon city had the highest literacy rate in Haryana at 86.30% followed by Panchkula at 81.9% and Ambala at 81.7%.", "In terms of districts, , Rewari had the highest literacy rate in Haryana at 74%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; male literacy was 79% and female literacy was 67%.=== Schools ===Haryana Board of School Education, established in September 1969 and shifted to Bhiwani in 1981, conducts public examinations at middle, matriculation, and senior secondary levels twice a year.", "Over 700,000 candidates attend annual examinations in February and March; 150,000 attend supplementary examinations each November.", "The Board also conducts examinations for Haryana Open School at senior and senior secondary levels twice a year.", "The Haryana government provides free education to women up to the bachelor's degree level.In 2015–2016, there were nearly 20,000 schools, including 10,100 state government schools (36 Aarohi Schools, 11 Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas, 21 Model Sanskriti Schools, 8,744 government primary school, 3386 government middle school, 1,284 government high school and 1,967 government senior secondary schools), 7,635 private schools (200 aided, 6,612 recognised unaided, and 821 unrecognised unaided private schools) and several hundred other central government and private schools such as Kendriya Vidyalaya, Indian Army Public Schools, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya and DAV schools affiliated to central government's CBSE and ICSE school boards.=== Universities and higher education ===MRIUHaryana has 48 universities and 1,038 colleges, including 115 government colleges, 88 government-aided colleges and 96 self-finance colleges.", "Hisar has three universities: Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University – Asia's largest agricultural university, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences); several national agricultural and veterinary research centres (National Research Centre on Equines), Central Sheep Breeding Farm, National Institute on Pig Breeding and Research, Northern Region Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute and Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB); and more than 20 colleges including Maharaja Agrasen Medical College, Agroha.Demographically, Haryana has 471,000 women and 457,000 men pursuing post-secondary school higher education.", "There are more than 18,616 female teachers and 17,061 male teachers in higher education.Union Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad announced on 27 February 2016 that the National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology (NIELIT) would be set up in Kurukshetra to provide computer training to youth and a Software Technology Park of India (STPI) would be set up in Panchkula's existing HSIIDC IT Park in Sector 23.Hindi and English are compulsory languages in schools whereas Punjabi, Sanskrit and Urdu are chosen as optional languages." ], [ "Sports", "In the 2010 Commonwealth Games at Delhi, 22 out of 38 gold medals that India won came from Haryana.", "During the 33rd National Games held in Assam in 2007, Haryana stood first in the nation with a medal tally of 80, including 30 gold, 22 silver and 28 bronze medals.The 1983 World Cup winning captain Kapil Dev made his domestic-cricket debut playing for Haryana.", "Nahar Singh Stadium was built in Faridabad in the year 1981 for international cricket.", "This ground has the capacity to hold around 25,000 people as spectators.", "Tejli Sports Complex is an ultra-modern sports complex in Yamuna Nagar.", "Tau Devi Lal Stadium in Gurgaon is a multi-sport complex.Chief Minister of Haryana Manohar Lal Khattar announced the \"Haryana Sports and Physical Fitness Policy\", a policy to support 26 Olympic sports, on 12 January 2015 with the words \"We will develop Haryana as the sports hub of the country.", "\"Haryana is home to Haryana Gold, one of India's eight professional basketball teams that compete in the country's UBA Pro Basketball League.At the 2016 Summer Olympics, Sakshi Malik won the bronze medal in the 58 kg category, becoming the first Indian female wrestler to win a medal at the Olympics and the fourth female Olympic medalist from the country.Notable badminton player Saina Nehwal is from Hisar in Haryana.Notable athlete Neeraj Chopra, who competes in Javelin Throw and won the first track and field gold medal in 2020 Tokyo Olympics for India, was born and raised in Panipat, Haryana.Wrestling is also very prominent in Haryana, as 2 medals won in wrestling at 2020 Tokyo Olympics were from Haryana.Notable athlete Ravi Dahiya, who was born in Nahri village of Sonipat District, won silver medal in the 2020 Tokyo Olympics for India.Ravi Kumar is an Indian freestyle wrestler who won a silver medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics in the 57 kg category.", "Dahiya is also a bronze medalist from 2019 World Wrestling Championships and a two-time Asian champion." ], [ "Notable people", "* See List of people from Haryana" ], [ "See also", "* List of Monuments of National Importance in Haryana* List of State Protected Monuments in Haryana* Outline of Haryana* Politics of Haryana* Tourism in Haryana* Haryanvi cinema* List of earthquakes in Haryana" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "; Government* The Official Site of the Government of Haryana* Official Tourism Site of Haryana, India* Haryana Community website; General information * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Himachal Pradesh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Himachal Pradesh''' (; ; \"Snow-laden Mountain Province\") is a state in the northern part of India.", "Situated in the Western Himalayas, it is one of the thirteen mountain states and is characterised by an extreme landscape featuring several peaks and extensive river systems.", "Himachal Pradesh is the northernmost state of India and shares borders with the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh to the north, and the states of Punjab to the west, Haryana to the southwest, Uttarakhand to the southeast and a very narrow border with Uttar Pradesh to the south.", "The state also shares an international border to the east with the Tibet Autonomous Region in China.", "Himachal Pradesh is also known as or ''Dev Bhumi'', meaning 'Land of Gods' and which means 'Land of the Brave'.The predominantly mountainous region comprising the present-day Himachal Pradesh has been inhabited since pre-historic times, having witnessed multiple waves of human migrations from other areas.", "Through its history, the region was mostly ruled by local kingdoms, some of which accepted the suzerainty of larger empires.", "Prior to India's independence from the British, Himachal comprised the hilly regions of the Punjab Province of British India.", "After independence, many of the hilly territories were organised as the Chief Commissioner's province of Himachal Pradesh, which later became a Union Territory.", "In 1966, hilly areas of the neighbouring Punjab state were merged into Himachal and it was ultimately granted full statehood in 1971.Himachal Pradesh is spread across valleys with many perennial rivers flowing through them.", "Agriculture, horticulture, hydropower, and tourism are important constituents of the state's economy.", "The hilly state is almost universally electrified, with 99.5% of households having electricity as of 2016.The state was declared India's second open-defecation-free state in 2016.According to a survey of CMS-India Corruption Study in 2017, Himachal Pradesh is India's least corrupt state.Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 districts." ], [ "Etymology", "The name of the state is a reference to its setting: Himachal means “snowy slopes” (Sanskrit: ''hima'', meaning “snow”; ''acal/achal meaning'' \"slopes\", or \"land\", or \"abode\").", "Himachal Pradesh (ɦɪˈmaːtʃəl pɾəˈdeːʃ; literally \"snow-laden province\").", "Himachal refers to being in the \"''aanchal''\" of the Himalayas hence, sheltered by the Himalayas or by the snow.", "It means \"the land in the lap of snowy Himalayas\".", "Pradesh means \"state\".", "Himachal was named by Diwakar Datt Sharma, a Sanskrit scholar." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===temples at MasroorTribes such as the Koli, Hali, Dagi, Dhaugri, Dasa, Khasa, Kanaura, and Kirata inhabited the region from the prehistoric era.", "The foothills of the modern state of Himachal Pradesh were inhabited by people from the Indus valley civilisation, which flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE.", "The Kols and Mundas are believed to be the original inhabitants to the hills of present-day Himachal Pradesh, followed by the Bhotas and Kiratas.During the Vedic period, several small republics known as ''Janapada'' existed which were later conquered by the Gupta Empire.", "After a brief period of supremacy by King Harshavardhana, the region was divided into several local powers headed by chieftains, including some Rajputs principalities.", "These kingdoms enjoyed a large degree of independence and were invaded by Delhi Sultanate several times.", "Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 11th century.", "Timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state, captured several forts, and fought many battles.", "Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid regular tribute to the Mughals.The Kingdom of Gorkha conquered many kingdoms and came to power in Nepal in 1768.They consolidated their military power and began to expand their territory.", "Gradually, the Kingdom of Nepal annexed Sirmour and Shimla.", "Under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, the Nepali army laid siege to Kangra.", "They managed to defeat Sansar Chand Katoch, the ruler of Kangra, in 1806 with the help of many provincial chiefs.", "However, the Nepali army could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjeet Singh in 1809.After the defeat, they expanded towards the south of the state.", "However, Raja Ram Singh, Raja of Siba State, captured the fort of Siba from the remnants of Lahore Darbar in Samvat 1846, during the First Anglo-Sikh War.They came into direct conflict with the British along the ''tarai'' belt, after which the British expelled them from the provinces of the Satluj.", "The British gradually emerged as the paramount power in the region.", "In the revolt of 1857, or first Indian war of independence, arising from several grievances against the British, the people of the hill states were not as politically active as were those in other parts of the country.", "They and their rulers, except Bushahr, remained more or less inactive.", "Some, including the rulers of Chamba, Bilaspur, Bhagal and Dhami, rendered help to the British government during the revolt.The British territories came under the British Crown after Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858.The states of Chamba, Mandi and Bilaspur made good progress in many fields during the British rule.", "During World War I, virtually all rulers of the hill states remained loyal and contributed to the British war effort, both in the form of men and materials.", "Among these were the states of Kangra, Jaswan, Datarpur, Guler, Rajgarh, Nurpur, Chamba, Suket, Mandi, and Bilaspur.=== Partition and post-independence ===After independence, the Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh was organised on 15 April 1948 as a result of the integration of 30 petty princely states (including feudal princes and ''zaildars'') in the promontories of the western Himalayas.", "These were known as the Simla Hills States and four Punjab southern hill states under the Himachal Pradesh (Administration) Order, 1948 under Sections 3 and 4 of the Extra-Provincial Jurisdiction Act, 1947 (later renamed as the Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947 vide A.O.", "of 1950).", "The State of Bilaspur was merged into Himachal Pradesh on 1 July 1954 by the Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954.Himachal became a Part 'C' state on 26 January 1950 when the Constitution of India came into effect and the Lieutenant Governor was appointed.", "The Legislative Assembly was elected in 1952.Himachal Pradesh became a union territory on 1 November 1956.Some areas of the Punjab State, namely, Simla, Kangra, Kullu and Lahul and Spiti Districts, Lohara, Amb and Una Kanungo circles, some areas of Santokhgarh Kanungo circle and some other specified area of Una Tehsil of Hoshiarpur District, as well as Kandaghat and Nalagarh Tehsils of erstwhile PEPSU State, besides some parts of Dhar Kalan Kanungo circle of Pathankot District—were merged with Himachal Pradesh on 1 November 1966 on the enactment by Parliament of the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966.On 18 December 1970, the State of Himachal Pradesh Act was passed by Parliament, and the new state came into being on 25 January 1971.Himachal became the 18th state of the Indian Union with Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar as its first chief minister." ], [ "Geography", "Himachal is in the western Himalayas situated between 30°22′N and 33°12′N latitude and 75°47′E and 79°04′E longitude.", "Covering an area of , it is a mountainous state.", "The Zanskar range runs in the northeastern part of the state and the great Himalayan range run through the eastern and northern parts, while the Dhauladhar and the Pir Panjal ranges of the lesser Himalayas, and their valleys, form much of the core regions.", "The outer Himalayas, or the Shiwalik range, form southern and western Himachal Pradesh.", "At 6,816 m, Reo Purgyil is the highest mountain peak in the state of Himachal Pradesh.The drainage system of Himachal is composed both of rivers and glaciers.", "Himalayan rivers criss-cross the entire mountain chain.", "Himachal Pradesh provides water to both the Indus and Ganges basins.", "The drainage systems of the region are the Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej, and the Yamuna.", "These rivers are perennial and are fed by snow and rainfall.", "They are protected by an extensive cover of natural vegetation.", "Four of the five Punjab rivers flow through Himachal Pradesh, three of them originating in the state.", "These rivers run through a maze of valleys separated by the mountain ranges of the state.", "The Satluj Valley is formed by the Satluj river entering the state near Shipki La, while the Spiti and Baspa Valleys are formed by the river's two major tributaries in the state.", "The Beas river flows though the Kullu and the Kangra Valleys, with tributary Parvati forming the Parvati Valley.", "The Chenab river, formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga, forms much of the northern regions of Lahaul and Pangi, and the Ravi river flows principally through Chamba.", "The Pabbar and Giri rivers in the southeast are part of the Yamuna basin.Due to extreme variation in elevation, great variation occurs in the climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh.", "The climate varies from hot and humid subtropical in the southern tracts to, with more elevation, cold, alpine, and glacial in the northern and eastern mountain ranges.", "The state's winter capital, Dharamsala receives very heavy rainfall, while areas like Lahaul and Spiti are cold and almost rainless.", "Broadly, Himachal experiences three seasons: summer, winter, and rainy season.", "Summer lasts from mid-April until the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in the alpine zone which experiences a mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from .", "Winter lasts from late November until mid-March.", "Snowfall is common in alpine tracts.", "Pollution is affecting the climate of almost all the states of India.", "Due to steps taken by governments to prevent pollution, Himachal Pradesh has become the first smoke-free state in India which means cooking in the entire state is free of traditional chulhas.File:India Himachal Pradesh relief map.svg|Topographic map of Himachal Pradesh.", "Most of the state is mountainous.File:Shivaliks Himalayas Aerial Dehaze Himachal Feb20 R16 02827.jpg|View of the Shivalik Hills and the Middle Himalayas in Himachal Pradesh=== Flora and fauna ===Himachal Pradesh is one of the states that lies in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), one of the richest reservoirs of biological diversity in the world.", "As of 2002, the IHR is undergoing large scale irrational extraction of wild, medicinal herbs, thus endangering many of its high-value gene stock.", "To address this, a workshop on ‘Endangered Medicinal Plant Species in Himachal Pradesh’ was held in 2002 and the conference was attended by forty experts from diverse disciplines.According to 2003 Forest Survey of India report, legally defined forest areas constitute 66.52% of the area of Himachal Pradesh.", "Vegetation in the state is dictated by elevation and precipitation.", "The state is endowed with a high diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants.", "Lahaul-Spiti region of the state, being a cold desert, supports unique plants of medicinal value including ''Ferula jaeschkeana'', ''Hyoscyamus niger'', ''Lancea tibetica'', and ''Saussurea bracteata''.Himachal is also said to be the fruit bowl of the country, with widespread orchards.", "Meadows and pastures are also seen clinging to steep slopes.", "After the winter season, the hillsides and orchards bloom with wild flowers, white gladiolas, carnations, marigolds, roses, chrysanthemums, tulips and lilies are carefully cultivated.", "Himachal Pradesh Horticultural Produce Marketing and Processing Corporation Ltd. (HPMC) is a state body that markets fresh and processed fruits.Himachal Pradesh has around 463 bird, and Tragopan melanocephalus is the state bird of Himanchal Pradesh 77 mammalian, 44 reptile and 80 fish species.Himachal Pradesh has currently five National Parks.", "Great Himalayan National Park, oldest and largest National park in the state, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Pin Valley National Park, Inderkilla, Khirganga and Simbalbara are the other national Parks located in the state.", "The state also has 30 wildlife sanctuaries and 3 conservation reserves.", "The state bird of Himachal Pradesh is the Western tragopan, locally known as the ''jujurana''.", "It is one of the rarest living pheasants in the world.", "The state animal is the snow leopard, which is even rarer to find than the ''jujurana''.File:Asian Paradise Flycatcher- Male at Himachal I2 IMG 2939.jpg|Indian paradise flycatcher (''Terpsiphone paradisi)'' in KulluFile:Black Bulbul.jpg|Black bulbul (''Hypsipetes leucocephalus'')" ], [ "Government", "The Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh has no pre-constitution history.", "The State itself is a post-independence creation.", "It came into being as a centrally administered territory on 15 April 1948 from the integration of thirty erstwhile princely states.Himachal Pradesh is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states.", "Universal suffrage is granted to residents.", "The legislature consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker who are elected by the members.", "Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence.", "The judiciary is composed of the Himachal Pradesh High Court and a system of lower courts.Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor.", "The governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India.", "The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the Chief Minister.", "The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly.", "The Assembly is unicameral with 68 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA).", "Terms of office run for five years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term.", "Auxiliary authorities known as ''panchayats'', for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.In the assembly elections held in November 2022, the Indian National Congress secured an absolute majority, winning 40 of the 68 seats while the BJP won only 25 of the 68 seats.", "Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu was sworn in as Himachal Pradesh's 15th Chief Minister in Shimla on 11 December 2022.Mukesh Agnihotri was sworn in as his deputy the same day." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The state of Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 districts which are grouped into three divisions, Shimla, Kangra and Mandi.", "The districts are further divided into 73 subdivisions, 78 blocks and 172 Tehsils.", "Divisions Districts Kangra Chamba, Kangra, Una Mandi Bilaspur, Hamirpur, Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti, Mandi Shimla Kinnaur, Shimla, Sirmaur, Solan+Administrative StructureDivisions3Districts12Tehsils/ Sub-Tehsils172Developmental Blocks78Urban Local Bodies54Towns59Gram Panchayats3226Villages20690Police Stations130Lok Sabha seats4Rajya Sabha seats3Assembly Constituencies68" ], [ "Economy", "+ Year Gross State Domestic Product 1980 794 1985 1,372 1990 2,815 1995 6,698 2000 13,590 2005 23,024 2006 25,435201057,452201382,585201492,5892015101,1082016110,5112017124,5702018135,9142021172,174Planning in Himachal Pradesh started in 1951 along with the rest of India with the implementation of the first five-year plan.", "The First Plan allocated 52.7 million to Himachal Pradesh.", "More than 50% of this expenditure was incurred on transport and communication; while the power sector got a share of just 4.6%, though it had steadily increased to 7% by the Third Plan.", "Expenditure on agriculture and allied activities increased from 14.4% in the First Plan to 32% in the Third Plan, showing a progressive decline afterwards from 24% in the Fourth Plan to less than 10% in the Tenth Plan.", "Expenditure on energy sector was 24.2% of the total in the Tenth Plan.The Mall Road is the central business district of Shimla, Himachal Pradesh's capital city.The total GDP for 2005–06 was estimated at 254 billion as against 230 billion in the year 2004–05, showing an increase of 10.5%.", "The GDP for fiscal 2015–16 was estimated at 1.110 trillion, which increased to 1.247 trillion in 2016–17, recording growth of 6.8%.", "The per capita income increased from 130,067 in 2015–16 to 147,277 in 2016–17.The state government's advance estimates for fiscal 2017–18 stated the total GDP and per capita income as 1.359 trillion and 158,462, respectively.", "As of 2018, Himachal is the 22nd-largest state economy in India with in gross domestic product and has the 13th-highest per capita income () among the states and union territories of India.Himachal Pradesh also ranks as the second-best performing state in the country on human development indicators after Kerala.", "One of the Indian government's key initiatives to tackle unemployment is the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA).", "The participation of women in the NREGA has been observed to vary across different regions of the nation.", "As of the year 2009–2010, Himachal Pradesh joined the category of high female participation, recording a 46% share of NREGS (National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme) workdays for women.", "This was a drastic increase from the 13% that was recorded in 2006–2007.=== Agriculture ===Terrace farming is the most common form of agricultural practice in the state.Agriculture accounts for 9.4% of the net state domestic product.", "It is the main source of income and employment in Himachal.", "About 90% of the population in Himachal depends directly upon agriculture, which provides direct employment to 62% of total workers of state.", "The main cereals grown include wheat, maize, rice and barley with major cropping systems being maize-wheat, rice-wheat and maize-potato-wheat.", "Pulses, fruits, vegetables and oilseeds are among the other crops grown in the state.", "Centuries-old traditional Kuhl irrigation system is prevalent in the Kangra valley, though in recent years these Kuhls have come under threat from hydroprojects on small streams in the valley.", "Land husbandry initiatives such as the Mid-Himalayan Watershed Development Project, which includes the Himachal Pradesh Reforestation Project (HPRP), the world's largest clean development mechanism (CDM) undertaking, have improved agricultural yields and productivity, and raised rural household incomes.Apples at an orchard in Vashisht; the state is the second-largest producer of apples in IndiaApple is the principal cash crop of the state grown principally in the districts of Shimla, Kinnaur, Kullu, Mandi, Chamba and some parts of Sirmaur and Lahaul-Spiti with an average annual production of five lakh tonnes and per hectare production of 8 to 10 tonnes.", "The apple cultivation constitute 49 per cent of the total area under fruit crops and 85% of total fruit production in the state with an estimated economy of 3500 crore.", "Apples from Himachal are exported to other Indian states and even other countries.", "In 2011–12, the total area under apple cultivation was 104,000 hectares, increased from 90,347 hectares in 2000–01.According to the provisional estimates of Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, the annual apple production in Himachal for fiscal 2015–16 stood at 753,000 tonnes, making it India's second-largest apple-producing state after Jammu and Kashmir.", "The state is also among the leading producers of other fruits such as apricots, cherries, peaches, pears, plums and strawberries in India.Tea gardens in DharamsalaKangra tea is grown in the Kangra valley.", "Tea plantation began in 1849, and production peaked in the late 19th century with the tea becoming popular across the globe.", "Production dipped sharply after the 1905 Kangra earthquake and continues to decline.", "The tea received geographical indication status in 2005.=== Industry ======= Pharma hub ====Himachal Pradesh is renowned as Asia's pharmaceutical hub, housing a total of 652 pharmaceutical units.", "The state hosts a thriving ₹40,000 crore drug manufacturing industry.=== Energy ===Hydropower is one of the major sources of income generation for the state.", "The state has an abundance of hydropower resources because of the presence of various perennial rivers.", "Many high-capacity hydropower plants have been constructed which produce surplus electricity that is sold to other states, such as Delhi, Punjab and West Bengal.", "The income generated from exporting the electricity to other states is being provided as subsidy to the consumers in the state.", "The rich hydropower resources of Himachal have resulted in the state becoming almost universally electrified with around 94.8% houses receiving electricity as of 2001, as compared to the national average of 55.9%.", "Himachal's hydro-electric power production is, however, yet to be fully utilised.", "The identified hydroelectric potential for the state is 27,436 MW in five river basins while the hydroelectric capacity in 2016 was 10,351 MW." ], [ "Tourism", "Tourism in Himachal Pradesh is a major contributor to the state's economy and growth.", "The Himalayas attracts tourists from all over the world.", "Hill stations like Shimla, Manali, Dharamshala, Dalhousie, Chamba, Khajjiar, Kullu and Kasauli are popular destinations for both domestic and foreign tourists.", "The state also has many important Hindu pilgrimage sites with prominent temples like Shri Chamunda Devi Mandir, Naina Devi Temple, Bajreshwari Mata Temple, Jwala Ji Temple, Chintpurni, Baijnath Temple, Bhimakali Temple, Bijli Mahadev and Jakhoo Temple.", "Manimahesh Lake situated in the Bharmour region of Chamba district is the venue of an annual Hindu pilgrimage trek held in the month of August which attracts lakhs of devotees.", "The state is also referred to as \"Dev Bhoomi\" (literally meaning ''Abode of Gods'') due to its mention as such in ancient Hindu texts and occurrence of a large number of historical temples in the state.Himachal is also known for its adventure tourism activities like ice skating in Shimla, paragliding in Bir Billing and Solang Valley, rafting in Kullu, skiing in Manali, boating in Bilaspur, fishing in Tirthan Valley, trekking and horse riding in different parts of the state.", "Shimla, the state's capital, is home to Asia's only natural ice-skating rink.", "Spiti Valley in Lahaul and Spiti District situated at an altitude of over 3000 metres with its picturesque landscapes is popular destination for adventure seekers.", "The region also has some of the oldest Buddhist monasteries in the world.Himachal hosted the first Paragliding World Cup in India from 24 to 31 October in 2015.The venue for the paragliding world cup was Bir Billing, which is 70 km from the tourist town Macleod Ganj, located in the heart of Himachal in Kangra District.", "Bir Billing is the centre for aero sports in Himachal and considered as best for paragliding.", "Buddhist monasteries, trekking to tribal villages and mountain biking are other local possibilities.There are a variety of festivals celebrated by the locals of Himachal Pradesh who worship gods and goddesses.", "There are over 2000 villages in Himachal Pradesh which celebrate festivals such as Kullu Dussehra, Chamba’s Minjar, Renuka ji Fair, Lohri, Halda, Phagli, Losar and Mandi Shivratri.", "There approximately 6000 temples in Himachal Pradesh with a known one being Bijli Mahadev.", "The temple is seen as a 20-meter structure built in stone which, according to locals, is known to attract lighting.", "They say that this is a way the Gods show their blessings.The Great Himalayan National Park is found in the Kullu districts of Himachal Pradesh.", "It has an area of 620 km2 and ranging from an altitude of 1500 meters to 4500 meters and was created in 1984.There are various forest types found here such as Deodar, Himalayan Fir, Spruce, Oak and Alpine pastures.", "In the Great Himalayan National Park, there are a variety of animals found such as Snow leopard, Yak, Himalayan black bear, Western tragopan, Monal and Musk deer.", "This National Park is a trail to many hikers and trekkers too.", "Moreover, there are sanctuaries which are tourist spots such as Naina Devi and Gobind Sagar Sanctuary in the Una and Bilaspur districts with an area of 220 km2.There are animals such as Indian porcupine and giant flying squirrel found here.", "The Gobind Sagar Lake has fish species such as Mrigal, Silver carp, Katla, Mahaseer and Rohu are found here.", "Narkanda located in at an altitude of around 8850 feet is known for its apple orchards.", "It is located between the river valleys of Giri and Sutlej.File:Paragliding at Bir, HP.jpg|Paragliding in BirFile:Solang valley under snow, 2015.jpg|Solang, a popular ski resort near ManaliFile:Waterrafting in kasol.jpg|Rafting in the Parvati river near KasolFile:Triund_(22356802630).jpg|Campsite for trekkers at Triund" ], [ "Transport", "=== Air ===Gaggal AirportHimachal has three domestic airports in Kangra, Kullu and Shimla districts, respectively.", "The air routes connect the state with New Delhi and Chandigarh.", "* Kullu–Manali Airport is in Kullu district, around from district headquarters Kullu.", "* Kangra Airport is in Kangra district, around from district headquarters at Dharamshala, which is around 10 kilometres from Kangra* Shimla Airport is around west of the Shimla city.=== Railways ===Kalka-Shimla RailwayKangra Valley Railway====Broad-gauge lines====The only broad-gauge railway line in the whole state connects –Una Himachal railway station to in Punjab and runs all the way to Daulatpur, Himachal Pradesh.", "It is an electrified track since 1999.While a tiny portion of line adjacent to Kandrori(KNDI) station on either side on Pathankot-Jalandhar Section, under Ferozepur Division of Northern Railway also crosses into Himachal Pradesh, before venturing out to Punjab again.Future constructions:* –Hamirpur rail project via Dhundla* Bhanupali (Punjab)–Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh * Chandigarh–Baddi====Narrow-gauge lines====Himachal is known for its narrow-gauge railways.", "One is the Kalka-Shimla Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and another is the Kangra Valley Railway.", "The total length of these two tracks is .", "The Kalka-Shimla Railway passes through many tunnels and bridges, while the Pathankot–Jogindernagar one meanders through a maze of hills and valleys.", "The total route length of the operational railway network in the state is .=== Roads ===NH 5 in Himachal PradeshRoads are the major mode of transport in Himachal Pradesh due to its hilly terrain.", "The state has road network of , including eight National Highways (NH) that constitute and 19 State Highways with a total length of .", "Hamirpur district has the highest road density in the country.", "Some roads are closed during winter and monsoon seasons due to snow and landslides.", "The state-owned Himachal Road Transport Corporation with a fleet of over 3,100, operates bus services connecting important cities and towns with villages within the state and also on various interstate routes.", "In addition, around 5,000 private buses ply in the state." ], [ "Demographics", "=== Population ===Himachal Pradesh has a total population of 6,864,602 including 3,481,873 males and 3,382,729 females according to the Census of India 2011.It has only 0.57 per cent of India's total population, recording a growth of 12.81 per cent.", "The child sex ratio increased from 896 in 2001 to 909 in 2011.The total fertility rate (TFR) per woman in 2015 stood at 1.7, one of the lowest in India.The scheduled castes and scheduled tribes account for 25.19 per cent and 5.71 per cent of the population, respectively.", "The sex ratio stood at 972 females per 1,000 males, recording a marginal increase from 968 in 2001.The main caste groups in Himachal Pradesh are Rajputs, Brahmins, Kanets, Kulindas, Girths, Raos, Rathis, Kolis, Hollis, Chamars, Drains, Rehars, Chanals, Lohars, Baris, Julahas, Dhakhis, Turis, BatwalsThe Koli forms the largest caste-cluster, comprising 30% of the total population of Himachal Pradesh.Kullu, wearing a traditional Himachali cap.+ Literacy rates Year % 1971 31.96 1981 42.48 1991 63.86 2001 76.48 2011 83.78In the census, the state is placed 21st on the population chart, followed by Tripura at 22nd place.", "Kangra District was top-ranked with a population strength of 1,507,223 (21.98%), Mandi District 999,518 (14.58%), Shimla District 813,384 (11.86%), Solan District 576,670 (8.41%), Sirmaur District 530,164 (7.73%), Una District 521,057 (7.60%), Chamba District 518,844 (7.57%), Hamirpur district 454,293 (6.63%), Kullu District 437,474 (6.38%), Bilaspur district 382,056 (5.57%), Kinnaur District 84,298 (1.23%) and Lahaul Spiti 31,528 (0.46%).The life expectancy at birth in Himachal Pradesh increased significantly from 52.6 years in the period from 1970 to 1975 (above the national average of 49.7 years) to 72.0 years for the period 2011–15 (above the national average of 68.3 years).", "The infant mortality rate stood at 40 in 2010, and the crude birth rate has declined from 37.3 in 1971 to 16.9 in 2010, below the national average of 26.5 in 1998.The crude death rate was 6.9 in 2010.Himachal Pradesh's literacy rate has almost doubled between 1981 and 2011 (see table to right).", "The state is one of the most literate states of India with a literacy rate of 83.78% as of 2011.=== Languages ===Hindi is the de jure official language of Himachal Pradesh and is spoken by the majority of the population as a lingua franca.", "Sanskrit is the additional official language of the state.", "Although mostly encountered in academic and symbolic contexts, the government of Himachal Pradesh is encouraging its wider study and use.Most of the population, however, speaks natively one or another of the Western Pahari languages (locally also known as ''Himachali'' or just ''Pahari''), a subgroup of the Indo-Aryan languages that includes Bhattiyali, Bilaspuri, Chambeali, Churahi, Gaddi, Hinduri, Kangri, Kullu, Mahasu Pahari, Mandeali, Pahari Kinnauri, Pangwali, and Sirmauri.", "Additional Indo-Aryan languages spoken include Punjabi (native to 4.4% of the population), Nepali (1.3%), Chinali, Lahul Lohar, and others.", "In parts of the state there are speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages like Kinnauri (1.2%), Tibetan (0.3%), Lahuli–Spiti languages (0.16%), Pattani (0.12%), Bhoti Kinnauri, Chitkuli Kinnauri, Bunan (or Gahri), Jangshung, Kanashi, Shumcho, Spiti Bhoti, Sunam, Tinani, and Tukpa.=== Religion ===Hinduism is the major religion in Himachal Pradesh.", "More than 95% of the total population adheres to the Hindu faith and majorly follows Shaivism and Shaktism traditions, the distribution of which is evenly spread throughout the state.", "Himachal Pradesh has the highest proportion of Hindu population among all the states and union territories in India.Other religions that form a smaller percentage are Islam, Sikhism and Buddhism.", "Muslims are mainly concentrated in Sirmaur, Chamba, Una and Solan districts where they form 4.2-5.7% of the population.", "Sikhs mostly live in towns and cities and constitute 1.16% of the state population.", "The Buddhists, who constitute 1.15%, are mainly natives and tribals from Lahaul and Spiti, where they form a majority of 62%, and Kinnaur, where they form 21.5%." ], [ "Culture", "Himachal Pradesh was one of the few states that had remained largely untouched by external customs, largely due to its difficult terrain.", "With remarkable economic and social advancements, the state has changed rapidly.", "Himachal Pradesh is a multilingual state like other Indian states.", "Western Pahari (Mandiyali, Kangri, Chambyali, Dogri, Kulvi, and Kinauri) languages also known as Himachali languages are widely spoken in the state.", "Some of the most commonly spoken Pahadi lects are Kangri, Mandyali, Kulvi, Chambeali, Bharmauri and Kinnauri.Himachal is well known for its handicrafts.", "The carpets, leather works, Kullu shawls, Kangra paintings, Chamba Rumals, stoles, embroidered grass footwear (''Pullan chappal''), silver jewellery, metal ware, knitted woolen socks, ''Pattoo'', basketry of cane and bamboo (''Wicker'' and ''Rattan'') and woodwork are among the notable ones.", "Of late, the demand for these handicrafts has increased within and outside the country.Himachali caps of various colour bands are also well-known local art work, and are often treated as a symbol of the Himachali identity.", "The colour of the Himachali caps has been an indicator of political loyalties in the hill state for a long period of time with Congress party leaders like Virbhadra Singh donning caps with green band and the rival BJP leader Prem Kumar Dhumal wearing a cap with maroon band.", "The former has served six terms as the Chief Minister of the state while the latter is a two-time Chief Minister.", "Local music and dance also reflect the cultural identity of the state.", "Through their dance and music, the Himachali people entreat their gods during local festivals and other special occasions.There are national and regional fairs and festivals, including temple fairs in nearly every region.", "The Kullu Dussehra, Minjar mela and Mahashivratri Mandi festival is nationally known.", "The day-to-day cuisine of ''Himachalis'' is similar to the rest of northern India with Punjabi and Tibetan influences.", "Lentils (''Dāl''), rice ( or ), vegetables () and chapati (wheat flatbread) form the staple food of the local population.", "Non-vegetarian food is more widely accepted in Himachal Pradesh than elsewhere in India, partly due to the scarcity of fresh vegetables on the hilly terrain of the state.Himachali specialities include Siddu, Babru, Khatta, Mhanee, Channa Madra, Patrode, Mah ki dal, Chamba-style fried fish, Kullu trout, Chha Gosht, Pahadi Chicken, Sepu Badi, Auriya Kaddu, Aloo palda, Pateer, Makki di roti, Sarson ka saag, Chamba Chukh (Chouck), Bhagjery, Chutney of Til, etc.=== Notable people ===" ], [ "Education", "Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital at ShimlaAt the time of Independence, Himachal Pradesh had a literacy rate of 8% – one of the lowest in the country.", "By 2011, the literacy rate surged to 82.8%, making Himachal one of the most-literate states in the country.", "There are over 10,000 primary schools, 1,000 secondary schools and more than 1,300 high schools in the state.", "In meeting the constitutional obligation to make primary education compulsory, Himachal became the first state in India to make elementary education accessible to every child.", "Himachal Pradesh is an exception to the nationwide gender bias in education levels.", "The state has a female literacy rate of around 76%.", "In addition, school enrolment and participation rates for girls are almost universal at the primary level.", "While higher levels of education do reflect a gender-based disparity, Himachal is still significantly ahead of other states at bridging the gap.", "The Hamirpur District in particular stands out for high literacy rates across all metrics of measurement.The state government has played an instrumental role in the rise of literacy in the state by spending a significant proportion of the state's GDP on education.", "During the first six five-year plans, most of the development expenditure in the education sector was utilised in quantitative expansion, but after the seventh five-year-plan the state government switched emphasis on qualitative improvement and modernisation of education.", "To raise the number of the teaching staff at primary schools they appointed over 1000 teacher aids through the Vidya Upasak Yojna in 2001.The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is another HP government initiative that not only aims for universal elementary education but also encourages communities to engage in the management of schools.", "The Rashtriya Madhayamic Shiksha Abhiyan launched in 2009, is a similar scheme but focuses on improving access to quality secondary education.Indian Institute of Advanced Study at ShimlaIIT Mandi campus, Jan '20The standard of education in the state has reached a considerably high level as compared to other states in India with several reputed educational institutes for higher studies.", "The Baddi University of Emerging Sciences and Technologies, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Indian Institute of Management Sirmaur, Himachal Pradesh University in Shimla, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamsala, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Indian Institute of Information Technology Una, Alakh Prakash Goyal University, Maharaja Agrasen University, Himachal Pradesh National Law University are some of the notable universities in the state.", "Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital in Shimla, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Government Medical College in Kangra, Rajiv Gandhi Government Post Graduate Ayurvedic College in Paprola and Homoeopathic Medical College & Hospital in Kumarhatti are the prominent medical institutes in the state.", "Besides these, there is a Government Dental College in Shimla which is the state's first recognised dental institute.The state government has also decided to start three major nursing colleges to develop the healthcare system of the state.", "CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwavidyalya Palampur is one of the most renowned hill agriculture institutes in the world.", "Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry has earned a unique distinction in India for imparting teaching, research and extension education in horticulture, forestry and allied disciplines.", "Further, state-run Jawaharlal Nehru Government Engineering College was inaugurated in 2006 at Sundernagar.Himachal Pradesh also hosts a campus of the fashion college, National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) in Kangra." ], [ "State profile", "Source: ''Department of Information and Public Relations.''", "Area 55,673 km2 Total population 7,781,244\t Males 3,946,646 Females 3,834,598 Population density 123 Sex ratio 972 Rural population 6,176,050 Urban population 688,552 Scheduled Caste population 1,729,252 Scheduled Tribe population 392,126 Literacy rate 83.78% Male literacy 90.83% Female literacy 76.60% Capitals 2 Districts 12 Sub-divisions 71 Tehsils 169 Sub-tehsils 38 Developmental blocks 78 Towns 59 Panchayats 3,243 Panchayat smities 77 Zila parishad 12 Urban local bodies 59 Nagar nigams 2 Nagar parishads 25 Nagar panchayats 23 Census villages 20,690 Inhabited villages 17,882 Health institutions 3,866 Educational institutions 17,000 Motorable roads 33,722 km National highways 8 Identified hydroelectric potential 23,000.43 MW in five rivers basins, i.e., Yamuna, Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Himurja Potential harnessed 10,264 MW Food grain production 15.28lakh MT Vegetable production 18.67 lakh MT Fruit production 1,027,000 tonnes Per capita income 2,01,854 (2021–22) Social Security pensions 237,250 persons, annual expenditure: over 600 million Investment in industrial areas 273.80 billion, employment opportunities: Over 337,391 Employment generated in government sector 2,17,142" ], [ "See also", "*Outline of Himachal Pradesh" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "******** Statistics and Data, Planning Department, Government of Himachal Pradesh" ], [ "External links", "; Government* The official site of Himachal Pradesh* The official tourism site of Himachal Pradesh, India; General information* **" ] ]
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[ [ "Helene" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Helene''' or '''Hélène''' may refer to:" ], [ "People", "*Helene (given name), a Greek feminine given name*Helen of Troy, the daughter of Zeus and Leda*Helene, a figure in Greek mythology who was a friend of Aphrodite and helped her seduce Adonis*Helene (Amazon), a daughter of Tityrus and an Amazon who fought Achilles and died after he seriously wounded her*Helene, the consort of Simon Magus in ''Adversus Haereses''* Hélène (given name), a feminine given name, the French version of Helen*Hélène (singer), Hélène Rollès" ], [ "Astronomy", "*Helene (moon), a moon of Saturn" ], [ "Books and film", "* ''Hélène'' (drama), an 1891 play by Paul Delair* ''Helene'', English edition of German novel by Vicki Baum* ''Hélène'' (film), a 1936 French drama film, based on the novel by Baum" ], [ "Music", "* ''Hélène'' (opera), an opera by Camille Saint-Saëns 1904*Polka Hélène in D minor for piano 4 hands by Borodin* ''Hélène'' (album), an album by Roch Voisine 1989* Hélène (Hélène Rollès album) album by Hélène Rollès 1992* ''Hélène'', album by Hélène Segara 2002* \"Hélène\" (song), a 1989 song by Roch Voisine* \"Hélène\", song by Julien Clerc 1987" ], [ "Other", "* Tropical Storm Helene, various storms" ], [ "See also", "*Helena (disambiguation)*Helen (disambiguation)*Eleni (disambiguation)*Ellen (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hyperion" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hyperion''' may refer to:" ], [ "Greek mythology", "* Hyperion (Titan), one of the twelve Titans * ''Hyperion'', a byname of the Sun, Helios* Hyperion of Troy or Yperion, son of King Priam" ], [ "Science", "* Hyperion (moon), a moon of the planet Saturn* ''Hyperion'' (beetle), a genus of beetles in the family Carabidae* Hyperion (tree), a coast redwood in Northern California and the world's tallest known living tree* Hyperion proto-supercluster, a supercluster of galaxy groups discovered in 2018* Project Hyperion (interstellar), preliminary study of a crewed interstellar starship or generation ship" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Hyperion'' (Hölderlin novel), a 1799 book by Friedrich Hölderlin* ''Hyperion'' (poem), a 1819 poem by John Keats* ''Hyperion'' (Longfellow novel), an 1839 book by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow* ''Hyperion'' (Simmons novel), a 1989 novel by Dan Simmons** ''Hyperion Cantos'', the series of novels that started with ''Hyperion''* ''Hyperion'' (magazine), a 1908–1910 German literary journal* Hyperion (comics), the name of several characters in the Marvel Comics universe" ], [ "Music", "* ''Hyperion'' (Gesaffelstein album) or the title song, 2019* ''Hyperion'' (Manticora album), 2002* ''Hyperion'' (Marilyn Crispell, Peter Brötzmann and Hamid Drake album) or the title song, 1995* ''Hyperion'' (EP), by Krallice, or the title song, 2016* ''Hyperion'', an album by St. Lucia, 2018* \"Hyperion\", a song by McFly from ''The Lost Songs'', 2020* Hyperion Records, an independent British classical music label" ], [ "Businesses and organizations", "* Hachette Books, a book publishing division known until 2014 as Hyperion Books* Hyperion Books for Children, a book publisher* Hyperion Entertainment, a computer game producer* Hyperion Pictures, a film production company* Hyperion Power Generation, a nuclear power company* Hyperion Press* Hyperion Records, an independent British classical music label * Hyperion Theatricals, part of Disney Theatrical Group* Oracle Hyperion, a business software company owned by Oracle" ], [ "Places and facilities", "* Hyperion, California, a stop on the Redondo Beach via Playa del Rey Line* Hyperion Theater, a theater at the Disney California Adventure theme park in Anaheim, California* Hyperion sewage treatment plant, Playa del Rey, California* Hyperion Tower (or Mok-dong Hyperion Towers), Seoul, South Korea" ], [ "Fictional entities and characters", "* ''Hyperion'', the flagship of Jim Raynor in ''StarCraft''* Hyperion Corporation, an organization in the ''Borderlands'' series* ''Hyperion'', a Gallente battleship in ''Eve Online''* Hyperion UCS Mk.XII, a military satellite from ''Einhänder''* ''Hyperion'', Seifer Almasy's weapon in ''Final Fantasy VIII''* ''Ark Hyperion'', one of the four Ark starships in ''Mass Effect: Andromeda''* ''Hyperion'', an airship in the film ''The Island at the Top of the World''* ''Hyperion'', an airship in the novel ''Skybreaker''* ''Hyperion'', a ship in the TV series ''Skyland''* ''Hyperion'', the flagship of Yang Wenli, a ''Legend of the Galactic Heroes'' character* Emperor Hyperion, chief of the alien villains' race in the anime series ''Gekiganger III''* Hyperion Hotel, a fictional home base for Angel in the television series ''Angel''* Hyperion, a fictional boss in the video game ''Returnal''" ], [ "Computing", "* Hyperion (computer), an early portable computer* Hyperion, a ''RuneScape'' emulator by Graham Edgecombe* Hyperion, a hyperspectral imaging spectrometer on the NASA Earth Observing-1 satellite* Hyperion, Disney's rendering system first used for ''Big Hero 6'' (film)* Nvidia Drive Hyperion, a series of semiconductor related evaluation board and software bundles for high end automotive computation purposes" ], [ "Ships", "* ''Hyperion'' (ship), three commercial ships* ''Hyperion'' (yacht), a large sloop launched in 1998* HMS ''Hyperion'', three ships of the British Royal Navy* USS ''Hyperion'' (AK-107), a World War II US Navy cargo ship" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hyperion (horse) (1930–1960), a British Thoroughbred horse* Hyperion (roller coaster), a roller coaster in Poland* ''Hyperion'', a sculpture by Angela Laich after the Friedrich Hölderlin novel* Hyperion, a version of the Rolls-Royce Phantom Drophead Coupé* Hyperion XP-1 hydrogen-powered \"supercar\" from Hyperion Motors." ] ]
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[ [ "History of medicine" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of medicine''' is both a study of medicine throughout history as well as a multidisciplinary field of study that seeks to explore and understand medical practices, both past and present, throughout human societies.The history of medicine is the study and documentation of the evolution of medical treatments, practices, and knowledge over time.", "Medical historians often drawn from other humanities fields of study including economics, health sciences, sociology, and politics to better understand the institutions, practices, people, professions, and social systems that have shaped medicine.", "When a period which predates or lacks written sources regarding medicine, information is instead drawn from archaeological sources.", "This field tracks the evolution of human societies' approach to health, illness, and injury ranging from prehistory to the modern day, the events that shape these approaches, and their impact on populations.Early medical traditions include those of Babylon, China, Egypt and India.Invention of the microscope was a consequence of improved understanding, during the Renaissance.", "Prior to the 19th century, humorism (also known as humoralism) was thought to explain the cause of disease but it was gradually replaced by the germ theory of disease, leading to effective treatments and even cures for many infectious diseases.", "Military doctors advanced the methods of trauma treatment and surgery.", "Public health measures were developed especially in the 19th century as the rapid growth of cities required systematic sanitary measures.", "Advanced research centers opened in the early 20th century, often connected with major hospitals.", "The mid-20th century was characterized by new biological treatments, such as antibiotics.", "These advancements, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, and radiography led to modern medicine.", "Medicine was heavily professionalized in the 20th century, and new careers opened to women as nurses (from the 1870s) and as physicians (especially after 1970)." ], [ "Prehistoric medicine", "Yarrow, a medicinal plant found in human-occupied caves in the Upper Palaeolithic period.Prehistoric medicine is a field of study focused on understanding the use of medicinal plants, healing practices, illnesses, and wellness of humans before written records existed.", "Although styled prehistoric \"medicine\", prehistoric healthcare practices were vastly different from what we understand medicine to be in the present era and more accurately refers to studies and exploration of early healing practices.This period extends across the first use of stone tools by early humans 3.3 million years ago to the beginning of writing systems and subsequent recorded history 5000 years ago.As human populations were once scattered across the world, forming isolated communities and cultures that sporadically interacted, a range of archaeological periods have been developed to account for the differing contexts of technology, sociocultural developments, and uptake of writing systems throughout early human societies.", "Prehistoric medicine is then highly contextual to the location and people in question, creating an ununiform period of study to reflect various degrees of societal development.Without written records, insights into prehistoric medicine comes indirectly from interpreting evidence left behind by prehistoric humans.", "One branch of this includes the archaeology of medicine; a discipline that utilises a range of archaeological techniques from observing illness in human remains, plant fossils, to excavations to uncover medical practices.", "There is evidence of healing practices within Neanderthals and other early human species.", "Prehistoric evidence of human engagement with medicine include the discovery of psychoactive plant sources such as psilocybin mushrooms in 6000 BCE Sahara to primitive dental care in 10,900 BCE (13,000 BP) Riparo Fredian (present-day Italy) and 7000 BCE Mehrgarh (present-day Pakistan).Anthropology is another academic branch that contributes to understanding prehistoric medicine in uncovering the sociocultural relationships, meaning, and interpretation of prehistoric evidence.", "The overlap of medicine as both a root to healing the body as well as the spiritual throughout prehistoric periods highlights the multiple purposes that healing practices and plants could potentially have.", "From proto-religions to developed spiritual systems, relationships of humans and supernatural entities, from Gods to shamans, have played an interwoven part in prehistoric medicine." ], [ "Ancient medicine", "Ancient history covers time between 3000 BCE to 500 CE, starting from evidenced development of writing systems to the end of the classical era and beginning of the post-classical period.", "This periodisation presents history as if it were the same everywhere, however it is important to note that socioculture and technological developments could differ locally from settlement to settlement as well as globally from one society to the next.Ancient medicine covers a similar period of time and presented a range of similar healing theories from across the world connecting nature, religion, and humans within ideas of circulating fluids and energy.", "Although prominent scholars and texts detailed well-defined medicial insights, their real-world applications were marred by knowledge destruction and loss, poor communication, localised reinterpretations, and subsequent inconsistent applications.=== Ancient Mesopotamian medicine ===A cuneiform terracotta tablet describing a medicinal recipe for poisoning (c. 18th century BCE).", "Discovered in Nippur, Iraq.|left|alt=A terracotta tablet describing a medicinal recipe concerning poisoning (c. 18th century BCE).", "Museum of the Ancient Orient, Turkey.The Mesopotamian region, covering much of present-day Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Iran, and Turkey, was dominated by a series of civilisations including Sumer, the earliest known civilisation in the Fertile Crescent region, alongside the Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians).", "Overlapping ideas of what we now understand as medicine, science, magic, and religion characterised early Mesopotamian healing practices as a hybrid naturalistic and supernatural belief system.The Sumerians, having developed one of the earliest known writing systems in the 3rd millennium BCE, created numerous cuneiform clay tablets regarding their civilisation included detailed accounts of drug prescriptions, operations, to exorcisms.", "These were administered and carried out by highly defined professionals including ''bârû'' (seers), ''Ašipu|âshipu'' (exorcists), and ''asû'' (physician-priests).", "An example of an early, prescription-like medication appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur ( 2112 BCE – 2004 BCE).Following the conquest of the Sumerian civilisation by the Akkadian Empire and the empire's eventual collapse from a number of social and environmental factors, the Babylonian civilisation began to dominate the region.", "Examples of Babylonian medicine include the extensive Babylonian medical text, the ''Diagnostic Handbook,'' written by the ''ummânū'', or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, in the middle of the 11th century BCE during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BCE).This medical treatise presented great attention to the practice of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and remedies.", "The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.", "Here, clearly developed rationales were developed to understand the causes of disease and injury, supported by agreed upon theories at-the-time of elements we might now understand as natural causes, supernatural magic and religious explanations.Neo-Assyrian cuneiform tablet fragment describing medical text (c. 9th to 7th century BCE).Most known and recovered artefacts from the ancient Mesopotamian civilisations centre on the neo-Assyrian ( 900 - 600 BCE) and neo-Babylonian ( 600 - 500 BCE) periods, as the last empires ruled by native Mesopotamian rulers.", "These discoveries include a huge array of medical clay tablets from this period, although damage to the clay documents creates large gaps in our understanding of medical practices.Throughout the civilisations of Mesopotamia there is a wide range of medical innovations including evidenced practices of prophylaxis, taking measures to prevent the spread of disease, accounts of stroke, to an awareness of mental illnesses.=== Ancient Egyptian medicine ===Magical stela or cippus of Horus inscribed with healing encantations (c. 332 to 280 BCE).", "Ancient Egypt, a civilisation spanning across the river Nile (throughout parts of present-day Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan), existed from its unification in 3150 BCE to its collapse via Persian conquest in 525 BCE and ultimate downfall from the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE.Throughout unique dynasties, golden eras, and intermediate periods of instability, ancient Egyptians developed a complex, experimental, and communicative medical tradition that has been uncovered through surviving documents, most made of papyrus, such as the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Ebers Papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus, to the Greek Magical Papyri.Herodotus described the Egyptians as \"the healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans\", because of the dry climate and the notable public health system that they possessed.", "According to him, \"the practice of medicine is so specialized among them that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more.\"", "Although Egyptian medicine, to a considerable extent, dealt with the supernatural, it eventually developed a practical use in the fields of anatomy, public health, and clinical diagnostics.Medical information in the Edwin Smith Papyrus may date to a time as early as 3000 BCE.", "Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is sometimes credited with being the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and with being the original author of the ''Edwin Smith Papyrus'', detailing cures, ailments and anatomical observations.", "The ''Edwin Smith Papyrus'' is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written c. 1600 BCE.", "It is an ancient textbook on surgery almost completely devoid of magical thinking and describes in exquisite detail the ''examination, diagnosis, treatment,'' and ''prognosis'' of numerous ailments.The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written in the 17th century BCE, contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain.", "New York Academy of Medicine.The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus treats women's complaints, including problems with conception.", "Thirty four cases detailing diagnosis and treatment survive, some of them fragmentarily.", "Dating to 1800 BCE, it is the oldest surviving medical text of any kind.Medical institutions, referred to as Houses of Life are known to have been established in ancient Egypt as early as 2200 BCE.The Ebers Papyrus is the oldest written text mentioning enemas.", "Many medications were administered by enemas and one of the many types of medical specialists was an Iri, the Shepherd of the Anus.The earliest known physician is also credited to ancient Egypt: Hesy-Ra, \"Chief of Dentists and Physicians\" for King Djoser in the 27th century BCE.", "Also, the earliest known woman physician, Peseshet, practiced in Ancient Egypt at the time of the 4th dynasty.", "Her title was \"Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians.", "\"=== Ancient Chinese medicine ===Zhang Zhongjing - a Chinese pharmacologist, physician, inventor, and writer of the Eastern Han dynasty.", "|leftMedical and healing practices in early Chinese dynasties were heavily shaped by the practice of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).", "Starting around the Zhou Dynasty, parts of this system were being developed and are demonstrated in early writings on herbs in ''Classic of Changes'' (''Yi Jing'') and ''Classic of Poetry'' (''Shi Jing'').China also developed a large body of traditional medicine.", "Much of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by Taoist physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales.", "These causative principles, whether material, essential, or mystical, correlate as the expression of the natural order of the universe.The foundational text of Chinese medicine is the ''Huangdi neijing'', (or ''Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon''), written 5th century to 3rd century BCE.", "Near the end of the 2nd century CE, during the Han dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, wrote a ''Treatise on Cold Damage'', which contains the earliest known reference to the ''Neijing Suwen''.", "The Jin dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huangfu Mi (215–282), also quotes the Yellow Emperor in his ''Jiayi jing'', c. 265.During the Tang dynasty, the ''Suwen'' was expanded and revised and is now the best extant representation of the foundational roots of traditional Chinese medicine.", "Traditional Chinese medicine that is based on the use of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage and other forms of therapy has been practiced in China for thousands of years.=== Ancient Indian medicine ===Susruta, the author of the he Suśrutasamhitā which describes procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, The Atharvaveda, a sacred text of Hinduism dating from the Early Iron Age, is one of the first Indian texts dealing with medicine.", "The Atharvaveda also contains prescriptions of herbs for various ailments.", "The use of herbs to treat ailments would later form a large part of Ayurveda.Ayurveda, meaning the \"complete knowledge for long life\" is another medical system of India.", "Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of Charaka and Sushruta.", "The earliest foundations of Ayurveda were built on a synthesis of traditional herbal practices together with a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating from about 600 BCE onwards, and coming out of the communities of thinkers which included the Buddha and others.According to the compendium of Charaka, the Charakasamhitā, health and disease are not predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort.", "The compendium of Suśruta, the Suśrutasamhitā defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect the healthy, and to prolong life.", "Both these ancient compendia include details of the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments.", "The Suśrutasamhitā is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.", "Most remarkable was Susruta's surgery specially the rhinoplasty for which he is called father of modern plastic surgery.", "Susruta also described more than 125 surgical instruments in detail.", "Also remarkable is Sushruta's penchant for scientific classification:His medical treatise consists of 184 chapters, 1,120 conditions are listed, including injuries and illnesses relating to aging and mental illness.The Ayurvedic classics mention eight branches of medicine: kāyācikitsā (internal medicine), śalyacikitsā (surgery including anatomy), śālākyacikitsā (eye, ear, nose, and throat diseases), kaumārabhṛtya (pediatrics with obstetrics and gynaecology), bhūtavidyā (spirit and psychiatric medicine), agada tantra (toxicology with treatments of stings and bites), rasāyana (science of rejuvenation), and vājīkaraṇa (aphrodisiac and fertility).", "Apart from learning these, the student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis.", "The teaching of various subjects was done during the instruction of relevant clinical subjects.", "For example, the teaching of anatomy was a part of the teaching of surgery, embryology was a part of training in pediatrics and obstetrics, and the knowledge of physiology and pathology was interwoven in the teaching of all the clinical disciplines.The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years.", "But the physician was to continue to learn.=== Ancient Greek medicine ==='''Humors'''The theory of humors was derived from ancient medical works, dominated Western medicine until the 19th century, and is credited to Greek philosopher and surgeon Galen of Pergamon (129–).", "In Greek medicine, there are thought to be four humors, or bodily fluids that are linked to illness: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile.", "Early scientists believed that food is digested into blood, muscle, and bones, while the humors that weren't blood were then formed by indigestible materials that are left over.", "An excess or shortage of any one of the four humors is theorized to cause an imbalance that results in sickness; the aforementioned statement was hypothesized by sources before Hippocrates.", "Hippocrates () deduced that the four seasons of the year and four ages of man that affect the body in relation to the humors.", "The four ages of man are childhood, youth, prime age, and old age.", "The four humors as associated with the four seasons are black bileautumn, yellow bilesummer, phlegmwinter and bloodspring.In ''De temperamentis,'' Galen linked what he called temperaments, or personality characteristics, to a person's natural mixture of humors.", "He also said that the best place to check the balance of temperaments was in the palm of the hand.", "A person that is considered to be phlegmatic is said to be an introvert, even-tempered, calm, and peaceful.", "This person would have an excess of phlegm, which is described as a viscous substance or mucous.", "Similarly, a melancholic temperament related to being moody, anxious, depressed, introverted, and pessimistic.", "A melancholic temperament is caused by an excess of black bile, which is sedimentary and dark in color.", "Being extroverted, talkative, easygoing, carefree, and sociable coincides with a sanguine temperament, which is linked to too much blood.", "Finally, a choleric temperament is related to too much yellow bile, which is actually red in color and has the texture of foam; it is associated with being aggressive, excitable, impulsive, and also extroverted.There are numerous ways to treat a disproportion of the humors.", "For example, if someone was suspected to have too much blood, then the physician would perform bloodletting as a treatment.", "Likewise, if a person that had too much phlegm would feel better after expectorating, and someone with too much yellow bile would purge.", "Another factor to be considered in the balance of humors is the quality of air in which one resides, such as the climate and elevation.", "Also, the standard of food and drink, balance of sleeping and waking, exercise and rest, retention and evacuation are important.", "Moods such as anger, sadness, joy, and love can affect the balance.", "During that time, the importance of balance was demonstrated by the fact that women lose blood monthly during menstruation, and have a lesser occurrence of gout, arthritis, and epilepsy then men do.", "Galen also hypothesized that there are three faculties.", "The natural faculty affects growth and reproduction and is produced in the liver.", "Animal or vital faculty controls respiration and emotion, coming from the heart.", "In the brain, the psychic faculty commands the senses and thought.", "The structure of bodily functions is related to the humors as well.", "Greek physicians understood that food was cooked in the stomach; this is where the nutrients are extracted.", "The best, most potent and pure nutrients from food are reserved for blood, which is produced in the liver and carried through veins to organs.", "Blood enhanced with pneuma, which means wind or breath, is carried by the arteries.", "The path that blood take is as follows: venous blood passes through the vena cava and is moved into the right ventricle of the heart; then, the pulmonary artery takes it to the lungs.", "Later, the pulmonary vein then mixes air from the lungs with blood to form arterial blood, which has different observable characteristics.", "After leaving the liver, half of the yellow bile that is produced travels to the blood, while the other half travels to the gallbladder.", "Similarly, half of the black bile produced gets mixed in with blood, and the other half is used by the spleen.", "'''People'''Around 800 BCE Homer in the ''Iliad'' gives descriptions of wound treatment by the two sons of Asklepios, the admirable physicians Podaleirius and Machaon and one acting doctor, Patroclus.", "Because Machaon is wounded and Podaleirius is in combat Eurypylus asks Patroclus to \"cut out the arrow-head, and wash the dark blood from my thigh with warm water, and sprinkle soothing herbs with power to heal on my wound\".", "Asklepios, like Imhotep, came to be associated as a god of healing over time.View of the ''Askleipion'' of Kos, the best preserved instance of an Asklepieion.Temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as ''Asclepieia'' (, sing.", ", ''Asclepieion''), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing.", "At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known as ''enkoimesis'' () not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery.", "Asclepeia provided carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the requirements of institutions created for healing.", "In the Asclepeion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BCE preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the temple with a problem and shed it there.", "Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium.", "Alcmaeon of Croton wrote on medicine between 500 and 450 BCE.", "He argued that channels linked the sensory organs to the brain, and it is possible that he discovered one type of channel, the optic nerves, by dissection.Hippocrates of Kos (), considered the \"father of modern medicine.\"", "The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with Hippocrates and his students.", "Most famously, the Hippocratics invented the Hippocratic Oath for physicians.", "Contemporary physicians swear an oath of office which includes aspects found in early editions of the Hippocratic Oath.Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions.", "Though humorism (humoralism) as a medical system predates 5th-century Greek medicine, Hippocrates and his students systematized the thinking that illness can be explained by an imbalance of blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile.", "Hippocrates is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic suppurative lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease.", "For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as \"Hippocratic fingers\".", "Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe the Hippocratic face in ''Prognosis''.", "Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii.", "of ''Henry V''.", "Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, \"exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence.", "\"The Greek Galen (c. ) was one of the greatest physicians of the ancient world, as his theories dominated all medical studies for nearly 1500 years.", "His theories and experimentation laid the foundation for modern medicine surrounding the heart and blood.", "Galen's influence and innovations in medicine can be attributed to the experiments he conducted, which were unlike any other medical experiments of his time.", "Galen strongly believed that medical dissection was one of the essential procedures in truly understanding medicine.", "He began to dissect different animals that were anatomically similar to humans, which allowed him to learn more about the internal organs and extrapolate the surgical studies to the human body.", "In addition, he performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgeries—that were not tried again for almost two millennia.", "Through the dissections and surgical procedures, Galen concluded that blood is able to circulate throughout the human body, and the heart is most similar to the human soul.", "In ''Ars medica'' (\"Arts of Medicine\"), he further explains the mental properties in terms of specific mixtures of the bodily organs.", "While much of his work surrounded the physical anatomy, he also worked heavily in humoral physiology.Galen's medical work was regarded as authoritative until well into the Middle Ages.", "He left a physiological model of the human body that became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university anatomy curriculum.", "Although he attempted to extrapolate the animal dissections towards the model of the human body, some of Galen's theories were incorrect.", "This caused his model to suffer greatly from stasis and intellectual stagnation.", "Greek and Roman taboos caused dissection of the human body to usually be banned in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages it changed.In 1523 Galen's ''On the Natural Faculties'' was published in London.", "In the 1530s Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius launched a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin.", "Vesalius's most famous work, ''De humani corporis fabrica'' was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form.File:Hippocrates rubens.jpg|Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE).", "Known as the \"father of medicine\".", "File:Galenus.jpg|Galen (129–216 CE), Known for their wide insights into anatomy.", "'''Herophilus and Erasistratus'''The ''plinthios brochos'' as described by Greek physician Heraklas, a sling for binding a fractured jaw.", "These writings were preserved in one of Oribasius' collections.Two great Alexandrians laid the foundations for the scientific study of anatomy and physiology, Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos.", "Other Alexandrian surgeons gave us ligature (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia operations, ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, methods of reduction of dislocations and fractures, tracheotomy, and mandrake as an anaesthetic.", "Some of what we know of them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum.Herophilus of Chalcedon, the renowned Alexandrian physician, was one of the pioneers of human anatomy.", "Though his knowledge of the anatomical structure of the human body was vast, he specialized in the aspects of neural anatomy.", "Thus, his experimentation was centered around the anatomical composition of the blood-vascular system and the pulsations that can be analyzed from the system.", "Furthermore, the surgical experimentation he administered caused him to become very prominent throughout the field of medicine, as he was one of the first physicians to initiate the exploration and dissection of the human body.The banned practice of human dissection was lifted during his time within the scholastic community.", "This brief moment in the history of Greek medicine allowed him to further study the brain, which he believed was the core of the nervous system.", "He also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse and the former do not.", "Thus, while working at the medical school of Alexandria, Herophilus placed intelligence in the brain based on his surgical exploration of the body, and he connected the nervous system to motion and sensation.", "In addition, he and his contemporary, Erasistratus of Chios, continued to research the role of veins and nerves.", "After conducting extensive research, the two Alexandrians mapped out the course of the veins and nerves across the human body.", "Erasistratus connected the increased complexity of the surface of the human brain compared to other animals to its superior intelligence.", "He sometimes employed experiments to further his research, at one time repeatedly weighing a caged bird, and noting its weight loss between feeding times.", "In Erasistratus' physiology, air enters the body, is then drawn by the lungs into the heart, where it is transformed into vital spirit, and is then pumped by the arteries throughout the body.", "Some of this vital spirit reaches the brain, where it is transformed into animal spirit, which is then distributed by the nerves.=== Ancient Roman medicine ===The Romans invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women, as well as the surgical uses of forceps, scalpels, cautery, cross-bladed scissors, the surgical needle, the sound, and speculas.", "Romans also performed cataract surgery.The Roman army physician Dioscorides (–90 CE), was a Greek botanist and pharmacologist.", "He wrote the encyclopedia ''De Materia Medica'' describing over 600 herbal cures, forming an influential pharmacopoeia which was used extensively for the following 1,500 years.Early Christians in the Roman Empire incorporated medicine into their theology, ritual practices, and metaphors." ], [ "Post-classical medicine", "Mandrake (written 'ΜΑΝΔΡΑΓΟΡΑ' in Greek capitals).", "''Naples Dioscurides'', 7th century=== Middle East ======= Places ===='''Byzantine medicine'''Byzantine medicine encompasses the common medical practices of the Byzantine Empire from about 400 CE to 1453 CE.", "Byzantine medicine was notable for building upon the knowledge base developed by its Greco-Roman predecessors.", "In preserving medical practices from antiquity, Byzantine medicine influenced Islamic medicine as well as fostering the Western rebirth of medicine during the Renaissance.Byzantine physicians often compiled and standardized medical knowledge into textbooks.", "Their records tended to include both diagnostic explanations and technical drawings.", "The Medical Compendium in Seven Books, written by the leading physician Paul of Aegina, survived as a particularly thorough source of medical knowledge.", "This compendium, written in the late seventh century, remained in use as a standard textbook for the following 800 years.Late antiquity ushered in a revolution in medical science, and historical records often mention civilian hospitals (although battlefield medicine and wartime triage were recorded well before Imperial Rome).", "Constantinople stood out as a center of medicine during the Middle Ages, which was aided by its crossroads location, wealth, and accumulated knowledge.The first ever known example of separating conjoined twins occurred in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century.", "The next example of separating conjoined twins would be recorded many centuries later in Germany in 1689.The Byzantine Empire's neighbors, the Persian Sassanid Empire, also made their noteworthy contributions mainly with the establishment of the Academy of Gondeshapur, which was \"the most important medical center of the ancient world during the 6th and 7th centuries.\"", "In addition, Cyril Elgood, British physician and a historian of medicine in Persia, commented that thanks to medical centers like the Academy of Gondeshapur, \"to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must be given to Persia.", "\"'''Islamic medicine'''Sketch representing Muslim physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-RaziThe Islamic civilization rose to primacy in medical science as its physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, and surgery.", "Islamic civilization's contribution to these fields within medicine was a gradual process that took hundreds of years.", "During the time of the first great Muslim dynasty, the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), these fields that were in their very early stages of development, and not much progress was made.", "One reason for the limited advancement in medicine during the Umayyad Caliphate was the Caliphate's focus on expansion after the death of Prophet Muhammad (632 CE).", "The focus on expansionism redirected resources from other fields, such as medicine.", "The priority on these factors led a dense amount of the population to believe that God will provide cures for their illnesses and diseases because of the attention on spirituality.There were also many other areas of interest during that time before there was a rising interest in the field of medicine.", "Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, the fifth caliph of the Umayyad, developed governmental administration, adopted Arabic as the main language, and focused on many other areas.", "However, this rising interest in Islamic medicine grew significantly when the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE) overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE.", "This change in dynasty from the Umayyad Caliphate to the Abbasid Caliphate served as a turning point towards scientific and medical developments.", "A big contributor to this is because, under Abbasid rule, there was a great part of the Greek legacy that was transmitted into Arabic which by then, was the main language of Islamic nations.", "Because of this, many Islamic physicians were heavily influenced by the works of Greek scholars of Alexandria and Egypt and were able to further expand on those texts to produce new medical pieces of knowledge.", "This period of time is also known as the Islamic Golden Age where there was a period of development for development and flourishments of technology, commerce, and sciences including medicine.", "Additionally, during this time the creation of the first Islamic Hospital in 805 CE by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid in Baghdad was recounted as a glorious event of the Golden Age.", "This hospital in Baghdad contributed immensely to Baghdad's success and also provided educational opportunities for Islamic physicians.", "During the Islamic Golden Age, there were many famous Islamic physicians that paved the way for medical advancements and understandings.", "Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (965-1040 CE), sometimes referred to as the father of modern optics, is the author of the monumental Book of Optics and also was known for his work in differentiating smallpox from measles.", "However, this would not be possible without the influence from many different areas of the world that influenced the Arabs.Arabic manuscript, ''Anatomy of the Eye'', by al-Mutadibih, 1200 CEThe Arabs were influenced by ancient Indian, Persian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine medical practices, and helped them develop further.Galen & Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities.", "The translation of 129 of Galen's works into Arabic by the Nestorian Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq and his assistants, and in particular Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine, set the template for Islamic medicine, which rapidly spread throughout the Arab Empire.(cf.", "Its most famous physicians included the Persian polymaths Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi and Avicenna, who wrote more than 40 works on health, medicine, and well-being.", "Taking leads from Greece and Rome, Islamic scholars kept both the art and science of medicine alive and moving forward.", "Persian polymath Avicenna has also been called the \"father of medicine\".", "He wrote ''The Canon of Medicine'' which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities, considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.", "''The Canon of Medicine'' presents an overview of the contemporary medical knowledge of the medieval Islamic world, which had been influenced by earlier traditions including Greco-Roman medicine (particularly Galen), Persian medicine, Chinese medicine and Indian medicine.", "Persian physician al-Rāzi was one of the first to question the Greek theory of humorism, which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine.", "Some volumes of al-Rāzi's work ''Al-Mansuri'', namely \"On Surgery\" and \"A General Book on Therapy\", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities.", "Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor, the father of pediatrics, and a pioneer of ophthalmology.", "For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.In addition to contributions to humanity's understanding of human anatomy, Islamicate scientists and scholars, physicians specifically, played an invaluable role in the development of the modern hospital system, creating the foundations on which more contemporary medical professionals would build models of public health systems in Europe and elsewhere.", "During the time of the Safavid empire (16th–18th centuries) in Iran and the Mughal empire (16th–19th centuries) in India, Muslim scholars radically transformed the institution of the hospital, creating an environment in which rapidly developing medical knowledge of the time could be passed among students and teachers from a wide range of cultures.", "There were two main schools of thought with patient care at the time.", "These included humoral physiology from the Persians and Ayurvedic practice.", "After these theories were translated from Sanskrit to Persian and vice-versa, hospitals could have a mix of culture and techniques.", "This allowed for a sense of collaborative medicine.", "Hospitals became increasingly common during this period as wealthy patrons commonly founded them.", "Many features that are still in use today, such as an emphasis on hygiene, a staff fully dedicated to the care of patients, and separation of individual patients from each other were developed in Islamicate hospitals long before they came into practice in Europe.", "At the time, the patient care aspects of hospitals in Europe had not taken effect.", "European hospitals were places of religion rather than institutions of science.", "As was the case with much of the scientific work done by Islamicate scholars, many of these novel developments in medical practice were transmitted to European cultures hundreds of years after they had long been used throughout the Islamicate world.", "Although Islamicate scientists were responsible for discovering much of the knowledge that allows the hospital system to function safely today, European scholars who built on this work still receive the majority of the credit historically.Before the development of scientific medical practices in the Islamicate empires, medical care was mainly performed by religious figures such as priests.", "Without a profound understanding of how infectious diseases worked and why sickness spread from person to person, these early attempts at caring for the ill and injured often did more harm than good.", "Contrarily, with the development of new and safer practices by Islamicate scholars and physicians in Arabian hospitals, ideas vital for the effective care of patients were developed, learned, and transmitted widely.", "Hospitals developed novel \"concepts and structures\" which are still in use today: separate wards for male and female patients, pharmacies, medical record-keeping, and personal and institutional sanitation and hygiene.", "Much of this knowledge was recorded and passed on through Islamicate medical texts, many of which were carried to Europe and translated for the use of European medical workers.", "The Tasrif, written by surgeon Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi, was translated into Latin; it became one of the most important medical texts in European universities during the Middle Ages and contained useful information on surgical techniques and spread of bacterial infection.The hospital was a typical institution included in the majority of Muslim cities, and although they were often physically attached to religious institutions, they were not themselves places of religious practice.", "Rather, they served as facilities in which education and scientific innovation could flourish.", "If they had places of worship, they were secondary to the medical side of the hospital.", "Islamicate hospitals, along with observatories used for astronomical science, were some of the most important points of exchange for the spread of scientific knowledge.", "Undoubtedly, the hospital system developed in the Islamicate world played an invaluable role in the creation and evolution of the hospitals we as a society know and depend on today.=== Europe ===13th-century illustration showing the veins.", "leftAfter 400 CE, the study and practice of medicine in the Western Roman Empire went into deep decline.", "Medical services were provided, especially for the poor, in the thousands of monastic hospitals that sprang up across Europe, but the care was rudimentary and mainly palliative.", "Most of the writings of Galen and Hippocrates were lost to the West, with the summaries and compendia of St. Isidore of Seville being the primary channel for transmitting Greek medical ideas.", "The Carolingian Renaissance brought increased contact with Byzantium and a greater awareness of ancient medicine, but only with the Renaissance of the 12th century and the new translations coming from Muslim and Jewish sources in Spain, and the fifteenth-century flood of resources after the fall of Constantinople did the West fully recover its acquaintance with classical antiquity.Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages it changed: medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi (–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.Wallis identifies a prestige hierarchy with university educated physicians on top, followed by learned surgeons; craft-trained surgeons; barber surgeons; itinerant specialists such as dentist and oculists; empirics; and midwives.====Institutions====The first medical schools were opened in the 9th century, most notably the Schola Medica Salernitana at Salerno in southern Italy.", "The cosmopolitan influences from Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew sources gave it an international reputation as the Hippocratic City.", "Students from wealthy families came for three years of preliminary studies and five of medical studies.", "The medicine, following the laws of Federico II, that he founded in 1224 the university and improved the Schola Salernitana, in the period between 1200 and 1400, it had in Sicily (so-called Sicilian Middle Ages) a particular development so much to create a true school of Jewish medicine.As a result of which, after a legal examination, was conferred to a Jewish Sicilian woman, Virdimura, wife of another physician Pasquale of Catania, the historical record of before woman officially trained to exercise of the medical profession.At the University of Bologna the training of physicians began in 1219.The Italian city attracted students from across Europe.", "Taddeo Alderotti built a tradition of medical education that established the characteristic features of Italian learned medicine and was copied by medical schools elsewhere.Turisanus (d. 1320) was his student.The University of Padua was founded about 1220 by walkouts from the University of Bologna, and began teaching medicine in 1222.It played a leading role in the identification and treatment of diseases and ailments, specializing in autopsies and the inner workings of the body.", "Starting in 1595, Padua's famous anatomical theatre drew artists and scientists studying the human body during public dissections.", "The intensive study of Galen led to critiques of Galen modeled on his own writing, as in the first book of Vesalius's ''De humani corporis fabrica.''", "Andreas Vesalius held the chair of Surgery and Anatomy (''explicator chirurgiae'') and in 1543 published his anatomical discoveries in ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica''.", "He portrayed the human body as an interdependent system of organ groupings.", "The book triggered great public interest in dissections and caused many other European cities to establish anatomical theatres.By the thirteenth century, the medical school at Montpellier began to eclipse the Salernitan school.", "In the 12th century, universities were founded in Italy, France, and England, which soon developed schools of medicine.", "The University of Montpellier in France and Italy's University of Padua and University of Bologna were leading schools.", "Nearly all the learning was from lectures and readings in Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, and Aristotle.", "In later centuries, the importance of universities founded in the late Middle Ages gradually increased, e.g.", "Charles University in Prague (established in 1348), Jagiellonian University in Kraków (1364), University of Vienna (1365), Heidelberg University (1386) and University of Greifswald (1456).File:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg|A miniature depicting the Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno in ItalyFile:The ruins of St. Giles Leper Hospital - geograph.org.uk - 834044.jpg|Ruins of St. Giles Hospital (Great Hospital)File:Collegium Maius 2017.jpg|The oldest Polish Collegium Medicum at Jagiellonian University founded in 1364==== People ========Women====In 1376, in Sicily, it was historically given, in relationship to the laws of Federico II that they foresaw an examination with a regal errand of physicists, the first qualification to the exercise of the medicine to a woman, Virdimura a Jewish woman of Catania, whose document is preserved in Palermo to the Italian national archives." ], [ "Early modern medicine", "=== Places ==='''England'''In England, there were but three small hospitals after 1550.Pelling and Webster estimate that in London in the 1580 to 1600 period, out of a population of nearly 200,000 people, there were about 500 medical practitioners.", "Nurses and midwives are not included.", "There were about 50 physicians, 100 licensed surgeons, 100 apothecaries, and 250 additional unlicensed practitioners.", "In the last category about 25% were women.", "All across England—and indeed all of the world—the vast majority of the people in city, town or countryside depended for medical care on local amateurs with no professional training but with a reputation as wise healers who could diagnose problems and advise sick people what to do—and perhaps set broken bones, pull a tooth, give some traditional herbs or brews or perform a little magic to cure what ailed them.=== People ===File:Hirschvogel Paracelsus.jpg|Paracelsus (1493-1541).", "Known as the \"father\" of toxicology.", "File:Michael Servetus.jpg|Michael Servetus (1511-1553).", "Known as the first European to correctly describe pulmonary circulation.File:Andreas Vesalius Bruxellensis, Anatomicorum Princeps (BM 1925,1117.92).jpg|Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564).", "Known as the modern founder of human anatomy.=== Europe ===The Renaissance brought an intense focus on scholarship to Christian Europe.", "A major effort to translate the Arabic and Greek scientific works into Latin emerged.", "Europeans gradually became experts not only in the ancient writings of the Romans and Greeks, but in the contemporary writings of Islamic scientists.", "During the later centuries of the Renaissance came an increase in experimental investigation, particularly in the field of dissection and body examination, thus advancing our knowledge of human anatomy.An experiment from William Harvey's ''de Motu Cordis'', 1628Replica of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's microscope of the 1670s==== Ideas ====* '''Animalcules:''' In 1677 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek identified \"animalcules\", which we now know as microorganisms, within their paper \"letter on the protozoa\".", "* '''Blood circulation:''' In 1628 the English physician William Harvey made a ground-breaking discovery when he correctly described the circulation of the blood in his ''Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus''.", "Before this time the most useful manual in medicine used both by students and expert physicians was Dioscorides' ''De Materia Medica'', a pharmacopoeia.==== Inventions ====* '''Microscopes:''' Bacteria and protists were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field of microbiology.==== Institutions ====At the University of Bologna the curriculum was revised and strengthened in 1560–1590.A representative professor was Julius Caesar Aranzi (Arantius) (1530–1589).", "He became Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the University of Bologna in 1556, where he established anatomy as a major branch of medicine for the first time.", "Aranzi combined anatomy with a description of pathological processes, based largely on his own research, Galen, and the work of his contemporary Italians.", "Aranzi discovered the 'Nodules of Aranzio' in the semilunar valves of the heart and wrote the first description of the superior levator palpebral and the coracobrachialis muscles.", "His books (in Latin) covered surgical techniques for many conditions, including hydrocephalus, nasal polyp, goitre and tumours to phimosis, ascites, haemorrhoids, anal abscess and fistulae.==== People ===='''Women'''Catholic women played large roles in health and healing in medieval and early modern Europe.", "A life as a nun was a prestigious role; wealthy families provided dowries for their daughters, and these funded the convents, while the nuns provided free nursing care for the poor.The Catholic elites provided hospital services because of their theology of salvation that good works were the route to heaven.", "The Protestant reformers rejected the notion that rich men could gain God's grace through good works—and thereby escape purgatory—by providing cash endowments to charitable institutions.", "They also rejected the Catholic idea that the poor patients earned grace and salvation through their suffering.", "Protestants generally closed all the convents and most of the hospitals, sending women home to become housewives, often against their will.", "On the other hand, local officials recognized the public value of hospitals, and some were continued in Protestant lands, but without monks or nuns and in the control of local governments.In London, the crown allowed two hospitals to continue their charitable work, under nonreligious control of city officials.", "The convents were all shut down but Harkness finds that women—some of them former nuns—were part of a new system that delivered essential medical services to people outside their family.", "They were employed by parishes and hospitals, as well as by private families, and provided nursing care as well as some medical, pharmaceutical, and surgical services.Meanwhile, in Catholic lands such as France, rich families continued to fund convents and monasteries, and enrolled their daughters as nuns who provided free health services to the poor.", "Nursing was a religious role for the nurse, and there was little call for science.=== Asia ======= China ====In the 18th century, during the Qing dynasty, there was a proliferation of popular books as well as more advanced encyclopedias on traditional medicine.", "Jesuit missionaries introduced Western science and medicine to the royal court, although the Chinese physicians ignored them.==== India ====Unani medicine, based on Avicenna's ''Canon of Medicine'' (ca.", "1025), was developed in India throughout the Medieval and Early Modern periods.", "Its use continued, especially in Muslim communities, during the Indian Sultanate and Mughal periods.", "Unani medicine is in some respects close to Ayurveda and to Early Modern European medicine.", "All share a theory of the presence of the elements (in Unani, as in Europe, they are considered to be fire, water, earth, and air) and humors in the human body.", "According to Unani physicians, these elements are present in different humoral fluids and their balance leads to health and their imbalance leads to illness.Sanskrit medical literature of the Early Modern period included innovative works such as the ''Compendium of Śārṅgadhara'' (Skt.", "''Śārṅgadharasaṃhitā'', ca.", "1350) and especially ''The Illumination of Bhāva'' (''Bhāvaprakāśa,'' by ''Bhāvamiśra,'' ca.", "1550).", "The latter work also contained an extensive dictionary of materia medica, and became a standard textbook used widely by ayurvedic practitioners in north India up to the present day (2024).", "Medical innovations of this period included pulse diagnosis, urine diagnosis, the use of mercury and china root to treat syphilis, and the increasing use of metallic ingredients in drugs.By the 18th century CE, Ayurvedic medical therapy was still widely used amongst most of the population.", "Muslim rulers built large hospitals in 1595 in Hyderabad, and in Delhi in 1719, and numerous commentaries on ancient texts were written.File:Physician taking pulse.jpg|Physician taking pulse in Delhi c.1826File:Darul Shifa.jpg|Dar-ul-Shifa, Hyderabad built in 1591=== Europe ======= Events ===='''European Age of Enlightenment'''During the Age of Enlightenment, the 18th century, science was held in high esteem and physicians upgraded their social status by becoming more scientific.", "The health field was crowded with self-trained barber-surgeons, apothecaries, midwives, drug peddlers, and charlatans.Across Europe medical schools relied primarily on lectures and readings.", "The final year student would have limited clinical experience by trailing the professor through the wards.", "Laboratory work was uncommon, and dissections were rarely done because of legal restrictions on cadavers.", "Most schools were small, and only Edinburgh Medical School, Scotland, with 11,000 alumni, produced large numbers of graduates.==== Places ===='''Spain and the Spanish Empire'''Depiction of smallpox in Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún's history of the conquest of Mexico, Book XII of the ''Florentine Codex'', from the defeated Aztecs' point of viewIn the Spanish Empire, the viceregal capital of Mexico City was a site of medical training for physicians and the creation of hospitals.", "Epidemic disease had decimated indigenous populations starting with the early sixteenth-century Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, when a black auxiliary in the armed forces of conqueror Hernán Cortés, with an active case of smallpox, set off a virgin land epidemic among indigenous peoples, Spanish allies and enemies alike.", "Aztec emperor Cuitlahuac died of smallpox.", "Disease was a significant factor in the Spanish conquest elsewhere as well.Mexico City epidemic of 1737, with elites calling on the Virgin of GuadalupeMedical education instituted at the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico chiefly served the needs of urban elites.", "Male and female ''curanderos'' or lay practitioners, attended to the ills of the popular classes.", "The Spanish crown began regulating the medical profession just a few years after the conquest, setting up the Royal Tribunal of the Protomedicato, a board for licensing medical personnel in 1527.Licensing became more systematic after 1646 with physicians, druggists, surgeons, and bleeders requiring a license before they could publicly practice.", "Crown regulation of medical practice became more general in the Spanish empire.Elites and the popular classes alike called on divine intervention in personal and society-wide health crises, such as the epidemic of 1737.The intervention of the Virgin of Guadalupe was depicted in a scene of dead and dying Indians, with elites on their knees praying for her aid.", "In the late eighteenth century, the crown began implementing secularizing policies on the Iberian peninsula and its overseas empire to control disease more systematically and scientifically.", "'''Spanish Quest for Medicinal Spices'''Botanical medicines also became popular during the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries.", "Spanish pharmaceutical books during this time contain medicinal recipes consisting of spices, herbs, and other botanical products.", "For example, nutmeg oil was documented for curing stomach ailments and cardamom oil was believed to relieve intestinal ailments.", "During the rise of the global trade market, spices and herbs, along with many other goods, that were indigenous to different territories began to appear in different locations across the globe.", "Herbs and spices were especially popular for their utility in cooking and medicines.", "As a result of this popularity and increased demand for spices, some areas in Asia, like China and Indonesia, became hubs for spice cultivation and trade.", "The Spanish Empire also wanted to benefit from the international spice trade, so they looked towards their American colonies.The Spanish American colonies became an area where the Spanish searched to discover new spices and indigenous American medicinal recipes.", "The Florentine Codex, a 16th-century ethnographic research study in Mesoamerica by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún, is a major contribution to the history of Nahua medicine.", "The Spanish did discover many spices and herbs new to them, some of which were reportedly similar to Asian spices.", "A Spanish physician by the name of Nicolás Monardes studied many of the American spices coming into Spain.", "He documented many of the new American spices and their medicinal properties in his survey ''Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales''.", "For example, Monardes describes the \"Long Pepper\" (Pimienta luenga), found along the coasts of the countries that are now known Panama and Colombia, as a pepper that was more flavorful, healthy, and spicy in comparison to the Eastern black pepper.", "The Spanish interest in American spices can first be seen in the commissioning of the ''Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis'', which was a Spanish-American codex describing indigenous American spices and herbs and describing the ways that these were used in natural Aztec medicines.", "The codex was commissioned in the year 1552 by Francisco de Mendoza, the son of Antonio de Mendoza, who was the first Viceroy of New Spain.", "Francisco de Mendoza was interested in studying the properties of these herbs and spices, so that he would be able to profit from the trade of these herbs and the medicines that could be produced by them.Francisco de Mendoza recruited the help of Monardez in studying the traditional medicines of the indigenous people living in what was then the Spanish colonies.", "Monardez researched these medicines and performed experiments to discover the possibilities of spice cultivation and medicine creation in the Spanish colonies.", "The Spanish transplanted some herbs from Asia, but only a few foreign crops were successfully grown in the Spanish Colonies.", "One notable crop brought from Asia and successfully grown in the Spanish colonies was ginger, as it was considered Hispaniola's number 1 crop at the end of the 16th Century.", "The Spanish Empire did profit from cultivating herbs and spices, but they also introduced pre-Columbian American medicinal knowledge to Europe.", "Other Europeans were inspired by the actions of Spain and decided to try to establish a botanical transplant system in colonies that they controlled, however, these subsequent attempts were not successful.", "'''United Kingdom''' '''and the British Empire'''18th-century medical remedies collected by a British Gentry familyThe London Dispensary opened in 1696, the first clinic in the British Empire to dispense medicines to poor sick people.", "The innovation was slow to catch on, but new dispensaries were open in the 1770s.", "In the colonies, small hospitals opened in Philadelphia in 1752, New York in 1771, and Boston (Massachusetts General Hospital) in 1811.Guy's Hospital in 1820Guy's Hospital, the first great British hospital with a modern foundation opened in 1721 in London, with funding from businessman Thomas Guy.", "It had been preceded by St Bartholomew's Hospital and St Thomas's Hospital, both medieval foundations.", "In 1821 a bequest of £200,000 by William Hunt in 1829 funded expansion for an additional hundred beds at Guy's.", "Samuel Sharp (1709–78), a surgeon at Guy's Hospital from 1733 to 1757, was internationally famous; his ''A Treatise on the Operations of Surgery'' (1st ed., 1739), was the first British study focused exclusively on operative technique.English physician Thomas Percival (1740–1804) wrote a comprehensive system of medical conduct, ''Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons'' (1803) that set the standard for many textbooks." ], [ "Late modern medicine", "=== Germ theory and bacteriology ===In the 1830s in Italy, Agostino Bassi traced the silkworm disease muscardine to microorganisms.", "Meanwhile, in Germany, Theodor Schwann led research on alcoholic fermentation by yeast, proposing that living microorganisms were responsible.Leading chemists, such as Justus von Liebig, seeking solely physicochemical explanations, derided this claim and alleged that Schwann was regressing to vitalism.In 1847 in Vienna, Ignaz Semmelweis (1818–1865), dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers (due to childbed fever) by requiring physicians to clean their hands before attending childbirth, yet his principles were marginalized and attacked by professional peers.", "At that time most people still believed that infections were caused by foul odors called miasmas.Louis Pasteur experimenting on bacteria, Statue of Robert Koch, father of medical bacteriology, at Robert-Koch-Platz (Robert Koch square) in BerlinFrench scientist Louis Pasteur confirmed Schwann's fermentation experiments in 1857 and afterwards supported the hypothesis that yeast were microorganisms.", "Moreover, he suggested that such a process might also explain contagious disease.", "In 1860, Pasteur's report on bacterial fermentation of butyric acid motivated fellow Frenchman Casimir Davaine to identify a similar species (which he called ) as the pathogen of the deadly disease anthrax.", "Others dismissed \"\" as a mere byproduct of the disease.", "British surgeon Joseph Lister, however, took these findings seriously and subsequently introduced antisepsis to wound treatment in 1865.German physician Robert Koch, noting fellow German Ferdinand Cohn's report of a spore stage of a certain bacterial species, traced the life cycle of Davaine's , identified spores, inoculated laboratory animals with them, and reproduced anthrax—a breakthrough for experimental pathology and germ theory of disease.", "Pasteur's group added ecological investigations confirming spores' role in the natural setting, while Koch published a landmark treatise in 1878 on the bacterial pathology of wounds.", "In 1881, Koch reported discovery of the \"tubercle bacillus\", cementing germ theory and Koch's acclaim.Upon the outbreak of a cholera epidemic in Alexandria, Egypt, two medical missions went to investigate and attend the sick, one was sent out by Pasteur and the other led by Koch.", "Koch's group returned in 1883, having successfully discovered the cholera pathogen.", "In Germany, however, Koch's bacteriologists had to vie against Max von Pettenkofer, Germany's leading proponent of miasmatic theory.", "Pettenkofer conceded bacteria's casual involvement, but maintained that other, environmental factors were required to turn it pathogenic, and opposed water treatment as a misdirected effort amid more important ways to improve public health.", "The massive cholera epidemic in Hamburg in 1892 devastated Pettenkoffer's position, and yielded German public health to \"Koch's bacteriology\".On losing the 1883 rivalry in Alexandria, Pasteur switched research direction, and introduced his third vaccine—rabies vaccine—the first vaccine for humans since Jenner's for smallpox.", "From across the globe, donations poured in, funding the founding of Pasteur Institute, the globe's first biomedical institute, which opened in 1888.Along with Koch's bacteriologists, Pasteur's group—which preferred the term ''microbiology''—led medicine into the new era of \"scientific medicine\" upon bacteriology and germ theory.", "Accepted from Jakob Henle, Koch's steps to confirm a species' pathogenicity became famed as \"Koch's postulates\".", "Although his proposed tuberculosis treatment, tuberculin, seemingly failed, it soon was used to test for infection with the involved species.", "In 1905, Koch was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and remains renowned as the founder of medical microbiology.=== Nursing ===The breakthrough to professionalization based on knowledge of advanced medicine was led by Florence Nightingale in England.", "She resolved to provide more advanced training than she saw on the Continent.", "At Kaiserswerth, where the first German nursing schools were founded in 1836 by Theodor Fliedner, she said, \"The nursing was nil and the hygiene horrible.\")", "Britain's male doctors preferred the old system, but Nightingale won out and her Nightingale Training School opened in 1860 and became a model.", "The Nightingale solution depended on the patronage of upper-class women, and they proved eager to serve.", "Royalty became involved.", "In 1902 the wife of the British king took control of the nursing unit of the British army, became its president, and renamed it after herself as the Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps; when she died the next queen became president.", "Today its Colonel In Chief is Sophie, Countess of Wessex, the daughter-in-law of Queen Elizabeth II.", "In the United States, upper-middle-class women who already supported hospitals promoted nursing.", "The new profession proved highly attractive to women of all backgrounds, and schools of nursing opened in the late 19th century.", "They were soon a function of large hospitals , where they provided a steady stream of low-paid idealistic workers.", "The International Red Cross began operations in numerous countries in the late 19th century, promoting nursing as an ideal profession for middle-class women.=== Statistical methods ===Diagram of the causes of mortality in the army in the East''\" by Florence Nightingale.A major breakthrough in epidemiology came with the introduction of statistical maps and graphs.", "They allowed careful analysis of seasonality issues in disease incidents, and the maps allowed public health officials to identify critical loci for the dissemination of disease.", "John Snow in London developed the methods.", "In 1849, he observed that the symptoms of cholera, which had already claimed around 500 lives within a month, were vomiting and diarrhoea.", "He concluded that the source of contamination must be through ingestion, rather than inhalation as was previously thought.", "It was this insight that resulted in the removal of The Pump On Broad Street, after which deaths from cholera plummeted.", "English nurse Florence Nightingale pioneered analysis of large amounts of statistical data, using graphs and tables, regarding the condition of thousands of patients in the Crimean War to evaluate the efficacy of hospital services.", "Her methods proved convincing and led to reforms in military and civilian hospitals, usually with the full support of the government.By the late 19th and early 20th century English statisticians led by Francis Galton, Karl Pearson and Ronald Fisher developed the mathematical tools such as correlations and hypothesis tests that made possible much more sophisticated analysis of statistical data.During the U.S. Civil War the Sanitary Commission collected enormous amounts of statistical data, and opened up the problems of storing information for fast access and mechanically searching for data patterns.", "The pioneer was John Shaw Billings (1838–1913).", "A senior surgeon in the war, Billings built the Library of the Surgeon General's Office (now the National Library of Medicine), the centerpiece of modern medical information systems.", "Billings figured out how to mechanically analyze medical and demographic data by turning facts into numbers and punching the numbers onto cardboard cards that could be sorted and counted by machine.", "The applications were developed by his assistant Herman Hollerith; Hollerith invented the punch card and counter-sorter system that dominated statistical data manipulation until the 1970s.", "Hollerith's company became International Business Machines (IBM) in 1911.=== Psychiatry ===York Retreat, founded in 1796, gained international prominence as a centre for moral treatment and a model of asylum reform following the publication of Samuel Tuke's ''Description of the Retreat'' (1813).Until the nineteenth century, the care of the insane was largely a communal and family responsibility rather than a medical one.", "The vast majority of the mentally ill were treated in domestic contexts with only the most unmanageable or burdensome likely to be institutionally confined.", "This situation was transformed radically from the late eighteenth century as, amid changing cultural conceptions of madness, a new-found optimism in the curability of insanity within the asylum setting emerged.", "Increasingly, lunacy was perceived less as a physiological condition than as a mental and moral one to which the correct response was persuasion, aimed at inculcating internal restraint, rather than external coercion.", "This new therapeutic sensibility, referred to as moral treatment, was epitomised in French physician Philippe Pinel's quasi-mythological unchaining of the lunatics of the Bicêtre Hospital in Paris and realised in an institutional setting with the foundation in 1796 of the Quaker-run York Retreat in England.Surrey County Lunatic Asylum, –58.The asylum population in England and Wales rose from 1,027 in 1827 to 74,004 in 1900.From the early nineteenth century, as lay-led lunacy reform movements gained in influence, ever more state governments in the West extended their authority and responsibility over the mentally ill.", "Small-scale asylums, conceived as instruments to reshape both the mind and behaviour of the disturbed, proliferated across these regions.", "By the 1830s, moral treatment, together with the asylum itself, became increasingly medicalised and asylum doctors began to establish a distinct medical identity with the establishment in the 1840s of associations for their members in France, Germany, the United Kingdom and America, together with the founding of medico-psychological journals.", "Medical optimism in the capacity of the asylum to cure insanity soured by the close of the nineteenth century as the growth of the asylum population far outstripped that of the general population.", "Processes of long-term institutional segregation, allowing for the psychiatric conceptualisation of the natural course of mental illness, supported the perspective that the insane were a distinct population, subject to mental pathologies stemming from specific medical causes.", "As degeneration theory grew in influence from the mid-nineteenth century, heredity was seen as the central causal element in chronic mental illness, and, with national asylum systems overcrowded and insanity apparently undergoing an inexorable rise, the focus of psychiatric therapeutics shifted from a concern with treating the individual to maintaining the racial and biological health of national populations.Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) introduced new medical categories of mental illness, which eventually came into psychiatric usage despite their basis in behavior rather than pathology or underlying cause.", "Shell shock among frontline soldiers exposed to heavy artillery bombardment was first diagnosed by British Army doctors in 1915.By 1916, similar symptoms were also noted in soldiers not exposed to explosive shocks, leading to questions as to whether the disorder was physical or psychiatric.", "In the 1920s surrealist opposition to psychiatry was expressed in a number of surrealist publications.", "In the 1930s several controversial medical practices were introduced including inducing seizures (by electroshock, insulin or other drugs) or cutting parts of the brain apart (leucotomy or lobotomy).", "Both came into widespread use by psychiatry, but there were grave concerns and much opposition on grounds of basic morality, harmful effects, or misuse.In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use.", "Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia.", "Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control.", "There was also increasing opposition to the use of psychiatric hospitals, and attempts to move people back into the community on a collaborative user-led group approach (\"therapeutic communities\") not controlled by psychiatry.", "Campaigns against masturbation were done in the Victorian era and elsewhere.", "Lobotomy was used until the 1970s to treat schizophrenia.", "This was denounced by the anti-psychiatric movement in the 1960s and later.=== Women ===It was very difficult for women to become doctors in any field before the 1970s.", "Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman to formally study and practice medicine in the United States.", "She was a leader in women's medical education.", "While Blackwell viewed medicine as a means for social and moral reform, her student Mary Putnam Jacobi (1842–1906) focused on curing disease.", "At a deeper level of disagreement, Blackwell felt that women would succeed in medicine because of their humane female values, but Jacobi believed that women should participate as the equals of men in all medical specialties using identical methods, values and insights.", "In the Soviet Union although the majority of medical doctors were women, they were paid less than the mostly male factory workers.=== Asia ======= Places ===='''China'''Finally in the 19th century, Western medicine was introduced at the local level by Christian medical missionaries from the London Missionary Society (Britain), the Methodist Church (Britain) and the Presbyterian Church (US).", "Benjamin Hobson (1816–1873) in 1839, set up a highly successful Wai Ai Clinic in Guangzhou, China.", "The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese was founded in 1887 by the London Missionary Society, with its first graduate (in 1892) being Sun Yat-sen, who later led the Chinese Revolution (1911).", "The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese was the forerunner of the School of Medicine of the University of Hong Kong, which started in 1911.Because of the social custom that men and women should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors.", "The missionaries sent women doctors such as Dr. Mary Hannah Fulton (1854–1927).", "Supported by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (US) she in 1902 founded the first medical college for women in China, the Hackett Medical College for Women, in Guangzhou.", "'''Japan'''A doctor checks a patient's pulse in Meiji-era Japan.European ideas of modern medicine were spread widely through the world by medical missionaries, and the dissemination of textbooks.", "Japanese elites enthusiastically embraced Western medicine after the Meiji Restoration of the 1860s.", "However they had been prepared by their knowledge of the Dutch and German medicine, for they had some contact with Europe through the Dutch.", "Highly influential was the 1765 edition of Hendrik van Deventer's pioneer work ''Nieuw Ligt'' (\"A New Light\") on Japanese obstetrics, especially on Katakura Kakuryo's publication in 1799 of ''Sanka Hatsumo'' (\"Enlightenment of Obstetrics\").", "A cadre of Japanese physicians began to interact with Dutch doctors, who introduced smallpox vaccinations.", "By 1820 Japanese ranpô medical practitioners not only translated Dutch medical texts, they integrated their readings with clinical diagnoses.", "These men became leaders of the modernization of medicine in their country.", "They broke from Japanese traditions of closed medical fraternities and adopted the European approach of an open community of collaboration based on expertise in the latest scientific methods.Kitasato Shibasaburō (1853–1931) studied bacteriology in Germany under Robert Koch.", "In 1891 he founded the Institute of Infectious Diseases in Tokyo, which introduced the study of bacteriology to Japan.", "He and French researcher Alexandre Yersin went to Hong Kong in 1894, where; Kitasato confirmed Yersin's discovery that the bacterium ''Yersinia pestis'' is the agent of the plague.", "In 1897 he isolated and described the organism that caused dysentery.", "He became the first dean of medicine at Keio University, and the first president of the Japan Medical Association.Japanese physicians immediately recognized the values of X-Rays.", "They were able to purchase the equipment locally from the Shimadzu Company, which developed, manufactured, marketed, and distributed X-Ray machines after 1900.Japan not only adopted German methods of public health in the home islands, but implemented them in its colonies, especially Korea and Taiwan, and after 1931 in Manchuria.", "A heavy investment in sanitation resulted in a dramatic increase of life expectancy.=== Europe ===The practice of medicine changed in the face of rapid advances in science, as well as new approaches by physicians.", "Hospital doctors began much more systematic analysis of patients' symptoms in diagnosis.", "Among the more powerful new techniques were anaesthesia, and the development of both antiseptic and aseptic operating theatres.", "Effective cures were developed for certain endemic infectious diseases.", "However, the decline in many of the most lethal diseases was due more to improvements in public health and nutrition than to advances in medicine.Medicine was revolutionized in the 19th century and beyond by advances in chemistry, laboratory techniques, and equipment.", "Old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were gradually replaced by advances in bacteriology and virology.The Russian Orthodox Church sponsored seven orders of nursing sisters in the late 19th century.", "They ran hospitals, clinics, almshouses, pharmacies, and shelters as well as training schools for nurses.", "In the Soviet era (1917–1991), with the aristocratic sponsors gone, nursing became a low-prestige occupation based in poorly maintained hospitals.=== Places ======= France ====Paris (France) and Vienna were the two leading medical centers on the Continent in the era 1750–1914.In the 1770s–1850s Paris became a world center of medical research and teaching.", "The \"Paris School\" emphasized that teaching and research should be based in large hospitals and promoted the professionalization of the medical profession and the emphasis on sanitation and public health.", "A major reformer was Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756–1832), a physician who was Minister of Internal Affairs.", "He created the Paris Hospital, health councils, and other bodies.Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was one of the most important founders of medical microbiology.", "He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases.", "His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax.", "His experiments supported the germ theory of disease.", "He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to treat milk and wine in order to prevent it from causing sickness, a process that came to be called pasteurization.", "He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch.", "He worked chiefly in Paris and in 1887 founded the Pasteur Institute there to perpetuate his commitment to basic research and its practical applications.", "As soon as his institute was created, Pasteur brought together scientists with various specialties.", "The first five departments were directed by Emile Duclaux (general microbiology research) and Charles Chamberland (microbe research applied to hygiene), as well as a biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (morphological microbe research) and two physicians, Jacques-Joseph Grancher (rabies) and Emile Roux (technical microbe research).", "One year after the inauguration of the Institut Pasteur, Roux set up the first course of microbiology ever taught in the world, then entitled ''Cours de Microbie Technique'' (Course of microbe research techniques).", "It became the model for numerous research centers around the world named \"Pasteur Institutes.==== Vienna ====The First Viennese School of Medicine, 1750–1800, was led by the Dutchman Gerard van Swieten (1700–1772), who aimed to put medicine on new scientific foundations—promoting unprejudiced clinical observation, botanical and chemical research, and introducing simple but powerful remedies.", "When the Vienna General Hospital opened in 1784, it at once became the world's largest hospital and physicians acquired a facility that gradually developed into the most important research centre.", "Progress ended with the Napoleonic wars and the government shutdown in 1819 of all liberal journals and schools; this caused a general return to traditionalism and eclecticism in medicine.Vienna was the capital of a diverse empire and attracted not just Germans but Czechs, Hungarians, Jews, Poles and others to its world-class medical facilities.", "After 1820 the Second Viennese School of Medicine emerged with the contributions of physicians such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis.", "Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced.", "Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as ear, nose, and throat clinics in the world were founded in Vienna.", "The textbook of ophthalmologist Georg Joseph Beer (1763–1821) ''Lehre von den Augenkrankheiten'' combined practical research and philosophical speculations, and became the standard reference work for decades.==== Berlin ====After 1871 Berlin, the capital of the new German Empire, became a leading center for medical research.", "Robert Koch (1843–1910) was a representative leader.", "He became famous for isolating ''Bacillus anthracis'' (1877), the ''Tuberculosis bacillus'' (1882) and ''Vibrio cholerae'' (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates.", "He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905 for his tuberculosis findings.", "Koch is one of the founders of microbiology, inspiring such major figures as Paul Ehrlich and Gerhard Domagk.===North America======= Events ===='''American Civil War''' American Civil War hospital at Gettysburg, 1863In the American Civil War (1861–65), as was typical of the 19th century, more soldiers died of disease than in battle, and even larger numbers were temporarily incapacitated by wounds, disease and accidents.", "Conditions were poor in the Confederacy, where doctors and medical supplies were in short supply.", "The war had a dramatic long-term impact on medicine in the U.S., from surgical technique to hospitals to nursing and to research facilities.", "Weapon development -particularly the appearance of Springfield Model 1861, mass-produced and much more accurate than muskets led to generals underestimating the risks of long range rifle fire; risks exemplified in the death of John Sedgwick and the disastrous Pickett's Charge.", "The rifles could shatter bone forcing amputation and longer ranges meant casualties were sometimes not quickly found.", "Evacuation of the wounded from Second Battle of Bull Run took a week.", "As in earlier wars, untreated casualties sometimes survived unexpectedly due to maggots debriding the wound -an observation which led to the surgical use of maggots -still a useful method in the absence of effective antibiotics.The hygiene of the training and field camps was poor, especially at the beginning of the war when men who had seldom been far from home were brought together for training with thousands of strangers.", "First came epidemics of the childhood diseases of chicken pox, mumps, whooping cough, and, especially, measles.", "Operations in the South meant a dangerous and new disease environment, bringing diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, and malaria.", "There were no antibiotics, so the surgeons prescribed coffee, whiskey, and quinine.", "Harsh weather, bad water, inadequate shelter in winter quarters, poor policing of camps, and dirty camp hospitals took their toll.This was a common scenario in wars from time immemorial, and conditions faced by the Confederate army were even worse.", "The Union responded by building army hospitals in every state.", "What was different in the Union was the emergence of skilled, well-funded medical organizers who took proactive action, especially in the much enlarged United States Army Medical Department, and the United States Sanitary Commission, a new private agency.", "Numerous other new agencies also targeted the medical and morale needs of soldiers, including the United States Christian Commission as well as smaller private agencies.The U.S. Army learned many lessons and in August 1886, it established the Hospital Corps.=== Institutions ===Johns Hopkins Hospital, founded in 1889, originated several modern medical practices, including residency and rounds.=== People ===File:Louis Pasteur, foto av Paul Nadar, Crisco edit.jpg|Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) known for, with Koch, the founding of modern bacteriology, contributions to germ theory, and pasteurization.File:RobertKoch cropped.jpg|Robert Koch (1843-1910) known for his founding, with Pasteur, of modern bacteriology, the father of medical bacteriology., and providing proofs for the scientific basis of public health.Rebecca Lee Crumpler (1831-1895) known as the first African-American woman to become a physician.=== Cardiovascular ======= Blood groups ====The ABO blood group system was discovered in 1901 by Karl Landsteiner at the University of Vienna.", "Landsteiner experimented on his staff, mixing their various blood components together, and found that some people's blood agglutinated (clumped together) with other blood, whilst some did not.", "This then lead him identifying three blood groups, ABC, which would later be renamed to ABO.", "The less frequently found blood group AB was discovered later in 1902 by Alfred Von Decastello and Adriano Sturli.", "In 1937 Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener further discovered the Rh factor (misnamed from early thinking that this blood group was similar to that found in rhesus monkeys) whose antigens further determine blood reaction between people.", "This was demonstrated in a 1939 case study by Phillip Levine and Rufus Stetson where a mother who had recently given birth had reacted to their partner's blood, highlighting the Rh factor.==== Blood transfusion ====Canadian physician Norman Bethune, M.D.", "developed a mobile blood-transfusion service for frontline operations in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), but ironically, he himself died of sepsis.==== Pacemaker ====In 1958, Arne Larsson in Sweden became the first patient to depend on an artificial cardiac pacemaker.", "He died in 2001 at age 86, having outlived its inventor, the surgeon, and 26 pacemakers.=== Cancer ===Cancer treatment has been developed with radiotherapy, chemotherapy and surgical oncology.=== Diagnosis ===X-ray imaging was the first kind of medical imaging, and later ultrasonic imaging, CT scanning, MR scanning and other imaging methods became available.=== Disabilities ===A cochlear implant is a common kind of neural prosthesis, a device replacing part of the human nervous system.Prosthetics have improved with lightweight materials as well as neural prosthetics emerging in the end of the 20th century.=== Diseases ===Oral rehydration therapy has been extensively used since the 1970s to treat cholera and other diarrhea-inducing infections.As infectious diseases have become less lethal, and the most common causes of death in developed countries are now tumors and cardiovascular diseases, these conditions have received increased attention in medical research.=== Disease eradication ======= Malaria eradication ====Starting in World War II, DDT was used as insecticide to combat insect vectors carrying malaria, which was endemic in most tropical regions of the world.", "The first goal was to protect soldiers, but it was widely adopted as a public health device.", "In Liberia, for example, the United States had large military operations during the war and the U.S. Public Health Service began the use of DDT for indoor residual spraying (IRS) and as a larvicide, with the goal of controlling malaria in Monrovia, the Liberian capital.", "In the early 1950s, the project was expanded to nearby villages.", "In 1953, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched an antimalaria program in parts of Liberia as a pilot project to determine the feasibility of malaria eradication in tropical Africa.", "However these projects encountered a spate of difficulties that foreshadowed the general retreat from malaria eradication efforts across tropical Africa by the mid-1960s.=== Pandemics ======= 1918 influenza pandemic (1918-1920) ====The 1918 influenza pandemic was a global pandemic in the early 20th century that occurred between 1918 and 1920.Sometimes known as Spanish Flu due to popular opinion at the time thinking the flu originated from Spain, this pandemic caused close to 50 million deaths around the world.", "Spreading at the end of World War I.=== Public health ===Public health measures became particularly important during the 1918 flu pandemic, which killed at least 50 million people around the world.", "It became an important case study in epidemiology.", "Bristow shows there was a gendered response of health caregivers to the pandemic in the United States.", "Male doctors were unable to cure the patients, and they felt like failures.", "Women nurses also saw their patients die, but they took pride in their success in fulfilling their professional role of caring for, ministering, comforting, and easing the last hours of their patients, and helping the families of the patients cope as well.=== Research ===Evidence-based medicine is a modern concept, not introduced to literature until the 1990s.=== Sexual and reproductive health ===Most countries have seen a tremendous increase in life expectancy since 1945.However, in southern Africa, the HIV epidemic beginning around 1990 has eroded national health.The sexual revolution included taboo-breaking research in human sexuality such as the 1948 and 1953 Kinsey reports, invention of hormonal contraception, and the normalization of abortion and homosexuality in many countries.", "Family planning has promoted a demographic transition in most of the world.", "With threatening sexually transmitted infections, not least HIV, use of barrier contraception has become imperative.", "The struggle against HIV has improved antiretroviral treatments.=== Smoking ===Tobacco smoking as a cause of lung cancer was first researched in the 1920s, but was not widely supported by publications until the 1950s.=== Surgery ===Cardiac surgery was revolutionized in 1948 as open-heart surgery was introduced for the first time since 1925.In 1954 Joseph Murray, J. Hartwell Harrison and others accomplished the first kidney transplantation.", "Transplantations of other organs, such as heart, liver and pancreas, were also introduced during the later 20th century.", "The first partial face transplant was performed in 2005, and the first full one in 2010.By the end of the 20th century, microtechnology had been used to create tiny robotic devices to assist microsurgery using micro-video and fiber-optic cameras to view internal tissues during surgery with minimally invasive practices.", "Laparoscopic surgery was broadly introduced in the 1990s.", "Natural orifice surgery has followed.=== War ======= Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) ====During the 19th century, large-scale wars were attended with medics and mobile hospital units which developed advanced techniques for healing massive injuries and controlling infections rampant in battlefield conditions.", "During the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), General Pancho Villa organized hospital trains for wounded soldiers.", "Boxcars marked ''Servicio Sanitario'' (\"sanitary service\") were re-purposed as surgical operating theaters and areas for recuperation, and staffed by up to 40 Mexican and U.S. physicians.", "Severely wounded soldiers were shuttled back to base hospitals.==== World War I (1914-1918) ====Medicine during the First World War - Medical Transport.Thousands of scarred troops provided the need for improved prosthetic limbs and expanded techniques in plastic surgery or reconstructive surgery.", "Those practices were combined to broaden cosmetic surgery and other forms of elective surgery.==== Interwar period (1918-1939) ====From 1917 to 1932, the American Red Cross moved into Europe with a battery of long-term child health projects.", "It built and operated hospitals and clinics, and organized antituberculosis and antityphus campaigns.", "A high priority involved child health programs such as clinics, better baby shows, playgrounds, fresh air camps, and courses for women on infant hygiene.", "Hundreds of U.S. doctors, nurses, and welfare professionals administered these programs, which aimed to reform the health of European youth and to reshape European public health and welfare along American lines.==== World War II (1939-1945) ====American combat surgery during the Pacific War, 1943.Major wars showed the need for effective hygiene and medical treatment.The advances in medicine made a dramatic difference for Allied troops, while the Germans and especially the Japanese and Chinese suffered from a severe lack of newer medicines, techniques and facilities.", "Harrison finds that the chances of recovery for a badly wounded British infantryman were as much as 25 times better than in the First World War.", "The reason was that::\"By 1944 most casualties were receiving treatment within hours of wounding, due to the increased mobility of field hospitals and the extensive use of aeroplanes as ambulances.", "The care of the sick and wounded had also been revolutionized by new medical technologies, such as active immunization against tetanus, sulphonamide drugs, and penicillin.", "\"During the second World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an irrigation, Dakin's solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene.The War spurred the usage of Roentgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily functions.", "This was followed in the inter-war period by the development of the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics.", "'''Nazi and Japanese medical research'''Unethical human subject research, and killing of patients with disabilities, peaked during the Nazi era, with Nazi human experimentation and Aktion T4 during the Holocaust as the most significant examples.", "Many of the details of these and related events were the focus of the Doctors' Trial.", "Subsequently, principles of medical ethics, such as the Nuremberg Code, were introduced to prevent a recurrence of such atrocities.", "After 1937, the Japanese Army established programs of biological warfare in China.", "In Unit 731, Japanese doctors and research scientists conducted large numbers of vivisections and experiments on human beings, mostly Chinese victims.=== Institutions ======= World Health Organization ====Smallpox vaccination in Niger, 1969.A decade later, this was the first infectious disease to be eradicated.The World Health Organization was founded in 1948 as a United Nations agency to improve global health.", "In most of the world, life expectancy has improved since then, and was about 67 years , and well above 80 years in some countries.", "Eradication of infectious diseases is an international effort, and several new vaccines have been developed during the post-war years, against infections such as measles, mumps, several strains of influenza and human papilloma virus.", "The long-known vaccine against Smallpox finally eradicated the disease in the 1970s, and Rinderpest was wiped out in 2011.Eradication of polio is underway.", "Tissue culture is important for development of vaccines.", "Though the early success of antiviral vaccines and antibacterial drugs, antiviral drugs were not introduced until the 1970s.", "Through the WHO, the international community has developed a response protocol against epidemics, displayed during the SARS epidemic in 2003, the Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 from 2004, the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa and onwards.=== People ===File:MaryCorinnaPutnamJacobi.jpg|Mary Putnam Jacobi (1842-1906) known for debunking myths around menstruation and female intelligence.File:Florence Nightingale CDV by H Lenthall.jpg|Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) known for their social action and reforms to nursing.", "File:Elizabeth Blackwell NLM 02.jpg|Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) known as the first women to gain a medical degree in the United States.File:Doctor.susan.la.flesche.picotte.jpg|Susan La Flesche Picotte (1865-1915) known for their activism and as the first indigenous woman to gain a medical degree in the United States.File:Linda Richards (page 8 crop).jpg|Linda Richards (1841-1930) known for their pioneering work in nursing.File:Synthetic Production of Penicillin TR1468.jpg|Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) known for the discovery of penicillin and lysozyme.File:Gerty Theresa Cori.jpg|Gerty Cori (1896-1957) known for their discovery of the catalytic conversion of glycogen and first woman awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.File:Virginia-Apgar-July-6-1959.jpg|Virginia Apgar (1909-1974) known for the Apgar score and improving infant mortality." ], [ "Contemporary medicine", "=== Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance ===The discovery of penicillin in the 20th century by Alexander Fleming provided a vital line of defence against bacterical infections that, without them, often cause patients to suffer prelonged recovery periods and highly increased chances of death.", "Its discovery and application within medicine allowed previously impossible treatments to take place, including cancer treatments, organ transplants, to open heart surgery.", "Throughout the 20th century, though, their overprescribed use to humans, as well as to animals that need them due to the conditions of intensive animal farming, has led to the development of antibiotic resistant bacteria.=== Robotics ===daVinci Xi surgical system, a minimally-invasive robotic surgery system, at the William Beaumont Army Medical Center.=== Pandemics ===leftCOVID-19 swab testing in Rwanda (2021).The early 21st century, facilitated by extensive global connections, international travel, and unprecedented human disruption of ecological systems, has been defined by a number of noval as well as continuing global pandemics from the 20th century.==== Past ====The SARS 2002 to 2004 outbreak affected a number of countries around the world and killed hundreds.", "This outbreak gave rise to a number of lessons learnt from viral infection control, including more effective isolation room protocols to better hand washing techniques for medical staff.''''''", "A mutated strain of SARS would go on to develop into COVID-19, causing the future COVID-19 pandemic.", "A significant influenza strain, H1N1, caused a further pandemic between 2009 and 2010.Known as swine flu, due to its indirect source from pigs, it went on to infect over 700 million people.==== Ongoing ====The continuing HIV pandemic, starting in 1981, has infected and led to the deaths of millions of people around the world.", "Emerging and improved pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) treatments that aim to reduce the spread of the disease have proven effective in limiting the spread of HIV alongside combined use of safe sex methods, sexual health education, needle exchange programmes, and sexual health screenings.", "Efforts to find a HIV vaccine are ongoing whilst health inequities have left certain population groups, like trans women, as well as resource limited regions, like sub-Saharan Africa, at greater risk of contracting HIV compared with, for example, developed countries.The outbreak of COVID-19, starting in 2019, and subsequent declaration of the COVID-19 pandemic by the WHO is a major pandemic event within the early 21st century.", "Causing global disruptions, millions of infections and deaths, the pandemic has caused suffering throughout communities.", "The pandemic has also seen some of the largest logistical organisations of goods, medical equipment, medical professionals, and military personnel since World War II that highlights its far-reaching impact.=== Personalised medicine ===The rise of personalised medicine in the 21st century has generated the possibility to develop diagnosis and treatments based on the individual characteristics of a person, rather than through generic practices that defined 20th century medicine.", "Areas like DNA sequencing, genetic mapping, gene therapy, imaging protocols, proteomics, stem cell therapy, and wireless health monitoring devices are all rising innovations that can help medical professionals fine tune treatment to the individual.=== Telemedicine ===Remote surgery is another recent development, with the transatlantic Lindbergh operation in 2001 as a groundbreaking example.=== Institutions ====== People ===File:Maria Goldman-Rakic - 10.1371 journal.pbio.0000038.g001-O.jpg|Patricia Goldman-Rakic (1937-2003) known for research around the prefrontal cortex and working memory.File:Luc Montagnier-press conference Dec 06th, 2008-1 crop.jpg|Luc Montagnier (1932-2022) known as one of the co-discoverers of HIV.File:Tu Youyou 5012-1-2015.jpg|屠呦呦 Tu Youyou (1930–present) known for discovering malaria treatments.File:Joycelyn Elders official photo portrait.jpg|Joycelyn Elders (1933–present) known as the first Black American woman to serve as the Surgeon General of the United States.File:Antonia Novello, photo portrait as surgeon general.jpg|Antonia Novello (1944–present) known as the first woman and first Hispanic to serve as the Surgeon General of the United States.File:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi-press conference Dec 06th, 2008-2.jpg|Françoise Barré-Sinoussi (1947–present) known as one of the co-discoverers of HIV.", "File:Mukhisa Kituyi, Houlin Zhao, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus with Sophia - AI for Good Global Summit 2018 (41223188035) (cropped).jpg|Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (1965–present) first African Director-General of the World Health Organization." ], [ "Themes in medical history", "=== Racism in medicine ===Racism has a long history in how medicine has evolved and established itself, both in terms of racism experience upon patients, professionals, and wider systematic violence within medical institutions and systems.", "See: medical racism in the United States, race and health, and scientific racism.=== Women in medicine ===Women have always served as healers and midwives since ancient times.", "However, the professionalization of medicine forced them increasingly to the sidelines.", "As hospitals multiplied they relied in Europe on orders of Roman Catholic nun-nurses, and German Protestant and Anglican deaconesses in the early 19th century.", "They were trained in traditional methods of physical care that involved little knowledge of medicine." ], [ "See also", "* Health care in the United States* History of dental treatments* History of herbalism* History of hospitals* History of medicine in Canada* History of medicine in the United States* History of nursing* History of pathology* History of pharmacy* History of surgery* Timeline of nursing history* Timeline of medicine and medical technology* History of health care (disambiguation)" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * The history of medicine and surgery as portrayed by various artists* Directory of History of Medicine Collections , Index to the major collections in the United States and Canada, selected by the US National Institute of Health" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hamoaze" ], [ "Introduction", "laid up in the Hamoaze in January 1973The '''Hamoaze''' (; ) is an estuarine stretch of the English tidal River Tamar, between its confluence with the River Lynher and Plymouth Sound." ], [ "Etymology", "The name first appears as ''ryver of Hamose'' in 1588.The first element is thought to refer to specifically to Ham in the parish of Weston Peverel, now a suburb of Plymouth (whose name in turn came from the Old English word , meaning \"water-meadow, land in the bend of a river\").", "The second element is thought to derive from Old English meaning \"mud\" (as in \"ooze\").", "Thus the name once meant \"mud-banks at Ham\".", "The name originally probably applied only to a creek running past Ham, which perhaps consisted of mud-banks at low tide, north of the present-day Devonport Dockyard.", "The name later came to be used for the main channel of the estuary into which the creek drained." ], [ "Geography", "The Hamoaze flows past Devonport Dockyard, which is one of three major bases of the Royal Navy today.", "The presence of large numbers of small watercraft is a challenge and hazard to the warships using the naval base and dockyard.", "Navigation on the waterway is controlled by the King's Harbour Master for Plymouth.Settlements on the banks of the Hamoaze are Saltash, Wilcove, Torpoint and Cremyll in Cornwall, as well as Devonport and Plymouth in Devon.Two regular ferry services crossing the Hamoaze exist: the Torpoint Ferry (a chain ferry that takes vehicles) and the Cremyll Ferry (passengers and cyclists only).A street in Torpoint bears the name Hamoaze Road, named after the stretch of river." ], [ "See also", "*Tamar-Tavy Estuary" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hanover" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hanover''' ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the German state of Lower Saxony.", "Its 535,932 (2021) population makes it the 13th-largest city in Germany as well as the fourth-largest city in northern Germany after Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen.", "Hanover's urban area comprises the towns of Garbsen, Langenhagen and Laatzen and has a population of about 791,000 (2018).", "The Hanover Region has approximately 1.16 million inhabitants (2019) and is the largest in the Hannover–Braunschweig–Göttingen–Wolfsburg Metropolitan Region.Before it became the capital of Lower Saxony in 1946, Hannover was the capital of the Principality of Calenberg (1636–1692), the Electorate of Hanover (1692–1814), the Kingdom of Hanover (1814–1866), the Province of Hannover of the Kingdom of Prussia (1868–1918), the Province of Hannover of the Free State of Prussia (1918–1947) and of the State of Hanover (1946).", "From 1714 to 1837 Hannover was by personal union the family seat of the Hanoverian Kings of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, under their title of the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg (later described as the Elector of Hanover).The city lies at the confluence of the River Leine and its tributary the Ihme, in the south of the North German Plain.", "The city is a major crossing point of railway lines and motorways (Autobahnen), connecting European main lines in both the east–west (Berlin–Ruhr area/Düsseldorf/Cologne) and north–south (Hamburg–Frankfurt/Stuttgart/Munich) directions.", "Hannover Airport lies north of the city, in Langenhagen, and is Germany's ninth-busiest airport.", "The city's most notable institutes of higher education are the Hannover Medical School (), one of Germany's leading medical schools, with its university hospital , and the Leibniz University Hannover.", "The city is also home to International Neuroscience Institute.The Hanover Fairground, owing to numerous extensions, especially for the Expo 2000, is the largest in the world.", "Hannover hosts annual commercial trade fairs such as the Hannover Fair and up to 2018 the CeBIT.", "The IAA Commercial Vehicles show takes place every two years.", "It is the world's leading trade show for transport, logistics and mobility.", "Every year Hannover hosts the Schützenfest Hannover, the world's largest marksmen's festival, and the Oktoberfest Hannover." ], [ "Etymology", "'Hanover' is the traditional English spelling.", "The German spelling (with a double n) has become more popular in English; recent editions of encyclopedias prefer the German spelling, and the local government uses the German spelling on English websites.", "The English pronunciation, with stress on the first syllable, is applied to both the German and English spellings, which is different from German pronunciation, with stress on the second syllable and a long second vowel.", "The traditional English spelling is still used in historical contexts, especially when referring to the British House of Hanover." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===Leine river in Hanover, seen right of (1) the Beguine Tower and remnants of the city's medieval city wall that have been integrated into the Hanover Historical Museum and (2) the Leine PalaceIllustration of Hanover by Matthäus Merian, 1641 first issuedHanover was founded in medieval times on the east bank of the River Leine.", "Its original name ''Honovere'' may mean 'high (river)bank', but that is debated (cf.", "''das Hohe Ufer'').", "Hanover was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen that became a comparatively-large town in the 13th century and received town privileges in 1241 because of its position at a natural crossroads.", "As overland travel was relatively difficult, its position on the upper navigable reaches of the river helped it grow by increasing trade.", "It was connected to the Hanseatic League city of Bremen by the Leine and was situated near the southern edge of the wide North German Plain and north-west of the Harz mountains and so east–west traffic such as mule trains passed through it.", "Hanover was thus a gateway to the Rhine, Ruhr and Saar river valleys, and their industrial areas which grew up to the southwest and the plains regions to the east and north for overland traffic skirting the Harz between the Low Countries and Saxony or Thuringia.In the 14th century, the main churches of Hanover were built, as well as a city wall with three city gates.", "The beginning of industrialization in Germany led to trade in iron and silver from the northern Harz Mountains, which increased the city's importance.In 1636 George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ruler of the Brunswick-Lüneburg principality of Calenberg, moved his residence to Hanover.", "The Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg were elevated by the Holy Roman Emperor to the rank of Prince-Elector in 1692, which was confirmed by the Imperial Diet in 1708.Thus, the principality was upgraded to the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, colloquially known as the Electorate of Hanover after Calenberg's capital (see also House of Hanover).", "Its electors later became monarchs of Great Britain (and from 1801 of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland).", "The first of them was George I Louis, who acceded to the British throne in 1714.The last British monarch who reigned in Hanover was William IV.", "Semi-Salic law, which required succession by the male line if possible, forbade the accession of Queen Victoria in Hanover.", "As a male-line descendant of George I, Queen Victoria was herself a member of the House of Hanover.", "Her descendants, however, bore her husband's titular name of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.", "Three kings of Great Britain, or the United Kingdom, were concurrently also Electoral Princes of Hanover.During the time of the personal union of the crowns of the United Kingdom and Hanover (1714–1837), the monarchs rarely visited the city.", "In fact during the reigns of the last three joint rulers (1760–1837), there was only one short visit, by George IV in 1821.From 1816 to 1837, Viceroy Adolphus represented the monarch in Hanover.During the Seven Years' War, the Battle of Hastenbeck was fought near the city on 26 July 1757.The French army defeated the Hanoverian Army of Observation, which led to the city's occupation as part of the Invasion of Hanover.", "It was recaptured by Anglo-German forces, led by Ferdinand of Brunswick, the following year.===19th century===Am Kröpcke, 1895Herrenhausen, 1895After Napoleon imposed the Convention of Artlenburg (Convention of the Elbe) on 5 July 1803, about 35,000 French soldiers occupied Hanover.", "The convention also required disbanding the Hanoverian Army.", "However, George III did not recognise the Convention of the Elbe, which resulted in a great number of soldiers from Hanover eventually emigrating to Great Britain, where the King's German Legion was formed.", "It was only troops from Hanover and Brunswick who consistently opposed France throughout the Napoleonic Wars.", "The Legion later played an important role in the Peninsular War and the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.In 1814 the electorate became the Kingdom of Hanover.In 1837, the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover ended because William IV's heir in the United Kingdom was female (Queen Victoria).", "Hanover could be inherited only by male heirs if there were any.", "Thus, Hanover passed to William IV's brother, Ernest Augustus, and remained a kingdom until 1866, when it was annexed by Prussia during the Austro-Prussian war.", "Though Hanover was expected to defeat Prussia at the Battle of Langensalza, Prussia employed Moltke the Elder's Kesselschlacht order of battle to instead destroy the Hanoverian Army.", "The city of Hanover became the capital of the Prussian Province of Hanover.In 1842, the first horse railway was inaugurated, and in 1893, an electric tram was installed.The ''Hannoverscher Kurier'' was published in Hanover as a local newspaper.===Third Reich era===SynagogueAfter 1937 the lord mayor and the state commissioners of Hanover were members of the NSDAP (Nazi party).", "A large Jewish population then existed in Hanover.", "In October 1938, 484 Hanoverian Jews of Polish origin were expelled to Poland, including the Grynszpan family.", "However, Poland refused to accept them, leaving them stranded at the border with thousands of other Polish-Jewish deportees, fed only intermittently by the Polish Red Cross and Jewish welfare organisations.", "The Grynszpans' son Herschel Grynszpan was in Paris at the time.", "When he learned of what was happening, he drove to the German embassy in Paris and shot the German diplomat Eduard Ernst vom Rath, who died shortly afterwards.The Nazis took this act as a pretext to stage a nationwide pogrom known as Kristallnacht (9 November 1938).", "On that day, the synagogue of Hanover, designed in 1870 by Edwin Oppler in neo-romantic style, was burnt by the Nazis.====World War II====In September 1941, through the \"Action Lauterbacher\" plan, a ghettoisation of the remaining Hanoverian Jewish families began.", "Even before the Wannsee Conference, on 15 December 1941, the first Jews from Hanover were deported to Riga.", "A total of 2,400 people were deported, and very few survived.", "During the war seven concentration camps were constructed in Hanover, in which many Jews were confined, but also Polish, French and Russian women.", "Of the approximately 4,800 Jews who had lived in Hannover in 1938, fewer than 100 were still in the city when troops of the United States Army arrived on 10 April 1945 to occupy Hanover at the end of the war.", "Today, a memorial at the Opera Square is a reminder of the persecution of the Jews in Hanover.", "After the war a large group of Orthodox Jewish survivors of the nearby Bergen-Belsen concentration camp settled in Hanover.There was also a camp for Sinti and Romani people (see ''Romani Holocaust''), and dozens of forced labour subcamps of the Stalag XI-B prisoner-of-war camp for Allied POWs.The Aegidienkirche was not rebuilt and its ruins were kept as a WWII memorial.WWII map of Hanover in 1943As an important railway and road junction and production centre, Hanover was a major target for strategic bombing during World War II, including the Oil Campaign.", "Targets included the AFA (Stöcken), the Deurag-Nerag refinery (Misburg), the Continental plants (Vahrenwald and Limmer), the United light metal works (VLW) in Ricklingen and Laatzen (today Hanover fairground), the Hanover/Limmer rubber reclamation plant, the Hanomag factory (Linden) and the tank factory ''M.N.H.", "Maschinenfabrik Niedersachsen'' (Badenstedt).", "Residential areas were also targeted, and more than 6,000 civilians were killed by the Allied bombing raids.", "More than 90% of the city centre was destroyed in a total of 88 bombing raids.", "After the war, the Aegidienkirche was not rebuilt and its ruins were left as a war memorial.The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Hanover in April 1945.The US 84th Infantry Division captured the city on 10 April 1945.===Post-war===Hanover was in the British zone of occupation of Germany and became part of the new state (Land) of Lower Saxony in 1946.Today Hanover is a vice-president city of Mayors for Peace, an international mayoral organisation mobilising cities and citizens worldwide to abolish and eliminate nuclear weapons by 2020." ], [ "Geography", "===Climate===Hanover has an oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb'') independent of the isotherm.", "Although the city is not on a coastal location, the predominant air masses are still from the ocean, unlike other places further east or south-central Germany.===Subdivisions===Hannover, seen from the International Space StationBoroughs of HannoverQuarters of HannoverHannover in the Hannover RegionThe city of Hanover is divided into 13 boroughs (''Stadtbezirke'') and 53 quarters (''Stadtteile'').====Boroughs====# Mitte# Vahrenwald-List# Bothfeld-Vahrenheide# Buchholz-Kleefeld# Misburg-Anderten# Kirchrode-Bemerode-Wülferode# Südstadt-Bult# Döhren-Wülfel# Ricklingen# Linden-Limmer# Ahlem-Badenstedt-Davenstedt# Herrenhausen-Stöcken# Nord====Quarters====A selection of the 53 quarters:* Nordstadt* Südstadt* Oststadt* Zoo (for the zoo itself, see Hanover Zoo)* Herrenhausen* Waldheim" ], [ "Politics", "===Mayor===Results of the second round of the 2019 mayoral electionThe current mayor of Hanover is Belit Onay of the Alliance 90/The Greens since 2019.The most recent mayoral election was held on 17 October 2019, with a runoff held on 10 November, and the results were as follows: Candidate Party First round Second round Votes % Votes % Belit Onay Alliance 90/The Greens 60,096 32.2 92,146 52.9 Eckhard Scholz Independent (CDU) 60,046 32.2 82,116 47.1 Marc Hansmann Social Democratic Party 43,727 23.5 Joachim Wundrak Alternative for Germany 8,645 4.6 Jessica Kaußen The Left 3,628 1.9 Iyabo Kaczmarek Independent 3,593 1.9 Catharina Gutwerk Die PARTEI 2,886 1.5 Bruno Adam Wolf Pirate Party 2,382 1.3 Ruth Esther Gilmore Independent 841 0.5 Julian Klippert Independent 536 0.3 Valid votes 186,380 99.7 174,262 99.6 Invalid votes 647 0.3 769 0.4 Total 187,027 100.0 175,031 100.0 Electorate/voter turnout 401,847 46.5 402,129 43.5 Source: City of Hanover ( 1st round, 2nd round)===City council===Results of the 2021 city council electionThe Hanover city council governs the city alongside the mayor.", "The most recent city council election was held on 12 September 2021, and the results were as follows: Party Votes % +/- Seats +/- Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) 165,105 27.8 11.5 18 8 Social Democratic Party (SPD) 164,431 27.7 3.7 18 2 Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 123,181 20.7 3.7 13 3 Free Democratic Party (FDP) 35,917 6.0 0.9 4 1 The Left (Die Linke) 33,019 5.6 1.4 4 1 Alternative for Germany (AfD) 25,302 4.3 4.3 3 3 Die PARTEI (PARTEI) 13,853 2.3 0.6 1 ±0 The Hanoverians (HAN) 7,044 1.2 1.6 1 1 Pirate Party (Piraten) 7,089 1.2 0.9 1 ±0 Volt Germany (Volt) 10,135 1.7 New 1 New Climate Alliance Hanover 4,022 0.7 New 0 New Free Voters (FW) 3,126 0.5 New 0 New Grassroots Democratic Party (dieBasis) 1,981 0.3 New 0 New Active for a Social Hanover (ASH) 260 0.0 New 0 New Total 594,465 100.0 Valid votes 201,998 98.8 Invalid votes 2,373 1.2 Total 204,371 100.0 64 ±0 Electorate/voter turnout 398,328 51.3 0.2 Source: City of Hanover" ], [ "Main sights", "Market Church in HanoverOld Town Hall''Waterloo Column'' in HanoverAnzeiger Tower BlockOne of Hanover's sights is the Royal Gardens of Herrenhausen.", "Its Great Garden is an important European Baroque garden.", "The palace itself was largely destroyed by Allied bombing but has been reconstructed and reopened in 2013.Among the points of interest is the Grotto.", "Its interior was designed by French artist Niki de Saint Phalle).", "The Great Garden consists of several parts and contains Europe's highest garden fountain.", "The historic ''Garden Theatre'' hosted the musicals of the German rock musician Heinz Rudolf Kunze.Also at Herrenhausen, the ''Berggarten'' is a botanical garden with the most varied collection of orchids in Europe.", "Some points of interest are the ''Tropical House'', the ''Cactus House'', the ''Canary House'' and the ''Orchid House'', and free-flying birds and butterflies.", "Near the entrance to the Berggarten is the historic ''Library Pavillon''.", "The ''Mausoleum'' of the Guelphs is also located in the Berggarten.", "Like the Great Garden, the Berggarten also consists of several parts, for example the ''Paradies'' and the ''Prairie Garden''.", "The ''Georgengarten'' is an English landscape garden.", "The ''Leibniz Temple'' and the ''Georgen Palace'' are two points of interest there.leftThe landmark of Hanover is the New Town Hall (''Neues Rathaus'').", "Inside the building are four scale models of the city.", "A worldwide unique diagonal/arch elevator goes up the large dome at a 17 degree angle to an observation deck.The ''Hanover Zoo'' received the Park Scout Award for the fourth year running in 2009/10, placing it among the best zoos in Germany.", "The zoo consists of several theme areas: Sambesi, Meyers Farm, Gorilla-Mountain, Jungle-Palace, and Mullewapp.", "Some smaller areas are Australia, the wooded area for wolves, and the so-called swimming area with many seabirds.", "There is also a tropical house, a jungle house, and a show arena.", "The new Canadian-themed area, Yukon Bay, opened in 2010.In 2010 the Hanover Zoo had over 1.6 million visitors.", "There is also the ''Sea Life Centre Hanover'', which is the first tropical aquarium in Germany.Another point of interest is the ''Old Town''.", "In the centre are the large Marktkirche (Church St. Georgii et Jacobi, preaching venue of the bishop of the Lutheran Landeskirche Hannovers) and the ''Old Town Hall''.", "Nearby are the ''Leibniz House'', the ''Nolte House'', and the ''Beguine Tower''.", "The ''Kreuz-Church-Quarter'' around the ''Kreuz Church'' contains many little lanes.", "Nearby is the old royal sports hall, now called the ''Ballhof'' theatre.", "On the edge of the Old Town are the ''Market Hall'', the ''Leine Palace'', and the ruin of the ''Aegidien Church'' which is now a monument to the victims of war and violence.", "Through the ''Marstall Gate'' the bank of the river ''Leine'' can be reached; the ''Nanas'' of Niki de Saint Phalle are located here.", "They are part of the ''Mile of Sculptures'', which starts from Trammplatz, leads along the river bank, crosses Königsworther Square, and ends at the entrance of the Georgengarten.", "Near the Old Town is the district of Calenberger Neustadt where the Catholic Basilica Minor of ''St.", "Clemens'', the ''Reformed Church'' and the Lutheran Neustädter Hof- und Stadtkirche St. Johannis are located.Some other popular sights are the ''Waterloo Column'', the ''Laves House'', the ''Wangenheim Palace'', the ''Lower Saxony State Archives'', the ''Hanover Playhouse'', the ''Kröpcke Clock'', the ''Anzeiger Tower Block'', the ''Administration Building of the NORD/LB'', the ''Cupola Hall'' of the Congress Centre, the ''Lower Saxony Stock'', the ''Ministry of Finance'', the ''Garten Church'', the ''Luther Church'', the ''Gehry Tower'' (designed by the American architect Frank O. Gehry), the specially designed ''Bus Stops'', the ''Opera House'', ''the Central Station'', the ''Maschsee'' lake and the city forest ''Eilenriede'', which is one of the largest of its kind in Europe.", "With around 40 parks, forests and gardens, a couple of lakes, two rivers and one canal, Hanover offers a large variety of leisure activities.Since 2007 the historic ''Leibniz Letters'', which can be viewed in the ''Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Library'', are on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register.Outside the city centre is the ''EXPO-Park'', the former site of EXPO 2000.Some points of interest are the ''Planet M.'', the former ''German Pavillon'', some nations' vacant pavilions, the ''Expowale'', the ''EXPO-Plaza'' and the ''EXPO-Gardens'' (Parc Agricole, EXPO-Park South and the Gardens of change).", "The fairground can be reached by the ''Exponale'', one of the largest pedestrian bridges in Europe.The ''Hanover fairground'' is the largest exhibition centre in the world.It provides of covered indoor space, of open-air space, 27 halls and pavilions.", "Many of the Exhibition Centre's halls are architectural highlights.", "Furthermore, it offers the Convention Center with its 35 function rooms, glassed-in areas between halls, grassy park-like recreation zones and its own heliport.", "Two important sights on the fairground are the ''Hermes Tower'' ( high) and the ''EXPO Roof'', the largest wooden roof in the world.In the district of Anderten is the ''European Cheese Centre'', the only Cheese Experience Centre in Europe.", "Another tourist sight in Anderten is the ''Hindenburg Lock'', which was the biggest lock in Europe at the time of its construction in 1928.The ''Tiergarten'' (literally the \"animals' garden\") in the district of Kirchrode is a large forest originally used for deer and other game for the king's table.The Telemax tower is visible from about 30 km away on the ''Autobahns''In the district of Groß-Buchholz the ''Telemax'' is located, which is the tallest building in Lower Saxony and the highest television tower in Northern Germany.", "Some other notable towers are the ''VW-Tower'' in the city centre and the old towers of the former middle-age defence belt: ''Döhrener Tower'', ''Lister Tower'' and the ''Horse Tower''.The 36 most important sights of the city centre are connected with a red line, which is painted on the pavement.", "This so-called ''Red Thread'' marks out a walk that starts at the Tourist Information Office and ends on the Ernst-August-Square in front of the central station.", "There is also a guided sightseeing-bus tour through the city." ], [ "Population", "Hanover has a population of about 540,000.It is the largest city in Lower Saxony and is the 13th largest city in Germany.", "Hanover Region, a district that surrounds the city of Hanover and cities like Langenhagen, Garbsen and Laatzen has a population of about 1,160,000 and is the largest District (Landkreis) in Germany.", "Hanover metropolitan region, which includes also cities like Braunschweig, Hildesheim and Göttingen has a population of about 3,850,000 and is the 8th largest metropolitan area in Germany.", "Hanover passed 100,000 in 1875 and Hanover's population grow since 1946, when Hanover became the capital of Lower Saxony state and it grow rapidly in 1950s and 60s due to West German Wirtschaftswunder.", "This also saw the growth of large migrant population, drawn largely from Turkey, Greece and Italy.", "Hanover has also one of the largest Vietnamese community in former West Germany due to its close distance from former East Germany.", "The Viên Giác pagoda in Mittelfeld, southern district of Hanover is the largest Vietnamese pagoda in Germany and one of the largest in Europe.", "Hanover is one of the liveable cities due to its good location and good size of population.It is the fifth-largest city in the Low German dialect area after Hamburg, Dortmund, Essen and Bremen.", "'''Largest groups of foreign residents''' Nationality Population (31 December 2022) 150,600 8,200 7,300 6,000 5,400 4,900 4,300 3,700 3,400 3,000 2,800 2,750 2,700 2,500 2,350 2,150 2,000 1,900 1,850 1,400 1,200" ], [ "Society and culture", "===Religious life===Hanover is headquarters for several Protestant organizations, including the World Communion of Reformed Churches, the Protestant Church in Germany, the Reformed Alliance, the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany, and the Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church.In 2015, 31.1% of the population were Protestant and 13.4% were Roman Catholic.", "The majority 55.5% were irreligious or other faith.===Museums and galleries===Hannover from the skyThe Historisches Museum Hannover (Historic museum) describes the history of Hanover, from the medieval settlement \"Honovere\" to the city of today.", "The museum focuses on the period from 1714 to 1834 when Hanover had a strong relationship with the British royal house.With more than 4,000 members, the Kestnergesellschaft is the largest art society in Germany.", "The museum hosts exhibitions from classical modernist art to contemporary art.", "Emphasis is placed on film, video, contemporary music and architecture, room installments and presentations of contemporary paintings, sculptures and video art.The Kestner-Museum is located in the ''House of 5.000 windows''.", "The museum is named after August Kestner and exhibits 6,000 years of applied art in four areas: Ancient cultures, ancient Egypt, applied art and a valuable collection of historic coins.The KUBUS is a forum for contemporary art.", "It features mostly exhibitions and projects of artists from Hanover.The Kunstverein Hannover (Art Society Hanover) shows contemporary art and was established in 1832 as one of the first art societies in Germany.", "It is located in the ''Künstlerhaus'' (House of artists).", "There are around seven international exhibitions each year.The Landesmuseum Hannover is the largest museum in Hanover.", "The art gallery shows European art from the 11th to the 20th century, the nature department shows the zoology, geology, botanic, geology and a ''vivarium'' with fish, insects, reptiles and amphibians.", "The primeval department shows the primeval history of Lower Saxony, and the folklore department shows cultures from all over the world.The Sprengel Museum shows the art of the 20th century.", "It is one of the most notable art museums in Germany.", "The focus is put on the classical modernist art with the collection of ''Kurt Schwitters'', works of German expressionism, and French cubism, the cabinet of abstracts, the graphics and the department of photography and media.", "Furthermore, the museum shows the works of the French artist Niki de Saint-Phalle.The Theatre Museum shows an exhibition of the history of the theatre in Hanover from the 17th century up to now: opera, concert, drama and ballet.", "The museum also hosts several touring exhibitions during the year.The Wilhelm Busch Museum is the ''German Museum of Caricature and Critical Graphic Arts''.", "The collection of the works of Wilhelm Busch and the extensive collection of cartoons and critical graphics is unique in Germany.", "Furthermore, the museum hosts several exhibitions of national and international artists during the year.A cabinet of coins is the Münzkabinett der TUI-AG.", "The ''Polizeigeschichtliche Sammlung Niedersachsen'' is the largest police museum in Germany.", "Textiles from all over the world can be visited in the ''Museum for textile art''.", "The ''EXPOseeum'' is the museum of the world-exhibition \"EXPO 2000 Hannover\".", "Carpets and objects from the orient can be visited in the ''Oriental Carpet Museum''.", "The ''Museum for the visually impaired'' is a rarity in Germany, there is only one other of its kind in Berlin.", "The ''Museum of veterinary medicine'' is unique in Germany.", "The ''Museum for Energy History'' describes the 150 years old history of the application of energy.", "The ''Heimat-Museum Ahlem'' shows the history of the district of Ahlem.", "The ''Mahn- und Gedenkstätte Ahlem'' describes the history of the Jewish people in Hanover and the ''Stiftung Ahlers Pro Arte / Kestner Pro Arte'' shows modern art.", "Modern art is also the main topic of the ''Kunsthalle Faust'', the ''Nord/LB Art Gallery'' and of the ''Foro Artistico / Eisfabrik''.Some leading art events in Hanover are the ''Long Night of the Museums'' and the ''Zinnober Kunstvolkslauf'' which features all the galleries in Hanover.People who are interested in astronomy should visit the ''Observatory Geschwister Herschel'' on the Lindener Mountain or the small planetarium inside of the Bismarck School.===Theatre, cabaret and musical===Hanover State Opera is resident in the classical 19th-century Hanover Opera House.Around 40 theatres are located in Hanover.", "The ''Opera House'', the ''Schauspielhaus'' (Play House), the ''Ballhof eins'', the ''Ballhof zwei'' and the ''Cumberlandsche Galerie'' belong to the ''Lower Saxony State Theatre''.", "The Theater am Aegi is Hanover's principal theatre for musicals, shows and guest performances.", "The ''Neues Theater'' (New Theatre) is the boulevard theatre of Hanover.", "The ''Theater für Niedersachsen'' is another large theatre in Hanover, which also has an own musical company.", "Some of the most important musical productions are the rock musicals of the German rock musician Heinz Rudolph Kunze, which take place at the ''Garden-Theatre'' in the Great Garden.Some important theatre events are the ''Tanztheater International'', the ''Long Night of the Theatres'', the ''Festival Theaterformen'' and the ''International Competition for Choreographers''.Hanover's leading cabaret stage is the ''GOP Variety theatre'' which is located in the ''Georgs Palace''.", "Some other cabaret-stages are the ''Variety Marlene'', the ''Uhu-Theatre''.", "the theatre ''Die Hinterbühne'', the ''Rampenlich Variety'' and the revue-stage ''TAK''.", "The most important cabaret event is the ''Kleines Fest im Großen Garten'' (Little Festival in the Great Garden) which is the most successful cabaret festival in Germany.", "It features artists from around the world.", "Some other important events are the ''Calenberger Cabaret Weeks'', the ''Hanover Cabaret Festival'' and the ''Wintervariety''.===Music=======Classical music====Hanover has two symphony orchestras: The Lower Saxon State Orchestra Hanover and the NDR Radiophilharmonie (North German Radio Philharmonic Orchestra).", "Two notable choirs have their homes in Hanover: the Mädchenchor Hannover (girls' choir) and the Knabenchor Hannover (boys' choir).There are two major international competitions for classical music in Hanover:* Hanover International Violin Competition (since 1991)* Classica Nova International Music Competition (1997) (Non profit association Classica Nova exists in Hanover with the aim of continuing the Classica Nova competition).====Popular music====ScorpionsThe rock bands Scorpions and Fury in the Slaughterhouse are originally from Hanover.", "Acclaimed DJ Mousse T also has his main recording studio in the area.", "Rick J. Jordan, member of the band Scooter was born here in 1968.Eurovision Song Contest winner of 2010, Lena, is also from Hanover.===Sport===Hannover 96 (nickname ''Die Roten'' or 'The Reds') is the top local football team that currently plays in the 2.Bundesliga.", "Home games are played at the HDI-Arena, which hosted matches in the 1974 and 2006 World Cups and the Euro 1988.Their reserve team Hannover 96 II plays in the fourth league.", "Their home games were played in the traditional Eilenriedestadium until they moved to the HDI Arena due to DFL directives.", "Arminia Hannover is another traditional soccer team in Hanover that has played in the second division (then 2.Liga Nord) for years and plays now in the Niedersachsen-West Liga (Lower Saxony League West).", "Home matches are played in the Rudolf-Kalweit-Stadium.The Hannover Indians are the local ice hockey team.", "They play in the third tier.", "Their home games are played at the traditional Eisstadion am Pferdeturm.", "The Hannover Scorpions played in Hanover in Germany's top league until 2013 when they sold their license and moved to Langenhagen.Hanover was one of the rugby union capitals in Germany.", "The first German rugby team was founded in Hanover in 1878.Hanover-based teams dominated the German rugby scene for a long time.", "DRC Hannover plays in the first division, and ''SV Odin von 1905'' as well as SG 78/08 Hannover play in the second division.Hanover has traditionally been one of Germany's hubs in Water sports and especially in Water polo.", "The SG Waspo'98 Hannover won the Deutsche Wasserball-Liga in 2020 and 2021.In total, clubs from Hanover have won the German championship 11 times.", "Thanks to the Maschsee lake, the rivers Ihme and Leine and to the Mittellandkanal channel, Hanover hosts sailing schools, yacht schools, waterski clubs, rowing clubs, canoe clubs and paddle clubs.The first German fencing club was founded in Hanover in 1862.Today there are three additional fencing clubs in Hanover.The Hannover Korbjäger are the city's top basketball team.", "They play their home games at the IGS Linden.The Hannover Regents play in the third Bundesliga (baseball) division.", "The Hannover Grizzlies, Armina Spartans and Hannover Stampeders are the local American football teams.The Hannover Marathon is the biggest running event in Hanover with more than 11,000 participants and usually around 200,000 spectators.", "Some other important running events are the Gilde Stadtstaffel (relay), the Sport-Check Nachtlauf (night-running), the Herrenhäuser Team-Challenge, the Hannoversche Firmenlauf (company running) and the Silvesterlauf (sylvester running).Hanover also hosts an important international cycle race: The ''Nacht von Hannover'' (night of Hanover).", "The race takes place around the Market Hall.The lake Maschsee hosts the International Dragon Boat Races and the Canoe Polo-Tournament.", "Many regattas take place during the year.", "\"Head of the river Leine\" on the river Leine is one of the biggest rowing regattas in Hanover.", "One of Germany's most successful dragon boat teams, the All Sports Team Hannover, which has won since its foundation in year 2000 more than 100 medals on national and international competitions, is doing practising on the Maschsee in the heart of Hannover.", "The All Sports Team has received the award \"Team of the Year 2013\" in Lower Saxony.Some other important sport events are the Lower Saxony Beach Volleyball Tournament, the international horse show \"German Classics\" and the international ice hockey tournament Nations Cup.===Regular events===CeBIT 2008 conference centre in HanoverHanover is one of the leading exhibition cities in the world.", "It hosts more than 60 international and national exhibitions every year.", "The most popular ones are the ''CeBIT'', the ''Hanover Fair'', the ''Domotex'', the ''Ligna'', the ''IAA Nutzfahrzeuge'' and the ''Agritechnica''.", "Hanover also hosts a huge number of congresses and symposiums like the ''International Symposium on Society and Resource Management.", "''Hanover is also host to the ''Schützenfest Hannover,'' the largest marksmen's fun fair in the world which takes place once a year from late June to early July.", "Founded in 1529, it consists of more than 260 rides and inns, five large beer tents and a large entertainment programme.", "The highlight of this fun fair is the ''Parade of the Marksmen'' with more than 12,000 participants from all over the world, including around 5,000 marksmen, 128 bands, and more than 70 wagons, carriages, and other festival vehicles.", "This makes it the longest procession in Europe.", "Around 2 million people visit this fun fair every year.", "The landmark of this fun fair is the biggest transportable Ferris wheel in the world, at about high.Hanover also hosts one of the two largest spring festivals in Europe, with around 180 rides and inns, 2 large beer tents, and around 1.5 million visitors each year.", "The Oktoberfest Hannover is the second largest Oktoberfest in the world with around 160 rides and inns, two large beer tents and around 1 million visitors each year.The ''Maschsee Festival'' takes place around the Maschsee Lake.", "Each year around 2 million visitors come to enjoy live music, comedy, cabaret, and much more.", "It is the largest Volksfest of its kind in Northern Germany.", "The Great Garden hosts every year the ''International Fireworks Competition'', and the ''International Festival Weeks Herrenhausen,'' with music and cabaret performances.", "The ''Carnival Procession'' is around long and consists of 3.000 participants, around 30 festival vehicles and around 20 bands and takes place every year.Other festivals include the Festival ''Feuer und Flamme'' (Fire and Flames), the ''Gartenfestival'' (Garden Festival), the ''Herbstfestival'' (Autumn Festival), the ''Harley Days'', the ''Steintor Festival'' (Steintor is a party area in the city centre) and the ''Lister-Meile-Festival'' (Lister Meile is a large pedestrian area).Hanover also hosts food-oriented festivals including the ''Wine Festival'' and the ''Gourmet Festival''.", "It also hosts some special markets like the ''Old Town Flea Market'' and the ''Market for Art and Trade''.", "Some other major markets include the ''Christmas Markets of the City of Hanover'' in the Old Town and city centre, and the Lister Meile.===Tourism===Ernst August memorial, central railway stationHanover is an attractive tourist place due to its many sights and famous events.", "Hanover had about 580,000 visitors in 2021, predominantly from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.", "Famous sights in Hanover are New Town Hall, Herrenhausen Gardens and Hanover Zoo, which is one of the largest Zoos in Germany.", "Hannover Messe, first held in 1947, is also an attractive place for visitors, which has about 250,000 visitors every year.", "Hanover Messe is dedicated to the topic of industry development.", "Hanover Messe is one of the world's largest trade fairs and it has the largest fairground in the world." ], [ "Transport", "Hannover HauptbahnhofCitaro G natural gas bus designed by James IrvineTW 2000 tram designed by Herbert Lindinger and Jasper Morrison===Rail===The city's central station, Hannover Hauptbahnhof, is a hub of the German high-speed ICE network.", "It is the starting point of the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line and also the central hub for the Hanover S-Bahn.", "It offers many international and national connections.===Air===Hanover and its area is served by Hannover Airport (IATA code: HAJ; ICAO code: EDDV) in Langenhagen.===Road===Hanover is also an important hub of Germany's autobahn network; the junction of two major autobahns, the A2 and A7 is at ''Kreuz Hannover-Ost'', at the northeastern edge of the city.Local autobahns are A 352 (a short cut between A7 north and A2 west, also known as the ''Airport autobahn'' because it passes ''Hanover Airport'') and the A 37.The expressway () system, a number of Bundesstraße roads, forms a structure loosely resembling a large ring road together with A2 and A7.The roads are B 3, B 6 and Bundesstraße 65|B 65, called Westschnellweg (B6 on the northern part, B3 on the southern part), Messeschnellweg (B3, becomes A37 near Burgdorf, crosses A2, becomes B3 again, changes to B6 at ''Seelhorster Kreuz'', then passes the Hanover fairground as B6 and becomes A37 again before merging into A7) and Südschnellweg (starts out as B65, becomes B3/B6/B65 upon crossing ''Westschnellweg'', then becomes B65 again at ''Seelhorster Kreuz'').===Bus and light rail===Hanover has an extensive Stadtbahn and bus system, operated by üstra.", "The city uses designer buses and tramways, the TW 6000 and TW 2000 trams being examples.===Bicycle===Bicycle paths are very common in the city centre.", "At off-peak hours you are allowed to take your bike on a tram or bus." ], [ "Economy", "TUI AG headquarters in HanoverVarious industrial businesses are located in Hannover.", "The Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles Transporter (VWN) factory at Hannover-Stöcken is the biggest employer in the region and operates a large plant at the northern edge of town adjoining the Mittellandkanal and Motorway A2.Volkswagen shares a coal-burning power plant with a factory of German tire and automobile parts manufacturer Continental AG.", "Continental AG, founded in Hanover in 1871, is one of the city's major companies.", "Since 2008 a take-over has been in progress: the Schaeffler Group from Herzogenaurach (Bavaria) holds the majority of Continental's stock but were required due to the financial crisis to deposit the options as securities at banks.The audio equipment company Sennheiser and the travel group TUI AG are both based in Hanover.", "Hanover is home to many insurance companies including Talanx, VHV Group, and Concordia Insurance.", "The major global reinsurance company Hannover Re also has its headquarters east of the city centre.===List of largest employers in Hanover=== Employer est.", "Hanover located employeesVolkswagen Commercial Vehicles (VWN) 1956 14,500 Klinikum Region Hannover 2005 8,500Hannover Medical School 1961 7,600Continental 1871 7,500 1994 6,000TUI 2002 4,600DHL 1969 4,400Nord/LB 1970 4,000 Talanx 1996 4,000WABCO 2007 2,600VHV Group 2003 2,500===Key figures===In 2012, the city generated a GDP of €29.5 billion, which is equivalent to €74,822 per employee.", "The gross value of production in 2012 was €26.4 billion, which is equivalent to €66,822 per employee.Around 300,000 employees were counted in 2014.Of these, 189,000 had their primary residence in Hanover, while 164,892 commute into the city every day.In 2014 the city was home to 34,198 businesses, of which 9,342 were registered in the German Trade Register and 24,856 counted as small businesses.", "Hence, more than half of the metropolitan area's businesses in the German Trade Register are located in Hanover (17,485 total)." ], [ "Business development", "Hannoverimpuls GMBH is a joint business development company from the city and region of Hannover.", "The company was founded in 2003 and supports the start-up, growth and relocation of businesses in the Hannover Region.", "The focus is on thirteen sectors, which stand for sustainable economic growth: Automotive, Energy Solutions, Information and Communications Technology, Life Sciences, Optical Technologies, Creative Industries and Production Engineering.A range of programmes supports companies from the key industries in their expansion plans in Hannover or abroad.", "Three regional centres specifically promote international economic relations with Russia, India and Turkey.The Institut für Integrierte Produktion Hannover is a spin-off from Leibniz University Hannover in the field of production technology that promotes transfer of scientific knowledge to business." ], [ "Education", "The Leibniz University Hannover is the largest funded institution in Hanover for providing higher education to students from around the world.", "Below are the names of the universities and some of the important schools, including newly opened Hannover Medical Research School in 2003 for attracting the students from biology background from around the world.There are several universities in Hanover:* Leibniz University Hannover, host institution to the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics* Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover* Hannover Medical School* School of Veterinary Medicine Hanover (''Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover'')* GISMA Business School, part of the for-profit education company Global University Systems.There is one University of Applied Science and Arts in Hanover:* Hochschule Hannover (the former Fachhochschule)The ''Schulbiologiezentrum Hannover'' maintains practical biology schools in four locations (Botanischer Schulgarten Burg, Freiluftschule Burg, Zooschule Hannover, and Botanischer Schulgarten Linden).", "The University of Veterinary Medicine Hanover also maintains its own botanical garden specializing in medicinal and poisonous plants, the Heil- und Giftpflanzengarten der Tierärztlichen Hochschule Hannover." ], [ "In popular culture", "* In the \"Problem Dog\" episode of American crime drama Breaking Bad, viewers learn that Madrigall Electromotive GmbH, the parent company of Los Pollos Hermanos, is located in Hanover." ], [ "Notable people", "Hannah Arendt, 1958Wilhelm BuschGeorg Friedrich GrotefendGottfried Wilhelm LeibnizLena Meyer-Landrut, 2019Portrait of Friedrich Schlegel, 1801* Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), American political theorist* Erdoğan Atalay (born 1966), actor* Rudolf Augstein (1923–2002), journalist, founder of the weekly journal Der Spiegel* Hermann Bahlsen (1859–1919), businessman, inventor of the Leibniz-Keks* Marc Bator (born 1972), journalist* Rudolf von Bennigsen (1824–1902), liberal politician* Klaus Bernbacher (born 1931), conductor, music event manager, broadcasting manager and academic teacher* Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff (1712–1772) a German-Danish statesman* Andreas Peter Bernstorff (1735–1797), Danish diplomat and Foreign Minister* Gero von Boehm (born 1954), director, journalist and television presenter* Emil Berliner (1851–1929), inventor of the phonograph* Anke Blume (born 1969), engineering technology professor, works on silica and silane chemistry.", "* Walter Bruch (1908–1990), inventor of the PAL color television system* Wilhelm Busch (1832–1908), caricaturist, painter and poet* Laurent Chappuzeau, (ca.1652-??", "), clockmaker to the Elector of Hanover 1689–1701* Frederick Dielman (1847–1935), German-American portrait and figure painter* Albert Christoph Dies (1755–1822), German painter, engraver and biographer* Champion Jack Dupree (1910–1992), American Born Blues Musician* Frederick, Prince of Wales (1707–1751), eldest son and heir apparent of King George II of Great Britain* Gustav Fröhlich (1902–1987), actor and film director* Oskar Garvens (1874–1951), sculptor and caricaturist* George I, (1660–1727), King of Great Britain and Ireland, prince elector of Hanover* George II, (1683–1760), King of Great Britain and Ireland, prince elector of Hanover* George III, (1738–1820), King of Great Britain and Ireland, prince elector of Hanover* George William Frederick Charles, duke of Cambridge (1819–1904), Prince George* Gerhard Glogowski (born 1943), politician (SPD)* Georg Friedrich Grotefend (1775–1853), epigraphist and philologist* Fritz Haarmann (1870–1925), prolific serial killer and rapist* Julia Hamburg (born 1986), politician* Conrad Wilhelm Hase, (1818–1902), architect, founder of the Hanover school of architecture* Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann (1782–1859) German mineralogist* Caroline Herschel (1750–1848) and William Herschel (1738–1822), astronomers* Wyn Hoop (born 1936), singer* Alfred Hugenberg (1865–1951), businessman and politician (DNVP)* August Wilhelm Iffland (1759–1814), German actor and dramatic author* Manfred Kohrs (born 1957), tattooist, conceptual artist and Master of Economics* Dr. Gindi (born 1965), contemporary sculptor* Georg Ludwig Friedrich Laves (1788–1864), architect* Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), philosopher, mathematician, developed differential and integral calculus* Klaus Meine (born 1948), rock musician, vocalist of the rock band Scorpions* Georg Meissner (1829–1905), anatomist and physiologist * Otto Fritz Meyerhof (1884–1951), recipient of the Nobel prize in medicine, 1922* Lena Meyer-Landrut (born 1991), winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 2010* Reiner E. Moritz (born 1938), film director and producer* Georg Heinrich Pertz (1795–1876), German historian.", "* Oliver Pocher (born 1978), comedian and television presenter* Rudolf Erich Raspe (1736–1794), German librarian, writer and scientist* Else Raydt (1883–1931), fashion designer* Waldemar R. Röhrbein (1935–2014), historian, director of Historisches Museum Hannover * Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher (1817–1894), German economist* Dirk Rossmann (born 1946), businessman* Dieter Roth (1930–1998), artist, print-maker, author, poet and world renowned composer* Niki de Saint Phalle (1930–2002), sculptor, painter and film maker* Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829), poet, literary critic, philosopher and Indologist* Gerhard Schröder (born 1944), politician (SPD) (former Chancellor of Germany)* Helga Schuchardt (born 1939), politician and engineer* Kurt Schumacher (1895–1952), politician, re-organiser of the SPD after World War II* Kurt Schwitters (1887–1948), artist* Alexander Moritz Simon (1837–1905), Jewish philanthropist, banker and American vice consul* Uli Stein (1954–2020), artist, cartoonist* Charles Wachsmuth (1829–1896), German-American paleontologist and businessman* Gustav Wagemann (1885–1933), German lawyer, judge and civil servant* Hans Wehrmann (born 1964), entrepreneur, economist, inventor, author and racing driver* Phylicia Whitney (born 1950), journalist and public speaker* Christian Wulff (born 1959), politician (CDU), former President of Germany* Shlomo Zev Zweigenhaft (1915–2005), Chief Rabbi of Hannover and Lower Saxony=== Sport ===Stina Johannes, 2023* Johannes Dietwald (born 1985), footballer* Hilal El-Helwe (born 1994), German-Lebanese football player* Niclas Füllkrug (born 1993), footballer* Stina Johannes (born 2000), footballer, goalkeeper for the Germany women's national football team* Niklas Mackschin (born 1994), racing driver* Jan Martín (born 1984), German-Israeli-Spanish basketball player* Arnd Meier (born 1973), racing driver* Per Mertesacker (born 1984), footballer* Daniel Reiss (born 1982), professional ice hockey player* Dirk Werner (born 1981), racing driver" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Hanover is twinned with:* Blantyre, Malawi (1968)* Bristol, England, United Kingdom (1947)* Hiroshima, Japan (1983)* Leipzig, Germany (1987)* Perpignan, France (1960)* Poznań, Poland (1979)* Rouen, France (1966)Hanover also cooperates with:* Mykolaiv, Ukraine (2022)" ], [ "See also", "* CeBIT (CeBIT Computer Messe)* Expo 2000* Hanover Fair (Hannover Messe)* History of the Jews in Hannover* Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg* Schützenfest Hannover" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "* * Official website for tourism, holiday and leisure in Lower Saxony and Hanover" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Handheld game console" ], [ "Introduction", " A Nintendo DS Lite, the best-selling handheld console of all time and second overallA '''handheld game console''', or simply '''handheld console''', is a small, portable self-contained video game console with a built-in screen, game controls and speakers.", "Handheld game consoles are smaller than home video game consoles and contain the console, screen, speakers, and controls in one unit, allowing players to carry them and play them at any time or place.In 1976, Mattel introduced the first handheld electronic game with the release of ''Auto Race''.", "Later, several companies—including Coleco and Milton Bradley—made their own single-game, lightweight table-top or handheld electronic game devices.", "The first commercial successful handheld console was Merlin from 1978 which sold more than 5 million units.", "The first handheld game console with interchangeable cartridges is the Milton Bradley Microvision in 1979.Nintendo is credited with popularizing the handheld console concept with the release of the Game Boy in 1989 and continues to dominate the handheld console market.", "The first internet-enabled handheld console and the first with a touchscreen was the Game.com released by Tiger Electronics in 1997.The Nintendo DS, released in 2004, introduced touchscreen controls and wireless online gaming to a wider audience, becoming the best-selling handheld console with over units sold worldwide." ], [ "History", "=== Timeline ===This table describes handheld games consoles by generation, with over 1 million sales.", "No handheld achieved this prior to the fourth generation of game consoles.", "This list does not include dedicated consoles, such as LCD games and the Tamagotchi.ManufacturerGenerationFourth(1987–2004)Fifth(1993–2006)Sixth(1998–2015)Seventh(2005–2020)Eighth(2011–present)Ninth(2020–present) AtariAtari Lynx (+II) (~3 million) BandaiWonderSwan (+Color, SwanCrystal) (3.5 million) NECTurboExpress (1.5 million) NintendoGame Boy (+Pocket, Light) (at least 64.4 million)Game Boy Color (at most 54.3 million)Game Boy Advance family (81.5 million)Nintendo DS family (154 million)Nintendo 3DS family (76 million)Switch (+Lite|OLED) (122.55 million) NokiaN-Gage (+QD) (3 million) SegaGame Gear (10.6 million)Nomad (~1 million) SNKNeo Geo Pocket (at most 2 million)Neo Geo Pocket ColorNeo Geo X SonyPSP (+Go, Street) (81.09 million)PS Vita (16.21 million) ValveSteam Deck === Origins ===The origins of handheld game consoles are found in handheld and tabletop electronic game devices of the 1970s and early 1980s.", "These electronic devices are capable of playing only a single game, they fit in the palm of the hand or on a tabletop, and they may make use of a variety of video displays such as LED, VFD, or LCD.", "In 1978, handheld electronic games were described by ''Popular Electronics'' magazine as \"nonvideo electronic games\" and \"non-TV games\" as distinct from devices that required use of a television screen.", "Handheld electronic games, in turn, find their origins in the synthesis of previous handheld and tabletop electro-mechanical devices such as Waco's ''Electronic Tic-Tac-Toe'' (1972) Cragstan's ''Periscope-Firing Range'' (1951), and the emerging optoelectronic-display-driven calculator market of the early 1970s.", "This synthesis happened in 1976, when \"Mattel began work on a line of calculator-sized sports games that became the world's first handheld electronic games.", "The project began when Michael Katz, Mattel's new product category marketing director, told the engineers in the electronics group to design a game the size of a calculator, using LED (light-emitting diode) technology.", "\"::our big success was something that I conceptualized—the first handheld game.", "I asked the design group to see if they could come up with a game that was electronic that was the same size as a calculator.", ":::—Michael Katz, former marketing director, Mattel Toys.Game & Watch BallThe result was the 1976 release of ''Auto Race''.", "Followed by ''Football'' later in 1977, the two games were so successful that according to Katz, \"these simple electronic handheld games turned into a '$400 million category.'\"", "Mattel would later win the honor of being recognized by the industry for innovation in handheld game device displays.", "Soon, other manufacturers including Coleco, Parker Brothers, Milton Bradley, Entex, and Bandai began following up with their own tabletop and handheld electronic games.In 1979 the LCD-based Microvision, designed by Smith Engineering and distributed by Milton-Bradley, became the first handheld game console and the first to use interchangeable game cartridges.", "The Microvision game ''Cosmic Hunter'' (1981) also introduced the concept of a directional pad on handheld gaming devices, and is operated by using the thumb to manipulate the on-screen character in any of four directions.In 1979, Gunpei Yokoi, traveling on a bullet train, saw a bored businessman playing with an LCD calculator by pressing the buttons.", "Yokoi then thought of an idea for a watch that doubled as a miniature game machine for killing time.", "Starting in 1980, Nintendo began to release a series of electronic games designed by Yokoi called the Game & Watch games.", "Taking advantage of the technology used in the credit-card-sized calculators that had appeared on the market, Yokoi designed the series of LCD-based games to include a digital time display in the corner of the screen.", "For later, more complicated Game & Watch games, Yokoi invented a cross shaped directional pad or \"D-pad\" for control of on-screen characters.", "Yokoi also included his directional pad on the NES controllers, and the cross-shaped thumb controller soon became standard on game console controllers and ubiquitous across the video game industry since.", "When Yokoi began designing Nintendo's first handheld game console, he came up with a device that married the elements of his Game & Watch devices and the Famicom console, including both items' D-pad controller.", "The result was the Nintendo Game Boy.In 1982, the Bandai LCD Solarpower was the first solar-powered gaming device.", "Some of its games, such as the horror-themed game ''Terror House'', features two LCD panels, one stacked on the other, for an early 3D effect.", "In 1983, Takara Tomy's Tomytronic 3D simulates 3D by having two LCD panels that were lit by external light through a window on top of the device, making it the first dedicated home video 3D hardware.=== Beginnings ===The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the beginnings of the modern-day handheld game console industry, after the demise of the Microvision.", "As backlit LCD game consoles with color graphics consume a lot of power, they were not battery-friendly like the non-backlit original Game Boy whose monochrome graphics allowed longer battery life.", "By this point, rechargeable battery technology had not yet matured and so the more advanced game consoles of the time such as the Sega Game Gear and Atari Lynx did not have nearly as much success as the Game Boy.Even though third-party rechargeable batteries were available for the battery-hungry alternatives to the Game Boy, these batteries employed a nickel-cadmium process and had to be completely discharged before being recharged to ensure maximum efficiency; lead-acid batteries could be used with automobile circuit limiters (cigarette lighter plug devices); but the batteries had mediocre portability.", "The later NiMH batteries, which do not share this requirement for maximum efficiency, were not released until the late 1990s, years after the Game Gear, Atari Lynx, and original Game Boy had been discontinued.", "During the time when technologically superior handhelds had strict technical limitations, batteries had a very low mAh rating since batteries with heavy power density were not yet available.Modern game systems such as the Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable have rechargeable Lithium-Ion batteries with proprietary shapes.", "Other seventh-generation consoles, such as the GP2X, use standard alkaline batteries.", "Because the mAh rating of alkaline batteries has increased since the 1990s, the power needed for handhelds like the GP2X may be supplied by relatively few batteries.==== Game Boy ====The original Game BoyNintendo released the Game Boy on April 21, 1989 (September 1990 for the UK).", "The design team headed by Gunpei Yokoi had also been responsible for the Game & Watch system, as well as the Nintendo Entertainment System games ''Metroid'' and ''Kid Icarus''.", "The Game Boy came under scrutiny by Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi, saying that the monochrome screen was too small, and the processing power was inadequate.", "The design team had felt that low initial cost and battery economy were more important concerns, and when compared to the Microvision, the Game Boy was a huge leap forward.Yokoi recognized that the Game Boy needed a killer app—at least one game that would define the console, and persuade customers to buy it.", "In June 1988, Minoru Arakawa, then-CEO of Nintendo of America saw a demonstration of the game ''Tetris'' at a trade show.", "Nintendo purchased the rights for the game, and packaged it with the Game Boy system as a launch title.", "It was almost an immediate hit.", "By the end of the year more than a million units were sold in the US.", "As of March 31, 2005, the Game Boy and Game Boy Color combined to sell over 118 million units worldwide.==== Atari Lynx ====In 1987, Epyx created the Handy Game; a device that would become the Atari Lynx in 1989.It is the first color handheld console ever made, as well as the first with a backlit screen.", "It also features networking support with up to 17 other players, and advanced hardware that allows the zooming and scaling of sprites.", "The Lynx can also be turned upside down to accommodate left-handed players.", "However, all these features came at a very high price point, which drove consumers to seek cheaper alternatives.", "The Lynx is also very unwieldy, consumes batteries very quickly, and lacked the third-party support enjoyed by its competitors.", "Due to its high price, short battery life, production shortages, a dearth of compelling games, and Nintendo's aggressive marketing campaign, and despite a redesign in 1991, the Lynx became a commercial failure.", "Despite this, companies like Telegames helped to keep the system alive long past its commercial relevance, and when new owner Hasbro released the rights to develop for the public domain, independent developers like Songbird have managed to release new commercial games for the system every year until 2004's ''Winter Games''.==== TurboExpress ====TurboExpress handheldThe TurboExpress is a portable version of the TurboGrafx, released in 1990 for $249.99.Its Japanese equivalent is the PC Engine GT.It is the most advanced handheld of its time and can play all the TurboGrafx-16's games (which are on a small, credit-card sized media called HuCards).", "It has a 66 mm (2.6 in.)", "screen, the same as the original Game Boy, but in a much higher resolution, and can display 64 sprites at once, 16 per scanline, in 512 colors.", "Although the hardware can only handle 481 simultaneous colors.", "It has 8 kilobytes of RAM.", "The Turbo runs the HuC6820 CPU at 1.79 or 7.16 MHz.The optional \"TurboVision\" TV tuner includes RCA audio/video input, allowing users to use TurboExpress as a video monitor.", "The \"TurboLink\" allowed two-player play.", "''Falcon'', a flight simulator, included a \"head-to-head\" dogfight mode that can only be accessed via TurboLink.", "However, very few TG-16 games offered co-op play modes especially designed with the TurboExpress in mind.==== Bitcorp Gamate ====Gamate and game cardsThe Bitcorp Gamate is one of the first handheld game systems created in response to the Nintendo Game Boy.", "It was released in Asia in 1990 and distributed worldwide by 1991.Like the Sega Game Gear, it was horizontal in orientation and like the Game Boy, required 4 AA batteries.", "Unlike many later Game Boy clones, its internal components were professionally assembled (no \"glop-top\" chips).", "Unfortunately the system's fatal flaw is its screen.", "Even by the standards of the day, its screen is rather difficult to use, suffering from similar ghosting problems that were common complaints with the first generation Game Boys.", "Likely because of this fact sales were quite poor, and Bitcorp closed by 1992.However, new games continued to be published for the Asian market, possibly as late as 1994.The total number of games released for the system remains unknown.Gamate games were designed for stereo sound, but the console is only equipped with a mono speaker.", "==== Sega Game Gear ====Sega Game GearThe Game Gear is the third color handheld console, after the Lynx and the TurboExpress; produced by Sega.", "Released in Japan in 1990 and in North America and Europe in 1991, it is based on the Master System, which gave Sega the ability to quickly create Game Gear games from its large library of games for the Master System.", "While never reaching the level of success enjoyed by Nintendo, the Game Gear proved to be a fairly durable competitor, lasting longer than any other Game Boy rivals.While the Game Gear is most frequently seen in black or navy blue, it was also released in a variety of additional colors: red, light blue, yellow, clear, and violet.", "All of these variations were released in small quantities and frequently only in the Asian market.Following Sega's success with the Game Gear, they began development on a successor during the early 1990s, which was intended to feature a touchscreen interface, many years before the Nintendo DS.", "However, such a technology was very expensive at the time, and the handheld itself was estimated to have cost around $289 were it to be released.", "Sega eventually chose to shelve the idea and instead release the Genesis Nomad, a handheld version of the Genesis, as the successor.==== Watara Supervision ====The Watara Supervision with tilting screenThe Watara Supervision was released in 1992 in an attempt to compete with the Nintendo Game Boy.", "The first model was designed very much like a Game Boy, but it is grey in color and has a slightly larger screen.", "The second model was made with a hinge across the center and can be bent slightly to provide greater comfort for the user.", "While the system did enjoy a modest degree of success, it never impacted the sales of Nintendo or Sega.", "The Supervision was redesigned a final time as \"The Magnum\".", "Released in limited quantities it was roughly equivalent to the Game Boy Pocket.", "It was available in three colors: yellow, green and grey.", "Watara designed many of the games themselves, but did receive some third party support, most notably from Sachen.A TV adapter was available in both PAL and NTSC formats that could transfer the Supervision's black-and-white palette to 4 colors, similar in some regards to the Super Game Boy from Nintendo.==== Hartung Game Master ====The Hartung Game Master is an obscure handheld released at an unknown point in the early 1990s.", "Its graphics fidelity was much lower than most of its contemporaries, displaying just 64x64 pixels.", "It was available in black, white, and purple, and was frequently rebranded by its distributors, such as Delplay, Videojet and Systema.The exact number of games released is not known, but is likely around 20.The system most frequently turns up in Europe and Australia.=== Late 1990s ===By this time, the lack of significant development in Nintendo's product line began allowing more advanced systems such as the Neo Geo Pocket Color and the WonderSwan Color to be developed.==== Sega Nomad ====rightThe Nomad was released in October 1995 in North America only.", "The release was six years into the market span of the Genesis, with an existing library of more than 500 Genesis games.", "According to former Sega of America research and development head Joe Miller, the Nomad was not intended to be the Game Gear's replacement; he believed that there was little planning from Sega of Japan for the new handheld.", "Sega was supporting five different consoles: Saturn, Genesis, Game Gear, Pico, and the Master System, as well as the Sega CD and 32X add-ons.", "In Japan, the Mega Drive had never been successful and the Saturn was more successful than Sony's PlayStation, so Sega Enterprises CEO Hayao Nakayama decided to focus on the Saturn.", "By 1999, the Nomad was being sold at less than a third of its original price.==== Game Boy Pocket ====leftThe Game Boy Pocket is a redesigned version of the original Game Boy having the same features.", "It was released in 1996.Notably, this variation is smaller and lighter.", "It comes in seven different colors; red, yellow, green, black, clear, silver, blue, and pink.", "It has space for two AAA batteries, which provide approximately 10 hours of game play.", "The screen was changed to a true black-and-white display, rather than the \"pea soup\" monochromatic display of the original Game Boy.", "Although, like its predecessor, the Game Boy Pocket has no backlight to allow play in a darkened area, it did notably improve visibility and pixel response-time (mostly eliminating ghosting).The first model of the Game Boy Pocket did not have an LED to show battery levels, but the feature was added due to public demand.", "The Game Boy Pocket was not a new software platform and played the same software as the original Game Boy model.==== Game.com ====Game.comThe Game.com (pronounced in TV commercials as \"game com\", not \"game dot com\", and not capitalized in marketing material) is a handheld game console released by Tiger Electronics in September 1997.It featured many new ideas for handheld consoles and was aimed at an older target audience, sporting PDA-style features and functions such as a touch screen and stylus.", "However, Tiger hoped it would also challenge Nintendo's Game Boy and gain a following among younger gamers too.", "Unlike other handheld game consoles, the first game.com consoles included two slots for game cartridges, which would not happen again until the Tapwave Zodiac, the DS and DS Lite, and could be connected to a 14.4 kbit/s modem.", "Later models had only a single cartridge slot.==== Game Boy Color ====The Game Boy Color was the first handheld by Nintendo featuring Colors.The Game Boy Color (also referred to as GBC or CGB) is Nintendo's successor to the Game Boy and was released on October 21, 1998, in Japan and in November of the same year in the United States.", "It features a color screen, and is slightly bigger than the Game Boy Pocket.", "The processor is twice as fast as a Game Boy's and has twice as much memory.", "It also had an infrared communications port for wireless linking which did not appear in later versions of the Game Boy, such as the Game Boy Advance.The Game Boy Color was a response to pressure from game developers for a new system, as they felt that the Game Boy, even in its latest incarnation, the Game Boy Pocket, was insufficient.", "The resulting product was backward compatible, a first for a handheld console system, and leveraged the large library of games and great installed base of the predecessor system.", "This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors.", "As of March 31, 2005, the Game Boy and Game Boy Color combined to sell 118.69 million units worldwide.The console is capable of displaying up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its palette of 32,768, and can add basic four-color shading to games that had been developed for the original Game Boy.", "It can also give the sprites and backgrounds separate colors, for a total of more than four colors.==== Neo Geo Pocket Color ====Neo Geo Pocket ColorThe Neo Geo Pocket Color (or NGPC) was released in 1999 in Japan, and later that year in the United States and Europe.", "It is a 16-bit color handheld game console designed by SNK, the maker of the Neo Geo home console and arcade machine.", "It came after SNK's original Neo Geo Pocket monochrome handheld, which debuted in 1998 in Japan.In 2000 following SNK's purchase by Japanese Pachinko manufacturer Aruze, the Neo Geo Pocket Color was dropped from both the US and European markets, purportedly due to commercial failure.The system seemed well on its way to being a success in the U.S.", "It was more successful than any Game Boy competitor since Sega's Game Gear, but was hurt by several factors, such as SNK's infamous lack of communication with third-party developers, and anticipation of the Game Boy Advance.", "The decision to ship U.S. games in cardboard boxes in a cost-cutting move rather than hard plastic cases that Japanese and European releases were shipped in may have also hurt US sales.==== Wonderswan Color ====The Wonderswan ColorThe WonderSwan Color is a handheld game console designed by Bandai.", "It was released on December 9, 2000, in Japan, Although the WonderSwan Color was slightly larger and heavier (7 mm and 2 g) compared to the original WonderSwan, the color version featured 512 KB of RAM and a larger color LCD screen.", "In addition, the WonderSwan Color is compatible with the original WonderSwan library of games.Prior to WonderSwan's release, Nintendo had virtually a monopoly in the Japanese video game handheld market.", "After the release of the WonderSwan Color, Bandai took approximately 8% of the market share in Japan partly due to its low price of 6800 yen (approximately US$65).", "Another reason for the WonderSwan's success in Japan was the fact that Bandai managed to get a deal with Square to port over the original Famicom ''Final Fantasy'' games with improved graphics and controls.", "However, with the popularity of the Game Boy Advance and the reconciliation between Square and Nintendo, the WonderSwan Color and its successor, the SwanCrystal quickly lost its competitive advantage.=== Early 2000s ===The 2000s saw a major leap in innovation, particularly in the second half with the release of the DS and PSP.==== Game Boy Advance ====The Game Boy Advance was a major upgrade to the Game Boy line.In 2001, Nintendo released the Game Boy Advance (GBA or AGB), which added two shoulder buttons, a larger screen, and more computing power than the Game Boy Color.The design was revised two years later when the Game Boy Advance SP (GBA SP), a more compact version, was released.", "The SP features a \"clamshell\" design (folding open and closed, like a laptop computer), as well as a frontlit color display and rechargeable battery.", "Despite the smaller form factor, the screen remained the same size as that of the original.", "In 2005, the Game Boy Micro was released.", "This revision sacrifices screen size and backwards compatibility with previous Game Boys for a dramatic reduction in total size and a brighter backlit screen.", "A new SP model with a backlit screen was released in some regions around the same time.Along with the GameCube, the GBA also introduced the concept of \"connectivity\": using a handheld system as a console controller.", "A handful of games use this feature, most notably ''Animal Crossing'', ''Pac-Man Vs.'', ''Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles'', ''The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures'', ''The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker'', ''Metroid Prime'', and ''Sonic Adventure 2: Battle''.As of December 31, 2007, the GBA, GBA SP, and the Game Boy Micro combined have sold 80.72 million units worldwide.==== Game Park 32 ====GP32The original GP32 was released in 2001 by the South Korean company Game Park a few months after the launch of the Game Boy Advance.", "It featured a 32-bit CPU, 133 MHz processor, MP3 and Divx player, and e-book reader.", "SmartMedia cards were used for storage, and could hold up to 128mb of anything downloaded through a USB cable from a PC.", "The GP32 was redesigned in 2003.A front-lit screen was added and the new version was called GP32 FLU (Front Light Unit).", "In summer 2004, another redesign, the GP32 BLU, was made, and added a backlit screen.", "This version of the handheld was planned for release outside South Korea; in Europe, and it was released for example in Spain (VirginPlay was the distributor).", "While not a commercial success on a level with mainstream handhelds (only 30,000 units were sold), it ended up being used mainly as a platform for user-made applications and emulators of other systems, being popular with developers and more technically adept users.==== N-Gage ====N-GageN-Gage QDNokia released the N-Gage in 2003.It was designed as a combination MP3 player, cellphone, PDA, radio, and gaming device.", "The system received much criticism alleging defects in its physical design and layout, including its vertically oriented screen and requirement of removing the battery to change game cartridges.", "The most well known of these was \"sidetalking\", or the act of placing the phone speaker and receiver on an edge of the device instead of one of the flat sides, causing the user to appear as if they are speaking into a taco.The N-Gage QD was later released to address the design flaws of the original.", "However, certain features available in the original N-Gage, including MP3 playback, FM radio reception, and USB connectivity were removed.Second generation of N-Gage launched on April 3, 2008 in the form of a service for selected Nokia Smartphones.==== Tapwave Zodiac ====In 2003, Tapwave released the Zodiac.", "It was designed to be a PDA-handheld game console hybrid.", "It supported photos, movies, music, Internet, and documents.", "The Zodiac used a special version Palm OS 5, 5.2T, that supported the special gaming buttons and graphics chip.", "Two versions were available, Zodiac 1 and 2, differing in memory and looks.", "The Zodiac line ended in July 2005 when Tapwave declared bankruptcy.=== Mid 2000s ======= Nintendo DS ====The Nintendo DS has two screens (the lower of which is a touchscreen), a microphone and Wi-Fi connectivity.The Nintendo DS was released in November 2004.Among its new features were the incorporation of two screens, a touchscreen, wireless connectivity, and a microphone port.", "As with the Game Boy Advance SP, the DS features a clamshell design, with the two screens aligned vertically on either side of the hinge.The DS's lower screen is touch sensitive, designed to be pressed with a stylus, a user's finger or a special \"thumb pad\" (a small plastic pad attached to the console's wrist strap, which can be affixed to the thumb to simulate an analog stick).", "More traditional controls include four face buttons, two shoulder buttons, a D-pad, and \"Start\" and \"Select\" buttons.", "The console also features online capabilities via the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection and ad-hoc wireless networking for multiplayer games with up to sixteen players.", "It is backwards-compatible with all Game Boy Advance games, but like the Game Boy Micro, it is not compatible with games designed for the Game Boy or Game Boy Color.In January 2006, Nintendo revealed an updated version of the DS: the Nintendo DS Lite (released on March 2, 2006, in Japan) with an updated, smaller form factor (42% smaller and 21% lighter than the original Nintendo DS), a cleaner design, longer battery life, and brighter, higher-quality displays, with adjustable brightness.", "It is also able to connect wirelessly with Nintendo's Wii console.On October 2, 2008, Nintendo announced the Nintendo DSi, with larger, 3.25-inch screens and two integrated cameras.", "It has an SD card storage slot in place of the Game Boy Advance slot, plus internal flash memory for storing downloaded games.", "It was released on November 1, 2008, in Japan, April 2, 2009 in Australia, April 3, 2009 in Europe, and April 5, 2009 in North America.", "On October 29, 2009, Nintendo announced a larger version of the DSi, called the DSi XL, which was released on November 21, 2009 in Japan, March 5, 2010 in Europe, March 28, 2010 in North America, and April 15, 2010 in Australia.As of December 31, 2009, the Nintendo DS, Nintendo DS Lite, and Nintendo DSi combined have sold 125.13 million units worldwide.==== Game King ====The GameKing 2The GameKing is a handheld game console released by the Chinese company TimeTop in 2004.The first model while original in design owes a large debt to Nintendo's Game Boy Advance.", "The second model, the GameKing 2, is believed to be inspired by Sony's PSP.", "This model also was upgraded with a backlit screen, with a distracting background transparency (which can be removed by opening up the console).", "A color model, the GameKing 3 apparently exists, but was only made for a brief time and was difficult to purchase outside of Asia.", "Whether intentionally or not, the GameKing has the most primitive graphics of any handheld released since the Game Boy of 1989.As many of the games have an \"old school\" simplicity, the device has developed a small cult following.", "The Gameking's speaker is quite loud and the cartridges' sophisticated looping soundtracks (sampled from other sources) are seemingly at odds with its primitive graphics.TimeTop made at least one additional device sometimes labeled as \"GameKing\", but while it seems to possess more advanced graphics, is essentially an emulator that plays a handful of multi-carts (like the GB Station Light II).", "Outside of Asia (especially China) however the Gameking remains relatively unheard of due to the enduring popularity of Japanese handhelds such as those manufactured by Nintendo and Sony.==== PlayStation Portable ====PlayStation PortableThe PlayStation Portable (officially abbreviated PSP) is a handheld game console manufactured and marketed by Sony Computer Entertainment.", "Development of the console was first announced during E3 2003, and it was unveiled on May 11, 2004, at a Sony press conference before E3 2004.The system was released in Japan on December 12, 2004, in North America on March 24, 2005, and in the PAL region on September 1, 2005.The PlayStation Portable is the first handheld video game console to use an optical disc format, Universal Media Disc (UMD), for distribution of its games.", "UMD Video discs with movies and television shows were also released.", "The PSP utilized the Sony/SanDisk Memory Stick Pro Duo format as its primary storage medium.", "Other distinguishing features of the console include its large viewing screen, multi-media capabilities, and connectivity with the PlayStation 3, other PSPs, and the Internet.==== Gizmondo ====The GizmondoTiger's Gizmondo came out in the UK during March 2005 and it was released in the U.S. during October 2005.It is designed to play music, movies, and games, have a camera for taking and storing photos, and have GPS functions.", "It also has Internet capabilities.", "It has a phone for sending text and multimedia messages.", "Email was promised at launch, but was never released before Gizmondo, and ultimately Tiger Telematics', downfall in early 2006.Users obtained a second service pack, unreleased, hoping to find such functionality.", "However, Service Pack B did not activate the e-mail functionality.==== GP2X Series ====The Game Park Holdings GP2X F-100The GP2X is an open-source, Linux-based handheld video game console and media player created by GamePark Holdings of South Korea, designed for homebrew developers as well as commercial developers.", "It is commonly used to run emulators for game consoles such as Neo-Geo, Genesis, Master System, Game Gear, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, Nintendo Entertainment System, TurboGrafx-16, MAME and others.A new version called the \"F200\" was released October 30, 2007, and features a touchscreen, among other changes.", "Followed by GP2X Wiz (2009) and GP2X Caanoo (2010).=== Late 2000s ======= Dingoo ====The Dingoo A320The Dingoo A320 is a micro-sized gaming handheld that resembles the Game Boy Micro and is open to game development.", "It also supports music, radio, emulators (8 bit and 16 bit) and video playing capabilities with its own interface much like the PSP.", "There is also an onboard radio and recording program.", "It is currently available in two colors — white and black.", "Other similar products from the same manufacturer are the Dingoo A330 (also known as Geimi), Dingoo A360, Dingoo A380, and Dingoo A320E.==== PSP Go ====PSP GoThe PSP Go is a version of the PlayStation Portable handheld game console manufactured by Sony.", "It was released on October 1, 2009, in American and European territories, and on November 1 in Japan.", "It was revealed prior to E3 2009 through Sony's Qore VOD service.", "Although its design is significantly different from other PSPs, it is not intended to replace the PSP 3000, which Sony continued to manufacture, sell, and support.", "On April 20, 2011, the manufacturer announced that the PSP Go would be discontinued so that they may concentrate on the PlayStation Vita.", "Sony later said that only the European and Japanese versions were being cut, and that the console would still be available in the US.Unlike previous PSP models, the PSP Go does not feature a UMD drive, but instead has 16 GB of internal flash memory to store games, video, pictures, and other media.", "This can be extended by up to 32 GB with the use of a Memory Stick Micro (M2) flash card.", "Also unlike previous PSP models, the PSP Go's rechargeable battery is not removable or replaceable by the user.", "The unit is 43% lighter and 56% smaller than the original PSP-1000, and 16% lighter and 35% smaller than the PSP-3000.It has a 3.8\" 480 × 272 LCD (compared to the larger 4.3\" 480 × 272 pixel LCD on previous PSP models).", "The screen slides up to reveal the main controls.", "The overall shape and sliding mechanism are similar to that of Sony's mylo COM-2 internet device.==== Pandora ====PandoraThe Pandora is a handheld game console/UMPC/PDA hybrid designed to take advantage of existing open source software and to be a target for home-brew development.", "It runs a full distribution of Linux, and in functionality is like a small PC with gaming controls.", "It is developed by OpenPandora, which is made up of former distributors and community members of the GP32 and GP2X handhelds.OpenPandora began taking pre-orders for one batch of 4000 devices in November 2008 and after manufacturing delays, began shipping to customers on May 21, 2010.==== FC-16 Go ====The FC-16 Go is a portable Super NES hardware clone manufactured by Yobo Gameware in 2009.It features a 3.5-inch display, two wireless controllers, and CRT cables that allow cartridges to be played on a television screen.", "Unlike other Super NES clone consoles, it has region tabs that only allow NTSC North American cartridges to be played.", "Later revisions feature stereo sound output, larger shoulder buttons, and a slightly re-arranged button, power, and A/V output layout.=== 2010s ======= Nintendo 3DS ====The original cyan Nintendo 3DSThe '''Nintendo 3DS''' is the successor to Nintendo's DS handheld.", "The autostereoscopic device is able to project stereoscopic three-dimensional effects without requirement of active shutter or passive polarized glasses, which are required by most current 3D televisions to display the 3D effect.", "The 3DS was released in Japan on February 26, 2011; in Europe on March 25, 2011; in North America on March 27, 2011, and in Australia on March 31, 2011.The system features backward compatibility with Nintendo DS series software, including Nintendo DSi software except those that require the Game Boy Advance slot.", "It also features an online service called the Nintendo eShop, launched on June 6, 2011, in North America and June 7, 2011, in Europe and Japan, which allows owners to download games, demos, applications and information on upcoming film and game releases.", "On November 24, 2011, a limited edition ''Legend of Zelda 25th Anniversary 3DS'' was released that contained a unique Cosmo Black unit decorated with gold Legend of Zelda related imagery, along with a copy of ''The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time 3D''.There are also other models including the Nintendo 2DS and the New Nintendo 3DS, the latter with a larger (XL/LL) variant, like the original Nintendo 3DS, as well as the New Nintendo 2DS XL.==== Xperia Play ====Xperia PLAYThe Sony Ericsson Xperia PLAY is a handheld game console smartphone produced by Sony Ericsson under the Xperia smartphone brand.", "The device runs Android 2.3 Gingerbread, and is the first to be part of the PlayStation Certified program which means that it can play PlayStation Suite games.", "The device is a horizontally sliding phone with its original form resembling the Xperia X10 while the slider below resembles the slider of the PSP Go.", "The slider features a D-pad on the left side, a set of standard PlayStation buttons (Triangle, Circle, Cross and Square) on the right, a long rectangular touchpad in the middle, start and select buttons on the bottom right corner, a menu button on the bottom left corner, and two shoulder buttons (L and R) on the back of the device.", "It is powered by a 1 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon processor, a Qualcomm Adreno 205 GPU, and features a display measuring 4.0 inches (100 mm) (854 × 480), an 8-megapixel camera, 512 MB RAM, 8 GB internal storage, and a micro-USB connector.", "It supports microSD cards, versus the Memory Stick variants used in PSP consoles.", "The device was revealed officially for the first time in a Super Bowl ad on Sunday, February 6, 2011.On February 13, 2011, at Mobile World Congress (MWC) 2011, it was announced that the device would be shipping globally in March 2011, with a launch lineup of around 50 software titles.==== PlayStation Vita ====PlayStation VitaThe '''PlayStation Vita''' is the successor to Sony's PlayStation Portable (PSP) Handheld series.", "It was released in Japan on December 17, 2011 and in Europe, Australia, North, and South America on February 22, 2012.The handheld includes two analog sticks, a 5-inch (130 mm) OLED/LCD multi-touch capacitive touchscreen, and supports Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and optional 3G.", "Internally, the PS Vita features a 4 core ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore processor and a 4 core SGX543MP4+ graphics processing unit, as well as LiveArea software as its main user interface, which succeeds the XrossMediaBar.The device is fully backwards-compatible with PlayStation Portable games digitally released on the PlayStation Network via the PlayStation Store.", "However, PSone Classics and PS2 titles were not compatible at the time of the primary public release in Japan.", "The Vita's dual analog sticks will be supported on selected PSP games.", "The graphics for PSP releases will be up-scaled, with a smoothing filter to reduce pixelation.On September 20, 2018, Sony announced at Tokyo Game Show 2018 that the Vita would be discontinued in 2019, ending its hardware production.", "Production of Vita hardware officially ended on March 1, 2019.==== Razer Switchblade ====The '''Razer Switchblade''' was a prototype pocket-sized like a Nintendo DSi XL designed to run Windows 7, featured a multi-touch LCD screen and an adaptive keyboard that changed keys depending on the game the user would play.", "It also was to feature a full mouse.It was first unveiled on January 5, 2011, on the Consumer Electronics Show (CES).", "The Switchblade won The Best of CES 2011 People's Voice award.", "It has since been in development and the release date is still unknown.", "The device has likely been suspended indefinitely.==== Nvidia Shield ====Nvidia Shield PortableProject Shield is a handheld system developed by Nvidia announced at CES 2013.It runs on Android 4.2 and uses Nvidia Tegra 4 SoC.", "The hardware includes a 5-inches multitouch screen with support for HD graphics (720p).", "The console allows for the streaming of games running on a compatible desktop PC, or laptop.Nvidia Shield Portable has received mixed reception from critics.", "Generally, reviewers praised the performance of the device, but criticized the cost and lack of worthwhile games.", "Engadget's review noted the system's \"extremely impressive PC gaming\", but also that due to its high price, the device was \"a hard sell as a portable game console\", especially when compared to similar handhelds on the market.", "CNET's Eric Franklin states in his review of the device that \"The Nvidia Shield is an extremely well made device, with performance that pretty much obliterates any mobile product before it; but like most new console launches, there is currently a lack of available games worth your time.\"", "Eurogamer's comprehensive review of the device provides a detailed account of the device and its features; concluded by saying: \"In the here and now, the first-gen Shield Portable is a gloriously niche, luxury product - the most powerful Android system on the market by a clear stretch and possessing a unique link to PC gaming that's seriously impressive in beta form, and can only get better.", "\"==== Nintendo Switch ====The Nintendo Switch in portable modeThe '''Nintendo Switch''' is a hybrid console that can either be used in a handheld form, or inserted into a docking station attached to a television to play on a bigger screen.", "The Switch features two detachable wireless controllers, called Joy-Con, which can be used individually or attached to a grip to provide a traditional gamepad form.", "A handheld-only revision named Nintendo Switch Lite was released on September 20, 2019.The Switch Lite had sold about 1.95 million units worldwide by September 30, 2019, only 10 days after its launch.=== 2020s ======= Evercade ====Evercade is a handheld game console developed and manufactured by UK company Blaze Entertainment.", "It focuses on retrogaming with ROM cartridges that each contain a number of emulated games.", "Development began in 2018, and the console was released in May 2020, after a few delays.", "Upon its launch, the console offered 10 game cartridges with a combined total of 122 games.Arc System Works, Atari, Data East, Interplay Entertainment, Bandai Namco Entertainment and Piko Interactive have released emulated versions of their games for the Evercade.", "Pre-existing homebrew games have also been re-released for the console by Mega Cat Studios.", "The Evercade is capable of playing games originally released for the Atari 2600, the Atari 7800, the Atari Lynx, the NES, the SNES, and the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive.==== Analogue Pocket ====The '''Analogue Pocket''' is a FPGA-based handheld game console designed and manufactured by Analogue, It is designed to play games designed for handhelds of the fourth, fifth and sixth generation of video game consoles.", "The console features a design reminiscent of the Game Boy, with additional buttons for the supported platforms.", "It features a 3.5\" 1600x1440 LTPS LCD display, an SD card port, and a link cable port compatible with Game Boy link cables.", "The Analogue Pocket uses an Altera Cyclone V processor, and is compatible with the original Game Boy, Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance cartridges out of the box.", "With cartridge adapters (sold separately) the Analogue Pocket can play Game Gear, Neo Geo Pocket, Neo Geo Pocket Color and Atari Lynx game cartridges.", "The Analogue Pocket includes an additional FPGA, allowing 3rd party FPGA development.", "The Analogue Pocket was released in December 2021.==== Steam Deck ====Steam DeckThe Steam Deck is a handheld computer device, developed by Valve, which runs SteamOS 3.0, a tailored distro of Arch Linux and includes support for Proton, a compatibility layer that allows most Microsoft Windows games to be played on the Linux-based operating system.", "In terms of hardware, the Deck includes a custom AMD APU based on their Zen 2 and RDNA 2 architectures, with the CPU running a four-core/eight-thread unit and the GPU running on eight compute units with a total estimated performance of 1.6 TFLOPS.", "Both the CPU and GPU use variable timing frequencies, with the CPU running between 2.4 and 3.5 GHz and the GPU between 1.0 and 1.6 GHz based on current processor needs.", "Valve stated that the CPU has comparable performance to Ryzen 3000 desktop computer processors and the GPU performance to the Radeon RX 6000 series.", "The Deck includes 16 GB of LPDDR5 RAM in a quad channel configuration.Valve revealed the Steam Deck on July 15, 2021, with pre-orders being made option the next day.", "The Deck was expected to ship in December 2021 to the US, Canada, the EU and the UK but was delayed to February 2022, with other regions to follow in 2022.Pre-orders were limited to those with Steam accounts opened before June 2021 to prevent resellers from controlling access to the device.", "Pre-orders reservations on July 16, 2021 through the Steam storefront briefly crashed the servers due to the demand.", "While initial shipments are still planned by February 2022, Valve has reported to new purchasers that wider availability will be later, with the 64 GB model and 256 GB NVMe model due in Q2 2022, and the 512 GB NVMe model by Q3 2022.Steam Deck was released on February 25, 2022." ], [ "See also", "* List of handheld game consoles* Video game console emulator* Handheld electronic game* Handheld television* Linux gaming* Cloud gaming* Mobile game" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heinrich Abeken" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heinrich Abeken''' (19 August 18098 August 1872) was a German theologian and Prussian Privy Legation Councillor in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Berlin." ], [ "Early life", "Abeken was born and raised in the city of Osnabrück as a son of a merchant, he was incited to a higher education by the example of his uncle Bernhard Rudolf Abeken.", "After finishing the college in Osnabrück, he moved in 1827 to visit the University of Berlin to study theology.", "He combined philosophical and philological studies and was interested in art and modern literature." ], [ "Career", "In 1831, Abeken acquired a licenciate of theology.", "At the end of the year he visited Rome, and was welcomed in the house of Christian Karl Josias, Freiherr von Bunsen.", "Abeken participated in Bunsen's works, namely an evangelical prayer and hymn-book.", "In 1834 he became chaplain to the Prussian embassy in Rome.", "He married his first wife, who died soon thereafter.", "Bunsen left Rome in 1838 and Abeken followed soon thereafter to Germany.", "In 1841, he was sent to England to help in founding a German-English missionary bishopric in Jerusalem.", "In the same year, he was sent by Frederick William IV of Prussia to Egypt and Ethiopia, where he joined an expedition led by professor Karl Richard Lepsius.", "In 1845 and 1846 he returned via Jerusalem and Rome to Germany.", "He became Legation Councillor in Berlin, later Council Referee at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.In 1848 he received an appointment in the Prussian ministry for foreign affairs, and in 1853, he was promoted to be privy councillor of legation (''Geheimer Legationsrath'').", "Abeken remained in charge for more than twenty years of Prussian politics, assisting Otto Theodor Freiherr von Manteuffel and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.", "The latter was so much pleased with Abeken's work that officials started to call Abeken \"the quill i.e., the scribe of Bismarck.\"", "Abeken married again in 1866; his second wife was Hedwig von Olfers, daughter of the general director of the royal museums, Privy Councilor von Olfers.He was much employed by Bismarck in the writing of official despatches, and stood high in the favour of King William, whom he often accompanied on his journeys as representative of the foreign office.", "He was present with the king during the campaigns of 1866 and 1870–71.In 1851, he published anonymously ''Babylon und Jerusalem,'' a scathing criticism of the views of Ida, Countess von Hahn-Hahn.During the war against Austria in 1866 as well as in the wars against France in 1870 and 1871, Abeken stayed in the Prussian headquarters.", "A major part of the dispatches of the time have been written by him.", "Unfortunately his health was damaged by the endeavours of these travels, and he died after an illness of several months.", "Emperor Wilhelm I described Abeken in a condolence letter to his widow: \"One of my most reliable advisors, standing on my side in the most decisive moments; His loss is irreplaceable to me; In him his fatherland has lost one of the most noble and most loyal men and officials\".Despite his engagement in politics, Abeken never lost his interest in theology and continued to publish and speak in this sector during all of his life.", "He was interested in art and archeology, and was sponsor of the Archeological Institute of Rome and member of the Archeological Society of Rome.", "He founded a Circle of Friends of the Greek Literature in Berlin and was member of the prize commission for the royal Schiller-Prize." ], [ "Publications", "* ''A letter to the Reverend E. B. Pusey in reference to certain charges against the German Church'', (1842)* ''Babylon und Jerusalem'' (1851), letter to Countess Ida Hahn-Hahn* ''Der Gottesdienst der alten Kirche'' (1853)* ''Das religiöse Leben des Islam'' (1854)* biography of Bunsen in the ''Jahrbuch zum Conversationslexikon (Leipzig, Brockhaus), Unsere Zeit'' (1861)* Wolfgang Frischbier, ''Heinrich Abeken 1809–1872.Eine Biographie'' Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2008 (Otto-von-Bismarck-Stiftung.", "Wissenschaftliche Reihe, 9)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", ";Attribution* ''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'' - online version at Wikisource" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare''' (16 April 1815 – 25 February 1895), was a British Liberal Party politician, who served in government most notably as Home Secretary (1868–1873) and as Lord President of the Council." ], [ "Background and education", "Henry Bruce was born at Duffryn, Aberdare, Glamorganshire, the son of John Bruce, a Glamorganshire landowner, and his first wife Sarah, daughter of Reverend Hugh Williams Austin.", "John Bruce's original family name was Knight, but on coming of age in 1805 he assumed the name of Bruce: his mother, through whom he inherited the Duffryn estate, was the daughter of William Bruce, high sheriff of Glamorganshire.Henry was educated from the age of twelve at the Bishop Gore School, Swansea (Swansea Grammar School).", "In 1837 he was called to the bar from Lincoln's Inn.", "Shortly after he had begun to practice, the discovery of coal beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare Valley estates brought his family great wealth.", "From 1847 to 1854 Bruce was stipendiary magistrate for Merthyr Tydfil and Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, after entering parliament as Liberal member for Merthyr Tydfil." ], [ "Industrialist and politician, 1852–1868", "Lord Aberdare, portrait after Henry Tanworth Wells.Bruce was returned unopposed as MP for Merthyr Tydfil in December 1852, following the death of Sir John Guest.", "He did so with the enthusiastic support of the late member's political allies, notably the iron masters of Dowlais, and he was thereafter regarded by his political opponents, most notably in the Aberdare Valley, as their nominee.", "Even so, Bruce's parliamentary record demonstrated support for liberal policies, with the exception of the ballot.", "The electorate in the constituency at this time remained relatively small, excluding the vast majority of the working classes.Significantly, however, Bruce's relationship with the miners of the Aberdare Valley, in particular, deteriorated as a result of the Aberdare Strike of 1857–58.In a speech to a large audience of miners at the Aberdare Market Hall, Bruce sought to strike a conciliatory tone in persuading the miners to return to work.", "In a second speech, however, he delivered a broadside against the trade union movement generally, referring to the violence engendered elsewhere as a result of strikes and to alleged examples of intimidation and violence in the immediate locality.", "The strike damaged his reputation and may well have contributed to his eventual election defeat ten years later.", "In 1855, Bruce was appointed a trustee of the Dowlais Iron Company and played a role in the further development of the iron industry.In November 1862, after nearly ten years in Parliament, he became Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, and held that office until April 1864.He became a Privy Councillor and a Charity Commissioner for England and Wales in 1864, when he was moved to be vice-president of the Council of Education." ], [ "1868 general election", "At the 1868 general election, Merthyr Tydfil became a two-member constituency with a much-increased electorate as a result of the Second Reform Act of 1867.Since the formation of the constituency, Merthyr Tydfil had dominated representation as the vast majority of the electorate lived in the town and its vicinity, whereas there was a much lower number of electors in the neighbouring Aberdare Valley.", "During the 1850s and 1860s, however, the population of Aberdare grew rapidly, and the franchise changes in 1867 gave the vote to large numbers of miners in that valley.", "Amongst these new electors, Bruce remained unpopular as a result of his actions during the 1857–58 dispute.", "Initially, it appeared that the Aberdare iron master, Richard Fothergill, would be elected to the second seat alongside Bruce.", "However, the appearance of a third Liberal candidate, Henry Richard, a nonconformist radical popular in both Merthyr and Aberdare, left Bruce on the defensive and he was ultimately defeated, finishing in third place behind both Richard and Fothergill." ], [ "Later political career", "Statue overlooking the Main Building of Cardiff UniversityAfter losing his seat, Bruce was elected for Renfrewshire on 25 January 1869, and was made Home Secretary by William Ewart Gladstone.", "His tenure of this office was conspicuous for a reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the Licensing Act 1872, which made the magistrates the licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale of drink.", "In 1873 Bruce relinquished the home secretaryship, at Gladstone's request, to become Lord President of the Council, and was elevated to the peerage as Baron Aberdare, of Duffryn in the County of Glamorgan, on 23 August that year.", "Being a Gladstonian Liberal, Aberdare had hoped for a much more radical proposal to keep existing licensee holders for a further ten years, and to prevent any new applicants.", "Its unpopularity pricked his nonconformist's conscience, when like Gladstone himself he had a strong leaning towards Temperance.", "He had already pursued 'moral improvement' on miners in the regulations attempting to further ban boys from the pits.", "The Trades Union Act 1871 was another more liberal regime giving further rights to unions, and protection from malicious prosecutions.Carlo Pellegrini published in ''Vanity Fair'' in 1869 with the caption ''\"He has gained credit by converting himself to the Ballot; he would gain greater credit by converting himself into an ex-secretary of State for the Home Department\"''The defeat of the Liberal government in the following year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he subsequently devoted himself to social, educational and economic questions.", "Education became one of Lord Aberdare's main interests in later life.", "His interest had been shown by the speech on Welsh education which he had made on 5 May 1862.In 1880, he was appointed to chair the Departmental Committee on Intermediate and Higher Education in Wales and Monmouthshire, whose report ultimately led to the Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889.The report also stimulated the campaign for the provision of university education in Wales.", "In 1883, Lord Aberdare was elected the first president of the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire.", "In his inaugural address he declared that the framework of Welsh education would not be complete until there was a University of Wales.", "The university was eventually founded in 1893 and Aberdare became its first chancellor.In 1876 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; from 1878 to 1891 he was president of the Royal Historical Society.", "and in 1881 he became president of both the Royal Geographical Society and the Girls' Day School Trust.", "In 1888 he headed the commission that established the Official Table of Drops, listing how far a person of a particular weight should be dropped when hanged for a capital offence (the only method of 'judicial execution' in the United Kingdom at that time), to ensure an instant and painless death, by cleanly breaking the neck between the 2nd and 3rd vertebrae, an 'exacting science', eventually brought to perfection by Chief Executioner Albert Pierrepoint.", "Prisoners health, clothing and discipline was a particular concern even at the end of his career.", "In the Lords he spoke at some length to the Home Affairs Committee chaired by Arthur Balfour about the prison rules system.", "Aberdare had always expressed concern about intemperate working-classes; in 1878 urging greater vigilance against the vice of excessive drinking, he took evidence on miners and railway colliers drinking habits.", "The committee tried to establish special legislation based on a link between Sunday Opening and absenteeism established in 1868.Aberdare had been interested in the plight of working class drinkers since Gladstone had appointed him Home Secretary.", "The defeat of the Licensing Bill by the Tory 'beerage' and publicans was drafted to limit hours and protect the public, but it persuaded a convinced Anglican forever more of the iniquities.In 1882 he began a connection with West Africa which lasted the rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the National African Company, formed by Sir George Goldie, which in 1886 received a charter under the title of the Royal Niger Company and in 1899 was taken over by the British government, its territories being constituted the protectorate of Nigeria.", "West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts that a charter was in 1894 obtained for the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, a constituent institution of the University of Wales.", "This is now Cardiff University.", "Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, presided over several Royal Commissions at different times." ], [ "Family", "Henry Austin Bruce's grave at Aberffrwd cemetery in Mountain Ash, Wales.Coats of Arms of Henry BruceHenry Bruce married firstly Annabella, daughter of Richard Beadon, of Clifton by Annabella à Court, sister of the 1st Baron Heytesbury, on 6 January 1846.They had one son and three daughters.", "* Henry Campbell Bruce, 2nd Baron* Margaret Cecilia married on 16 September 1889, Douglas Close Richmond, CB, MA, son of Rev.", "Henry Sylvester Richmond MA, rector of Wyck Rissington, Glos.", "* Rachel Mary married 10 September 1872, Augustus George Vernon-Harcourt of St Clare, Ryde, Isle of Wight, son of Admiral Frederick Edward Vernon-Harcourt.", "* Jessie Frances, married 3 September 1878, Rev John William Wynne-Jones, MA, rector of Llantrisant, Anglesey.", "son of John Wynne-Jones JP, DL, of Treiorworth, Bodedern, Holyhead, Anglesey.Headstone of Sarah Fox Matheson, née Bruce (1861–1935), in Headington Cemetery, OxfordAfter her death on 28 July 1852 he married secondly on 17 August 1854 Norah Creina Blanche, youngest daughter of Lt-Gen Sir William Napier, KCB the historian of the Peninsular War, whose biography he edited, by Caroline Amelia, second daughter of Gen. Henry Edward Fox, son of the Earl of Ilchester.", "They had seven daughters and two sons, of whom:* the youngest was the mountaineer Charles Granville Bruce.", "* Alice Bruce took on her mother's ideas and took a leading role in women's education.", "* Sarah married Montague Muir Mackenzie, barrister.", "* Elizabeth Fox Bruce (1861–1935) married the author Percy Ewing Matheson.Lord Aberdare died at his London home, 39 Princes Gardens, South Kensington, on 25 February 1895, aged 79, and was succeeded in the barony by his only son by his first marriage, Henry.", "He was survived by his wife, Lady Aberdare, born 1827, who died on 27 April 1897.She was a proponent of women's education and active in the establishment of Aberdare Hall in Cardiff." ], [ "Memorial", "Henry Austin Bruce is buried at Aberffrwd Cemetery in Mountain Ash, Wales.", "His large family plot is surrounded by a chain, and his gravestone is a simple Celtic cross with double plinth and kerb.", "In place is written \"To God the Judge of all and to the spirits of just men more perfect.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Harpers Ferry (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harpers Ferry''' is the name of several places in the United States of America:*Harpers Ferry, Iowa, a city in Allamakee County, Iowa*Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, a town in Jefferson County, West Virginia**John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry (1859)**Harpers Ferry Armory, second federal armory (construction begun 1799) and site of John Brown's slave revolt of 1859**Harpers Ferry National Historical Park**Battle of Harpers Ferry (September 12–15, 1862), a battle in the American Civil War that took place around what is now Harpers Ferry, West Virginia'''Harpers Ferry''' may also refer to:* ''Harpers Ferry'' class dock landing ship, a ship class in the United States Navy** USS ''Harpers Ferry'' (LSD-49), a ''Harpers Ferry'' class dock landing ship of the United States Navy, commissioned in 1995* Harpers Ferry (nightclub), a music venue and nightclub in Boston* Harper's Ferry flintlock pistol" ], [ "See also", "*Harpur's Ferry, A student volunteer ambulance service in Binghamton University" ] ]
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[ [ "Halophile" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''halophile''' (from the Greek word for 'salt-loving') is an extremophile that thrives in high salt concentrations.", "In chemical terms, halophile refers to a Lewis acidic species that has some ability to extract halides from other chemical species.", "While most halophiles are classified into the domain Archaea, there are also bacterial halophiles and some eukaryotic species, such as the alga ''Dunaliella salina'' and fungus ''Wallemia ichthyophaga''.", "Some well-known species give off a red color from carotenoid compounds, notably bacteriorhodopsin.", "Halophiles can be found in water bodies with salt concentration more than five times greater than that of the ocean, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, Owens Lake in California, the Lake Urmia in Iran, the Dead Sea, and in evaporation ponds.", "They are theorized to be a possible analogues for modeling extremophiles that might live in the salty subsurface water ocean of Jupiter's Europa and similar moons." ], [ "Classification", "Halophiles are categorized by the extent of their halotolerance: slight, moderate, or extreme.", "Slight halophiles prefer 0.3 to 0.8 M (1.7 to 4.8%—seawater is 0.6 M or 3.5%), moderate halophiles 0.8 to 3.4 M (4.7 to 20%), and extreme halophiles 3.4 to 5.1 M (20 to 30%) salt content.", "Halophiles require sodium chloride (salt) for growth, in contrast to halotolerant organisms, which do not require salt but can grow under saline conditions." ], [ "Lifestyle", "High salinity represents an extreme environment in which relatively few organisms have been able to adapt and survive.", "Most halophilic and all halotolerant organisms expend energy to exclude salt from their cytoplasm to avoid protein aggregation ('salting out').", "To survive the high salinities, halophiles employ two differing strategies to prevent desiccation through osmotic movement of water out of their cytoplasm.", "Both strategies work by increasing the internal osmolarity of the cell.", "The first strategy is employed by some archaea, the majority of halophilic bacteria, yeasts, algae, and fungi; the organism accumulates organic compounds in the cytoplasm—osmoprotectants which are known as compatible solutes.", "These can be either synthesised or accumulated from the environment.", "The most common compatible solutes are neutral or zwitterionic, and include amino acids, sugars, polyols, betaines, and ectoines, as well as derivatives of some of these compounds.The second, more radical adaptation involves selectively absorbing potassium (K+) ions into the cytoplasm.", "This adaptation is restricted to the extremely halophilic archaeal family ''Halobacteriaceae'', the moderately halophilic bacterial order ''Halanaerobiales'', and the extremely halophilic bacterium ''Salinibacter ruber''.", "The presence of this adaptation in three distinct evolutionary lineages suggests convergent evolution of this strategy, it being unlikely to be an ancient characteristic retained in only scattered groups or passed on through massive lateral gene transfer.", "The primary reason for this is the entire intracellular machinery (enzymes, structural proteins, etc.)", "must be adapted to high salt levels, whereas in the compatible solute adaptation, little or no adjustment is required to intracellular macromolecules; in fact, the compatible solutes often act as more general stress protectants, as well as just osmoprotectants.Of particular note are the extreme halophiles or haloarchaea (often known as halobacteria), a group of archaea, which require at least a 2 M salt concentration and are usually found in saturated solutions (about 36% w/v salts).", "These are the primary inhabitants of salt lakes, inland seas, and evaporating ponds of seawater, such as the deep salterns, where they tint the water column and sediments bright colors.", "These species most likely perish if they are exposed to anything other than a very high-concentration, salt-conditioned environment.", "These prokaryotes require salt for growth.", "The high concentration of sodium chloride in their environment limits the availability of oxygen for respiration.", "Their cellular machinery is adapted to high salt concentrations by having charged amino acids on their surfaces, allowing the retention of water molecules around these components.", "They are heterotrophs that normally respire by aerobic means.", "Most halophiles are unable to survive outside their high-salt native environments.", "Many halophiles are so fragile that when they are placed in distilled water, they immediately lyse from the change in osmotic conditions.Halophiles use a variety of energy sources and can be aerobic or anaerobic; anaerobic halophiles include phototrophic, fermentative, sulfate-reducing, homoacetogenic, and methanogenic species.The Haloarchaea, and particularly the family Halobacteriaceae, are members of the domain ''Archaea'', and comprise the majority of the prokaryotic population in hypersaline environments.", "Currently, 15 recognised genera are in the family.", "The domain Bacteria (mainly ''Salinibacter ruber'') can comprise up to 25% of the prokaryotic community, but is more commonly a much lower percentage of the overall population.", "At times, the alga ''Dunaliella salina'' can also proliferate in this environment.A comparatively wide range of taxa has been isolated from saltern crystalliser ponds, including members of these genera: ''Haloferax, Halogeometricum, Halococcus, Haloterrigena, Halorubrum, Haloarcula'', and ''Halobacterium''.", "However, the viable counts in these cultivation studies have been small when compared to total counts, and the numerical significance of these isolates has been unclear.", "Only recently has it become possible to determine the identities and relative abundances of organisms in natural populations, typically using PCR-based strategies that target 16S small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (16S rRNA) genes.", "While comparatively few studies of this type have been performed, results from these suggest that some of the most readily isolated and studied genera may not in fact be significant in the ''in situ'' community.", "This is seen in cases such as the genus ''Haloarcula'', which is estimated to make up less than 0.1% of the'' in situ'' community, but commonly appears in isolation studies." ], [ "Genomic and proteomic signature", "The comparative genomic and proteomic analysis showed distinct molecular signatures exist for the environmental adaptation of halophiles.", "At the protein level, the halophilic species are characterized by low hydrophobicity, an overrepresentation of acidic residues, underrepresentation of Cys, lower propensities for helix formation, and higher propensities for coil structure.", "The core of these proteins is less hydrophobic, such as DHFR, that was found to have narrower β-strands.In one study, the net charges (at pH 7.4) of the ribosomal proteins (r-proteins) that comprise the ''S10-spc'' cluster were observed to have an inverse relationship with the halophilicity/halotolerance levels in both bacteria and archaea.", "At the DNA level, the halophiles exhibit distinct dinucleotide and codon usage." ], [ "Examples", "''Halobacteriaceae'' is a family that includes a large part of halophilic archaea.", "The genus ''Halobacterium'' under it has a high tolerance for elevated levels of salinity.", "Some species of halobacteria have acidic proteins that resist the denaturing effects of salts.", "''Halococcus'' is another genus of the family Halobacteriaceae.Some hypersaline lakes are habitat to numerous families of halophiles.", "For example, the Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana form a vast, seasonal, high-salinity water body that manifests halophilic species within the diatom genus ''Nitzschia'' in the family Bacillariaceae, as well as species within the genus ''Lovenula'' in the family Diaptomidae.", "Owens Lake in California also contains a large population of the halophilic bacterium ''Halobacterium halobium''.", "''Wallemia ichthyophaga'' is a basidiomycetous fungus, which requires at least 1.5 M sodium chloride for ''in vitro'' growth, and it thrives even in media saturated with salt.", "Obligate requirement for salt is an exception in fungi.", "Even species that can tolerate salt concentrations close to saturation (for example ''Hortaea werneckii'') in almost all cases grow well in standard microbiological media without the addition of salt.The fermentation of salty foods (such as soy sauce, Chinese fermented beans, salted cod, salted anchovies, sauerkraut, etc.)", "often involves halophiles as either essential ingredients or accidental contaminants.", "One example is ''Chromohalobacter beijerinckii'', found in salted beans preserved in brine and in salted herring.", "''Tetragenococcus halophilus'' is found in salted anchovies and soy sauce.", "''Artemia'' is a ubiquitous genus of small halophilic crustaceans living in salt lakes (such as Great Salt Lake) and solar salterns that can exist in water approaching the precipitation point of NaCl (340 g/L) and can withstand strong osmotic shocks due to its mitigating strategies for fluctuating salinity levels, such as its unique larval salt gland and osmoregulatory capacity.North Ronaldsay sheep are a breed of sheep originating from Orkney, Scotland.", "They have limited access to freshwater sources on the island and their only food source is seaweed.", "They have adapted to handle salt concentrations that would kill other breeds of sheep." ], [ "See also", "* Arid Forest Research Institute* Biosalinity* Halotolerance" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* HaloArchaea.com* Important Groups of Prokaryotes - Kenneth Todar* Astrobiology: extremophiles- life in extreme environments" ] ]
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[ [ "Herbert A. Simon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herbert Alexander Simon''' (June 15, 1916 – February 9, 2001) was an American political scientist whose work also influenced the fields of computer science, economics, and cognitive psychology.", "His primary research interest was decision-making within organizations and he is best known for the theories of \"bounded rationality\" and \"satisficing\".", "He received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1978 and the Turing Award in computer science in 1975.His research was noted for its interdisciplinary nature and spanned across the fields of cognitive science, computer science, public administration, management, and political science.", "He was at Carnegie Mellon University for most of his career, from 1949 to 2001, where he helped found the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science, one of the first such departments in the world.Notably, Simon was among the pioneers of several modern-day scientific domains such as artificial intelligence, information processing, decision-making, problem-solving, organization theory, and complex systems.", "He was among the earliest to analyze the architecture of complexity and to propose a preferential attachment mechanism to explain power law distributions." ], [ "Early life and education", "Herbert Alexander Simon was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on June 15, 1916.Simon's father, Arthur Simon (1881–1948), was a Jewish electrical engineer who came to the United States from Germany in 1903 after earning his engineering degree at Technische Hochschule Darmstadt.", "An inventor, Arthur also was an independent patent attorney.", "Simon's mother, Edna Marguerite Merkel (1888–1969), was an accomplished pianist whose Jewish, Lutheran, and Catholic ancestors came from Braunschweig, Prague and Cologne.", "Simon's European ancestors were piano makers, goldsmiths, and vintners.Simon attended Milwaukee Public Schools, where he developed an interest in science and established himself as an atheist.", "While attending middle school, Simon wrote a letter to \"the editor of the ''Milwaukee Journal'' defending the civil liberties of atheists\".", "Unlike most children, Simon's family introduced him to the idea that human behavior could be studied scientifically; his mother's younger brother, Harold Merkel (1892–1922), who studied economics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison under John R. Commons, became one of his earliest influences.", "Through Harold's books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered social science.", "Among his earliest influences, Simon cited Norman Angell for his book ''The Great Illusion'' and Henry George for his book ''Progress and Poverty''.", "While attending high school, Simon joined the debate team, where he argued \"from conviction, rather than cussedness\" in favor of George's single tax.In 1933, Simon entered the University of Chicago, and, following his early influences, decided to study social science and mathematics.", "Simon was interested in studying biology but chose not to pursue the field because of his \"color-blindness and awkwardness in the laboratory\".", "At an early age, Simon learned he was color blind and discovered the external world is not the same as the perceived world.", "While in college, Simon focused on political science and economics.", "Simon's most important mentor was Henry Schultz, an econometrician and mathematical economist.", "Simon received both his B.A.", "(1936) and his Ph.D. (1943) in political science from the University of Chicago, where he studied under Harold Lasswell, Nicolas Rashevsky, Rudolf Carnap, Henry Schultz, and Charles Edward Merriam.", "After enrolling in a course on \"Measuring Municipal Governments,\" Simon became a research assistant for Clarence Ridley, and the two co-authored ''Measuring Municipal Activities: A Survey of Suggested Criteria for Appraising Administration'' in 1938.Simon's studies led him to the field of organizational decision-making, which became the subject of his doctoral dissertation." ], [ "Career", "After receiving his undergraduate degree, Simon obtained a research assistantship in municipal administration that turned into the directorship of an operations research group at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked from 1939 to 1942.By arrangement with the University of Chicago, during his years at Berkeley, he took his doctoral exams by mail and worked on his dissertation after hours.From 1942 to 1949, Simon was a professor of political science and also served as department chairman at Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago.", "There, he began participating in the seminars held by the staff of the Cowles Commission who at that time included Trygve Haavelmo, Jacob Marschak, and Tjalling Koopmans.", "He thus began an in-depth study of economics in the area of institutionalism.", "Marschak brought Simon in to assist in the study he was currently undertaking with Sam Schurr of the \"prospective economic effects of atomic energy\".Simon (left) in a chess match against Allen Newell From 1949 to 2001, Simon was a faculty member at Carnegie-Mellon University, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "In 1949, Simon became a professor of administration and chairman of the Department of Industrial Management at Carnegie Institute of Technology (\"Carnegie Tech\"), which, in 1967, became Carnegie-Mellon University.", "Simon later also taught psychology and computer science in the same university, (occasionally visiting other universities)." ], [ "Research", "Seeking to replace the highly simplified classical approach to economic modeling, Simon became best known for his theory of corporate decision in his book ''Administrative Behavior''.", "In this book he based his concepts with an approach that recognized multiple factors that contribute to decision making.", "His organization and administration interest allowed him to not only serve three times as a university department chairman, but he also played a big part in the creation of the Economic Cooperation Administration in 1948; administrative team that administered aid to the Marshall Plan for the U.S. government, serving on President Lyndon Johnson's Science Advisory Committee, and also the National Academy of Sciences.", "Simon has made a great number of contributions to both economic analysis and applications.", "Because of this, his work can be found in a number of economic literary works, making contributions to areas such as mathematical economics including theorem-proving, human rationality, behavioral study of firms, theory of casual ordering, and the analysis of the parameter identification problem in econometrics.===Decision-making===Simon's three stages in Rational Decision Making: Intelligence, Design, Choice (IDC)''Administrative Behavior'', first published in 1947 and updated across the years, was based on Simon's doctoral dissertation.", "It served as the foundation for his life's work.", "The centerpiece of this book is the behavioral and cognitive processes of humans making rational decisions.", "By his definition, an operational administrative decision should be correct, efficient, and practical to implement with a set of coordinated means.", "Simon recognized that a theory of administration is largely a theory of human decision making, and as such must be based on both economics and on psychology.", "He states:Contrary to the \"homo economicus\" model, Simon argued that alternatives and consequences may be partly known, and means and ends imperfectly differentiated, incompletely related, or poorly detailed.Simon defined the task of rational decision making as selecting the alternative that results in the more preferred set of all the possible consequences.", "Correctness of administrative decisions was thus measured by:* Adequacy of achieving the desired objective* Efficiency with which the result was obtainedThe task of choice was divided into three required steps:* Identifying and listing all the alternatives* Determining all consequences resulting from each of the alternatives;* Comparing the accuracy and efficiency of each of these sets of consequencesAny given individual or organization attempting to implement this model in a real situation would be unable to comply with the three requirements.", "Simon argued that knowledge of all alternatives, or all consequences that follow from each alternative is impossible in many realistic cases.Simon attempted to determine the techniques and/or behavioral processes that a person or organization could bring to bear to achieve approximately the best result given limits on rational decision making.", "Simon writes:Therefore, Simon describes work in terms of an economic framework, conditioned on human cognitive limitations: ''Economic man'' and ''Administrative man''.", "''Administrative Behavior'' addresses a wide range of human behaviors, cognitive abilities, management techniques, personnel policies, training goals and procedures, specialized roles, criteria for evaluation of accuracy and efficiency, and all of the ramifications of communication processes.", "Simon is particularly interested in how these factors influence the making of decisions, both directly and indirectly.Simon argued that the two outcomes of a choice require monitoring and that many members of the organization would be expected to focus on adequacy, but that administrative management must pay particular attention to the efficiency with which the desired result was obtained.", "36-49Simon followed Chester Barnard, who stated \"the decisions that an individual makes as a member of an organization are quite distinct from his personal decisions\".", "Personal choices may be determined whether an individual joins a particular organization and continue to be made in his or her extra–organizational private life.", "As a member of an organization, however, that individual makes decisions not in relationship to personal needs and results, but in an impersonal sense as part of the organizational intent, purpose, and effect.", "Organizational inducements, rewards, and sanctions are all designed to form, strengthen, and maintain this identification.212Simon saw two universal elements of human social behavior as key to creating the possibility of organizational behavior in human individuals: Authority (addressed in Chapter VII—The Role of Authority) and in Loyalties and Identification (Addressed in Chapter X: Loyalties, and Organizational Identification).Authority is a well-studied, primary mark of organizational behavior, straightforwardly defined in the organizational context as the ability and right of an individual of higher rank to guide the decisions of an individual of lower rank.", "The actions, attitudes, and relationships of the dominant and subordinate individuals constitute components of role behavior that may vary widely in form, style, and content, but do not vary in the expectation of obedience by the one of superior status, and willingness to obey from the subordinate.Loyalty was defined by Simon as the \"process whereby the individual substitutes organizational objectives (service objectives or conservation objectives) for his own aims as the value-indices which determine his organizational decisions\".", "This entailed evaluating alternative choices in terms of their consequences for the group rather than only for oneself or one's family.Decisions can be complex admixtures of facts and values.", "Information about facts, especially empirically proven facts or facts derived from specialized experience, are more easily transmitted in the exercise of authority than are the expressions of values.", "Simon is primarily interested in seeking identification of the individual employee with the organizational goals and values.", "Following Lasswell, he states that \"a person identifies himself with a group when, in making a decision, he evaluates the several alternatives of choice in terms of their consequences for the specified group\".Simon has been critical of traditional economics' elementary understanding of decision-making, and argues it \"is too quick to build an idealistic, unrealistic picture of the decision-making process and then prescribe on the basis of such unrealistic picture\".Herbert Simon rediscovered path diagrams, which were originally invented by Sewall Wright around 1920.===Artificial intelligence===Simon was a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, creating with Allen Newell the Logic Theory Machine (1956) and the General Problem Solver (GPS) (1957) programs.", "GPS may possibly be the first method developed for separating problem solving strategy from information about particular problems.", "Both programs were developed using the Information Processing Language (IPL) (1956) developed by Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Simon.", "Donald Knuth mentions the development of list processing in IPL, with the linked list originally called \"NSS memory\" for its inventors.", "In 1957, Simon predicted that computer chess would surpass human chess abilities within \"ten years\" when, in reality, that transition took about forty years.", "He also predicted in 1965 that \"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do.", "\"In the early 1960s psychologist Ulric Neisser asserted that while machines are capable of replicating \"cold cognition\" behaviors such as reasoning, planning, perceiving, and deciding, they would never be able to replicate \"hot cognition\" behaviors such as pain, pleasure, desire, and other emotions.", "Simon responded to Neisser's views in 1963 by writing a paper on emotional cognition, which he updated in 1967 and published in ''Psychological Review''.", "Simon's work on emotional cognition was largely ignored by the artificial intelligence research community for several years, but subsequent work on emotions by Sloman and Picard helped refocus attention on Simon's paper and eventually, made it highly influential on the topic.Simon also collaborated with James G. March on several works in organization theory.With Allen Newell, Simon developed a theory for the simulation of human problem solving behavior using production rules.", "The study of human problem solving required new kinds of human measurements and, with Anders Ericsson, Simon developed the experimental technique of verbal protocol analysis.", "Simon was interested in the role of knowledge in expertise.", "He said that to become an expert on a topic required about ten years of experience and he and colleagues estimated that expertise was the result of learning roughly 50,000 chunks of information.", "A chess expert was said to have learned about 50,000 chunks or chess position patterns.He was awarded the ACM Turing Award, along with Allen Newell, in 1975.", "\"In joint scientific efforts extending over twenty years, initially in collaboration with J. C. (Cliff) Shaw at the RAND Corporation, and with numerous faculty and student colleagues at Carnegie Mellon University, they have made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing.", "\"===Psychology===Simon was interested in how humans learn and, with Edward Feigenbaum, he developed the EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) theory, one of the first theories of learning to be implemented as a computer program.", "EPAM was able to explain a large number of phenomena in the field of verbal learning.", "Later versions of the model were applied to concept formation and the acquisition of expertise.", "With Fernand Gobet, he has expanded the EPAM theory into the CHREST computational model.", "The theory explains how simple chunks of information form the building blocks of schemata, which are more complex structures.", "CHREST has been used predominantly, to simulate aspects of chess expertise.===Sociology and economics===Simon has been credited for revolutionary changes in microeconomics.", "He is responsible for the concept of organizational decision-making as it is known today.", "He was the first to rigorously examine how administrators made decisions when they did not have perfect and complete information.", "It was in this area that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.At the Cowles Commission, Simon's main goal was to link economic theory to mathematics and statistics.", "His main contributions were to the fields of general equilibrium and econometrics.", "He was greatly influenced by the marginalist debate that began in the 1930s.", "The popular work of the time argued that it was not apparent empirically that entrepreneurs needed to follow the marginalist principles of profit-maximization/cost-minimization in running organizations.", "The argument went on to note that profit maximization was not accomplished, in part, because of the lack of complete information.", "In decision-making, Simon believed that agents face uncertainty about the future and costs in acquiring information in the present.", "These factors limit the extent to which agents may make a fully rational decision, thus they possess only \"bounded rationality\" and must make decisions by \"satisficing\", or choosing that which might not be optimal, but which will make them happy enough.", "Bounded rationality is a central theme in behavioral economics.", "It is concerned with the ways in which the actual decision-making process influences decision.", "Theories of bounded rationality relax one or more assumptions of standard expected utility theory.Further, Simon emphasized that psychologists invoke a \"procedural\" definition of rationality, whereas economists employ a \"substantive\" definition.", "Gustavos Barros argued that the procedural rationality concept does not have a significant presence in the economics field and has never had nearly as much weight as the concept of bounded rationality.", "However, in an earlier article, Bhargava (1997) noted the importance of Simon's arguments and emphasized that there are several applications of the \"procedural\" definition of rationality in econometric analyses of data on health.", "In particular, economists should employ \"auxiliary assumptions\" that reflect the knowledge in the relevant biomedical fields, and guide the specification of econometric models for health outcomes.Simon was also known for his research on industrial organization.", "He determined that the internal organization of firms and the external business decisions thereof, did not conform to the neoclassical theories of \"rational\" decision-making.", "Simon wrote many articles on the topic over the course of his life, mainly focusing on the issue of decision-making within the behavior of what he termed \"bounded rationality\".", "\"Rational behavior, in economics, means that individuals maximize their utility function under the constraints they face (e.g., their budget constraint, limited choices, ...) in pursuit of their self-interest.", "This is reflected in the theory of subjective expected utility.", "The term, bounded rationality, is used to designate rational choice that takes into account the cognitive limitations of both knowledge and cognitive capacity.", "Bounded rationality is a central theme in behavioral economics.", "It is concerned with the ways in which the actual decision-making process influences decisions.", "Theories of bounded rationality relax one or more assumptions of standard expected utility theory\".Simon determined that the best way to study these areas was through computer simulations.", "As such, he developed an interest in computer science.", "Simon's main interests in computer science were in artificial intelligence, human–computer interaction, principles of the organization of humans and machines as information processing systems, the use of computers to study (by modeling) philosophical problems of the nature of intelligence and of epistemology, and the social implications of computer technology.In his youth, Simon took an interest in land economics and Georgism, an idea known at the time as \"single tax\".", "The system is meant to redistribute unearned economic rent to the public and improve land use.", "In 1979, Simon still maintained these ideas and argued that land value tax should replace taxes on wages.Some of Simon's economic research was directed toward understanding technological change in general and the information processing revolution in particular.===Pedagogy===Simon's work has strongly influenced John Mighton, developer of a program that has achieved significant success in improving mathematics performance among elementary and high school students.", "Mighton cites a 2000 paper by Simon and two coauthors that counters arguments by French mathematics educator, Guy Brousseau, and others suggesting that excessive practice hampers children's understanding:" ], [ "Awards and honors", "Simon received many top-level honors in life, including becoming a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1959; election as a Member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1967; APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology (1969); the ACM's Turing Award for making \"basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing\" (1975); the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics \"for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations\" (1978); the National Medal of Science (1986); Founding Fellow of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (1990); the APA's Award for Outstanding Lifetime Contributions to Psychology (1993); ACM fellow (1994); and IJCAI Award for Research Excellence (1995).", "*Honorary doctorate, Lund School of Economics and Management, 1968.", "*Honorary degree, University of Pavia, 1988.", "*Honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)", "degree from Harvard University in 1990.", "*Honorary degree, University of Buenos Aires, 1999." ], [ "Selected publications", "Simon was a prolific writer and authored 27 books and almost a thousand papers.", ", Simon was the most cited person in artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology on Google Scholar.", "With almost a thousand highly cited publications, he was one of the most influential social scientists of the twentieth century.===Books===* 1947.", "''Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization''.", ": – 4th ed.", "in 1997, The Free Press* 1957.", "''Models of Man''.", "John Wiley.", "Presents mathematical models of human behaviour.", "* 1958 (with James G. March and the collaboration of Harold Guetzkow).", "''Organizations''.", "New York: Wiley.", "the foundation of modern organization theory* 1969.", "''The Sciences of the Artificial''.", "MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1st edition.", "Made the idea easy to grasp: \"objects (real or symbolic) in the environment of the decision-maker influence choice as much as the intrinsic information-processing capabilities of the decision-maker\"; Explained \"the principles of modeling complex systems, particularly the human information-processing system that we call the mind.", "\": - 2nd ed.", "in 1981, MIT Press.", "As stated in the Preface, the second edition provided the author an opportunity \"to amend and expand his thesis and to apply it to several additional fields\" beyond organization theory, economics, management science, and psychology that were covered in the previous edition.", ": - 3rd ed.", "in 1996, MIT Press.", "* 1972 (with Allen Newell).", "''Human Problem Solving''.", "Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, (1972).", "\"the most important book on the scientific study of human thinking in the 20th century\"* 1977.", "''Models of Discovery : and other topics in the methods of science''.", "Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.", "* 1979.", "''Models of Thought, Vols.", "1 and 2''.", "Yale University Press.", "His papers on human information-processing and problem-solving.", "* 1982.", "''Models of Bounded Rationality, Vols.", "1 and 2''.", "MIT Press.", "His papers on economics.", ": - Vol.", "3.in 1997, MIT Press.", "His papers on economics since the publication of Vols.", "1 and 2 in 1982.The papers grouped under the category \"The Structure of Complex Systems\"– dealing with issues such as causal ordering, decomposability, aggregation of variables, model abstraction– are of general interest in systems modelling, not just in economics.", "* 1983.", "''Reason in Human Affairs'', Stanford University Press.", "A readable 115pp.", "book on human decision-making and information processing, based on lectures he gave at Stanford in 1982.A popular presentation of his technical work.", "* 1987 (with P. Langley, G. Bradshaw, and J. Zytkow).", "''Scientific Discovery: computational explorations of the creative processes''.", "MIT Press.", "* 1991.", "''Models of My Life''.", "Basic Books, Sloan Foundation Series.", "His autobiography.", "* 1997.", "''An Empirically Based Microeconomics''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "A compact and readable summary of his criticisms of conventional \"axiomatic\" microeconomics, based on a lecture series.", "* 2008 (posthumously).", "''Economics, Bounded Rationality and the Cognitive Revolution''.", "Edward Elgar Publishing, .", "reprint some of his papers not widely read by economists.===Articles===* 1938 (with Clarence E. Ridley).", "''Measuring Municipal Activities: a Survey of Suggested Criteria and Reporting Forms For Appraising Administration''.", "* 1943.", "''Fiscal Aspects of Metropolitan Consolidation''.", "* 1945.", "''The Technique of Municipal Administration'', 2d ed.", "* 1955.", "\"A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice\", ''Quarterly Journal of Economics'', vol.", "69, 99–118.", "* 1956.", "\"Reply: Surrogates for Uncertain Decision Problems\", Office of Naval Research, January 1956.: – Reprinted in 1982, In: H.A.", "Simon, Models of Bounded Rationality, Volume 1, Economic Analysis and Public Policy, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 235–44.", "* 1958 (with Allen Newell and J. C. Shaw).", "''Elements of a theory of human problem solving''* 1967.", "\"Motivational and emotional controls of cognition\", ''Psychological Review'', vol.", "74, 29–39, reprinted in ''Models of Thought'' Vol 1.", "* 1972.", "\"Theories of Bounded Rationality\", Chapter 8 in C. B. McGuire and R. Radner, eds., Decision and Organization, Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.", "* 1980 (with K. Anders Ericsson).", "\"Verbal reports as data\", ''Psychological Review'', vol.", "87, 215–251.", "* 1985 \"Human Nature in Politics: The Dialogue of Psychology with Political Science\", ''The American Political Science Review'', vol.", "79, no.", "2 (Jun., 1985), pp.", "293–304* 1989 (with M.J. Prietula). \"", "The Experts in Your Midst\"'', Harvard Business Review'', January–February, 120–124.", "*1992 'What is an \"Explanation\" of Behavior?'", "''Psychological Science'', 3(3), 150-161* 1995 (with Peter C.-H. Cheng).", "\"Scientific discovery and creative reasoning with diagrams\", in S. M. Smith, T. B.", "Ward & R. A. Finke (Eds.", "), ''The Creative Cognition Approach'' (pp. 205–228).", "Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.", "* 1998 (with John R. Anderson, Lynne M. Reder, K. Anders Ericsson, and Robert Glaser).", "\"Radical Constructivism and Cognitive Psychology\", ''Brookings Papers on Education Policy'', no.", "1, 227–278.", "* 2000 (with John R. Anderson and Lynne M. Reder).", "\"Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology to mathematics education\", ''Texas Education Review'', vol.", "1, no.", "2, 29–49." ], [ "Personal life and interests", "Simon married Dorothea Pye in 1938.Their marriage lasted 63 years until his death.", "In January 2001, Simon underwent surgery at UPMC Presbyterian to remove a cancerous tumor in his abdomen.", "Although the surgery was successful, Simon later died from the complications that followed.", "They had three children, Katherine, Peter, and Barbara.", "His wife died a year later in 2002.From 1950 to 1955, Simon studied mathematical economics and during this time, together with David Hawkins, discovered and proved the Hawkins–Simon theorem on the \"conditions for the existence of positive solution vectors for input-output matrices\".", "He also developed theorems on near-decomposability and aggregation.", "Having begun to apply these theorems to organizations, by 1954 Simon determined that the best way to study problem-solving was to simulate it with computer programs, which led to his interest in computer simulation of human cognition.", "Founded during the 1950s, he was among the first members of the Society for General Systems Research.Simon was a pianist and had a keen interest in the arts.", "He was a friend of Robert Lepper and Richard Rappaport.", "Rappaport also painted Simon's commissioned portrait at Carnegie Mellon University.", "He was also a keen mountain climber.", "As a testament to his wide interests, he at one point taught an undergraduate course on the French Revolution." ], [ "See also", "* List of Jewish Nobel laureates" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * Simon, Herbert A.", "'Organizations and markets', ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', vol.", "5, no.", "2 (1991), pp. 25–44.", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Courtois, P.J., 1977.", "''Decomposability: queueing and computer system applications''.", "New York: Academic Press.", "Courtois was influenced by the work of Simon and Albert Ando on hierarchical nearly-decomposable systems in economic modelling as a criterion for computer systems design, and in this book he presents the mathematical theory of these nearly-decomposable systems in more detail than Simon and Ando do in their original papers.", "* Frantz, R., and Marsh, L.", "(Eds.)", "(2016). ''", "Minds, Models and Milieux: Commemorating the Centennial of the Birth of Herbert Simon''.", "Palgrave Macmillan." ], [ "External links", "* * * A Tribute to Herbert A. Simon* Full-text digital archive of Herbert Simon papers* Mind Models online Artificial Intelligence exhibit* pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations* History of Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science BOOK VIII: Herbert Simon, Paul Thagard and Others on Discovery Systems – with free downloads for public use.", "* * IDEAS/RePEc* * Biography of Herbert A. Simon from the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences* Documentary interviews with Herbert Simon, with critiques of his work, as part of the Nobel Perspectives project* including the Prize Lecture December 8, 1978 ''Rational Decision-Making in Business Organizations''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hematite" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hematite''' (), also spelled as '''haematite''', is a common iron oxide compound with the formula, Fe2O3 and is widely found in rocks and soils.", "Hematite crystals belong to the rhombohedral lattice system which is designated the alpha polymorph of .", "It has the same crystal structure as corundum () and ilmenite ().", "With this it forms a complete solid solution at temperatures above .Hematite naturally occurs in black to steel or silver-gray, brown to reddish-brown, or red colors.", "It is mined as an important ore mineral of iron.", "It is electrically conductive.", "Hematite varieties include ''kidney ore'', ''martite'' (pseudomorphs after magnetite), ''iron rose'' and ''specularite'' (specular hematite).", "While these forms vary, they all have a rust-red streak.", "Hematite is not only harder than pure iron, but also much more brittle.", "Maghemite is a polymorph of hematite (γ-) with the same chemical formula, but with a spinel structure like magnetite.Large deposits of hematite are found in banded iron formations.", "Gray hematite is typically found in places that have still, standing water or mineral hot springs, such as those in Yellowstone National Park in North America.", "The mineral can precipitate in the water and collect in layers at the bottom of the lake, spring, or other standing water.", "Hematite can also occur in the absence of water, usually as the result of volcanic activity.Clay-sized hematite crystals can also occur as a secondary mineral formed by weathering processes in soil, and along with other iron oxides or oxyhydroxides such as goethite, which is responsible for the red color of many tropical, ancient, or otherwise highly weathered soils." ], [ "Etymology and history", "The name hematite is derived from the Greek word for blood ''(haima)'', due to the red coloration found in some varieties of hematite.", "The color of hematite is often used as a pigment.", "The English name of the stone is derived from Middle French ''hématite pierre'', which was taken from Latin ''lapis haematites'' the 15th century, which originated from Ancient Greek (''haimatitēs lithos'', \"blood-red stone\").Ochre is a clay that is colored by varying amounts of hematite, varying between 20% and 70%.", "Red ochre contains unhydrated hematite, whereas yellow ochre contains hydrated hematite (Fe2O3 · H2O).", "The principal use of ochre is for tinting with a permanent color.The red chalk writing of this mineral was one of the earliest in the human history.", "The powdery mineral was first used 164,000 years ago by the Pinnacle-Point man, possibly for social purposes.", "Hematite residues are also found in graves from 80,000 years ago.", "Near Rydno in Poland and Lovas in Hungary red chalk mines have been found that are from 5000 BC, belonging to the Linear Pottery culture at the Upper Rhine.Rich deposits of hematite have been found on the island of Elba that have been mined since the time of the Etruscans." ], [ "Magnetism", "Hematite shows only a very feeble response to a magnetic field.", "Unlike magnetite, it is not noticeably attracted to an ordinary magnet.", "Hematite is an antiferromagnetic material below the Morin transition at , and a canted antiferromagnet or weakly ferromagnetic above the Morin transition and below its Néel temperature at , above which it is paramagnetic.The magnetic structure of α-hematite was the subject of considerable discussion and debate during the 1950s, as it appeared to be ferromagnetic with a Curie temperature of approximately , but with an extremely small magnetic moment (0.002 Bohr magnetons).", "Adding to the surprise was a transition with a decrease in temperature at around to a phase with no net magnetic moment.", "It was shown that the system is essentially antiferromagnetic, but that the low symmetry of the cation sites allows spin–orbit coupling to cause canting of the moments when they are in the plane perpendicular to the ''c'' axis.", "The disappearance of the moment with a decrease in temperature at is caused by a change in the anisotropy which causes the moments to align along the ''c'' axis.", "In this configuration, spin canting does not reduce the energy.", "The magnetic properties of bulk hematite differ from their nanoscale counterparts.", "For example, the Morin transition temperature of hematite decreases with a decrease in the particle size.", "The suppression of this transition has been observed in hematite nanoparticles and is attributed to the presence of impurities, water molecules and defects in the crystals lattice.", "Hematite is part of a complex solid solution oxyhydroxide system having various contents of H2O (water), hydroxyl groups and vacancy substitutions that affect the mineral's magnetic and crystal chemical properties.", "Two other end-members are referred to as protohematite and hydrohematite.Enhanced magnetic coercivities for hematite have been achieved by dry-heating a two-line ferrihydrite precursor prepared from solution.", "Hematite exhibited temperature-dependent magnetic coercivity values ranging from .", "The origin of these high coercivity values has been interpreted as a consequence of the subparticle structure induced by the different particle and crystallite size growth rates at increasing annealing temperature.", "These differences in the growth rates are translated into a progressive development of a subparticle structure at the nanoscale (super small).", "At lower temperatures (350–600 °C), single particles crystallize.", "However, at higher temperatures (600–1000 °C), the growth of crystalline aggregates, and a subparticle structure is favored.File:Hematite - Titanomagnitite.jpg|A microscopic picture of hematiteFile:Hematite structure.jpg|Crystal structure of hematite" ], [ "Mine tailings", "Hematite is present in the waste tailings of iron mines.", "A recently developed process, magnetation, uses magnets to glean waste hematite from old mine tailings in Minnesota's vast Mesabi Range iron district.", "Falu red is a pigment used in traditional Swedish house paints.", "Originally, it was made from tailings of the Falu mine." ], [ "Mars", "spherules partly embedded in rock at the Opportunity landing site.", "Image is around across.The spectral signature of hematite was seen on the planet Mars by the infrared spectrometer on the NASA ''Mars Global Surveyor'' and ''2001 Mars Odyssey'' spacecraft in orbit around Mars.", "The mineral was seen in abundance at two sites on the planet, the Terra Meridiani site, near the Martian equator at 0° longitude, and the Aram Chaos site near the Valles Marineris.", "Several other sites also showed hematite, such as Aureum Chaos.", "Because terrestrial hematite is typically a mineral formed in aqueous environments or by aqueous alteration, this detection was scientifically interesting enough that the second of the two Mars Exploration Rovers was sent to a site in the Terra Meridiani region designated Meridiani Planum.", "In-situ investigations by the ''Opportunity'' rover showed a significant amount of hematite, much of it in the form of small \"Martian spherules\" that were informally named \"blueberries\" by the science team.", "Analysis indicates that these spherules are apparently concretions formed from a water solution.", "\"Knowing just how the hematite on Mars was formed will help us characterize the past environment and determine whether that environment was favorable for life\"." ], [ "Jewelry", "Hematite is often shaped into beads, tumbling stones, and other jewellery components.", "Hematite was once used as mourning jewelry.", "Certain types of hematite- or iron-oxide-rich clay, especially Armenian bole, have been used in gilding.", "Hematite is also used in art such as in the creation of intaglio engraved gems.", "Hematine is a synthetic material sold as ''magnetic hematite''." ], [ "Pigment", "Hematite has been sourced to make pigments since earlier origins of human pictorial depictions, such as on cave linings and other surfaces, and has been continually employed in artwork through the eras.", "It forms the basis for red, purple and brown iron-oxide pigments, as well as being an important component of ochre, sienna and umber pigments." ], [ "Industrial purposes", "As mentioned earlier, hematite is an important mineral for iron ore.", "The physical properties of hematite are also employed in the areas of medical equipment, shipping industries and coal production.", "Having high density and capable as an effective barrier for X-ray passage, it is often incorporated into radiation shielding.", "As with other iron ores, it is often a component of ship ballasts for its density and economy.", "In the coal industry, it can be formed into a high specific density solution, to help separate coal powder from impurities." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Hematite-LTH43A.JPG|A rare pseudo-scalenohedral crystal habitFile:Quartz-Hematite-113680.jpg|Three gemmy quartz crystals containing bright rust-red inclusions of hematite, on a field of sparkly black specular hematiteFile:Rutile-Hematite-113489.jpg|Golden acicular crystals of rutile radiating from a center of platy hematiteFile:Cylinder seal antelope Louvre AM1639.jpg|Cypro-Minoan cylinder seal (left) made from hematite with corresponding impression (right), approximately 14th century BCFile:Hematite-254990.jpg|A cluster of parallel-growth, mirror-bright, metallic-gray hematite blades from BrazilFile:Hematite.bear.660pix.jpg|Hematite carving, longFile:Hematit 2.jpg|Hematite, variant specularite (specular hematite), with fine grain shownFile:Hematite-rich BIF ventifact.jpg|Red hematite from banded iron formation in WyomingFile:Hematite on mars.jpg|Hematite on Mars as found in form of \"blueberries\" (named by NASA)File:Hematite streak plate.jpg|Streak plate, showing that Hematite consistently leaves a rust-red streak.File:Hematite in Scanning Electron Microscope, magnification 100x.JPG|Hematite in Scanning Electron Microscope, magnification 100x.File:Micaceous hematite.jpg|Micaceous hematite taken with permission from Kelly's Mine, Lustleigh, Devon UK" ], [ "See also", "*Mill scale*Mineral redox buffer*Wüstite" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* MineralData.org" ] ]
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